diff options
Diffstat (limited to '44194-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 44194-h/44194-h.htm | 14051 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 44194-h/images/cover.jpg | bin | 0 -> 129332 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 44194-h/images/frontis.jpg | bin | 0 -> 60293 bytes |
3 files changed, 14051 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/44194-h/44194-h.htm b/44194-h/44194-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a6ce729 --- /dev/null +++ b/44194-h/44194-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,14051 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Life of Elie Metchnikoff, 1845-1916, by Olga Metchnikoff</title> + <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2,h4 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + margin-top:4em; +} + +p { + margin-top: .51em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .49em; +} + +.spaced-above {margin-top: 2.5em;} + +hr { + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + clear: both; +} + +hr.tb { + width: 45%; + margin-left: 27.5%; + margin-right: 27.5%; +} + +hr.chap { + width: 65%; + margin-left: 17.5%; + margin-right: 17.5%; +} + +hr.full { + width: 95%; + margin-left: 2.5%; + margin-right: 2.5%; +} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + width:100%; +} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + text-indent:0em; + padding-left:0em; + color: #808080; +} /* page numbers */ + +.chapter-sub { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; + margin-bottom: 2em; + text-align:center; +} + +.blockquot { + margin-left:2em; + margin-right:2em; + font-size:0.9em; +} + +.bbox { + border: solid 2px; + padding:1em; +} + +.narrow{ + margin-left:auto; + margin-right:auto; + max-width:25em; +} + +.center {text-align: center;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.caption { + font-weight: bold; + text-align: center; +} + +/* Images */ +.figcenter { + margin-top:4em; + margin-left:auto; + margin-right:auto; + margin-bottom:auto; + text-align: center; +} + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnotes { + border: dashed 1px; + page-break-before:avoid; +} + +.footnote { + margin-left:3%; + padding-left: 6%; + padding-right:2em; + margin-right: 10%; + font-size: 0.9em; +} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +/* Poetry */ +.poetry-container { + text-align:right; + max-width:55em; + font-size:0.9em; +} + +.poem { + display:inline-block; + text-align: left; +} + +.poem br {display: none;} + +.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} +.quotation { + font-size:0.9em; + margin-left:50%; +} +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:smaller; + padding:0.5em; + margin-top:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; } + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + +.trans-heading { + font-size: 1.2em; + text-align:center; +} + +.title { + font-size:1.5em; + text-align:center; +} + +.small { + font-size:0.9em; +} +.smaller { + font-size:0.6em; +} +.publisher { + text-align:center; + margin-top:6em; +} +.small-right { + font-size:0.9em; + text-align:right; + margin-right:1em; +} + +.blockquot .small-right, .poetry-container .small-right { + font-size:inherit; +} +.valediction { + text-align:right; + margin-right:6em; +} + +.location { + font-size:0.8em; +} + +.toc_table { + max-width : 50em; +} +.toc_chapter-heading { + text-align:center; + padding-top:1.5em; +} + +.toc_chapter-heading-left { + text-align:left; + padding-top:1.5em; +} + +.chapter-title { + text-align:left; + text-indent:-2em; + padding-left:2em; + font-size:0.9em; +} + +.chapter-sub .chapter-title { + display:inline-block; + text-align:justify; +} +.toc_pagenum { + text-align:right; + vertical-align:bottom; + font-size:0.9em; +} +.work-title { + text-indent:-1.5em; + padding-left:1.5em; + text-align:justify; +} +.work-year { + vertical-align:top +} +.work { + text-indent:-1.5em; + padding-left:1.5em; + margin-top:2em; +} +.work-list { + margin-left:2em; +} +.prize { + white-space: nowrap; + text-align:right; + vertical-align:bottom; +} + +div.index { /* styles that apply to all text in an index */ + font-size: 90%; /*small type for compactness */ +} + +ul.IX { + list-style-type: none; + font-size:inherit; /* i.e. from the div class="index" container */ +} + +.IX li { /* list items in an index: compressed vertically */ + margin-top: 0; + text-indent:-1em; +} +.newpage { + page-break-before:always; +} + +.covernote {visibility: hidden; display: none;} +@media handheld { + .covernote {visibility: visible; display: block;} +} + + h1.pg,h4.pg { margin-top:0em; } + table.pg { width: auto; } + hr.pg { width: 100%; + margin-top: 3em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + height: 4px; + border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ + border-style: solid; + border-color: #000000; + clear: both; } + </style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44194 ***</div> +<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, Life of Elie Metchnikoff, 1845-1916, by Olga +Metchnikoff</h1> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<table class="pg" border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Note: + </td> + <td> + Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive/American Libraries. See + <a href="https://archive.org/details/lifeofeliemetchn00mechiala"> + https://archive.org/details/lifeofeliemetchn00mechiala</a> + </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<hr class="pg" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p class="center"><i>AUTHORISED TRANSLATION FROM THE FRENCH</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 569px;"> +<img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="569" height="400" alt="" /> +<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Dr.</span> METCHNIKOFF IN HIS LABORATORY.</p></div> +</div> + +<h1><a name="LIFE_OF" id="LIFE_OF">LIFE OF<br /> +ELIE METCHNIKOFF</a></h1> + +<p class="title">1845-1916</p> + +<p class="title spaced-above"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br /> +OLGA METCHNIKOFF</p> + +<p class="center spaced-above">WITH A PREFACE BY<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sir</span> RAY LANKESTER K.C.B. F.R.S.</p> + +<p class="publisher">LONDON<br /> +CONSTABLE AND COMPANY LTD.<br /> +1921</p> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</a></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">It</span> has been a great satisfaction to me to carry out +the wish of my dear friend Elie Metchnikoff, and arrange +for the production of an English translation of his +biography. The account of his life and work written +by Olga Metchnikoff is a remarkable and beautiful +record of the development and activities of a great +discoverer. It is remarkable because it is seldom +that one who undertakes such a task has had so +constant a share in, and so complete a knowledge and +understanding of, the life portrayed as in the present +case: seldom that the intimate thought and mental +“adventure” of a discoverer presents so clear and +consistent a history. It is beautiful because it is +put before us with perfect candour and simplicity +guided by rare intelligence and inspired by deep +affection. Madame Metchnikoff has drawn the +picture of the development of a single-minded +character absolutely and tenaciously devoted to a +high purpose—the improvement of human life. It +is a story of “struggles and adventures,” but they +are wholly in the field of the investigation of Nature. +We read here little or nothing of the quest for personal +advancement, for fortune or official position. These +things had no attraction for Metchnikoff. He left<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> +Russia and took an unpaid post in Paris in order to +have a place to work in. He had many devoted +friends in whose company he sought refreshment and +relaxation, but all his immense energy and industry +were concentrated on the development and establishment +of his great biological theory of “Phagocytosis” +and its outcome, the philosophy of life called by him +“Orthobiosis.” This volume tells truly of a simple +life—a life in which the social incidents which fill so +large a space in most lives were either non-existent +or unnoticed because, by the side of the great purpose +which dominated Metchnikoff’s every thought and +action—namely, the advancement of Science—he was +not touched by them. He was affectionate, kind-hearted, +and truly considerate of others, but was, in +a way which is traceable to his racial origin, a practical +idealist concentrating his whole strength and reason +on the realisation of what he held to be the highest +good.</p> + +<p>I had as an eager reader of memoirs on biological +subjects become acquainted with Metchnikoff’s +earliest publications in 1865, when he was twenty +years of age and I two years younger. I wrote short +accounts of them, as they appeared, for a chronicle +of progress in the <i>Quarterly Journal of Microscopical +Science</i>, then edited by my father. Those on a +European Land Planarian, on the development of +Myzostomum (the parasite of the Feather-Star), on +Apsilus, a strange new kind of wheel-animalcule, and +his protest against Rudolf Leuckart’s treatment of +him in the matter of his important discoveries concerning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span> +the Frog’s lung-worm—<i>Ascaris nigrovenosa</i>—remain +in my memory, and later, in 1872, I was +especially struck by his important demonstration of +the true mode of development of the gastrula of the +calcareous sponges in correction of Professor Ernst +Haeckel. Many other papers of his became known +to me, until in 1881 he published his first observations +on <i>Intracellular Digestion in Lower Animals</i>, +which was the starting-point of his life’s work on +“Phagocytosis,” to which all his subsequent researches—during +thirty-five years—were exclusively dedicated.</p> + +<p>In 1888 I was introduced by my friend Lauder +Brunton to the great Pasteur, and called on him at +his laboratory in the rue d’Ulm. There I met +Metchnikoff, only lately arrived from Russia, and +welcomed as one of his staff by Pasteur. The next +year, 1889, Pasteur was installed in the new “Institut +Pasteur” in the rue Dutot, and I met Metchnikoff +there in his new quarters. Pasteur’s assistants were +carrying on daily his system of inoculation against +rabies, and many British subjects were amongst those +treated. I persuaded the Lord Mayor of that year, +Sir James Whitehead, to visit the Pasteur Institute +with a view to taking steps to make some recognition +of the services rendered by Pasteur to our fellow-countrymen +in treating over two hundred of them +threatened with hydrophobia. Sir James called a +meeting on July 1, 1889, at the Mansion House, and +placed the management of it in my hands. As a +result we obtained subscriptions to a fund which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span> +enabled us to assist many poor British subjects to +visit Paris for the purpose of undergoing M. Pasteur’s +treatment, to make a donation of 30,000 francs to the +Pasteur Institute, and to initiate with a sum of +£300 the formation of a fund for the purpose of +establishing an Institute in London similar in purpose +and character to the Institut Pasteur. That initial +fund has step by step received generous additions and +given us the “Lister Institute” on Chelsea Embankment +possessed of buildings, site, and capital valued +at more than £300,000.</p> + +<p>After 1889 it was rare for a year to pass without +my visiting Paris both in spring and summer, and +seeing a great deal of Metchnikoff and his friends +Roux, Duclaux, Laveran, and the great master of the +Pastorians, who died in 1895. Metchnikoff took me +to his home and cemented his friendship with me by +bringing to me that of his gifted and devoted wife.</p> + +<p>Madame Metchnikoff had when a schoolgirl studied +zoology under her future husband at Odessa, and now +was able to give serious help in some of his researches. +She published some experimental investigation on the +sterilisation of the alimentary canal of tadpoles and +some other researches, and having a thorough knowledge +of English, which Elie did not possess, she helped +him in reading and translating from that language. +But her chief talents were in the arts of painting and +sculpture, and when they purchased their country +house at Sèvres, she built a studio in the garden in +which to pursue her vocation.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff on several occasions came to England<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span> +to take part in “congresses” or to give special +addresses, and often stayed a day or two with me in +London.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> I was with him at the Darwin Celebration +at Cambridge in 1909, and the last occasion when he +came was to give the Priestley Lecture of the National +Health Society in November 1912. At my request +he selected “The Warfare against Tuberculosis” as +his subject, and gave a most valuable account of the +history and actual condition of that enterprise, +relating the important results of his expedition to the +Kalmuk Tartars for the purpose of studying the +immunity from and the liability to infection by +tuberculosis among that nomad population. The +lecture was delivered in French, and I made a translation +of it which appeared with numerous illustrations +in the journal called <i>Bedrock</i>, published by +Constable & Co. I mention that publication here +as it is the only one excepting the three lectures on +“The New Hygiene” (Heinemann, London, 1906) +originally published in an English form by Metchnikoff, +and deserves more attention from the English medical +public than it has received.</p> + +<p>I found Metchnikoff a delightful companion. He +always had something new or of special interest to +show to me at the laboratory—some microscopical +preparation, the digestive process in Protozoa, the +microbian parasite of a water-flea, a new method of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span> +dark ground illumination with high powers (Commandant’s +method for film production), the newly +discovered Treponema of syphilis, or the experimental +inoculation of a disease under study. Sometimes I +would lunch at his house, when, although he neither +smoked nor took alcoholic drinks himself, he made a +point of giving me first-rate claret and a good cigar. +It was about the year 1900 that he arranged for the +preparation of a pure “sour milk” made by the use +of a special lactic ferment (selected and cultivated +by himself), and this he took regularly. I found it a +most agreeable food, and for several years made it +an article of my own diet. He was very careful about +the possible contamination of uncooked food by +bacteria and the eggs of parasitic worms, and in +consequence had “rolls” sent to him from the bakers +each in its separate paper bag, whilst he would never +eat uncooked salads or fruit which could not be +rendered safe by “peeling.” This was not an excess +of caution, but resulted from his characteristic determination +to carry out in practice the directions given +by definite scientific knowledge, and to make the +attempt to lead so far as possible a life free from +disease. Often when I arrived in Paris he would +invite me to lunch at one of the leading cafés, and +though he ate very simple food himself took keen +pleasure in ordering the best for me and thoroughly +enjoyed the change of scene and the amenities of a +first-rate restaurant. During one of his visits to +London, I remember that he was invited, and I with +him, on two or three occasions, by leading London<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span> +physicians to dinner-parties. He was greatly shocked +at the amount of strong wine which his hosts and +fellow-guests consumed, and assured me that in Paris +it would be injurious to the reputation of a physician +were he not to set an example of either abstinence or +great moderation.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff was not only exceedingly gentle and +courteous in his treatment of servants and employés, +but he and his wife contrived on a very small income +to help in a most substantial way poor neighbours +and those who had met with misfortune whether they +were of French or Russian nationality. They had +many friends in the world of science and art, real +workers and thinkers, including those who had not +and those who had “arrived.” With them I met +and spent a long and interesting day with Rodin the +sculptor and the son of Léon Tolstoï, who was +working in a Paris studio. Among the pleasures +which I have derived from the <i>Life</i> are the accounts +of places such as Naples and Messina, where I +stayed in order to study the embryology of marine +animals as Metchnikoff did; and also the appearance +in these pages from time to time of old friends +such as Nikolas Kleinenberg, whom Metchnikoff met +at Messina in 1883. I had formed an intimate +acquaintance with Kleinenberg at Jena in 1871, +when he was working at his classical monograph +on Hydra, and continued it at Naples in 1875. +From Messina, where he became Professor in 1875, +Kleinenberg sent me for publication in the <i>Quarterly +Journal of Microscopical Science</i> his valuable memoir<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span> +on the embryology of a species of Earthworm, and +also rare and interesting specimens of Cephalopoda.</p> + +<p>Another great and noteworthy figure about whom +all zoologists are glad to learn as much as possible is +Kovalevsky. Metchnikoff made his acquaintance +at Naples in 1864, and they formed a close friendship +for one another. Later, in 1867, they shared the Baer +Prize of the Petersburg Academy for their discoveries +in embryology (p. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>). In 1868 Metchnikoff had a +dispute with Kovalevsky as to the origin of the +nervous system of Ascidia (p. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>), concerning which +he subsequently admitted that he was wrong and +Kovalevsky right. There is no doubt that Kovalevsky, +by his numerous important investigations of invertebrate +embryology, and especially of that of Ascidia +and Amphioxus, laid the foundation of <i>cellular</i> +Embryology, and the modern study of the embryology +of Invertebrates. Metchnikoff’s contributions were +also of great value and importance (pp. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, +and pp. <a href="#Page_72">72</a> and <a href="#Page_73">73</a>), though he has not so great a +triumph in animal morphology to his credit as +Kovalevsky’s discovery of the close identities of the +development of organs in Ascidia and Amphioxus. +I had long cherished profound esteem for Kovalevsky +when in 1896 I met him and his daughter at Wimereux +with Professor Giard. He came in the autumn of +that year to London, but left unexpectedly owing to +some nervous fear of annoyance by the police. The +great position of Kovalevsky was deliberately ignored +in a German history of Zoology,<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> published just before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span> +the Great War. Metchnikoff describes Kovalevsky +as a young man, small and timid, with shy but cordial +manners and the clear sweet eyes of a child: he had +(like Metchnikoff) for Science an absolute cult—“no +sacrifice was too great, no difficulty too repellent for +his ardour.”</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>It is, I think, desirable to assure the reader of +this book that the actual state of knowledge in +regard to various subjects discussed in the <i>Life</i> at the +time when they were made the subjects of study by +Metchnikoff is fairly and correctly sketched, and the +growth and development of his views and original +discoveries are correctly given. But it must be +remembered that this <i>Life</i> is not a critical discussion +of the steps by which our knowledge of cell-layers, +of intracellular digestion, and other factors contributory +to Metchnikoff’s doctrine of Phagocytosis +and its outcomes were reached. Others played an +important if a subsidiary part in building up that +knowledge. What we have here is an account of +the growth of Metchnikoff’s own observations and +theoretical inferences, which were so independent, and +founded on such decisive original observations, as to +make him a solitary figure contending, and successfully +contending, during the best years of his lifetime for +the recognition of a great generalisation for long +opposed by most of the medical and physiological +authorities of the time, and finally established by his +lifelong researches and those of his faithful pupils +and coadjutors. The recognition of the validity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span> +<i>the doctrine of phagocytosis</i> in relation to wounds, +disease, immunity, and normal healthy life is the +triumphant result of the scientific insight and boundless +energy of Elie Metchnikoff.</p> + +<p class="small-right small"> +E. RAY LANKESTER. +</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a></h2> + +<table class="toc_table" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="table of contents"> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="toc_pagenum">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading-left">PREFACE</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_v">v</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading-left">INTRODUCTION</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_xxi">xxi</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER I</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1845. Panassovka — Metchnikoff’s parents — Country life in Little Russia</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER II</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">Metchnikoff’s brothers and sister — Childish characteristics</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER III</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1850. Journey to Slaviansk — The coach attacked by peasants</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER IV</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1851. Departure for Kharkoff — Town life</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER V</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1853-1856. Leo Metchnikoff’s illness — Private tutors — Botanical studies — A memorable birthday</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER VI</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">Ancestors of the Metchnikoff family — The great “Spatar” — Leo Nevahovitch</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span>CHAPTER VII</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1856-1861. The Kharkoff Lycée — Bogomoloff and Socialism — Atheism — Natural History studies — Private lodgings — Private lessons in histology from Professor Tschelkoff — A borrowed microscope — First article — Italian opera — The gold medal</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">An early love — A schoolfellow’s sister — A pretty sister-in-law</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1862. Journey to Germany — Leipzig, Würzburg — A hasty return</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER X</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1863. Kharkoff University — Physiology — The Vorticella — Controversy with Kühne — <i>The Origin of Species</i> — Gastrotricha — University degree</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XI</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1864-1866. Heligoland — Giessen Congress — Leuckart — Visit to Leo Metchnikoff at Geneva — Socialist gatherings — Metchnikoff’s discovery appropriated by Leuckart — Naples — Kovalevsky — Comparative embryology — Embryonic layers — Bakounine and Setchénoff — Cholera at Naples — Göttingen — Anatomical studies — Munich; von Siebold — Music — Return to Naples — Intracellular digestion</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XII</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1867-1868. Petersburg — Baer Prize — Return home — Friendship with Cienkovsky — Odessa — Naturalists’ Congress at Petersburg — Departure from Odessa — Zoological Lecturer’s Chair at Petersburg — Messina — Enforced rest — Reggio — Naples — Controversy with Kovalevsky — Visit to the B. family — Mlle. Fédorovitch — Educational questions — Difficulties of life in Petersburg </td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</a></span>CHAPTER XIII</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1868-1873. Slight illness — Engagement to Mlle. Fédorovitch — Marriage — Illness of the bride — Pecuniary difficulties — Spezzia — Montreux — Work in Petersburg University — The Riviera — Cœlomata and Acœlomata — St. Vaast — Panassovka — Madeira — Mertens — Teneriffe — Return to Odessa — Bad news, hurried journey to Madeira — Death of his wife (1872) — Return through Spain — Attempted suicide — Ephemeridæ</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIV</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1874. Anthropological expedition to the Kalmuk steppes — Affection of the eyes — Second expedition to the steppes — The eggs of the <i>Geophilus</i></td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XV</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1875. Studies on childhood — The family in the upper flat — Lessons in zoology — Second marriage — Private life — Visit and death of Lvovna Nevahovna — Conjugal affection</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVI</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1875-1880. Metchnikoff at the age of 30 — Lecturing in Odessa University, from 1873 to 1882 — Internal difficulties — Assassination of the Tsar, Alexander II. — Further troubles in the University — Resignation — Bad health: cardiac symptoms — Relapsing fever — Choroiditis — Studies on Ephemeridæ — Further studies on intracellular digestion — The <i>Parenchymella</i> — Holidays in the country — Experiments on agricultural pests</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVII</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1881-1882. Death of his father- and mother-in-law — Management of country estates — Agitation and difficulties — Departure for Messina with young brothers- and sisters-in-law</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</a></span>CHAPTER XVIII</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1883. Messina — Inception of the phagocyte theory — Encouragement from Virchow and Kleinenberg — First paper on phagocytosis at a Congress at Odessa in 1883 — The question of <i>immunity</i> — Article in Virchow’s <i>Archiv</i>, 1884</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIX</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1884-1885. Ill-health of his wife and sister-in-law — Journey to Tangiers through Spain — Villefranche — Baumgarten criticises the phagocyte theory</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XX</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1886. A Bacteriological Institute in Odessa — Unsatisfactory conditions — Experiments on erysipelas and on relapsing fever</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXI</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1887. Hygiene Congress in Vienna — Wiesbaden — Munich — Paris and Pasteur — Berlin and Koch — Failure of anthrax vaccination of sheep — Decision to leave Russia</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXII</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1888. The Pasteur Institute — Dreams realised — Metchnikoff at 50 — Growing optimism — Attenuated sensitiveness — The Sèvres villa (1898) — Daily routine</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXIII</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1892. Opposition to the phagocyte theory — Scientific controversies — Experiments in support of the phagocyte theory — Behring and antitoxins — The London Congress — <i>Inflammation</i></td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXIV</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">Cholera — Experiments on himself and others — Illness of M. Jupille — Death of an epileptic subject — Insufficient results</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[xix]</a></span>CHAPTER XXV</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1894. Pfeiffer’s experiments — The Buda-Pest Congress — Extracellular destruction of microbes — Reaction of the organism against toxins — Dr. Besredka’s researches — Macrophages — The Moscow Congress — Bordet’s experiments</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXVI</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1900. Immunity — Natural immunity — Artificial immunity</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXVII</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1893-1905. Private sorrows — Death of Pasteur — Ill-health — Senile atrophies — Premature death — Orthobiosis — Syphilis (1905) — Acquisition of anthropoid apes (1903)</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXVIII</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">Researches on the intestinal flora — Sour milk</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXIX</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1908. The Nobel Prize — Journey to Sweden and Russia — A day with Léon Tolstoï</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXX</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">Intestinal flora — Infantile cholera — Typhoid fever — Articles on popular Science</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXXI</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1911. Expedition to the Kalmuk steppes to study tuberculosis — Plague</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXXII</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">Further researches on the intestinal flora — <i>Forty Years’ Search for a Rational Conception of Life</i></td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[xx]</a></span>CHAPTER XXXIII</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">Unpleasant incidents — The fabrication of lacto-bacilli — St. Léger-en-Yvelines — Return to Paris — First cardiac attack — Evolution of the death instinct — Notes on his symptoms</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXXIV</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1914. Return to St. Léger-en-Yvelines — Norka — Studies on the death of the silk-worm moth — War declared — Mobilisation</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXXV</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1915. Return to Paris — The deserted Institute — Memoir on the Founders of Modern Medicine — Metchnikoff’s Jubilee — Last holidays at Norka</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXXVI</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">1916. Bronchial cold — Aggravated cardiac symptoms — Farewell to Sèvres — Return to the Institute — Protracted sufferings — Intellectual preoccupations — Observations on his own condition — The end — Cremation.</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading-left">EPILOGUE</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading-left">BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="toc_chapter-heading-left">INDEX</td> + <td class="toc_pagenum"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[xxi]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</a></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">On</span> a calm summer evening we were seated together +on our terrace.</p> + +<p>On the preceding day, one who hardly knew my +husband had come to ask him for information concerning +his life, with the object of writing his biography. +We were saying to each other how inevitably superficial +and incomplete such a biography was bound to +be; how difficult such a task is for a biographer, even +when fully informed; how necessary it is to be +thoroughly acquainted with a man and with every +phase of his existence in order to give a truthful +picture of his character and of his life. The intimate +side is bound to remain more or less closed to a +stranger; in order to decipher it, it is indispensable +for the writer of a biography to have lived in complete +communion of spirit with its subject. Our long past, +spent together, fulfilled all these conditions.</p> + +<p>My husband’s whole life was well known to me. +My mother-in-law had often told me vivid stories of +his childhood; he himself willingly talked to me +about his past. As to the second part of his +existence, we had lived it together.</p> + +<p>In order clearly to understand his character, at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[xxii]</a></span> +once both complex and one-sided, it was necessary +to possess the key to his psychology. In his life, as in +his work, everything was so closely knitted that it +was impossible to understand the whole without knowledge +of every link of his evolution.</p> + +<p>In the soothing calm of that summer evening, I +submitted my reflections to him; he warmly encouraged +me, and I then and there resolved to write +his biography. He advised me to relate his whole +life without any reticence, considering that thus +alone does a biography justify its existence. That +advice was to guide me, within limits, for to dissect +an individual life without touching other lives as well +is not always possible.</p> + +<p>Numerous were the difficulties before me; yet, I +considered the task as a mission, hoping, in spite of +all, that this biography would present a true picture +of the life and evolution of Elie Metchnikoff.</p> + +<p>We talked over this project for a long time. The +moon now appeared above the trees, the soft light +tracing silver designs through the ivy leaves. The +lawn, the walnut tree in front of the house, and everything +around us was bathed in peaceful radiance. +Under its mysterious charm, we ceased to speak, +we listened to the inward voices of nature and of our +own hearts.</p> + +<p>In youth, vague reveries fill our minds; after a long +life, distant memories.... He whose life I describe +is no more.... Without his help my task could not +have been accomplished.</p> + +<p>Often, when he was not too tired, he would sit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[xxiii]</a></span> +comfortably in his armchair and recount to me with +his usual spirit and animation some period or episode +of his past. I read to him a sketch of the first part of +this biography and a few chapters only of the second, +which was hardly begun. Thus we spent many +evenings, never to be forgotten.</p> + +<p>He wanted this biography written, for he held that +the evolution of a mind, of a character, of a human +life is always an interesting psychological document. +During his long and painful illness, he urged me to +relate the “last chapter” of his life; he hoped that +his attitude in the face of death might diminish the +fear of it in others. Also he considered that men are +rare who are conscious until the end; even rarer, those +who reach the development of the “death-instinct.” +Therefore, according to him, an example would be +interesting.</p> + +<p>I have tried to accomplish his desire within the +measure of my strength.</p> + +<p>The only object of this simple and truthful story +is to show Elie Metchnikoff as he was, a help, a support, +and a lesson to others.</p> + +<p>I dedicate this book to his dear memory.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +OLGA METCHNIKOFF. +</p> +<p class="location"> +<span class="smcap">Sèvres</span>, <i>15th Dec. 1918</i>. +</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Panassovka — Metchnikoff’s parents — Country life in Little Russia.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> Little Russia, in the steppe region of the province +of Kharkoff, is situated the land of Panassovka, which +belonged to the Metchnikoff family. It is now sold, +it has passed into strange hands, but it was once the +patrimony of Ilia Ivanovitch, father of Elie Metchnikoff.</p> + +<p>The country around Panassovka is neither beautiful +nor rich: steppes, hillocks covered with low grasses +and wild wormwood; a poor village, meagre vegetation, +no river; the whole impression is a melancholy +one. But what boundless space! What soft, silver +grey colouring! And, in the mornings and evenings, +what fresh, cool air, and what a delicious aroma of +wormwood leaves!</p> + +<p>The house of Panassovka, a little way from the +village, is situated on a hill which slopes gently +towards a pond. It is like that of any other middle-class +landowner in Little Russia. It has only one +storey and two flights of steps on the principal façade, +opening into a deserted courtyard with no view but +the high road. On the other side a semicircular +terrace, with columns and steps, leads to the garden, +composed of a few meagre flower-beds and fruit trees, +reaching to the pond. On the bank, a distillery and +a very well-kept kitchen garden.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p> + +<p>The house is arranged inside in a commonplace +manner, with no claim to beauty or comfort. The +furniture, devoid of style or elegance, neither comfortable +nor fashionable, is distributed quite inartistically. +On the other hand, great care is evident in +everything that pertains to the table: the cellars +and larders are full of provisions, and obviously constitute +the principal preoccupation of the masters of +the house. And indeed the hospitable table of Panassovka +is renowned throughout the neighbourhood.</p> + +<p>According to a very fine portrait, painted in 1835, +Ilia Ivanovitch was at that time a handsome young +man with regular features, tender blue eyes, and curly +fair hair. He was very intelligent, but his mind had +that sceptical turn which prevents men from taking life +seriously and which paralyses activity. Moreover, he +had an Epicurean temperament and was in the army.</p> + +<p>He had married, when very young, Emilia Lvovna +Nevahovna, sister of one of his brother officers in +the Imperial Guard, a very attractive and unusually +intelligent girl. Her beauty was of the Jewish type, +with splendid dark eyes, and she had a bright and +lively disposition as well as a kind and tender heart. +Her friends called her “Milotchka,” which, in Russian, +means “charming”; in her old age she loved to +relate that the great Russian poet, Pushkin, once said +to her at a ball, “How well your name suits you, +Mademoiselle!”</p> + +<p>After his marriage, Ilia Ivanovitch remained in +Petersburg, leading a merry life with his brothers-in-law, +and giving no thought to the future; it took +him but a few years at that rate to spend the whole +of his wife’s inheritance. And three children were +growing up whose future had to be thought of. It was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +then that Ilia Ivanovitch’s distant estate was remembered, +away in a remote part of Little Russia. What +energy, what perseverance had to be displayed by +his wife before she could persuade him to take refuge +there! and how hard it must have seemed to the gay +officer to leave the capital for the lonely and monotonous +life of the country! However, departure was +decided upon. The two boys, Ivan and Leo, +were placed in a school at Petersburg, to be prepared +for the Lycée and the Law School. Ilia Ivanovitch +obtained a post as Remount Officer for two Guards +regiments, and started with his wife, his daughter, +an aunt, and a younger brother, to settle down in the +country.</p> + +<p>The family settled at first in the old Ivanovka +house, where a son, Nicholas, was born. Though they +wished to have no more children, one more child was +born two years later, on the 16th May 1845—Elie +Metchnikoff.</p> + +<p>The Ivanovka house was old and inconvenient; +Ilia Ivanovitch decided to build a new one at the other +end of his estate, in a place called Panassovka, which +thus became the family home.</p> + +<p>Emilia Lvovna threw herself into her domestic +occupations with her usual energy and ardour. +She was anxious to improve the situation, which had +become precarious, and wished at the same time to +create for her husband an environment suited to his +Epicurean tastes. Ilia Ivanovitch loved cards and +the table, both tastes easy to satisfy in the country, +and which became the pivot of life at Panassovka. +The great daily problem was the question of meals, +and long conversations had to take place with the +cook and with the housekeeper concerning catering.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p> + +<p>Thanks to serfdom, servants were very numerous +and everything could be manufactured at home. +The “diévitshia” (maid-servants’ room) was crowded +with maids, seamstresses, needle-women, washer-women, +etc., under the direction of a fat, middle-aged +woman named Duniasha. She wore a silk kerchief +on her head, and was invariably clothed in a white +dressing jacket and a brown skirt with white spots. +A regular autocrat, she ruled her little world with a +rod of iron; as soon as her heavy, felt-slippered steps +were heard, the maids whispered to each other, +“Avdotia Maximovna!” conversations ceased, and +every one became absorbed in her work.</p> + +<p>Among the male retainers, the first place was held +by Petrushka, the valet. Careless and often drunk, +he was nevertheless a good fellow; he was usually +to be found asleep behind the screen in the hall. The +upper servants, the cook, coachman, and others left +their work to be done by their underlings, the scullery +boy, postilion, page-boy, etc. In fact, everything +followed the routine usual in every Russian household +in the time of serfdom.</p> + +<p>Emilia Lvovna directed the children’s education; +her personal teaching consisted chiefly in tender +indulgence, but it was she who chose the nurses and +teachers. As long as the boys were small, their +great-aunt Elena Samoïlovna looked after them; +afterwards they were handed over to tutors and +professors. Ilia Ivanovitch’s activities consisted in +buying horses at fairs and in studs and in convoying +them to Petersburg. These journeys took a long time, +by stages and relays of horses. Ilia Ivanovitch took +advantage of them to gamble heavily and to enjoy +pleasures which the country did not offer.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p> + +<p>Agriculture was very restricted at Panassovka, +for the property consisted mostly of pasture land for +horses and sheep. The younger brother, Dmitri +Ivanovitch, had undertaken the management of the +estate. He was entirely devoted to the family of his +elder brother, whom he had followed into the country. +Though only a few years younger, he used the respectful +second person plural in speaking to Ilia Ivanovitch, +whilst the latter said “thou” to him. Dmitri +Ivanovitch was tall, thin, and taciturn, a silent pipe-smoker. +The lively Emilia Lvovna often said to +him, “But why do you never talk, Mitienka?” To +which he invariably answered, “It is not every one +who is as talkative as you are, Emilia Lvovna.” Yet +they were on the best of terms. Dmitri Ivanovitch +would have gone through fire for his sister-in-law, +as she well knew. She had the utmost confidence in +him, and depended upon his support in every difficult +circumstance.</p> + +<p>At Panassovka the men spent the greater part +of the day, and often even of the night, in playing +cards; games were organised between neighbours and +relations, and that occupation was considered most +important. Meals were prolonged indefinitely; everything +was served in abundance and eaten with a connoisseur’s +appreciation, each dish being discussed. +After the meal was over, the cook would make his +daily appearance, and the next day’s <i>menu</i> was drawn +up by the whole party. After a siesta, gambling was +resumed. Thus the days went by in the cult of good +cheer and of cards, interspersed with conversations +about horses and sometimes about politics.</p> + +<p>By this time Ilia Ivanovitch was beginning to +become bald and obese. It is difficult to define what<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +was his inner life; not even to his wife did he ever +speak of it. As to his children, he petted them when +they were small, but as they grew up, their intercourse +with him was limited to kissing his hand morning and +evening. He was not indifferent to their welfare, +but left it entirely to his wife’s active solicitude. +The children were on very different terms with their +mother; not only did she spoil them, but also always +eagerly shared all their childish interests. Owing to +that, and to her bright and affectionate disposition, +they looked upon her as their intimate friend and +confidante.</p> + +<p>Masters and servants were on good terms, relations +between them were even remarkably human, +according to the ideas of the time, and in spite of +certain customs inherent to serfdom. For instance, +the younger maids were punished by having their +faces slapped and their hair pulled. Even the kindly +and peaceable Dmitri Ivanovitch would soundly box +his valet’s ears when he found him drunk. At that +time such things were not thought cruel or humiliating, +but looked upon as a paternal correction. The +peasants had confidence in their “barin” (master) +and consulted him or appealed to his generosity when +in trouble.</p> + +<p>Ilia Ivanovitch never opposed the free choice of +his serfs in matrimony, a rare tolerance at that time. +According to custom every betrothed couple came to +salute him, the young man in his Sunday clothes and +a fine, bright-coloured scarf, the girl wearing an embroidered +bodice and a head-dress of many-coloured +ribbons. They knelt before him and bowed three +times to the ground, then offered him sacramental +loaves, hard and shaped like pine cones, on beautifully<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +worked diapers. Ilia Ivanovitch and Emilia Lvovna +blessed the bride and bridegroom with “ikons,” +embraced them, and gave them a sum of money for +the wedding.</p> + +<p>The Metchnikoffs were liked by their peasants +and looked upon as good masters.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Metchnikoff’s brothers and sister — Childish characteristics.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> two elder children, Ivan and Leo, were educated +at Petersburg, whilst Katia, the only daughter, was +brought up at home. Like all other girls of noble +family, she was educated with the object of being +suitably married. She was a slender, pretty brunette, +like her mother, but less beautiful. Though sensitive +and intelligent, she interested herself in nothing but +the reading of French novels. There was a great +difference in age between Katia and her little brothers, +whilst there were only two years between them. +Kolia (Nicholas) was the old aunt’s favourite, a fine, +handsome boy with velvety black eyes; his slow and +grave movements had earned for him the nickname of +“Peaceful Papa.”</p> + +<p>The youngest of the family, Ilia (Elie), on the +contrary, was full of life and spirits. Fair and slender, +with silky hair and a diaphanous, pink and white +complexion, he had small, grey-blue eyes, full of +kindliness and sparkle. Very highly strung and impressionable, +his temper was easily roused, and he was +so restless that he went by the name of “quicksilver.” +He always wished to see everything, to know everything, +and found his way everywhere. When, after a +long silence, there was a sudden outburst of many +voices around the card-tables, he would rush to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +drawing-room, saying, “Are they going to fight?” +He ran about the house all day, following his mother +as she attended to her various duties; he examined +the provisions, tasted everything, and even went to +the “diévitshia” to see what the maids were doing. +He tried to sew or to embroider, exasperated everybody, +and ended by being turned out. He would then +look for something else to do, go to see whether the +table was laid, inquire about the <i>menu</i>, and ask the +queerest questions. He could only be kept quiet +when his curiosity was awakened by the observation +of some natural object such as an insect or a butterfly +that he was trying to catch, or by watching the +“grown-ups” at their card games. But, of all things, +music fascinated him most, and he would remain for +hours sitting by the piano listening without a movement. +He was very much spoilt by his mother, who +had a weakness for her Benjamin, and who also wished +to make up for the very obvious preference shown for +Kolia by the great-aunt.</p> + +<p>Moreover, Ilia was a frail little boy and often +suffered from his eyes; the doctor advised that he +should not be allowed to cry or to rub his eyes, and, +in order to avoid this, he was permitted to have his +own way in everything. He was much too intelligent +not to understand the advantage that the situation +offered and was quick to profit by it. In the face of +the least semblance of refusal or reproach, he would +begin to rub his eyes and announce in a whining tone +that he was going to cry. He was therefore very much +spoilt and very capricious; his mother said he was +“neurotic”; his sister, who often had differences +with him, called him a “little beast.” In reality, Ilia +was very good-hearted, tender, and loving; he was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +affectionate, especially with his mother, and could +always be managed by an appeal to his feelings. But +if he was sensitive to kindness, he was equally so to +the least injustice. He could not forgive his great-aunt +the predilection which she exhibited on every +occasion for Kolia; for instance, at table, she would +choose tit-bits for him, and Ilia observed with bitterness +that she always reserved the chicken’s breast for +her favourite. Every time a chicken was served, +poor Ilia followed the dish round the table with +anxious eyes, and she invariably placed the coveted +morsel in his brother’s plate.</p> + +<p>When the day was over, Ilia was put into his little +bed and told to “say his prayers and go to sleep.” +But he did not obey at once: after a thousand merry +tricks, his eyelids would begin to close in spite of him; +then he would make up his mind to kneel and say his +prayers, folding his little hands: “Lord, keep and +preserve father, mother, great——” But suddenly +remembering the latter’s injustice towards him, he +would correct himself hastily, “No, not great-aunt, +she is too unkind!” and continue, “My sister, my +brothers, everybody, and myself, little Ilia.” Still he +did not go to sleep immediately; a nervous child, he +was frightened of being alone; now and then he +would lift his heavy lids to see if the maid was still +there. Sometimes the latter, thinking he had gone +to sleep, would leave the room on tiptoe. Ilia, +seeing her no more, would start, raise his head and, +stretching his thin neck, send an anxious look around +the room, faintly lighted by a night-light. The vacillating +flame threw trembling and dancing shadows. +Seized with intense terror, he would hide his face in +his pillow and scream with all his might. Avdotia<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +Maximovna would then rush to soothe him and +soundly rate the servant girl, “Are you not ashamed +to leave a noble child all alone?” Ilia would then +go on sobbing for a little while, but, reassured after all, +would presently sink into deep, childish sleep.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Journey to Slaviansk — The coach attacked by peasants.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> 1850 the children were taken to the baths of +Slaviansk. On a warm summer day the heavy +“berlin” coach, drawn by six horses with a postilion, +rolled along the high road, across the steppes, followed +at a distance by a “tarantass.”<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> + +<p>In the spacious, antique coach, with its dusty +hood, sat Emilia Lvovna, with her three children; +the valet, Petrushka, dozed on the box, next to the +coachman. The tarantass was occupied by Dmitri +Ivanovitch and a cousin.</p> + +<p>The heat was oppressive. At the start every one +was excited; Emilia Lvovna was trying to remember +if anything had been forgotten and was discussing +with Katia the details of their installation at Slaviansk. +The boys hung out of the windows, gazing at the +horses, at the tarantass, and making all sorts of +comments. Ilia was so restless and talkative that +he was constantly being told, “Do be quiet! Keep +still!”</p> + +<p>By degrees, however, children and “grown-ups” +began to feel drowsy, owing to the monotony of the +road, the heat, and the swinging of the carriage. The +tarantass had disappeared, for Dmitri Ivanovitch +wished to visit an aunt whose house was not far from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +the road. The outline of a forest was now seen on +the horizon; it came nearer and nearer, and soon the +coach stopped before the forest inn. Everybody woke +up, the children were delighted to be able to run about +and stretch their limbs. They begged their mother +to let them go into the forest whilst the horses were +resting, and obtained permission to go, but not too +far, and with Petrushka.</p> + +<p>They ate an appetising lunch at the inn and the +children ran off at a gallop. Everything delighted +them, the underwood, grass patches, ravines, and +mysterious paths. But they had hardly entered the +forest when they heard a sinister, confused rumour +in the distance; they stopped to listen, and recognised +the voices of a tumultuous crowd. The children’s +joyous excitement fell; frightened and docile, +they hastened to return to the inn, from which Emilia +Lvovna, looking anxiously out of a window, was +making urgent signs to them to return. The coach +was still standing without horses, and, a little farther +off, the latter were surrounded by a crowd of peasants, +of whom many were completely drunk. They shouted +vociferously, and closely pressed the coachman and +the postilion, threatening to confiscate the horses and +detain the travellers if they were not given a ransom +of a thousand roubles.</p> + +<p>Terrified, the children clung to their distracted +mother; Ilia felt her trembling, and his own little heart +fluttered like a bird that has been caught. The +drunken peasants appeared to him like monstrous +ogres or brigands about to capture, perhaps kill, his +family and himself; he could hardly keep back his +tears. Already the peasants had bound the coachman +and the postilion and were taking away the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +horses. Clinging close to each other, the mother and +children listened anxiously; they thought again and +again that they could hear the bells of the tarantass. +At last it appeared in the distance, and the children +joyously whispered, “There they are!” They +hastened to inform Dmitri Ivanovitch of what had +happened. He at once went with his cousin towards +the crowd, and negotiations were opened, but for a +long time without result.</p> + +<p>At last the cousin had a happy idea; he declared +he would go back to his aunt’s house in the neighbourhood +and borrow the thousand roubles from her. +The peasants consented to let him go alone, keeping +the other travellers as hostages. After a time, which +to the children seemed endless, the sound of the +tarantass bells was again heard, accompanied this +time by numerous heavy footsteps, and the vehicle +reappeared, escorted by a company of soldiers commanded +by two officers. Instead of going to his +aunt’s, the cousin had gone to a neighbouring military +camp and was bringing assistance.</p> + +<p>There was a sudden change of scene. Emilia +Lvovna and Katia furtively made the sign of the +cross. Ilia had let go of his mother’s hand and was +no longer clinging to her, but, stretching his head +forward and opening his eyes wide, eagerly waited to +see what was going to happen. “Now,” he thought, +“we shall not be captured; it is their turn; I am +glad!” And, perhaps for the first time in his life, +his little heart was moved by feelings of hatred.</p> + +<p>In the meanwhile a repulsive scene was going on: +a hand-to-hand struggle, invectives and screams. The +peasants were securely bound. Men and women +hastened from a neighbouring village; one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +women slapped an officer’s face. Furious, he ordered +the soldiers to fill her mouth with earth; she was +thrown on the ground; the new arrivals in their +turn attacked the soldiers, and a regular battle raged.</p> + +<p>Ilia was alarmed, shaken, and profoundly disgusted +with that exhibition of brutality. The coachman and +postilion, their bonds unloosed, hastened to put the +horses in, and whilst reprisals were still going on, the +family hurried away. They reached Slaviansk without +further trouble, excitedly talking over their adventure. +This episode was the first deep and definite +impression which remained on little Ilia’s mind; it +struck him so much that he kept the memory of it +during his whole life.</p> + +<p>From that moment he held crowds, violence, and +all manifestations of brute force in the utmost horror, +whatever their cause might be.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Departure for Kharkoff — Town life.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> following year was to be spent at Kharkoff. +Katia was now seventeen and her marriage had to be +contemplated.</p> + +<p>The boys’ life was still quite a childish one, made +up chiefly of games and mischief. Kolia had been +taught to read by the great-aunt; Ilia had learnt by +himself, asking people now and then for the name of +some letter. He was able to read fluently quite early.</p> + +<p>The departure for Kharkoff was a great event, +prepared long beforehand. The children, delighted +at the prospect of a change, impatiently waited for +the moment to start. At last every one was seated +in the coaches and, saying to the coachman, “Off! +God keep us,” they started to drive along the high +road through the steppes.</p> + +<p>Life at Kharkoff was very much the same as +at Panassovka, with social elements added. Moreover, +the children’s liberty was somewhat restricted. +Already on the journey they were given to understand +that, in a town, they could not go out alone, nor +shout in the streets, nor point at people and things +with their finger, and that they should have to make +less noise, even in the house. For the first time they +unconsciously realised that their family was not the +centre of the universe, that there were many others<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +who also had to be taken into account. Ilia did not +welcome this discovery.</p> + +<p>The flat occupied by the Metchnikoffs was on the +first floor, above that of the owner of the house. +One day when the children were running about, +making a fearful noise, some one came up to say that +the landlady was ill and begged that the noise should +cease. Ilia, interrupted in the midst of a game, +became furiously angry; in his rage he seized a +whistle, and stooping to a crack in the floor, whistled +with all his might. It was only with much difficulty +that he was induced to stop and to calm himself.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<p>The children’s horizon soon widened; Dmitri +Ivanovitch took them to the theatre and a new +and fantastic world opened out to them. The very +next day they attempted a performance of the play +they had seen; soon, on Kolia’s suggestion, they +began to compose plays for themselves. Kolia wrote +a drama entitled “Burning Tea,” in which the hero +having offered his friend tea that was too hot, the +latter burnt his tongue; a duel ensued, etc., etc. +Ilia hastened to follow his brother’s example. He +composed something in the same style, but even more +absurd. Having realised that it was so, he gave up +literature. That period was for him a series of disappointments +which perhaps helped to lead him to +the path he was ultimately to follow. His brother, +following the “grown-ups’” example, played cards +with other boys or with the maids. Ilia attempted +to do the same, but his nervousness left him no self-control; +he lost continually and games generally ended +in quarrels and tears; he became disgusted with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +cards for the rest of his life. Kolia was fond of +muscular exercises, such as gymnastics, wrestling, etc. +Ilia, younger and therefore weaker, was constantly +humiliated, and his pride kept him away from physical +amusements. Thus, by means of elimination, he +became gradually isolated from surrounding influences. +But, at that time, no new element had intervened in +his daily life and he spent his existence in the gentle +warmth of his mother’s tenderness, absorbed in his +childish games and studies.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> + +<p class="chapter-title">Leo Metchnikoff’s illness — Private tutors — Botanical studies — A +memorable birthday.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> 1851, in the middle of the winter, the Metchnikoffs +heard that Leo, their second son, was suffering +from hip-disease, and the doctors advised that he should +be taken away from Petersburg. Poor Emilia Lvovna +was in great despair and shed many tears; her +brother-in-law, Dmitri Ivanovitch, calmly announced +that he was going to fetch Leo. He took his great +fur coat, his fur cap and fur-lined boots, and started +that very day for Petersburg by coach. He took but +the necessary time to go and to bring Leo back, only +stopping at relays to change horses.</p> + +<p>The boy was then thirteen years old, handsome, +gifted, and intelligent; he walked with crutches, but +his general health seemed good, and it was decided +that he should work at home to prepare for the Lycée, +under the tuition of students as tutors. Thus a new +element was introduced into the family life.</p> + +<p>In 1853 Leo had as a tutor a student named +Hodounof, a very intelligent young man, who wished +not merely to teach him but to impart to him the +love of science. Leo was extremely gifted and worked +with great facility, but he lacked concentration and +was therefore somewhat superficial. This cooled his +tutor’s enthusiasm, whilst on the other hand he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +became more and more interested in little Ilia. It +was in the course of country walks that they were +drawn together. Hodounof used to take Leo for +walks in order to study the local flora, and Ilia came +out with them, at first for the sake of the exercise. +But soon he became interested in the flowers and +showed so much taste for botany that he attracted +Hodounof’s notice; soon the tutor’s interest became +concentrated on the little boy and he gave him serious +attention.</p> + +<p>It was with a real enthusiasm that Ilia gathered +and studied plants; he soon became thoroughly +acquainted with the local flora. He thought himself +very learned already and wrote memoirs on botany. +Passionately fond of teaching, he used to offer all his +pocket-money to his brothers and other children to +induce them to hear lectures which he gave them. +His vocation was fixed from that moment. He was +then eight years old.</p> + +<p>When the family returned to Kharkoff he spent +all he had in buying books on natural history, which +he read with passionate interest. These contained +many things that he could not understand, but his +curiosity was all the greater. When he was eleven +years old his passion for natural history almost cost +him his life. While fishing for hydra in a small pond +he was so eager that he fell into the water and was +only pulled out with great difficulty.</p> + +<p>That particular day, his own and his father’s name +day, was nearly fatal to him, not only through water +but through fire. It was a family custom to hold a +great gathering of friends and relations at Panassovka +on St. Elias’s day. Preparations for the feast began +days beforehand; the whole household was in a turmoil.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> + +<p>On that particular St. Elias’s day, so many guests +came to Panassovka that there was not enough room +in the house to accommodate them all, and the +children were transferred to a pavilion outside the +house.</p> + +<p>Whilst in the drawing-room people were talking +and playing cards, the servants were holding rejoicings +of their own. Towards night-time the majority of +the coachmen and footmen brought by the guests +were completely drunk; a cigarette imprudently +thrown on some hay started a fire. Soon the stables +were ablaze and many horses perished in the flames, +in spite of every effort to save them. Presently the +wind changed in the direction of the pavilion and the +thatched roof caught fire. There was a rush to save +the children, who were with much difficulty taken out +through a window.</p> + +<p>In spite of intense terror, Ilia’s first thought was +for his baby nephew, the son of his sister, who had +then been married a year; he ran in affright all over +the house searching for the child, and only became +calm again after he had ascertained that it had been +carried out into the garden.</p> + +<p>Katia being married there was now no reason to +spend the winter in the town. The father and mother +therefore remained at Panassovka and Dmitri Ivanovitch +took the boys to Kharkoff, where they entered the +Lycée. They had been well prepared by their tutors, +and moreover spoke French and a little German, +having had special teachers for these languages. +Their French tutor, M. Garnier, was gay, boastful, +and pretentious; his idea of teaching them French +literature was to memorise Béranger’s <i>chansons</i>. He +was passionately fond of shooting and gave to that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +sport as much time as he could, greatly to the detriment +of his pupils’ studies, for they were not allowed +to accompany him for fear of an accident. Their +mother, perhaps on account of her weak heart, was +so nervous that they were discouraged from any +sporting tastes. The German tutor also neglected +the children: his favourite occupation consisted in +drinking beer. On one occasion he gave so much to +little Ilia that the boy conceived a lifelong distaste +for beer. Ilia took advantage of his tutors’ indifference +to devote himself to his favourite study of +natural history. His vocation was so obvious that it +could not be mistaken. It seems a strange thing +that a passion for science should have developed in +so inappropriate an environment. Evidently the +first impulse was given by Hodounof, but, if his +influence stimulated this passion, it cannot have +created it. This vocation probably had a deeper +source, and in order to discover it we should perhaps +look back into the antecedents of the Metchnikoff +family.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Ancestors of the Metchnikoff family — The Great Spatar — Leo +Nevahovitch.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Metchnikoff family made no show of family +pride; one old aunt, however, was extremely proud +of one of their ancestors, the Great “Spatar” (sword-bearer). +The following is the account given of this +ancestor by E. Picot, after a Moldavian chronicle.<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Few men led such an adventurous life or made themselves +glorious through such varied gifts as did Nicholas Spatar +Milescu.</p> + +<p>His name is connected with the history of Moldavian, Greek, +Russian, and Chinese literature. His origin, his talents, his +crime, the mutilation he suffered, his audacious journey across +the whole of Asia to reach Pekin, the valuable information +which he gathered during his embassy at the Court of the +“Son of Heaven,” everything conspires to excite curiosity +concerning him.</p></div> + +<p>Spatar was born in Moldavia in 1625. While yet +very young he went to Constantinople, where he +studied theology, philosophy, history ancient and +modern, Greek, Latin, Slavonic and Turkish. He +afterwards went to Italy to study natural science and +mathematics. On his return to Moldavia he soon +became known for his erudition, acquired great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +influence, and became much appreciated at Court. +Owing to clever political intrigues he preserved the +simultaneous favour of several enemy princes, one +of whom, Stepanita, covered him with benefits and +honours. Nevertheless, Spatar wrote to Constantine +Bassarab, in Poland, advising him to come and to +overthrow Stepanita’s throne. He sent his letter +inside a hollow cane; Constantine, however, did not +wish to launch himself into such an adventure, and +indignantly sent the hollow cane and the letter to +Stepanita himself. At first the prince, naturally +angry, thought of having Spatar executed; he spared +his life for the sake of his talents, but condemned him +to have the tip of his nose cut off. Spatar went to +Germany, where, says the naïve chronicler, a doctor +made his nose grow again. He came back to Moldavia +for a short time and then went to Russia. +Thanks to his knowledge of languages, he was made +an interpreter at the Court of the Tsar Alexis +Michailovitch, and was the first tutor of his son +Peter the Great, whom he taught to read and to +write.</p> + +<p>In 1674 the Tsar Alexis Michailovitch entrusted +Spatar with a mission in China, where he was to open +negotiations with a view to commercial and political +relations between Russia and China. In the course +of his journey Spatar carefully collected all possible +information concerning the countries he traversed. +He thus gathered much interesting geographical +knowledge and highly important data concerning the +commercial value of Asiatic rivers, and specially the +Amour river.</p> + +<p>At Pekin, Spatar rapidly learnt the Chinese language, +occupied for three years the post of ambassador<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +in China, and returned to Russia bringing back most +valuable information and many rich presents given +him by the Emperor of China.</p> + +<p>All this had excited the jealousy of the Muscovite +courtiers; they took advantage of the coincidence +between the death of the Tsar and Spatar’s return to +deprive him of his treasures and to have him exiled +to Siberia. But, when Peter the Great ascended the +throne, Spatar succeeded in making a letter reach him +relating his misfortunes, and the Tsar recalled him, +gave him back his property, and showered honours +upon him. Spatar again became interpreter of the +Embassy; Peter consulted him in all Far-Eastern +questions, and gave him confidential documents to +translate into foreign languages.</p> + +<p>Spatar’s literary activity was vast and varied. +He translated the Bible from the Greek into Roumanian; +he wrote a chronicle on the origin of Roumania, +articles on theology, a Greco-Latin-Russian dictionary, +and a work entitled <i>Arithmetic</i>, in which he discussed, +by means of numbers and figures, questions of Theology, +Philosophy, and Ethics. He dealt in his writings +with Art, Archæology, and History; described his +Siberian travels, China and the Amour river, and made +numerous translations of diplomatic documents. His +erudition was such that his contemporaries appealed +to his knowledge as they would have consulted an +encyclopædia.</p> + +<p>He had married a Muscovite and had several sons +and grandsons. Three of his nephews came from +Moldavia to join him and entered the Russian army. +He died in 1714 at the age of 80. Such is the history +of the “Great Spatar.”</p> + +<p>The following notice is to be found in Brockhaus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +and Effrone’s <i>Encyclopædia</i>: “The Metchnikoffs are +a noble family, descended from a Moldavian Boyar, +the Spatar (sword-bearer) Joury Stepanovitch,<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> who +came to Russia with Prince Cantemir. Peter the +Great gave this Boyar large land estates. His son +took the name of Metchnikoff (Russian translation +of Sword-bearer).”</p> + +<p>The following generations included military men +chiefly, one sailor, one mining engineer, one senator, +but no scientific men.</p> + +<p>On the mother’s side, Elie Metchnikoff had no +ancestor as remarkable or as romantic as the great +Spatar. Yet his grandfather, Leo Nevahovitch, was +a very intelligent and highly cultivated man. He had +been Farmer-General for tobacco in Poland. A Jew +by race, he took to heart the persecutions directed +against his co-religionists and defended them in +literary newspaper articles. Nevertheless he accepted +indirect advice from Alexander I. and let himself be +baptized. He adopted the Lutheran religion and his +children were brought up in it.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the Polish Revolution in 1830, +Nevahovitch was warned that his house was about +to be sacked; the warning reached him as he was +peacefully enjoying a theatrical performance. He +hurried to prepare for departure and left Warsaw +with his family for Petersburg, where he lived on his +income. Having given up business, he took up literary +work and translated German philosophical works, +made friends in the literary world, and knew Pushkin +and Kriloff. His children, Emilia Lvovna amongst +others, inherited his intellectual gifts. One of his +sons was a remarkable caricaturist and edited a caricature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +newspaper which was very well known at the +time. The Nevahovitch family produced no men of +science. Metchnikoff himself considered that he had +inherited his mother’s disposition and turn of mind. +In any case, his ancestors on both sides included +talented individuals, from whom he may have +inherited his gifts and his innate taste for science.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">The Kharkoff Lycée — Bogomoloff and Socialism — Atheism — Natural +History studies — Private lodgings — Private lessons in histology +from Professor Tschelkoff — A borrowed microscope — First article — Italian +Opera — The gold medal.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> 1856 Dmitri Ivanovitch took the boys to Kharkoff +in order to make them enter the Lycée. They passed +their entrance examination quite satisfactorily; Kolia +was admitted into the fifth class and Ilia into the one +below it. They were day boarders and lived in the +house of one of their former tutors.</p> + +<p>This was at a time when the new and liberal reign +of Alexander II. was giving birth to many hopes; +the Lycées preserved but insignificant traces of the +hard regime of Nicholas I. Previous narrow and +doctrinal teaching was giving way to a current of +realistic and rational ideas, physical and natural +science had become the vogue, and professors were +trying to come into touch with their pupils and to +influence their intellectual development. The boys +on their side were founding mutual instruction clubs, +attending popular Sunday lectures, interesting themselves +in social questions—in fact the revolutionary +movement was beginning to strike root. Life in +general was intense, aspirations exalted, and hopes +radiant.</p> + +<p>During his first school year Elie worked assiduously +in all branches of the curriculum, and his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +name soon appeared on the honours list. The +Russian language teacher became his friend, and +greatly contributed to his development by choosing +for him books of general knowledge. Under this +direction Elie read, among other things, Buckle’s +<i>History of Civilisation</i>, which had at that time a very +great influence on the young Russian mind. According +to the author’s principal thesis, the progress of +humanity depended chiefly upon that of positive +science; this idea sunk deeply into the boy’s mind and +confirmed his scientific aspirations.</p> + +<p>When he reached the fifth class he formed a +friendship with one of his school-fellows, Bogomoloff, +who had great influence over Elie’s ulterior development; +he was the son of a colour manufacturer, and +his elder brothers were studying chemistry at the +Kharkoff University with a view to applying it to +their industry. They had travelled abroad and had +brought back novel ideas and books forbidden by the +Russian censorship; they influenced their young +brother, who in his turn initiated Elie. It was thus +that the latter became acquainted with materialistic +ideas and social theories; he read the <i>Popular Star</i>, +the <i>Bell of Herzin</i>, and other publications prohibited +in Russia. Little by little he lost the faith which he had +held when under his mother’s influence. Atheism, however, +was to him more interesting than disappointing; +it incited in him a state of general criticism. Ardently +passionate in this as in all things, he preached atheism +to others and received the nickname of “God is not.” +The course of teaching at the Lycée did not escape his +criticism; when he had reached the fourth class he +omitted those exercises which seemed to him devoid +of interest. On the other hand, he plunged with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +passion into the study of natural science, botany, +and geology.</p> + +<p>He had ceased to be a model student, but his +scientific aspirations became stronger from day to +day.</p> + +<p>In order to cultivate foreign languages, the two +brothers had been placed in a boarding-house where +morals were strict and patriarchal, the food bad, and +the director’s sermons long and tedious. None of +these things suited Elie. This regime, with the addition +of dancing lessons, inspired him with the deepest +aversion; he resolved to obtain from his parents permission +to take furnished rooms for himself and his +brother.</p> + +<p>In spite of the current of political exaltation which +was then universal in Russia, Elie was too deeply +immersed in his studies to be carried away in that +direction. He did at one time attend popular +lectures and the political gatherings of the students, +but he felt that science was his real vocation. He +was so early and so completely absorbed by it that +he was not interested in the great movement for +the emancipation of the serfs. It is true that, at +Panassovka, the question was not acute as elsewhere, +the serfs being quite happy; however, the fact remains +that it was his passion for science which kept him, +in spite of his exalted ideas and ardent soul, apart +from the noble movement for liberation.</p> + +<p>In the third class he made friends with a group +of students who were devoted to science and to intellectual +culture. Elie, owing to his ardour and +vivacity, played the part of a ferment in that little +circle, each member of which was to make a special +study of certain scientific branches in order that they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +might together edit a new encyclopædia of human +knowledge. He studied German so as to read in +the original the classical materialistic writers, Vogt, +Feuerbach, Buchner, Moleschott, etc. The Lycée +lectures were relegated to the background. Nevertheless, +owing to his great facility of assimilation, +he was successful in every branch. Plans for his +ulterior activities were soon definitely fixed.</p> + +<p>At that time of intense intellectual effervescence +in Russia, libraries were invaded by a number of +translations of works on natural science. Elie absorbed +them with avidity, and read amongst others a Russian +translation of Bronn’s book on the <i>Classes and Orders +of the Animal Kingdom</i>. He saw for the first time in +the plates of that work pictures of micro-organisms, +amoebæ, Infusoria, Rhizopoda, etc. That world of +lower beings impressed him so strongly that he resolved +from that moment to devote himself to the study of +them, that is, to the study of the primitive manifestations +of life in its simplest forms.</p> + +<p>He was then fifteen years old. The two brothers +now obtained from their parents permission to live +in furnished rooms, an independent arrangement +which allowed each of them to satisfy his individual +tastes. Apart from the Lycée, Kolia spent his time +in playing cards and billiards and in other amusements, +whilst Elie worked with ardour, his only +recreations being music and debates on abstract +subjects. When he entered the second class he had +become completely specialised. In order to tackle +serious scientific studies, he tried to come into touch +with one of the University professors. The University +of Kharkoff was still making use of ancient methods; +teaching was given by means of manuals, with practical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +application; but Elie, who did not know that, +dreamt of finding in laboratories assistance and means +of, at least, undertaking personal scientific work. He +attended a lecture on comparative anatomy, and, in +order not to appear too young, he wore his ordinary +clothes instead of the Lycée uniform. After the lecture +was over, he shyly approached the professor and +begged to be allowed to study protoplasm under his +direction. The professor received him coldly, and +told him in a pedantic tone that he was in too much +of a hurry, and that he should first of all finish his +course at the Lycée and then get admitted into the +University.</p> + +<p>It was a disappointment for the eager boy; however, +he did not lose heart but continued to attend +divers University lectures, clinging to the hope that +another professor might be more sympathetic. He +was pleased with the lectures of a young physiologist, +Tschelkoff by name, and decided to make +another attempt. This time he was successful. The +professor received him kindly and consented to give +him private lessons in histology. Then, fired with a +passionate desire to produce something personal in +medical science, and attracted by Virchow’s cellular +theory, he dreamt that he might create a general +theory of his own in medicine. In order to increase +his scientific knowledge, he undertook with his friend +Zalensky the translation of Grove’s work, <i>The Unity +of Physical Forces</i>. The professor of chemistry and +natural history willingly encouraged the two boys +in this work, to which they gave up the whole of the +school year. Elie wasted no opportunity of learning; +during those lectures which did not interest him he +used to read scientific books. One day that he was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +doing so during catechism he did not notice that the +priest, wishing to know what he was reading, had +come up to him. The latter, however, was greatly impressed +by the title of Radlkoffer’s learned work on +<i>The Crystals of Proteic Substances</i>; he returned the +book without a word and never interfered with him +again.</p> + +<p>Through the assistance of some medical students, +Elie obtained the loan of a microscope; he studied +Infusoria and imagined that he had made divers +discoveries; he hastened to write an article, and sent +it to the only scientific Russian paper then in existence, +the <i>Bulletin of the Moscow Society of Naturalists</i>. To +his great joy his MS. was accepted, but before long +the young scientist perceived that his deductions were +erroneous, for he had mistaken phenomena of degenerescence +for phenomena of development. He was able +to stop the publication of this article, the first he ever +wrote, and it never appeared.</p> + +<p>Thanks to Tschelkoff, who lent him a microscope +for the duration of the holidays, he was able to study +the local fauna of inferior animals. At the beginning +of his last year at the Lycée, he read a text-book of +geology by a Kharkoff professor and, with juvenile +assurance, wrote a critical analysis of it. Inserted in +the <i>Journal de Moscou</i>, this was Elie’s first publication; +he was then sixteen years old. Encouraged +by this success, he sent several other criticisms, but +they were not accepted.</p> + +<p>The last examinations were coming near: Elie +wished to obtain the gold medal, not only out of pride, +but in order to prove to his parents that he deserved +their assistance in order to go abroad to continue his +studies. He therefore provisionally suspended his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +favourite pursuits and resumed the study of the long-neglected +school programme. The last examinations +took place in the spring of 1862. It happened to be +the Italian Opera season and Elie could not resist the +temptations offered him by music. In order to make +up the time, he often had to work the whole night +long at the cost of severe fatigue.</p> + +<p>In spite of this complication, he passed his examinations +brilliantly and obtained the gold medal. +He now wished for nothing but to devote himself to +scientific study.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">An early love — A schoolfellow’s sister — A pretty sister-in-law.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> spite of his precocious vocation, Elie was in no +wise indifferent to his surroundings. His mind was +sensitive and impressionable and his affections deep +and tender, especially where his mother was concerned. +He never undertook anything without consulting +her, a sweet habit which he preserved even in +his maturity.</p> + +<p>It was already at the age of six that he received +his first love impression: a lady came on a visit to +Panassovka with her little girl of eight, a lovely curly-headed +child, sweet and graceful, a living floweret. +Ilia could not admire her enough, and was most lavish +in his attentions, offering her flowers and fruit, inventing +games to amuse her and trying by every +means to make himself agreeable to her. The presence +of this charming little girl caused him great joy and +tender emotion; he wished that she might never go +away.... But the visit soon ended, and this first +idyll was short-lived; new impressions were not long +in replacing it. Nevertheless the picture of the +pretty child was so deeply impressed in his mind that +he never forgot her.</p> + +<p>The second time he fell in love was when he was +already at the Lycée; one of his schoolfellows had a +very pretty sister whom Elie used to meet on half-holidays.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +He admired her from afar, and tried to +contrive opportunities of meeting her; she was the +object of his dreams for the whole of one term.</p> + +<p>But he was presently to be seized by a more serious +feeling. When he was in the third class at the Lycée +he came as usual to Panassovka for the summer +holidays and found there a new inmate, his elder +brother’s young wife. Soon, to his own astonishment, +he found that the image of his last winter’s +passion was being effaced by that of his sister-in-law. +She, a pretty, fashionable girl, was bored with country +life; she criticised the simple habits at Panassovka +which formed a sharp contrast with her tastes; she +soon became very unpopular and, feeling lonely and +bored, tried to attract her young brother-in-law. +Elie, at first a willing comrade, soon found himself +harbouring a more tender feeling for his sister-in-law; +she complained to him of the family’s hostility, +declared herself misunderstood, and easily excited +the pity and sympathy of the sensitive boy. He +became her ardent defender and went so far as to +fight her battles, even with his mother, whom he +reproached with fancied injustice. For nearly four +years he remained under his sister-in-law’s sentimental +influence. He afterwards freed himself completely +from it, but the fact remains that she was the first +woman who inspired real sentiment in his youthful +manhood.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Journey to Germany — Leipzig — Würzburg — A hasty return.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">During</span> his later years at the Lycée, Elie had attended +several courses at the Kharkoff University and had +realised the inadequacy of the teaching and the impossibility +of any personal research work in the +laboratories. His greatest desire, therefore, was to +go abroad to study. At that time, the German +universities, being nearer, chiefly attracted Russian +students. Their laboratories were widely opened to +foreigners, and lectures were being given by a pleiad +of celebrated professors.</p> + +<p>In order to attain his object, Elie took care to +secure his mother’s support. It was not very difficult, +for she believed in her son’s scientific future and +was anxious to help him; she succeeded in convincing +his father and, by means of serious sacrifices, the +necessary sum was procured. Elie, who was especially +interested in the study of protoplasm, chose +the University of Würzburg, where the celebrated +zoologist Kölliker was lecturing. Thinking that in +Germany the term began in September, as in Russia, +he hastened to depart. The journey at that time was +long and complicated; yet, in spite of much fatigue, +Elie only stopped one day in Berlin and hurried to +Leipzig, the centre of the book trade, in order to +procure the necessary books. He reached Leipzig in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +the evening and was greatly embarrassed, not knowing +where to find a lodging. A young German in the +station offered him a room in his own family’s house +and took him there. The next morning, very early, +Elie ran out to buy his books and, in his haste, forgot +to note the number of the house and the name of +the street; it was with the utmost difficulty that he +found the place again. Much disturbed by this misadventure, +he hastened to start for Würzburg and, +on arriving there, met with a great disappointment; +all the professors were absent, this being the middle +of the holidays, and the lectures were not to begin for +six weeks. The poor boy, thus alone for the first time +among strangers, felt completely lost. He was given +the address of some Russian students and he hastily +sought them out, full of joy and hope, only to be +received coldly and distrustfully by his compatriots. +After this discouraging reception, he sadly proceeded +to look for a room, and having found one in the house +of a disagreeable old couple, he brought his bag there. +But, as he began to unpack it, he was seized with a +feeling of such utter despair that he hastily put his +luggage together again and announced to his elderly +hosts that he was going. Surprised and indignant, they +abused him so brutally that his distress only increased; +he rushed to the station, took the first train, and +returned to Panassovka without a stop. This hurried +return disconcerted his family, but, seeing the state +he was in, nobody reproached him. His mother had +felt much anxiety on his account, and was in fact not +sorry to keep him a little longer under her wing. +Thus, in dismal failure, ended that first journey +abroad, so ardently desired. The result might have +been very different if Elie had reached Würzburg at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +the right moment, or if the Russian students had been +more friendly. Too young and too impressionable to +bear absolute solitude, he could only have been saved +by his favourite studies or by a friendly environment. +His plans and fair dreams had been overthrown by a +series of simple mishaps.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Kharkoff University — Physiology — The Vorticella — Controversy with +Kühne—<i>The Origin of Species</i> — The Gastrotricha — University +degree.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">There</span> was now no choice and he had to resign himself +to the Kharkoff University. There is not much to +relate about this period, which was but a fugitive +episode in the course of Elie Metchnikoff, for the +“Alma Mater” did not have upon him either the +influence or the prestige which it generally exerts upon +youth.</p> + +<p>Whilst the stream of new ideas had already reached +the Lycée, the University of Kharkoff had remained +extremely conservative; this was owing to the fact +that the Lycée professors were young men, whilst those +of the University were elderly and old-fashioned. +Officials rather than scientists, they were content with +ancient methods, and lectured without practical work, +from obsolete and ill-chosen manuals. A few of them +drank, others neglected their work. In the Medical +and Natural Science Faculties, only two <i>agrégés</i> were +newly appointed, Tschelkoff, the physiologist we have +already mentioned, and a chemist named Békétoff. +These two were indeed scientists and master-minds, +and it was only under their direction that any one +did any serious work; the other lectures were pure +formalities. Elie wished to go in for medical studies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +but his mother dissuaded him. “You are too sensitive,” +she said, “you could not bear the constant +sight of human suffering.” At the same time, +Tschelkoff suggested the Natural Science Faculty as +being more appropriate to purely scientific activity. +Elie accepted his opinion and began to study physiology +under his direction. His great desire was to +embark at once on personal research, and his teacher +advised him to study the mobile stalk of a ciliated +Infusorian, the Vorticella. The question was to determine +whether this stalk presented any analogy with +muscular tissue and whether it offered the same +reactions. Elie set to work with ardour and found +that the stalk of the Vorticella had no muscular +character. His memoir on the subject appeared in +1863 in <i>Müller’s Archives</i>. It provoked a severe, even +brutal, answer from the celebrated physiologist Kühne +which deeply grieved the young scientist and, stimulating +his energy still further, incited him to repeat +his experiments. He obtained the same results as +the first time, and answered Kühne in a somewhat +bitter manner, the latter’s tone having stirred his +combativity.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, Elie was yearning for independent and +more general study. During his unsuccessful journey, +he had acquired in Leipzig many recently published +scientific books, and, among them, Darwin’s <i>Origin of +Species</i>. The theory of evolution deeply struck the +boy’s mind and his thoughts immediately turned in +that direction. He said to himself that isolated forms +which had found no place in definite animal or +vegetable orders might perhaps serve as a bond between +those orders and elucidate their genetic relationships. +This leading idea made him choose for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +his researches some very singular fresh-water creatures, +partly like Rotifera and partly like certain +worms of the Nematode group. He succeeded in +establishing a new intermediate order which he named +“Gastrotricha,” and which was straightway accepted.</p> + +<p>The whole of his first year at the University was +given up to those special studies. As he was fully +aware that the teaching of the University did not +answer to his aspirations, he resolved to remain there +as short a time as possible, and to get through the course +of studies in two years instead of the four which were +usual. In order to succeed in doing so, he provisionally +gave up his scientific researches, attended the +lectures as a free auditor, and spent the whole of the +second year in cramming for the “candidate” examination, +which answers to a Licentiate in Western +universities. It happened again this time that the +examinations coincided with the Opera season, but, +though he indulged in his passion for music, he +succeeded, by dint of a supreme effort, in passing them +very brilliantly.</p> + +<p>Having gone through the University at such an +accelerated pace, he did not come into contact with +other students, who, themselves chiefly preoccupied +with politics, took little interest in a youth so exclusively +absorbed in science. He therefore formed +none of those attractive juvenile friendships which +he had enjoyed at the Lycée. His hasty University +studies necessarily left lacunæ in his general knowledge, +a fact which he afterwards keenly deplored.</p> + +<p>With the exception of Tschelkoff, his teachers +had had no decisive influence on his career, and his +two years at the University formed but a colourless +episode in his life.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Heligoland — Giessen Congress — Leuckart — Visit to Leo Metchnikoff +at Geneva — Socialist gatherings — Metchnikoff’s discovery appro­pri­ated +by Leuckart — Naples — Kovalevsky — Comparative em­bryo­logy — Embryonic +layers — Bakounine and Setchénoff — Cholera +at Naples — Göttingen — Anatomical studies — Munich; von +Siebold — Music — Return +to Naples — Intracellular digestion.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Elie</span> still had his Licentiate thesis to prepare. In +order to do so, he decided to spend two months in +the island of Heligoland, of which the flora and fauna +were very attractive to naturalists. In spite of his +previous failure, his parents made no objection to his +departure; they gave him the little money they could +spare and Elie started, in 1864.</p> + +<p>As soon as he arrived in Heligoland he became +absorbed in his work. He proceeded with his idea of +bringing light upon the genealogy of organisms through +the study of isolated forms outside definite groups.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> + +<p>His ardour in his work attracted the attention of +several German scientists, one of whom introduced +him to the celebrated botanist Cohn, who soon became +interested in him. During the walks which they took +together, they held scientific conversations full of +interest for the youth. Cohn advised him to work +under the celebrated zoologist Leuckart. Elie received +this counsel with enthusiasm, but there was a great +difficulty, which was the lack of money to prolong<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +his stay abroad. He did not wish to ask for more +from his parents and decided on the following plan, +which he expounded in the following letter to his +mother, the constant confidante of all his aspirations:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="small-right"> +<span class="smcap">Heligoland</span>, <i>Aug. 12, 1864</i>. +</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dear Mamma</span>, ... I am thinking of staying here another +month, after which I shall go (at least that is my desire) for ten +days to Giessen, where there will be a General Congress of naturalists +and physicians from the whole of Europe. This Congress +tempts me so much that I want to do my utmost to attend it.</p> + +<p>Besides all the scientific benefit that I shall reap from +conversations with scientists, I can also study Professor +Leuckart’s rich collections. This would complete the studies +which I am successfully pursuing at the seaside.</p> + +<p>In order to realise my ardent wish to profit by such treasures, +I must remain three weeks longer at Heligoland, travel to +Giessen and live there for ten days; all that out of the money +which was to keep me here until the 26 Aug. only.... +Therefore, instead of living in the hotel, I have taken a room +at a fisherman’s, for half the price; instead of a dinner and +coffee I eat what I can get and I only spend 90 centimes a +day for my food. (Food is dear, as all the provisions come +from Hamburg and from England.) Instead of changing my +linen two or three times a week, I only do so once or twice, +which allows me to spend less on laundry.</p> + +<p>The money thus economised, together with the sum which +I had put aside for my first installation at Petersburg, constitutes +a sufficient capital to provide the following joys and +advantages: 1°, I shall stay three weeks longer at the seaside, +which will allow me to get on with my researches and to +increase my collections; 2°, I shall attend the Congress; 3°, +I shall be able to study Leuckart’s collections and take advantage +of his books and counsel.</p> + +<p>I beseech you not to look upon this description of my +present life as a complaint or a murmur; on the contrary I +am delighted to procure so many advantages at so small a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +cost; I am happy, too, to be able to assure you in all conscience +that I am not wasting the money that you have found for me +with so much care and affection. I only wish I could find +myself oftener in the same conditions.</p> + +<p>Please also believe that my health is in no way suffering +from my work. I give you my word that until now I have not +had a single headache.</p> + +<p>Moreover, I do not think work is at all detrimental to +health; I see here several German scientists who could fell +an ox with their fist! Altogether I beseech you not to be +anxious on my account; you have quite enough painful preoccupations +without that, and I am in such excellent circumstances +that there really is nothing to worry about. I kiss +your hands many times.</p> + +<p class="valediction"> +Yours affectionately, +</p> +<p class="small-right"> +<span class="smcap">Elie Metchnikoff</span>. +</p> + +<p><i>P.S.</i>—Write to me oftener. Every word from you is so +precious to me!</p> +</div> + +<p>He did not tell his mother that he never had +enough to eat. Neither did he wish Cohn and his +other acquaintances at Heligoland to notice it, and +he carefully concealed his style of living.</p> + +<p>He went to Giessen for the opening of the Naturalists’ +Congress and read with success two papers +dealing with his researches at Heligoland. Engelmann +(who was to become well known as a physiologist) +and he were the youngest members of the +Congress, and their extreme youth attracted general +attention. Elie at last made Leuckart’s acquaintance; +he was charmed by him and definitely decided +to begin at once to work under his direction, and, as +his stay abroad had thus to be prolonged, he asked +and obtained a <i>bursa</i> from the Russian Ministry of +Public Education.</p> + +<p>The results of his researches at Heligoland had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +led him to suppose that the Nematodes (of the worm +type) formed an independent group; he now proposed +to settle that question. Leuckart allowed him +to work in his laboratory during his absence for the +holidays; Elie immediately set to work and discovered +a very curious and quite novel case of alternation +of generations; hermaphrodite and parasitic +Nematodes giving birth to a free bisexual generation.</p> + +<p>Delighted with his discovery, he hastened to communicate +it to Leuckart, who was incredulous at first +but had to give way to evidence when Elie showed +him all the intermediary stages. Still the German +scientist was obviously annoyed that this discovery +should have been made in his absence and independently +from him. He proposed to the young +man that they should continue researches in collaboration +and publish a joint memoir. Elie accepted +joyfully. In his ardour he worked too much, and +fatigued his eyesight so that he was forced to limit +his microscopical researches to a few hours a day, and +Leuckart advised him to take a rest.</p> + +<p>It happened that Elie’s brother Leo had just settled +in Geneva and invited him to stay with him; Elie +started to join him. The brothers had not met for a +long time. Leo had been travelling and had resided +in many different places. He was an extraordinarily +gifted man, impulsive, brilliant, and artistic, but restless +and incapable of adhering to a steady course of +action; he scattered his activities and did not therefore +produce all that his rich nature was capable of. +He had a remarkable gift for languages; he knew not +only a number of European languages but also several +Oriental languages, having been in the East, where he +had occupied a post of agent in navigation and commerce.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +He afterwards lived in Italy, took an active +part in the Garibaldi movement and was wounded. +A clever painter, he also had real literary talent; +handsome, witty, agreeable, he was a most attractive +personality. Elie had great affection for him.</p> + +<p>He found him surrounded with young men and +studying a map. They were discussing the acquisition +of a piece of ground in Italy in order to found +a socialistic community, and Leo, who knew the +country, was to choose the locality. Elie was at once +made acquainted with the political questions of the +day; the young scientist was unfavourably impressed, +for the whole reduced itself to party questions and +dogmatic discussions founded on hollow grounds. +Accustomed as he already was to positive scientific +methods, vague and arbitrary theories could not +satisfy him.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, he was deeply impressed by +the personality of the celebrated socialistic Russian +writer, Herzen, who resided in Geneva at that time. +The young revolutionaries considered him as too +literary and too much of a theoretician; they themselves +yearned for a direct-action policy. Leo Metchnikoff, +however, admired him fervently. Meetings +often took place in Herzen’s rooms; he used to read +to his guests with wonderful effect his yet unpublished +manuscript <i>Passé et pensées</i>. A great and powerful +figure, the superiority of his intelligence was almost +crushing, while his sparkling wit and the nobility of +his whole being endowed him with an incomparable +and irresistible personal charm. Metchnikoff often +said that no man had left a deeper impression on his +life. As a politician, however, he had not the same +prestige in his sight.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p> + +<p>This sojourn in a revolutionary centre interested +him much, but had the result of confirming his conviction +that science was immeasurably superior to +politics, and he congratulated himself on the path he +had chosen. After he had rested, he started to return +to Giessen and stopped at Heidelberg, a centre for +Russian students who gathered around Helmholtz, +Virchow, and Bunsen. He hurried to the library in +order to see scientific periodicals; one of the first that +came under his eyes was a number of the <i>Göttingen +News</i>, containing a memoir by Leuckart on the Nematodes +which they had studied together; Leuckart +described, in his own name, their common researches +and also those personal to the young man, whom he +only mentioned incidentally. Elie was shocked and +indignant. On his return to Giessen he tried to obtain +an explanation from Leuckart but in vain; the latter +eluded his questions and gave him no answer.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> + +<p>In his despair, the youth confided in Claus, a professor +of zoology whose acquaintance he had made +at the Congress, who told him that Leuckart was in +the habit of such dealings, and urged Elie, as an independent +stranger, to reveal the fact. He pressed this +with so much insistence that Elie ended in following +his advice; he sent an article stating the case to +Dubois-Reymond’s journal. He then departed from +Giessen without taking leave of Leuckart.</p> + +<p>Having had a <i>bursa</i> of 1600 roubles a year granted +him for two years by the Russian Ministry of Public +Instruction, he was able to undertake a journey to +the shores of the Mediterranean in order to pursue +his researches.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p> + +<p>He had heard of a very talented young zoologist, +Alexander Kovalevsky, who also knew him by hearsay +and had written him a letter full of enthusiasm concerning +the rich Mediterranean fauna and the facilities +for work in Italy. He therefore went to Naples on +leaving Giessen. Though the journey in itself had +but a secondary attraction for him, he had expected +to receive a strong impression; but his imagination +had painted such grandiose pictures of the country +that he had to cross, that the reality disappointed +him, and Italy, like Switzerland on a former occasion, +fell very far short of his expectations. He stopped +at Florence, which made but a poor impression +on him. Museums fatigued him, for he saw a great +deal too many works of art all at once without +any previous preparation. Architecture and the +plastic arts in general did not take any hold of him. +During his rapid journey he only saw the country +quite superficially and had no time to become impregnated +with its beauty. He therefore hastened +towards Naples, where his work and Kovalevsky +attracted him far more.</p> + +<p>He found in Kovalevsky a young man with shy +but cordial manners and the clear sweet eyes of a +pure child, obviously an idealist. He had for science +an absolute cult, the sacred fire of the worshipper; +no sacrifice was too great, no difficulty too repellent +for his ardour. On a closer acquaintance, the small, +timid young man proved to be a hard fighter where +science was concerned. The two young men formed +an excellent impression of each other, and a friendship +was started between them which was to last a lifetime. +Though very different from each other, they +met on common ground, a passion for science. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +worked with the greatest energy, going together on +zoological excursions, exchanging their ideas, discussing +their aspirations; a similarity of tastes lent +great attraction to their friendship.</p> + +<p>At Giessen, Elie had read Fritz Müller’s <i>For +Darwin</i>, a book which had a decisive influence on the +future direction of his researches. Fritz Müller, in his +embryological works on certain crustaceans, had been +the first to confirm in a concrete manner Darwin’s +evolutionist theories; he had thus demonstrated that +it was chiefly in embryology that precious indications +were to be found concerning the genealogy of organisms.<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> +Under the influence of this work, Elie, who +until now had limited himself to introductory researches, +resolved to concentrate all his efforts on the +comparative embryology of animals. He started to +work in that direction, and his researches confirmed +him more and more in the opinion that the key of +animal evolution and genealogy was to be sought for +in the most primitive stages, in those simple phases +of development where no secondary element has yet +been introduced from external conditions. In those +primordial stages, essential characters, common to +all, reveal the analogy and connections between +animals from different groups.</p> + +<p>Every animal begins by being <i>unicellular</i>, for the +egg-cell, the reproducing cell, common to all, corresponds +to a unicellular being. It is only after fecundation, +when it has become an ovum, that this first +cell evolves by dividing itself into consecutive +segments, each of which is a new cell. This phenomenon +is analogous with the multiplication of unicellular<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +beings through division; only, those segments +of the ovum do not separate but constitute a whole +under the aspect of a hollow sphere, called a <i>blastula</i>, +which is the first manifestation of a multicellular +being. This blastula is formed of superposed layers, +each of which gives birth to specialised organs in the +embryo. The outside layer, or <i>ectoderm</i>, produces +teguments and the nervous system; the internal layer, +or <i>endoderm</i>, gives birth to endothelial cells, the digestive +and internal organs; between those two layers comes +a third, intermediary layer, the <i>mesoderm</i>, from which +the skeleton is developed and also the muscle and +blood tissues.</p> + +<p>The evolution of these layers in Vertebrates was +well known, but very little so in Invertebrates, though +it is only through the development of inferior forms +that the origin and general evolution of living beings +can be elucidated. That is why, during many years, +the principal theme of Metchnikoff’s researches was +the comparative study of the embryonic layers of +inferior animals and the ulterior fate of their constituting +elements. By following this train of thought, +he was able to demonstrate that the development of +lower animals takes place on the same plan and +follows the same laws as that of higher animals; +thus, that there is a real communion between all +living beings, which is the concrete confirmation of +the theory of evolution.</p> + +<p>By their work, Kovalevsky and Metchnikoff contributed +to the foundation of Comparative Embryology. +The comparative study of cells produced from +the divers embryonic layers, and observations on the +ulterior development of the functions of those cells, +gradually led Metchnikoff to his theory of phagocytes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +and to pathological biology. An uninterrupted thread +can be followed right through his life-work, from the +beginning until the end.</p> + +<p>In spite of his absorbing work he took great +interest in his surroundings, and during this first stay +in Italy he became acquainted with two interesting +personalities, Bakounine the anarchist and the celebrated +physiologist Setchénoff. Both resided at +Sorrento. Kovalevsky and Metchnikoff, who greatly +desired to know them, decided to call on them, after +much hesitation.</p> + +<p>Bakounine, a giant with a leonine head and a +thick mane of grey hair, struck them as being a fiery +enthusiast but an intolerant sectarian, easily roused; +for instance, any small and unimportant local meeting +was enough for him to predict an imminent revolution +in Russia. His theories were epitomised in these +words, “We must not leave stone upon stone”; but +when asked what should be built up on those ruins +he could only say, “We shall see later.” Elie looked +upon him as a force powerful by its fire and vitality, +but thought his mind neither judicial nor profound.</p> + +<p>Very different was the impression produced on +him by Setchénoff. He carried great weight through +the depth of his intelligence, his persuasive eloquence +and general thoroughness. He was of a Mongol type +and his features were plain, but his splendid eyes, +deep and intelligent, shrewd and yet kindly, illumined +his face with an unforgettable inward beauty. When +Elie went to see him, it was with the uneasy feeling +that his own knowledge of chemistry and physics was +very restricted, having been very superficially acquired +during his rapid passage through the University. +In spite of this cause for bashfulness, a mental compact<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +and exchange of ideas was immediately established +between the two, and a sympathy was born +between them which developed into a lifelong friendship. +Elie expatiated upon his plans for the study of +the embryology of inferior animals from the evolution +point of view, and received from the older scientist +much encouragement, for which he never ceased to +be grateful.</p> + +<p>He worked a great deal during this first stay at +Naples, in spite of periods of great fatigue. As a +relaxation, he plunged into philosophical reading. +After Kovalevsky’s departure, he joined Bakounine’s +circle, the members of which took their meals in a +restaurant which rejoiced in the sonorous name of +<i>Trattoria della Harmonia</i>. In the autumn of the year +1865, a cholera epidemic broke out in Naples. Every +one was nervous and depressed, and this general +depression was increased still more by some of the +customs of the country—continuous lugubrious +church bells, funeral processions in which penitents +took part, carrying smoking torches and wearing +hoods over their heads with holes for their eyes, etc. +Elie, on whom the epidemic had made a great impression, +was even more disturbed by the death of one of +the members of their little circle, a popular Englishwoman, +liked by everybody. She had no fear of +cholera and was bright and merry. But one day she +did not come to the <i>Trattoria della Harmonia</i>; she had +been struck by the scourge and was dead the next day.</p> + +<p>Elie was so struck by her death that his nerves, +already very tense, gave way and he left Naples, being, +moreover, worn out with overwork.</p> + +<p>He started for Göttingen, for he wanted to begin the +study of Vertebrates under the direction of Professor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +Keferstein. Keferstein straightway gave him a valuable +lizard specimen to anatomise. Elie was not +good at technique, on account of his nervous temperament; +he used occasionally to lose his patience +and his temper, to that point that he flung his material +across the room. It happened so on this occasion; +having completely wasted the valuable lizard, he conceived +a still greater horror of technique and soon left +Professor Keferstein for Henle, the celebrated anatomist. +He worked with him for a short time at the +histology of frogs’ kidneys, a subject chosen by the +Professor. Soon the young man realised that he was +no longer capable of submitting to school discipline +and resumed his independent researches. When he +had to do with those problems which absorbed him +he was always able to conquer his aversion for technique +and to do what was required. He studied the +embryology of the green-fly from the genealogical point +of view, and went to Munich for the summer term +in order to work with the celebrated zoologist von +Siebold, a typical and venerable old German scientist. +The latter was too old already to be troubled with +pupils, and Elie studied his insect embryology independently; +however, he visited the old man assiduously, +and they had long scientific conversations. Their +relations were always extremely cordial, and they +even kept up a regular correspondence for many years.</p> + +<p>During his stay in Germany, music was the young +man’s only recreation. He did not play any instrument; +his parents, discouraged by the failure of their +elder children, had not had him taught, and besides, +his precocious vocation would have left him no time. +Yet he certainly had a natural talent for music, which +he passionately loved. He could only whistle, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +with that feeble means succeeded in reproducing complicated +compositions. Having assiduously attended +excellent concerts, he had made himself thoroughly +acquainted with classical music, and Beethoven and +Mozart always remained his favourite composers. +His stay in Germany taught him to appreciate the +great capacity for work of the scientists of that +country; he admired the organisation of their laboratories, +allowing every force, great or small, to be +utilised and making useful collective work possible +in those complicated researches which demand the +collaboration of divers specialists. On the other hand, +he felt a great aversion for the manners and customs +of German students. Their corporations, duels, and +long sittings in beer-houses were distasteful to him; +he could not understand how these coarse “Burschen” +could become transformed into cultivated intellectuals +and respectable scientists. People to whom he +expressed this wonder merely said, “Youth must +have its fling....” Moreover, scientists themselves +were not particularly courteous to each other. More +than anywhere else personal questions held a foremost +place, and kindliness was rare between colleagues.</p> + +<p>After staying some time in Munich, Elie returned +to Naples, war having broken out between Northern +and Southern Germany. This time, in order to spend +less on the journey, he took a steamer at Genoa, but +with fatal results, for a storm was raging; he suffered +a great deal, and, when he reached Naples, violent fits +of giddiness made him incapable of doing any work at +all for some time. Cholera reappeared, and the landlady +of the rooms he shared with Kovalevsky died of +it. Much depressed, the two started for Ischia, but +Elie soon realised with terror that he was not yet well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +enough to work; in order to recover quickly, he went +to Cava, a pretty little place, renowned for its salubrious +climate.</p> + +<p>There he met Bakounine again, and they saw a +good deal of each other in a friendly way. Bakounine +nicknamed him “Mamma” because of his almost +maternal attentions, a nickname which, for the same +reason, was given him later, quite independently, by +other intimates. Yet, though their relations were +cordial and even affectionate, there was not really +much in common between the two. Elie thought +Bakounine’s ideas superficial, and disliked his sectarian +mentality; they ultimately drifted apart.</p> + +<p>His health having gradually recovered owing to the +rest, he returned to Naples in the autumn, after the +epidemic had abated, and at last resumed his work.</p> + +<p>Whilst studying the history of the development of +Cephalopoda he found that they had embryonic +layers similar to those of Vertebrates; this was the +first time that the fact was established. It was extremely +important, for it constituted a concrete and +indisputable proof of the existence of a genetic +connection between inferior and superior animals. +Metchnikoff chose this subject for his thesis, and, +having completed his researches, he returned to +Russia in 1867.</p> + +<p>By this time he had made great use of his three +years’ stay abroad. Though he had not showed +himself a docile pupil, yet he had become initiated +into the organisation of scientific work in Germany; +he had carried out independent researches and had +been able to choose with full knowledge the future +path of investigations which he was to pursue for +many years in the field of Comparative Embryology.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p> + +<p>Already the observations he had made had in +themselves a real importance. For instance, his +studies in divers specimens of the worm type, a type +which offers very heterogeneous forms, had permitted +him to establish links of continuity between certain +groups among them. Whilst studying those animals +at Giessen in 1865, he had discovered the capital fact +which proved to be the starting-point of all his future +work—the <i>intercellular digestion</i> of an inferior worm, +a land planarian, the <i>Geodesmus bilineatus</i>. He had +compared this digestion with that of the superior +Infusoria and had seen in it one more proof of the +genetic connection between the type of the Protozoa +and that of worms.</p> + +<p>He did not then realise the full bearing of this +observation, which really constituted the basis of his +future phagocyte theory; this was only to appear +eighteen years later.</p> + +<p>He had also made researches on numerous specimens +of insects and on the scorpion, establishing the +fact that they all had embryonic layers; he concluded +that he was “entitled to extend the theory of embryonic +layers to Arthropoda.”</p> + +<p>Finally, he had discovered embryonic layers similar +to those of the Vertebrates in inferior Invertebrates, +the Cephalopoda (Sepiola). This established a link +of continuity between the higher and lower animals.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Petersburg — Baer prize — Return home — Friendship with Cienkovsky — Odessa — Naturalists’ +Congress at Petersburg — Departure from Odessa — Zoological +Lecturer’s Chair at Petersburg — Messina — Enforced +rest — Reggio — Naples — Controversy with Kovalevsky — Visit +to the B. family — Mlle. Fédorovitch — Educational questions — Difficulties +of life in Petersburg.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">During</span> his stay abroad, Metchnikoff had successfully +carried out several researches, and this allowed him +to apply for a post of <i>docent</i> at the new University of +Odessa, which he had chosen on account of its proximity +with the sea and its marine fauna. Whilst +awaiting the result he went to Petersburg in order to +pass his thesis and to prepare himself to become a +professor. He received a pleasant welcome, for his +lively and sociable disposition had made him many +friends. The brothers Kovalevsky, with whom he was +already on friendly terms, offered him hospitality; +he also made the acquaintance of Professor Békétoff, +and soon became a member of his family circle.</p> + +<p>He was well received everywhere, for his scientific +precocity excited general interest. He was even +elected <i>magister</i><a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> by the Faculty, without having to +pass an examination, on account of the work he had +done. He and Kovalevsky halved Baer’s first prize, +and they were invited and treated with the utmost +kindness by Baer himself. Metchnikoff had certainly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +entered upon a successful phase; his friends nicknamed +him “the star.” As soon as he was made a +<i>magister</i>, he received his appointment at the Odessa +University, and, the holidays drawing near, he was at +last able to return to his home. Needless to say how +joyfully and lovingly he was received by his family. +He spent two months with them, utilising his leisure in +preparing himself to teach.</p> + +<p>In his hurry to arrive in Odessa in good time in +order to take his bearings before starting his lectures, +he went there much too soon and found nobody at +the University; he then decided to go to the Crimea +for some preliminary studies on the fauna of the Black +Sea. Before long, he made the acquaintance of the +celebrated botanist Cienkovsky, who invited him to +stay in his villa. Though the scientist was already +46 years old and Elie only 22, they soon became fast +friends. Cienkovsky was a man of great European +culture; passionately fond of science as he was, his +critical mind submitted everything to a close analysis. +He took great interest in young Metchnikoff and +showed him a marked predilection, but that did not +prevent him from criticising him severely. He reproached +him with a lack of self-control, and undertook +the paternal task of civilising the impulsive, fiery, +sometimes even violent young man. He preached +to him tolerance towards the opinions of others, a +strict self-discipline, and the absolute necessity of +bowing to certain social conventions against which +Elie blindly rebelled. Cienkovsky acquired great +prestige in his young friend’s eyes; years later, even, +Metchnikoff took pleasure in quoting his axioms and +in trying to conform with them.</p> + +<p>He worked with ardour during his stay in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +Crimea; though the heat was great, 50° C. (122° F.) +in the sun, he undertook zoological excursions +and surprised every one by his endurance and +energy.</p> + +<p>At the end of the holidays, he returned to Odessa +and began his professorate with much zeal and +success. His lucid, living lectures stimulated his +pupils, third-year students, who were all older than +himself. Friendly relations soon reigned between +them and their young lecturer; he organised practical +studies, and his laboratory became a very active +centre of work.</p> + +<p>Thus everything was going well, and perhaps he +might have remained at Odessa for a long time if it +had not been for the following incident, due to his +passionate and intolerant disposition. A Congress of +Russian naturalists was to take place in Petersburg +at the end of the year 1867. Elie eagerly wished to +attend it as a delegate and took steps for that purpose; +this brought him into conflict with his chief, who +desired the mission for himself. Knowing that the +old Professor had no real scientific interests, Elie +thought himself justified in insisting, and counted +upon Cienkovsky’s support, but the latter was of +opinion that the younger man should give way. Elie, +becoming more and more excited, lost all sense of +proportion and committed the grave error of telling +his pupils about what he considered a serious injustice. +The latter, out of sympathy for their young lecturer, +hooted the old Professor, which naturally embittered +the quarrel. However, all the agitation ended in both +zoologists being sent to the Congress in the quality of +delegates.</p> + +<p>When he reached Petersburg, Elie hurried to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +house of his friends B——, who received him with +open arms; it was a great joy to him to find himself +in friendly surroundings after the recent strife. Impulsive +and impressionable as he was, the disagreeable +incidents he had traversed made him yearn to +leave Odessa, a desire which was to be promptly +realised. His communications had great success at +the Congress; the President even invited him to +read a paper at the general meeting; but, +though strongly attracted by this proposal, which would +have allowed the young scientist to expose his ideas +on the comparative development of the embryonic +layers, he refused it, considering that that complicated +question was not yet sufficiently matured.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, the Congress had brought him into +prominence and was the cause of his obtaining a +Professorship of Zoology at Petersburg. Moreover, +he had the additional good fortune of being given a +scientific mission and went abroad to work until the +autumn term.</p> + +<p>He went to Naples in the spring of 1868, thinking +to find Kovalevsky there, instead of which he found +a letter from his friend awaiting him. The latter had +had to go to Messina for urgent embryological work +and begged Elie to look after his wife and new-born +child. Metchnikoff did so most willingly until he was +able to send them off to Messina. He himself followed +soon after, for Kovalevsky wrote him that zoological +specimens and conditions of work were far better at +Messina than Naples. This time, Metchnikoff undertook +the study of Sponges and Echinodermata. The +two friends worked unceasingly, but Elie’s sight was +too weak for such excessive fatigue; he was again obliged +to interrupt his studies for a while, and during<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +that period of enforced rest he felt for the first time +the need of a sentimental affection in his life.</p> + +<p>He dreamed of a helpmeet who would conform with +his tastes. At Petersburg he had become very fond +of Professor B.’s young daughters, the eldest of whom +was about thirteen years old, and he wondered if he +could not train one of those little girls to become the +realisation of his ideal. He was too active by nature, +however, to linger very long over reveries or over +a prolonged rest; he therefore undertook a short +journey through Reggio and Calabria, on his way +towards Naples.</p> + +<p>His eyesight being now restored, he began work +again as soon as he arrived. This period, however, +was not a pleasant one: to begin with, he obtained +in the study of Ascidia a result which differed considerably +from that obtained by Kovalevsky,<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> and +this scientific controversy grieved and preoccupied +them both. Besides, Elie’s nerves suffered from his +constant anxiety about his eyes, the tropical heat and +the noisy life of Naples. Incessant serenades used to +keep him awake at night, and, on one occasion, his +exasperation reached such a point that he poured a +bucket of water over the head of some persistent +musicians. Tired with all these things, he left Naples +for Trieste, where he carried out successful researches +into the transformations of Echinodermata, from the +point of view of Comparative Embryology and genetic +connections between inferior animals.</p> + +<p>Having obtained results which interested him, he +returned to Russia and joined the B. family in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +country, near Moscow. Their young friend Mlle. +Fédorovitch, whom he had already met in Petersburg, +was staying with them, and she and Elie became very +good friends. His affection for the B. children led +him to ponder over general educational questions. +He was struck for the first time by the lack of harmony +in human nature, which was due, he thought, to the +considerable difference between the organism of the +child and that of the adult, a difference which does +not exist in animals to the same degree.<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> As soon +as he returned to Petersburg he tried to study this +subject, and made comparisons between the brain of a +man and that of a dog at various ages, but without +result.</p> + +<p>He was not long in realising that the conditions +of work in his new post were extremely unsatisfactory. +He had no proper laboratory and had to work between +two specimen cases in a non-heated zoological museum; +there was no room for practical work. All his enthusiasm, +all his aspirations towards scientific activity and +rational teaching struck against indifference, lack of +organisation, and lack of means. He protested with +his usual vehemence, but could obtain nothing; being +equally unable to adapt himself to his uncongenial +surroundings, he found himself getting more and more +discontented and unnerved. Moreover, his everyday +life was most uncomfortable, for he wished to do +without servants, on principle and in order to economise, +and to do his household work himself; but he +soon tired of taking the necessary care of his rooms, +which became a regular chaos. He left off preparing +his own meals and went out for them to an inferior<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +restaurant in the neighbourhood. Yet, in spite of +all his efforts and privations, he never seemed to make +both ends meet. He resigned himself to giving lessons +at the School of Mines in order to increase his resources; +the school was a long way off, he had to walk the +distance in the coldest weather in order to lecture +to students who did not interest him. The work +wearied him without giving him any moral compensation. +Altogether, the life in Petersburg, on which +he had founded great hopes, brought him nothing +but disappointments and made him become more +and more pessimistic and misanthropical.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Slight illness — Engagement to Mlle. Fédorovitch — Marriage — Illness +of the bride — Pecuniary difficulties — Spezzia — Montreux — Work in +Petersburg University — The Riviera — Cœlomata and Acœlomata — St. +Vaast — Panassovka — Madeira — Mertens — Teneriffe — Return +to Odessa — Bad news, hurried journey to Madeira — Death of his +wife — Return through Spain — Attempted suicide — Ephemeridæ.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">It</span> was only in the house of his friends the B.’s that +Elie felt at his ease. He was devotedly fond of +their children, whom he used to take for walks on +Sundays and to the theatre now and then; he was +always ready to read to them and to indulge them in +every possible way.</p> + +<p>He continued to entertain the dream of marrying +one of them some day, and was particularly interested +in the eldest, a girl of thirteen, intelligent, gifted, and +lively; however, as he knew her better, he realised +the incompatibility of their respective tempers, an +incompatibility which brought about frequent disputes. +These were generally smoothed down by a +mutual friend, Mlle. Fédorovitch, who invariably +showed Elie a marked and cordial sympathy. He +became ill at this juncture and she nursed him with +a devotion which brought them together even more, +as will be seen from the following letter to his mother:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dear Mother</span>—I have just had an inflammation of the +throat which lasted two weeks; it is quite gone now and I +would not even have mentioned it to you if it had not been +connected with what follows.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p> + +<p>When I fell ill, the B.’s, knowing me to be alone and uncared +for, brought me to their house. During my stay with them, +I acquired the conviction that my darling little girls did not +love me, especially the eldest, who interested me even more +than her three sisters.... The dreams I told you of have +vanished!</p> + +<p>It was a grief to me, for, apart from my scientific interests, +I cherished them more than anything. I have no acquaintances +and do not require any, but I long to have some one +with me to whom I could become attached and who could +share my pleasures and leisure.</p> + +<p>My grief would have been greater still if I had not seen +that Ludmilla Fédorovitch, whom I mentioned to you this +summer, showed me much sympathy in all my troubles.</p> + +<p>We were already very good friends, and have now drawn +nearer together; who knows? perhaps the 800 roubles which +are going to be added to my salary will be very useful.</p> + +<p>I will keep you informed of everything, dear Mother, for +I am sure of your sympathy; I love you better than the whole +world and I have full confidence in you.</p> + +<p>Au revoir, dear Mother, I kiss your hands.—Your</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +<span class="smcap">Elie Metchnikoff</span>. +</p> +</div> + +<p>Mlle. Fédorovitch became ill in her turn; the +sympathy which Elie showed her on this occasion +brought them still nearer to each other, and he soon +decided to marry her. He informed his mother of +this; much alarmed, she tried to dissuade him, for +she feared that by marrying a girl in delicate health, +her son would be assuming too heavy a task in his +difficult circumstances.</p> + +<p>He answered as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>I received your letter to-day, dear Mother. It grieves +me very much. My project inspires you with doubt, you +counsel prudence and, though you say you believe me to be +reasonable, yet you fear that I am acting on an impulse. If +I really am reasonable, why fear a blind impulse? On the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +other hand, if I am blindly carried away, it is not likely that +I shall listen to reason.</p> + +<p>I did tell you that I had great affection for the B. girls, +and it was true. But did I ever tell you that they had the +same for me? You are mistaken in thinking that I did not +like Ludmilla Fédorovitch at first. I was not in love with +her but we were very good friends, and whilst I did not consider +her as my feminine ideal, I was sure of her absolutely +honest, loyal, and kindly disposition. The very fact that I +knew Ludmilla for a long time before I thought of marrying +her, should prove to you that there is some chance of my +being neither blind nor partial.</p> + +<p>Her love for me is beyond doubt, as you will see when you +know her.</p> + +<p>I also am very fond of her, and that is a solid basis for +future happiness.</p> + +<p>Yet I will not answer for it that we shall spend our life +like a pair of turtledoves. A rosy, boundless beatitude forms +no part of my conception of the distant future.</p> + +<p>Yet I do not see the necessity of waiting till I become a +thorough misanthrope, and I am already inclined that way.</p> + +<p>Please do not believe that, if I do not dream of a rosy +happiness it is that I feel none at all; that is not the case; +I am in a happy medium.</p> + +<p>I like Ludmilla and I feel comfortable with her; but at +the same time I preserve the faculty of feeling every trouble +and worry in life. I do not at all think that it is enough +to love in order to be happy. Therefore I have begun to take +steps to obtain a Professor’s chair, and I am very desirous +of being successful in that financial operation.</p> +</div> + +<p>Soon after that, he wrote the following letter to his mother:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dear Mother</span>—In my last letter I had already spoken +to you of Ludmilla Fédorovitch. I can now give you information +about her which will surely interest you.</p> + +<p>She is not bad-looking, but that is all. She has fine +hair; her complexion is not pretty. We are about the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +age, she is a little over 23. She was born at Orenburg; then +she lived for a long time with her family at Kiahta (Siberia), +after which she was abroad for nearly two years and finally +settled in Moscow. Ludmilla, or Lussia, was, as you remember, +a very zealous intermediary between me and the B. girls to +whom I was so attached.</p> + +<p>She loved me already then, though she said to herself that +I had too much affection for the B. children ever to return +her feelings.</p> + +<p>And she was perfectly right, as long as my affection for +those children lasted.</p> + +<p>But, when it ceased, I naturally took more notice of Lussia’s +sympathy for me, and I am not surprised that I have acquired +much affection for her.</p> + +<p>She has faults which must seem graver to me than to you, +but what is to be done?</p> + +<p>Fortunately she herself sees them. The greatest of her +faults is a too great placidity, a lack of vivacity and initiative; +she adapts herself too easily to her surroundings. But, +being placid, she is also firm; she can bear a great deal whilst +preserving complete self-control. She is extremely kind and +good-natured; I have not yet found a vulgar trait in her +character.</p> + +<p>I have told you of her faults, you must therefore not +think me partial if I find qualities in her.</p> + +<p>The fact is—and I cannot forget it—that always, when I +had any kind of trouble, she soothed me by her attitude +towards me.</p> + +<p>Even though I have dark previsions for the future (as you +know, I am not given to seeing life through rose-coloured +glasses), I cannot help thinking that by living with Lussia +I should become calmer, at least for a fairly long time.</p> + +<p>I should cease to suffer from the misanthropy which has +invaded me lately.</p> + +<p>I intend to have no children—it is an embryologist who +is speaking. On the contrary, I want to preserve the utmost +liberty. Nevertheless, one must conform with certain legal +conventions, which will probably take place in January.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p> + +<p>Lussia has no fortune, but we shall be entirely guaranteed +by the increase in my salary.</p> + +<p>It is very regrettable that the event should be retarded by +the customary formalities; in any case it will certainly end +by taking place.</p> + +<p>I beg you to write to me, dear mother that I love, anything +that comes into your head <i>à propos</i> of my affair.</p> + +<p>Rejoice that I am now very happy and wish that it may +last.</p> + +<p>I ask the same of Papa, whom I beg you to salute from me. +I embrace you, dear Mamma, and I remain your very affectionate +son,</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +<span class="smcap">E. Metchnikoff</span>. +</p> +</div> + +<p>As Elie learnt to know his fiancée better, he became +more and more attached to her. Their happiness +seemed likely to be complete, but a cruel Fate had +decided otherwise. The girl’s health was not improving: +her supposed bronchitis was assuming a +chronic character. Yet the marriage was not postponed, +and the bride had to be carried to the church +in a chair for the ceremony, being too breathless and +too weak to walk so far.</p> + +<p>Elie did his utmost to procure comforts for his wife, +and hoped that she could still be saved by care and +a rational treatment. It was the beginning of an +hourly struggle against disease and poverty; his +means being insufficient, he tried to eke them out by +writing translations. His eyesight weakened again +from overwork, and it was with atropin in his eyes +that he sat up night after night, translating. There +was but one well-lighted room in his flat, and he +turned it into a small laboratory for the use of his +pupils; his own researches he had to give up, his time +being entirely taken up by teaching and translations.</p> + +<p>He hid his precarious position from his parents +in order not to add to their heavy expenses nor to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +confirm their previsions concerning his marriage. His +wife’s illness, the impossibility of carrying on scientific +work, the lack of friendly sympathy to which he +thought himself entitled, all this weighed on him, +making him bitter, suspicious, and distrustful; he +thought himself persecuted. The situation became +intolerable and, in spite of his pride, he forced himself +to apply for a subsidy to take his wife abroad +and to go on with his researches. Having obtained +it in 1869, he immediately left Petersburg, which he +now hated.</p> + +<p>Youth is elastic: the young couple started full +of joy, gay as children, and ready to forget all their +trials. Alas, it was not for long: having halted at +Vilna in order that the patient should have a rest, +she had an attack of hæmorrhage of the lungs, to the +great alarm of her husband, who nevertheless did his +best to reassure her. They continued the journey as +soon as her condition allowed it, only to be interrupted +by another relapse. At last they reached Spezzia, +chosen on account of the climate and the marine fauna.</p> + +<p>Little by little, Ludmilla Metchnikoff’s health improved +and her husband was able to resume work. +He studied aquatic animals in view of the genealogy +of inferior groups, and, amongst others, studied the +Tornaria, which was believed to be the larva of the +star-fish. However, to his astonishment, he ascertained +that, in spite of great similarity, it was not +the larva of an Echinoderm, but that of one of the +Balanoglossi, of the worm type. This fact established +a link between the Echinodermata and worms, +a very important result from the point of view of +the continuity of animal types.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff felt his courage returning and also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +his natural high spirits. His wife, who was a clever +draughtswoman, helped him with the drawings for +his memoir, and both felt happy and contented; this +stay at Spezzia was a real oasis in their life.</p> + +<p>When the heat became excessive they went to +Reichenhall, a summer resort prescribed by the +doctor. There, Metchnikoff completed his previous +researches on the development of the scorpion, and +finally established the fact that this animal possesses +the three embryonic layers which correspond to those +of the Vertebrates.</p> + +<p>As his young wife’s health was still too precarious +to allow her to spend the winter in Russia, Metchnikoff, +obliged to return to Petersburg, installed her at Montreux +and asked his sister-in-law, Mlle. Fédorovitch, +to stay with her. The enforced separation deeply +grieved the young couple, whose only consolation was +daily correspondence.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff resumed a life of hard work; he was +now an <i>agrégé</i> at the Petersburg University and +had to leave the School of Mines; this diminished his +resources, but at the same time he obtained an extra +salary of 800 roubles as Extraordinary Professor. +His position in the University was nevertheless very +difficult, for his situation was coveted by different +parties with which he had nothing to do. They +wanted it for one of their adherents. His devoted +friend Setchénoff, Professor of Physiology, then thought +of proposing him to the Faculty of Medicine as a +Lecturer in Zoology, and whilst Metchnikoff awaited +the result of his efforts, he obtained leave to go to the +seaside to do research work.</p> + +<p>He joined his wife and took her to San Remo +and to Villafranca. Her health had improved and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +she was even able to take part in his work. He was +engaged in studying Medusæ and Siphonophora, +animals which interested him, not only from the point +of view of the origin of embryonic layers, but also +from that of general morphology, for he was still +pursuing the problem of genetic links between +animals. He had already been able to prove the +presence of embryonic layers in many inferior animals; +moreover, he had found, while studying the metamorphoses +of Echinodermata, the proof that the <i>structural +plan</i>, hitherto considered immutable, could +become transformed in course of development. Thus +the bilateral plan of the larva of Echinoderma becomes +a radial plan in the adult. The structural plan therefore +is not an absolutely differentiating character, +since specimens of the same type can show a different +plan according to their stage of development. One +of the genetic questions still unsolved was that of the +body cavity. Always present in higher animals, it +is totally absent in certain lower groups, such as +Sponges, Polypi, and Medusæ. It was being questioned +whether their dissimilar morphological characters +did not correspond with a duality of origin +separating animals which possessed a body cavity +(Cœlomata) from those which did not (Acœlomata).</p> + +<p>Kovalevsky, it is true, had observed that the +body cavity of many animals (Amphioxus, Sagitta, +Brachiopoda) took its origin in the <i>lateral sacs</i> of the +digestive cavity, sacs which detach themselves from +it in order to form the body cavity. But, in order +to establish a genetic connection between those +animals that have a body cavity and those which +are devoid of it, it was necessary to show the homology +of corresponding organs in both groups.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p> + +<p>Through his researches on the development of +Cœlomata (Echinodermata) on the one hand and +Acœlomata (Ctenophora and Medusæ) on the other, +Metchnikoff succeeded in proving that the lateral sacs +of the digestive cavity which give birth to the body +cavity of the Cœlomata (Echinodermata) correspond +to the canals and vaso-digestive sacs of the Acœlomata +(Ctenophora and Medusæ). The difference +consists in that the latter do not detach themselves +in order to form a body cavity, which is therefore +lacking.</p> + +<p>The result of his researches satisfied Metchnikoff; +moreover, he began to feel again hopeful of his wife’s +recovery. The only dark spot was that Setchénoff’s +efforts had failed. Metchnikoff was not appointed +by the Faculty of Medicine, for it was found advisable +to replace the Chair of Zoology by one on Venereal +Diseases. On the other hand, he was nominated for +the Odessa University, supported by Cienkovsky and +unanimously elected.</p> + +<p>As he only had to go to his new post in the autumn, +he went for the summer to St. Vaast in Normandy +to study Lucernaria; unfortunately the stay was not +a success; the weather was cold and the sea very +rough, which made the Lucernaria impossible to find. +Life conditions were very difficult, all the male population +being at sea and the women being in the fields. +In order not to waste this journey he studied Ascidians, +and found that he had previously been mistaken at +Naples when he thought that the nervous system of +those animals originated from the lower embryonic +layer. Kovalevsky had been right in affirming the +contrary, and Elie hastened to write to tell him so.</p> + +<p>St. Vaast, open to every wind, was not favourable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +to the patient, and Metchnikoff had to take her away. +They went to Russia to stay with her parents and then +to Panassovka. The doctors having advised a course +of treatment by “koumiss,” or fermented mare’s +milk prepared in a special way by the Tartars, Elie +engaged a Tartar servant specially for that purpose, +but in vain. In spite of every treatment, his wife’s +health was steadily growing worse. The cold at St. +Vaast had been followed by such a dry heat in Russia +that, in order to procure a little coolness for the +patient, they had to spread wet sheets around her. +She constantly had high temperatures and frequent +attacks of hæmorrhage. It was obvious that she +must leave Russia, and Metchnikoff, obliged to rejoin +his post at Odessa, asked Mlle. Fédorovitch to go +with her to Montreux.</p> + +<p>The separation was all the harder that all hope of +recovery was beginning to wane. The patient, however, +had been told of the magical effect of Madeira +in cases of tuberculosis, and she clung to the idea as +to a plank of safety. Elie resolved to take her there. +He set to work with renewed ardour in order to obtain +the sum necessary for the journey; in spite of all his +self-denial, his normal resources would not have +sufficed, and he had recourse to translations and +literary articles. He had a theme ready, which he +developed in a paper called <i>Education from the Anthropological +Point of View</i>—in fact a preliminary sketch +of his ideas on the disharmonies in human nature. +In it, he analysed the disharmonies due to the great +difference of development between the child and the +adult: whilst the young of animals are very rapidly +able to imitate the adults and to live like them, the +man-child is incapable of it. His brain, especially in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +civilised races, demands a long period of development +in order to equal that of the adult, whilst certain +instincts in the organism mature, on the contrary, long +before their function is possible. Moreover, a child’s +sensibility is extremely developed whilst his will is +by no means so. These causes provoke suffering and +a series of regrettable consequences.</p> + +<p>Apart from frenzied efforts and unceasing labour, +Metchnikoff was going through a painful moral crisis, +due to the impossibility of making his conduct accord +with his convictions. Party intrigues continued to +be rife at the Odessa University: Poles were being +persecuted by Nationalists; one professor was refused +admission on account of his Polish nationality, and +Cienkovsky resigned by way of protest. Metchnikoff +shared his views and longed to follow his example, +but was prevented by his lack of means and felt it +deeply. It also went against his conscience to ask +for leave as frequently as his wife’s condition made it +necessary.</p> + +<p>She wished to see her parents once again before +going to Madeira, and he took her to Russia for the +last time: she never saw her family again.</p> + +<p>At last they were able to start. The long journey +was very fatiguing, the sea voyage was rough, but, +when she landed in Madeira, the patient thought herself +saved. The very next morning Metchnikoff started +feverishly on a voyage of discovery. Nature on the +island was extremely beautiful; alone the sight of +numerous sick people reminded him of suffering and +death. The words “a flower-decked grave” haunted +his mind, and a growing despondency warned him that +he had nothing to expect from this luxuriant spot. +From the aspect of the rocky coast, beaten by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +waves, he realised that the beach fauna must be very +poor; his only refuge, research work, was likely to be +denied him.</p> + +<p>He was advised to hire a small house, which would +be cheaper than a boarding-house, and he did find +a pretty furnished villa with a garden; it was beyond +his means, but a young Russian named Mertens, who +had been a fellow-traveller, proposed to share it with +them. The arrangement proved highly satisfactory, +and Mertens, at first merely an agreeable neighbour, +became a close friend.</p> + +<p>Before leaving for Madeira, Metchnikoff had +obtained a scientific mission and a subsidy from the +Society of Natural Science Lovers of Moscow, and +felt it a moral obligation to obtain some results. The +scantiness of the marine fauna was a bitter disappointment; +he had to fall back upon what little he found, +and embarked on the study, hitherto unknown, of +the embryology of Myriapoda. But this research +work brought him a new source of torment instead of +satisfaction: he could not master the technique, which +proved to be very difficult, and this irritated him; +his failures disappointed him, made him vexed with +himself; his nerves, already strung to the highest +point by suffering and anxiety, made the disappointment +unbearable. On the other hand, the external +aspect of life formed a striking contrast with the state +of his mind. A wealth of natural beauty, all flowers +and perfumes, in an incomparable site, congenial surroundings +and home comforts formed the frame for +these two young lives, of which one was waning whilst +the other was spent in a useless struggle to save it.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff’s natural pessimism was growing under +the influence of these painful circumstances. His<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +conception of life was a sombre one; he said to himself +that the “disharmonies” of human nature must infallibly +end in a general decadence of humanity. He +set forth his reflections in an article entitled <i>The Time +for Marriage</i>, in which he discussed the following +concrete fact: With the progress of civilisation and +culture, the time for marriage recedes gradually, +whereas puberty remains as early as before; the +result is that the time between puberty and marriage +is becoming longer and longer, and constitutes a +growing period in which there is no harmony. The +statistics of suicides prove that there is a close connection +between them and the period of disharmonies.</p> + +<p>Whilst he worked, his wife tried to make use of +her leisure: she interested herself in poor children, +sketched flowers, read novels ... life flowed peacefully +in spite of the underlying drama.</p> + +<p>Yet the thought that he was not fulfilling his +obligations was intolerable to Metchnikoff. He +thought of resigning and founding a small book-shop +at Madeira in order to be independent and not obliged +to leave his wife, but lack of funds made this plan +impossible. In his search for new resources, he went +to Teneriffe to look for a subject for an article. He +met with several disappointments on this trip; yet +he saw the Villa Orotava, with its celebrated giant +dragon-tree, which had already then been brought +down by a storm. He also visited the Caves of the +Guancios, the primitive inhabitants of the Canary +Islands. Having gathered the necessary observations, +he hastened to return to Madeira, where months passed +without bringing any change.</p> + +<p>The book-shop idea was abandoned as being impracticable +and Metchnikoff had to return to Odessa,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +asking his sister-in-law to come to Madeira in his +place. When she had arrived, he confided the two +girls to Mertens and to the care of the devoted Dr. +Goldschmidt, and went away conscious of the uselessness +of his efforts and more deeply pessimistic than ever.</p> + +<p>When he reached Odessa, in October 1872, he +found there his friend Setchénoff, whom he had previously +proposed for a Physiology Lecturer’s chair, +and whose affection was a great comfort to him at +this sad time. The correspondence between him +and his wife during that period is full of an infinite +tenderness, as if they felt the supreme separation +coming near, and yearned to express their mutual love.</p> + +<p>At the end of January 1873, between two classes, +Metchnikoff received a letter from his sister-in-law +telling him to come in haste if he wished to find his +wife still living. He delivered his lecture like an automaton, +then went to obtain his leave and hurried off. +He accomplished the whole journey without a break. +On arriving at Madeira he found his wife so changed +that he scarcely knew her, and it was only through +sheer force of will that he kept his alarm from her. +She suffered so much that she had to be given morphia +constantly and could no longer leave her bed.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff himself was in very poor health; +his eyes were so sensitive from overwork that he had +to remain in the dark, only going into the garden at +dusk to observe spiders and snails. Time was progressing +slowly and miserably, and bringing nothing +but anxiety as to the means to support this sad +existence. Metchnikoff had hoped to receive the +Baer prize for a zoological work, but did not obtain +it: it was refused on the pretext that his memoir<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +had been presented in manuscript instead of being +printed. In reality, the German party had wished +to give it to a fellow-German.</p> + +<p>A friend of his, who sent him the bad news, offered +to lend him 300 roubles, and Metchnikoff accepted; +he could now think of nothing but holding out till +the end.</p> + +<p>One morning the patient’s condition suddenly +became much worse. The doctor was sent for in a +hurry and declared that it was now a question of a +few hours.... When Metchnikoff went back to his +wife he found her with eyes wide open and so full of +mortal anguish and utter despair that he could bear +it no longer and went out hastily, not to show her +his dismay.</p> + +<p>This was his last impression; he never saw her again.</p> + +<p>Only half conscious, he walked up and down the +drawing-room, opening and closing books without +seeing them, his mind full of disconnected pictures; +he wondered to himself how his family would hear +the news. Time passed without his realising it. +Then his sister-in-law came to tell him that all was +over. This was on the 20th April 1873.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff’s feelings were complex: a mixture +of crushing despair and of relief at the thought that +the terrible agony was at last ended.... During +the whole of the sad first night he sat with his sister-in-law +in a distant room, talking of those things +which are only mentioned in moments such as these. +When Dr. Goldschmidt came in the morning to offer +Metchnikoff his sympathy and help he found him +apparently almost calm. Metchnikoff asked him to +make a post-mortem examination of the deceased +and to look after her sister. A Scottish minister<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +came to bring religious comfort and to exhort him +to look there for consolation. Metchnikoff thanked +him, but firmly assured him that it was not possible +to him.</p> + +<p>The funeral took place two days later; he did not +attend it and did not see the corpse. Immediately +after the funeral he left Madeira with his sister-in-law. +Being no longer anxious to economise, he took with +him a sick young Russian who wished to see his mother +again and could not afford the journey.</p> + +<p>After the catastrophe, Metchnikoff felt incapable +of thinking of the future, his life seemed cut off at one +blow; he destroyed his papers and reserved a phial +of morphia, without any settled intention. They +journeyed back through Spain; it was during the +Carlist insurrection, and several episodes on the way +distracted their attention. Elie and his sister-in-law +reached Geneva, where they found Leo Metchnikoff +and several relations, among whom he seems +to have recovered himself. He even related some of +their travelling experiences, meetings with Carlists, +frontier incidents, etc., with some spirit. But his +apparent calm concealed black despair.</p> + +<p>He said to himself: “Why live? My private +life is ended; my eyes are going; when I am blind +I can no longer work, then why live?” Seeing no +issue to his situation, he absorbed the morphia. He +did not know that too strong a dose, by provoking +vomiting, eliminates the poison. Such was the case +with him. He fell into a sort of torpor, of extraordinary +comfort and absolute rest; in spite of this +comatose state he remained conscious and felt no +fear of death. When he became himself again, it +was with a feeling of dismay. He said to himself that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +only a grave illness could save him, either by ending +in death or by awaking the vital instinct in him. +In order to attain his object, he took a very hot bath +and then exposed himself to cold. As he was coming +back by the Rhone bridge, he suddenly saw a cloud +of winged insects flying around the flame of a lantern. +They were Phryganidæ, but in the distance he took +them for Ephemeridæ, and the sight of them suggested +the following reflection: “How can the theory +of natural selection be applied to these insects? They +do not feed and only live a few hours; they are therefore +not subject to the struggle for existence, they do +not have time to adapt themselves to surrounding +conditions.”</p> + +<p>His thoughts turned towards Science; he was +saved; the link with life was re-established.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Anthropological expedition to the Kalmuk steppes — Affection of the +eyes — Second expedition to the steppes — The eggs of the <i>Geophilus</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">After</span> the misfortune which had befallen him +Metchnikoff placed his only hope in work, and the +condition of his eyes was therefore for him a source +of great preoccupation. He applied to the Petersburg +Geographical Society for an anthropological +mission in order to undertake researches less trying +to his eyesight than microscopical work.</p> + +<p>As he went deeper into anthropology, he was struck +by the fact that this science lacked a leading thread +and was guided by no general idea but reduced to +mere measurements, very precise and detailed, it is +true. Metchnikoff wondered whether it would not +be advisable to apply to anthropology the methods +used in embryology and to establish an analogy +between the diverse human races and the different +ages of the individual. In order to solve this problem +he had thought at first of visiting the Samoyedes +as being the most primitive of the aboriginal peoples +of Russia. But the project was not realisable and he +determined to visit, at his own expense, the Kalmuks +of the Astrakhan steppes, also a primitive Mongol race.</p> + +<p>Before his departure he went to see his family +and that of his late wife. Long afterwards his sister-in-law, +Mlle. Fédorovitch, wrote me the following +account of that interview:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>He was still suffering from an inflammation of the eyes. +This man, whom I cannot picture to myself without a microscope +or a book, was, at that sad period of his life, reduced +to complete inactivity. We had always been struck with +his power of becoming absorbed in scientific reading, even +during meals; it inconvenienced no one, for he heard at +the same time the conversation that was going on and even +took part in it from time to time. Now, the day after his +arrival, I came to call him to tea and found him seated in his +darkened room with scissors in his hands and the floor around +him littered with small pieces of paper ... such was the +occupation to which he was reduced.</p> + +<p>He told me that, if I liked, he would come to live in Moscow +and devote his life and his work to our family. I refused +and told him why; my refusal grieved him, but I was right. +Besides a feeling of generosity, his offer was actuated by a +desire for an immediate object in life. Soon after that, he +started for the Kalmuk steppes in order to undertake anthropological +researches. I was often haunted by the thought of +his sad figure in the midst of the steppes.</p> +</div> + +<p>The journey was difficult and fatiguing. Metchnikoff +did not know the Kalmuk language and had to +depend on interpreters. From the very first he was +painfully impressed by the brutality of the Russian +officials towards the natives. At every halt the +Kalmuks declared that they had no horses; the +Cossack who convoyed Metchnikoff would then begin +to swear and to play with his “nagaika” or leather-thonged +whip, and the required horses appeared as +by magic. After a while Metchnikoff became used +to such scenes and looked upon them as a custom of +the country. He found it more difficult to put up +with the indescribable dirt, the smell of mutton fat +which impregnated the food, and the continual barking +of dogs during the night, details which destroyed the +charm and poetry of primitive life. In spite of these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +unfavourable conditions, Metchnikoff worked indefatigably. +The physical measurements of the Kalmuks +led him to conclude that the development of the +Mongol race was arrested in comparison with that of +the Caucasian race; he found that all the relative +proportions of the diverse parts of the Kalmuk skeleton +corresponded with that of youth in the Caucasian +race: a large head, a long torso, short legs, absolutely +the relative dimensions of our children. This conclusion +was further confirmed by the structure of the +eyelid in the Kalmuks, of which the fold (epicanthus) +in the adult corresponds with that of the fold of the +eyelid in our children.</p> + +<p>These interesting results somewhat raised Metchnikoff’s +<i>moral</i>, the more so that his eyesight began +to improve; he returned to Odessa but found that +he was still unable to use a microscope. He therefore +decided to go back to the steppes in order to proceed +with his researches, and, this time, began his journey +by the Stavropol province. The steppes there are +very fine, with tall, luxuriant grasses and a profusion +of flowers filling the pure atmosphere with perfume; +the infinite space and absolute calm offer a peculiar +and powerful charm. But the population is depressed +and apathetic, as is the case with that of the Astrakhan +steppes. The reason must be that the Kalmuks consume +milk which has undergone alcoholic fermentation, +and that provokes a slight but chronic intoxication. +Yet a few among them are extremely +intelligent and of fairly high culture. Thus, in the +course of his ethnographical researches Metchnikoff +came across a priest (bakshâ) who imparted to him +such instructive facts on the principles of the Buddhist +religion and on the organisation of its clergy that he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +even planned to go with him to Thibet, where no +stranger can penetrate without the help of an adept. +This plan, however, was never executed.</p> + +<p>After he had collected numerous anthropological +data, Metchnikoff went again to the Astrakhan steppes +in order to verify and to complete his observations +of the preceding year. Whilst traversing some oases +where the Russians were making experiments in +artificial forestry, he had the pleasant surprise of +finding some Myriapoda (<i>Geophilus</i>) bearing a number +of eggs. The history of the development of those +creatures was still unknown—a notable lacuna in +embryology. Delighted at the idea of filling it, +Metchnikoff did not hesitate to undertake a long and +difficult extra journey and repaired to Astrakhan, +taking with him his precious material, in order to +fetch the necessary apparatus for his researches. +But during the long journey several eggs perished and +he had to return to the oasis with a borrowed microscope +to study other eggs on the spot. In spite of +very difficult conditions and of the persistent weakness +of his eyesight, he succeeded in filling the lacuna +in the embryology of the <i>Geophilus</i>.</p> + +<p>He had at the same time collected very interesting +anthropological data. His hypothesis as to the necessity +of applying to anthropology the comparative +methods of embryology was fully justified, for, thanks +to that process, he was able to establish a definite +correlation between the Mongol race and the adolescence +of the Caucasian race. He presented a report +on the subject to the Anthropological Society of +Moscow, but, his attention being afterwards turned in +other directions, he never came back to this subject.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a></h2> + +<p class="quotation"> +“As to thee, Hector, thou art to +me as a father and a revered mother +and a brother, and thou art my +husband.”—<i>The Iliad.</i> +</p> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Studies on childhood — The family in the upper flat — Lessons in zoology — Second +marriage — Private life — Visit and death of Lvovna +Nevahovna — Conjugal affection.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Metchnikoff’s</span> anthropological researches led him +to the study of childhood, which in its turn suggested +reflections on questions of Pedagogy. His eyesight +was still weak and his hunger for activity very great; +in order to satisfy it, he gave lessons in a Lycée and +public lectures in the Odessa University. Though +time was passing, Metchnikoff could not get used to +his solitude; he spent his active kindness on his +friends and all around him, whilst living like an +ascetic and giving away all that he could spare. But +nothing could quench his thirst for a family life and +affectionate intimacy.</p> + +<p>My family at that time lived in the same house +as he did, on the floor above him; we were eight +children, our ages ranging from one to sixteen years. +We were noisy neighbours and we incommoded Metchnikoff, +who was awakened every morning by the +noise in our kitchen, where meat was being minced +for the children. One fine day he could stand it no +longer and went upstairs to ask if this nuisance could +not be stopped; my father promised that he would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +see that it ceased. We were all seated round the tea-table +when he came in, and, seeing a stranger, my +sister and I hurriedly collected our lesson books, and +hastened to leave the room. We did not even have +time to distinguish Metchnikoff’s features, but were +struck by his paleness. Shortly after that incident +we met him at the house of a mutual friend. He had +already seen us from his window as we went off to +the Lycée, and it used to amuse him to see us bravely +stepping over a large pool of water which was permanent +in the street.</p> + +<p>One of his pupils was a professor in our Lycée, +and Elie had the opportunity of informing himself +concerning our studies. Having heard that I was +interested in natural science, it occurred to him to +offer to give me lessons in zoology. I was delighted. +He asked and obtained permission from my parents, +and we eagerly set to work. Elie, being strongly +attracted by me, returned to his former idea of +training a girl according to his own ideas and afterwards +making her his wife. He might have realised +his programme of completing my education first and +marrying me afterwards if he had not been prevented +by the complete lack of accord between his ideas and +those of my father. It was the eternal conflict of +two generations, “fathers and children.” My father +was an excellent man, of great nobility of character, +but he was a type of the old Russian patrician school +and belonged to a different epoch, with different +opinions and customs. This caused inevitable and +frequent disagreements, and Elie decided to ask for +my hand without further delay.</p> + +<p>My mother was much younger than my father, +and her sympathies were all with the young generation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +She was an idealist, gentle, intelligent and +artistic, and, in her youth, had painted and played the +violoncello, but a very early marriage and numerous +children had forced her to give up the practice of art, +to her lifelong regret. Great sympathy arose between +her and Elie; she supported him in everything and +became for him a tenderly attached friend. He +explained to her his theories on marriage, and then +confided to her his feelings towards me. My extreme +youth troubled her very much, but Elie endeavoured +to reassure her, saying that he fully understood the +rashness of his projects, but that he was ready to +suffer all the consequences; in fact, he declared, if +he did not succeed in making me happy, he would +have the strength to help me to create another existence +for myself. I had not suspected my Professor’s +feelings towards me, and was deeply moved when I +was told of them; it seemed to me impossible to +understand that this superior, this learned man could +wish to marry a little girl like myself! I thought +with terror that he must be mistaken about me; I +felt as if I were going up for an examination without +any previous study. However, I had a great affection +and admiration for Elie; I was attracted by his +whole personality, which produced a strong impression +upon others as well as upon myself. This is how +Setchénoff describes him, in his own autobiography:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Elie Metchnikoff was the soul of our circle. Of all the +young men I have known in my life, young Metchnikoff was +the most attractive with his lively intelligence, inexhaustible +wit and abundant knowledge of all things. He was, in Science, +as serious and as productive (he had already done much in +zoology and acquired a great name in that branch) as he was +full of life and varied interest in a circle of friends.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p> + +<p>Moreover, my young imagination was impressed +by his sad history and by his interesting appearance, +at that time not unlike a figure of Christ; his pale +face was illumined by the light in his kindly eyes, which +at times looked absolutely inspired. My whole heart +went out to him, but I was not yet ripe for matrimony +and was somewhat thrown off my balance by the +unexpectedness of the event. Fearing that I was not +up to his level, I used to try beforehand to find +worthy subjects of conversation in order that he should +not feel bored in my society, but everything I thought +of seemed to me so clumsy and stupid that I rejected +one subject after another until he came and found me +at a loss. He could not understand how deeply I +was troubled, and cannot have been satisfied with my +attitude, which really was that of a zealous pupil.</p> + +<p>Our marriage took place in February 1875; it +was a very cold winter and the ground was covered +with a thick coating of glistening snow. A few hours +before the ceremony my brothers came with a little +hand sledge to fetch me for a last ride. “Come quick,” +they said, “this evening you will be a grown-up lady, +and you can’t play with us any more!” I agreed, +and we rushed out to the snowy carpet which covered +the great yard of our house. In the midst of our +mad race my mother appeared at the window; she +had been looking for me everywhere and was much +disturbed. “My dear child! what are you thinking +of? It is late, you have hardly time to dress and +to do your hair!” “One more turn, mother! It is +the last time, think of it!” Other childish emotions +awaited me; my wedding-dress was the first long +dress I had ever worn, and I feared to stumble as I +walked. Then, too, I was frightened at the idea of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +entering the church under the eyes of all the guests. +My little brother tried to reassure me by offering to +hold my hand, and my mother made me drink some +chocolate to give me courage.</p> + +<p>Elie was awaiting us at the entrance; my shyness +increased when I heard people whispering around us, +“Why, she is a mere child!” The ceremony took +place in the evening, after which Elie wrapped me +carefully in a long warm cloak and we set off, the +sledge gliding like the wind, towards our new home. +In spite of the day’s emotions, I rose very early the +next morning in order to work at my zoology exercises +and to give my husband a pleasant surprise. He was +now free to superintend my education, a very difficult +and delicate task when having to do with a mind as +unprepared for life as mine was.</p> + +<p>The scientific methods which Metchnikoff applied +to everything might have constituted a grave error +at this delicate psychological moment; yet, in many +ways, he showed himself a strangely clear-sighted +educator. He made it a principle to give me entire +liberty whilst directing me through the logic of his +arguments. It is with deep gratitude that I realise +how he, so superior to me, took care not to stifle my +fragile individuality but to respect it and to encourage +it to develop. Like all Russian young people of the +time, I was very enthusiastic concerning political and +social questions that I was not mature enough to +understand, and my father forbade us to frequent +political circles with which he had no sympathy, fearing +that we might be influenced by them. Elie, on +the contrary, left me full liberty, though he himself +disapproved of my tendencies. He considered that +political and social questions belonged to the realm of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +practical experience, in which young people were +lacking, as also in practical preparation. He never +prevented me from making myself acquainted with +the social movement, but submitted it to close analysis +and criticism; it is owing to this very efficacious +method that I did not become one of the numerous +political victims of that time.</p> + +<p>Elie took a lively and warm interest in everything +which concerned me. Not having had time to pass +my final examinations from the Lycée before my marriage, +I was now obliged to go up before a special +board for the whole curriculum. He helped me to +prepare this, even the catechism, with the utmost +keenness and gaiety, enlivening the driest subjects +by means of interesting and instructive reading. I +was glad to continue my biological studies under his +direction after I had passed my examinations. Not +only did he give a general interest, a leading thread, +to every particular subject, but he also knew how to +develop independent work. For instance, he made +me compare representative examples of divers groups +by practical study in order to let me deduce for +myself their characteristics and their generic connections.</p> + +<p>And it was not my education only which interested +him; he associated me with every detail of his life +and initiated me into his thoughts and his work; +we read together a great deal, he had an excellent +delivery and liked reading aloud.</p> + +<p>He thoroughly enjoyed giving me pleasure; we +often went to concerts and theatres, and beautiful +music or dramatic scenes moved him even to tears. +Musical themes haunted him, and he would whistle +them softly to himself even at his work. Without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +caring for luxury, he was glad to contribute to the +simple embellishment of our home because he knew +I appreciated it. When we travelled, always with +scientific research as an object, he never failed to +point out every interesting feature that we happened +to pass. He had a peculiar talent for making a +journey instructive as well as attractive; his eagerness, +infectious gaiety, inquisitive mind, and remarkable +organising faculty made of him an incomparable +guide and companion.</p> + +<p>We worked together for many years; it was both +delightful and profitable to work with him, for he +opened out his ideas unreservedly and made one +share his enthusiasm and his interest in investigations; +he could create an atmosphere of intimate union in +the search for truth which allowed the humblest +worker to feel himself a collaborator in an exalted +task.</p> + +<p>Though I always took a strong interest in scientific +questions, Art was the real passion of my life. But, +imbued as I was with the narrow, utilitarian views +which surrounded my youth, I had looked upon Art +as a luxury which should not be indulged in at a time +when the poorer classes could not read and write. +When at last I became emancipated from this fallacy, +my husband did his best to encourage my artistic +development though he himself did not appreciate +plastic art. Form and colour in themselves or in +harmony did not appeal to him; he took much more +interest in a subject than in the way it was treated; +he liked psychological or realistic work, landscapes, +“genre” pictures, but classical, Renaissance, or Impressionist +works bored him. In spite of the divergence +of our tastes in that connection, he never ceased<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +to encourage me or to take an active interest in my +work; often and often he accompanied me to picture +galleries, making sincere and somewhat pathetic efforts +to appreciate the beauty of great masterpieces.</p> + +<p>Next to music he enjoyed Nature most, perhaps +because it offered him an inexhaustible source of +scientific observation. His wearied nerves caused him +to seek for soothing impressions, and calm, quiet +ponds were what he preferred, with their reeds and +aquatic plants, among which he loved to discover tiny +beings, hidden under the leaves and below the surface +of the water.</p> + +<p>Teaching and public work took up nearly the whole +of his time; his leisure was devoted to home life +and to an intimate circle of friends with whom he +was bound by a common scientific fervour and by a +University life. He kept up those friendships even +after life had scattered them. His active kindness +made him a centre of attraction to his relations and +we were always very much surrounded. After his +father died, in 1878, his mother and two of her grandchildren +came to live with us. She was at that time +sixty-four years of age and had the appearance of an +old lady; she did not follow the fashion but wore her +white hair simply parted and framing her face; alone +her fine dark eyes had preserved their youthful +sparkle and bore witness to her former beauty. She +had a bright and cheerful disposition and a charming +kindliness to every one; her desire for activity was +unfortunately thwarted by the state of her health.</p> + +<p>Elie showed his mother a tender solicitude which +manifested itself in the smallest details; for instance, +he who detested cards would play Patience with her; +or he would drive her round the markets, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +interested her like the good housekeeper she was. +When he came in from the laboratory he never failed +to go to her to ask her for details of her health; he +talked to her playfully and affectionately, making +her laugh, telling her the incidents of the day. She +continued to be interested in everything, especially +that which concerned her dear Elie, the “consolation +of her life,” as she called him.</p> + +<p>In spite of his affection for his mother, he bore +her almost sudden death very stoically, knowing as +he did that the grave heart disease from which she +suffered was bound to cause her increasing pain.</p> + +<p>My family became his, and the relations between +him and my father became such that the latter, +feeling ill and nearing his end, made him our guardian. +Until the last my mother preserved for my husband +a tender friendship which he fully returned. For +years he bore the burden and responsibilities of the +family. With my young brothers and sisters he kept +up a tone of merry affection; always indulgent with +them, he was anxious to neglect nothing that could +be useful. Though ever led by the desire to procure +happiness around him, it sometimes happened that +he made a mistake in his appreciation and failed to +reach his goal. The human soul is a riddle, life is +complicated, and we ought not always to judge by +results but by motives.... As far as I am personally +concerned, his affection, kindness, and solicitude have +always been unbounded. If during early years a few +misunderstandings arose between us, they were due +to my youthful obstinacy or to his nervous sensitiveness. +We had our trials, but our friendship and deep +affection emerged from them stronger and purer than +ever. At a certain time, Elie, believing that happiness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +called me elsewhere, offered me my liberty, urging +that I had a moral right to it. The nobility of his +attitude was the best safeguard.... As years went +on, our lives became more and more united; we lived +in deep communion of souls, for we had reached that +stage of mutual comprehension when darkness flees +and all is light.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Metchnikoff at the age of thirty — Lecturing in Odessa University, from +1873 to 1882 — Internal difficulties — Assassination of the Tsar, +Alexander II. — Further troubles in the University — Resignation — Bad +health: cardiac symptoms — Relapsing fever — Choroiditis — Studies +on Ephemeridæ — Further studies on intracellular +digestion — The <i>Parenchymella</i> — Holidays in the country — Experiments +on agricultural pests.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Elie Metchnikoff</span> was now thirty years old, and his +personality was fully characterised though it had not +yet reached the culminating point of its development.</p> + +<p>His dominating point was his passionate vocation; +his worship of Science and of Reason made of him +an inspired apostle. He had the faults and qualities +of a rich and powerful nature. Vibrating through all +the fibres of his being, he shed life and light around +him. His temper was violent and passionate; he +could bear no attack on the ideas which were dear +to him, and became combative as soon as he thought +them threatened. His was a wrestler’s temperament; +obstacles exasperated his energy and he went straight +for them, pursuing his object with an invincible +tenacity; he never gave up a problem, however +difficult, and never hesitated to face any sacrifice or +any privation if he thought them necessary.</p> + +<p>A strange contradiction with this iron will was +offered by occasional disconcerting impulses, like that +which caused the failure of his first journey abroad, +or by sudden attacks of fury for insignificant reasons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +such as an unexpected noise in the street, a cat mewing +or a dog barking, or angry impatience when he could +not solve a frivolous puzzle, etc. This impulsive +disposition gradually calmed down as he grew older, +and ultimately very nearly disappeared.</p> + +<p>In his personal relations also he was apt to lose +his temper, but a reaction very soon followed the +outburst, and his efforts to be forgiven when he felt +guilty were very touching. On the other hand, he +did not easily forget an offence, though no desire for +revenge ever soiled his soul, and his gratitude for +kindness was absolutely indestructible.</p> + +<p>He harboured pessimistic theories to that extent +that he looked upon the procreation of other lives as +a crime on the part of a conscious being; his physical +and moral sensitiveness was intense. And yet he +had inherited from his mother a natural gaiety and +delightful elasticity which always ended by gaining +the upper hand. He was fond of joking; his wit was +occasionally somewhat cutting, but that was entirely +due to the appropriateness of his remarks; he never +hurt people’s feelings intentionally. He sometimes +gave offence by a professional habit of using personal +and concrete instances by way of arguments, but he +applied the process to himself as well; it was the +objective method, nothing more, and those who knew +him well never doubted it.</p> + +<p>His benevolence was most active and never insipid, +though marked by an almost feminine sensibility. +He was an incomparable companion and friend, and +had the gift of smoothing difficulties and inspiring +courage, security, and confidence. He took the +greatest interest in others and easily came down to +their level, always finding points in common, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>“an +opportunity for the study of human documents,” he +said. Thus he conversed simply and sympathetically +with the humble as with the great, with the young as +with the old. It was no mere intellectual interest that +he bore them, but he put his whole heart into it, which +made him extremely easy to approach. And yet he +never departed from absolute freedom of speech, sometimes +mixed with harshness. Truth and sincerity, for +him, came above everything; he carried the courage +of his opinions to the highest degree, even if it was +likely to shock his hearers or to do him harm. He +jealously guarded his independence and nothing could +force him to act against his convictions. Full of +enthusiasm, always interesting, he enlivened all +around him. His ideas and his activity were in +constant effervescence; no serious question left him +indifferent; he read everything, knew about almost +everything, and willingly informed others; his vibrating +expansiveness made him a centre of attraction in +his private life as in the laboratory or in any other +sphere of activity.</p> + +<p>From 1873 to 1882 his energies were chiefly +absorbed by teaching and by the inner life of the +University of Odessa, into which he threw himself +with his usual enthusiasm. His lectures were full of +life, always bringing out general ideas to throw light +upon the most arid facts; he made use of these as +an architect utilises coarse materials in order to erect +a harmonious edifice. His creative power endowed +his lectures with an æsthetic character in spite of +their extreme simplicity; not that he concerned +himself much about form, but because of his wealth +of ideas and the logical way in which he developed +them, starting from the simple and reaching the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +complex in a harmonious synthesis. His own enthusiasm +established a living bond between him and his +audience.</p> + +<p>He was on excellent terms with the students, +though he made no bid for popularity. Not only did +he give no encouragement to the prevailing tendency +of the young men towards politics, but he endeavoured +on the contrary to bring them back to their studies; +he tried to prove to them that social problems demand +knowledge and a serious practical preparation. Otherwise, +said he, social life would be as medicine was +before it entered into the path of science, and when +any middle-aged woman, any bone-setter, was allowed +to practise therapeutics. At the same time, students +found in him willing protection in the persecutions +directed against them, and earnest help in their work +when they showed the least interest in it; he would +eagerly welcome the smallest spark of the “sacred fire.”</p> + +<p>Owing to the absolute independence of his ideas +and conduct he had great influence on young men, +and this caused him to be looked upon in administrative +spheres as a “Red”—almost an agitator. In +reality he was struggling against the inertia and +reactionary forces which were shackling the normal +development of culture and science in Russia. He +called himself a “progressive evolutionist,” for he +considered that alone a deep and conscious evolution +could give stable results and lead to real progress. +He thought that Revolution, and especially Terrorism, +merely provoked a reaction which might be long-lived, +and that, as long as the people were not sufficiently +educated, a revolution might easily result in +the transfer of despotism from one party to another. +Socialistic doctrines did not satisfy him; according<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +to him, they did not leave sufficient scope to personal +initiative and to the development of individuality, +two factors which he considered as essential to every +progress.</p> + +<p>He looked upon scientific work as his mission, and +avoided politics because he did not think himself +competent to deal with them. But scientific activity +being closely limited by the state of the University, +which was badly oppressed at that time by reactionary +powers, he was led to take part in the +defence of the University’s right to autonomy. He +brought all his energies into the struggle, though +trying to keep from party tactics and to act purely +in the interests of science. For instance, he would +vote either for a Radical or a Conservative without +sharing the opinions of either, but merely guided by +their scientific value.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of his scientific career at Odessa +he led a very active campaign in favour of the teaching +of Natural Science. He urged that, in order to teach +properly, Natural History professors should themselves +have made independent researches on living +fauna and flora, and tried to introduce a series of +measures to allow biologists special holidays and +missions to desirable places, at the proper seasons, for +research purposes. “There is no doubt,” he said, +“that scientific activity would be much increased if +the proposed measures were adopted. Then, before +long, our young scientists would not need to go to +study in German universities, but could go abroad +already prepared to undertake independent research.” +The Commission which examined his report demanded +certain modifications, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>“because of the Imperial injunction +to be very strict in granting travelling +permits to professors.” Metchnikoff somewhat altered +the text, which, after being adopted by the University +Council, was rejected by the Ministry and remained +without effect. Thus was every independent suggestion +stifled, even when it had but a purely scientific +object.</p> + +<p>Soon the situation of the Odessa University became +even more difficult. Between 1875 and 1880 reaction +increased considerably, and the inner life of the +University became very unfavourable to any scientific +activity. Already before that it was teeming with +intrigues, the Professors of Ukrainian origin being +hostile to the “Muscovites.” Yet it was still possible +to remain apart from these local intrigues, until +political reaction, filtering into the University, created +in it the deepest divisions. The hostility of parties +was now based on political opinions, either “Reactionary” +or “Liberal.” The students were being +more and more carried away by this movement and +no longer took any interest in their studies.</p> + +<p>All these conditions made normal teaching and +scientific work impossible, and Metchnikoff, seeing that +politics from above and from below now swallowed +up everything, tried to take refuge in his laboratory +but in vain; even there he could no longer find the +necessary calm, and only during the holidays could +he really work.</p> + +<p>Thus passed the years until March 1, 1881, when +the crime which ended the days of Alexander II. +was followed by a great reactionary movement. The +authorities, seeing conspiracies and plots everywhere, +persecuted without cause all the elements which were +ticketed as “dangerous.” Though the University +still preserved its autonomy, this was entirely fictitious,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +for the Ministry thwarted every desire for independence; +the nomination of professors elected by the +University Council was only ratified by the Ministry +if they were reactionaries, without any regard for +their scientific value. Soon the Chairs were occupied +by ignorant men of doubtful morality.</p> + +<p>The life and honour of the University became +endangered, and Metchnikoff found himself obliged +to take part in the struggle; he did so with vehemence +and energy; the independence of the University +was involved, and, as long as he could hope to save it, +he struggled. At the meetings of the Council and +of the Faculty he never failed to give vent to his +critical opinions with a vehement frankness which +earned him in the University the reputation of an +“<i>enfant terrible</i>.” In the meanwhile every resolution +passed by the Council, if not reactionary in character, +was systematically quashed by the Ministry, which +thus paralysed every means of action, and Metchnikoff +found himself faced with the alternative of submitting +or handing in his resignation. He decided for +the latter: his convictions were involved, and moreover +his health could not withstand the continual +agitation and strain on his nerves.</p> + +<p>As we could not afford to live in independence, he +applied for a vacant post of entomologist in the +<i>zemstvo</i><a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> of Poltava, and at the same time wrote out +his resignation, holding it in readiness for an opportunity +which was not long in coming.</p> + +<p>The Conservative party in the Faculty arose against +a Liberal professor who had accepted a very clever +thesis in which the Reactionaries perceived Socialist +tendencies. The Dean of the Faculty proposed that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +all such theses should be refused, and the Faculty +approved. This was the signal for a storm in the +University, the Dean was hooted by the students, and +many of them were threatened with being expelled. +The Curator desired the more influential professors, +of whom Metchnikoff was one, to intervene with the +students in order to bring disorder to an end, and the +professors consented, on condition that the offending +Dean should resign. The Curator promised that +he should be asked to do so, and order was immediately +restored; but the Dean remained and many +students were severely and unjustly punished. Metchnikoff +thereupon produced his resignation, which was +promptly accepted, and thus his University career +came to an end.</p> + +<p>Besides his University lectures, he gave public +lectures on Natural History which were attended by +a number of female students, for women at that time +were only admitted to the Faculty of Medicine, and +these lectures were extremely useful to them. Metchnikoff, +though he did not believe that women could +accomplish creative work in science, was strongly +in favour of higher education for women, considering +it as necessary to their general intellectual development. +Genius, he thought, was peculiar to the male +sex, no woman having created anything “of genius” +even in domains which had always been accessible to +them, such as music, literature, and the applied arts. +The very rare exceptions, to his mind, only proved +the rule; yet he did not draw the conclusion that +woman was in any sense inferior to man. He merely +held that her gifts are different from those of men.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>Metchnikoff’s health had been seriously shaken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +by the emotions and annoyances of university life. +Already in 1877, after political intrigues at the +University, he had felt the first symptoms of cardiac +trouble, which were the beginning of a long period of +ill-health. He consulted Bamberger, a great Viennese +physician, who, however, found nothing serious, and +merely forbade him the use of wine and tobacco, +to neither of which was he addicted.</p> + +<p>His health suffered further through the violent +anxiety which he went through in 1880 whilst I lay +dangerously ill with typhoid fever, contracted in +Naples. Though worn out with devoted nursing, he +tried to make up the time lost to research and over-worked +himself, with the result that cardiac trouble +was followed by fits of giddiness and unconquerable +insomnia. He fell into such a state of neurasthenia +that, in 1881, he resolved in a moment of depression +to do away with his life.</p> + +<p>In order to spare his family the sorrow of an obvious +suicide, he inoculated himself with relapsing fever, +choosing this disease in order to ascertain at the same +time whether it could be inoculated through the +blood. The answer was in the affirmative: he became +very seriously ill. His condition was aggravated by +anxiety concerning the University; for he was sufficiently +conscious to be aware of the events which were +taking place in Russia. The murder of Alexander II. +caused him to foresee a political reaction of the most +terrible type; already, a reactionary Rector had been +appointed. Metchnikoff developed intense jaundice +and had a serious relapse with alarming cardiac weakness; +during the crisis he had a very distinct prevision +of approaching death. This semi-conscious state +was accompanied by a feeling of great happiness;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +he imagined that he had solved all human ethical +questions. Much later, this fact led him to suppose +that death could actually be attended by agreeable +sensations.</p> + +<p>His robust nature, however, triumphed over all +these grave complications, and, during his convalescence, +he was filled with a joy of living such as he +had never experienced before; from that moment his +moral and physical balance was completely restored. +There was one unpleasant sequel to his illness, an +acute affection of the sight (choroiditis), but it fortunately +disappeared without leaving any traces, and, +in fact, he never suffered again from his eyes, in spite +of his constant use of the microscope.</p> + +<p>After his recovery he had a renascence of vital +intensity; the life instinct developed in him in a high +degree; his health became flourishing, his energy and +power for work greater than ever, and the pessimism +of his youth began to pale before the optimistic +dawn of his maturity. However, the relapsing fever +had very probably increased, if not started, the cardiac +trouble which eventually caused his death.</p> + +<p>During the time when Metchnikoff was forbidden +the use of the microscope on account of his eye weakness, +he studied Ephemeridæ from the point of view of +natural selection. He wished to elucidate the manner +in which this selection operates during the very short +life of those insects: the rudimentary structure of +their buccal organs does not allow them to feed +themselves, and they have no time to adapt themselves +to external conditions.</p> + +<p>During the 1875 holidays, at Gmunden and on the +Danube, he observed the nuptial flight of the mayflies, +a phenomenon which constitutes their short<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +adult existence, preceded by a long period in the +larval state. Thousands of these diaphanous, ephemeral +insects swarm above the water in a compact +cloud; now and then, dead Ephemeridæ fall like +snow-flakes, and that is the final and tragic completion +of the nuptial flight. Metchnikoff wished to unveil the +mechanism of this sudden death, evidently due to +a physiological cause; but he obtained no definite +results either that year or the following, when he +continued his observations in the Caucasus. He +realised that the life of these insects was too short to +allow him to solve the problems which interested him, +and, his eyes now being cured, he went back to his +studies on the origin of multicellular beings or <i>metazoa</i>.</p> + +<p>He studied the development of inferior sponges +and ascertained that they possess the three embryonic +layers which correspond to those of other animal +types, but that these layers have not the same degree +of independence or differentiation. He found that +in certain inferior sponges the mesoderm develops +before the endoderm and gives birth to it. These two +layers, born one from the other, manifest common +primordial characters. Therefore he was in no wise +surprised to discover that, in these inferior sponges, +the amœboid and mobile cells of the mesoderm fulfil +digestive functions equally with, and even more than +those of the endoderm; in fact, with primitive beings, +functional characters are not more strictly delimitated +than morphological characters. It is only a +more advanced differentiation which separates them.</p> + +<p>He connected these new facts with that which he +had observed in 1865 in one of the lower worms, the +earth planarian <i>Geodesmus bilineatus</i>. This worm is +actually without a digestive cavity, for the latter is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +entirely filled by parenchymatous cells inside which +digestion takes place.</p> + +<p>By their primitive structure, lower sponges and +worms come near the higher Infusoria, to which they +are even more closely related by this intercellular +digestion which is common to them.</p> + +<p>This led Metchnikoff to ask himself whether this +was not, generally speaking, <i>the primitive mode of +digestion</i>. He carried out numerous researches on +this point during the following years, and found the +same intercellular digestion in other lower worms, +such as the <i>Mesostoma</i> and aquatic planarians, and +afterwards in some lower Cœlentera and some Echinoderma. +He was thus enabled to establish definitely +that the primitive mode of digestion was really intercellular, +for the lower multicellular animals either do +not possess any digestive cavity or else their digestive +cavity develops late, as for instance with lower jelly-fish +or with hydropolypi. Even when the cavity is +developed in these inferior animals, the digestive +functions are fulfilled by the mesodermic cells.</p> + +<p>The question as to what are the ancestral forms of +multicellular animals cannot be solved through direct +observation, for there is a lacuna between them and +unicellular beings, a lacuna which is due to the disappearance +of intermediary forms. It can only be +filled by hypotheses, based upon the embryology +of those animals which, in their embryonic development, +repeat the inferior forms from which they are derived, +thus reflecting the general evolution of living beings. +It was therefore to the embryology of lower multicellular +beings that Metchnikoff turned, in order to endeavour to +reconstitute their origin and to show the +link between them and unicellular beings.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p> + +<p>We know that the <i>ovule</i> or primitive genital cell +of every animal may be compared to a unicellular +organism. After fertilisation the egg undergoes consecutive +divisions or segmentation; each segment +constitutes a new cell, and their aggregation forms a +hollow sphere called a <i>blastula</i>, which is similar to a +colony of unicellular beings. The blastula differentiates +itself into embryonic layers, the <i>ectoderm</i>, <i>endoderm</i>, +and <i>mesoderm</i> already mentioned.</p> + +<p>In the majority of animals the origin of the first +two layers, ectoderm and endoderm, is due to the +invagination of one of the poles of the blastula; the +invaginated part of the walls forms the internal layer, +the endoderm, and lines the cavity produced by +invagination; this cavity thus becomes a <i>digestive</i> +cavity. This stage of development, called <i>gastrula</i>, +is similar to a cup with a double wall, of which +the outer is the ectoderm and the inner the endoderm.</p> + +<p>This stage, discovered by Kovalevsky, is to be +found in the evolution of most animals and corresponds +to the adult stage of some of them. It was +consequently considered as the <i>primitive type</i> of multicellular +beings.</p> + +<p>Haeckel founded thereupon his theory of the +<i>gastræa</i>, according to which the common ancestor +of animals was a lower animal, now disappeared, +and similar to that stage of development. He +therefore gave to this hypothetical animal the name +of <i>gastræa</i>.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff, however, discovered among primitive +multicellular animals, such as sponges, hydroids, and +lower medusæ, a stage of development still more +simple than the gastrula; this stage is without a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +digestive cavity and only assumes the gastrula form +in its ulterior evolution. He also made the remarkable +discovery that, in the most primitive multicellular +animals, the endoderm is formed, not by means +of invagination, but by the <i>migration</i> of a number of +flagellated cells from one pole of the wall of +the blastula into the central cavity. These cells draw in +their flagellum, become amœboid and mobile, multiply +by division, fill the cavity of the blastula, and become +capable of digesting. They originate the digestive +cells of the complete organism and give birth to the +mesoderm, which explains how the latter comes to +contain a number of devouring cells even though +these do not constitute digestive organs properly +so called. Metchnikoff gave to that stage the name +of <i>parenchymella</i>, for the migrating cells constitute +the endoderm in the condition of a parenchyma.</p> + +<p>The invariable presence of this stage in the simplest +multicellular animals, the primitive amœboid state +of the endodermic cells, cases of ulterior transformation +of the parenchymella into the gastrula form in +certain animals, the absence of a differentiated +digestive cavity,—all that proved, according to +Metchnikoff, that the parenchymella is more primitive +than the gastrula, and is therefore entitled to be considered +the prototype of multicellular beings.</p> + +<p>He saw a confirmation of this in the fact that +primitive adult animals also have no digestive cavity +but merely an intracellular digestion (sponges, turbellaria).</p> + +<p>He concluded that the common ancestor of +multicellular beings was a being constituted by an +agglomeration of cells without a digestive cavity, but +endowed with intracellular digestion, like that of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +“parenchymula” stage of development. He therefore +gave to that hypothetical ancestor the name of +<i>parenchymella</i>.</p> + +<p>Later, in 1886, he definitely formulated his theory +of the genesis of multicellular beings, and having +already stated the phagocyte theory, he substituted +for the name <i>parenchymella</i> that of <i>phagocytella</i>, which +indicated at the same time the primitive mode of +digestion of that hypothetical ancestor.</p> + +<p>Reduced to its simplest form, it presented, according +to Metchnikoff, a certain analogy with a colony +composed of unicellular beings of two kinds: the +first, flagellated, forming the external layer, and the +others, amœboid, occupying the centre of the colony +and capable of digesting.</p> + +<p>It may be interesting to mention here that, in this +hypothetical description, Metchnikoff foresaw the +existence of similar, but real, beings discovered a year +later by Saville Kent, namely, the flagellated colonies +of <i>Protospongia</i>.</p> + +<p>Thus the link between the unicellular and the +multicellular beings could be constituted through the +intermediary of flagellated colonies on the one hand +and, on the other hand, of beings similar to a <i>phagocytella</i>. +The <i>indivisible colony</i> became the <i>multicellular +individual</i>.</p> + +<p>While studying the genealogy of beings, Metchnikoff +continued his researches on intracellular digestion. +In 1879, at Naples and at Messina, he was +able to establish the fact that the mesodermic cells +of many larvæ of Echinodermata and Cœlenterata, +endowed with a digestive tube, nevertheless contained +strange bodies. Therefore, even complicated organisms +with a differentiated digestive system could still<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +contain at the same time some primitive cells with +an autonomous digestion.</p> + +<p>All these researches on the unity of the origin of +multicellular beings and their morphological elements, +and also those concerning intracellular digestion, were +gradually preparing Metchnikoff’s mind for the conception +of the phagocyte theory.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>We spent the summer of 1880 with my family in +the country. The cereals were invaded by a harmful +beetle, the <i>Anisoplia austriaca</i>, which was devastating +the country. Metchnikoff took the study of this +scourge to heart and tried to find a remedy. He +had, the preceding year, observed a dead fly enveloped +with a sort of fungus which had evidently been the +cause of its death. Hence he conceived the idea that +it might be possible to combat harmful insects by +provoking epidemics among them. He now returned +to this idea; on dead bodies of <i>Anisoplia</i> he found +a small fungus, the <i>muscardine</i>, which was invading +the insects by means of filaments, and he succeeded +in infecting healthy beetles.</p> + +<p>At first he confined himself to laboratory experiments; +then a great landowner, Count Bobrinsky, +placed experimental fields at his disposal. As the +acquired results were very encouraging, Metchnikoff, +forced to leave the neighbourhood, left a young +entomologist in charge of the application of his +method. So far as he himself was concerned, this +study proved the starting-point of his researches +on infectious diseases.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Death of his father- and mother-in-law — Management of country estates — Agitation +and difficulties — Departure for Messina with young +brothers- and sisters-in-law.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the spring of 1881, Metchnikoff having recovered +from relapsing fever, we went to stay with my parents +at Kieff and found my father dying. He entrusted +Elie with the care of the family, and they came to +live with us at Odessa. But, the following year, we +had the misfortune to lose my mother also. From +that moment my husband took upon himself the +responsibility of the whole family.</p> + +<p>Our resources came from landed property, and he, +who had never concerned himself with rural questions, +had to make himself acquainted with them. In this +he was greatly helped by a neighbour, Count Bobrinsky, +through whose influence he came to abandon the purely +theoretical opinions he had hitherto held concerning +agrarian questions. He had considered communal property +as a desirable agrarian system: Count Bobrinsky +showed him that it was not so, at any rate in Little +Russia.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff came to the country with the keenest +desire to make himself useful. First of all he devoted +the gratuity which he had received on leaving the +University, to a school which my sister and myself +desired to open in our family property. But we were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +met by administrative opposition which nearly +wrecked our plan, under the pretext that it was +intended for political propaganda. And though +cordial relations were established from the first +between Metchnikoff and the peasantry, many complications +were unavoidable, due to the general +agrarian situation, to the insufficiency of the peasants’ +allotments, and to their primitive methods of cultivation.</p> + +<p>My father, whose property was in the province of +Kieff, had inherited another domain in that of +Kherson; Metchnikoff therefore had to manage both +estates and to adapt himself to their very different +respective circumstances. The majority of the farmers +in Little Russia at that time were Jews and were +beginning to be persecuted both by the Government +and by the peasants; Elie was constantly obliged to +intervene. In the province of Kherson, it was a +tradition with the peasants that the land should +belong to them, and they imagined that this could +be brought about by the simple elimination of the +farmers. Therefore they inflicted constant vexations +upon the latter, allowing cattle to pasture in their +crops, pulling up their beetroots, etc. Metchnikoff +attempted in vain to re-establish peace by means of +compromise; he persuaded a farmer to sub-let part +of the land to the peasants, but this had to be given +up, for the latter did not carry out their engagements. +Relations between the farmers and the peasants were +getting worse and worse, and Metchnikoff, foreseeing +a catastrophe, warned the local administration that +the situation was getting very grave and would lead +to irreparable consequences. He was merely told that +preventive measures would be useless; hereupon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +peasants brutally murdered a keeper who was turning +the cattle away from the crops. Then at last the +administration awoke, arrested the murderers, and +twelve men were exiled to Siberia.</p> + +<p>All this caused Metchnikoff the deepest anxiety, +the more so that he was absolutely incapable of +altering the situation. As soon as it became possible, +he sold to the peasants that portion of the land which +belonged to us personally; until then, the property +had been common to the whole family, of which the +younger members were not yet of age. This, however, +was not a general solution, and these moral preoccupations, +as well as the heavy responsibility incumbent +upon him, kept him from his scientific work. +He was therefore very pleased to hand over the +management of the property to one of my brothers +who had just completed his studies in a Higher +Agricultural School, and, in spite of difficult conditions, +Elie had the satisfaction of giving up everything +in good order.</p> + +<p>Thanks to my parents’ inheritance, he was able +to abandon his share of the Panassovka patrimony +to the children of his brother and to live henceforth +independently. He wished to pursue researches on +the shores of the Mediterranean: therefore, in the +autumn of the year 1882, we went to Messina with +my two sisters and my three young brothers. The +children were no trouble to Elie, who loved them; +on the contrary, he enjoyed organising the journey +and arranging all sorts of pleasures for them. The +children, accustomed to his kindly indulgence, always +came to “the Prophet” for everything they wanted.<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Messina — Inception of the phagocyte theory — Encouragement from +Virchow and Kleinenberg — First paper on phagocytosis at the +Odessa Congress in 1883 — The question of Immunity — Article in +Virchow’s <i>Archiv</i>, 1884.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">At</span> Messina, we settled in a suburb, the Ringo, on the +quay of the Straits, in a small flat with a garden and +a splendid view over the sea. We did not have +much room, and the laboratory had to be installed in +the drawing-room, but, on the other hand, Elie only +had to cross the quay in order to find the fisherman +who provided him with the material needed for his +researches and with whom we frequently went sailing.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff loved Messina, with its rich marine +fauna and beautiful scenery. The splendid view of +the sea and the calm outline of the Calabrian coast +across the Straits delighted him. He enjoyed it all +the more after the many excitements of life at the +University, and eagerly gave himself up to his +researches. Often, in later years, he delighted to +recall memories of that period, the more so that this +was connected with the principal phase of scientific +activity which led to the formation of his phagocyte +theory. After the earthquake in 1908, he wrote a +few pages on Messina and ended his article by the +following lines:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Thus it was in Messina that the great event of my +scientific life took place. A zoologist until then, I suddenly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +became a pathologist. I entered into a new road in which +my later activity was to be exerted.</p> + +<p>It is with warm feeling that I evoke that distant past +and with tenderness that I think of Messina, of which the +terrible fate has deeply moved my heart.</p> + +<p>They say that Messina will be rebuilt in the same place +but in a different way. Houses will be constructed of light +materials, they will be low, and the streets broad....</p> + +<p>The town will be a new Messina, not “my Messina,” not +that with which so many dear memories are associated in +my mind....</p> +</div> + +<p>Metchnikoff continued to study intracellular digestion +and the origin of the intestine. He foresaw +that the solution of those problems would lead to +general results of great importance. The study of +medusæ and of their mesodermic digestion confirmed +him more and more in the conviction that the mesoderm +was a vestige of elements with a primitive +<i>digestive</i> function. In lower beings, such as sponges, +this function takes place without being differentiated, +whilst with other Cœlentera and with some Echinoderma +the <i>endoderm</i> gives birth to a digestive +cavity; yet, the mobile cells of the <i>mesoderm</i> preserve +their faculty of intracellular digestion. As he +studied these phenomena more closely, he ascertained +that mesodermic cells accumulated around grains of +carmine introduced into the organism.</p> + +<p>All this prepared the ground for the phagocyte +theory, of which he himself described the inception +in the following words:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>I was resting from the shock of the events which provoked +my resignation from the University and indulging enthusiastically +in researches in the splendid setting of the Straits +of Messina.</p> + +<p>One day when the whole family had gone to a circus to see<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +some extraordinary performing apes, I remained alone with +my microscope, observing the life in the mobile cells of a +transparent star-fish larva, when a new thought suddenly +flashed across my brain. It struck me that similar cells +might serve in the defence of the organism against intruders. +Feeling that there was in this something of surpassing interest, +I felt so excited that I began striding up and down the room +and even went to the seashore in order to collect my thoughts.</p> + +<p>I said to myself that, if my supposition was true, a splinter +introduced into the body of a star-fish larva, devoid of blood-vessels +or of a nervous system, should soon be surrounded by +mobile cells as is to be observed in a man who runs a splinter +into his finger. This was no sooner said than done.</p> + +<p>There was a small garden to our dwelling, in which we had +a few days previously organised a “Christmas tree” for the +children on a little tangerine tree; I fetched from it a few +rose thorns and introduced them at once under the skin of +some beautiful star-fish larvæ as transparent as water.</p> + +<p>I was too excited to sleep that night in the expectation of +the result of my experiment, and very early the next morning +I ascertained that it had fully succeeded.</p> + +<p>That experiment formed the basis of the phagocyte theory, +to the development of which I devoted the next twenty-five +years of my life.</p> +</div> + +<p>This very simple experiment struck Metchnikoff +by its intimate similarity with the phenomenon which +takes place in the formation of pus, the diapedesis<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> +of inflammation in man and the higher animals. The +white blood corpuscles, or <i>leucocytes</i>, which constitute +pus, are mobile mesodermic cells. But, while +with higher animals the phenomenon is complicated +by the existence of blood-vessels and a nervous +system, in a star-fish larva, devoid of those organs, +the same phenomenon is reduced to the accumulation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +of mobile cells around the splinter. This proves that +the essence of inflammation consists in the reaction +of the mobile cells, whilst vascular and nervous intervention +has but a secondary significance. Therefore, +if the phenomenon is considered in its simplest expression, +inflammation is merely <i>a reaction of the mesodermic +cells against an external agent</i>.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff then reasoned as follows: In man, +microbes are usually the cause which provokes inflammation; +therefore it is against those intruders +that the mobile mesodermic cells have to strive. +These mobile cells must destroy the microbes by +digesting them and thus bring about a cure.</p> + +<p>Inflammation is thus a <i>curative reaction</i> of the +organism, and morbid symptoms are no other than +the signs of the struggle between the mesodermic +cells and the microbes.</p> + +<p>In order to verify these conjectures, he started +studying the englobing of microbes by mesodermic +cells in larvæ and in other marine invertebrates +which he inoculated.</p> + +<p>At that time, a well-known German scientist, +Kleinenberg, was Professor of Zoology at Messina. +Metchnikoff imparted his ideas to him and showed +him his experiments. Kleinenberg encouraged him +very much; he looked upon his theory as “an +Hippocratic thought” and advised him to publish +it at once.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff was also greatly encouraged by +Virchow, who happened to pass through Messina and +came to see his preparations and his experiments, +which seemed to him conclusive. However, Virchow +advised him to proceed with the greatest prudence +in their interpretation, as, he said, the theory of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +inflammation admitted in contemporary medicine was +exactly contrary to Metchnikoff’s. It was believed +that the leucocytes, far from destroying microbes, +spread them by carrying them and by forming a +medium favourable to their growth.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff always preserved a deep gratitude +towards Virchow and Kleinenberg for the moral +support which they gave him at that time.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>When the hot weather came, we left Messina for +Riva, a delicious summer resort on the shores of the +Lake of Garda. There, Metchnikoff wrote his first +memoir on the reaction of inflammation and on the +digestion of microbes by the mesodermic cells of +lower invertebrates. On the way back to Russia +through Vienna, he went to see the Professor of +Zoology, Claus; he found other colleagues with him +and expounded his theory to them. They were much +interested, and he asked them for a Greek translation +of the words “devouring cells,” and that is how they +were given the name of <i>phagocytes</i>.</p> + +<p>Claus asked him for his memoir for the Review +which he edited and in which it appeared soon afterwards, +in 1883.<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> The new-born “phagocyte theory” +was thus very well received by naturalists and by +Virchow, the father of cellular pathology.</p> + +<p>Having returned to Russia, we went to the country, +where Elie had to attend to family business; nevertheless, +he continued his researches in every leisure +moment. He had observed in Echinoderma that, +during the transformation of their larvæ, the parts +becoming atrophied were englobed by mesodermic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +mobile cells. In those observations he was delighted +to have found an example of <i>physiological inflammation</i>, +<i>i.e.</i> one which presented itself in normal and +non-morbid conditions. He thought he might observe +it also during the metamorphosis of the tadpole into +a frog, whilst the tail was being atrophied. But he +found that, instead of the leucocytes of the blood, +certain cells from the muscular tissue were those which +devoured the enfeebled elements of the tail; he thus +learnt that phagocytes might be, not only the white +blood corpuscles, but other cells of mesodermic origin.<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> + +<p>In autumn 1883 he read his first paper on phagocytosis +to a congress of physicians and naturalists at +Odessa.<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> He compared the phagocytes to an army +hurling itself upon the enemy and looked upon the +phagocytic reaction as a defensive force of the +organism.</p> + +<p>In that paper itself and from that moment onwards, +the trend of his ideas towards optimism becomes visible. +By discovering the phagocytic reaction of the organism, +he made a first breach in his philosophy of human +nature, hitherto so pessimistic; he discovered within +it a salutary element which could be utilised by +science to combat its discords. He began to have +some faith in the power of knowledge, not only for +this struggle, but also for the establishment of a +rational conception of life in general. Thus he said +in his paper to the Odessa Congress:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The theoretical study of Natural History problems (in +the largest sense of the word) alone can provide a critical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +method for the comprehension of truth and lead to a definite +conception of life, or at least allow us to approach one.</p> +</div> + +<p>And yet, until then, the theory of phagocytosis +as a curative force of the organism was but a hypothesis, +for he had not yet observed <i>spontaneous +phagocytosis in diseases</i> and did not know pathogenic +microbes. He therefore sought to study them in lower +animals, whose simple structure made the observation +easier. He found some small, transparent, fresh-water +crustaceans, called <i>daphniæ</i>, which were diseased +and easy to place alive under a microscope. These +crustaceans are often infected by a parasite fungus +(<i>Monospora bicuspidata</i>), of which the spores, shaped +like sharp needles, are introduced with food into the +digestive tube, traverse the walls of it, and thus +penetrate into the general cavity of the body. They +are immediately attacked by mobile phagocytes, +which either singly or in groups englobe them; if the +phagocytes succeed in digesting the spores, the +daphnia recovers; in the contrary case, the spores +germinate and develop into small fungi which invade +the organism and kill it. The recovery or death of +the daphnia depends therefore on the issue of the +struggle.<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> This observation gave final confirmation +to the hypothesis of the curative forces of the organism.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff was not content with observing lower +animals but wished to study the reaction of the +organism of mammals in infectious diseases. At that +time, the best-known microbe was the bacillus of +anthrax. He therefore chose that for his researches +and ascertained that phagocytosis varied with the +virulence of the microbes; thus, while phagocytes did<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +not attack virulent bacteria, they attacked and +rapidly digested attenuated bacteria. Moreover, he +observed a very active phagocytosis in refractory +animals and the reverse in sensitive ones.</p> + +<p>He thus came face to face with the question of +<i>immunity</i>.</p> + +<p>He approached it by a comparative examination +of the reaction of the organism of vaccinated rabbits +and of non-vaccinated ones, and ascertained that an +active phagocytosis was only manifested in a previously +vaccinated organism. Metchnikoff explained +these facts by the theory that the phagocytes became +accustomed, gradually, through vaccination, to strive +against more and more virulent microbes.</p> + +<p>From that moment, immunity appeared to him as +being no other than this progressive hardening. He +published his researches in 1884 in Virchow’s <i>Archiv</i>, +and impatiently awaited medical reviews, hoping to +find some answer, but the memoir passed unnoticed; +the full significance of it had not been grasped.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Ill-health of his wife and sister-in-law — Journey to Tangiers through +Spain — Villefranche — Baumgarten criticises the phagocyte theory.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> 1884, Metchnikoff’s work was interrupted by the +ill-health of my eldest sister and of myself; physicians +considered that we had weak lungs and advised that +we should spend the winter in the South. Elie, full +of anxiety, hastened to take us there.</p> + +<p>My younger brothers were now old enough to +remain at school in our absence so as to go on with +their studies; we therefore started with my two +sisters. As cholera was raging in Italy, we went to +Spain, hoping to find a place with a mild climate and +conditions favourable to my husband’s work. But +we traversed the whole country without finding the +right combination, and, as we had come too far to +go back, we decided to spend the winter on the +African coast, at Tangiers, close to Gibraltar where we +were.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff had not much taste for sight-seeing, +but, with his inquisitive and observing mind, liked to +understand what he saw, and never failed to acquaint +himself with the history of the countries which we +traversed and which, with his ever-ready solicitude, he +wanted us to see. We therefore saw every interesting +town on our route through Spain. In the evenings we +read together works on the history and art of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +country, and in the day-time we went for long rambles +in order to examine all that there was to see. The +history of the country, full of the sombre fanaticism +which is reflected in its art, the austere aridity of the +central plateau of the land, the reserved temper of +the population—none of that found any echo in the +vibrating, sunlight-loving soul of Metchnikoff.</p> + +<p>Gentle Italy, her exuberant life and highly-cultured +past, charmed him much more. He was consequently +better pleased with Southern Spain, which +is more similar to Italy. He was greatly impressed +by the grandiose site and luminous atmosphere of +Granada and the Alhambra and by the superb gardens +of Malaga, with their tropical plants and avenues of +palm trees.</p> + +<p>At Gibraltar, he was greatly interested as a zoologist +in the only monkeys (<i>Macaques</i> or Barbary +apes) which have remained wild in Europe; he never +tired of watching their habits whilst those amusing +creatures jumped from tree to tree above our heads.</p> + +<p>He had ample leisure to do so, for a frightful tempest +kept us at Gibraltar, preventing the crossing of the +Straits. As Metchnikoff was very anxious to set to +work, we took the first steamship which ventured out, +but the sea was still running so high that our ship +was damaged and we had to go back. A panic +took possession of the passengers, during which my +sisters and I were struck by the calmness of Elie, +who did not seem to realise the danger. After a delay +of a few days, we were at last able to cross.</p> + +<p>Our first impression of Tangiers, an Arab port of +a thoroughly Oriental type, was extremely vivid. +The city lay before us with its tall minarets and flat +roofs, shining white under the burning sun. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +steamer dropped anchor some distance from the landing +stage, and we were taken ashore on small boats, +immediately to be surrounded by a motley crowd with +faces varying from the pale olive of the pure Arab +to the coal-black of the negro. All these people, in +brilliant and picturesque garments, were shouting, +gesticulating, fighting for the possession of passengers +and their luggage, dragging them into the boats or +carrying them on their backs, themselves standing +up to their waists in water.</p> + +<p>That feverish agitation, noise, and glaring sunlight +introduced us suddenly to new and violent +sensations.</p> + +<p>Already at Gibraltar, Metchnikoff had made +arrangements with a Spanish-speaking Arab from +Tangiers who undertook our installation. He provided +us with a very primitive dwelling, himself serving as +our guide, cook, and general factotum.</p> + +<p>We hastened to look for zoological material: +alas, the sea was almost a desert. After a long +search we only found a few rare sea-urchins, and +Metchnikoff had to content himself with this meagre +fauna during the whole of the winter. He resigned +himself to the study of the embryology of sea-urchins +in order to fill a few lacunæ in his previous researches. +As he could not work much for lack of materials, he +came with us for long excursions, during which he +used to improvise interminable and very amusing +tales with which to entertain my little sister.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of our stay we were greatly +interested by the life and customs of the country. +The picturesque and varied crowd, the dignified and +biblical types of Arabs, the bronzed Berbers, negroes, +fanatical sects of Aïssawas, snake-charmers, the jousts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +and mad races of cavalry across the sandy beach; +opium smokers; mysterious silhouettes of veiled +women; the call to prayer from the tall minarets—all +that strange and exotic life fascinated us. +But after a time the wild customs, continual shouting +on the occasion of every ceremony, vendettas, +cruel fanaticism, and also the absolute lack of intellectual +resources, began to tell on our nerves. +Inactivity weighed heavily upon Metchnikoff; nevertheless, +he bore his ill-luck with his usual courage +and gaiety, finding great consolation in the excellent +influence that the climate of Tangiers had upon all +our healths.</p> + +<p>At last, in the spring, we started for Villefranche, +where he immediately set to work with success upon +the embryology of jelly-fish; an important monograph +on that subject was published by him in 1886. +In it he gave definite form to his theory of the <i>phagocytella</i> +and the genetic relationships of animals and +of their primitive organs, a theory already mentioned +above (p. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>).</p> + +<p>From Villefranche we went to Trieste, where +Metchnikoff studied star-fish and filled the lacunæ in +his researches on the origin of the mesoderm.</p> + +<p>In a medical review which he read at Trieste, he +found the first account of his phagocyte theory; +it was an unfavourable and hostile criticism by a +German scientist of the name of Baumgarten, endeavouring +to prove that Metchnikoff’s deductions +were inadmissible. This grieved and pained him very +much, but he immediately recovered himself and +strongly determined to study the medical side of the +question in order to prove on that ground that his +theory was well-founded.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">A Bacteriological Institute in Odessa — Unsatisfactory conditions — Experiments +on erysipelas and on relapsing fever.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> results of Pasteur’s antirabic inoculations were +published in 1885. The Municipality of Odessa, +desirous of founding a bacteriological station in that +town, sent Dr. Gamaléia to Paris to study the new +method. Metchnikoff was appointed Scientific Director +of the new institution, and Drs. Gamaléia and +Bardach, former pupils of his, were entrusted with the +preparation of vaccines and preventive inoculations. +The Institute, opened in 1886, was founded at the +expense of the Municipality of Odessa and of the +<i>Zemstvo</i> of the Kherson Province.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff himself describes as follows the short +time he spent in that Institute:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>... Having given up my State work, I placed myself +at the service of the city and the <i>Zemstvo</i>.</p> + +<p>Absorbed as I was by the scientific part of the work, I +confided to my young colleagues the practical part, i.e. the +vaccinations and the perfection of vaccines.</p> + +<p>It was to be supposed that all would go very well.</p> + +<p>Work in the new Institute began with ardour. But, very +soon, a strong opposition manifested itself against it.</p> + +<p>The medical administration began to make incursions into +the Institute, with a view to finding some infractions of the +regulations.</p> + +<p>Medical society was hostile to every work which issued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +from the laboratory. The institutions which had subscribed +funds for the Institute were demanding practical results, +while all necessary work towards that object was met by +every sort of obstacle.</p> + +<p>For instance, in order to destroy certain voles, very +harmful to the cereals of Southern Russia, we proposed to +make experiments as to infecting those rodents with the +microbe of chicken cholera. Laboratory experiments were +begun with that object. But, one day, I received an order from +the Prefect peremptorily forbidding those experiments. This +measure had been taken at the instigation of local physicians; +having seen in a Petersburg newspaper an article by some +one who had not a notion of bacteriology, they had assured +the Prefect that chicken cholera could turn into Asiatic cholera.</p> + +<p>I had to appeal to the General Governor, who ended by +countermanding the Prefect’s order; nevertheless this incident +was not without regrettable consequences concerning the +ulterior activities of the Institute.</p> + +<p>Apart from all that, a deep scission took place between the +members, though they were so few, of the Institute itself, and +this had fatal consequences.</p> + +<p>The men who were in charge of the practical work ceased +to work in concert; I could not take their place, being overwhelmed +with scientific researches, besides which, holding no +medical degree, I was not qualified to perform vaccinations +on human beings.</p> + +<p>Under those conditions, I understood that in my quality +as a theoretician, I should do well to retire, leaving the +laboratory to practitioners who, bearing full responsibility, +would fill the part better.</p> +</div> + +<p>During his stay at the Odessa Bacteriological +Institute, Metchnikoff had busied himself with infectious +diseases in order to answer the first objections +to his theory. He began by the microbes of erysipelas +and showed that the phenomena of the disease, as +well as those of recovery, were in full accord with +the postulates of the phagocyte theory.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p> + +<p>And then he studied relapsing fever in order to +answer Baumgarten’s objections, affirming that there +was no phagocytic reaction in that disease, though it +almost invariably ended in recovery. Experiments +on man not being possible, Metchnikoff procured +some monkeys, which he inoculated with relapsing +fever, and ascertained that Baumgarten’s error was +due to the fact that he had only looked for phagocytosis +in the patient’s blood, whilst it really took +place in the spleen.</p> + +<p>These researches on erysipelas and relapsing fever +were published in Virchow’s <i>Archives</i> in 1887. Besides +this scientific work, he was also giving lectures on +bacteriology to some physicians, and was in full productive +activity when external opposition and the +discord among his collaborators in the Institute itself +forced upon him the conviction that he could remain +there no longer.</p> + +<p>At that very moment the Prince of Oldenburg, +having founded a Bacteriological Institute at Petersburg, +invited Metchnikoff to take charge of it. He +had to refuse, fearing the Northern climate for my +health, and knowing from experience that it was +impossible for a layman to manage an Institute with +a medical staff. Yet he could not do without a +laboratory. Seeing no possibility of having one in +Russia, he decided to look abroad for a refuge and a +laboratory.</p> + +<p>“Having learnt from experience at Odessa,” he +wrote, “how difficult was the struggle against an +opposition coming from all sides and devoid of +reasonable causes, I preferred to go abroad to look +for a peaceful shelter for my scientific researches.”</p> + +<p>We were no longer held back by family considerations;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +our links with Russia had gradually loosened. +He had resigned from the University, discord reigned +at the Odessa Bacteriological Institute, conditions of +life in Russia were very unfavourable to scientific +activity; in a word, “obstacles from above, from +below, and from all sides,”—as Metchnikoff expressed +it,—gradually led to his resolution to leave his native +country.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Hygiene Congress in Vienna — Wiesbaden — Munich — Paris and Pasteur — Berlin +and Koch — Failure of anthrax vaccination of sheep — Decision +to leave Russia.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> 1887 we went to Vienna, where a Congress of +Hygienists was held, in which, for the first time, +bacteriologists took part. Metchnikoff thus had the +opportunity of becoming acquainted with many of +them and to make inquiries concerning bacteriological +laboratories. Professor Hueppe, of Wiesbaden, very +kindly invited him to come to work in his own. The +idea pleased Metchnikoff, who thought that a peaceful +little University town would be very favourable to +his work. But he found that his situation would be +very difficult at Wiesbaden on account of the lack of +harmony between the different laboratories in the +town; he therefore gave up the project which had +seemed to him so tempting.</p> + +<p>By this time many objections had been raised +against the phagocyte theory, and, Emmerich having +attacked him very violently, Metchnikoff went to +Munich to have an explanation with him. This gave +him the opportunity of realising that Munich, like +Wiesbaden, was not a place where he would care to +settle.</p> + +<p>He had a great desire to know Pasteur and his +collaborators, who had just been playing such an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +important scientific part, and, finding ourselves within +easy reach of Paris, we repaired thither, without the +slightest idea of settling there. This is how Metchnikoff +himself described his first interview with Pasteur:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>On arriving at the laboratory destined for the antirabic +vaccinations, I saw an old man, rather undersized, with a +left hemiplegia, very piercing grey eyes, a short beard +and moustache and slightly grey hair, covered by a black +skull-cap. His pale and sickly complexion and tired look +betokened a man who was not likely to live many more years. +He received me very kindly, and immediately spoke to me of +the question which interested me most, the struggle of the +organism against microbes.</p> + +<p>“I at once placed myself on your side,” he told me, “for I +have for many years been struck by the struggle between +the divers micro-organisms which I have had occasion to +observe. I believe you are on the right road.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Pasteur at that time was chiefly occupied with +antirabic vaccinations and with the building of a +new Institute in the rue Dutot. Seeing the vast +dimensions of the edifice and learning that the +scientific staff was not large, Metchnikoff asked +Pasteur if he might hope to work in one of the laboratories +in an honorary capacity. Pasteur not only +acceded to this request but offered him a whole +laboratory. He was most kind, invited us to his +home and introduced Metchnikoff to his collaborators, +who produced an excellent impression on my husband.</p> + +<p>Though all this made him incline more and more +towards the Pasteur Institute, he still dreaded life +in a large and noisy city, thinking that a peaceful +little University town would be more favourable +to his work. Therefore, before making a final decision, +he desired to visit a few more bacteriological laboratories.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span></p> + +<p>On our way back we passed through Berlin, where +Metchnikoff wished to see Professor Koch and to +show him some interesting specimens of phagocytosis. +The great <i>savant</i> received him very coldly. For a +long time, while examining specimens of the spleen in +relapsing fever, he refused to recognise in them an +example of phagocytosis. Though he was at last +obliged to bow to evidence, he yet remained unfavourable +to the phagocyte theory, and all his assistants +followed his example. Metchnikoff was much surprised +and grieved by this hostility towards his +ideas, notwithstanding that they were based on well-established +facts. We hastened to leave Berlin.</p> + +<p>Many years later, when phagocytosis was generally +admitted, even in Germany, Professor Koch and many +other German scientists welcomed Metchnikoff very +kindly, which somewhat counterbalanced the unpleasantness +of early memories. But, at that time, +the contrast between our impression of Paris and of +Germany was so great that all hesitation was at an +end: the choice was made.</p> + +<p>On returning to Odessa, Metchnikoff began to +prepare his resignation and his departure. Yet he +still had time to make some researches on phagocytosis +in tuberculosis, in reply to the objections +which rained upon his theory.</p> + +<p>In the spring, he handed over the direction of the +Institute to Dr. Gamaléia and took leave; we went +to the country for a while before our final departure. +During that time, Drs. Gamaléia and Bardach were +making anthrax vaccinations on a large scale in a +vast private property in the province of Kherson. +When we were settled in our country home, Metchnikoff +received a telegram announcing that the first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +anthrax vaccine had killed many thousand sheep. +Though, as a matter of fact, his personal responsibility +was not involved, the blow was a terrible one; he +hastened back to Odessa to elucidate the cause of +the catastrophe. But it remained obscure....</p> + +<p>This painful episode was the last drop which made +the cup brim over; it strengthened Metchnikoff in +his resolve to leave Russia.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">The Pasteur Institute — Dreams realised — Metchnikoff at fifty — Growing +optimism — Attenuated sensitiveness — The Sèvres villa — Daily +routine.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Having</span> decided to settle in France, we hastened to +make ourselves acquainted with contemporary French +literature, thinking to find in it a reflection of the +soul and manners of the nation. But the realistic +literature of the time, in spite of the great artistic +worth of many of the authors, gave us an erroneous +idea of life in France, of which it represented but one +of many aspects. It was therefore with apprehension +that we asked ourselves if we should ever be able to +adapt ourselves to the new conditions, and whether +our isolation would not be great.</p> + +<p>We arrived in Paris on the 15th of October 1888, +and we lodged at a small hotel in the Latin quarter, +not far from the rue d’Ulm where the old Pasteur +Institute stood, the new one not being completed. +There was but little room in the laboratory, and +Metchnikoff felt rather uneasy, fearing that he was +in the way. But the new Institute soon was sufficiently +advanced for him to settle there.</p> + +<p>He was given two rooms on the second floor; I +served as his assistant; he was perfectly happy at +being at last able to give himself up in peace to his +work. Soon, young physicians came to work under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +his direction. Their number having increased, he +was given a whole floor in which to instal them, +two rooms on that floor being reserved for his own +use. He occupied these rooms until the end of his +life.</p> + +<p>His dreams were at last realised. This is from +a narration of the causes which led to his departure +from Russia, in his own words:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Thus it was in Paris that I succeeded at last in practising +pure Science apart from all politics or any public function. +That dream could not have been realised in Russia because +of obstacles from above, from below, and from all sides. One +might think that the hour of science in Russia has not yet +struck. I do not believe that. I think, on the contrary, +that scientific work is indispensable to Russia, and I wish from +my heart that future conditions may become more favourable +than in the time of which I have spoken in the above +lines.</p> +</div> + +<p>Soon he was able to appreciate the great French +qualities: humanitarian manners, tolerance, and gentleness, +real freedom of thought, loyal and courteous +intercourse, all of which made life easy and agreeable. +And most precious of all were the true friendships +which he contracted with his colleagues and his +pupils. Indeed the Institut Pasteur and France +became for him a second Motherland, and when in +later years he was invited to other countries with +more liberal conditions, he habitually replied that +only for one place would he leave the Pasteur Institute, +“the neighbouring cemetery of Montparnasse.”</p> + +<p>However, after his death, the Pasteur Institute +which he had so loved continued to give him hospitality +and harboured his ashes....</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span></p> + +<p>Pasteur himself ever was most kind and helpful +to Metchnikoff. During the first years, when his +health still allowed it, he used often to come to the +laboratory, questioning Metchnikoff on his researches +with much interest and always warmly encouraging +him. He even attended assiduously his course of +lectures on inflammation. After his state of health +no longer allowed him to go out, Metchnikoff used +to visit him every day, and tried to cheer him by +talking to him of current researches.</p> + +<p>MM. Duclaux and Roux became his closest friends; +they were at first brought together by scientific +interests and by questions concerning the Institute; +but, gradually, personal sympathy grew up between +them, binding them by that solid bond which is made +up of daily occurrences, inducing respect, confidence, +and affection. Moreover, Metchnikoff felt the deepest +gratitude towards Pasteur and his collaborators, who +had given him the possibility of working in so favourable +an atmosphere.</p> + +<p>From the very first, Pasteur sympathised with the +phagocyte theory; the other members of the Institute +thought it too biological, almost vitalistic. But when +they had made themselves thoroughly cognisant with +it, they also adopted it. Thus, having found in the +Pasteur Institute not only favourable working conditions +but also moral support, Metchnikoff became +deeply attached to it, and the interests of “the House” +became his.</p> + +<p>In 1915, on the occasion of Metchnikoff’s seventieth +anniversary, M. Roux, in a Jubilee speech, gave of +him and of his work the following appreciation which +describes, better than anything I could say, what his +part was in the Pasteur Institute:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In Paris as in Petrograd, as in Odessa, you have become +a leader of thought, and you have kindled in this Institute a +scientific focus which has radiated afar.</p> + +<p>Your laboratory is more alive than any in the house; +workers come to it in crowds. There, the bacteriological +events of the day are discussed, interesting preparations +examined, ideas sought for that may help an experimenter +to solve difficulties in which he has become involved. It is +to you that one comes to ask for a control experiment on a +newly observed fact, for a criticism of a discovery that does +not always survive the test.</p> + +<p>Moreover, as you read everything, every one comes to you +for information, for an account of a newly published memoir +which there is no time to read. It is much more convenient +than to consult the library and also much safer, for errors of +translation and interpretation are avoided.</p> + +<p>Your erudition is so vast and so accurate that it is made +use of by the whole house. How many times have I not +availed myself of it? One never fears to take advantage of +it, for no scientific question ever finds you indifferent. Your +ardour warms the indolent and gives confidence to the +sceptical.</p> + +<p>You are an incomparable collaborator as I know, I who +have had the good fortune of being associated with your +researches on several occasions. Indeed, you did nearly all +the work!</p> + +<p>More even than your science, your kindliness attracts; +who amongst us has not experienced it? I have had a +touching proof of it when, many times, you have nursed me +as if I were your own child. You are so happy in doing +good that you even feel gratitude towards those whom you +serve.</p> + +<p>This is such an intimate gathering that I may be allowed +to say quite openly that it is so painful to you not to give +that you prefer being exploited rather than close your hand.</p> + +<p>The Pasteur Institute owes you much; you have brought +to it the prestige of your renown, and by your work and that +of your pupils you have greatly contributed to its glory. You<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +have given a noble example of disinterestedness by refusing +any salary in those years when the budget was balanced +with difficulty and by preferring to the glorious and lucrative +situations that were offered to you the modest life of this +house. Still a Russian by nationality, you have become +French by your choice, and you contracted a Franco-Russian +alliance with the Pasteur Institute long before the diplomats +thought of it.</p> +</div> + +<p>At the beginning the members of the Pasteur +Institute were few, and the association bore a quasi-family +character, Pasteurians often being compared +with a monastic order, united by the worship of +science. The progressive growth of the Institute +inevitably destroyed its character of intimacy, but it +remained a precious scientific focus, and this is what +Metchnikoff said of it in 1913, <i>à propos</i> of the twenty-fifth +anniversary of its foundation:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>If we weigh the for and against of the Pasteur Institute, +it is indisputable that the first surpasses the second by a +great deal. I do not think another institution exists that is +equally favourable to work. Innumerable proofs have been +adduced to attest this in the twenty-five years that our +House has existed.</p> +</div> + +<p>It was especially the development of pure scientific +research in the Institute which interested Metchnikoff; +he continually considered means of contributing +towards it; he thought it necessary to attract active +scientific forces regardless of their origin, to institute +generous scientific “scholarships,” and to stimulate +by every means scientific activity and spirit.</p> + +<p>As the rapid development of bacteriology necessitated +having recourse to chemistry, physics, and +physiology, he considered it indispensable to organise +collective work in which specialists in these divers +branches should take part, thus collaborating to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +solution of the same problem. Later he was able to +realise this project, up to a certain point, in his own +laboratory, when studying intestinal flora.</p> + +<p>He thought it would be useful to extend this +method, as far as possible, to researches such as that +on tuberculosis and on cancer, such researches being +complicated and protracted and demanding co-ordinate +efforts and an organisation that should prevent the +repetition of individual first steps. A clinic attached +to the Pasteur Institute and adapted to scientific +researches seemed to him indispensable.</p> + +<p>He also considered that the experimental study +of those human diseases which can only be inoculated +in anthropoid apes should be carried out through +the breeding of those animals in the colonies, for +infantile diseases demand very young apes as subjects +for experiments, and they cannot be brought to Europe +in sufficient numbers without great loss. A mission +of workers might carry out experiments on the spot.</p> + +<p>He thought the popularisation of science a very +useful thing and wished the Pasteur Institute to +participate in it by appropriate courses of public +lectures. He attached great importance to the penetration +into ordinary life of results acquired by science, +for the struggle against disease consists chiefly in +prophylactic and hygienic measures which can only +be applied by a well-informed public. For that +reason he was always willing to be interviewed on +scientific questions by journalists and, indeed, by any +one, however ignorant. In order to instruct the public +he often wrote popular articles on questions of hygiene +and medicine.</p> + +<p>Science in general never was a dead letter for him; +his most abstract conceptions were always narrowly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> +bound to life; he saw one through the other and +considered that they should serve each other.</p> + +<p>Apart from scientific researches, he took part in the +courses given at the Pasteur Institute. He prepared +his lectures with infinite care, and, in spite of his long +experience, he never could give them without some +nervousness, especially during the last years of his +life. He used even to write down the first sentences +and to read them out in order to give himself time to +recover; but very soon his self-control would return, +and he would proceed with animation and lucidity; +his lectures were living and suggestive.</p> + +<p>I have mentioned above Roux’s masterly appreciation +of his influence at the Pasteur Institute. The +following was written to me, a year after Metchnikoff’s +death, by one of his closest disciples and collaborators, +and describes in a vivid manner the deep feelings +with which he inspired his pupils:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"You say that you love to think that he continues to live +in others. Could it have been otherwise? A character as +powerful as his is capable of influencing and illuminating the +life, not of one individual, but of a whole generation. I look +upon it as the greatest good fortune of my life that I was +able to spend my best years in his orbit and to impregnate +my mind with his spirit, not his scientific spirit, but that +which he manifested in facing life and humanity.</p> + +<p>“This bond has become so much part of myself that my first +impulse is always to act in the way he would have approved. +I even feel the need to share with others what I received from +him. I do not know whether it will be given to me to solve +certain problems posed by him, but I have the conviction +that his spirit, in its purity, will be preserved among us. He +will ever live in those who worked by his side, and in those +who will come to work in his laboratory. It cannot be +otherwise.”</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p> + +<p>Metchnikoff on his part never remained indifferent +to his pupils. His solicitude towards them was warm, +sometimes paternal, always ready and active. Many +of his pupils remained his friends and collaborators +for years afterwards. His fiery and exclusive temperament, +however, made him take up a very different +attitude in exceptional cases, when he found himself +in front of one who persisted in a path which Metchnikoff +himself considered the wrong path, or before an +action which he thought disloyal or work done without +conscience. Then he became beside himself, and +positively dangerous to those who had exposed themselves +to the paroxysm of his indignation.</p> + +<p>Fortunately such cases were rare; as a general +rule, the atmosphere of his laboratory was impregnated +with scientific spirit and ardour; all forces in it converged +towards the same goal, being bound together +by a community of aspirations and activity of which +he was the soul.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>The first period of his life in France was taken up +by the strengthening and development of the phagocyte +theory and by an eager struggle in its defence. +He displayed in it his full energy as a scientist and +a fighter, and this was perhaps the most agitated, +the most tense period of his life.</p> + +<p>When at last his theory was securely established +and began to be accepted, he continued his researches +with the same passionate ardour but in an atmosphere +of peace. It was joy and bliss to him to be able to +work apart from other preoccupations, and the years +of his life between fifty and sixty were the happiest +he ever had.</p> + +<p>The state of his soul and his ideas had considerably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +evolved in the course of years; the great moral and +physical sensitiveness which had so often made him +miserable in his youth had decreased and he had +become much less impulsive. Unpleasant sensations +no longer caused him so much suffering; he could +bear the mewing of a cat or the barking of a dog; +personal vexations no longer made him take such a +horror of life as to wish to be rid of it: he now merely +tried to conquer them.</p> + +<p>At first this change operated less upon his ideas +than upon his sensations and sentiments. Accustomed +as he was to analyse his emotions, he realised the +development within himself of a new sense of appreciation; +less sensitive now to extreme impressions, +he had become more so to ordinary ones. For +instance, though less enchanted by music, and less +irritated by discordant noises, he enjoyed absolute +calm more fully. Now indifferent to rich food, which +he formerly used to enjoy, he appreciated simple fare, +bread and pure water. He did not seek for picturesque +sites but took infinite pleasure in watching the growth +of grass or the bursting of a bud. The first halting +steps or the smile of an infant charmed and delighted +him.</p> + +<p>Demanding less from life, he now appreciated it as +it was, and experienced the joy of mere living. The +instinct, the sense of life had been born in him. He +now saw Life and Nature under a different aspect +from that which they had borne for him in his youth, +for he had gradually acquired more balance; he had +become adapted.</p> + +<p>In their turn, his ideas evolved towards a more +optimistic conception of life. His reflections, freed from +the yoke of his juvenile sensitiveness, tended towards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +the possibility of a correction of the disharmonies +of human nature through knowledge and will. This +evolution had taken years. “In order to understand +the meaning of life,” he said, “it is necessary to live +a long time, without which one finds oneself in the +position of a congenitally blind man before whom +the beauties of colour are spread out.”</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>During the twenty-eight years that he lived in +France, nearly all his time was devoted to the laboratory. +Whilst the Institute was still in its beginning, +work there was calm and collected; but, as its +growing renown attracted many people, this quietude +decreased considerably. Metchnikoff felt this, but +could not bring himself to refuse to admit those who +came; he compensated himself by peaceful Sundays +and holidays.</p> + +<p>For a long time we inhabited the neighbourhood +of the Institute and spent the summers at Sèvres; +in 1898 we bought a small villa there with a sum +of money which we inherited from an aunt. In 1905 +we settled there altogether, for Metchnikoff, confined +in the laboratory all day, felt the need of fresh air; +the daily walk that he was obliged to take to reach +the house and the absolute calm, away from the noise +of the city, suited him; he even fancied that the hill +on which the house was built provided him with a +wholesome exercise for his heart.</p> + +<p>The return to Sèvres, which he greatly liked, was +to him a daily source of pleasure. I can see him now, +hastily coming out of the train, his pockets full of +papers and brochures which he read in the train and +parcels in his hands, for he loved to bring home little +presents. A kindly smile illumined his face and he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +never failed to express the pleasure he felt at coming +home. “How pure the air is! How green the grass! +What peace! You see, if I did not go to Paris to work +I should not be so alive to the charm of Sèvres and the +pleasure of rest.” He used to come home at seven and +do no more work; it was his daily rest. He then gave +himself up to complete relaxation, joked, related the +incidents of the day, spoke of his researches, planned +experiments for the next day, read aloud part of the +evening and then listened to music, not only because +he liked it, but also because he wanted to “switch +on to another line,” <i>i.e.</i> rest his mind completely.</p> + +<p>He was an incomparable companion, always alive +and communicative, generously giving out the treasures +of his heart and his intelligence. He liked a +simple life; all artifice, all convention displeased +him. He disliked luxury in his person to that +extent that he never consented to possess a gold +watch nor any object with no particular use. His only +luxury was to gratify others. He enjoyed peaceful +family life and a circle of intimate friends. Yet, +appreciating as he did all serious manifestations of +life, he was glad to have the opportunity of meeting +people who were interesting either in themselves or for +the knowledge which they could impart.</p> + +<p>In Life as in Science he found precepts to help +the evolution of his moral and philosophical ideas, +which he placed in their turn at Life’s service. If he +could not solve a problem, he at least pointed out its +importance.</p> + +<p>His attentive penetration of things in themselves, +coupled with a creative imagination, was the force +which enabled him to open out new prospects and +new paths.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p> + +<p>On looking back upon his own life, he used to say +that the period spent at the Pasteur Institute had +been the happiest, the most favourable to his scientific +work; he therefore remained deeply attached to it +until the end of his life.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Opposition to the phagocyte theory — Scientific controversies — Experiments +in support of the phagocyte theory — Behring and antitoxins — The +London Congress — Inflammation.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">As</span> long as Metchnikoff was but a zoologist, the +scientific atmosphere around him remained calm and +serene. But everything changed suddenly when he +entered the domain of pathology with his theory of +phagocytes and phagocytosis.</p> + +<p>Here was the realm of secular traditions, deeply +rooted, and of theories generally admitted but resting +on no biological basis. Attacks and objections against +his theories came following upon each other with a +rush, only to be compared with the racing clouds of a +stormy sky or the hurrying waves of a tempestuous +sea. An epic struggle began for Metchnikoff which +was to last for twenty-five years, until the moment +when the phagocyte theory, his child now grown +up, emerged victoriously. To each attack, to each +objection, he answered by fresh experiments, fresh +observations annihilating objections; his theory was +assuming a wider and wider scope, becoming more +solid, more convincing.... But only his intimates +knew how much the struggle cost him in vital force, +what sleepless nights, due to continuous cerebral +tension and to the effort to conceive some new and +irrefragable experiment, what alternations of hope<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +and depression.... In an ardent, stormy life such +as this, each year counted for many.</p> + +<p>As soon as he arrived at the Pasteur Institute +he undertook active researches with the object of +developing and defending the phagocyte theory.</p> + +<p>By experiments on the <i>rouget</i> of pigs he refuted +the objections of Emmerich, who affirmed that, in +that disease, the destruction of the microbes was not +due to phagocytes. By experiments on the anthrax +of pigeons he answered the attacks of Baumgarten +and his pupils. To Behring, who affirmed that +immunity was due to the bactericidal power of the +serum, he replied by a series of experiments on the +anthrax of rats.</p> + +<p>By all these researches Metchnikoff proved that +recovery and immunity depended on the absorption +and digestion of <i>living, virulent</i> microbes by +phagocytes. Natural or artificial vaccination by +attenuated microbes allows the phagocytes to become +gradually accustomed to digest more virulent ones, +and this confers immunity upon the organism. That +phenomenon is comparable to that by which we can +accustom ourselves gradually to doses of poison which +would be very harmful if taken at the start (arsenic, +opium, nicotine, etc.).</p> + +<p>Little by little, the accuracy of Metchnikoff’s observations +began to be realised, and, moreover, other +scientists supported him by their personal investigations. +The part played by phagocytosis was +becoming more and more evident and the question +was ripening in France and in England, but in Germany +it still met with great opposition.</p> + +<p>At the Berlin Congress in 1890 the theory was +received very favourably by Lister, whilst Koch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +attacked it, trying to prove that phagocytes played +no part in immunity, which, according to him, +depended upon the chemical properties of the blood.</p> + +<p>Soon after that, Behring discovered antitoxins, +and this seemed to favour the chemical or humoral +theory of immunity. According to the latter, microbes +and their poisons were rendered harmless by the +chemical properties of the blood serum, properties +similar to those of disinfecting substances.</p> + +<p>In spite of his firm conviction of the solidity of the +phagocyte theory, this discovery was a shock to +Metchnikoff, for it was in apparent contradiction with +the cellular theory of immunity. He hastened to +undertake a series of researches; his overflowing +eagerness infected his whole circle, every one taking +the warmest interest in the progress of his experiments.</p> + +<p>This was just as preparations were being made to +take part in the London Congress, where the question +of immunity was to be debated and had indeed been +placed at the head of the programme. Many papers +were being prepared, and a veritable tourney of +opinions was to take place at this Congress.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff had already been to England once, +in the spring of 1891, on the occasion of his reception +as an Honorary Doctor by the University of Cambridge. +This gave him the opportunity of making +closer acquaintance with the English, who inspired +him with great sympathy; years only increased this +feeling. He appreciated the originality of their +earnest and generalising spirit, their loyalty and +energy; he was grateful to them for the attentive +and favourable attitude with which his scientific +work and himself had been received.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p> + +<p>He was therefore delighted that this Congress, +which was to be the scene of his final struggle against +his contradictors, should take place in England and +not in Germany, a country hostile to his ideas.</p> + +<p>In view of the importance of the coming debate, +a series of fresh experiments was made. This time +Metchnikoff undertook them not only in person, but +also in collaboration with M. Roux and with some +students. The whole laboratory was in a state of +effervescence.</p> + +<p>The principal papers to be read at the Congress +on the question of immunity were those of Messrs. +Roux and Büchner, the first entirely in favour of the +phagocyte theory and the second supporting the +humoral theory.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff read an epitome of his researches and +of his answers to attacks on his theory. Towards the +end of the Congress the latter had visibly acquired +the suffrage of numerous scientists. Roux wrote to +me from London concerning my husband’s paper:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Metchnikoff is busy showing his preparations and, besides, +he would not tell you how great is his triumph. He spoke +with such passion that he carried everybody with him. I +believe that, this evening, the phagocyte theory is the richer +by many friends.</p> +</div> + +<p>Thus the researches made in recent years and the +results of the London Congress allowed us to consider +the phagocyte theory of immunity as being solidly +established.</p> + +<p>Yet, Behring’s discovery of antitoxins still hung +over it like a sword of Damocles; it was imperative +that the respective parts played by antitoxins and +by phagocytes should be elucidated. With that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +object in view, Metchnikoff undertook new researches +and succeeded in ascertaining once for all the narrow +link between immunity and the function of the +phagocytes which probably elaborate the antitoxins +as a product of their digestion of vaccinal toxins. He +drew this conclusion from the fact that, in a rabbit +vaccinated against hog-cholera, the exudate devoid +of phagocytes<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> is neither bactericidal, nor antitoxic, +nor attenuating, while it is so if it contains phagocytes. +Therefore a relation of causality exists between cells +and the acquired properties of humors. And the +resistance of the animal is in visible correlation with +the degree of phagocytosis which is manifested by it.</p> + +<p>These results having been established, it seemed +as if the last rampart of the humoral theory had been +taken by storm.</p> + +<p>In the meanwhile the persistent and bitter opposition +of physicians to the phagocyte theory made a +great impression on Metchnikoff, and, while stimulating +his energy in defence of his ideas, it maintained +him in a state of nervous excitement and even +depressed him.</p> + +<p>He asked himself why this obstinate opposition +to a doctrine based on well-established facts, easily +tested and observed throughout the whole animal +kingdom? To him, a naturalist, it seemed clear and +simple and all the more admissible that it was confirmed +by the generality of its application to all +living beings.</p> + +<p>But, he thought, perhaps the real cause of the +attitude of the contradictors lies in the very fact +that medical science only concerns itself with the +pathological phenomena of higher animals, leaving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +their evolution entirely out of account, as well as +their starting-point in lower animals—whilst it is +the very simplicity of the latter which allows us to +penetrate to the origin of the phenomena.</p> + +<p>Perhaps a general plan of the whole, in the shape +of a comparative study, embracing the whole animal +scale, would throw light over the generality of phagocytic +phenomena and would make their continuity +understood through normal and pathological biology. +He determined to make this effort. In order to place +in a fresh light the biological evolution of phagocytosis +phenomena <i>in disease</i>, he chose one of the principal +manifestations of pathological phagocytosis, <i>inflammation</i>, +and, in 1891, gave a series of lectures on this +subject which he afterwards published in a volume. +According to his usual method, he began by the +most primitive beings, taking as a starting-point the +lower organisms which do not yet possess differentiated +functions, and whose normal digestion is, if necessary, +used as a means of defence against noxious agents. +Then, by a comparative study in every grade of +the animal kingdom, he proved that the same mode +of struggle and defence persists in the mesodermic +cells, the phagocytes in all animals in general. +In all of them, thanks to a special sensitiveness, +<i>Chimiotaxis</i>, phagocytes move towards the intruder, +to englobe it and digest it if they can. This reaction +for defence by the organism takes place in beings +endowed with a vascular system by the migration +of the blood-phagocytes which traverse the walls of +the blood-vessels in order to betake themselves to +the invaded point.</p> + +<p>In higher animals, all the symptoms which accompany +this phenomenon of defence and which constitute<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +the classical picture of inflammation (a heightened +temperature, pain, redness, tumefaction) are due to +the complexity of the organism; but the <i>essence</i>, the +<i>primum movens</i> of inflammation, with them also, is +a <i>digestive</i> action of the phagocytes upon the noxious +agent, therefore a salutary reaction of the organism, +essentially similar to the normal digestion of inferior +beings. Metchnikoff adduced numerous examples +giving evidence of the genetic link which exists +between inflammation and normal intracellular +digestion, and while establishing the evolution of +the former on biological and experimental bases, he +showed at the same time the close connection which +binds normal biology and pathological biology.</p> + +<p>This series of lectures formed a volume which +appeared in 1892 under the title of <i>Leçons sur la +pathologie comparée de l’inflammation</i>, a book which +contributed to the acceptation of the phagocyte +theory and which showed the importance of Natural +History applied to Medicine.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Cholera — Experiments on himself and others — Illness of M. Jupille — Death +of an epileptic subject — Insufficient results.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> acute period of the struggle in defence of the +phagocyte theory now seemed to have come to an +end and Metchnikoff turned his thoughts towards a +new field of ideas.</p> + +<p>Having elucidated the essence of inflammation, +he wished to study the origin of another pathological +symptom, <i>i.e.</i> the rise in temperature which constitutes +a feverish condition. To that end he undertook a +succession of experiments on cold-blooded animals; he +injected microbes into crocodiles and serpents, hoping +thus to provoke a rise in their temperature. But +those experiments did not give the results expected.</p> + +<p>In the meanwhile (1892) cholera had made its +appearance in France; the specificity of the cholera +vibrio was not finally established at that time. The +observations made by Pettenkoffer on the immunity +of certain regions, despite the presence of the cholera +vibrio in the water, and the experiments made upon +himself by that scientist, seemed to plead against the +specificity of the cholera vibrio; but other facts spoke +in its favour. Desirous of solving this question, +Metchnikoff went to a cholera centre in Brittany +in order to fetch the necessary materials. Having +done so, he attempted to produce cholera in divers +kinds of animals, but without success.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p> + +<p>As he failed to solve the problem of the specificity +of the cholera vibrio on animals, he resolved to experiment +upon himself and consumed a culture of cholera +vibriones. He did not contract cholera, which made +him doubt the specificity of the vibrio, and therefore +he consented to repeat the experiment on one of his +workers (M. Latapie) who offered to submit to it: +the result was the same. He then did not hesitate +to accept the offer of a second volunteer (M. Jupille). +The preceding results having led him to suppose that +the cholera vibrio became attenuated <i>in vitro</i> and +might perhaps serve as a vaccine against cholera, he +gave a culture of long standing to the young volunteer.</p> + +<p>To his astonishment and despair, Jupille began +to manifest the typical symptoms of cholera, and a +doctor who was particularly conversant with the +clinical chart of the disease declared the case a +severe one because of the nervous symptoms which +accompanied it.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff was in mortal anxiety, and even said +to himself that he could not survive a fatal issue. +Fortunately the patient recovered, and this terrifying +experiment proved indisputably the specificity of the +cholera vibrio. Yet the irregularity of its action +showed that in certain cases conditions existed which +prevented the inception of the disease, and Metchnikoff +supposed that this might be due to the action of +the different intestinal micro-organisms.</p> + +<p>In order to simplify the question, he began by +making experiments outside the organism. He sowed +the cholera vibrio with divers other microbes and +saw that some of them facilitated its culture whilst +others prevented it. Similar experiments within the +organism of animals gave no conclusive results; the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +simultaneous ingestion of the cholera vibrio and of +favourable microbes did not induce cholera.</p> + +<p>The flora of the intestines, complex as it is, probably +played a part on which it was difficult to throw any +light. Yet Metchnikoff did not give up the idea of +producing a vaccine against this disease with attenuated +microbes, or, if not, to prevent its inception by +preventive microbes. His thesis was strengthened +when one of his pupils, Dr. Sanarelli, discovered a +series of choleriform bacilli in the absence of any +cholera epidemic, one of those microbes being found +at Versailles, a town which had remained immune +during every cholera epidemic.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff thought that this microbe, or some +choleriform bacillus, similar though not specific, probably +served as a natural vaccine against cholera in those +localities which were spared by the epidemic though +the cholera vibrio was brought there. This was a +question that could only be solved by experiment.</p> + +<p>At the time when he had himself absorbed a +cholera culture, Metchnikoff admitted the risk of +catching the disease; still, his eagerness to solve the +problem had silenced in him all other considerations +and feelings opposed to his irresistible desire to attempt +the experiment. This “psychosis,” as he himself +called it later, recurred now, in spite of all the emotions +he had gone through on the previous occasion, and he +decided once again to experiment on man. It is true +that he now only had to deal with choleriform microbes +from Versailles which he believed to be quite harmless +as they came from the water of a locality free +from cholera. He therefore ingested some of the +Versailles choleriform vibriones and gave some to +several other people. Contrary to expectation, one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +of the latter, an incurable epileptic, showed some +symptoms of cholera, but recovered. But as, a +short time later, this patient died from a cause +which remained obscure, Metchnikoff thought that +possibly the experiment might have had something +to do with it, and finally resolved to perform no +other experiments on human beings.</p> + +<p>How could that unforeseen result be explained? +Metchnikoff supposed that the intestine of the subject +contained favourable microbes which had exalted the +virulence of the bacillus, in itself weak and innocuous. +If it were so, then certain intestinal microbes would +influence the inception of diseases and the action of +the micro-organisms would vary according to the +society in which they found themselves. As such +problems could only be solved through experiment, +he again energetically sought for a means of conferring +cholera upon animals. After many failures +and difficulties, it occurred to him to try new-born +animals whose intestinal flora, not yet developed, +could not interfere with the swarming of the ingested +bacilli. He chose young suckling rabbits for his +experiments and, with the aid of <i>favourable</i> microbes, +he succeeded at last in giving them characteristic +cholera, through ingestion; thus it became possible +to study intestinal cholera on these animals.</p> + +<p>However, numerous researches on the prevention +of cholera by means of divers microbes gave no results +sufficiently conclusive to permit their application +to human beings. The problem was rendered extremely +complicated and difficult by the many and +varied influences of numerous intestinal microbes and +the inconstancy of microbian species in the same +individual.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXV" id="CHAPTER_XXV">CHAPTER XXV</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Pfeiffer’s experiments, 1895 — The Buda-Pest Congress — Extracellular +destruction of microbes — Reaction of the organism against toxins — Dr. +Besredka’s researches — Macrophages — The Moscow Congress, +1897 — Bordet’s experiments.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Metchnikoff</span> had scarcely recovered from all the +emotions caused by his experiments on cholera, which +he was still studying, when, in 1894, a work appeared +by a well-known German scientist, Pfeiffer, bringing +out new facts in favour of the extracellular destruction +of microbes.</p> + +<p>Whilst studying the influence of the blood serum +within the organism and not outside it as his predecessors +had done, he had found that cholera +vibriones, injected into the peritoneum of a guinea-pig +vaccinated against cholera, were nearly all killed +in a few minutes and that they then presented the +form of motionless granules in the peritoneal liquid. +This granular degenescence, said Pfeiffer, took place +apart from the phagocytes and therefore without +their intervention. Metchnikoff repeated the experiment +at once and ascertained that it was perfectly +accurate.</p> + +<p>The complexity of biological phenomena being +very great, he fully admitted the possibility of other +means of defence in the organism besides that of +the phagocytic reaction. However, this new fact +disagreed so much with his own observation, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +seemed so isolated, that Metchnikoff supposed an +error of interpretation must have been made and +tried to throw light upon it. He spent sleepless +nights seeking the conclusive experiment which might +explain Pfeiffer’s phenomenon.</p> + +<p>His excitement was all the greater that he was +very soon going to the International Congress at +Buda-Pest, where he intended to expose the results +of his new researches, and he feared that he should +not have time to make all the experiments which he +required in support of his arguments. However, the +general impression of the Congress was clearly favourable +to the phagocyte theory. This is how M. Roux +picturesquely described the scene at Metchnikoff’s +Jubilee in 1915:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"I can see you now at the Buda-Pest Congress in 1894, +disputing with your antagonists; with your fiery face, +sparkling eyes, and dishevelled hair, you looked like the +Dæmon of Science, but your words, your irresistible arguments +raised the applause of your audience.</p> + +<p>“The new facts, which had at first sight seemed to contradict +the phagocyte theory, now entered into harmony with it. +It was found to be sufficiently comprehensive to reconcile the +holders of the humoral theory with the partisans of the +cellular theory.”</p> +</div> + +<p>This is how Metchnikoff had reconciled the apparent +disagreement of Pfeiffer’s phenomenon with the +phagocyte doctrine: he demonstrated, by a series of +experiments, that the extracellular destruction of the +cholera vibriones in the peritoneum of a guinea-pig +vaccinated against cholera, did in no wise depend on +the <i>chemical</i> properties of the blood serum, but was +simply due to the digestive juices which had escaped +from the inside of the leucocytes, damaged by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +intraperitoneal injection. Those digestive juices, or +<i>cytases</i>, poured into the peritoneal liquid were what +killed the injected cholera vibriones and transformed +them into “Pfeiffer’s granulations.” On the other +hand, if by means of various precautions the phagocytes +were left unmolested, the extracellular destruction +did not take place and the vibriones were digested +within the phagocytes.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff used other experiments to prove that +the bactericidal property of blood juices did not exist +without intervention from the phagocytes. For +instance, in a guinea-pig vaccinated against cholera, +the bacilli are not destroyed if they are injected into +parts of the organism that are devoid of pre-existing +phagocytes, such as in the subcutaneous tissue, in +the anterior chamber of the eye or in an aseptically-obtained +œdema. On the other hand, if, in the same +medium, some exudate is injected containing damaged +leucocytes from which the digestive juice is leaking, +the vibriones introduced are destroyed. The same +results are obtained <i>in vitro</i>.</p> + +<p>All these experiments proved that the extracellular +destruction of the cholera vibrio was accomplished +by the digestive juices which had passed from +the phagocytes into the humors and not at all through +a special property of those humors. Once again the +phagocyte theory rose triumphant from the test.</p> + +<p>After having finally proved that it is by means of +its phagocytes that the organism fights <i>microbes</i>, +Metchnikoff wished to find out whether it was by +the same process that it struggled with their poisons, +or <i>toxins</i>. This problem, far more difficult to solve, +took him many years’ study. Whilst every phase +of the phagocytes’ struggle against microbes can be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> +followed with the eyes, it is impossible to do so where +poisons are concerned, since they are invisible; it +is necessary to proceed by a different road.</p> + +<p>Faithful to his method of taking as a starting-point +the simplest expression of the phenomenon to be +studied, Metchnikoff began by lower beings. Unicellular +organisms, such as myxomycetes, amœbæ, +and infusoria, sometimes manifest a natural immunity +to certain poisons. It is also possible to endow +them with artificial immunity by accustoming them +gradually to substances which, ingested straight away, +would infallibly have killed them. Such phenomena, +seen in unicellular beings, could only be ascribed to +the reaction of the cell itself. Therefore Metchnikoff +supposed <i>a priori</i> that the phagocytes, being +similar primitive cells of multicellular beings, would +also react against poisons. And, in fact, he ascertained +that the number of phagocytes in a rabbit’s +blood diminished considerably under the influence of +a fatal dose of arsenic, whilst it increased under the +influence of small doses of the poison, to which it was +possible to accustom the animal.</p> + +<p>Dr. Besredka, a disciple of Metchnikoff, made some +very interesting researches, which entirely confirmed +the share of the phagocytes in the reaction against +sulphides of arsenic. He had chosen the trisulphide, +a very slightly soluble salt of an orange colour, in +order to find it again easily within the organism. +After having injected non-fatal doses of it into the +peritoneal cavity, he obtained an exudate in which +all the orange granules of the salt were to be found +included within those leucocytes which have a large, +non-lobed nucleus—the <i>macrophages</i>. These cells +gradually digested the salt they had englobed, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +ended by disappearing entirely within them, and the +rabbit remained safe and sound. On the other hand, +it died if the same doses of the same salt had been +protected from the leucocytes by an elderberry bag, +or when the leucocytes had been attracted elsewhere +by a previous injection of carmine for instance. +Those experiments removed all doubts as to the +share of the phagocytes in the destruction of mineral +poisons.</p> + +<p>Certain experiments on <i>microbian</i> poisons spoke +in the same sense. Thus MM. Roux and Borrel had +observed that the diphtheritic toxin, which is inoffensive +to rats even in large doses, kills that animal +if a small quantity of it is introduced into the brain, +the probable explanation being that, in cases of subcutaneous +injections, the poison, “phagocyted” on the +way, was destroyed before it reached the nerve cells.</p> + +<p>Thus experiments seemed to plead in favour of +the view that the part played by phagocytosis is not +limited to the struggle against microbes, but also +extends to the defence against poisons and toxins.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>After having studied the mode of destruction of +these, Metchnikoff wished to elucidate the origin of +the counter-poisons, the specific antitoxins discovered +by Behring in the humors of immunised organisms, +a question of which the study was even more difficult.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff began by asking himself whether the +microbes themselves did not produce antitoxins in +order to defend themselves against enemy micro-organisms. +He made many experiments but only +obtained negative results, and concluded that the +antitoxins must be manufactured by the organism +itself.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p> + +<p>The origin of this property must be more recent +than that of the phagocytic reaction, for it does not +exist in plants or in inferior animals. It was only +from superior cold-blooded vertebrates, such as the +crocodile—and that only in artificial conditions—and +upwards, that Metchnikoff succeeded in finding a +specific antitoxic power in the humors.</p> + +<p>He ascertained that the vaccination of animals by +toxins conferred, after a time, antitoxic powers to the +blood and humors <i>which contained leucocytes</i>. He +concluded therefrom that the presence of antitoxins +depended on that of the phagocytes. Experiments on +divers higher animals having proved that, in them +also, antitoxins were localised in <i>humors containing +phagocytes</i>, Metchnikoff concluded that the antitoxins +were manufactured by the cells themselves. As +toxins are absorbed and digested chiefly by <i>macrophages</i>, +it is probable that it is the latter also which +manufacture specific antitoxins, or the final product +of the digestion of corresponding toxins. Metchnikoff +could only propound this idea as an hypothesis, +for the complexity and difficulty of a material demonstration +did not yet allow of a definite solution of the +problem. However, certain observations on toxins +and antitoxins pleaded in favour of this thesis.</p> + +<p>For instance, working in collaboration with MM. +Roux and Salimbeni, he had found that it is by +soluble poisons that the cholera vibrions harm the +organism or kill it, but that small doses of the same +<i>poisons</i> are vaccines and make the blood of the vaccinated +animal <i>antitoxic</i>. On the other hand, a +<i>microbian</i> vaccination is preventive against <i>microbes</i> +only but not against toxins and the blood does not +become antitoxic. This is explained by the fact that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +it is not the same cells which digest cholera microbes +and cholera toxins: the <i>microphages</i> digest the +vibriones whilst the <i>macrophages</i> digest the poisons +and, probably, manufacture as products of this +digestion, the corresponding antibody, the cholera +antitoxins.</p> + +<p>On the contrary, in cases of the inclusion of +<i>microbes</i> by <i>macrophages</i>, as, for instance, in plague, +the blood acquires an <i>antitoxic</i> power by injection of +the microbes themselves and not by their toxins, as +was demonstrated by M. Roux and his collaborators. +The same fact was observed by Metchnikoff on the +alligator, in whom also microbes are digested by +<i>macrophages</i>. In those cases, when microbes and toxins +are digested by the same cells, the latter manufacture +antibodies against both.</p> + +<p>These facts rendered legitimate the supposition +of the macrophagic origin of antitoxins.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>In 1897 an International Congress took place in +Moscow. Metchnikoff read a paper on the phagocytic +reaction against toxins and another dealing +with the whole of the knowledge acquired concerning +human plague. He ended this by a plea in favour of +Science, so often accused of having contributed +nothing to the solution of the most important human +problems, particularly ethical ones, and of having, +on the contrary, sanctioned the law of Might by +tabulating the laws of the struggle for existence. +Metchnikoff objected that, far from doing so, Science, +by revealing the laws of Nature, applied to humanity +the benefits derived from them, whilst striving to +counterbalance their cruel or harmful effects. The +struggle against plague and other diseases was a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +concrete example of this, for here medical science +opposed itself to the cruelty of “natural selection.” +He wound up his speech by the following words, +“Just as, in order to satisfy his æsthetic tastes, +Man revolts against the laws of Nature which creates +races of sterile and fragile flowers, he does not hesitate +to defend the weak against the laws of natural +selection. Science has been faithful to her mission +and to her generous traditions. Let her, then, progress +unhindered.”</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff’s friend and companion, M. Nocard, +wrote to me concerning Metchnikoff’s paper:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Do not believe a word that Metchnikoff tells you. He +had tremendous success. The somewhat free form of his +paper contributed to its success, as it only made his conviction +and enthusiasm more apparent. Thus the Sibyl on her +tripod.</p> +</div> + +<p>Metchnikoff had at this period a very talented +disciple, M. I. Bordet, who opened a new path by +a series of researches of the greatest importance. +He found, among other things, that “the figured +elements” can be destroyed outside the cells, in the +humors. Thus, if red blood corpuscles from one animal +are injected into an animal of a different kind, these +globules are destroyed, not within the phagocytes, +but outside them, in the ambient humors. Metchnikoff +studied this phenomenon and proved that the explanation +was the same that he had previously given of +Pfeiffer’s phenomenon in the case of cholera vibrions. +In Bordet’s experiments, the leucocytes which were +already existing in the humors were also damaged by +the experimental shock; but, if this was carefully +avoided, the phagocytes, remaining intact, englobed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +and digested the injected red corpuscles and no +phenomenon similar to Pfeiffer’s took place.</p> + +<p>These observations led Metchnikoff to a thorough +study of the destruction of cellular elements by the +phagocytes. He had already observed that, whilst the +struggle with microbes is chiefly undertaken by small +leucocytes with a lobed nucleus—the <i>microphages</i>—it +is the great leucocytes with a single large nucleus—the +so-called <i>macrophages</i>—which undertake the +destruction of cells, “figured” elements, as well as that +of toxins. The <i>macrophages</i> are to be found not only +in the blood but also in different organs such as the +liver, spleen, kidneys, etc.; they seize upon living +cells by means of mobile protoplasmic prolongations +with which they draw them in and end by ingesting +them completely. Not only do they thus absorb +foreign cellular elements such as red corpuscles, +spermatozoa, etc., but also all the weakened cells +of the organism itself.</p> + +<p>This weakening may be due to normal phenomena +such as the metamorphosis of insects or tadpoles, +when certain organs, as they weaken, become useless +or inactive. But, oftener, this weakening is due to +pathological causes, as in morbid atrophies or poisoning +by microbian toxins. In any case, the enfeeblement +of cells exposes them to be devoured by macrophages, +which brings about the atrophy of the cells +or even of the organs which contain them.</p> + +<p>These observations suggested to Metchnikoff the +idea that senile atrophy might be due to the same +mechanism, and his thoughts turned towards the +problem of the causes of old age.</p> + +<p>But, before undertaking researches in a new +direction, he wished to conclude those he had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +pursuing for twenty years on the phenomenon of +phagocytosis. He therefore started to complete his +investigations on immunity in order to epitomise +them and to give a definite form to his doctrine on +that subject.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXVI">CHAPTER XXVI</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">1900. Immunity — Natural Immunity — Artificial Immunity.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">For</span> centuries the question of immunity has occupied +the human mind because the prevention of disease +has ever been one of the greatest preoccupations of +Man. Savages had already observed that man can +become refractory to the venom of serpents, either +through a slight bite or by the application of certain +preparations of that venom on scarified skin. It +was also a popular and very ancient notion that the +contact of a slightly scratched hand with the pustules +of cow-pox conferred immunity against human small-pox. +It was on this observation that Jenner founded +his method of antivariolic vaccination. The latter, +in its turn, suggested to Pasteur the idea of attempting +antimicrobian vaccinations. Having ascertained that +old cultures of chicken cholera, previously very virulent, +had become harmless, he wondered whether they +had become a vaccine and proved by experiment +that they had. That led him to the principle of the +attenuation of viruses and to that of vaccination +by attenuated microbes. Thus the problem of the +mechanism of immunity was stated.</p> + +<p>The first theories propounded on the subject concerned +the humors. Pasteur supposed that immunity +was due to the absorption, by the vaccinating +microbes, of certain nutritive substances in the humors,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +which, not being renewed for some time, were missed +by the microbes afterwards introduced into the organism, +which therefore could not develop completely. +Chauveau, on the other hand, thought that, in cases +of immunity, the humors contained substances which +were unfavourable to microbes. Those theories explained +particular facts, but were not applicable to +the generality of cases.</p> + +<p>Other theories,<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> whilst attributing an active part +to the organism itself, failed to account for the +mechanism of immunity in general. This was due +to the fact that knowledge at that time lacked the +two essential elements, <i>i.e.</i> the modifications suffered +by the organism which was becoming immunised, and +the fate of the microbes in the refractory organism.</p> + +<p>The disappearance of the microbes in the cured +or refractory animal had indeed been observed;<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> the +inflammatory reaction of the organism in the course +of immunisation had been noted;<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> microbes had +long ago been observed inside the white globules of +pus;<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> but, either an erroneous interpretation was +given to the facts observed, or, rather, the links of +causality between those factors failed to be established +because they were observed solely in the complicated +organism of superior beings. Humoral theories, less +easy to test, preserved an appearance of generality +and were easily admitted.</p> + +<p>Such was the state of the question when Metchnikoff +approached it from a naturalist’s point of view. +He knew the life of unicellular beings and that of the +lower multicellular organisms in their complete simplicity;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +he knew their mode of defence by ingestion +and intracellular digestion. Having become familiar +with these phenomena, visible in the single cell, he +was better able to see his way in the complicated +<i>milieu</i> of higher beings. He was therefore able to +discover the connection between the divers factors +which other scientists had observed singly. He was +able to prove that it is the combination of these +factors, <i>i.e.</i> inflammation, the ingestion of living and +virulent microbes, and their disappearance by means +of intracellular digestion which makes immunity +possible. He demonstrated that “there is but one +permanent element in natural or acquired immunity, +and that is phagocytosis.”</p> + +<p>The extension and importance of this factor, +applicable to the whole animal kingdom, proved the +truth and general scope of the phagocyte doctrine +of immunity.</p> + +<p>In 1900, Metchnikoff presented to the International +Congress in Paris a complete tabulation of +his researches and fought his contradictors for the +last time, after which, convinced that his deductions +were solid, he began to write a work on <i>Immunity in +Infectious Diseases</i>. In it he epitomised, as in a great +harmonious chord, the results of his researches, reaching +over a period of nearly twenty years; he affirmed +and gave final expression to his doctrine of immunity, +based on the comparative study of the mechanism of +that phenomenon and of its evolution along the whole +scale of living beings; he related his controversies, +analysed the objections to his doctrine, expounded +the theories of other scientists concerning immunity, +and gave a general view of the present state of +the question. This book is a living picture of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +long and important part of Metchnikoff’s scientific +achievements.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>The question of immunity is of such great importance, +the mechanism of this phenomenon and +the physiology of intracellular digestion are so complicated, +that I have thought it useful to epitomise +here the exposition given of it by Metchnikoff in his +book. Readers who do not care to go further into +the subject can pass over the next few pages without +hindering their comprehension of the following +chapters.</p> + +<p>Diseases affect all living beings, and the greater +number of plants and animals would cease to exist +without innate or acquired immunity.</p> + +<p>Unicellular beings are generally immune against +infectious diseases, which are rarely observed in them. +Their body being almost entirely made up of digestive +protoplasm, the microbes which they absorb are +directly introduced into a noxious medium and are +destroyed therein like any other food. If the +microbes are indigestible, they are immediately +rejected; hence, in the majority of cases, they +cannot become harmful.</p> + +<p>This resistance of unicellular beings to many +microbes and microbian toxins is due not only to +the intense digestive power of the cell but also to +the extreme sensitiveness which rules over the choice +of food. Owing to this protoplasmic sensitiveness +(<i>chimiotaxis</i>) protozoa are attracted towards certain +microbes or substances (positive chimiotaxis) and repelled +by others (negative chimiotaxis). Thus, many +ciliate infusoria choose bacteria only for their food; +they are sharply repelled by dead infusoria, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span></p> + +<p>Therefore, in the <i>natural</i> immunity of unicellular +beings, two fundamental elements may already be +observed: sensitiveness and intracellular digestion. +No researches have yet been made on the possibility of +conferring on protozoa an artificial immunity against +certain pathogenic microbes and their poisons. But +unicellular beings, insensible to microbian poisons, are +the reverse to many chemical substances which, in their +normal life, they have no opportunity of ingesting.</p> + +<p>It has been proved by experiment that, against +many of those chemical substances, an artificial immunity +may be given to the protozoa by accustoming +them gradually. Very diluted solutions are added at +first to the medium in which they live and, by gradually +concentrating those solutions, an artificial immunity +is conferred; the negative chimiotaxis becomes +positive, allowing the protozoa to absorb and digest +the poison, now become a food.</p> + +<p><i>Habit</i> is therefore the fundamental condition of +artificial immunity; it must be that also of immunity +naturally acquired. Having accidentally digested +enfeebled microbes or having suffered an attack of +disease, the unicellular being becomes accustomed to +a stronger virus and becomes immune against it. +The fact that so many unicellular beings have become +thus accustomed is therefore connected with their +sensitiveness and their digestion. Accordingly, +sensitiveness, habit, and digestion are the fundamental +factors of the mechanism of immunity in +protozoa; this immunity thus indisputably belongs +to the category of purely <i>cellular</i> phenomena.</p> + +<p>Having arrived at this conclusion, Metchnikoff +thought that the same mechanism of immunity must +be found in other primitive and analogous cells, such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +as the phagocytes of multicellular beings. This was +proved by a whole series of observations and by the +fact that the immunity of higher animals is connected +with an intense phagocytosis. In fact, as he ascended +the scale of beings and studied their natural and +artificial immunity, he ascertained that, in all of them, +the essence of immunity, masked by the complexity +of the organism, reduced itself to the <i>phagocytes +becoming accustomed</i> to noxious agents. The mechanism +of immunity in protozoa could therefore really be +compared with that of immunity in multicellular +beings.</p> + +<p>Becoming accustomed and becoming immune are +phenomena of a general order, for they can be manifested +not only by animals, but also by plants. They, +too, have to defend themselves against numerous +diseases. Lower vegetables, such as myxomycetes +(beings which stand on the limit between the animal +and vegetable kingdoms), have an amœboid phase, +in which they are but a simple heap of formless +protoplasm. During that stage of their life, myxomycete +behave towards noxious agents exactly in +the same way as unicellular beings and, like them, +acquire immunity by becoming gradually accustomed.</p> + +<p>In higher vegetables, the mechanism is different +because of their structure. The cells of nearly all +plants are immobilised by rigid membranes; therefore +they cannot surround their prey, but protect +themselves by the production of tough membranes +(cicatrisation) and by the secretion of various juices. +Certain of these juices (gums and resins) become +solid when exposed to the air and constitute a sort +of natural (dressing); others (essences) are antiseptic. +The secretion of these cellular juices in plants is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +therefore a powerful means of defence. This defence +is due to the extreme sensitiveness of the protoplasma +of vegetable cells: they react against irritation by a +defensive secretion. Vegetables, as well as unicellular +beings, can accustom themselves or become artificially +accustomed to noxious influences and acquire immunity.</p> + +<p>As to animals, Metchnikoff had already proved +long ago that they defend themselves against morbid +agents by phagocytosis, <i>i.e.</i> by intracellular digestion. +It is always to be found in cases of immunity and is +indispensable to it, on the same grounds as in unicellular +beings. The organism of multicellular animals +possesses various cells which play the part of phagocytes. +There are some in the blood and humors, as +also in the divers organs and in the tissues. These +phagocytes are either mobile—leucocytes, or fixed—tissue-cells. +However, all those cells may be classed +into two principal groups: the microphages and the +macrophages. Both categories of cells are capable of +digesting microbes, but it is chiefly done by the microphages, +whilst macrophages more especially digest +figured elements (cells) of animal origin and poisons. +It may be said that the microphages are vegetarians +whilst the macrophages are chiefly carnivorous.</p> + +<p>What, then, is the mechanism of phagocytic +digestion?</p> + +<p>Intracellular digestion by phagocytes is accomplished +by means of digestive ferments, similar to +those of our own digestive organs. “In both cases,” +says Metchnikoff, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>“a diastasic action is due to soluble +ferments produced by living elements. In intracellular +digestion, the diastases digest within the +cells, whereas in extracellular digestion the phenomenon +takes place outside the cells, in the cavity of +the gastro-intestinal tube.”</p> + +<p>Only gradually has intracellular digestion given +place to the digestion by secreted juices. The link +between these two modes is to be found in certain +transparent Invertebrates, such as the floating mollusc +<i>Phyllirhoë</i>. The nourishment is first digested +in the cavity of the digestive tube by secreted juices, +and its treatment is completed within the amœboid +cells of the cæcum.</p> + +<p>In higher animals, the digestion of food is due +to several digestive ferments (rennet, pepsin, trypsin, +enterokinase, etc.) produced by divers organs +(stomach, pancreas, intestines). The phagocytes +also manufacture several digestive ferments; their +principal digestive juice is a soluble ferment of the +trypsin category, to which Metchnikoff gave the +name of <i>cytase</i>.<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> + +<p>To the morphological difference of the phagocytes +corresponds also a difference in the properties of their +cytases, which are suited to the digestion of this or +that food. The cytases are kept within the interior +of the cells and only escape into the humors when +the phagocytes are damaged (Pfeiffer’s phenomenon). +This kind of ferment does not withstand a temperature +above 55° to 58° C. In natural immunity, it +plays the principal part by digesting morbid agents +inside the phagocytes like any other food. But, in +artificial immunity, other soluble ferments come into +play, developed in consequence of vaccination.</p> + +<p>The principal of those is the <i>fixator</i>.<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> It is less +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>sensitive than cytasis to high temperatures and can +bear a temperature of 65° to 68° C. It is incapable, +by itself, of killing and digesting, but by <i>fixing</i> on +them, it <i>bites</i> them, so to speak, and makes them +sensitive to the action of the phagocytic cytases, +which can thus digest them more easily.</p> + +<p>The <i>fixator</i> may be compared to <i>enterokinase</i>, a +special ferment in the small intestine of higher animals +which also does not by itself digest food but which +activates in a high degree the digestive power of +pancreatic ferments. However, it has the property +of fixing itself on fibrin; it is obvious that enterokinase +and the fixator have the same essential +properties. This similarity again proves that the +destruction of morbid agents by the phagocytes +really corresponds with actual digestion.</p> + +<p>It is in consequence of the digestion of vaccinal +products that the phagocytes manufacture the <i>fixator</i>. +Created at the expense of a given vaccinal substance, +the <i>fixator</i> has a specific character which corresponds +with that substance, whereas the cytase already +existing within the phagocytes never has a specific +character.</p> + +<p><i>Artificial</i> immunisation generally produces the +formation of so great a quantity of fixators that the +phagocytes are unable to retain them and excrete them +in part in the ambient humors, <i>i.e.</i> the blood plasma, +or serum. When, afterwards, virulent morbid agents +(microbes or figured elements) are introduced into +an organism which has been immunised against them, +they are at once faced, in the humors, with <i>fixators</i>, +which immediately exert a biting action on them +and render them sensitive to the action of the +intracellular cytasis of the phagocytes. The same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +mechanism explains the specificity of the serums of +vaccinated animals.</p> + +<p>The quantity of specific fixators in the humors +depends on the surplus production of that ferment by +the phagocytes and is not always the same. That is +why different serums are preventive in different +degrees. They are inactive if the phagocytes have +not produced enough fixators to pass any out into +the humors. For a serum is only preventive when it +brings into the new organism into which it is injected +a sufficient quantity of fixators ready to +sensibilise the morbid agents afterwards introduced +into the organism.</p> + +<p>The over-production of antibodies—fixators or antitoxins—corresponds +up to a certain point with the +frequency and quantity of vaccinal injections; that +is why serums are usually preventive in artificial +immunity and very rarely so in natural immunity. +Through successive inoculations, the cells become +accustomed to digesting the microbes, or figured +elements, and manufacture, in consequence of that +digestion, growing quantities of fixators.</p> + +<p>In natural conditions, on the other hand, morbid +agents do not usually penetrate into the organism in +massive or repeated doses; therefore digestion under +natural conditions results in a less abundant production +of fixators which can be contained in the interior +of the phagocytes without leaking into the humors +in sufficient quantities to render the latter preventive.</p> + +<p>It might be thought that immunity against pathogenic +microbes is accompanied by immunity against +their toxins. In reality that is not always the case, +and very often the organism, now made refractory +to certain microbes, remains sensitive to their toxic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +products. Thus antimicrobian immunity and antitoxic +immunity constitute in most cases two distinct +properties. In order to confer antitoxic immunity +recourse must be had to vaccination by soluble poisons +and toxins.</p> + +<p>Immunity, acquired naturally, is so especially +against microbes and not against toxins, for, in nature, +it is almost always by microbes that the organism +is threatened. As to <i>antitoxic</i> immunity, it is very +probably due to the intracellular digestion of toxins +by the different macrophages. This hypothesis is +supported by the experiments quoted in the preceding +chapter. During antitoxic vaccination, the +macrophages manufacture, probably at the expense +of vaccinal toxins, a certain quantity of <i>antitoxins</i>, +substances which offer a great similarity with the +fixators. Like them, they are specific; they are +also produced in great quantities and excreted into +the humors, which they render antitoxic when sufficiently +abundant; finally, they are not very sensitive +to high temperatures. That is why, in spite of the +impossibility of proving their origin directly, it is +quite probable that it is analogous to that of the +fixators and that antitoxins are manufactured by +cellular elements, the macrophages in particular. For +it is they which absorb and digest toxins as well as +soluble poisons.</p> + +<p>This deduction is also supported by the antitoxic +immunity which may be conferred on <i>unicellular</i> +beings in which the cell alone enters into play.</p> + +<p>Phagocytes no doubt manufacture many other +soluble ferments corresponding with the elements +which they absorb, for, in a vaccinated organism, +divers new specific properties of the serum are to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +found, such as that of agglutination, precipitation, etc. +Humoral properties may be more or less durable, +in proportion as the products manufactured by the +phagocytes are more or less rapidly evacuated by the +organism.</p> + +<p>All these humoral properties, traced back to their +first source, depend upon the digestive activity of the +phagocytes, since they are the products of that +digestion. In cases where it has not yet been possible +to make a direct demonstration of this, it becomes +evident through analogy and experiments pointing in +that direction.</p> + +<p>To sum up, according to Metchnikoff, “<i>Immunity in +infectious diseases is linked with cellular physiology, +namely, with the phenomenon of the resorption of +morbid agents through intracellular digestion.</i> In a final +analysis, the latter (as also the digestion of food in +the gastro-intestinal tube) reduces itself to phenomena +of a physico-chemical order; however, it is a real +<i>digestion</i> accomplished by the living cell.... The +study of Immunity, from a general point of view, +belongs to the subject of Digestion.”</p> + +<p>Immunity against diseases is but one of the manifestations +of an immunity on a much larger scale, +always based, in final analysis, on the sensitiveness +of the living cellular protoplasm. The sensitiveness +of the nervous cells extends this phenomenon to +the psychical domain. They also are capable of +becoming accustomed to external irritations of all +kinds, hence constituting a psychical immunity for +the organism. We all know that one can become +accustomed to many painful or violent sensations; +and, as Metchnikoff says: <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>“... It is very probable +that the whole gamut of Habit, starting from the +unicellular beings, who accustom themselves to live in +an unsuitable medium, to cultured men who acquire +the habit of not believing in human justice, rests on +one and the same fundamental property of living +matter.”</p> + +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> +<p> <span class="pagenum"> +<a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a> +</span> +</p> +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXVII">CHAPTER XXVII</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Private sorrows — Death of Pasteur, 1895 — Ill-health — Senile atrophies — Premature +death — Orthobiosis — Syphilis — Acquisition of anthropoid +apes.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Metchnikoff’s</span> health had suffered from the numerous +emotions provoked by the struggle in defence of the +phagocyte doctrine and also from a series of sad +events. In 1893, sickness and death fell upon our +family; I lost a sister and a brother at a short interval +and had myself to undergo a serious operation. My +husband nursed me night and day, as a mother might +have done, and went through the deepest anxiety +on account of post-operative complications. All this +told on him all the more that he had just endured +cruel moral suffering during the experiments on cholera +mentioned above. In 1894, an agricultural crisis in +Russia influenced our material situation and gave him +many worries. In the autumn of 1895, M. Pasteur’s +health became worse and, soon afterwards, he died.</p> + +<p>This series of calamities depressed Metchnikoff, his +old cardiac trouble returned, and he again became a +prey to insomnia. We spent part of the holidays in +the mountains, thinking it might do him good, but +he did not care for a prolonged rest; he was preoccupied +by the thought of his interrupted experiments +and only thought of returning to the laboratory.</p> + +<p>In 1898, he had some disquieting symptoms of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> +kidney trouble, a little albumen. He consulted the +celebrated German physician, von Noorden, who +found nothing serious, but this did not reassure him +and he continued to worry about himself.</p> + +<p>Already some time previously, theoretical considerations +on senile atrophies had directed his thoughts +towards old age. His reflections now turned towards +the psychological aspect of the problem; he analysed +his personal sensations and realised that he, at the +age of 53, felt an ardent desire to live. This imperious +instinct for life, in spite of the inevitable evolution +towards personal death and old age, brought his +thoughts back to the disharmonies of human nature. +But now, through all his gloomy reflections, he was +borne up by the unshakable conviction that Science +would succeed in correcting those disharmonies and +he continued to work with untiring energy.</p> + +<p>He had prescribed for himself a hygienic diet, +based on the idea that the cause of his own condition +and senility in general was due to a chronic poisoning +by intestinal microbes. This diet consisted in avoiding +raw food in order not to introduce noxious microbes +into the intestines, and in absorbing their useful +enemies, the acid-forming microbes of sour milk. +This diet was very favourable to his health.</p> + +<p>After he had finished his book on immunity he at +last allowed himself to pass on to the new questions +which preoccupied him, <i>i.e.</i> senility and death.</p> + +<p>He set forth a sketch of his ideas in 1901 in a +paper which he read at Manchester (Wilde Lecture) +on the “Flora of the Human Body.” He reviewed +this flora and pointed out the harmful effect of the +microbes, especially those of the large intestine the +toxins of which effect a chronic poisoning of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> +cells of our organism and thus provoke their gradual +weakening. He then indicated the means of combating +this evil, on the one hand by stimulating the vital +activity of the cells exposed to enfeeblement, by +means, for instance, of small doses of specific cytotoxins, +and, on the other hand, by direct action on +intestinal microbes. He concluded by saying that +“the intestinal flora is the principal cause of the +too short duration of our life, which flickers out +before having reached its goal. Human conscience +has succeeded in making this injustice obvious; +Science must now set to work to correct it. It will +succeed in doing so, and it is to be hoped that the +opening century will witness the solution of this great +problem.”</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff considered that our chronic poisoning +by intestinal microbes weakens our cellular elements; +he supposed that the same cause might provoke +senile phenomena, manifestly due to weakness of the +tissues.</p> + +<p>One of the first manifestations of senility being the +whitening of hair, he began to study the mechanism +of that. He had previously observed the dominant +part played by phagocytosis in all phenomena of +atrophy, and it occurred to him that it may be phagocytes +which destroy the colouring matter of hair, a +substance which, in the form of tiny granules, is +enclosed within the hair cells. In fact, he found +that the whitening process is accompanied by a +stimulation of the amœboid cells which introduce +their protoplasmic prolongations into the periphery +of the hair. They absorb the coloured granules, or +pigment, and digest it, partly on the spot, partly +after carrying it into the root of the hair, often even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +in the connective tissue which supports the hairy +scalp. As the pigment becomes destroyed, the hair +loses its colour and whitens. The cells which devour +the pigment—pigmentophages—belong to the category +of macrophages which, in general, absorb all the +enfeebled cells in the organism.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff was able to note similar phenomena +in divers other senile atrophies either by his own +ulterior researches or by collaboration with his pupils +(MM. Salimbeni and Weinberg).</p> + +<p>In the same way that the whitening of the hair +depends on the destruction of pigment by pigmentophages, +the wrinkles of the skin, weakness of the +muscles, friability of the bones, and senile degenerescence +of divers organs are caused by the destruction +of weakened cells which do not defend themselves +and thus become the prey of the stronger and more resisting +macrophages. Senility is thus no other than +a generalised atrophy. What is it that provokes it? +The answer is: The swarming microbes in our large +intestine. They form the permanent source of a +slow poisoning of our organism. This fact alone +suffices to explain one of the principal causes of the +enfeebling of our tissues. It is not simultaneous in +all the cells because of their different powers of +resistance. The struggle and destruction of the weak +by the strong is the cruel law of nature; therefore +the macrophages, more resisting to poisons, take +advantage of the weakening of other cells in order +to devour them, and this is one of the causes of +senility.</p> + +<p>These reflections and the biological researches which +confirmed them allowed Metchnikoff gradually to +build up a philosophical doctrine, which he expounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +in 1903 in his work, <i>Études sur la nature +humaine</i>.</p> + +<p>He considered “old age” as a pathological phenomenon. +He saw in it one of the most important disharmonies +of human nature, because of the fact that +neither senility nor death is accompanied by a natural +instinct. The accomplishment of every physiological +function leads to satiety or to a desire for rest; after +a busy day, man feels an instinctive need for rest and +sleep. But, in his maturity, he has no desire to grow +old, and in his old age none to die. It is rare that +one should aspire to die, and nobody wishes to grow +old. These facts are in contradiction with other +natural phenomena; they are all the more discordant +that they play an immense part in our psychical life.</p> + +<p>After a general review of opinions on human nature, +Metchnikoff analysed it from the biological point of +view; he revealed its discords and concluded that it +is far from being perfect. In his eyes, the lack of +harmony in the human being is an inheritance from +our animal ancestors; they have handed down to us +a whole series of remains of organs which are not only +useless but even harmful in the new conditions of +human existence.</p> + +<p>The large intestine, inherited from mammalian +ancestors, holds the first place among those noxious +organs. This reservoir of food refuse was very useful +to our animal forebears in their struggle for existence; +it allowed them not to interrupt their flight whilst +pursued by their enemies. In man, whose life conditions +are different, a large intestine of that size, +without offering the same advantages, is a source of +slow and continuous poisoning and a cause of premature +senility and death.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p> + +<p>Man, after acquiring a still higher development, +realised these evils and made concentrated efforts to +fight them and to soothe his own terrors. It is for +that object that the divers religious and philosophical +systems were created, in which humanity sought for +consolation. Finding none there, man turned to +Science, which, at first, neither solved his doubts nor +eliminated his sufferings. But Science provided him +with rational methods of research, owing to which he +gradually progressed and conquered a series of truths, +allowing him gradually to struggle against some of +his troubles and to solve some of his problems. +Science has already done much to diminish the diseases +which are among the chief scourges of humanity. +It has thrown light upon the causes of many of them +and has found preventive and curative remedies for +several.</p> + +<p>Surgery, antiseptics, serotherapy, vaccinations +already yield secure results. Hygiene and prophylaxis +are in course of development, and a vast prospect +is open to them in the future. But our heaviest +burdens, senility and death, common to all, have yet +scarcely been studied. Having expounded his views +on senility and proved that it is a pathological phenomenon, +Metchnikoff concluded that to struggle against +it was quite as possible as to struggle against disease.</p> + +<p>The principal causes which bring about <i>premature</i> +senility are: alcoholism, chronic poisoning by intestinal +microbes, and infectious diseases, headed by +syphilis. Surely Science will discover efficacious +means against all these.</p> + +<p>The strengthening of the beneficent cells in our +organism; the transformation of the wild intestinal +flora into a cultivated flora, by the introduction of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> +useful microbes; the struggle against infectious +diseases and alcoholism—all these are workable means +of fighting pathological and premature senility.</p> + +<p>When old age becomes physiological and no longer +painful it will become proportionate with the other +epochs of our lives and cease to alarm us. But how +is the fear of death to be explained, since it is a general +and inevitable phenomenon? How is it that we have +no <i>natural instinct</i> for death? Metchnikoff supposes +that this lack of harmony in our nature comes from +the fact that death is as <i>premature</i> as senility and +arrives before the <i>natural instinct for it</i> has had time +to develop. This supposition is confirmed by the +fact that old people who have reached an exceptionally +advanced age are often satiated with life +and feel the <i>need</i> of death as we feel a need of sleep +after a long day’s work. That is why we have a +right to suppose that, when the limit of life has been +extended, owing to scientific progress, the instinct of +death will have time to develop normally and will +take the place of the fear which death provokes at +the present day. Both death and old age will become +physiological and the greatest discord in our nature +will be conquered.</p> + +<p>Our manner of life will have to be modified and +directed according to rational and scientific data if +we are to run through the normal cycle of life—<i>orthobiosis</i>. +The pursuit of that goal will even influence +the basis of morals. Orthobiosis cannot be accessible +to all until knowledge, rectitude, and solidarity +increase among men, and until social conditions are +kinder.</p> + +<p>Man will then no longer be content with his natural +inheritance; he will have to intervene actively in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +order to correct his disharmonies. “Even as he +has modified the nature of plants and animals Man +will have to modify his own nature in order to make +it more harmonious.”</p> + +<p>In order to obtain a new race, one forms an ideal +in relation to the organism to be modified. “In +order to modify human nature, it is necessary to +realise what is the ideal in view, after which every +resource of which Science disposes must be taxed in +order to obtain that result. If an ideal is possible, +capable of uniting men in a sort of religion of the +future, it can only be based on scientific principles. +And if it is true, as is so often affirmed, that it is impossible +to live without faith, that faith must be +faith in the power of Science.”</p> + +<p>In those words, Metchnikoff ends his book on +Human Nature.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>The public at large and many critics did not understand +the deep and general meaning of Metchnikoff’s +thoughts. They reproached him with having an insufficiently +exalted ideal, for they only saw in his +doctrine the desire of postponing senility and living +longer. They did not understand that to revolt +against the lack of harmony in nature, through which +all humanity has to suffer, not only physically but +morally, was to aspire to perfection. They did not +consider that, in order to attain that end, all human +culture and the whole social state would have to be +modified; that this could only be done through many +virtues, intense energy, and great self-control. They +had not understood the elevation and power of an +ideal which aspired to perfect not only the direction +of life but human nature itself. They had not understood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +the audacious beauty of such a struggle, the +benefit conferred by the belief that the human will +and the human mind are capable of transforming +Evil into Good according to a conceived ideal!...</p> + +<p>In the meanwhile Metchnikoff, convinced that +Knowledge is Power and that “Science alone can +lead suffering Humanity into the right path,” quietly +continued his task.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>One of the most characteristic symptoms of old +age is the hardening of the arteries—arterio-sclerosis. +He therefore especially wished to elucidate the mechanism +of that phenomenon.</p> + +<p>Whilst many, yet unknown, factors come into +play in senility, one disease, syphilis, often provokes +arterio-sclerosis, indisputably due to a morbid agent. +Metchnikoff therefore began to study this disease, +of which the origin is infectious—especially as he +thought he could do so experimentally.</p> + +<p>Long before this, he had conceived the idea that +the study of those human diseases which cannot be +transmitted to ordinary laboratory animals might be +carried out on anthropoid apes, of all animals the +nearest to man. He had spoken of it to M. Pasteur, +but, at that time, the Institute could not afford to +acquire these costly animals. In 1903, at the Madrid +Congress, Metchnikoff received a 5000 fr. prize and +utilised this money in the acquisition of two anthropoid +apes. The same year M. Roux won the Osiris +prize of 100,000 fr. which he devoted to the same +object, and it was decided that the two together +would undertake researches on syphilis. Other donations, +30,000 fr. from the Morosoffs of Moscow and +250 roubles from the Society of Dermatology and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> +Syphilography of the same city, completed the capital +required to execute the projected plan.</p> + +<p>The following is a short sketch of the researches that +were undertaken and the results that were obtained.</p> + +<p>The inoculation of anthropoid apes with syphilis +was successful. The chimpanzee was found to be +most sensitive to the disease; it manifests primary +and secondary symptoms identical with those of +man. Lower monkeys, though less sensitive, also +contract syphilis but generally only show primary +characteristic manifestations. The possibility of +rapidly provoking in apes, even of the inferior kinds, +syphilitic lesions similar to those of man has a very +great importance, for it provides a sure means of +diagnosis in doubtful human cases. Owing to the +liability of apes to contract syphilis, experimental +vaccination and serotherapy could be attempted on +them; but, though these experiments were sometimes +encouraging, the results obtained were not constant +enough to justify their application to man. Thus, +it was found possible to attenuate the virus by +successive passages in certain lower apes, and yet, +though attenuated for the chimpanzee, it did not +confer upon him immunity against the active virus.</p> + +<p>In 1905, Schaudinn discovered the syphilitic treponema +in man. By using this discoverer’s method, +the same microbe was found in apes inoculated with +human virus, which confirmed the specific character +of the treponema.</p> + +<p>An observation was then made which was of great +importance on account of its consequences: it was +ascertained that the syphilitic microbe was absorbed +by the less mobile mononuclear phagocytes and remained +localised near the entrance point long enough<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +to allow of a local treatment which might succeed +in being curative as it had time to act before the +microbes had passed into the general circulation of +the organism. This supposition was proved to be +correct by a series of experiments on monkeys, and, +in 1906, a young doctor, M. Maisonneuve, inoculated +himself with syphilis and applied the treatment with +a perfectly satisfactory result.</p> + +<p>It might have been thought that this simple, safe, +and innocuous method would at once come into practice, +but it was not so. Between opposition on the +one hand, and carelessness of the subjects themselves +on the other, this useful discovery remained for a long +time without being utilised. All the above results were +obtained through experiments on anthropoid apes, +and the study of syphilis, until then purely clinical, +entered at last into the field of experimental science.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>Researches upon syphilis were but an interlude; +Metchnikoff, returning to his principal work, resumed +the study of senility and of the intestinal flora. +During many years he applied himself to researches +concerning the part played by the latter within the +organism.</p> + +<p>He was able to confirm the deductions expounded +in his <i>Études sur la nature humaine</i>, and in 1907 he +published a new work, <i>Essais optimistes</i>, in which he +developed the same ideas, amplified by the results +of his new researches, and answering the criticisms +excited by his first book.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Essais optimistes</i> he studied first of all the +phenomena of old age in the different grades of the +scale of living beings, of which he compared the life +duration. He concluded that there was an indubitable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> +connection between this and the intestinal flora.</p> + +<p>The shorter the intestine, the fewer microbes it +contains and the longer the relative duration of life. +As an example, he quoted the relatively great longevity +of birds and bats. Those animals, adapted to +aerial life, have to weigh as little as possible. To +that end, they empty their intestine very frequently +and this in consequence is not used as a reservoir +for alimentary refuse; as it is but little developed, it +contains a much smaller number of microbes. The +longevity of flying animals is relatively much greater +than that of mammals with a large intestine full of +microbes, a constant source of slow poisoning.</p> + +<p>After treating the question of longevity, Metchnikoff +dealt with that of death.</p> + +<p>Living beings die, in the great majority of cases, +in consequence of diseases or accidents with an +external cause; one involuntarily wonders whether +there is such a thing as “natural death,” <i>i.e.</i> arising +exclusively from causes due to the organism itself. +A review of known facts allowed Metchnikoff to draw +the following conclusions: unicellular inferior beings +have no <i>natural</i> death; they merely die by accident. +Their individual life is very short and comes to an +end by multiplication or division of a unit into two; +there is no trace of a <i>corpse</i> in this loss of previous +individuality.</p> + +<p>Among superior plants, certain trees attain considerable +dimensions (dragon-tree, baobab, oak, +cypress), live for centuries, and die from external +causes. Their organism presents no <i>internal</i> necessity +for a natural death. On the other hand, a multitude +of other plants have but a short life and their natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> +death coincides usually with the ripening of the seed. +It has even been observed that it is possible to +retard the death of a plant by preventing it from +fructifying. For instance, lawns made up of grass +mown before it runs to seed remain green and living +whilst grass allowed to flower and bear seed becomes +yellow and dries up. It is a well-known fact that +fruits and seeds are frequently poisonous. Therefore +Metchnikoff supposed that the death of the plant may +be due to an auto-intoxication by poisons manufactured +by it in order to defend its seeds and ensure +the next generation; in Nature, the individual does +not count, but the species. Once the survival of this +is ensured the individual may disappear.</p> + +<p>A similar phenomenon of auto-intoxication is manifested +by lower vegetables, yeasts, and microbes. +Pasteur, who discovered the microbe of lactic fermentation, +found that this micro-organism, which itself +produces lactic acid, perishes because of the over-production +of this substance. Yeasts, again, cannot +bear an excess of alcohol, their own product. Thus +the vegetable kingdom offers us examples of the +absence of natural death as well as examples of a +natural death due to an auto-intoxication of the +organism.</p> + +<p>In the animal kingdom examples of natural death +are also to be found, but only very exceptionally. +Those examples are provided by Rotifera (inferior +worms) and by Ephemeridæ. Their adult life is +reduced to the sexual act, almost immediately followed +by death without an external cause. Their life is so +short that they do not even feed and lack developed +buccal organs. That in itself constitutes an organic +cause of inevitable, <i>i.e.</i> natural, death.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p> + +<p>Among human beings natural death is extremely +rare. It sometimes occurs in very old people, under +the shape of a peaceful last sleep. The likeness it +bears to sleep is so striking that Metchnikoff thought +himself authorised to form the following hypothesis +concerning the analogy in their mechanism.</p> + +<p>According to a theory of Preyer’s, fatigue and sleep +are due to a periodical auto-intoxication set up by +the products of the vital activity of our organism. +These products are destroyed by oxidation during +sleep, after which fatigue disappears and awakening +comes. According to Metchnikoff it may be that the +mechanism of natural death also consists in an auto-intoxication +by the progressive accumulation of toxic +products during the whole of life. The analogy between +sleep and natural death allows the supposition +that, as before going to sleep an instinctive desire for +rest is felt, in the same way <i>natural</i> death must be +preceded by an instinctive desire to die. Moreover, +this is confirmed by concrete examples. Thus that of +an old woman of ninety-three who expressed that desire +in the following terms to her great-nephew: “If ever +you reach my age, you will see that death becomes +desired just like sleep.” The same thought had been +expressed by the biblical patriarchs who fell asleep +satiated with life.</p> + +<p>When, owing to the progress of Science, men reach +the development of the instinct of death, they will +look upon Death with the same calm as do very old +people, and it will cease to be one of the principal +causes of pessimism. It is for that reason that we +must learn to prolong life and to allow all men to +realise their complete and natural vital cycle, thus +ensuring their moral balance.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p> + +<p>Psychological observations allowed Metchnikoff to +conclude that pessimism is much more frequent in +youth than in maturity or in old age. He attributes +this to the gradual development of the <i>vital instinct</i> +which is only completely manifested in middle age. +Man then begins to appreciate life; made wiser by +experience, he demands less and is therefore better +balanced.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff proffers examples in support of his +theory. He analyses the psychic evolution of Goethe +as reflected in his <i>Faust</i> and describes that of “an +intimate friend.” These examples prove that natural +psychological evolution already leads to a relative +optimism. But, as long as senility is pathological and +death premature, the apprehension that they inspire +antagonises the normal evolution of optimism. A +victory over those present evils will direct the normal +course of life in the right way; one normal active +period will succeed another; the accomplishment of +individual and social functions corresponding with +each period will become realisable; the death instinct +will have time to develop, and Man, having +been through his normal vital cycle, will sink, peacefully +and without fear, into eternal sleep.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVIII" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Researches on intestinal flora — Sour milk.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> problem of our intestinal flora is so vast and so +difficult that it demands years of research. Numerous +facts had already been accumulated by Science on +this subject, but it was still far from being elucidated.</p> + +<p>Certain scientists affirmed that microbes favour +digestion by decomposing food residues in the intestine +and are therefore not merely useful, but necessary +to the organism. Others entertained a diametrically +opposed opinion. The first thing, therefore, was to +know which of the two opinions was founded on fact. +Metchnikoff studied the case of the bat, in which the +digestive tube is short and the large bowel not even +differentiated. As he had supposed, <i>a priori</i>, in this +animal, whose life duration is relatively long, the +intestine contains few or no micro-organisms, which +proves that digestion can be accomplished without +their intermediary. Moreover, this was before long +amply confirmed by the researches of MM. Cohendy, +Wollman, and other scientists who succeeded in +bringing up chickens and tadpoles in conditions of +absolute sterility.</p> + +<p>Having acquired the conviction that microbes are +not indispensable to digestion, Metchnikoff studied the +part they play in the organism. It is universally +admitted that the products of putrefaction are toxic,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +and he enquired whether the intestine sheltered +putrefying microbes. This question had not yet been +solved; certain bacteriologists thought that little or +no putrefaction exists in a normal intestine. Metchnikoff +ascertained through systematic researches that +the intestinal flora includes several kinds of putrefying +microbes which secrete highly toxic products.</p> + +<p>With his pupils and collaborators, MM. Berthelot +and Wollman, he carried out a series of experiments +which established the fact that this intoxication is +due to poisons of the aromatic group, such as phenols +and indols. With these substances, they succeeded +in artificially provoking arterio-sclerosis in the organs +of animals, and also other modifications similar to +those which are observed in senility. Having proved +that putrefying microbes provoke the intoxication +of the tissues, Metchnikoff set to work to find a +means of struggling against those microbes.</p> + +<p>It was known that they could only live in an +alkaline medium which is precisely that of the intestinal +juices. Metchnikoff thought that if means were +found to render the intestinal contents acid, without +harm being done to the organism, the putrefying +microbes might thus be destroyed. It had been +known for a long time that sour milk does not +suffer putrefaction, that being prevented by the acid +fermentation. The lactic microbes of this fermentation +must therefore be antagonistic to the putrefying +microbes. He drew a conclusion in favour of +the utility of sour milk, containing acid-producing +microbes; once introduced into the intestine, these +should prevent the breeding of the noxious microbes +which require an alkaline medium.</p> + +<p>His hypothesis seemed confirmed by the fact that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> +populations who feed almost exclusively on curded +milk live a very long time. In Bulgaria, for instance, +whole villages, thus fed, are known for the longevity +of their inhabitants. Starting from these considerations, +he made experiments upon himself and systematically +introduced into his diet sour milk carefully +prepared with pure cultures of certain lactic bacilli. +His health was benefited by it, and his friends followed +his example. Certain doctors recommended sour +milk, the use of which gradually spread as a hygienic +food. Metchnikoff considered the result acquired as +a first step towards the artificial transformation of +the wild intestinal flora into a cultivated and useful +flora.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately, the study of the intestinal flora is +extremely complicated because of the innumerable +species of micro-organisms and the extreme difficulty +of disentangling the many influences which cross each +other. He therefore considered collective researches +as indispensable, the life and science of one man being +insufficient to solve so vast a problem. Up to a +certain point he succeeded in realising this scientific +collaboration within his own laboratory.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIX" id="CHAPTER_XXIX">CHAPTER XXIX</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">The Nobel Prize — Journey to Sweden and to Russia — A day with +Léon Tolstoï.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> 1908 Metchnikoff received the Nobel Prize, together +with Ehrlich, for his researches on immunity. According +to the statutes of that prize, the laureate is invited +to give a lecture in Stockholm. Metchnikoff chose for +his theme the “present state of the question of immunity +in infectious diseases,” and, in the spring of +1909, we went to Sweden and thence to Russia. The +whole journey was a series of fêtes and receptions in +his honour. He was touched and grateful at this +welcome, but with his usual humour, declared that +it was the Nobel Prize which, like a magic wand, +had revealed to the public the value of his researches.</p> + +<p>We only stopped for a short time at Stockholm, +where the kindest hospitality was shown to Metchnikoff. +Sweden made an unforgettable impression +upon us. Her deep, dark waters, wild rocks, and +sombre pines make of it a land of legends. Elie was +impressed not only by Nature in Scandinavia but +also by Scandinavian Art, which reproduces it admirably. +He was specially pleased with Lilienfiorse’s +pictures, representing animals against a background +at the same time real and legendary.</p> + +<p>We went to Russia by way of the Baltic. The +nights at that time were “white,” and rocky islands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +covered with pines emerged from the sea like ghosts, +in the mysterious silvery midnight light; the impression +was fairy-like.</p> + +<p>A warm welcome awaited Metchnikoff in Russia. +At Petersburg, as in Moscow, he was received with +cordial and enthusiastic sympathy not only by scientific +and medical societies, but by all the intellectual +youth of those cities. This warm reception contributed +to efface the bitterness sometimes aroused in +him by distant recollections of the reasons which +caused him to leave his native country.</p> + +<p>During our stay in Russia we made the acquaintance +of our great writer, Léon Tolstoï. We spent a +day with him in his estate, Iasnaïa Paliana, and the +day left a lifelong impression upon us.</p> + +<p>It was at dawn that we reached the little railway +station where a carriage had come to meet us. It +had been raining in the night and now, in the first +morning light, everything shone with dew. We were +excited by the sight of the Russian country, cool +meadows, forest, fields, all that simple landscape that +we had not seen for so long, and we were also greatly +moved at the idea of meeting Tolstoï.</p> + +<p>The village appeared in the distance and, a little +way apart, the wide open entrance gate of the old +park of Iasnaïa Paliana. We entered a long shady +avenue leading to the home of Tolstoï. The spring +was at its best, flowers and perfumes everywhere. +The house and the old park had the poetic charm of +the ancient “nests of nobility” in Russia.</p> + +<p>Tolstoï’s daughter greeted us on the steps; her +kindly simplicity at once put us at our ease. We +had hardly entered the vestibule when we saw Léon +Tolstoï himself coming down the stairs with a brisk<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> +step. We knew him at once, though he seemed to +us different from all his portraits. We were first of +all struck by his eyes, deep, piercing, and yet as clear +as those of a child. He had nothing of that hardness +and severity that one is accustomed to see in his +portraits; his features, too, seemed to us much finer +and more idealised. He looked straight into our eyes +as if he wished to read the depths of our souls. But +we were at once reassured by the kind and benevolent +expression of his whole face. He looked strong and +healthy and did not seem old, but full of inner life. +After the first words of welcome, he said to us, “You +resemble each other; that happens after living +happily together for a long time.” He questioned us +concerning our journey and on the impression made +upon us by Russia after our long absence; then he +said he had to finish his morning task.</p> + +<p>His daughter and son took us for a walk through +the park and the village, and the friendly words they +exchanged with the peasants indicated excellent +relations between the villagers and the people of the +château. As soon as we came in, Léon Tolstoï reappeared, +declaring that he gave himself holiday for +the day. He questioned Metchnikoff on his researches, +on the present state of hygiene, and on the application +of scientific discoveries. He listened attentively and +with visible interest. At the end of the conversation +he declared that it was quite erroneously that he was +thought to be hostile to Science, and that he only +denounced pseudo-science, which has nothing to do +with human welfare. “In reality,” he said, “you and +I are aiming towards the same goal by different lines.”</p> + +<p>All his words were impregnated with a deep +love for, and an ardent desire to serve, humanity.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> +Literature and Art were mentioned; Tolstoï said +that he was now so far from it all that he had +even forgotten some of his own works and appreciated +them much less than his writings on spiritual questions. +He thought that sometimes beauty of form +acted at the expense of the moral bearing of the subject. +To the objection that Art embellishes Life, he +answered that it has some value in that it serves as +a link between men and makes them purer, but that +its moral importance surpasses its æsthetic value by a +great deal.</p> + +<p>He related that he had conceived a new work on +the social movement in Russia and, <i>à propos</i> of that, +the conversation fell upon political reprisals. The +subject of deportations, prisons, and executions was +visibly painful to him; his eyes, now sad and suffering, +revealed his vibrating soul.</p> + +<p>On the agrarian question, he was in favour of the +nationalisation of land, and showed great enthusiasm +for Henry George. He thought the suppression of +the commune in Russia a great mistake. Metchnikoff +explained to him that his personal observations in +Little Russia spoke, on the contrary, in favour of +individual property, which gave better agricultural +results. Tolstoï manifested perfect tolerance, and +conversation flowed on peacefully concerning various +subjects. In everything he said the beauty and elevation +of his soul was perceptible.</p> + +<p>After lunch he desired to have a serious conversation +with Metchnikoff and took him out driving, he +himself holding the reins. On the way he returned to +the question of Science. He thought that humanity +was so overwhelmed with misery and had so many +urgent questions to solve that work ought to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +turned in that direction, and that we had no right to +busy ourselves with abstract questions unrelated to +life. “What good can it do man to have a notion +of the weight and dimensions of the planet Mars?” +he said.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff answered that theory is much nearer +to life than it seems, and that many benefits have been +acquired for humanity by scientific observations of +an abstract order. Thus, the discovery of the great +unchanging laws of Nature give to Man the consciousness +of being submitted to logical laws instead of +an arbitrary force, and that is a benefit. When +microbes were discovered, their part in human life +was not suspected, and yet this discovery was afterwards +of the greatest service to human welfare since +it enabled man to fight against disease.</p> + +<p>On the way back, Tolstoï gave his place to his son +and himself returned on horseback, an exercise in +which he indulged almost daily, in spite of the +approach of his eighty years. He still rode +splendidly, sitting quite upright, and seemed even +younger than before.</p> + +<p>After that he went to take a little rest, whilst +Countess Tolstoï gave us immense pleasure by reading +to us two yet unpublished works by her husband, +the charming story <i>After the Ball</i> and the tragic +<i>Sergius the Monk</i>.</p> + +<p>In the late afternoon a friend of our host, an +accomplished musician, sat at the piano and played +some Chopin. In the spring twilight the charm of +that music filled us with emotion. Léon Tolstoï, +seated in an armchair, listened; the lyrical beauty +of the sound sank deeper and deeper into his soul, his +eyes became veiled with tears, he leant his forehead<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +on his hand and remained motionless. Metchnikoff +also was deeply moved, and the effect of music on +two such men, the pleasure that it gave them, was +the strongest plea in favour of pure Art.</p> + +<p>“I do not know what takes place in my mind +when I listen to Chopin,” said Tolstoï a few moments +later, after the closing sounds had vanished, “Chopin +and Mozart move me to the depths. What lyrism! +what purity!” Metchnikoff liked Mozart and Beethoven, +but Tolstoï thought Beethoven too complicated. +As to Wagner and modern music, they both +agreed about it, thinking it unintelligible and lacking +harmony and simplicity.</p> + +<p>Around the tea-table conversation turned on +senility, and Metchnikoff developed his theory of the +discords of human nature. He illustrated his affirmations +by the example of Goethe’s <i>Faust</i>, who, according +to him, formed the best picture of the evolution +of human phases. To his mind the second part of +<i>Faust</i> is but an allegory of the disharmonies of old age. +It is a striking picture of the dramatic contest between +the yet ardent and juvenile feelings of old Goethe +and his physical senility. Tolstoï seemed interested +by this interpretation and said he would read the +second part of <i>Faust</i> over again, but that he himself +would never offer an example of a similar lack of +harmony. <i>À propos</i> of Metchnikoff’s theory, according +to which the fear of death exists because Death +itself is premature, Tolstoï affirmed that he had no +fear of death, but added, laughingly, that he would +nevertheless try to reach the age of 100 in order to +please Elie.</p> + +<p>Our train only left late in the night, and, until we +started, the conversation never ceased to be animated.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +In every one of his words Tolstoï’s exalted soul was +perceptible, a soul in which there was room but for +preoccupations of a spiritual order. He would have +given the impression of floating above the earth if +his ardent and compassionate heart had not constantly +brought him back to the miseries and faults of +human beings. The atmosphere around him was +pure and vivifying as on high peaks, and the place +seemed sanctified by his presence.</p> + +<p>That interview had been a meeting of two superior +minds, two exalted souls, but how different! The +one, scientific and rational, always leaning on solid +facts in order to soar and to spread his wings in the +highest spheres of thought; the other an artist and +a mystic, rising through intuition to the same spiritual +heights; both pursuing the same goal of human perfection +and happiness, but going along such different +roads....</p> + +<p>As we took leave of him, Léon Tolstoï said, “Not +farewell, but <i>au revoir</i>!” And as we sat in the +carriage and started to go, he appeared in a lighted +window, as in an aureola, waving his hand, “Au +revoir, au revoir!” he repeated for the last time.... +The night was calm and beautiful under the immensity +of the starry vault, and its greatness was +confounded in our souls with the greatness of Léon +Tolstoï.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXX" id="CHAPTER_XXX">CHAPTER XXX</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Intestinal flora — Infantile cholera — Typhoid fever — Articles on popular +Science.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">When</span> he returned home, Metchnikoff immediately +resumed his work. He continued, with his collaborators, +researches on the normal intestinal flora +and on the microbian poisons which provoke arterio-sclerosis.</p> + +<p>They were able to ascertain that certain microbes +of the intestinal flora, such as the <i>bacillus coli</i> and +<i>Welch’s bacillus</i>, produce poisons (phenol and indol) +which are reabsorbed by the <i>normal</i> intestinal walls +and which provoke arterio-sclerosis and other lesions +of the organs. A part of those poisons is eliminated +by the urine, and the quantity found therein allows +one to estimate the quantity contained in the +organism. An exclusively vegetarian or carnivorous +diet increases its production, while a mixed diet +reduces it. During the rest of his life Metchnikoff +made systematic and periodical analysis of his own +urine in correlation with his diet.</p> + +<p>From certain facts and certain experiments he concluded +that the reciprocal influence of microbes might +be utilised to attenuate or to eliminate the noxious +action of some of them. Thus, by cultivating the +lactic bacillus in the presence of those microbes which +produce poisons belonging to the aromatic group, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> +decrease in quantity and even the disappearance of +phenol and indol is observed. All those facts confirmed +anterior results which Metchnikoff had obtained, +and indicated the route to be followed in his +struggle against those toxins which gradually poison +the organism and induce premature senility.</p> + +<p>Having thus elucidated certain questions concerning +the part played by microbes in a normal organism, +he studied the pathogenic intestinal flora. He began +by infantile cholera because this question is simplified +by the fact that new-born children are fed exclusively +on milk. It was then believed by practitioners that +this intestinal disease of infants came from their +mode of feeding, from summer heat, and other external +influences. Metchnikoff, however, succeeded in demonstrating +that the contents of the intestines of infants +suffering from “cholera” always included a special +kind of microbe, the <i>B. proteus</i>; he was also able to +give the disease to young anthropoid apes by making +them ingest food soiled by the intestinal contents +of sick infants, thus establishing the infectious character +of infantile cholera.</p> + +<p>He then attacked another intestinal disease, +typhoid fever, of which the microbe (<i>Eberth’s bacillus</i>) +had been known for some time, but had not been +studied experimentally, ordinary laboratory animals +being refractory. Metchnikoff had again recourse to +anthropoids, and succeeded in infecting a chimpanzee +by making him eat food soiled by the intestinal contents +of a typhoid patient.</p> + +<p>With the collaboration of Dr. Besredka, he undertook +a series of experiments on anthropoid apes and +on macaques. The former alone took typical typhoid +fever, similar to that of man. It could be given them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +by pure cultures of Eberth’s bacillus, which definitely +confirmed the specificity of that microbe.</p> + +<p>Antityphoid vaccination by means of killed bacilli +not being at that time either safe or durable, Metchnikoff +advised measures of simple preventive hygiene: +the use of cooked food, great personal cleanliness, +cleanliness of streets and dwellings, and the destruction +of insects, especially flies, which often infect food. +In order to popularise these notions, he wrote a series +of articles in newspapers. Later, several scientists +found efficacious means of vaccination against typhoid +fever.</p> + +<p>In 1912 Metchnikoff, in collaboration with Dr. +Besredka (the author of the antityphoid vaccination +method by means of sensitised bacilli), demonstrated +on anthropoid apes that antityphoid vaccination +by living sensitised microbes is certain, and +that it presents no danger of diffusing the disease, for +these microbes, harmless to the vaccinated individual, +cannot prove a source of danger for his entourage, +since they are phagocyted at the very place where +they are inoculated.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff always considered that it was very +useful to keep the public at large informed of the +results acquired by Science, because “it is only by +becoming a part of daily life that measures of hygiene +and prophylaxis will have efficacious results.” He +therefore lost no opportunity of spreading scientific +principles and facts. In 1908 he had given in Berlin +a lecture on “The Curative Forces of the Organism.” +In a Russian review, the <i>Messenger of Europe</i>, he +developed the same subject and included an epitome +of his lecture in Stockholm on immunity. In that +article he expounded the phagocyte theory of immunity.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +Among concrete examples of its application, +he quoted the indications concerning the evolution of +an infectious disease provided by the quantity of +leucocytes in the blood, and the process employed +by certain surgeons to diminish the danger of infection +during an operation: just as, in case of an enemy +menace, the Government mobilise an army, certain +surgeons employ divers means to attract an army of +phagocytes and to stimulate their activity in case +any microbes should penetrate into the wound.</p> + +<p>In 1909 he gave another lecture at Stuttgart, “A +Conception of Nature and of Medical Science,” in +which he summed up his two works <i>Études sur la +nature humaine</i> and <i>Essais optimistes</i>. The title +of this lecture was intended to emphasise his view of +human nature, according to which “Man, as he +appeared on the earth, is an animal and pathological +being belonging to the realm of medicine.” But he +ended his paper by the same optimistic thought which +illumines the whole philosophy of his later years. +“With the help of Science, Man can correct the imperfections +of his nature.”</p> + +<p>He unveiled these imperfections and the ills which +proceed from them, not only from a love of truth or +scientific honesty, but always with the object of +finding means to combat them. He never allowed +sight to be lost of the fact that Science lights up +the tortuous and painful path which leads to an issue +that suffering humanity will find by gradually widening +the limits of knowledge with the help of Work and +of Will.</p> + +<p>Thus all his writings offer us encouragement and support.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXI" id="CHAPTER_XXXI">CHAPTER XXXI</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">A bacteriological expedition to the Kalmuk steppes, 1911.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">During</span> his preceding journeys in the Kalmuk steppes, +Metchnikoff had often heard it said that tuberculosis +was almost unknown there, but that the Kalmuks +took it very easily when brought into contact with +foreigners. As all means of combating this disease +had hitherto given very unsatisfactory results, Metchnikoff +thought that researches should be started along +a new path. He had long thought that observations +on the extreme liability of Kalmuks to tuberculosis +might perhaps provide some new data. But the +study of the question necessitated a very distant +journey which he now at last had the opportunity of +realising.</p> + +<p>According to Metchnikoff’s hypothesis, a <i>natural</i> +vaccination takes place among us against tuberculosis +which would explain the resistance of the majority +of human beings in spite of the enormous diffusion +of the disease. He concluded that some attenuated +breeds of microbes become introduced into our +organism during our childhood, thus vaccinating us +against the virulent tuberculous bacillus. This supposition +seemed to him plausible, for he had long +ago found that some micro-organisms (Cienkovsky’s +bacillus, the cholera bacillus, etc.) become modified +in different environment and conditions, both in form<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +and in virulence. He had described this phenomenon +in 1888 in a memoir entitled <i>Pleomorphism of +Microbes</i>. His hypothesis would explain the liability +of the Kalmuks, since, if no tuberculous bacilli +existed in the steppes, the inhabitants could not +acquire a natural vaccination. When placed in an +environment which was not free from tuberculosis, +they became infected very easily, being in no wise +prepared for the struggle against the virus.</p> + +<p>The expedition to the Kalmuk country was therefore +planned in order to ascertain whether tuberculosis +was really absent from the steppes. This could +easily be done by Pirquet’s test,<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> which at the same +time would show whether the number of Kalmuks +infected increased from the centre to the outer limit +of the steppes and corresponded with the greater +degree of contact with the surrounding population. +If the enquiry confirmed the hypothesis, there would +remain to be seen which microbes might best be used +as vaccines.</p> + +<p>The expedition was also intended to elucidate a +few questions on the etiology of endemic plague in +the Kirghiz steppes. When this intention became +known, the Russian authorities desired to add to it +a local mission on the study of plague epidemics in +the steppes. Metchnikoff, who was chiefly concerned +with the question of tuberculosis, was only able to +draw up a plan of work for the Russian mission and +to start it going in one of the plague centres.</p> + +<p>The Pasteur Institute expeditionary party comprised, +besides Metchnikoff, MM. Burnet, Salimbeni, +and Iamanouchi. They were joined at Moscow by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +Drs. Tarassevitch and Choukevitch, and at Astrakhan +by the physicians of the Russian plague mission. +The Institut Pasteur party left Paris on May 14, 1911, +full of spirits; Metchnikoff, eager to make the journey +pleasant for his companions, was doing the honours +of his country to the best of his ability; he fully +succeeded, owing to the warm welcome and liberal +hospitality which they received in Russia, where +every one tried to contribute not only to the success +of the expedition but to the comfort and pleasure +of its members. The latter, indeed, preserved a most +pleasant recollection of this journey, and, in later +years, always spoke of it with pleasure.</p> + +<p>Navigation on the Volga from Nijni Novgorod to +Astrakhan was full of peculiar charm. That five days’ +journey was one of the rare periods of complete +rest in Metchnikoff’s life. He indulged in the <i>dolce +far niente</i> as he watched the peaceful landscape on +the passing banks. The Volga, then in flood, covered +immense spaces. Here and there, whole forests +emerged from the river which reflected them as in an +enchanted dream. From time to time, little isolated +villages appeared with the gilt cupola of a church +or a monastery, then meadows, forests, steep cliffs, +or gentle slopes down to the river. What poetry, +what grandeur in simplicity! As in a kaleidoscope, +types of varied populations and pictures of local +customs followed upon each other.</p> + +<p>Along the banks now and then were seen processions +of pilgrims. Their humble, gray, stooping +figures breathed deep faith and resignation. Sometimes +popular songs arose from the Volga, sad, +expressive, soul-penetrating chants.</p> + +<p>This contemplative quietude was only interrupted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +by stations in the ports of large towns where deputations +of the educated inhabitants came to wish the +mission welcome. These functions had a cordial +and touching character, for it was obvious that such +enthusiastic demonstrations had for their source a +sincere cult for the knowledge whose representatives +were being fêted; it was touching to see such a living +ideal in this distant and oppressed land.</p> + +<p>At Tsaritsine, several Kirghiz embarked on our +boat in order to go to a large fair which the inhabitants +of the steppes attended in numbers. Metchnikoff +thought this was a unique opportunity to learn whether +there were any carriers of the plague bacillus among +those many natives coming from all parts of the steppes. +He therefore decided that those members of the expedition +who had come to study plague would go to +the fair with the Kirghiz, whilst he, with the rest of +the expedition, would make observations on the +Kalmuks of the Astrakhan region.</p> + +<p>A most hospitable welcome awaited us there; people +vied with each other in their efforts to assist the +expedition. The Governor-General of Astrakhan had +ordered all preparations to be made, and the mission +was provided not only with necessaries but with comforts +which did much to alleviate the fatigue of the +long journey.</p> + +<p>Whilst waiting for our companions, we had time +to verify several diagnostical reactions, the Kalmuks +lending themselves willingly to the operation. We +heard later that they thought they were being vaccinated +against small-pox, a disease much feared in +the steppes.</p> + +<p>As soon as the plague mission arrived, we started +towards the Kirghiz steppes, for there was a plague<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> +centre north of the Caspian Sea. When we were out +at sea, an intense north wind began to blow the waves +away from the Kirghiz bank, and soon the depth +lessened to such an extent that we could make no +progress. The sailors were perpetually making soundings, +and their repeated cries of “Two and a half feet!” +became a regular nightmare. The situation seemed +critical, and returning to Astrakhan was suggested; +an idea which infuriated Metchnikoff; he would not +hear of it. At last, after several incidents we reached +the Kirghiz bank, the crossing having lasted three +days instead of the usual twenty-three hours.</p> + +<p>As we arrived, we could see from afar a sort of +Valkyries’ ride of natives clad in brilliant colours and +riding up at full gallop with wild cries and exclamations. +Before us spread a barren and sandy steppe, +producing the sad impression of a land forsaken by +God and man. How could life be possible there? +But gradually, as we became captivated by the charm +of the boundless space, the purity of the air, the +harmonious colouring and the scent of wild heliotrope +and wormwood which alone can grow in those sands, +we began to understand that it was not only possible +to live in those steppes, but also to love them.</p> + +<p>The plague centre stood among sandy hills with +low-growing grass; the summit of one of them was +black with charred remains of burnt objects; the +corpses were buried in the same place. Only a few +wretched forsaken hovels remained. In order to +throw light upon endemic plague in the steppes, it +was first of all necessary to ascertain whether the +plague microbes remained alive for some time in +places where the scourge had raged; if they were +preserved in dead bodies which had been singed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> +rather than burnt; if the worms, insects, rodents, and +domestic animals on the spot were or were not carriers +of the plague microbe, and could or could not transmit +it to a distance from the initial focus.</p> + +<p>After organising a small emergency laboratory, +the corpses were exhumed, and Dr. Salimbeni made +a post-mortem examination. These corpses, having +been in the ground for three months, were in a state +of advanced decomposition and contained no living +microbes.</p> + +<p>Having set the work of the plague mission going, +Metchnikoff parted from it in order to accomplish +the projected investigations on tuberculosis in the +Kalmuk steppes. He made a very solemn entry +into these steppes; a Kalmuk deputation welcomed +the mission and presented Metchnikoff with a bronze +Buddha.</p> + +<p>The aspect of those natives is sad and humble, +their movements are slow, their eyes dull. In this +they contrast with their neighbours, the quick and +intelligent Kirghiz, and one reason for it is that the +latter, being Moslems, absorb no alcohol, while the +Kalmuks consume fermented milk (alcoholic fermentation) +which poisons them slightly but continuously; +this observation had already been made +by Metchnikoff at the time of his previous visit.</p> + +<p>The Kalmuks live in tents covered with coarse +felt; they transport these dwellings on camels from +one place to another when their herds of sheep or +horses have consumed the scanty pasture grass +around the camp. There is no attempt at cultivation, +and the steppes become more and more barren as +the pastures become exhausted. In order to remedy +this evil, the Russian administration has begun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> +various experimental plantations. In some places +the steppes are covered with small tamarisk bushes +or with silky grass, but, as a rule, the chief growth is +of silver wormwood. The monotony is not so great as +one might think, for the steppes, like a mirror, reflect +all the divers light-changes, and wonderful natural +phenomena take place there. During the great heat, +mirages are to be seen in the distance—a river, lakes, +reed-grown shores; sometimes a sand-storm supervenes, +more infernal than fairy-like, called here +“smertch.” The wind raises the sand in tongues of +flames or in funnels running up to the sky with giddy +rapidity. Gradually, all the separate turmoils join +in a gigantic wall of sand, advancing in an orgy of +movement; the heavy clouds fall towards the +ground, the sand rushes upwards, everything becomes +confounded in darkness and chaos.</p> + +<p>One feels so entirely in the power of natural forces +that the fatalism of the poor inhabitants of the land +is easily understood. The Kalmuks, primitive and +nomadic, produce the impression of ghosts from +distant centuries.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff noticed that since his last visit in +1874, fatal influences had worked havoc on the +population. Four scourges, all of them coming from +outside, are destroying the Kalmuks: syphilis, +alcoholism, tuberculosis, and the Russians who are +constantly pushing them back. Those poor people +realise the fate which is awaiting them, and resign +themselves like a sick man who knows his sickness +to be incurable.</p> + +<p>The spiritual life of the Kalmuks reduces itself to +their religious cult. There are many Buddhist convents +where children are being brought up for a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> +monastic life. Religious rites are performed by +priests dressed in purple and brilliant yellow; for +the uninitiated, their part consists in unrolling interminable +bands on which prayers are inscribed, and +in executing a religious music which seemed a mixture +of a camel’s grunt, a dog’s howling, and an infinitely +sad plaint. Of the pure cult of Buddha, nothing +seems to remain but an empty form. However, +there is a convent in the steppes—Tshori—a sort of +religious academy, where an effort is being made +to restore the cult to the original level of Buddhist +doctrines.</p> + +<p>Whilst gathering observations on tuberculosis, we +traversed the steppes in a north-easterly direction +as far as Sarepta. This town seemed like a civilised +centre after the steppes, where the conditions of life +were somewhat hard in spite of the cordial reception +accorded us everywhere. The food, consisting solely +in tinned goods and mutton, had caused intestinal +trouble in nearly all the members of the expedition; +on the other hand, we were greatly incommoded by +the heat, lack of water, and abundance of insects of +all kinds.</p> + +<p>In spite of all, Metchnikoff had hitherto borne the +journey fairly well. However, since we left Moscow +he had had frequent cardiac intermittence, accompanied +sometimes by sharp pains along the sternum. +But the stay at Sarepta especially tried his health; +the heat reached 35° C. (95° F.) in the shade and 52° C. +(about 125° F.) in the sun; in the evening the windows +could not be opened because of the mosquitoes. +Metchnikoff, who had shown so much endurance, +now became weak, drowsy, and nervous; he attributed +his condition to the excessive heat. Yet he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> +could not leave Sarepta, for all the members of both +branches of the mission had agreed to meet there in +order to sum up the results of their observations.</p> + +<p>The researches of the expedition for the study of +plague were not finished, and the Russian mission +had agreed to complete them. So far, it was established +that neither the corpses—after a certain time—nor +the ground, nor the surrounding animals contained +any plague microbes, and no carriers had been +found among the Kirghiz population.</p> + +<p>The data gathered among the Kalmuk population +justified Metchnikoff’s hypothesis. In the centre of +the steppes, where the Kalmuks were still isolated, +tuberculosis was completely unknown; diagnosis +reactions were negative. They became positive more +and more frequently as we came nearer the periphery +of the steppes and the Russian population. The +extreme sensitiveness of the Kalmuks must therefore +depend on the fact that they have suffered no +natural vaccination in the steppes, which would +support the idea that some natural vaccine exists +amongst us. Metchnikoff therefore concluded that +he might direct ulterior researches towards the quest +of natural tuberculous vaccines. Such were the +scientific results of the expedition.</p> + +<p>Apart from that, the journey to Russia had a +strong personal influence on Metchnikoff. He had +formerly left his country under the impression of the +fatal error committed by the revolutionaries in +killing Alexander II., an error which had led to a +protracted reaction. He had therefore remained very +sceptical concerning the Russian revolutionary movement; +he thought that the necessary reforms might +come from a Government evolution. But, during his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> +sojourn in Russia, he was able to appreciate events +which modified his ideas to a great extent. He was +impressed by the contrast between the progressive +aspirations of the “intellectuals” and the inertia or +noxious activity of the rulers. The policy of Casso, +the Minister of Public Instruction, who ordered +regular raids in the universities, the persecution of +Poles and Jews, the encouragement of the “black +band” obscurantism, giving plenary powers to +creatures of darkness like Rasputin and his peers, +all these things excited indignation in a man who +placed the free development of human culture above +everything.</p> + +<p>He thus ceased to count upon the progressive +evolution of a Government which was incapable of +solving the complicated problems of Russian life, and +henceforward thought that those problems would be +solved by the “intellectuals” apart from the Government +and in opposition to it.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXII" id="CHAPTER_XXXII">CHAPTER XXXII</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Further researches on the intestinal flora—<i>Forty Years’ Search for +a Rational Conception of Life.</i></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Since</span> Metchnikoff had conceived the idea that a considerable +part was played in human life by the intestinal +flora, his thoughts had centred around a study +which he thought profitable: that of the influence of +intestinal microbes on the normal and on the pathological +organism.</p> + +<p>So, on his return from Russia, he took advantage +of the fact that an epidemic of infantile cholera had +broken out in order to continue his former investigations +of that disease. The numerous cases which he +thus studied allowed him finally to establish the +specific part of the <i>B. proteus</i> as well as the similarity +between infantile cholera and Asiatic cholera. This +time he succeeded in contaminating, not only young +anthropoid apes, but also new-born rabbits, and that +not only through sick children’s excreta, but by pure +cultures of the <i>proteus</i>, which eliminated every doubt +of the specificity of this microbe.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff explained the contamination of children +exclusively breast-fed, either by the presence of +a carrier personally refractory, among the entourage, +or by the transport of dirt, by means of flies, on the +objects which infants so readily put into their mouths. +He therefore advised preventive means of absolute<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> +hygiene and cleanliness, especially where suckling +infants are concerned.</p> + +<p>During the year 1912, he studied the intestinal flora +and the influence of divers food diets. He experimented +upon the rat, an omnivorous animal whose +mode of feeding resembles that of man. The rats +were divided into three lots, of which one was kept +to a meat diet, another to a vegetarian régime, +and the third to a mixture of both. The meat diet +was least favourable, and the best results obtained by +the mixed food.</p> + +<p>These observations led Metchnikoff to the study +of other problems intimately connected with the +same question.</p> + +<p>He undertook a series of researches in collaboration +with his pupils, MM. Berthelot and Wollman, on +the conditions which cause the diminution within the +organism of the toxic products of intestinal microbes. +They found that the quantity of these products was +very small in those animals which feed on vegetable +or fruit containing much sugar, such as carrots, +beetroot, dates, etc. This is explained by the fact +that the products of the decomposition of sugar are +acids which prevent the development of putrefying +microbes. But the sugar, rapidly absorbed by the +walls of the small intestine, only reaches the large +intestine in a much reduced quantity, for it is only +up to a certain point during its journey that the +cellulose of vegetables, rich in sugar, protects that +substance. The question, therefore, was to find the +means of making it reach the large intestine in +greater quantities. In the intestine of a normal +dog, an innocuous microbe was found, the <i>Glycobacter +peptonicus</i>, which decomposes starch into sugar.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span></p> + +<p>Metchnikoff made some laboratory animals ingest +this microbe together with food, and ascertained that +it reached the large intestine and decomposed in it +the starch of farinaceous food into sugar, of which the +acid products prevented the swarming of putrefying +microbes. By this process it is possible to reduce to +a minimum and even sometimes to eliminate the +production of phenol and indol in rats subjected to +a mixed diet and made at the same time to ingest +cultures of the lactic bacillus and of the glycobacter.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff applied these different diets to himself +and to other individuals and obtained concordant +results.</p> + +<p>However, he ascertained that it is not only the +food diet which regulates the quantity of microbian +poisons contained in the organism; that quantity +sometimes varies very much in spite of an identical +diet. He thought that a very important part of +influence is due to pre-existing microbes which prevent +or favour the development of microbes of putrefaction. +All these questions, complicated by the +richness and variety of the intestinal flora, still demanded +a long series of laborious researches.</p> + +<p>At the end of the winter he felt tired, and we +went to the seaside during the holidays. But the +sharp sea air did not suit him; he had a beginning of +cardiac asthma and nearly fainted during a walk. +We therefore had to come away from the sea, and +went inland, to Eu. At the beginning of our stay, +Metchnikoff did not feel well, walking tired him, he +suffered from cardiac intermittence; it was only +gradually that his condition improved and he was +able to write the preface to a Russian edition of his +philosophical articles.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span></p> + +<p>This book was entitled <i>Forty Years’ Search for a +Rational Conception of Life</i>, and the articles record +the evolution of his ideas and his search “not only +for a rational understanding of life, but also for the +solution of the problem of death, which is so full of +contradictions.”</p> + +<p>This collection of articles enables us at the same +time to follow the gradual transition from the pessimism +of his youth to the optimism of his maturity. +His first writings<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> relate to the discords of human +nature and the lack of a solid basis for morals.</p> + +<p>But, already in 1883, he concluded an opening +<i>Causerie</i> at the Naturalists’ Congress in Odessa, by +the following words: “The theoretical study of +natural history problems, in the widest sense of the +word, alone can give a sound method for the comprehension +of truth and lead to a definite conception +of life—or at least to an approach to it.”</p> + +<p>Another article, <i>The Curative Forces of the Organism</i>, +sums up his phagocyte theory, and states the +fact that the organism possesses special powers of +struggle against enemy elements.</p> + +<p>In 1891, he wrote <i>The Law of Life</i>, in which we find +the dawning idea that the lack of harmony in human +structure does not make a happy existence and a +rational code of morals impossible. Morals must +consist “not in rules of conduct adapted to our +present defective human nature, but on conduct +based upon human nature modified, according to +the ideal of human happiness.”</p> + +<p><i>The Flora of the Human Body</i>, published in 1901,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> +is a study in which Metchnikoff’s optimism assumes a +definite form, for he speaks of the efficacy of certain +means of struggling with our lack of harmony.</p> + +<p>The last chapter in the book, “A Conception of +Life and of Medical Science,” introducing the word +Orthobiosis, strikes the optimistic chord, winged and +conclusive, which must result from victory over the +disharmonies of human nature. This is Metchnikoff’s +ultimate formula, summing up the problems of life +and of morals:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The ethical problem reduces itself to this: to allow the +majority of human beings to reach life’s goal, that is, to accomplish +the whole cycle of a rational existence to its natural end. +We are still very far from that. We can but sketch the rules +to follow in order to attain this ideal. Its final realisation will +demand more scientific researches, which must be allowed +the widest and freest scope. It is to be foreseen that existence +will have to be modified in many ways. Orthobiosis demands +an active, healthy, and sober life, devoid of luxury and excess.</p> + +<p>We must therefore modify present customs and eliminate +those extremes of wealth and poverty which now bring us so +many evils. As time goes on, when Science has caused present +evils to disappear, when men no longer tremble for the life +and welfare of their dear ones, when individual life follows +a normal course—then Man can attain a higher level and +more easily devote himself to exalted goals.</p> + +<p>Then Art and pure Science will occupy the place which +is due to them and which they lack at the present moment in +consequence of our many cares. Let us hope that men will +understand their true interests and contribute to the progress +of orthobiosis.</p> + +<p>Many efforts are necessary, much self-sacrifice, but they +will be attenuated by the consciousness of an activity +directed towards the real goal of human existence.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXXIII">CHAPTER XXXIII</a></h2> +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">First our pleasures die, and then<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Our hopes, and then—our fears, and when<br /></span> +<span class="i0">These are dead—the debt is due.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Dust claims dust—and we die too.</span> +<p class="small-right"> +<span class="smcap">Shelley.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Unpleasant incidents — The fabrication of lacto-bacilli — St. Léger-en-Yvelines — Return +to Paris — First cardiac attack — Evolution +of the death-instinct — Notes on his symptoms.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> end of 1912 had some unexpected emotions in +store for us.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff had always been able to congratulate +himself on the cordial hospitality which he had found +in France, and to the end of his life he remained +deeply grateful for it.</p> + +<p>But, in any country, incidents may occur about +which it would be unjust to generalise when they are +due to individuals or to particular limited circles, +as was the fact in the present case. In spite of +the broad and generous ideas so widespread in +France, a sudden current of narrow nationalism +became manifest, at this moment, in certain quarters. +Foreigners were accused of invading the country, of +occupying lucrative posts and increasing the difficulties +of the bitter struggle for existence. At first, +only vague allusions were made, but, little by little, +the attacks of that nationalist circle went beyond all +bounds of justice and decency and turned into brutal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> +provocations. The contemptuous word <i>métèque</i> was resuscitated.</p> + +<p>One newspaper especially led a furious propaganda +and hesitated at no means of overwhelming its +victims, one of whom was Metchnikoff.</p> + +<p>Those coarse attacks might have been ignored +with the contempt which they deserved had they not +been echoed by a writer in a serious publication. +Dr. Roux then wrote a reply in the same paper, and +the campaign ceased.</p> + +<p>A proverb says with truth, “Slander away! something +will always stick.” And it was thus in this +case. Metchnikoff was reproached with having made +money by his scientific discoveries. The story of his +whole life and the fact that he left no fortune should +suffice to answer this calumny, yet I am obliged to +dwell on it, though I should have preferred not to do +so. The incident is too characteristic of Metchnikoff +to be omitted in this biography, which must be a +faithful testimony. The calumny was based on a real +fact, but the interpretation of it was absolutely false. +After Metchnikoff’s experiments on the lactic bacillus, +a notion of the hygienic power of pure sour milk +began to spread among the public. A manufacturer +had the idea of preparing it on a large scale, according +to the new scientific principles, and wished to form +a company to that effect; he asked Metchnikoff to +recommend to him some one whom he could entrust +with the technical work of preparing the pure curded +milk. It happened that we were just then trying to +find a post for a young couple in whom we were +interested, and whose child was my husband’s goddaughter. +He trained his protégé in the technique +required, and was therefore able to recommend him.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> +A short time later, the manufacturer declared that he +could not be sure of the success of his enterprise without +the guarantee of the name of Metchnikoff, whose +researches had proved the advantages of the preparation +in question. After consulting the legal adviser +of the Pasteur Institute, Metchnikoff consented to +this, without of course having any pecuniary interest +in it; the formula chosen was, “sole provider of +Professor Metchnikoff.” The undertaking succeeded, +and our protégé’s future was assured. Metchnikoff +himself, however, was attacked and accused most +unjustly, though he had never made any personal +profit whatever from the enterprise. And yet, when +his friends told him that it had been very reckless on +his part thus to expose himself, he answered that he +thought it impossible to hesitate between the welfare +of a whole family and the possibility of gossip. His +reasoning was imprudent and perhaps erroneous, but +he never hesitated between doing a kindness and the +possible unpleasant consequences it might have for +himself. If some people could not understand him, +it was because he was far from the commonplace, +“not like other people,” a quality often misunderstood +and unforgiven.</p> + +<p>Such are the facts. “Honi soit qui mal y +pense!”</p> + +<p>The desire to lessen the ills around him was, in +general, the cause of heavy anxieties in his later years. +He had learnt that the discovery of an industrial +process, of which the realisation required capital, +would be an excellent investment. He immediately +wished to make his friends profit by it, as well as himself, +in order to alleviate material difficulties. But +until the end of his life the undertaking had no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +results, and he was obsessed by the fear of having +given bad advice to those who followed him.</p> + +<p>He knew not how to refuse, even when he should +have done so; therefore he was odiously exploited. +Often he worked, in his rare leisure moments, for +people who were unworthy of his kindness. During +the last years of his life, all these incidents grieved +him so much that he used to say he felt the burden +of existence. His soul was darkened, he felt very +depressed, and his health suffered.</p> + +<p>We spent the summer holidays of 1913 at St. +Léger-en-Yvelines, a pretty place on the edge of the +Rambouillet forest. In his choice of a holiday resort, +my husband was always guided by the desire to find +a place favourable to my sketching, and St. Léger +answered the purpose wonderfully. The fields with +their vast horizons, the forest with its graceful +bracken and carpets of softly-tinted heather, the +mysterious ponds, all went to compose an admirable +symphony, full of artistic suggestion.</p> + +<p>Elie himself was gay and full of spirits. He +worked in the morning, and we spent the rest of the +day in the forest. He often read aloud; he rested +and enjoyed the peaceful calm, pure air, and verdure +which he loved so much.</p> + +<p>He had arranged to take advantage of these +holidays to execute work of which he had been thinking +for a long time. As it has been said above, he +thought that the life instinct was only developed +gradually and produced at the same time an optimistic +conception of life; he wished to verify this personal +impression by the psychological evolution of +divers other thinkers. He turned to Maeterlinck, as +a representative of modern ideas. This author,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> +mystical and pessimistic in his youth, had acquired +in his maturity a far more optimistic conception of +life. He himself explained this change by the +influence of circumstances, but Metchnikoff saw in +it a deeper cause, connected with the progressive +evolution of the vital instinct which, by bringing +equilibrium with it, suggests optimism. The study +of Maeterlinck’s works confirmed his opinion.</p> + +<p>Time flowed peacefully between rest and these +occupations; at the end of the holidays, we congratulated +ourselves on their result on my husband’s +health; on our return, his friends thought him looking +well. Yet on the 19th October, about seven in the +morning, he had a terrible cardiac attack without +any apparent cause. I found him seated at his desk, +and was terrified by his appearance; his lips were +blue, and he was breathing with difficulty. And yet +he was writing, and this is what he was writing:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="small-right"> +<span class="smcap">Sèvres</span>, <i>19th October 1913</i>, 7.45 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>This morning, after a good night, my heart was working +well; I had from 58 to 59 regular pulsations. But, as I rose, +I suddenly felt acute pain along the sternum; at the same +time began a strong crisis of tachycardia. I had never in my +life felt anything like it....</p> +</div> + +<p>Here he had to stop as the crisis was becoming +intolerable, but a few hours later he took up his pen +again:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="small-right"> + +<i>19th October</i>, 3 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>The crisis lasted till one o’clock (six hours’ duration).</p> + +<p>There were times when the pain in the chest was unendurable.</p> + +<p>I was thirsty and drank hot, weak tea; I vomited; I felt +wind in the stomach and the intestine. About noon the +pain decreased, but the heart-beats were frequent and extremely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +irregular. I lunched in order not to alarm my wife, though I +feared to aggravate the attack by filling my stomach.</p> + +<p>But the opposite happened. From the first mouthfuls (I +naturally eat very little) the pain became more tolerable +and the pulse less frequent. After lunch, everything became +normal again; the pain ceased, the pulsations slackened (78-80 +per min.) and became much more regular. Intermittence +was rare, and I several times counted 100 regular beats in +succession. I remained absolutely conscious during the whole +crisis, and what chiefly pleased me is that I felt no fear of +death, which I was expecting at every moment. It was not +only <i>reasoning</i> which made me understand that it was better +to die now, whilst my intellectual powers had not yet gone +from me and I had evidently accomplished all of what I was +capable; I resigned myself also <i>in feeling</i>, and quite serenely +to the catastrophe which was coming upon me and which +would be far from unexpected.</p> + +<p>My mother, who had suffered from heart attacks during +a great part of her life, died at 65. My father died of apoplexy +in his 68th year.</p> + +<p>My eldest sister succumbed to an œdema of the brain; +my brother Nicholas died at 57 of <i>angina pectoris</i>.</p> + +<p>Undoubtedly my cardiac heredity is a bad one. Already +in my youth, I suffered from my heart. At 33 I had such +cardiac pains that sometimes I had to rest after walking a +few paces. At 34, I had much giddiness and a feeling of +heaviness in the head. I could not read a few lines, a poster +even, without a painful sensation. In 1881, during relapsing +fever, I had severe cardiac intermittence, very fatiguing and +only relieved by small doses of digitalin.</p> + +<p>I afterwards had periodical attacks of intermittence but +never any tachycardia, at least none that lasted more than a +few seconds. A little tincture of strophanthus used to relieve +me during intermittence. I ended by consulting Dr. Vaquez, +but the treatment he prescribed gave me no relief. As I +attributed my condition to poisoning by the toxins of intestinal +microbes, I resolved to give up raw food and to purge myself +now and then with Carabaña water. The success of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +treatment was indisputable, and in 1897 the intermittence +ceased. In the autumn of 1898 I was beginning to suffer +from polyuria; I consulted Albaran, who counselled Contrexéville +water, but this cure caused the appearance of <i>albumen</i> +in my urine. In 1898 I consulted Norden at Frankfort and +Leube in Paris during the Exhibition of 1900. Neither found +anything alarming. Norden had told me that I had <i>symptoms +of arterio-sclerosis inherent to my age</i> (53). I adopted a +mixed diet; I took, regularly, sour milk prepared with +cultures of the Bulgarian lactic bacillus, and, during some +years, my health was quite satisfactory.</p> + +<p>It was only after my journey to Russia in 1909 that a +notable aggravation supervened. I felt acute pains in the +chest, along the sternum, especially after eating or walking.</p> + +<p>In 1911 the intermittence reappeared. In January 1911, +I consulted Dr. Heitz in order to know whether I could undertake +an expedition in the Kalmuk steppes, where hygienic +conditions are very unfavourable. Dr. Heitz found my heart +hypertrophied, some slight galloping noise, the blood-pressure +(Pachon’s apparatus) 17-16-15. He said, however, that I +might undertake the journey, but added, “People die suddenly +with less the matter than that with their hearts.” The journey +went well, though I suffered from frequent intermittence and +pains along the sternum when I walked.</p> + +<p>After my return, my heart was fairly satisfactory.</p> + +<p>What consoles me especially is that I have preserved my +activity, my passion for work, and my intellectual powers. +But, naturally, I am ready to die at any moment.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the summer I was sounded by Dr. +Manoukhine and Professor Tchistovitch; both thought the +heart-sounds satisfactory, but Manoukhine was rather struck +by the weakness of the first aortic sound whilst the second was +very strong. I had frequent intermittence, but with intervals +of normal pulsations. Latterly I have felt better in that +respect, and the pain along the sternum only occurred in +exceptional cases.</p> + +<p>Whilst preparing for my end, I am glad that I can face it +with courage and serenity.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span></p> + +<p>As I look back upon my life, it seems to me to have been +as “orthobiotic” as possible.</p> + +<p>If it may seem premature to die at 68 years and 5 months, +it must not be forgotten that I began to live very early (I +published my first scientific work at 18); that I have had +many emotions during my life; that I was, so to speak, in a +state of continual ebullition.</p> + +<p>The polemics concerning phagocytosis might have killed or +finally enfeebled me much earlier. At times (for instance, I +refer to Lubarsch’s attacks in 1889 and those of Pfeiffer +in 1894) I was ready to rid myself of life.</p> + +<p>Moreover, I only began to follow a rational hygiene (according +to my opinion) after I was 53 years old and already had +symptoms of arterio-sclerosis. I have been fairly successful +in combating intestinal putrefaction (phenols and indols),<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> +but I could not succeed in getting rid of abundant <i>clostridium +butyricum</i> which were implanted in my intestine.</p> + +<p>To sum up, I rejoice that I have had an existence not devoid +of sense, and I feel some satisfaction in considering my conception +of the problem of life as being accurate.</p> + +<p>As I prepare to die, I have not the shadow of a hope of a +life beyond, and I calmly look forward to complete annihilation.</p> + +<p>It is possible that having very early begun a very intense +life, I have attained at 68 a precocious satiety of living, just +as certain women cease to menstruate earlier than the great +majority.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +<span class="smcap">El. Metchnikoff.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p><i>P.S.</i>—I believe everything is in order in view of my end +(my will, my affairs, etc.).</p> + +<p><i>P.S.</i>—Let those who think that, according to my principles, +I should have lived a hundred years, “forgive” me my premature +end in view of the extenuating circumstances above-mentioned +(intense and precocious activity, excitable temperament, +nervous disposition, and late beginning of the rational +diet).</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +E. M.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span></p> +<p>The very next day he felt well enough to return +to his work.</p> + +<p>When urged to settle down in Paris in order to +avoid the fatigue of the journey, he replied that the +peace and pure air of Sèvres were indispensable to +his health, that the journey did not fatigue him in +the least, but on the contrary provided him with +wholesome exercise and a pleasant walk. Knowing +how prudent he was, I did not dare to insist for fear +of mistaking what was really best for him. And life +gradually resumed its normal course....</p> + +<p>For a long time Metchnikoff had been observing +himself very attentively; he took regular notes on +the influence of the food diet which he followed; by +the analysis of his urine, he sought for indications +respecting the toxic products of his intestinal flora; +he studied upon himself the advance of senility, +whitening of hair, etc.</p> + +<p>Since his crisis he had adopted the habit of writing +occasional notes on his psychical state. This is what +he wrote on the 23rd December 1913 at Sèvres:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Two months and more have passed since I wrote the preceding +lines. During that period my health has been satisfactory; +nevertheless I have wondered every day whether it +would be my last.</p> + +<p>I am therefore hastening to write my memoir on infantile +cholera.</p> + +<p>The cardiac intermittence has been more or less frequent, +yet every day I have had periods of regular pulsations (58-66-72 +per minute) as usual.</p> + +<p>The day before yesterday I contracted a bad cold, +accompanied by a little fever. Wondering if it would degenerate +into pneumonia, I faced anew the possibility of a +near end, and I resumed the analysis of my thoughts, feelings, +and sensations.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span></p> + +<p>As my 70 years draw near to their close, it seems to me +that a feeling of satiety with life, what I call the “natural +death instinct,” is gently beginning to evolve.</p> + +<p>When, in autumn 1910, experimenting with typhoid +cultures, I had soiled my face and mouth, I naturally said +to myself that it might give me typhoid fever. I washed my +face and beard with soap and a solution of sublimate without +considering that I was safe against the infection. I <i>reasoned</i> +that it would be preferable to contract the disease and to die +of it. (At my age typhoid fever is almost always fatal. I +had never had it, and might therefore consider myself in a +state of receptivity.) It is fine to fall on the battlefield, +especially at an age when life and activity are already on +the wane. But all that was pure <i>reasoning</i>; <i>instinctively</i> I +still felt a great desire to live, and it was with joy that I +counted the days which separated me from the danger of +having contracted typhoid fever. I felt much relieved a +fortnight after the incident, considering that the limit of +incubation was passed.</p> + +<p>Thus <i>reasoning</i> and feeling or <i>instinct</i> were not in accord.</p> + +<p>Since then, in the three following years, a modification has +taken place in my psychical condition.</p> + +<p>The prospect of death <i>frightens me less than before</i>. During +my cardiac crisis of the 19th October 1913 I even felt no fear of +death, and my satisfaction at my recovery was <i>less</i> than before.</p> + +<p>I think it is that difference in quantity which constitutes +the first symptoms of <i>indifference</i> towards death, an indifference +which is hardly perceptible at first.</p> + +<p>Satiety with life is sometimes observed in old people of +80; it is not surprising to feel the first approach of it +about 70, especially in the case of a man like myself who +began very early to lead a very intense life.</p> + +<p>Other special circumstances influence even more this +precocious satiety of life. As I become more indifferent to +my own life I feel a more and more acute anxiety for the +health, life, and happiness of those who are dear to me.</p> + +<p>I am especially troubled by a consciousness of the imperfection +of modern medicine. In spite of the progress<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +realised in these latter days, it is still powerless against a +multitude of diseases, threatening us on all sides.</p> + +<p>Pulmonary lesions (tuberculosis, pneumonia, etc.), the +nephrites, and an infinite quantity of other diseases can +yet neither be prevented nor cured. So we live in constant +fear for those we love. When medicine shall (as I am persuaded) +have conquered all these evils, one cause of the +bitterness of life will cease—but that is not yet the case.</p> + +<p>That is why, besides the weakening of the life-instinct, a +resignation towards death grows in us, as a means of no +longer feeling the ills which afflict our neighbours.</p> + +<p>With time, when that source of unhappiness has been +eliminated by medicine, old age will be more attractive, and +an orthobiotic life will become normal and realisable.</p> + +<p>At the ages of 50, 60, 65, I felt an intense joy in +living, such as I described in my <i>Studies on Human Nature</i> +and <i>Optimistic Essays</i>. In the last few years it has lessened +markedly.</p> + +<p>Scientific work still provokes in me an invincible enthusiasm, +but I am becoming more indifferent to many of the +pleasures of life.</p> +</div> + +<p>And indeed he no longer had the joyous soul of +former days; into his life a funereal note had crept, +low but continuous and obstinate. He gave all the +more energy to the study of those questions the +solution of which was to bring about the reign of +orthobiosis. He spent the whole winter in researches +on the intestinal flora and on the completion of his +studies on infantile cholera.</p> + +<p>In the spring, on the occasion of his anniversary, +he wrote the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="small-right"> + +<span class="smcap">Sèvres</span>, <i>16th May 1914</i>.<br /> +</p> + +<p>I have to-day entered my 70th year; it is a great event +for me. As I analyse my feelings, I realise more and more +the <i>weakening</i> of my “life-instinct.”</p> + +<p>In order to verify my impressions, I wished to hear again<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +the musical compositions which formerly used to make me +shed tears of enthusiasm (for instance, Beethoven’s 7th +Symphony or Bach’s aria for the violin). Well, my impressionability +towards music has very much lessened. In spite +of the facility with which old people weep, I hardly shed a +single tear, save with rare exceptions.</p> + +<p>I observe the same change in other circumstances.</p> + +<p>This spring, the blossoming of flowers, buds, bushes, and +trees, all this renascence of nature, has not excited in me a +shadow of the emotion of preceding years.</p> + +<p>Rather I felt a melancholy, not on account of my coming +end, but because of the consciousness of the burden of existence.</p> + +<p>There is no question for me now of the old joy of living; +my predominant feeling is <i>infinite anxiety</i> for the health and +happiness of those I love. I now so well understand Pettenkoffer, +who committed suicide at 84 after losing all his +family. Their death had evidently been precocious because +of the impotence of medicine. At every step, one comes +across cases where neither hygiene nor therapeutics can do +anything. How many are infected with tuberculosis, no +one knows how or where. What is to be done to avoid it? +And the consequences of measles, of scarlet fever, perhaps of +a simple sore throat, followed sometimes by tuberculosis +or nephritis!</p> + +<p>What is the use of being able to foretell, by means of the +proportion of urea in the blood, the precise moment of the +death of an “azotemic” patient when you cannot prevent it +or cure him?</p> + +<p>This imperfection of medical science prevents many +from reaching true <i>orthobiosis</i>, and it is understandable that, +seeing the present state of medicine, the feeling of the “burden +of existence” may be precocious, as in my case.</p> + +<p>But it is indubitable that, in spite of the slowness with +which medical science is developing, it will in the future +reach a degree which will enable us to cease to tremble any +longer before all sorts of incurable diseases. Orthobiosis will +then appear, no longer under its present incomplete form, +but as the solid and essential basis of life.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXXIV">CHAPTER XXXIV</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Return to St. Léger-en-Yvelines — Norka — Studies on the death of the +silk-worm moth — War declared — Mobilisation.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> drawback of the holidays consisted, for Metchnikoff, +in coming away from his laboratory and in +the impossibility of following his diet in a hotel or +a boarding-house. We therefore resolved to hire a +cottage in some quiet place, to organise a small +laboratory, and to continue our usual mode of life.</p> + +<p>St. Legér-en-Yvelines, where we had spent part of +the preceding summer, answered all our requirements. +We took a small villa there and called it “Norka,” +which means in Russian “little hole,” “little refuge,” +and came there for the holidays in July 1914.</p> + +<p>Elie seemed pleased to be there; thanks to the +laboratory, he could easily vary his occupations, for +continuous reading fatigued him. His reflections +having led him to the problem of natural death, he +had for some time been seeking for a subject on which +he could study the mechanism of the phenomenon. +He had formerly studied the May-flies (Ephemeridæ), +predestined to a natural death by their rudimentary +buccal organs, incapable of use in feeding. But +the life of those insects, a life of a few hours or a +few days at the most, was too short to allow the +necessary researches. The males of the Rotifera, +which are also deprived of buccal organs and even of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +digestive organs, were too small in size for physiological +experiments. Thus, those two examples of +natural death among multicellular beings were unsuitable +to the projected study.</p> + +<p>He found a more favourable subject in the moth +of the silk-worm (<i>Bombyx mori</i>); the rudimentary +buccal organs of that insect make all feeding impossible +and predestine it to a natural death. The +dimensions of the silk-worm moth are large enough +and it has a life duration of twenty-five or thirty +days, therefore sufficient to allow the study of the +mechanism by which its death is brought about. +Metchnikoff procured a quantity of silk-worms, and +soon the moths hatched and covered all the mantelpieces +and tables in Norka with white flakes. He +ascertained that it was not hunger which brought +about the death of the moths, for their organism was +not in the least exhausted.</p> + +<p>The nutrition of the latter takes place at the +expense of the fatty substance which remains after +the metamorphosis of the chrysalis into a moth. The +dissolution of this fatty substance produces toxins +which pass into the urine. Thus the obvious cause +of the death of the moth is an acid intoxication by +toxic urine secreted in the bladder. As the latter +does not empty itself, uræmia becomes inevitable.</p> + +<p>The majority of moths contain no micro-organisms +which could suggest death by infection.</p> + +<p>The only theoretic objection against a natural +death might consist in the existence of “invisible +microbes.” Indeed, the question of invisible microbes +revealed in certain infections perturbed Metchnikoff’s +mind to such an extent that, during his last illness, he +used to say that it would have been a curse to his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +ulterior activity, a sort of ghost preventing all definite +conclusions in problems connected with the absence +or presence of microbes. The last word on natural +death, he said, will only be spoken when, owing to +the improvement of the microscope, those microbes +which are as yet invisible to us will become visible. +Nevertheless, as far as can be judged at present, the +death of the <i>Bombyx mori</i> is due, not to external +causes, but to the structure of the insect itself, and +is therefore a natural death.</p> + +<p>During these holidays, Metchnikoff also wrote +reminiscences of his friend the physiologist Setchénoff.<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> + +<p>We went quietly for fairly long walks; Metchnikoff +rested on the shores of his favourite lake (Vilpert), +and his health was very satisfactory.</p> + +<p>After the intense heat, some rain came and the +weather became ideal; there was a perceptible +lull in nature; the underwood was becoming purple +with heather; the corn was ripening; harvest had +begun, and sheaves stood up in the fields. All was +calm and peaceful; we never tired of the charm +of the forest, of the fields, of the beautiful rustic +surroundings, and our souls sang in unison with Nature....</p> + +<p>Suddenly, like a flash of lightning in the pure sky, +the news of the war burst out!</p> + +<p>The possibility had so often been mentioned in +late years that no one believed in it. Even now, on +the eve of the catastrophe, it was hoped that all +would settle down....</p> + +<p>Until the last moment Metchnikoff refused to +believe in it; he could not admit that a pacific<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> +solution was impossible. “How is it possible that +in Europe, in a civilised country, mutual interests +should not be reconciled without killing?” he said. +“A war would be madness, even from the point of +view of Germany, who risks having to face three +great powers. No, war is not possible.”</p> + +<p>And yet war was spreading all over Europe.</p> + +<p>The situation of France seemed critical, for the +country had just gone through a series of internal +storms. The labour question, that of income tax, +and that of the three years’ military service had +raised sharp controversies; the Caillaux affair had +revealed hidden sores in political life; the insane +assassination of Jaurès, of which the reason was +still unknown, gave rise to the blackest prognostications.</p> + +<p>Already on the 28th July, date of the declaration +of war by Austria against Serbia, anxiety had become +intense, but it was hoped that Russia would settle +matters between the two countries, and that the +trouble would remain local.</p> + +<p>On the 1st August, Germany declared war on +Russia, and it became obvious that the storm was +coming on apace. The aspect of life suddenly +changed; a feeling of dread and expectancy unnerved +everybody; mobilisation was mentioned; +automobiles at full speed hurried along the roads; +the harvest was hastily gathered.... We could +no longer work, go for walks, or admire nature without +a feeling of heavy anxiety.</p> + +<p>We went about like automatons, all our thoughts +centred on one point—the threatening, inevitable +war. Everything had put on a sinister aspect, and +Nature herself joined in the general gloom; the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +weather became stormy, thunder rolled alarmingly, +heavy clouds hurried and met in a gigantic struggle, +evoking the image of other coming struggles. During +the night of the 1st August the storm never ceased, +we could not sleep; all night long, frenzied automobiles +raced along the high road, sounding their +lugubrious horns. In the middle of the night, we +heard some one knocking at the doors of the police +station opposite. What was happening? In the +darkness, illumined by flashes of lightning, we saw +horsemen with lanterns; they were messengers +bringing the orders for mobilisation. It was proclaimed +the next day.</p> + +<p>The population gathered at the <i>mairie</i>, a grave, +silent crowd; the few words exchanged only concerned +war and partings. Old men, who had lived +through 1870, were low-spirited; young ones, on the +contrary, were excited.</p> + +<p>We had to think of our return home, which might +be difficult later. We went into the forest for the +last time; the evening was mild and calm after the +storm. The peace and beauty around us were such +that we longed not to believe in the terrible reality. +But we had to bid farewell to all that had charmed +us. We went once again into the meadows near +Norka. The hayricks were standing in rows, their +soft, golden silhouettes harmoniously outlined against +the hilly background purple with heather. We sat +down on the mown grass. Suddenly, in the calm of +the evening, bells began to sound. It was not the +distant and poetic call for vespers, nor the sad sound +of the passing bell, but the hard, sinister, ill-omened +tocsin, warning the whole countryside, down +to the most distant, most peaceful hamlets and to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +wood-cutters in the forest, that mobilisation had +commenced....</p> + +<p>Another storm broke out in the night. Again the +rolling of the thunder shook our nerves and seemed +like the echo of distant battles; again mysterious +automobiles and horsemen raced along the road, and +everything, every sound, every shadow seemed +sinister.</p> + +<p>We did not feel any fear, but a kind of insupportable +nervous tension. Later, when we were much +nearer real danger, we did not experience this electric, +almost morbid feeling.</p> + +<p>The next day, Germany had declared war on +France.</p> + +<p>It was only with much difficulty that we found +a carriage to take us to the station. On the road +we were constantly being passed by various vehicles, +crowded with soldiers and young men going off. The +little station was full of people, the train also. Moved +and excited, the people shouted, “Vive la France!” +and sent friendly salutes to unknown soldiers in the +train. Women, seeing their men off, were trying to +be gay; they encouraged the departing ones, and +only wept after they were gone. The general impression, +both moral and material, was excellent; +every one seemed equal to his task, conscious of +his duty, and desirous of fulfilling it well. The +mobilisation seemed well organised, everything was +being accomplished without any flurry or bustle, +even the trains were almost punctual.</p> + +<p>All small personal interests and party quarrels +which had latterly poisoned life now suddenly disappeared; +everywhere the desire to be useful was +noticeable; people became better, there was more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +sympathy, more solidarity; the distance between +classes seemed to decrease, the common trial made +all equal.</p> + +<p>There was beauty in that moment, for it showed +that the greatest of evils might yet exalt and purify +the human soul.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXV" id="CHAPTER_XXXV">CHAPTER XXXV</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Return to Paris — The deserted Institute — Memoir on the Founders of +Modern Medicine — Metchnikoff’s Jubilee — Last holidays at Norka.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">This</span> was but the beginning of the war; soon it +spread with vertiginous rapidity, and made its cruel +destructive force felt.</p> + +<p>On our return from Norka, we found everything +on a war footing. The very next morning, +Metchnikoff hurried to the laboratory. He only +reached Paris with some difficulty, all means of +communication being encumbered by soldiers. He +had left the house nervous and excited but full of +courage and energy. I shall never forget his return +home....</p> + +<p>I was awaiting him as usual, just outside the +station, and, as he got out of the train, I did not +recognise him. I saw a stooping old man, bent as +under a heavy burden; his usual vivacity was gone, +and had given place to the deepest depression.</p> + +<p>He told me in a broken voice that the Institute +was already deserted; that it was under the orders of +the military authorities, and completely disorganised +for scientific work. The younger men were mobilised; +the laboratories empty; the animals used for experiments +had been killed on account of the departure +of the servants, and for fear of a lack of food. Everything +that had been devoted to the service of science<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> +and of research into means of preserving life had +been handed over to the service of war. Normal and +cultured life was arrested. And that was the outcome +of civilisation.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff felt as if he had suddenly been dropped +into the abyss of centuries, into the times of human +savagery. He could not accustom his mind to the +idea of such a fall; it seemed to him a paradox, an +impossibility, that civilised peoples could not do +without sanguinary fights in order to solve questions +of mutual relations.</p> + +<p>The events which were taking place agitated and +depressed him all the more that he had not the +possibility of becoming absorbed in scientific investigations; +he was completely thrown off his balance.</p> + +<p>And as, one by one, the news came of the death +in action of several of the young men who had left +the Institute, Metchnikoff’s grief knew no limits. He +could not bear the idea, now a terrible reality, that +these brilliant young lives should be sacrificed, +victims of those who should have directed the peoples +towards peace and a rational life, and who, instead of +that, threw the most precious part of humanity into +the abyss of death. War became a dark, sinister +background to his daily life. The victims of war +were not only those who fell on the battle-field, but +included him whose whole life-effort had been +directed towards the conservation of human existence +and the search for rational conceptions. The +contrast between his aspirations and the cruel reality +had been to him a blow which his sensitive and suffering +heart was not fit to bear.</p> + +<p>The Germans were advancing rapidly. Then +came the sad days of panic, when the inhabitants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +were leaving Paris in numbers and the Government +started for Bordeaux. At night, the sky was swept +by the gigantic, luminous sword of the searchlights; +the rumble of cannon could be heard in the distance....</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff, however, had no personal fear whatever. +He very simply decided on his course of +action, which was to remain at the Institute if his +presence there could be of use; if not, to retire to some +quiet place where he could work. As there was +hardly any staff left at the Institute on account of +the mobilisation, he did not go away, but, on the +contrary, we came to live in Paris, the communication +with Sèvres being very difficult.</p> + +<p>The day we arrived was that on which the first +German aeroplanes appeared, and they dropped bombs +near the St. Lazare station just as we were alighting +from the train. For some time after that, they +carried out a raid above Paris every Sunday.</p> + +<p>In spite of the disorganisation of his whole life, +Metchnikoff had succeeded in resuming his work to a +certain extent. He took advantage of an opportunity +to observe an old dog who was suffering from +diabetes, and hastened to examine his organs as soon +as he died, whilst they were still fresh. He had for +some time supposed that diabetes might be an infectious +disease; yet he was unable to discover any +specific microbe either in the humors or in the organs +of the dog. But he succeeded in provoking symptoms +of the disease (traces of sugar in the urine) in a +healthy dog, by inoculating him with the pancreatic +gland of the diabetic dog. He was much encouraged +by this result, and would have liked to continue +his researches, but was unable to do so because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> +of the general disorganisation and the impossibility +of obtaining animals for experiments. He had to +content himself with continuing his memoir on +infantile cholera and his observations on the silk-worm +moth.</p> + +<p>As he was almost altogether precluded from +laboratory work, he began to write a study on “The +Founders of Modern Medicine,” in order to demonstrate, +by concrete examples, the importance of +positive science in its application to life. This is +what he said in his preface to the book:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>These pages were written under special circumstances. If +not in the actual hearing of guns, it was in expectation of it +that I had to spend several weeks in my Paris laboratory, +now under war conditions. These meant an almost complete +cessation of any scientific activity in our Institute.</p> + +<p>For fear of a lack of food, the animals used for our experiments +had been killed, which deprived us of the possibility +of proceeding with our researches.</p> + +<p>The stables of the Institute were filled with cows who +provided milk for the hospitals and children’s homes.</p> + +<p>The greater number of our young collaborators, assistants, +or laboratory attendants were mobilised, and only the female +employees and old men remained. One of the latter, I +found myself in the impossibility of pursuing my investigations +and in possession of much leisure. I made use of it to +write this book in the hope that it might be helpful.</p> + +<p>It is not intended for physicians, for they know all that is +expounded in it, but for young men who are seeking a scope +for their activities.</p> + +<p>We may be sure that the insane war which broke out in +consequence of the lack of knowledge or of power of those +who should have watched over peace, will be followed by a +long period of calm. It is to be hoped that this unexampled +butchery will, for a long time, do away with the desire for +fighting, and that soon the need will be felt of a more rational<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +activity. Let those who will have preserved the combative +instinct direct it towards a struggle, not against human beings, +but against the innumerable microbes, visible or invisible, +which threaten us on all sides and prevent us from accomplishing +the normal and complete cycle of our existence.</p> + +<p>The results acquired by the progress of the new medical +science allow us to hope that, in a more or less distant future, +humanity will be freed from the principal diseases which +oppress it.</p> +</div> + +<p>After describing the state of medical science before +Pasteur, Lister, and Koch, Metchnikoff compared +with it modern medicine, created by these three +Founders, and showed the great horizons opened by +them to the medicine of the future.</p> + +<p>On the 26th of September 1914, whilst we were still +in Paris, he had, in the laboratory, an attack of tachycardia, +which lasted three hours but was much less +violent than that of the year before. The winter, +however, passed fairly well in spite of the emotions +and continuous excitement caused by the war, and he +had no other attack until April 1915, when again he +had a slight tachycardiac crisis of a short duration. +Yet he was very much changed: his hair was much +whiter, his movements were slow, and his figure bent. +His infectious gaiety and vivacity had disappeared, +but he remained energetic and enthusiastic in his +work, and gained more and more in serenity.</p> + +<p>Little children in the street called him “Father +Christmas,” and came confidingly to ask him for +presents. They knew him well, and were aware that +his pockets were always filled with sweets for them. +He used to say that his growing love for children +was the revelation of the grandfatherly instinct, for +which he had reached the proper age. He especially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +loved one of his god-daughters, little Lili; he had +become attached to the child on account of her kind +heart and exceptional sweetness, and also because, +from the cradle, she had shown a marked preference +for him. And yet his love for children was not to +him a source of joy, for anxiety on their account predominated +over other feelings.</p> + +<p>In spite of the physical change which had supervened, +his brain continued to work untiringly as in +the past, and he tackled new problems with youthful +courage and boldness. He had planned a work on +the sexual question, which, according to him, was +treated erroneously, with the result that grave disharmonies +occurred in human existence.</p> + +<p>Thus he reached some quite revolutionary conclusions +respecting education and marriage. He +thought that morality should be set upon a quite +different basis, new and rational; and that was the +question which he prepared to treat.</p> + +<p>The 16th of May of that year was his seventieth +anniversary.</p> + +<p>His satisfaction was great at having reached the +normal limit of age, for he saw in that a conclusive +proof of the efficacy of his hygiene. Indeed, he +showed on that day a sort of rejuvenation: his aspect +was quite different, he was gay and animated as he +had not been for a long time.</p> + +<p>The Pasteur Institute celebrated his jubilee. In +spite of the absence from “The House” of many +members on account of the war, the library filled with +people, and the fête had a cordial and intimate +character. Dr. Roux’s speech<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> will remain the best +description of E. Metchnikoff and of his scientific<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> +activity. He himself responded to all those manifestations +of sympathy by a spirited speech, in which, +<i>à propos</i> of his own particular case, he expounded his +ideas on senility and the duration of life in general. +This is what he wrote on that same day in his note-book:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>16th May 1915. To-day I have at last accomplished my +seventy years! I have attained the normal limit of life, a +limit mentioned by King David and confirmed by the statistical +researches of Lexis and Bodio.<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> I am still capable of +work and of reflection. But the changes in my psychical +state which I had observed a year ago have become sensibly +accentuated. The difference in acuteness both of pleasant +and painful sensations is becoming more and more marked. +Agreeable sensations are becoming weaker; I am now indifferent +to many things which I used to appreciate very +much.</p> + +<p>It is useless to say that I am indifferent to the quality of +my food; my need of musical impressions has become so +much less that I hardly feel the desire to satisfy it. The +charm of spring no longer touches me and only provokes +sadness in my mind.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, my anxiety for the health and happiness +of those I love is getting more and more acute. I find it +difficult to understand how I ever could bear it.</p> + +<p>The powerlessness of medicine grieves me more and more, +and, as a last straw, the war has interrupted all the work that +had been undertaken against disease. In these conditions, it +is not astonishing that I should feel a growing satiety with +existence. Last year [16th May 1914 to 16th May 1915] I +had two attacks of tachycardia, during which I should have +been glad to die, but in general my health is satisfactory and +that sustains me. What would have become of me if, to +crown my misfortunes, I had fallen ill! I certainly no longer +fear death, but I desire to die suddenly during a heart attack +and not to go through a long illness.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span></p> + +<p>My comparative longevity is not due to family heredity +(my father died in his 68th year, my mother in her 66th, my +sister also, my eldest brother at 45, my second brother at 50, +the third in his 57th year; my grandparents I have not known). +It is to my hygiene that I give the credit for having attained +my 70 years in a satisfactory condition. I have taken no raw +food for eighteen years and I introduce as many lactic bacilli +as possible into my intestines. But it is but a first step; in +spite of all, I am being poisoned by the bacteria of butyric +fermentation. However, I have practically reached the normal +term of life and I must be satisfied. I have, so to speak, +accomplished the programme of a “reduced orthobiosis.”</p> + +<p>When macrobiotics become more perfect, when people have +learnt how to cultivate a suitable flora in the intestines of +children as soon as they are weaned from their mother’s +breast, the normal limit of life will be put much further back +and may extend to twice my 70 years. Then, also, satiety +with existence will appear much later than it has done in +my case.</p> + +<p>To-day they celebrated my jubilee at the Pasteur Institute, +which touched me very much, in spite of my distrust of sentimental +manifestations, for I realised their sincerity. I should +have liked to set out a programme of the researches which +should be accomplished by the Pasteur Institute, but I feared +to detain my audience too long.</p> + +<p>I believe that Science will solve all the principal problems +of Life and Death and that she will enable human beings to +accomplish their vital cycle by real orthobiosis, not by a +reduced caricature of it as in my case. Nevertheless, I consider +the experiment practised upon myself as having already +given some result and that is to me a real satisfaction.</p> +</div> + +<p>We spent that summer a few weeks at Norka, +where Metchnikoff completed his researches concerning +the death of the silk-worm moth.</p> + +<p>We went for delicious walks; we spent all the +afternoon by the lake or under the pines in the +heather, reading and working. Once only, during a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> +walk, he had a strong cardiac intermittence, but as +a rule he felt well. I could see, however, that he was +obsessed by a grave preoccupation which he did not +express. Later, during his last illness, he confessed +to me that during the whole of that stay at St. Léger +he had feared to die suddenly during one of our walks. +The thought of my isolation weighed on his mind and +he hid his anxiety so as not to alarm me....</p> + +<p>With a view to the work which he had planned on +the sexual question, he interested himself in the +influence that their sentimental life had had on the +activity of great men, and we read together the +biographies of Beethoven, Mozart, and Wagner. +Elie was more than ever desirous of making our +holidays as pleasant as possible, as if he already felt +that they were our last. Here are more extracts from +his note-book:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="small-right"> + +<span class="smcap">St. Léger-en-Yvelines</span>, <i>24th June 1916</i>.<br /> +</p> + +<p>When saying that I did not fear death, I had in view the +dread of annihilation. That fear, manifested during a long +period of life and disappearing towards the end, may be compared +with the fear of darkness which children instinctively +feel and which also disappears gradually and naturally. When, +towards the end of life, the fear of nothingness ceases, no +desire remains for a future life, for the immortality of the +soul. It would even be painful to me to think that the soul, +surviving the body, could watch, from beyond, the misfortunes +of those who remain on the earth. On the contrary, towards +life’s decline, a desire for complete annihilation becomes +developed.</p> +</div> + +<p>He spent the autumn collecting and preparing +the materials he required for his book on the sexual +function. It was a relief from the sad impressions +of the war and the deserted laboratory. But new +troubles were in store for us; I became ill, and had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> +scarcely recovered when we heard the news of the +death of a nephew who was very dear to us. The +death of the young had always deeply moved Metchnikoff, +and it was so in this case. It was another +weight thrown into the already descending scale.</p> + +<p>In spite of all, he continued to work with enthusiasm, +planting young trees that future generations +might enjoy their shade.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXXVI">CHAPTER XXXVI</a></h2> + +<div class="chapter-sub"> +<p class="chapter-title">Bronchial cold — Aggravated cardiac symptoms — Farewell to Sèvres — Return +to the Institute — Protracted sufferings — Intellectual preoccupations — Observations +on his own condition — The end — Cremation.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">If</span> in this sad last chapter I occasionally dwell on +details which may seem insignificant in themselves, +it is because, at this supreme moment of Elie Metchnikoff’s +existence, everything was full of significance, for +everything converged to emphasise the powerful +unity and the ascending and continuous progress of +his ideas.</p> + +<p>His attitude in the face of illness and death was a +teaching, a support, and an example. That is why, +relating the story of his last days, I piously describe +everything.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of November, he caught a slight +cold, which did not prevent him from leading his +usual life, but which, nevertheless, was the starting-point +of the illness which took him from us.</p> + +<p>On the 2nd of December, during a walk, he suddenly +felt a cardiac commotion such that he thought he +was dying. For hours, his pulse remained intermittent +and very rapid, and from that day he felt +unwell but continued to go to the laboratory.</p> + +<p>On the 9th of December his condition became worse +and forced him to interrupt his normal life. All the +doctors were away or very busy on account of the war,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> +and it was only on the 11th that Dr. Renon could give +him a consultation at the Laënnec Hospital. He found +Metchnikoff’s heart very tired and nervous, prescribed a +treatment, and told us to come back in twenty-five days.</p> + +<p>But the disease was making giant strides. In the +night of the 12th to 13th a first attack of cardiac +asthma supervened, an extremely painful one; we +had the impression that the end was near. Elie +suffered agonies but remained morally calm and +ready for death, as he had ever been since his first +heart attack, two years previously. He repeated that +he had accomplished his task and run through his +vital cycle; that what he could yet do would be but +a supplement, and that it was better to die than to +outlive his own decadence.</p> + +<p>He only wished not to suffer too long, but that +humble desire was not to be realised. We spent two +more nights at Sèvres, terrible nights not to be +forgotten if one had centuries to live, and we then +decided to go to a nursing home in Paris, as it was +imprudent to remain any longer isolated as we were.</p> + +<p>Having heard of Metchnikoff’s illness, Dr. Roux +offered to receive us at the Pasteur Institute in a +small lodging which was now free, the house-physician +who had occupied it having been killed.</p> + +<p>Dr. Widal, in whom Metchnikoff had absolute confidence, +came to Sèvres on the 14th and found myocarditis. +Thanks to an absolutely incomprehensible +phenomenon, Elie had suddenly ceased to realise the +rapidity of his pulse; he had 160 beats in a minute +and only perceived less than half; it was therefore +easy to keep the truth from him.</p> + +<p>After a last night of suffering we left our Sèvres +nest, which we had so loved. Leaning on my arm,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> +he slowly walked through the little garden and gazed +for the last time at the home that we were leaving +for the unknown.... He looked worn and bent +under the weight of suffering, but he was quite calm, +and his eyes, though firm and gentle, already seemed +to me to be looking very far away.</p> + +<p>The automobile bore us slowly from Sèvres to the +Pasteur Institute, and we found ourselves in the +small flat which had been inhabited by the young +doctor who had been killed in the war. He had only +spent a short stage of his life there. How long should +we remain? And what road should we take when +we left it? We tried to smile, though our hearts +were terribly heavy, in order to cheer each other.</p> + +<p>But, in the course of the day, we were surrounded +by friends full of solicitude, the tension relaxed, and +we felt a growing sense of comfort and security. No +more nights of mortal dread and loneliness, with no +help at hand! That thought alone inspired courage +and hope. In case of need, I had only to send down +to the next floor to ask for a doctor.</p> + +<p>For a few days, Elie felt much better, perhaps on +account of the mental relief, but his heart was weak +and his pulse extremely rapid. Drs. Widal, Martin, +Veillon, Salimbeni, and Darré came to see him every +day; during the whole of his long illness, they never +ceased to show him the most attentive and devoted +care. They attempted by every means to save him +from pain, for, alas, they had no hope of curing him. +Nothing was neglected, and many still greater sufferings +were spared him.<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></p> + +<p>The war was an inexhaustible and passionately +interesting subject of conversation; Elie read a +number of newspapers and listened with avidity to +every news from private sources. Often, too, scientific +questions were discussed, which continued to +interest him intensely. These talks were an invaluable +relaxation.</p> + +<p>Feeling infinitely grateful towards his medical +advisers and friends, he showed himself a most docile +patient, following their prescriptions with absolute +punctuality. When his condition grew worse and +he felt no hope whatever of his recovery, he often +used to say, “What is to be done? the doctors can +do nothing, for medicine is powerless. Unhappily, +it will remain so for a long time. Much work will +have to be done to rid humanity of the scourge of +diseases. But, surely, one day science will succeed +in doing so; that will be chiefly through prophylaxis +and rational hygiene. There will also be a new +science—the science of death; it will be known how +to make it less hard.”</p> + +<p>After lunch and a short sleep, he received the daily +visit of his friend Dr. Roux, with whom he talked in +the full intimacy of friendship and affection. He +confided to him his apprehensions and desires, and +felt unlimited gratitude for his kindness to us, often +saying to me, with tears in his eyes, “I knew Roux +was a kind man and a true friend, but I see now that +he is incomparable.” Other friends also did their +utmost to serve him and to show their sympathy. +He had the great joy of feeling himself beloved and +surrounded with an atmosphere of real kindness. +Many times he said to me, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>“Now, only, have I +appreciated the warm-heartedness of the French +at its full value. Do not fail, in my biography, to +emphasise how deeply I feel it, and how grateful I +am. I want them to know it.”</p> + +<p>Yet all the care and devotion of which he was the +object could neither arrest the fatal progress of disease +nor spare cruel suffering to him who had thought of +nothing but relieving the pains of others. All our +efforts were as flowers scattered over a tomb; he, +poor tortured one, was slowly, consciously sinking +into it through the implacable logic of Fate. From +the beginning of his illness, he foresaw the issue; he +lived in constant expectation of death, on the threshold +of which his calm and serenity remained as unalterable +as were his patience and resignation.</p> + +<p>After a temporary and comparative lull, which +lasted until the end of December, the disease began +to progress again, and almost every week brought a +fresh alarming symptom. It was especially during +the night that the pain, treacherously, reappeared. +After dropping asleep fairly early, he would begin to +breathe with difficulty and then awake in an indescribable +state of anguish; perspiration drenched his +head, neck, and chest, several towels often being +required to dry him. His breathing was hard; +during bad attacks, the wheezing of his bronchial +tubes was terrifying.</p> + +<p>He would sit up, his hands clenched, his face blue +and contracted by suffering, his darkened lips apart, +his eyes dilated—the face of a man on the rack. He +gasped like a suffocating man; at last a tearing +cough supervened, followed by expectoration, and +the attack gradually subsided.</p> + +<p>For a time we were able to relieve him without the +use of narcotics. As long as there was a ray of hope<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>—not +of recovery, but of a bearable life and further +work—he wished at all costs to avoid the influence of +narcosis. He breathed fumes of pyridin or ether, he +smoked Escouflaire cigarettes, and inhaled various +other things. In order to sleep after an attack, he +ate a few biscuits, and I sprinkled his head with a +menthol solution, with which I damped his temples +and forehead. That eased him, and sometimes he +slept again for a few hours.</p> + +<p>But how many were the nights of insomnia and +suffering! How many times did he call for death +as a deliverer, and say that he <i>resigned</i> himself to +live for my sake only!</p> + +<p>And in spite of the martyrdom he endured, he +always had gentle words, a caress, a consolation +even! He constantly returned to the thought that +he had nothing to complain of, that he had had a +large share of happiness and good fortune in having +accomplished his task, and even arrived at the development +of the natural death-instinct.</p> + +<p>All those who saw him every day knew that he +was courageous and patient, every one admired his +serenity, but no one could realise the <i>degree</i> of his +courage and patience, for no one had seen and lived +through those miserable nights.</p> + +<p>Often, even, when asked how he was, he said “not +bad!” after a terrible night, saying to me afterwards +in explanation, “Why grieve them, since it cannot +be helped?”</p> + +<p>At the beginning of our stay in the Institute, he +was not yet quite bedridden. After his morning +toilet, he would lie for some hours on a sofa, reading +almost continuously, newspapers, scientific reviews, +and many works in connection with the book he had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> +planned on the sexual function, of which he wrote +only the introduction and a few lines of the first +chapter.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p> + +<p>Another question occupied him at that time, that +of first-born children. Certain data led him to think +that men of genius were but rarely the first-born of +their parents, and he sought for every possible +information on the subject. In his constant desire +to improve life-conditions, he even thought that a +demonstration of this fact might have a desirable +influence on the increase of population in France +after the war; if it were proved that the most successful +children are not the first-born, perhaps the system +of having two children only would be given up in +order to have a chance of giving the country a more +capable population.</p> + +<p>His reflections on the sexual questions led him to +seek for experimental means of studying gonorrhœa. +He thought of inoculating the gonococcus into the eye +of new-born mice and entrusted M. Rubinstein, the +only worker left in the laboratory, with these experiments. +The latter began them and obtained encouraging +results, but he left Paris in the spring and +the work remained unfinished.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff’s mind never ceased to work unless<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> +interrupted by acute pain; until the very end, his +brain never failed him. He often used to say +how far he was from any mystic aspirations, and +how sure he was of remaining a rationalist +until the end. And such was the case. Faithful +to himself, not even in the most painful moments +did he feel a desire to look for support outside +the ideas and principles of his whole life. Yet +his soul was sad and full of care; the war grieved +him utterly, every newspaper he read renewed his +sorrow. When a severe engagement, Verdun for +instance, was going on, he lost the little sleep he had, +and his agitation became painful.</p> + +<p>He was deeply disillusioned by the Germans. +Having always felt great esteem for their scientific +work, he had believed in their high culture, and now +he was absolutely disconcerted by the mentality +which they manifested during the war.</p> + +<p>Neither could he understand how the war had +been allowed to come about. He thought it ought +to have been avoided, and considered the authorities +guilty for not having done so. He said that nothing +could compensate the harm done by this insane +butchery.</p> + +<p>The deserted laboratories, the interruption of +scientific work, filled his soul with melancholy. For, +he said, all the great, all the real questions should +have been solved by Science and were kept waiting....</p> + +<p>He also had material worries, the war having +brought great perturbation in his affairs. The fate +of his mobilised pupils preoccupied him constantly. +The least indisposition, however trifling, of those he +loved made him unhappy. His sensibility, which had +always been very marked, increased still more, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> +consumed him; it surely was one of the causes that +had worn his heart out. When already very weak +and ill, he constantly thought of giving pleasure to +those who were with him; he read innumerable +reviews and periodicals, and would tell each friend +what he had found of particular interest to the latter, +even when speech was difficult to him. His gentleness +and cordiality were most touching during the +whole of his illness, though he preserved his usual +outspokenness.... It seemed to me that this +offended no one; they all understood Elie now.</p> + +<p>He sought a refuge from his sufferings in his own +ivory tower; these sufferings themselves were to him +a source of observations. He studied his body and +his soul as he would have studied any subject under +experiment. Every day he wrote down his auto-observations, +and carefully read the diary which I +kept for him.</p> + +<p>During the whole of the winter he had ups and +downs. Towards the end of December the cough and +respiratory symptoms increased, and at the beginning +of January he expectorated clots of blood, due to +a passive congestion of the right lung.</p> + +<p>On the 19th January, some liquid appeared in the +pleura on the same side. Pleurisy persisted for a +whole month and necessitated three punctures. +Every time we feared to tell him that the puncture +was necessary, but he received the news with complete +coolness, saying that he had always been in +favour of radical measures.</p> + +<p>After the third puncture, which took place on the +19th February, a marked relief supervened, and the +improvement lasted for some time; it was the only +moment when we saw a ray of hope.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span></p> + +<p>Though keeping to his bed, he worked a great deal, +read, and received not only his friends but other +visitors. At the beginning of March and at the end +of April he again expectorated blood, and the terrible, +tragical nights began again. Yet the days were +fairly good.</p> + +<p>During that period, he had the pleasure of seeing +some of his pupils again, and of receiving several +Russian deputies and journalists. They talked to +him of political events, of the war, of the moral state +of Russia. All that interested him immensely; he +plied them with the most varied questions. It must +be remembered that, before that interview, we had +lost all touch with Russia.</p> + +<p>During the whole of May he again had ups and +downs, but the progress of the disease was indisputable.</p> + +<p>Tachycardia was constant, urine more and more +scanty, the swelling of the legs never decreased, cough +and oppression occurred frequently even during the +day. Elie awaited his seventy-first birthday with +impatience. Often during the night, after a painful +attack, he would count the days, hours, and minutes +which separated him from that date. At last it +arrived. Here are the lines which he added to his +notes on that day:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>16th May. Against all expectation, I have lived until +this day. I have reached my 71 years. My dream of a rapid +death without a long illness has not been realised. I have +now been bedridden for five months. After several crises of +tachycardia, following upon a slight grippe with asthma, I +had congestion of one lung with pleuritic exudate. Though +some improvement followed after that, nevertheless I am +tormented by fits of sweating followed by cough and oppression.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> +I suffer chiefly in the night from those attacks; +they provoke insomnia which can only be combated by +pantopon.</p> + +<p>My psychical state is twofold. In one way, I should like +to get well, but, on the other hand, I see no sense in living +any longer. Illness has not provoked in me any fear of +death, and I am more deprived than formerly of the joy of +living. The reawakening of spring leaves me quite indifferent. +There can be no question for me of that pleasure which convalescents +often feel, nor indeed of any pleasure. To the +despair that I feel in the face of medicine’s powerlessness to +cure the ills of my friends is added the feeling of its powerlessness +towards my own illness. I think that my desire to recover +and to continue to live is connected with practical +causes.</p> + +<p>The war has compromised our finances, our income from +Russia has practically disappeared. If I die, my wife may +find herself in a very difficult situation. Given her lack of +practical notions, that may lead to very sad results. Yet it +is quite impossible to straighten our affairs before the end of +the war and the re-establishment of normal conditions.</p> +</div> + +<p>These were the last words he wrote in his book of +notes; his hand had become weak and trembling; +he tired very soon, and henceforth I wrote under his +dictation. On the 18th June, one month before his +cremation, he dictated to me for the last time, and +this is what he said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>This is the seventh month that I have been ill and it +brings my thoughts back to the gravity of my condition. +I therefore continually realise how much satisfaction I have +derived from life during my long years. The gradual disappearance +of my “life-instinct,” which already began a few +years ago, is now more marked, more precise. I no longer +feel that degree of pleasure which I felt only a few years ago. +My affection for my nearest and dearest shows itself much more +by the anxiety and suffering provoked by their diseases and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> +sorrows than by the pleasure I derive from their joys or +normal health.</p> + +<p>Those to whom I describe my feelings tell me that satiety +with living is not normal at my age. To that I oppose the +following: Longevity, at least to a certain point, is hereditary. +Now I have already mentioned, on the occasion of my 70th +anniversary, that my parents, sister, and brothers died before +reaching my present age. I knew neither of my grandparents, +which shows that they could not have been very old +when they died.</p> + +<p>Let us now turn to the profession, since it is an established +fact that it has an influence on the duration of life. Pasteur +died at 72, but for a long time he had been unable to do +scientific work. Koch did not reach the age of 67. Other +bacteriologists died at a much earlier age than I (Duclaux, +Nocard, Chamberland, Ehrlich, Büchner, Loeffler, Pfeiffer, +Carl Fraenkel, Emmerich, Escherich).</p> + +<p>Among those bacteriologists of my generation who are still +living the majority have already ceased from working. All +that should indicate that my scientific life is over and confirm +at the same time the fact that my “orthobiosis” has actually +reached the desirable limit.</p> +</div> + +<p>He was anxious to prove that his end, which +seemed premature at first sight, did not contradict +his theories, but had deep causes such as heredity +and the belated introduction of a rational diet. He +had only begun to follow it at fifty-three. Facts +corroborated him after his death, for the post-mortem +examination showed that the heart lesions were of +long standing. He himself thought they went back +at least to 1881, when he had had a very grave +relapsing fever. The doctors even wondered how he +had lived with his heart in such a state, and only +accounted for it by the strict régime which he had +followed during the latter part of his life.</p> + +<p>And indeed when it is remembered how pugnacious,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> +how vehement he was—always, so to speak, +in a state of ebullition, feverishly active, intensely +sensitive—it must be admitted that his life really +held more than an ordinary life of longer duration.</p> + +<p>He was very desirous that the example of his +serenity in the face of death should be encouraging +and comforting. It should prove that, at the end of +his vital cycle, man fears death no longer; it has +lost its sting for him.</p> + +<p>Early in June his condition became still worse. +The nights were so painful that, every evening, recourse +had to be had to pantopon.<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> It was with the greatest +impatience that he awaited his “dear Darré and dear +Salimbeni,” as he called them.</p> + +<p>After Dr. Darré had finished his complete and +thorough medical examination, we three remained +talking around Elie’s bed for a short hour. He often +recalled his personal or scientific memories when he +was not too weary; we talked of the war, of medical +questions; often, too, we would evoke, with Salimbeni, +recollections of our journey to the Kalmuk Steppes.</p> + +<p>We loved that peaceful hour, which ended by an +injection of pantopon, the only relief, alas, that could +be procured for him. He would thank Dr. Darré with +gratitude, and drop his poor weary head on the pillow, +awaiting in absolute security the blessed sensation of +warm heaviness which pervaded him, for he knew +that sleep and rest from his sufferings would not be +long in coming. The spectre of tragical nights never +ceased to haunt us.</p> + +<p>Until the hot weather came, he was quite comfortable +in the small flat in the Pasteur hospital; the +temperature there had been perfectly regular all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> +through the winter; but now he began to be incommoded +by the heat.</p> + +<p>M. Roux then proposed that we should be transferred +to Pasteur’s old flat; the rooms were spacious +and much cooler. This idea rejoiced and touched +Elie very much. As he thanked M. Roux, he said to +him: “See how my life is bound with the Pasteur +Institute. I have worked here for years; I am +nursed here during my illness; in order to complete +the connection I ought to be incinerated in the great +oven where our dead animals are burnt, and my +ashes could be kept in an urn in one of the cupboards +in the library.” “What a gruesome joke!” answered +M. Roux, really taking those words for a joke. But +directly after he was gone Elie turned to me with an +anxious look and said, “Well, what do you think of +my idea?” I saw by his earnest expression that he +meant what he said, and I answered that I thought it +a very good idea. The Pasteur Institute had become +his refuge, the centre of all his scientific interests; +he loved it; he had spent his best years there. Let +his ashes be laid there some day; it would be in +perfect harmony with his past. Let us only hope +that would not be too soon! But why had he given +his words that jesting form which must have misled +M. Roux? He explained it to me: knowing how +deeply conscientious his friend was, he did not wish +to express his desire as a dying wish in order that he +should feel no obligation. A simple jest, on the +contrary, left him absolutely free.</p> + +<p>On the 26th June, Elie was carried into Pasteur’s +flat; it was a very great satisfaction to him, it brought +him nearer his laboratory. Now and then, very +seldom now, he thought he might return there one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> +day; he said I should wheel him there in his bath-chair. +“I know I could scarcely work there myself. +But perhaps I might still play the part of a ferment, +be useful to my pupils by giving them advice. I am +leaving so much unfinished work which it would be +interesting to go on with: the question of intestinal +flora, that of diabetes, which surely is an infectious +disease—but that will have to be proved,—and my +experiments on the subject were scarcely begun. I +think the study of gonorrhœa will give very interesting +results when they succeed in inoculating it in new-born +animals. And the question of tuberculosis is +well started! I could still help my pupils and encourage +them if I were a little better!... But I +have no illusions! I must live now only from day +to day....”</p> + +<p>Those words were uttered with heart-rending +resignation.</p> + +<p>He continued to get worse....</p> + +<p>It was fortunate that pantopon should have given +him good nights, for attacks of oppression now supervened +several times during the day; tachycardia was +continuous, the heart was weakening. The quantity +of urine diminished; it often did not surpass 250 cubic +centimetres, and no diuretic succeeded in increasing +it; the legs remained swollen, ascitis was beginning to +become visible; in the night he occasionally grew +slightly delirious.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of July he wished to sit up; he +spent part of the afternoon in an armchair, his legs +lying on cushions. We thought it was a good sign, +but in reality he found it difficult to breathe lying +down. Several times he asked me to play to him, +very soft music, as noisy sounds wearied him. I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> +played him some Beethoven, some Mozart; the last +time it was a Chopin prelude.</p> + +<p>On the 9th his temperature went down in an +alarming way to 35.2° C. (95 F.). For the first time +he would not write down his ordinary observations. +“What is the good?” said he, “it has no longer any +interest.” Yet the next day he did so, for the last +time. On the 11th and 12th he put down his temperature, +and glanced superficially at the notes I +had written. On the 12th, about five o’clock in the +morning, he had a bad fit of breathlessness followed +by coughing, and brought up large clots of very red +blood. He smiled faintly. “You understand what +that means,” he said, adding some tender words.</p> + +<p>I wheeled him to his bed, which he never left again.</p> + +<p>On the 13th, in the early morning, he felt very ill. +Calmly and gently he warned me to be ready. “It +will surely be to-day or to-morrow.”</p> + +<p>My heart breaking, I asked him why he said that; +was he feeling very weak? or suffering very much?</p> + +<p>“No,” he said, “it is difficult to say what I feel; +I have never felt anything like it; it is, so to speak, a +death-<i>sensation</i>.... But I feel very calm, with no +fear. You will hold my hand, will you not?”</p> + +<p>How can I describe those last three days? He +preserved all his lucidity and serenity, often smiling +at me and drawing me towards him. He inhaled +oxygen very often, as breathlessness became almost +continuous.</p> + +<p>On the 14th there was to be a <i>matinée</i> performance +of <i>Manon Lescaut</i>, and remembering that his +god-children had long wished to see that opera, he +had had a box taken for them. He was now quite +uneasy about it. “What ill-luck,” he said, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>“if <i>it</i> +happened just before and prevented them from +going. In any case they must not come here on +their way to the theatre, so that if <i>it</i> happens they +will not know, and can still enjoy the performance.”</p> + +<p>Thanks to pantopon, he spent a very good night. +He awoke about five o’clock, but remained so quiet +that I thought him asleep. When I rose about six +he held out his hand to me and told me he had been +awake for a long time. He talked to me tenderly, in +the full intimacy of our affection; he spoke sweet, +unforgettable words. He made me promise once +again not to give way to grief. “At first, our friends +will help you, and then work, that infallible remedy, +and duty.... You will have that of writing my +biography. Remember how much I wish the <i>last</i> +chapter to be complete. You alone can write it, for +you have seen me all the time; I have told you all +my thoughts, and yet....” I understood that he +had occasionally, out of pity for me, hidden his sufferings +and his sad thoughts. But he did not know how +often I guessed what he did not say; love and pain +have a dumb language, more eloquent than any +human words.</p> + +<p>“You will hold my hand when the moment comes,” +he repeated. “But do not think I am afraid, now +that it is near. No, I assure you, I have an absolute +serenity of soul! I spent a divine night. It seemed +to me that I was already half outside life. This night +has taught me many things.... Everything which +troubled me, everything that seemed so disturbing, so +terrible, like this war for instance, seems so transitory +now, such a small thing by the side of the great +problems of existence!... Science will solve them +some day.” He ceased speaking. He seemed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> +illumined by a very exalted feeling; it was like the +last chord of his harmonious soul. What a consolation +if he could have died then!</p> + +<p>But life is cruel. He lived through two more +days of suffering. On the 14th he inhaled oxygen +almost continually. He asked for pantopon, but we +feared to give him too much. I told him it would +induce such continuous sleep that he would not even +be able to enjoy it. “But an eternal sleep is precisely +what I want! Do understand that now +nothing is left to me but pantopon. What is the +good of making me last? Is this a life? A few +days or a month have no importance when +one is not going to recover. And you cannot +wish to prolong my sufferings.” His breathlessness +increased; he said, “Give me your hand; stay near +me!” I knew what he meant; he had the “death-sensation.”</p> + +<p>His poor hands were hot and warmed my cold +ones.... The next day I could not warm his hands, +ice-cold for ever.</p> + +<p>The whole day he awaited with impatience the +hour for pantopon. About nine o’clock, when Dr. +Darré came in, he said, “Dear Darré, at last!”</p> + +<p>There was no talk that evening, he was so weary. +With what anguish I awaited the stroke of midnight, +which ended those two dread days! He had been +mistaken by barely one day. The night was not bad, +in spite of breathlessness and some fits of coughing. +The next morning he felt better. He had not read +the papers the day before, to-day I read him the communiqués +in the <i>Petit Parisien</i>, he said it was enough. +He also turned the pages of a book he had recently +begun to read, <i>La Science et les Allemands</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></p> + +<p>I told him how pleased I was to see him better. +“It is true,” he said, “to-day I have no death-sensation, +but I beg you, have no illusions!”</p> + +<p>Always that preoccupation of breaking the shock +for me. He made me bring a pocket-book with some +money in it and a few envelopes; in each of them he +made me place notes of similar value, then with his +already shaking hand, he himself wrote on each +envelope the value of the notes multiplied by their +number, and explained that it was to help me to find +quickly what I should require after the catastrophe.</p> + +<p>He ate better at lunch than he had done lately; but +already at two o’clock the breathlessness increased. +Yet he did not look pale; he had preserved his +rosy complexion. As he inhaled the oxygen, he was +shaken by a hiccough. He pressed my hand. “It +is the end,” he said, “the death rattle; that is +how people die.” He looked at his watch on the +small table, it marked four o’clock.</p> + +<p>“No,” he said, “it must have stopped. Four +o’clock struck some time ago.” And he smiled. +“Is it not strange that it should have stopped before +I? Go and see what time it is.”</p> + +<p>I ran out to see the clock from the window of +another room; it was twenty minutes to five. I met +some one in the passage and asked him to go quickly +to fetch one of the Institute doctors. Then I begged +Elie not to have such ideas, and tried to cheer him.</p> + +<p>“But, my child, why do you want to calm me? I +am quite calm; I am only stating facts,” he said, +adding tender words.</p> + +<p>At that moment Salimbeni came in. Elie said to +him: “Salimbeni, you are a friend; tell me, is it +the end?” And as he protested, he added, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>“You +remember your promise? You will do my post-mortem? +and look at the intestines carefully, for I +think there is something there now.” MM. Roux and +Martin then arrived. The feeling of weight in the +intestines of which he complained was mentioned. +He did not know that he had ascitis in the peritoneum.</p> + +<p>As I was attending to him I felt him move suddenly, +and said, “I beg you, do not make such sudden +movements; you know it is not good for you.” He +did not answer. I raised my head; his was thrown +back on the pillows, his face had assumed a blue +tinge, the white of the eyes alone could be seen under +the half-closed lids.</p> + +<p>Not a word, not a sound.</p> +<p>All was over.<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p> + +<p>Then an abyss of oblivion....</p> + +<p>I saw him again, stretched on his deathbed. He +was white, cold, and dumb. His face bore a calm +and very serious expression. He looked like a +martyr who had at last entered into rest. Death +had marked his face with no dread seal. The lids +had closed of their own accord, and he seemed to be +sleeping after great lassitude; one might have +thought that, with his usual kindness, he wished to +spare us all too painful an impression....</p> + +<p>All through the night and the next morning his +face preserved the same expression.</p> + +<p>In the afternoon Salimbeni performed the autopsy. +Then he was laid in his coffin; twenty-four hours had +elapsed since the end. Wrapped in a white sheet, +which framed his fine face, he had the appearance of +a biblical prophet.</p> + +<p>Now his expression had assumed absolute serenity,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> +illumined by gentleness and kindness. He had a look +of elevation, grandeur, and beauty which was really +divine. It was an apotheosis. His beautiful soul +beamed in its full purity; neither suffering nor any +earthly preoccupation had any hold on it. He gave +an impression of eternal rest.</p> + +<p>It was his final image, a splendid one, the last ... +for ever.</p> + +<p>The bier was closed and covered with a heavy +black pall. On life also a blacker and heavier pall +had fallen. The light had gone out.</p> + +<p>Two days later, on the 18th July, he was carried +to the cemetery of the Père Lachaise, to be cremated +in all simplicity, as he had wished. Faithful to his +ideas, he had wished for a lay funeral, with no speeches, +flowers, or invitations.</p> + +<p>His bier disappeared into a large sarcophagus; on +each side black curtains fell to hide what was going +on.... Then one hour of heavy silence whilst the +poor body was being consumed by the flames....</p> + +<p>A death silence....</p> + +<p>And that was all....</p> + +<p>The mercurial, vivacious child, good-hearted, +intelligent, and precocious; the young man, ardent, +impetuous, passionate, a lover of science and of all +that was exalted; the mature man, a bold thinker, +an indefatigable investigator, eager, generous, tender, +and devoted; the old man, in everything faithful +to himself, but progressing in serenity, shining +with an ever softer light, like a mountain peak in the +setting sun; the martyr at last, enduring suffering +with patience and resignation, seeing the approach +of death without fear, observing it as he had observed +life....</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></p> + +<p>The hour of silence was over; the incineration +accomplished. Of his body, little was left—a handful +of ashes. They were enclosed within an urn and +placed in the library of the Pasteur Institute.</p> + +<p>But his beautiful, ardent soul, his audacious and +fertile ideas, all that rich inner life which had +developed into a harmonious and puissant symphony, +all <i>that</i> cannot be dead, cannot disappear! +The ideas, the influence we give to life must persist, +must live; they are the sacred flame which we hand +on to others and are eternal.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="EPILOGUE" id="EPILOGUE">EPILOGUE</a></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> life and work of Elie Metchnikoff are so intimately +bound together that, in a biography, it is impossible +to separate them. That is why the description +of his work necessarily has been dispersed along +the story of his life; but, just as, in order to judge of a +work of art, one has to draw back and contemplate +the whole, we must also, after following the evolution +and successive stages of E. Metchnikoff’s scientific +works, take a full view of his work as a whole.</p> + +<p>He was a born biologist; everything connected +with life interested him. In his childhood, he observed +plants and animals. At the age of fifteen, he +became acquainted with microscopic beings; they +aroused in him such powerful interest towards the +primitive forms of life that, from that moment, not +only his future path was marked out for him but also +his method of starting from the simple to elucidate the +complex. He was imbued with Darwin’s theory +of evolution; having begun by the study of inferior +animals, he began to look for their connections with +other groups.</p> + +<p>He endeavoured to establish the continuity and +the unity of phenomena in all living beings. According +to his method of studying first what was simplest, +he turned to embryology, for in the egg and the +embryo it is possible to follow step by step the transformation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> +of the simple to the complex and to see the +origin and development of all the constituent parts +of the organism. Moreover, the embryo is exempt +from secondary complications, due to the multiple +external conditions of post-embryonic life.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff was able to establish, from embryological +data, that the development of lower animals +takes place according to the same plan and under +the same laws as that of higher animals. In all of +them, the segmentation of the egg is followed by the +formation of embryonic layers, of which each gives +birth to cells and to definite organs. Superior forms +repeat, in their embryonic life, the evolution cycle of +inferior forms.<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p> + +<p>This common plan in the embryology of all +animals established their genealogical continuity and +strengthened the Darwinian theory.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff’s studies, carried out on the various +groups of animals, contributed towards the foundation +of comparative embryology. Owing to the +comparative method, he had made himself familiar +not only with the morphological and functional continuity +of divers organisms, but also with that of +their constituting cells; a comparison between the +latter and unicellular beings was inevitable. That is +why, having ascertained that the mobile cells of the +lower Metazoa absorbed foreign bodies by inclusion, +he naturally concluded that that phenomenon was +similar to digestion in unicellular beings.</p> + +<p>Having established the fact of intracellular digestion +in lower animals, he extended it to certain cells +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>of the higher animals; thus his phagocyte theory +was born.</p> + +<p>Seeing that unicellular beings, like the mobile cells +of Metazoa, englobe, not only food, but foreign +bodies, he asked himself whether this was not at +the same time a defensive action. Such a possibility +brought no surprise to a zoologist, accustomed +to see that, in the struggle for existence, animals +often devoured their enemies.</p> + +<p>All the materials for the building up of the phagocyte +theory were therefore ready in Metchnikoff’s +mind when he asked himself, as by an intuition, +whether the white globules of our blood, globules +so similar to amœbæ, do not play the part of a +defensive army in our organism when they envelope +in accumulated masses intrusive bodies injurious to +the organism.</p> + +<p>The thought was but the result of a preparatory +work already accomplished; it was the butterfly +escaping out of the chrysalis.</p> + +<p>Metchnikoff had recourse to his method of simplification +in order to solve the question.</p> + +<p>The organism of the higher animals being extremely +complicated, he went down as far as the +transparent larva of the starfish (bipinnaria) in order +to watch with his own eyes the phenomena which +take place within it. He introduced a rose-thorn +into the transparent body of the larva, and noted +the next day that the mobile cells in the latter had +crowded towards the splinter, like an army rushing +to meet a foe.</p> + +<p>The analogy of this phenomenon with inflammation +and the formation of an abscess was striking. +Metchnikoff said to himself that since most diseases<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> +in the higher animals are accompanied by inflammation +and provoked by microbes, it was chiefly +against these microbes that our defensive cells had +to struggle. He named the defensive cells <i>phagocytes</i>.</p> + +<p>He confirmed his hypothesis by another observation, +equally simple. In a little transparent crustacean +(Daphnia) infected by a small parasitic fungus, +(<i>Monospora bicuspidata</i>), he was easily able to +observe the struggle between the animal’s mobile cells +and its parasites.</p> + +<p>These two simple observations served as foundation +and supports to the bridge by which Metchnikoff +connected normal biology with pathological biology. +Having entered the domain of the latter, he studied +various microbian diseases, and asked himself why +the organism was sometimes liable and sometimes +refractory. In order to elucidate this question, he +turned again to lower animals, in which he could easily +observe the most intimate phenomena, simplified.</p> + +<p>He ascertained that liability in an animal corresponded +with the fact that microbes introduced into +the organism remained free and invaded it, whilst +immunity coincided with the inclusion and digestion +of the microbes by phagocytes.</p> + +<p>He also found that, in artificial immunity, the +phagocytes are accustomed gradually, by preventive +inoculations, to digest microbes and their toxins.</p> + +<p>Thus he established the fact that phagocytosis +and inflammation are curative means employed by +the organism.</p> + +<p>All his ulterior researches, his studies on the +various categories of phagocytes and their properties, +on their digestive liquids, on the formation of antitoxins, +on the different properties acquired by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> +blood, etc., were but the natural development of +those premises.</p> + +<p>He had proved that the part played by the phagocytes +consists, not only in the struggle against microbes +and their poisons, but also in the destruction of all +the mortified or enfeebled cells of the organism, and +that atrophies are nothing more than the absorption +of cellular elements by the phagocytes.</p> + +<p>He found that senile atrophies have the same +cause, and asked why the cells of old people’s +organisms should become enfeebled.</p> + +<p>He demonstrated that the principal cause is the +chronic poisoning of the cells by toxins manufactured +by microbes in the intestine. Premature senility was +the result—a phenomenon as pathological as any +disease.</p> + +<p>The source of the evil, therefore, resides in the +intestinal flora. Accordingly he started to study the +latter, as also senility, in order to find means of +struggling against both.</p> + +<p>His researches enabled him to indicate a series of +means, based, on the one hand, on the struggle against +microbes, and, on the other, on the defence of the +noble cells against destructive ones.<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> + +<p>The study of old age led him to that of syphilis, +a disease which provokes an arterio-sclerosis which is +similar to that of old people; the study of the normal +intestinal flora was followed by that of intestinal +diseases, such as typhoid fever and infantile cholera.</p> + +<p>Finally, he progressed towards the last phenomenon, +the most mysterious in nature, Death.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span></p> + +<p>Researches on the silk-worm moth—a rare example +of an animal the life of which ends in natural +death—allowed him to conclude that the latter is +due to an auto-intoxication of the organism.</p> + +<p>But he only just raised the veil of the great +mystery; it was his last work....</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>Metchnikoff’s philosophical evolution ran on +parallel lines with his scientific researches.</p> + +<p>When studying the laws and the unity of vital +phenomena he found that their harmony was occasionally +broken by the collision of internal conditions +with the environment and that regrettable consequences +ensued. He saw an example of that in human +nature, full of disharmonies due to its animal origin.</p> + +<p>These considerations caused the pessimism of his +youth. But his energetic, pugnacious temperament +could not remain content with a passive acceptance +of facts.</p> + +<p>He started to study the lack of harmony in human +nature and its causes, and sought for means to combat +these causes. Gradually he reached the conclusion +that the greatest human disharmonies are provoked +by the rupture of the normal cycle of our life, by the +precocity of senility and of death, chiefly arising from a +chronic poisoning by the toxins of intestinal microbes.</p> + +<p>But having acquired the conviction that it is +possible to struggle against that intoxication, he concluded +that science, which has already done so much +to fight diseases, would also find means of struggling +against <i>premature</i> old age and <i>precocious</i> death, thus +leading us to the normal vital cycle, <i>orthobiosis</i>.</p> + +<p>Then disharmony, transformed into harmony, will +cause the greatest of ills to disappear.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span></p> + +<p>Faith in the power of Science and in the possibility +of modifying human nature itself through Science +was the foundation of the optimistic philosophy of his +maturity. Thoughts full of strength and hope shine +like leading stars all along his philosophical works.</p> + +<p>“Alone, Rational Science is capable of showing +humanity the true path.”</p> + +<p>“The real goal of human existence consists in an +active life in conformity with individual capacity; +in a life prolonged until the appearance of the <i>death-instinct</i>, +and until Man, satisfied with the duration of +his existence, feels the desire for annihilation.”</p> + +<p>“Man is capable of great works; that is why it +is desirable that he should modify human nature and +transform its disharmonies into harmonies.”</p> + +<p>“If an ideal capable of uniting <i>men</i> in a sort of +religion is possible, it can only be founded on scientific +principles. And, if it is true, as is often affirmed, +that man cannot live without faith, it must be faith +in the power of Science.”</p> + +<p>Thus Elie Metchnikoff had begun by the study of +nascent life in inferior beings; by a logical and continuous +chain, he had followed the whole cycle of +development of living beings in their continuity and +their whole.</p> + +<p>From the initial question of intracellular digestion +he had reached the most exalted problems which can +occupy our minds, the harmonising of human discords +through knowledge and will.</p> + +<p>Such is the harmonious edifice which he has +built.</p> + +<p>No vital question was indifferent to him. He +tackled the most difficult and most mysterious among +them with courage, moved by an invincible impulse<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> +towards Truth and sustained by enthusiasm and +faith in the power of Science.</p> + +<p>The beauty of a work of art consists in the harmony +and unity of a realised conception.</p> + +<p>Thus a Gothic cathedral, by its graceful and harmonious +lines, expresses an impulse towards higher +spheres; it leans solidly on the earth only in order +to soar better towards the heavens.</p> + +<p>Such is also the character of Elie Metchnikoff’s life-work.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHICAL_APPENDIX" id="BIBLIOGRAPHICAL_APPENDIX">BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX</a></h2> +<p class="center">WORKS OF ELIE METCHNIKOFF</p> +<div class="small"> +<table summary="list of works"> +<tr><td class="work-year">1865.</td><td class="work-title">“Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Chaetopoden,” Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche +Zoologie, xv. 3, p. 328.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Über einige wenig bekannte Thierformen,” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. +xv. 4, p. 450.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Über Geodesmus bilineatus Nob. (Fasciola terrestris), eine europäische +Landplanarie, Mélanges biologiques” (Bull. de l’Académie +des Sciences de Saint-Pétersbourg, vol. v.).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1866.</td><td class="work-title">“Untersuchungen über die Embryologie der Hemipteren (vorläufige +Mitteilung),” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. xvi. 1, p. 128.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte von Myzostomum,” Zeit. f. wissen. +Zool. xvi. 1, p. 326.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Apsilus lentiformis, ein Räderthier,” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. xvi. 3, +p. 1.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Embryologischen Studien an Insecten,” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. xvi. +Entgegnung auf die Erwiederung des Her. Prof. Leuckart in +Giessen, in Betreff der Frage über die Nematodenentwicklung +(Göttingen, Verlag von Adalbert Rente).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1867.</td><td class="work-title">“Beiträge zur Naturgeschichte der Würmer,” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. +xvii. 4, p. 539.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Embryology of the Sepiola” (in Russian), Archives des Sciences +physiques et naturelles, Genève, vol. 21.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1868.</td><td class="work-title">“Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Entwicklungsgeschichte der Chaetopoden” +(in collaboration with Ed. Claparède), Zeit. f. wissen. +Zool. xviii.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1869.</td><td class="work-title">“Embryology of Nebalia” (in Russian), Mélanges biologiques de +l’Académie de Saint-Pétersbourg, vi. p. 730.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Untersuchungen über die Metamorphose einiger Seethiere, +Tornaria,” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. xx. p. 131.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Über ein Larvenstadium von Euphausia,” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. +xix. 4, p. 179.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Über die Entwicklung der Echinodermen und Nemertinen,” +Mémoires de l’Acad. de Saint-Pétersbourg, xiv. 8, p. 33.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1870.</td><td class="work-title">“Bemerkungen über Echinodermen,” Bulletins de l’Acad. de +Saint-Pétersbourg, xiv. p. 51.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Embryologie des Scorpions,” Zeitschr. f. wissen. Zool. xxi.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1871.</td><td class="work-title">“Über die Metamorphose einiger Seethiere,” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. +xxi. 2, p. 235.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span></td><td class="work-title">“Entwicklungsgeschichte des Chelifers,” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. xxi. +p. 513.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Über den Naupliuszustand von Euphausia,” ibid. Bd. xix.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1872.</td><td class="work-title">“Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der einfachen Ascidien,” Zeit. f. +wissen. Zool. xxii. 3, p. 339.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Vorläufige Mitteilung über die Embryologie der Polydesmiden,” +Mélanges biologiques des Bullet. de l’Académie des Sciences +de Saint-Pétersbourg, vol. viii.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Kalkschwämme,” Zeit. f. wissen. +Zool. xxiv. p. 1.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Studien über die Entwicklung der Medusen und Siphonophoren,” +Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. xxiv. p. 15.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Embryologie der doppelfüssigen Myriapoden,” Zeit. f. wissen. +Zool. xxiv. p. 253.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1874.</td><td class="work-title">“Embryologisches über Geophilus,” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. xxv. +p. 313.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1876.</td><td class="work-title">“Beiträge zur Morphologie der Spongien,” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. +xxvii. p. 275.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1878.</td><td class="work-title">“Spongiologische Studien,” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. xxxii. p. +349.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1879.</td><td class="work-title">“Spongiologische Studien,” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. xxxii. p. 374.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1880.</td><td class="work-title">“Über die intracelluläre Verdauung bei Coelenteraten,” Zoologischer +Anzeiger, No. 56, p. 261.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Untersuchungen über Orthonectiden,” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. +xxxv. p. 282.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Über die systematische Stellung von Balanoglossus,” Zoologischer +Anzeiger, pp. 139, 153.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1881.</td><td class="work-title">“Zur Lehre über die intracelluläre Verdauung niederer Tiere,” +Zoologischer Anzeiger, p. 310.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title"><i>Vergleichend-embryologische Studien</i>:</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">1. Entodermbildung bei Geryoniden.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">2. “Über einige Studien der Cunina,” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. xxxvi. +p. 433.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1882.</td><td class="work-title">3. “Über die Gastrula einiger Metazoen,” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. +xxxvii. p. 286.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Die Embryologie von Planaria polychroa,” Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. +xxxviii. 3, p. 331.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1883.</td><td class="work-title">“Untersuchungen über die intracelluläre Verdauung bei wirbellosen +Tieren,” Arbeiten d. zool. Instituts zu Wien, v. 2, p. 14 +(Quarterly Journal of Micr. Science, vol. 93).</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Untersuchung über die mesodermalen Phagocyten einiger Wirbeltiere,” +Biologisch. Centralblatt, No. 18, p. 560, Bd. iii.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1884.</td><td class="work-title">“Embryologische Mitteilungen über Echinodermen,” Zoologischer +Anzeiger, vii. Nos. 158, 159.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Über eine Sprosspilzkrankheit der Daphnien; Beitrag zur Lehre +über den Kampf der Phagocyten gegen Krankheitserreger,” +Virchow’s Archiv, vol. 96, p. 177.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Über die Beziehung der Phagocyten zu Milzbrandbacillen,” +Virchow’s Archiv, vol. 97, p. 502.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Über die pathologische Bedeutung der intracellulären Verdauung,” +Fortschritte der Medizin, 1884, p. 558, No. 17.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1885.</td><td class="work-title"><i>Vergleichend-embryologische Studien</i>:</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">4. “Über die Gastrulation und Mesodermbildung der Ctenophoren,” +648.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span></td><td class="work-title"></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">5. “Über die Bildung der Wanderzellen bei Asterien und Echiniden,” +Zeit. f. wissen. Zool. xlii. p. 656.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1886.</td><td class="work-title">“Medusologische Mittheilungen,” Arbeiten d. zool. Instituts zu +Wien, vi. 2, p. 1.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">Embryologische Studien an Medusen, ein Beitrag zur Genealogie +der Primitivorgane, Wien, 1886.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1887.</td><td class="work-title">“Sur l’atténuation des bactéridies charbonneuses dans le sang des +moutons réfractaires,” Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, i. p. 42, +No. 1.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Über den Kampf der Zellen gegen Erysipelkokken, ein Beitrag +zur Phagocytenlehre,” Virchow’s Archiv, vol. 107, p. 209.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Über den Phagocytenkampf bei Rückfalltyphus,” Virchow’s +Archiv, vol. 109, p. 176.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Sur la lutte des cellules de l’organisme contre l’invasion des +microbes,” Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, i. p. 321, No. 7.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Kritische Bemerkungen über den Aufsatz des Herrn Christmas-Dirckinck-Holmfeld, +I. V.,” Fortschritte der Medizin, 17, +p. 541.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1888.</td><td class="work-title">“Über die phagocytäre Rolle der Tuberkelriesenzellen,” Virchow’s +Archiv, vol. 113, p. 63.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Pasteuria Ramosa, un représentant des bactéries à division longitudinale,” +Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, p. 165, t. ii. No. 4.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Über das Verhalten der Milzbrandbakterien im Organismus,” +Virchow’s Archiv, vol. 114, p. 465.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Réponse à la critique de M. Weigert au sujet des cellules +géantes de la tuberculose,” Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, ii. +p. 604.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1889.</td><td class="work-title">“Recherches sur la digestion intracellulaire,” Annales de l’Institut +Pasteur, iii. p. 25, No. 1.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Contribution à l’étude du pléomorphisme des bactéries,” Annales +de l’Institut Pasteur, iii. p. 61, No. 2.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Note sur le pléomorphisme, etc.,” Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, +iii. p. 265, No. 5.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title"><i>Studies on Immunity</i>:</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">1. “Immunité des lapins contre le bacille du rouget des porcs,” +Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, iii. p. 289, No. 6.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1890.</td><td class="work-title">2. “Le Charbon des pigeons,” Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, iv. +p. 65, No. 2.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">3. “Le Charbon des rats blancs,” Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, +iv. p. 193, No. 4.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1891.</td><td class="work-title">4. “L’Immunité des cobayes vaccinés contre le Vibrio Metchnikowii,” +Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, v. p. 465, No. 8.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Sur la propriété bactéricide du sang de rat” (in collaboration with +Dr. Roux), No. 8.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Recherches sur l’accoutumance aux produits microbiens” (in +collaboration with Dr. Roudenko), Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, +v. p. 567, No. 9.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Beiträge zur vergleichenden Pathologie der Entzündung,” Virchow +Festschrift, vol. 11.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1892.</td><td class="work-title">“La Phagocytose musculaire” (in collaboration with Dr. Soudakevitch), +Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, vi. p. 1.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">Leçons sur la pathologie comparée de l’inflammation. Paris, 1892.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“On Aqueous Humour, Micro-organisms and Immunity,” Journal +of Pathology, i.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span></td><td class="work-title"><i>Studies on Immunity</i>:</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">5. “Immunité des lapins vaccinés contre le microbe du Hogcholéra,” +Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, vi. p. 189, No. 5.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Atrophie des muscles pendant la transformation des batraciens,” +Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, vi. No. 1.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Note au sujet du mémoire de M. Soudakevitch (Parasitisme intracellulaire +des néoplasmes cancéreux),” No. 3.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Über Muskelphagocytose,” Centralblatt für Bakteriologie, 1892.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“La Lutte pour l’existence entre les diverses parties de l’organisme,” +Revue scientifique, 10 sept. 1892, No. 11.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1893.</td><td class="work-title">“Recherches sur le choléra et les vibrions, 1<sup>er</sup> mémoire” (Sur la +propriété préventive du sang humain vis-à-vis du vibrion de +Koch), Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, vii. p. 403, No. 5.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">2. “Mémoire,” idem (Sur la propriété pathogène des vibrions), +tome vii. p. 562, No. 7.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">Comparative Pathology of Inflammation. Lectures at the Pasteur +Institute. Paul: London, 1893. 8vo. (The name of the +translator is not stated.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1894.</td><td class="work-title">3. “Mémoire,” idem (Sur la vaccination artificielle du vibrion +cholérique), Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, viii. p. 257, No. 5.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">4. “Mémoire,” idem (Sur l’immunité et la réceptivité vis-à-vis du +choléra intestinal), tome viii. p. 529, No. 8.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“L’état actuel de la question de l’immunité” (Rapport du Congrès +international de Budapest), Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, viii. +p. 706, No. 10.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1895.</td><td class="work-title"><i>Studies on Immunity</i>:</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">6. “Sur la destruction extracellulaire des bactéries dans l’organisme,” +Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, ix. p. 433, No. 6.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1896.</td><td class="work-title">“Toxine et antitoxine cholériques” (in collaboration with Drs. Roux +and Salimbeni), Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, x. p. 25, No. 5.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Quelques remarques à propos de l’article de Gabritchevsky sur la +fièvre récurrente,” Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, x. No. 11.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title"><i>Recherches sur l’influence de l’organisme sur les toxines</i>:</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1897.</td><td class="work-title">1st Memoir. “Recherches sur l’influence de l’organisme sur les +toxines,” Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, xi. p. 801.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Réponse à M. Gabritchevsky,” Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, +xi. No. 3.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Immunität,” Weyl’s Handbuch der Hygiene. Jena, 1897.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Recherches sur l’influence de l’organisme sur les toxines” (Communication +faite au congrès de Moscou en août 1897), Annales +de l’Institut Pasteur, xi. No. 10.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1898.</td><td class="work-title">2nd Memoir. “Influence du système nerveux sur la toxine +tétanique,” Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, xii. No. 2, p. 81.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">3rd Memoir. “Toxine tétanique et leucocytes,” Annales de +l’Institut Pasteur, xii. No. 4, p. 263.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1899.</td><td class="work-title">“Résorption des cellules,” Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, xiii. +No. 10, p. 737.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1900.</td><td class="work-title"><i>Researches on the Influence of the Organism on Toxins</i>:</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">4ème mémoire. “Sur la spermotoxine et l’antispermotoxine,” +Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, xiv. p. 5.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Sur les cytotoxines,” Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, xiv. No. 6. +p. 369.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Recherches sur l’action de l’hémotoxine sur l’homme,” Annales +de l’Institut Pasteur, xiv. No. 6, p. 402.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span>1901.</td><td class="work-title"><i>Biological Studies on Old Age</i>:</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">1st Memoir. “Sur le blanchiment des cheveux et des poils,” +Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, xv. No. 12, p. 865.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">L’Immunité dans les maladies infectieuses. Paris, 1901.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1902.</td><td class="work-title"><i>Biological Studies on Old Age.</i> “Recherches sur la vieillesse des +perroquets” (in collaboration with Drs. Mesnil and Weinberg), +Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, xvi. No. 12.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">The Nature of Man. Studies in optimistic philosophy. The English +translation by P. Chalmers Mitchell. Heinemann: London; +Putnams: New York, 1903. 8vo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1903.</td><td class="work-title"><i>Studies on Human Nature</i>: Paris, 1903.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">Études expérimentales sur la syphilis (in collaboration with Dr. +Roux):</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">1st Memoir. Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, xvii. No. 12, p. 809.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1904.</td><td class="work-title">2nd Memoir. “Études expérimentales sur la syphilis” (in collaboration +with Dr. Roux), Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, xviii. +No. 1, p. 1.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">3rd Memoir. Id. No. 11.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1905.</td><td class="work-title">4th Memoir. Id. Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, xix. No. 11.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">Immunity in Infective Diseases. Translated from the French by +F. G. Binnie. University Press: Cambridge; The Macmillan +Co.: New York, 1905. 8vo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1906.</td><td class="work-title">5th Memoir. Id., Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, xx. No. 10.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">The New Hygiene: three lectures on the prevention of infectious +diseases. Translated and a preface written by E. Ray Lankester. +Heinemann: London, 1906. 8vo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">[Another edition.] Chicago Medical Book Co.: Chicago, 1906. 8vo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1907.</td><td class="work-title">[Another edition.] W. T. Keener & Co.: Chicago, 1907. 8vo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Sur la prophylaxie de la syphilis” (Paper read at the XIIth +International Congress in Berlin), Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, +xxi. No. 10.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">The Prolongation of Life: optimistic studies. The English translation +edited by P. Chalmers Mitchell. Heinemann: London, +1907. 8vo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title"><i>Essais optimistes.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1908.</td><td class="work-title">“Études sur la flore intestinale,” “Putréfaction intestinale,” +Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, xxii. No. 12.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1909.</td><td class="work-title">Idem. “Roussettes et microbes” (in collaboration with MM. +Weinberg, Pozersky, Distaso, Berthelot), Annales de l’Institut +Pasteur, xxiii. No. 12.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">Notes on Sour Milk and other Methods of administering Selected +Lactic Germs in Intestinal Bacterio-therapy. J. Bale, Sons & +Co.: London, 1909. 8vo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1910.</td><td class="work-title">Idem. “Poisons intestinaux et scléroses,” Annales de l’Institut +Pasteur, xxiv. No. 10.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">The Prolongation of Life. New and revised edition, Heinemann: +London; Putnams: New York, 1910. 8vo.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1911.</td><td class="work-title">“Sur la fièvre typhoïde expérimentale” (Metchnikoff et Besredka), +Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, xxv. No. 3.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">Annales de l’Institut Pasteur:</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">Tome xxv. No. 6. Quelques remarques sur la vaccination à propos +du mémoire de M. Choukevitch sur le choléra.</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">Tome xxv. No. 6. Réponse de MM. Metchnikoff et Besredka à +M. le Dr. Vincent (remarques sur la vaccination antityphique).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span></td><td class="work-title">Tome xxv. No. 11. El. Metchnikoff, E. Burnet et L. Tarassevitch, +“Recherches sur l’épidémiologie de la tuberculose dans les steppes +Kalmouks.”</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">Tome xxv. No. 12. El. Metchnikoff et A. Besredka, “Des vaccinations +antityphiques (2nd Memoir).”</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1912.</td><td class="work-title">Tome xxvi. No. 11. El. Metchnikoff et Eug. Wollman, “Sur +quelques essais de désintoxication intestinale,” “Bactériothérapie +intestinale.”</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">The Warfare against Tuberculosis—being the Priestley Lecture +of the National Health Society for the year 1912. Published +in Bedrock, January 1913. Constable: London.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1913.</td><td class="work-title"><i>Études sur la flore intestinale.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">Tome xxvii. No. 8. “Des vaccinations antityphiques” (El. Metchnikoff +et A. Besredka).</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">Tome xxvii. No. 11. “Toxicité des sulfoconjugués de la série +aromatique.”</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1914.</td><td class="work-title">Tome xxviii. No. 2. “Études sur la flore intestinale” (4ème mémoire). +“Les diarrhées des nourrissons.”</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1915.</td><td class="work-title">Tome xxix. No. 8. “Causerie de El. Metchnikoff à l’occasion de +son jubilé.”</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">Tome xxix. No. 10. “La Mort du papillon du mûrier.”</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="work-title">“Founders of Modern Medicine: Pasteur, Lister, Koch” in Russian +(a French translation to appear shortly).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1915-16.</td><td class="work-title">“Introduction à ’Études sur la fonction sexuelle’” (posthume, +dans Le Mercure de France, 1917).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="work-year">1916.</td><td class="work-title">The Nature of Man. Popular edition. Heinemann: London, +1916. 8vo.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—Sources consulted: British Museum Catalogue; English Catalogue; +American Catalogue.</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> +</p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"> +<p class="title">FOOTNOTES</p> +<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> He received an honorary degree at Cambridge in 1891, and also +attended the International Medical Congress in London in that year. In +1901 he gave a lecture at Manchester on the intestinal flora. In 1906 he +gave a course of three lectures in London on “The New Hygiene.” I +translated them for him, and they were published as a little volume by +Heinemann.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p> + <a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> By Prof. Hertwig of Munich.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Ungainly open carriage on high wheels and without springs.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Metchnikoff himself insisted upon the recital of this episode, for which +he had felt some remorse. He considered that, in a biography, disagreeable +traits were not to be omitted.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>Chronicle of John Neculua.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> This Boyar was no doubt a nephew of the Great Spatar.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> He made researches on a very singular annulate worm, the <i>Fabricia</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> All this episode was described by Metchnikoff in 1866 in a separate +publication with great restraint and in a very moderate tone.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> In later years Metchnikoff often dwelt on the fact that Fritz Müller +was not fully appreciated and that it was he who had most efficaciously +contributed to the confirmation of Darwinian theories.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> A degree preceding that of Doc.Sc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The latter affirmed that the nervous system of Ascidia originated from +the upper layer, whilst Elie believed that it was the lower layer which gave +birth to it. It was Kovalevsky who was right, as Elie himself declared +later.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> He ultimately developed these considerations in a paper entitled +<i>Education from an Anthropological Point of View</i>, of which mention will +be made hereafter.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Rural administration.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> “Elie” is the French form of Elijah, in Russian Ilia, and was ultimately +adopted by Metchnikoff.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Migration of the white blood corpuscles (leucocytes) through the walls +of blood-vessels.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>Arbeiten des zool. Inst. zu Wien</i>, Bd. v. Heft ii. p. 141. “Untersuchung +über die intracelluläre Verdauung bei wirbellosen Tieren,” E. +Metchnikoff.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> It was only in 1892 that he completed and developed his observations. +He found that the cells of the sarcoplasma of the muscular tissue devoured +its contractile part, the myoplasma.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> This paper was entitled “Forces curatives de l’organisme.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Virchow’s <i>Archiv</i>, vol. 96, p. 177.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Aqueous humor, the exudate of aseptic œdemata.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Naegeli, Büchner, Gravitz.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Chauveau.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Büchner.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Hayem, Birsch, Hirschfeld, Kleps, Recklinghausen, Waldeyer, and +Virchow.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> It is also called <i>alexine</i> or <i>complement</i> by other writers.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Designated by other writers by various synonyms: preventive, or +sensibilising substance, immunising body, amboceptor.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> A cutaneous scarification by tuberculin which provokes local inflammatory +redness on the scarified point in tuberculous subjects only.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>Education from an Anthropological Point of View</i>, <i>The Matrimonial +Age</i>, <i>The Conception of Human Nature</i>, <i>The Struggle for Existence in a +General Sense</i>. See <a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHICAL_APPENDIX">Bibliography</a>.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> 28th <i>June</i> 1914.—I have again analysed my urine and I again find +indican in fairly large quantities in spite of a diet which is as rational as +possible. I am trying to elucidate this strange contradiction.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> In the Russian Review, <i>Messenger of Europe</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> <i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, Jubilé d’ E. Metchnikoff, 1915.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, 1915.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> For instance, Dr. Widal, very early in his illness, had advised a saltless +diet, which caused the infiltration in the tissues to remain comparatively +slight.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> He expounded the theory that ideas on the sexual function had been +falsified through fear of venereal diseases at a time when people did not know +either how to avoid or cure those diseases. He showed that the condemnation +of a natural function by divers religions was based on that fear. He +analysed the deplorable consequences of that, and set forth the necessity of +returning to more wholesome ideas, more in conformity with nature and +allowing the study and avoidance of many evils. He thought that, in this +connection, a new direction should be given to the education of children +and to marriage. He then examined the part played by the sexual function +in the lives of men of genius and, with that object, read many biographies +and literary works. During his illness he read books concerning Victor +Hugo and Napoleon, J. J. Rousseau’s <i>Confessions</i> and even parts of the +<i>Nouvelle Héloïse</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Pantopon is a narcotic drug prepared from opium.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> It was 5.20 by the conventional war time, 4.20 in reality.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Thus the <i>parenchymella</i>, <i>phagocytella</i>, and <i>gastrula</i> stages correspond +in the embryo with the adult form of certain very primitive Metazoa +and even to a colony of unicellular animals.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Replacement of the wild and noxious flora of the intestines by +antagonistic cultivated microbes; strengthening and vaccinating of noble +cells.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="index"> + +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Acœlomata, development of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li>Albaran, Dr., <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> +<li>Alexander I., Tsar of Russia, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li>Alexander II., <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>assassination of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Alexis Michailovitch, Tsar, sends Spatar on mission to China, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>death of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Alhambra, the, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li>Amour (Amur) river, Spatar’s exploration of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li><i>Anisoplia austriaca</i>, experiments on, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> +<li><i>Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</i>, 1915, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>-50 <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Anthrax vaccine experiment, unfortunate result of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>-4</li> +<li>Anthropoid apes, Metchnikoff’s desire to experiment with, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>syphilis experiments with, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> + <li>infantile cholera experiments with, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li> + <li>typhoid fever experiments with, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Antitoxins, Metchnikoff’s experiments with, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li><i>Arbeiten des zool. Inst. zu Wien</i>, publication of Metchnikoff’s “Untersuchung über die intracelluläre Verdauung bei wirbellosen Tieren,” <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Arterio-sclerosis, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> +<li>Ascidia, Metchnikoff’s difference with Kovalevsky <i>re</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li>Asiatic cholera, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> +<li>Astrakhan steppes, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li>Austria, declaration of war on Serbia, 1914, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Baer, Prof., and Baer Prize, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> +<li>Bakounine, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> +<li>Bardach, Dr., <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> +<li>Bassarab, Constantine, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Baumgarten, Prof., hostile criticism of phagocyte theory, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>criticism refuted, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Behring, theory of immunity, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>discovery of antitoxins, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Békétoff, Prof., <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> +<li><i>Bell</i>, the, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li>Berlin Congress, 1890, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-9</li> +<li>Berthelot, M., pupil and collaborator of Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> +<li>Besredka, Dr., researches, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-2, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>-8</li> +<li>Birsch, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Bobrinsky, Count, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> +<li>Bogomoloff, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li><i>Bombyx mori</i> (moth of the silk-worm), Metchnikoff’s experiments with, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>-9, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> +<li>Bordet, M. I., important researches and experiments, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> +<li>Borrel, M., <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Brockhaus and Effrone, <i>Encyclopædia</i> quoted, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-6</li> +<li>Bronn, <i>Classes and Orders of the Animal Kingdom</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li>Büchner, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>paper on humoral theory, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Buckle, <i>History of Civilisation</i>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li>Buda-Pest Congress (International, 1894), <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> +<li><i>Bulletin of the Moscow Society of Naturalists</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> +<li>Bunsen, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Burnet, M., <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Caillaux affair, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> +<li>Cantemir, Prince, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li>Casso, Minister of Public Instruction, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> +<li>Cephalopoda, Metchnikoff’s study of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> +<li>Chamberland, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> +<li>Chauveau, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> and <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Cholera outbreak in France, 1892, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>Metchnikoff’s experiments with cholera vibrio, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>-7, <a href="#Page_158">158</a> <i>seq.</i></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Choukevitch, Dr., <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> +<li> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> +Cienkovsky, friendship for and interest in Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>resigns from Odessa University, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> + <li>bacillus, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Claus, Prof., <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> +<li>Cœlentera and intracellular digestion, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li>Cœlomata, development of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li>Cohendy, M., research work of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> +<li>Cohn, association with and interest in Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>“Conception of Nature and of Medical Science, A,” Metchnikoff’s Stuttgart Lecture, 1909, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> +<li>Crimea, and Black Sea fauna, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li>Ctenophora, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li>“Curative Forces of the Organism, The,” Metchnikoff Lecture on, in Berlin, 1908, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> +<li>Curded milk, manufacture, Metchnikoff’s connection with, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>-7</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Daphniæ, experiments with, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> +<li>Darré, Dr., <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> +<li>Darwin, <i>The Origin of Species</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>theories, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Diabetes, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> +<li>Dubois-Reymond, journal of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Duclaux, M., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> +<li>Duniasha (Avdotia Maximovna), <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Eberth’s bacillus, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>-8</li> +<li>Echinodermata, Metchnikoff’s researches, etc., <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>metamorphoses of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> + <li>and intracellular digestion, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> + <li>observations on larvæ transformation, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li><i>Education from an Anthropological Point of View</i>, Metchnikoff’s paper on, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Ehrlich, Prof., <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> +<li>Embryology, comparative, Metchnikoff’s studies in, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-51, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> +<li>Emmerich, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>attack on phagocyte theory, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> + <li>attacks refuted, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Engelmann, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Ephemeridæ, Metchnikoff’s study of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Escherich, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> +<li><i>Essais optimistes</i>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-2, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> +<li><i>Études sur la nature humaine</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>quoted, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Evolution, Metchnikoff’s researches in, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-51</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><i>Fabricia</i>, Metchnikoff’s researches on, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>Fédorovitch, Mlle. Ludmilla, afterwards Madame Elie Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>engagement to Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-9;</li> + <li>marriage to Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> + <li>illness of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>-70;</li> + <li>a clever draughtswoman, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> + <li>temporary recovery of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> + <li>relapse, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> + <li>death, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Fédorovitch, Mlle., <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>account of interview with Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>“Flora of the Human Body,” Wilde Lecture, 1901, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> +<li><i>Flore du corps humain</i>, La, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> +<li>“Forces curatives de l’organisme,” quoted, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-21</li> +<li><i>Forty Years’ Search for a Rational Conception of Life</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> +<li><i>Founders of Modern Medicine, The</i>, extract from preface to, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-8</li> +<li>Fraenkel, Carl, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Gamaléia, Dr., <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> +<li>Garibaldi Movement, the, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li>Garnier, M., <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> +<li><i>Gastræa</i>, Haeckel’s theory of the, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li>“Gastrotricha,” Metchnikoff’s establishment of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +<li>Geneva, young revolutionary centre, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-8</li> +<li><i>Geodesmus bilineatus</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-7</li> +<li>Geophilus (<i>see</i> <a href="#IX_Myriapoda">Myriapoda</a>)</li> +<li>George, Henry, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> +<li>Germany, Metchnikoff’s appreciation of scientists of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> +<li>Germany, declaration of war on Russia, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>on France, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Giessen, Naturalists’ Congress at, 1864, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-5</li> +<li><i>Glycobacter peptonicus</i>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> +<li>Goethe, <i>Faust</i>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> +<li>Goldschmidt, Dr., <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li><i>Göttingen News</i>, Leuckart’s memoir on Nematodes in, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Granada, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li>Gravitz, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Grove, <i>The Unity of Physical Forces</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> +<li>Guancios, Caves of the, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Haeckel, theory of the <i>gastræa</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li>Hayem, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Heitz, Dr., <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> +<li>Heligoland, flora and fauna of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>Helmholtz, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li>Henle, Prof., <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> +Herzen, <i>Passé et pensées</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li>Hirschfeld, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Hodounof, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> +<li>Hueppe, Prof., <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> +<li>Hugo, Victor, <a href="#Page_260">260</a> <i>n.</i></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Iamanouchi, M., <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> +<li>Immunity, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>opposing theories of Behring and Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> + <li>ancient and modern theories of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>-70;</li> + <li>Metchnikoff’s exposition of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-180</li> + </ul></li> +<li><i>Immunity in Infectious Diseases</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> +<li>Infantile cholera, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>-21</li> +<li><i>Inflammation</i>, Metchnikoff’s lectures on, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-3</li> +<li>Intestinal flora, problem of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>-8, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>further researches, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li> + <li>experiments with rats, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Intracellular digestion, Metchnikoff’s studies of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Jaurès, assassination of, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> +<li>Jelly-fish, Metchnikoff’s monograph on embryology of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> +<li>Jenner and method of antivariolic vaccination, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> +<li><i>Journal de Moscou</i>, Elie Metchnikoff’s first publication in, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> +<li>Jupille, M., <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Kalmuk steppes, Metchnikoff’s journey to, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>-3; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>description of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>-16;</li> + <li>Metchnikoff’s anthropological work among natives of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-5;</li> + <li>liability of natives to tuberculosis, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-11;</li> + <li>Pasteur Institute expedition to, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li> + <li>description of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>-17</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Keferstein, Prof., <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li>Kent, Saville, discoveries of <i>Protospongia</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> +<li>Kharkoff, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>Lycée, progress in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> + <li>University, ancient methods in, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>-2, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kherson, peasants’ grievances and vexatious conduct in, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> +<li>Kirghiz steppes, endemic plague in, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>Russian plague mission to, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> + <li>description of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kleinenberg, Prof., encouragement of Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> +<li>Kleps, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Koch, Prof., <a href="#Page_265">265</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>attitude to Metchnikoff’s theory, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kölliker, Prof., <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +<li>Kovalevsky, Alexander, friendship with Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>work of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li> + <li>divides Baer Prize with Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kriloff, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li>Kühne, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Latapie, M., <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> +<li><i>Law of Life, The</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> +<li><i>Leçons sur la pathologie comparée de l’inflammation</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-3</li> +<li>Leube, Dr., <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> +<li>Leuckart, Prof., <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-5, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>Lilienfiorse, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> +<li>Lister, Dr., <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> +<li>Loeffler, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> +<li>London Congress, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-50</li> +<li>Lubarsch, attacks on Metchnikoff’s theory, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> +<li>Lucernaria, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><i>Macaques</i> or Barbary apes, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>Metchnikoff’s typhoid experiments with, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>-8</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Macrophages, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-4, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> +<li>Madeira, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Maeterlinck, Maurice, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>-9</li> +<li>Maisonneuve, M., <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> +<li>Malaga, gardens of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li>Manoukhine, Dr., <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> +<li>Martin, Dr., <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> +<li>Medusæ, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li>Mertens, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li><i>Messenger of Europe</i>, Metchnikoff’s contributions to, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>-9, <a href="#Page_239">239</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Messina, Metchnikoff’s work at, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li>Messina, the Metchnikoff home at, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> +<li>Messina, earthquake at, 1908, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li>Metazoa, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> +<li>Metchnikoff, Dmitri Ivanovitch, devotion to his brother’s family, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>appearance and character, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>-6;</li> + <li>other references, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Metchnikoff, Elie (or Ilia), parents’ home at Panassovka, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>-3; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>birth of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> + <li>appearance and disposition in childhood, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-11;</li> + <li>early indications of unusual intelligence, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li> + <li>an adventurous journey to Slaviansk, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>-15;</li> + <li>life at Kharkoff, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>-18;</li> + <li>develops natural history tastes with Hodounof, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-22;</li> + <li>ancestry, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-7;</li> + <li>entry into and progress at Kharkoff Lycée, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>-34;</li> + <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> + friendships and their influence, with Bogomoloff, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>with Tschelkoff, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>-3, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,</li> + <li>with Kovalevsky, <a href="#Page_48">48</a> <i>seq.</i>,</li> + <li>with Cienkovsky, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-60,</li> + <li>with Kleinenberg, Virchow, and others, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-19,</li> + <li>with Pasteur, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> <i>seq.</i>,</li> + <li>various, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-9, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>adopts atheism and shows continued interest in natural history, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>-30;</li> + <li>love of music, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-5, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> + <li>plans a scientific career, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> + <li>early publications, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> + <li>devotion to his mother, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-4;</li> + <li>early love affairs, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>-6;</li> + <li>abortive journey to Würzburg, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>-9;</li> + <li>at Kharkoff University, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-42;</li> + <li>an early controversy with Kühne, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> + <li>influenced by Darwin, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> + <li>early researches and privations in Heligoland, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-5;</li> + <li>letters to his mother quoted, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-6, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-9;</li> + <li>at Giessen Congress, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> + <li>work and relations with Leuckart, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-8;</li> + <li>eyesight troubles, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>-3, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> + <li>visit to Geneva, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-8;</li> + <li>researches, Mediterranean, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-53, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-7, <a href="#Page_61">61</a> <i>seq.</i>, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>in the Crimea, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-60,</li> + <li>at Spezzia, etc., <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-73,</li> + <li>anthropological among Kalmuks, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-5,</li> + <li>in intracellular digestion and Ephemeridæ, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-11, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,</li> + <li>in infectious diseases, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>,</li> + <li>in tuberculosis and phagocytosis, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>at Pasteur Institute, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>-6, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>in cholera, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>-157,</li> + <li>in immunity, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>-80,</li> + <li>in senile atrophies and intestinal flora, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-9, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>-8, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>-8, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> <i>seq.</i>,</li> + <li>in syphilis, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-91,</li> + <li>in infantile cholera and typhoid, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>-8, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>,</li> + <li>in tuberculosis and plague among Kalmuks, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-19;</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>silk-worm moth, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>-9, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li> + <li>contribution to foundation of comparative embryology, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> + <li>studies in Germany and opinion of German scientists, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-5, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> + <li>illnesses, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-56, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a> <i>seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> + <li>return to Russia and Odessa University appointment, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-60;</li> + <li>appointed Zoology Professor at Petersburg, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> + <li>interest in educational questions, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li> + <li>life at Petersburg, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>-4, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> <i>seq.</i>;</li> + <li>engagement and first marriage, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-70;</li> + <li>reappointed to Odessa University and difficulties of appointment, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a> <i>seq.</i>;</li> + <li>his philosophical theory and its evolution, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>-7, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>-9, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-5, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>-4, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>-9, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>-3;</li> + <li>visit to and life at Madeira, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-7;</li> + <li>death of first wife, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> + <li>attempts suicide, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-81;</li> + <li>Mlle. Fédorovitch’s description of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> + <li>journey to Astrakhan steppes, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>-3;</li> + <li>studies of childhood, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> + <li>meeting with family of second wife and growing intimacy, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-8, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li> + <li>Setchénoff’s description of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> + <li>harmony of second marriage, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>-95;</li> + <li>character and disposition <a href="#Page_96">96</a>-8, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-5;</li> + <li>views of women’s scientific capacity, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li> + <li>inoculates himself with relapsing fever, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li> + <li>and the phagocyte theory, first statement of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>describes first inception of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>-17,</li> + <li>progress in, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>-22, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>-53, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>-66, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>-9,</li> + <li>controversies and attacks on, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-9;</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>difficulties over Russian estate management, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>-14;</li> + <li>life at Messina, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-19;</li> + <li>again returns to Russia, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li> + <li>journey through Spain to Tangiers, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>-4;</li> + <li>life at Tangiers and Villefranche, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>-6;</li> + <li>describes work at Bacteriological Institute, Odessa, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-8;</li> + <li>describes first meeting with Pasteur, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li> + <li>Pasteur’s offer, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li> + <li>visit to Berlin and reception by German scientists, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> + <li>work and influence at Pasteur Institute, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>-146;</li> + <li>M. Roux’s appreciations of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-9, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li> + <li>other appreciations, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> + <li>life at Sèvres and Paris, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-5;</li> + <li>visit to England, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> + <li>triumph at London Congress, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> + <li>interest in Pfeiffer’s phenomenon, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>-60;</li> + <li>theory and studies of natural death, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>-5, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>-35, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>-8, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> + <li>receives Nobel Prize, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> + <li>journey to Sweden and Russia, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>-200;</li> + <li>visit to Tolstoï, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-205;</li> + <li>expedition to Kalmuk steppes, <a href="#Page_210">210</a> <i>seq.</i>;</li> + <li>unpleasant incident of lacto-bacilli fabrication, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>-7;</li> + <li>kindness to friends, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>-8;</li> + <li>descriptions of his own symptoms, etc., <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-36, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>-51, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>-5;</li> + <li>holidays at St. Léger-en-Yvelines, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>-9, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li> + <li>effect of war on, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>-46, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li> + <li>preface to <i>Founders of Modern Medicine</i> quoted, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-8;</li> + <li>plans a work on sexual questions, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> + <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> + jubilee celebrations, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>-50;</li> + <li>last illness, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>-73;</li> + <li>last days at Pasteur Institute, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>-73;</li> + <li>death, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> + <li>synopsis of work and achievements, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>-81</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Metchnikoff, Madame, meeting with Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>parents and family, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-8, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>,</li> + <li>marriage, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>,</li> + <li>relations between husband and wife, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>-95,</li> + <li>illness of, in 1880, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>,</li> + <li>loss of both parents, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>,</li> + <li>illnesses of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Metchnikoff, Emilia Lvovna (<i>née</i> Nevahovna), appearance and disposition, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>a capable housewife, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> + <li>a devoted mother, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> + <li>delicacy of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> + <li>ancestors, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> + <li>influence on Elie Metchnikoff’s choice of a career, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> + <li>endeavours to prevent Elie’s first marriage, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> + <li>letters to, from Elie quoted, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-5, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-69;</li> + <li>death of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Metchnikoff, Elena Samoïlovna, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> +<li>Metchnikoff, Ilia Ivanovitch, home at Panassovka, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>appearance and character, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,</li> + <li>marriage, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,</li> + <li>easy-going temperament, and extravagance, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>-6,</li> + <li>attitude to his family and servants, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>-7</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Metchnikoff, Ivan, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> +<li>Metchnikoff, Katia, appearance and character, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>marriage, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>,</li> + <li>other references, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Metchnikoff, Leo, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>illness of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>,</li> + <li>gifted but superficial nature of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-7;</li> + <li>activities in Geneva and connection with Garibaldi Movement, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-7, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Metchnikoff, Nicholas, birth of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>appearance, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> + <li>his great-aunt’s favourite, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li> + <li>boyhood pursuits, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>-18;</li> + <li>enters Kharkoff Lycée, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> + <li>life in Kharkoff, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> + <li>death of, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li><i>Microphages</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-4, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +<li>Morosoffs, the, of Moscow, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> +<li>Moscow, Anthropological Society of, Metchnikoff’s report to, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li>Moscow, International Congress, 1897, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>-5; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>Skin Disease Research Society, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Müller, Fritz, <i>For Darwin</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> +<li><i>Müller’s Archives</i>, Metchnikoff’s memoir on the Vorticella in, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +<li><a id="IX_Myriapoda" name="IX_Myriapoda">Myriapoda</a>, embryology of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Naegeli, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Naples, cholera epidemic in, 1865, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>Metchnikoff’s first stay at, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-53,</li> + <li>second stay, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Napoleon, <a href="#Page_260">260</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Natural death, Metchnikoff’s studies of, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>-81</li> +<li>Natural science, Metchnikoff’s campaign for the teaching of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li>Nematodes, Metchnikoff’s discoveries, etc., <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>Nevahovitch, Leo, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li>Nicholas I., <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li>Nobel Prize, the, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> +<li>Nocard, M., <a href="#Page_265">265</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>appreciation of Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Norden, Dr., <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Odessa, University of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-9, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>Metchnikoff’s work at, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-61, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-9,</li> + <li>party intrigues at, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,</li> + <li>rights to autonomy threatened, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>-3,</li> + <li>Congress, 1883, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>,</li> + <li>bacteriological Institute founded at, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Oldenburg, Prince of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Panassovka, the home of the Metchnikoffs, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>fire at, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-21</li> + </ul></li> +<li><i>Parenchymella</i>, explanation of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>-110</li> +<li>Paris, International Congress, 1900, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> +<li>Paris, air raids on, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> +<li>Pasteur, antirabic inoculations, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>Metchnikoff’s first interview with, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>,</li> + <li>friendship with Metchnikoff and interest in phagocyte theory, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>,</li> + <li>experiments in vaccination and immunity, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>-9,</li> + <li>death of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,</li> + <li>discovery of lactic fermentation microbe, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>,</li> + <li>age at death, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Pasteur Institute, the, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>Metchnikoff’s work and influence at, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-142, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>,</li> + <li>Metchnikoff’s appreciation of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>,</li> + <li>effect of outbreak of European War on, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-5;</li> + <li>celebration of Metchnikoff’s jubilee, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li>Petersburg, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>Congress of Russian Naturalists at, 1867, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-61,</li> + <li>difficult conditions of Metchnikoff’s work at, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>-4, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>,</li> + <li>foundation of Bacteriological Institute at, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Petersburg Geographical Society, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li>Petrushka, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> +Pettenkoffer, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> +<li>Pfeiffer, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>experiments in extracellular destruction of microbes, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>-60, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>-6, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li> + <li>attacks on Metchnikoff’s theory, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li><i>Phagocytella</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> +<li>Phagocytes, origin of Metchnikoff’s theory of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, + <ul class="IX"> + <li> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>development of theory, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-22, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>,</li> + <li>inception of theory, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>-19,</li> + <li>Baumgarten’s hostile criticism of theory, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>application of theory to erysipelas, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>opposition to theory, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,</li> + <li>controversy, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,</li> + <li>renewed experiments for proving theory, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>vindication of, at Buda-Pest Congress, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li> + <li>experiments with toxins and poisons, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-62;</li> + <li>experiments with antitoxins, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>-164, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>and doctrine of immunity, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>-80,</li> + <li>and senility, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> +</li> +<li>Phagocytosis, Metchnikoff’s first paper on, read at Odessa Congress of Physicians and Naturalists, 1883, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> +<li><i>Phyllirhoë</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> +<li>Picot, E., <i>Chronicle of John Neculua</i> quoted, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li>Pirquet’s test, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> +<li><i>Pleomorphism of Microbes</i>, Metchnikoff’s memoir, 1888, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> +<li>Poland, Revolution in, 1830, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li>Polypi, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li><i>Popular Star</i>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li>Preyer, theory of fatigue and sleep, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> +<li><i>Protospongia</i>, discovery of, by Saville Kent, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> +<li>Pushkin, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Radlkoffer, <i>The Crystals of Proteic Substances</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> +<li>Rasputin, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> +<li>Recklinghausen, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Relapsing fever, experiments to prove phagocytic reaction, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li>Renon, Dr., <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> +<li>Rotifera, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>-8</li> +<li>Rousseau, J. J., <i>Confessions and the Nouvelle Héloïse</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Roux, Dr., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>appreciation of Metchnikoff quoted, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-9, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> + <li>collaboration with Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,</li> + <li>wins Osiris Prize, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> + <li>reply to campaign against Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> + <li>friendship with and visits to Metchnikoff in his last illness, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Rubinstein, M., <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>St. Léger-en-Yvelines, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li>Salimbeni, Dr., <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>-3</li> +<li>Sanarelli, Dr., discovery of choleriform bacilli, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> +<li>Sarepta, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>-18</li> +<li>Schaudinn, discovery of syphilitic treponema, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> +<li>Scorpion, the, Metchnikoff’s researches concerning the development of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li>Senility and death, Metchnikoff’s views on and researches, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-8, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-5</li> +<li>Serums, their action, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Setchénoff, Prof., <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-3, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>autobiography quoted, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sèvres, Metchnikoff Villa at, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> +<li>Siphonophora, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li>Slaviansk, adventurous journey of the Metchnikoff family to, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li>Spain, Metchnikoff’s eventful journey through, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li>Spatar, Joury Stepanovitch, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li>Spatar, Nicholas Milescu, exploits and adventures of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-4, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>mission to China, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,</li> + <li>literary activities and services to Peter the Great, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,</li> + <li>death of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Spezzia, the Metchnikoffs sojourn at, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-71</li> +<li>Sponges and Echinodermata, Metchnikoff’s study of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li>Stepanita, Prince, his dealings with Nicholas Milescu Spatar, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li>Syphilis, Metchnikoff’s researches on, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-91, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Tangiers, journey to, through Spain, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>-4, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>description of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>-6</li> + </ul> +</li> +<li>Tarassevitch, Dr., <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> +<li>Tchistovitch, Dr., <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> +<li><i>Time for Marriage, The</i>, Metchnikoff’s paper on, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li>Tolstoï, Léon, a day at Iasnaïa Paliana, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-205</li> +<li>Tolstoï, Countess, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> +<li>Tornaria, Metchnikoff’s discovery concerning, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li>Toxins and the phagocyte theory, experiments, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> seq.</li> +<li><i>Trattoria della Harmonia</i>, the, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li>Trieste, Metchnikoff’s work at, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> +Tschelkoff, Prof., <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +<li>Tshori, Convent of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> +<li>Tuberculosis, researches on phagocytosis, in, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>Metchnikoff’s theory of natural vaccination, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-11, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Typhoid fever, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>-8</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Vaquez, Dr., <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> +<li>Veillon, Dr., <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> +<li>Vienna, Hygienists’ Conference at, 1887, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> +<li>Villa Orotava, giant dragon-tree at, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li>Virchow, cellular theory, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>n.</i>; + <ul class="IX"> + <li>encouragement of Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-19;</li> + <li><i>Archives</i>, publication of Metchnikoff’s researches in, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Volga, description of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-13</li> +<li>von Noorden, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> +<li>von Siebold, Prof., <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li>Vorticella, the, Metchnikoff’s memoir on, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li>Waldeyer, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>n.</i></li> + <li>Weinberg, M., <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> + <li>Widal, Dr., <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> + <li>Wollman, pupil and collaborator of Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>-7, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> + <li>Würzburg, University of, Metchnikoff’s abortive journey to, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="IX"> +<li> +Zalensky, <a href="#Page_32">32</a> +</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p class="center spaced-above">THE END</p> + +<p class="center spaced-above"><i>Printed in Great Britain by</i> <span class="smcap">R. & R. Clark, Limited</span>, <i>Edinburgh</i>.</p> + +<p class="center spaced-above newpage"> +READERS OF THIS BOOK INTERESTED<br /> +IN MEDICAL AND SCIENTIFIC<br /> +BIOGRAPHY ARE REFERRED<br /> +OVERLEAF +</p> + +<h2><a name="MEN_OF_MEDICINE_AND_SCIENCE" id="MEN_OF_MEDICINE_AND_SCIENCE">MEN OF MEDICINE AND SCIENCE</a></h2> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE LIFE OF PASTEUR. By <span class="smcap">Réné Vallery-Radot</span>. +Translation by Mrs. <span class="smcap">R. L. Devonshire</span>. New Edition +with a Preface by Sir <span class="smcap">William Osler</span>, Bart., M.D., +F.R.S.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. Portrait, 10s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“A classic of scientific biography.”—<i>Saturday Review.</i></p> + +<p>“The translation of M. Vallery-Radot’s admirable biography of the +great Frenchman is a book which every English-speaking admirer of +Pasteur will desire to possess.”—<i>The Athenæum.</i></p> + +<p>“Pasteur’s career is set out in the fullest detail, making an absorbing +narrative, and the scientific, social, and political environment is sketched +with vivid accuracy. It is the picture of a great man, a great career, and +a great epoch in the history of France and of science.”—<i>The Times Literary +Supplement.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">SIR VICTOR HORSLEY. By <span class="smcap">Stephen Paget</span>. Foreword +by <span class="smcap">Lady Horsley</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illustrated. Demy 8vo. 21s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“All the aspects of Horsley’s strenuous life are depicted with the +writer’s accustomed sympathy and skill. Mr. Paget has given us a study +of absorbing interest.... We are never allowed to lose sight of the restless +energy and indomitable courage that characterised all that Horsley +undertook.”—<i>British Medical Journal.</i></p> + +<p>“No biographer who agreed with Horsley could have given us anything +so valuable, so convincing, so vitally defined.... Mr. Paget has never +had an equal as a medical biographer, and here he has excelled himself.”—<i>The +Observer.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">LIFE AND LETTERS OF JOSEPH BLACK, M.D. +By Sir <span class="smcap">William Ramsay, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.</span>, etc. +Introduction by <span class="smcap">F. G. Donnan, F.R.S.</span></p> + +<p class="small-right">Demy 8vo. Frontispiece Portrait and Illustrations. +6s. 6d. net.</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">ROBERT BOYLE: A Biography. By <span class="smcap">Flora Masson</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Frontispiece. Demy 8vo. 7s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“May be recommended as an excellent study of the great Irishman to +whose services as natural philosopher and chemist even modern scientists +owe a debt of gratitude.”—<i>Pall Mall Gazette.</i></p> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div> +<p class="center">PUBLISHED BY CONSTABLE & COMPANY LTD.</p> + +<p class="center">10-12 ORANGE STREET LONDON W.C.2.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_A1" id="Page_A1">[1]</a></span></p> + +<div class="bbox narrow spaced-above"> +<p class="title"> +Biography &<br /> +Reminiscence<br /> +Military<br /> +Political<br /> +Social<br /> +Literary<br /> +Scientific<br /> +& General<br /> +</p> + +<p class="center spaced-above"> +Published by<br /> +Constable & Co. Ltd.<br /> +10-12 Orange St.<br /> +London W.C.2<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_A2" id="Page_A2">[2]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="I" id="I">I.</a><br /> +Military Biographies, Auto­bio­graphies +and Reminiscences.</h2> + +<div> +<p class="work">FIRST WORLD WAR, 1914-1918. By Lieut.-Col. <span class="smcap">Charles +À Court Repington, C.M.G.</span></p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. 2 vols. 42s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“Few if any two-guinea books have had such a sale as the +<i>First World War</i>.”—<i>Evening Standard.</i></p> + +<p>“Colonel Repington’s fame as a military critic is world-wide. +He now gives us his personal experiences of the war in the form +of a Diary which will compare with the most famous diaries in +literature.... Few diarists show keener observation or greater +power of description than Colonel Repington here displays, +and none before has had such a period of history for his theme.”—Major-General +Sir <span class="smcap">Frederick Maurice</span> in <i>The Daily News</i>.</p> + +<p>“... There are countless piquant little pen pictures through +these two books.... Colonel Repington met all the great +soldiers of the Allies.... The book is full of extraordinarily +good stories and remarks.”—<i>Sunday Times.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">EXPERIENCES OF A DUG-OUT. By Major-General Sir +<span class="smcap">C. E. Callwell, K.C.B.</span></p> + +<p class="small-right"> +18s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The General held the appointment of Director of Military +Operations during the early years of the war, and was indeed in +the saddle at the beginning of the operations in 1914. In this +volume he shows us behind the scenes and enables us to see clearly +much that was obscure. His book reveals to us in an intimate +way the personality of Lord Kitchener and many others, and +introduces us to the War Cabinet.</p> + +<p>“A vivacious picture of life behind the scenes of the great +drama ... told keenly and poignantly, with a biting humour +... and with a frankness of disclosure.”—<i>The Times.</i></p> + +<p>“Sir Charles Callwell is one of the soundest military critics in +the country.... He is a writer ... his sense of proportion is +never at fault.”—<i>Spectator.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_A3" id="Page_A3">[3]</a></span></p> + +<p class="work">THE LIFE OF LIEUT.-GEN. SIR STANLEY MAUDE, +K.C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O. Authorised Memorial Biography +of the Conqueror of Baghdad. By Major-General Sir <span class="smcap">C. E. +Callwell, K.C.B.</span></p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illustrated. 21s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“General Callwell is in the very front rank of military writers +... one of the very few who combine learning in the military +art with ability to make it interesting to others.”—<i>Times Literary +Supplement.</i></p> + +<p>“A good book.... Should be in the hands of every newly +joined subaltern, for no nobler picture of a British officer and a +gentleman could be laid before them.”—Hon. <span class="smcap">John Fortescue</span> +in <i>The Observer</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">SUVOROF. By <span class="smcap">W. Lyon Blease</span>. With an Introduction by +Major-General Sir <span class="smcap">Charles Callwell, K.C.B.</span></p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Frontispiece and 21 Maps. Demy 8vo. 25s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Mr. Blease has done his work uncommonly well. The book +is well arranged and well written.... Sir E. Callwell in his +preface pronounces Suvorof to have been, next to Frederick the +Great, unquestionably the greatest soldier of the last half of the +eighteenth century.... We hold that Sir E. Callwell is undoubtedly +right. He was a very great soldier and a great man.”—<i>Times +Literary Supplement.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">FREDERICK THE GREAT. By <span class="smcap">H. de Catt</span>. Translated +by <span class="smcap">F. S. Flint</span>. Introduction by <span class="smcap">Lord Rosebery</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. 2 vols. 24s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Entertaining and instructive.... Perhaps the main attraction +is the masterly introduction by Lord Rosebery which occupies +some forty pages.”—<i>British Weekly.</i></p> + +<p>“A very human book. We have never read anything giving +so simple and homely a picture of Frederick as that drawn by his +admiring Swiss reader.”—<i>Spectator.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE LIFE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. By <span class="smcap">Norwood +Young</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Front. Maps and Plans. Demy 8vo. 21s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The book shows both energy and industry.... Mr. Young +has a large acquaintance not only with the original authority but +also with the literature of the subject.”—<i>Times Literary Supplement.</i></p> +</div> + +<p class="work">MOLTKE. By Lt.-Col. <span class="smcap">F. E. Whitton</span>. (Makers of XIX. +Century Series. See p. <a href="#Makers_of_the_XIX_Century">4</a>.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_A4" id="Page_A4">[4]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<p class="work">AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF SIR WILLIAM BUTLER.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Frontispiece and Maps. 6s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“This book must always occupy a prominent place in our +military literature, and its vivid portraiture and its humour, as +well as the light it throws on the 19th century history, must carry +it beyond the circles of military interest.”—<i>Aberdeen Free Press.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">LIFE OF SIR FREDERICK HAINES. By <span class="smcap">Robert S. Rait, +M.A.</span></p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 10s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE LIFE AND CAMPAIGNS OF HUGH, <span class="smcap">1ST</span> VISCOUNT +GOUGH, FIELD MARSHAL. By <span class="smcap">Robert +S. Rait, M.A.</span></p> + +<p class="small-right">Illustrations and Maps. Demy 8vo. 2 vols. 31s. 6d. net.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“By no means a mere compilation, but a substantial and independent +work bearing the clear interests of individuality, power +of research, and historic training.... The style is suited to the +work—clear, vigorous, and graphic.... By means of his own +letters, a brave, hot-headed, affectionate, pure and conscientious +soldier is revealed to us in all his naturalness.”—<i>Athenæum.</i></p> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<p class="title"><a name="Makers_of_the_XIX_Century" id="Makers_of_the_XIX_Century">Makers of the XIX. Century.</a></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="small">Biographies of Men of all Countries who have had a definite +influence on thought or action in the Nineteenth Century. +Edited by <span class="smcap">Basil Williams</span>. Demy 8vo. With Frontispiece, +Bibliographies, and Full Index.</p> + +<div class="work-list"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">DELANE OF THE “TIMES.” By Sir <span class="smcap">E. T. Cook</span>.</td> + <td class="prize">6s. net.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">ABRAHAM LINCOLN. By <span class="smcap">Lord Charnwood</span>.</td> + <td class="prize">10s. 6d. net.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">ABDUL HAMID. By <span class="smcap">Sir Edwin Pears</span>.</td> + <td class="prize">6s. net.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">HERBERT SPENCER. By <span class="smcap">Hugh S. Elliot</span>.</td> + <td class="prize">6s. net.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">DIAZ. By <span class="smcap">David Hannay</span>.</td> + <td class="prize">6s. net.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">LI HUNG CHANG. By <span class="smcap">J. O. P. Bland</span>.</td> + <td class="prize">6s. net.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">BISMARCK. By <span class="smcap">C. Grant Robertson, C.V.O.</span></td> + <td class="prize">10s. 6d. net.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">CECIL RHODES. By <span class="smcap">Basil Williams</span>.</td> + <td class="prize">15s. net.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">VICTOR HUGO. By <span class="smcap">Mary Duclaux</span>.</td> + <td class="prize">14s. net.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter-title">MOLTKE. By Lieut.-Col. <span class="smcap">F. E. Whitton</span>.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_A5" id="Page_A5">[5]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="II" id="II">II.</a><br /> +Political and Social Bio­graphies +and Reminiscences. +</h2> + +<div> +<p class="work">AN ENGLISH WIFE IN BERLIN: A Private Memoir of +Events, Politics and Daily Life in Germany throughout the +War and the Social Revolution of 1918. By <span class="smcap">Evelyn, +Princess Blücher</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Portrait. Demy 8vo. 19s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“If there are any other diarists who managed to preserve as +much fairness and coolness as Princess Blücher displays in this book +they need not be ashamed to publish their records. If she had a +just mind she had a stalwart one.”—<i>Spectator.</i></p> + +<p>“This is a book apart. Nothing yet published gives so clear +and honest a picture of German mentality. The soul of Germany +is laid bare and the exposure achieved without the slightest +pretension. The character of the Berlin aristocracy is written +in every page of this honest and absorbing document.”—<i>Daily +Telegraph.</i></p> + +<p>“Perhaps the most absorbingly interesting war book that has +been written.... Altogether the book is a most remarkable one. +The kind that causes one to forget one’s meals and other pleasures +until the last page is read. Princess Blücher has earned the +undying gratitude of her countrymen for her indefatigable work +on behalf of prisoners of war.”—<i>Globe.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE LIFE OF JOHN BRIGHT. By <span class="smcap">G. M. Trevelyan</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +20 Illustrations. Med. 8vo. 15s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“A book of great and vivid interest.”—<i>Westminster Gazette.</i></p> + +<p>“The book, fully commensurate with the fame of its subject, +will take its place with the standard Lives of Statesmen.”—<i>Daily +Telegraph.</i></p> + +<p>“Mr. George Trevelyan has had the honour of writing what +must henceforth be the accepted Life.... Finely written. We +only wish we had space to quote in full.”—<i>Spectator.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_A6" id="Page_A6">[6]</a></span></p> + +<p class="work">EDUCATION DEPARTMENT AND AFTER. By Sir +<span class="smcap">George Kekewich, K.C.B.</span></p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. 21s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“His reflections upon the Civil Service are full of interest.... +There is much entertaining matter in the book, which touches in +turn on almost every topic of present-day administration.”—<i>Morning +Post.</i></p> + +<p>“Sir George Kekewich and Anthony Trollope are, so far as we +know, the only permanent officials who have written a book about +their own departments.... Sir George was genuinely interested +in his duties and did well the work which he found to his hand.”—<i>Saturday +Review.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE END OF A CHAPTER. By <span class="smcap">Shane Leslie, M.A.</span></p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Fcap. 8vo. 2s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">A BEACON FOR THE BLIND: Being a Life of Henry +Fawcett, the Blind Postmaster-General. By <span class="smcap">Winifred +Holt</span>. Foreword by Rt. Hon. Viscount <span class="smcap">Bryce</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +16 Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 7s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The whole wonderful story of this life Miss Holt tells with a +proper warmth of enthusiasm.... Carefully and intimately, so +that the reader is able to love the man as well as admire the hero.”—<i>Observer.</i></p> + +<p>“A valuable memorial of a noble character and a truly extraordinary +man.”—<i>Times.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">CHARLES STEWART PARNELL. A Memoir by his +Brother, <span class="smcap">John Howard Parnell</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Frontispiece. Demy 8vo. 10s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">GENERAL BOTHA: The Career and the Man. By <span class="smcap">Harold +Spender</span>. Portrait and Maps. New and Enlarged Edition, +bringing the story down to General Botha’s death.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. 10s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“A tale worth the telling, and set forth with a lucidity, a +sympathy, and a comprehension remarkable in one whose acquaintance +with South Africa can only be slight.... A book which is +not only a valuable historical document but absorbingly interesting +in every page.”—<i>Westminster Gazette.</i></p> +</div> + +<p class="work">CECIL RHODES. By <span class="smcap">Basil Williams</span>. (Makers of XIX. +Century Series. See p. <a href="#Makers_of_the_XIX_Century">4</a>.)</p> + +<div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_A7" id="Page_A7">[7]</a></span></p> + +<p class="work">LORD GEORGE BENTINCK: A Political Biography. By +<span class="smcap">Benjamin Disraeli</span>. Introduction by <span class="smcap">Charles Whibley</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. 6s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“A fascinating edition of a fascinating book.”—<i>Morning Post.</i></p> + +<p>“Mr. Whibley’s introduction contains an appreciation of Lord +Beaconsfield concisely just to his great gifts, to the general consistency +of his life, and to his qualities as a statesman.”—<i>Outlook.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">OLIVER CROMWELL. By <span class="smcap">Theodore Roosevelt</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 12s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p class="work">BISMARCK. By <span class="smcap">C. Grant Robertson, C.V.O.</span> (Makers of +XIX. Century Series. See p. <a href="#Makers_of_the_XIX_Century">4</a>.)</p> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE LIFE AND TIMES OF CAVOUR. By <span class="smcap">William +Roscoe Thayer</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Front. Demy 8vo. 2 vols. 30s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“A real benefit to the cause of recent history.... Mr. Thayer +has done his work notably well. It is accurate, thorough, well-balanced, +essentially lucid. Well-written, solid yet inspiring, +admirably produced.... Such a work is a credit to the book +industry from every point of view.”—<i>Bookman.</i></p> +</div> + +<p class="work">THE LIFE OF VENIZELOS. By <span class="smcap">S. B. Chester</span>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>In this volume the author has traced the life of one of the most +remarkable men of to-day. <span class="smcap">Book I.</span>—Crete before and during the +rise of Venizelos—deals with the early life of this great patriot; +his early struggles as leader of the Cretan revolution; his final +triumphal election to the Greek National Assembly. <span class="smcap">Book II.</span>—Venizelos +as Maker of Modern Greece—is a history of the gradual +aggrandisement of Greece. From 1910 to 1920 the life of Venizelos +is synonymous with that of his country.</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">ISMAIL KEMAL BEY. Memoirs. With an Introduction +by <span class="smcap">W. Morton Fullerton</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. 18s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“An invaluable source for the historian of the downfall of the +Turkish Empire, and adds materially to our knowledge of the +intrigues of the great continental powers in Egypt and the Near +East.”—<i>Manchester Guardian.</i></p> + +<p>“Of profound interest and reveals some inner secrets of Near +Eastern policy.”—<i>Sunday Times.</i></p> +</div> + +<p class="work">ABDUL HAMID. By Sir <span class="smcap">Edwin Pears</span>. (Makers of XIX. +Century Series. See p. <a href="#Makers_of_the_XIX_Century">4</a>.)</p> + +<p class="work">LI HUNG CHANG. By <span class="smcap">J. O. P. Bland</span>. (Makers of XIX. +Century Series. See p. <a href="#Makers_of_the_XIX_Century">4</a>.)</p> + +<p class="work">DIAZ. By <span class="smcap">David Hannay</span>. (Makers of XIX. Century Series. +See p. <a href="#Makers_of_the_XIX_Century">4</a>.)</p> + +<div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_A8" id="Page_A8">[8]</a></span></p> + +<p class="work">NADIR SHAH. By Sir <span class="smcap">H. Mortimer Durand</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 10s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE WINTER QUEEN: The sad story of Elizabeth of +Bohemia. By <span class="smcap">Marie Hay</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +12s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">EMMA, LADY HAMILTON. From New and Original +Documents, together with an Appendix of Notes and +Letters. By <span class="smcap">Walter Sichel</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illust. Demy 8vo. 7s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF ANDREW CARNEGIE.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illustrated. 25s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“He was in spirit a true sportsman, and his autobiography, +fresh, crisp, and entirely unaffected, will do something to put him +in his right niche.”—<i>Observer.</i></p> + +<p>“The two stages of his extraordinary career as he describes +them in great detail, with honest self-satisfaction and a good deal +of quiet humour, make a story—almost a romance—which is not +only entertaining but instructive.”—<i>Westminster Gazette.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">A CYCLE OF ADAMS LETTERS, 1861-1865. Edited by +<span class="smcap">W. C. Ford</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +With many Illustrations. 2 vols.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Letters of <span class="smcap">Charles Francis Adams</span>, American Minister to +England during the Civil War, and his two sons—<span class="smcap">Henry +Adams</span>, who acted as secretary, and <span class="smcap">Charles Francis Adams</span>, +Jr., then serving in the Northern Armies.</p> + +<p>These two volumes of family letters form an unique series. +They contain detailed description of social conditions, discussion +of public questions, and wise and informed comments +on the events in Great Britain and America during the war +between North and South. Social, military, and diplomatic, the +importance of so long a series of letters between members of a +distinguished family cannot be over-estimated.</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">LIFE AND LETTERS OF JOHN HAY. By <span class="smcap">William +Roscoe Thayer</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +2 vols. 21s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Mr. Thayer’s very interesting biography.”—<span class="smcap">Lord Cromer</span> in +<i>The Spectator</i>.</p> + +<p>“Mr. Thayer is to be congratulated on this biography.... +He has made a most skilful and attractive book, full of good +reading, dealing with great events and little, and adding to our +knowledge of men and things at moments of real importance to +history.”—<i>Westminster Gazette.</i></p> + +<p>“One of the most comprehensive and masterly biographies I +have ever read.”—<span class="smcap">Claudius Clear</span> in <i>The British Weekly</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_A9" id="Page_A9">[9]</a></span></p> + +<p class="work">THEODORE ROOSEVELT. An Intimate Biography. By +<span class="smcap">William Roscoe Thayer</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illust. Demy 8vo. 25s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“A vivacious narrative, decidedly more attractive for the +English reader than Roosevelt’s record of his career.”—<i>Manchester +Guardian.</i></p> +</div> + +<p class="work">ABRAHAM LINCOLN. By <span class="smcap">Lord Charnwood</span>. (Makers of +XIX. Century Series. See p. <a href="#Makers_of_the_XIX_Century">4</a>.)</p> + +<div> +<p class="work">LINCOLN, MASTER OF MEN. By <span class="smcap">Alonzo Rothschild</span>. +Illustrated with Portraits.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. 17s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">ALEXANDER HAMILTON. An Essay on American Union. +By <span class="smcap">F. S. Oliver</span>. With Portraits.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. 6s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“A thorough and penetrating review of the circumstances +which united the States of America under a common and supreme +government. On literary grounds it is a book of singular merit, +while as a contribution to the political and constitutional history +it deserves the closest study.”—<i>Liverpool Post.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE DIARY OF GIDEON WELLES, with a Memoir. +Edited by <span class="smcap">John T. Morse</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illustrated. 3 vols. 42s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF NATHANIEL SOUTHGATE +SHALER. With a Memoir by his Wife.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 16s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<p class="title"><a name="Modern_Biographies" id="Modern_Biographies">Modern Biographies.</a></p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p class="small">With Bibliographies and Portraits. Fcap. 8vo. 1s. 6d. net each.</p> + +<div class="work-list"> +<p> +LAFCADIO HEARN. By <span class="smcap">Edward Thomas</span>. +</p> +<p> +W. E. HENLEY. By <span class="smcap">L. Cope Cornford</span>. +</p> +<p> +TOLSTOY. By <span class="smcap">Edward Garnett</span>. +</p> +<p> +PAUL BOURGET. By <span class="smcap">Ernest Dimnet</span>. +</p> +<p> +VERLAINE. By <span class="smcap">Wilfred Thorley</span>. +</p> +<p> +DR. BARNARDO. By <span class="smcap">A. R. Neuman</span>. +</p> +<p> +CARDUCCI. By <span class="smcap">Orlo Williams</span>. +</p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_A10" id="Page_A10">[10]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="III" id="III">III.</a><br /> +Literary, Artistic, Philosophical +and General.</h2> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE LIFE OF SIR E. T. COOK. By <span class="smcap">J. Saxon Mills</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Frontispiece. Demy 8vo.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>This is the authorised life of the famous journalist and publicist, +friend and biographer of Ruskin, who became during the War one +of the chiefs of the Press Bureau. Sir Edward Cook was in his +time editor of the <i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>, the <i>Westminster Gazette</i>, and +the <i>Daily News</i>, and Mr. Saxon Mills’ book throws much valuable +light on the political and social England of the last thirty years. +Contents:—Parentage and School; Oxford Days; Early Journalism; +Early Days on the <i>Pall Mall</i>; Politics in the ’Eighties; +Editor of the <i>Pall Mall</i>; From <i>Pall Mall</i> to <i>Westminster</i>; The +<i>Westminster Gazette</i>; The <i>Daily News</i>; The South African +Scene; Sale of the <i>Daily News</i>; As Editor and Journalist; +Literary Work; The Last Task; Death and Character; The +Age of Puff; Some Stories.</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">ARTHUR HUGH CLOUGH: A Critical Biography. By +<span class="smcap">James I. Osborne</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. 8s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Mr. Osborne has approached his difficult task with ardour +and taste.”—<span class="smcap">Edmund Gosse</span> in the <i>Sunday Times</i>.</p> + +<p>“A very careful and interesting piece of work.”—<span class="smcap">W. L. +Courtney</span> in the <i>Daily Telegraph</i>.</p> + +<p>“A most admirable exposition of character of singular and +beautiful integrity.”—<span class="smcap">New Statesman.</span></p> + +<p>“This acute and interesting book.”—<i>Times Literary Supplement.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">MEMORIES OF GEORGE MEREDITH, O.M. By <span class="smcap">Lady +Butcher</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Three Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 5s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“All the swift criticisms and unpremeditated comments that +this indefatigable diarist has recovered from her treasures make it +clear that Meredith’s wit was as spontaneous as it was characteristic.”—<i>Saturday +Westminster.</i></p> + +<p>“Lady Butcher deserves very hearty thanks for this little volume +of her charming memories.”—<span class="smcap">Clement Shorter</span> in <i>The Sphere</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_A11" id="Page_A11">[11]</a></span></p> + +<div> +<p class="work">FREDERICK LOCKER LAMPSON. By the Rt. Hon. +<span class="smcap">Augustine Birrell</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illustrated. Fcap. 4to. 25s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="center" style="margin-right:1em"><span style="font-size:1.5em;">⁂</span> 100 copies on hand-made paper, bound in white and gold +and signed by the author, were also issued.</p> + +<p>“Life is more than politics, and if we deal with a book this +week it is because we have found in it an ironic and reconciling +charm to make us more content with existence as it is. We are +restored to the forgotten grace of letters, and Mr. Birrell has done +this with that way of his own which is like no other man’s. This +little quarto with the rough edges, perfect in form and texture to +a book lover’s eye, written with a deep-laid negligence, makes us +surer that Mr. Birrell will be remembered when more ponderous +reputations have foundered.... A collector can see at a glance +that the book lovers of posterity will always gather this volume +like amber.... This character sketch, followed by a little masterpiece +of editing applied to family letters and a book list, makes us +regret the fate that lured Mr. Birrell from writing and wasted him +on political clubs.... He is a cross between Dr. Johnson and +Charles Lamb.”—<i>Observer.</i></p> + +<p>“Nothing that Mr. Birrell has previously written has been conceived +in so happy a vein as this monograph.... A charming +little quarto.”—<i>Daily Chronicle.</i></p> + +<p>“The book to delight the heart of every one who really cares +for literature. Written with a manly and tender affection and +with the reverence which the subject demands. The publishers +have done their part admirably.”—<span class="smcap">Claudius Clear</span> in <i>The British +Weekly</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">GEORGE MEREDITH: His Life, Genius, and Teaching. +By <span class="smcap">S. C. Photiades</span>. Rendered into English by <span class="smcap">Arthur +Price</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Extra Crown 8vo. 6s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p class="work">W. E. HENLEY. By <span class="smcap">L. Cope Cornford</span>. (Modern Biographies +Series. See p. <a href="#Modern_Biographies">9</a>.)</p> + +<p class="work">HERBERT SPENCER. By <span class="smcap">Hugh S. Elliot</span>. (Makers of +XIX. Century Series. See p. <a href="#Makers_of_the_XIX_Century">4</a>.)</p> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE MIDDLE YEARS: Reminiscences. By <span class="smcap">Katherine +Tynan</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. 10s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE YEARS OF THE SHADOW. By <span class="smcap">Katherine Tynan</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. 15s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_A12" id="Page_A12">[12]</a></span></p> + +<p class="work">THE EDUCATION OF HENRY ADAMS. With an +Introduction <span class="smcap">by Henry Cabot Lodge</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +21s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“This fascinating autobiography.... A brilliant picture of +a social epoch now completely vanished, and a record of an intellectual +pilgrimage which will stand along with the few perfect +examples.”—<i>Manchester Guardian.</i></p> +</div> + +<p class="work">LETTERS TO A NIECE, and Prayer to the Virgin of +Chartres. By <span class="smcap">Henry Adams</span>, Author of <i>The Education of +Henry Adams</i>, etc.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“These letters written from Washington and during his travels +in the Pacific, in Egypt, Paris, etc., leave in their playful and +tender intimacy a pleasant impression which forms a welcome +memorial of the inner life of a distinguished man of letters.”—<i>Times +Literary Supplement.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">REMINISCENCES OF ARTHUR COLERIDGE. By <span class="smcap">J. A. +Fuller-Maitland</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Arthur Duke Coleridge, born in 1830, was the grand-nephew +of the great poet, S. T. Coleridge. Educated at Eton and King’s, +Cambridge, he acted for fifty-four years as an official on the +Midland Circuit. He died in October 1913. Very few people +have had so fine a gift for friendship as Arthur Coleridge. Few +also have had the privilege of knowing so many of those who +interpreted the artistic feeling of their time. He himself did much +to stimulate the vogue of the best in music. His musical recollections +are a delightful account of his important work towards the +musical revival in England.</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">VIA GIBBS. A Memoir by Mrs. <span class="smcap">Alston</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Photogravure Portrait and 8 half-tone Illust. Demy 8vo.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>A memorial volume to Victoria Florence de Burgh Gibbs, +C.B.E., eldest daughter of the Rt. Hon. W. H. Long, M.P., and +the wife of Lieut.-Col. G. A. Gibbs, M.P. “The path of a good +woman is indeed strewn with flowers, but they rise behind her +steps, not before them.”—<span class="smcap">Ruskin.</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="work">DELANE OF THE “TIMES.” By Sir <span class="smcap">E. T. Cook</span>. (Makers +of XIX. Century Series. See p. <a href="#Makers_of_the_XIX_Century">4</a>.)</p> + +<div> +<p class="work">LORD STOWELL: His Life and the Development of English +Prize Law. By <span class="smcap">E. S. Roscoe</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Front. Med. 8vo. 7s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Mr. Roscoe has collected diligently and reverently and has +been able to present a picture such as we have not had before of a +great judge and a constructive jurist.”—<i>Times Literary Supplement.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_A13" id="Page_A13">[13]</a></span></p> + +<p class="work">THE LIFE AND A SELECTION FROM THE LETTERS +OF WILLIAM STUBBS (Bishop of Oxford). 1825-1901. +Edited by <span class="smcap">W. H. Hutton, B.D.</span></p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. 6s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Mr. Hutton gives an excellent account of the Bishop’s career.... +Of Stubbs as a historian the book can only recount the +achievements, but of Stubbs as a man it gives an excellent +portrait.”—<i>Athenæum.</i></p> +</div> + +<p class="work">PAUL VERLAINE. By <span class="smcap">Harold Nicolson</span>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>It is not easy to write a critical biography of Verlaine without +either patronage or pomposity. Mr. Nicolson succeeds because +he treats his subject whimsically but with respect. He does not +seek to excuse or to minimise the failings of Verlaine as a man, +nor does he make extravagant claims of poetical genius, but he +tells with genial sympathy a rather pitiful life story, and by skilful +quotation enables the reader to form his own judgment of Verlaine’s +work. Contents:—Youth; Marriage; Arthur Rimbaud; +“Sagesse”; Middle Age; The Last Phase; Verlaine’s Literary +Position.</p> +</div> + +<p class="work">VERLAINE. By <span class="smcap">Wilfred Thorley</span>. (Modern Biographies +Series. see p. <a href="#Modern_Biographies">9</a>.)</p> + +<p class="work">PAUL BOURGET. By <span class="smcap">Ernest Dimnet</span>. (Modern Biographies +Series. see p. <a href="#Modern_Biographies">9</a>.)</p> + +<p class="work">VICTOR HUGO. By <span class="smcap">Mary Duclaux</span>. (Makers of XIX. +Century Series. See p. <a href="#Makers_of_the_XIX_Century">4</a>.)</p> + +<p class="work">CARDUCCI. By <span class="smcap">Orlo Williams</span>. (Modern Biographies +Series. see p. <a href="#Modern_Biographies">9</a>.)</p> + +<div> +<p class="work">DANTE ALIGHIERI: A Biographical Study. By <span class="smcap">Charles +A. Dinsmore</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Large Crown 8vo. 15s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Dante’s latest biographer has made out a very just summary +of modern opinion and research.”—<i>New Statesman.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE LIFE OF TOLSTOY. By <span class="smcap">Aylmer Maude</span>.<br /> +Vol. I. First Fifty Years to 1870.<br /> +Vol. II. Later Years.<br /> +</p> +<p class="small-right"> +Each vol. illustrated. Price per vol. 12s. 6d. net. +</p> +</div> + +<p class="work">TOLSTOY. By <span class="smcap">Edward Garnett</span>. (Modern Biographies +Series. see p. <a href="#Modern_Biographies">9</a>.)</p> + +<div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_A14" id="Page_A14">[14]</a></span></p> + +<p class="work">JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. His Life, Art, and Work. +Translated from the German of <span class="smcap">Johann Niklaus Forkel</span>. +With Notes and Appendices by <span class="smcap">Charles Sanford Terry, +Litt.D.</span></p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illustrated. Demy 8vo. 21s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Very much more than a re-translation of an old work which +was previously translated very imperfectly into English a hundred +years ago.... Though it bears the name of Forkel on the cover, +it contains material for a history of Bach criticism from the beginning +of the 19th century until the present day, and incidentally +suggests directions which future research may follow.”—<i>Times +Literary Supplement.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">TSCHUDI, THE HARPSICHORD MAKER. By <span class="smcap">William +Dale, F.S.A.</span></p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. Illustrations. 7s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">MICHEL-ANGELO: A Record of his Life as told in his own +Letters and Papers. By <span class="smcap">R. W. Carden, R.W., A.R.I.B.A.</span></p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 10s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">LIFE AND LETTERS OF LAFCADIO HEARN. By <span class="smcap">Elizabeth +Bisland</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illust. Demy 8vo. 2 vols. £3: 3s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p class="work">LAFCADIO HEARN. By <span class="smcap">Edward Thomas</span>. (Modern Biographies +Series. see p. <a href="#Modern_Biographies">9</a>.)</p> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE JAPANESE LETTERS OF LAFCADIO HEARN. +By <span class="smcap">Elizabeth Bisland</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illust. Demy 8vo. 31s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">LIFE AND LETTERS OF JOEL CHANDLER HARRIS. +Author of “Uncle Remus.” By <span class="smcap">Julia Collier Harris</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. Illustrated. 18s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF JOHN FISKE. By <span class="smcap">John +Spencer Clark</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illustrated. Demy 8vo. 2 vols. 50s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">LETTERS OF ROBERT WATSON GILDER. Edited by +<span class="smcap">Rosamond Gilder</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 14s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE MEMORIAL BIOGRAPHY OF W. G. GRACE. +By <span class="smcap">Lord Hawke</span>, <span class="smcap">Lord Harris</span>, and Sir <span class="smcap">Home Gordon</span>. +Published under the auspices of M.C.C.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. Illustrated. 21s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Of inestimable value.... Sir Home Gordon must have had +an extremely difficult and laborious task, and is to be congratulated +on the way in which he has accomplished it.”—<i>Field.</i></p> +</div> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_A15" id="Page_A15">[15]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="IV" id="IV">IV.</a><br /> +Scientific and Medical. +</h2> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE LIFE OF ELIE METCHNIKOFF. By <span class="smcap">Olga Metchnikoff</span>. +Translated by Mrs. <span class="smcap">R. L. Devonshire</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Frontispiece. Demy 8vo.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Reviewing the French edition of this book in January 1921, +<i>The Times Literary Supplement</i> said: “Madame Metchnikoff’s +excellent analysis of her husband’s scientific theories does not +hinder her from showing us the living, the lovable, the extraordinary +human being who conceived so many ideas, who +developed so many theories, inventions, innovations.... Mme. +Metchnikoff has made us admire the man of science and warmly +the man.”</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE LIFE OF PASTEUR. By <span class="smcap">Réné Vallery-Radot</span>. +Translation by Mrs. <span class="smcap">R. L. Devonshire</span>. New Edition +with a preface by Sir <span class="smcap">William Osler</span>, Bart., M.D., F.R.S. +2nd edition.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Demy 8vo. Portrait. 10s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“A classic of scientific biography.”—<i>Saturday Review.</i></p> + +<p>“The translation of M. Vallery-Radot’s admirable biography +of the great Frenchman is a book which every English-speaking +admirer of Pasteur will desire to possess.”—<i>The Athenæum.</i></p> + +<p>“Pasteur’s career is set out in the fullest detail, making an +absorbing narrative, and the scientific, social, and political environment +is sketched with vivid accuracy. It is the picture of a great +man, a great career, and a great epoch in the history of France +and of science.”—<i>The Times Literary Supplement.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">SIR VICTOR HORSLEY. By <span class="smcap">Stephen Paget</span>. Foreword +by <span class="smcap">Lady Horsley</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illustrated. Demy 8vo. 21s. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“All the aspects of Horsley’s strenuous life are depicted with +the writer’s accustomed sympathy and skill. Mr. Paget has given +us a study of absorbing interest.... We are never allowed to +lose sight of the restless energy and indomitable courage that +characterised all that Horsley undertook.”—<i>British Medical +Journal.</i></p> + +<p>“No biographer who agreed with Horsley could have given us +anything so valuable, so convincing, so vitally defined.... Mr. +Paget has never had an equal as a medical biographer, and here +he has excelled himself.”—<i>The Observer.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_A16" id="Page_A16">[16]</a></span></p> + +<p class="work">LIFE AND LETTERS OF JOSEPH BLACK, M.D. By +Sir <span class="smcap">William Ramsay, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.</span>, etc. Introduction +by <span class="smcap">F. G. Donnan, F.R.S.</span></p> + +<p class="small-right">Demy 8vo. Frontispiece Portrait and Illustrations. 6s. 6d. +net.</p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">ROBERT BOYLE: A Biography. By <span class="smcap">Flora Masson</span>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Frontispiece. Demy 8vo. 7s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“May be recommended as an excellent study of the great +Irishman to whose services as natural philosopher and chemist even +modern scientists owe a debt of gratitude.”—<i>Pall Mall Gazette.</i></p> +</div> + +<div> +<p class="work">THE LIFE OF SIR CHARLES TILSTON BRIGHT. +By <span class="smcap">Charles Bright, F.R.S.E.</span> Revised and Abridged.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 12s. 6d. net.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The life story of Sir Charles Bright presents the career of a +famous Englishman with all the charm of simplicity and enthusiasm.... +As the chief engineer of the Atlantic cable Sir Charles +Bright will always have a memorable place in the scientific progress +of this century.... These volumes possess a special interest +for men of science, but they tell with clearness and simplicity the +career of a man of whom Englishmen must always feel proud.”—<i>Morning +Post</i>.</p> + +<p class="small-right"> +[<i>Spring 1921.</i>]<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="bbox"> +<p><span class="smcap">Messrs</span>. CONSTABLE will be glad to send free on +application classified Lists of their publications. The +following subject headings are ready:—</p> + +<p class="center"> +POLITICS, POLITICAL SCIENCE, AND<br /> +SOCIOLOGY.<br /> +HISTORY.<br /> +WAR AND MILITARY HISTORY.<br /> +RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY.<br /> +EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY.<br /> +ECONOMICS AND COMMERCE.<br /> +ART AND ILLUSTRATED BOOKS.<br /> +FICTION.<br /> +</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Please write to</i></p> +<p class="center">10-12 ORANGE STREET LONDON W.C.2. +</p> +</div> + +<div class="transnote"> + <p class="trans-heading">Transcriber’s Note</p> + <p class="covernote"> + The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain. + </p> + <p>Variations in spelling and hyphenation have been retained except in +obvious cases of typographical error.</p> + + <p>Names and terms which deviated between chapter headings and text have +been made consistent.</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44194 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/44194-h/images/cover.jpg b/44194-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..978b653 --- /dev/null +++ b/44194-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/44194-h/images/frontis.jpg b/44194-h/images/frontis.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b149cbf --- /dev/null +++ b/44194-h/images/frontis.jpg |
