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diff --git a/old/44205-h/44205-h.htm b/old/44205-h/44205-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d4b3fd0 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44205-h/44205-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,15276 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Early Western Travels + 1748-1846, Volume XX, Part II of Gregg's Commerce of the Prairies, + 1831-1839, by Reuben Gold Thwaites. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin:0 auto; + padding:0.5em; + max-width:40em; + } +div.front { + text-align:center; + margin:2em auto 2em auto; + line-height:2em; + padding:0.5em; + border:black solid; + max-width:30em; + page-break-before:always; + } +div.front p { + text-align:center; + } +.fsize1 { + font-size:2em; + line-height:1.5em; + color:#000; + } +.fsize2 { + font-size:1.3em; + line-height:1.5em; + } +.fsize3 { + font-size:1.1em; + line-height:1.2em; + } +.fsize4 { + font-size:0.7em; + line-height:1.2em; + } +.gothic { + font-family: "Old English Text MT","French Script MT", + "Engravers MT", "Copperplate Gothic Bold", serif; + } +h1,h2,h3,h4 { + text-align: center; + clear: both; + } +h2 { + color:#A02; + page-break-before:always; + margin:2em auto 0.5em auto; + } +h3 { + color:#602; + page-break-before:always; + margin:2em auto 0.5em auto; + } +h4 { /*footnotes*/ + color:black; + margin:0.5em auto; + } +p { + margin:0 auto; + text-align:justify; + line-height:1.2em; + text-indent:1em; + } +.continue { + text-indent:0; + } +div.contents { + text-align:center; + } +.contents .fsize3 { + margin-top:0.2em; + margin-bottom:0.2em; + line-height:1.0em; + } +div.contents table { + max-width:37em; + padding:0 1em 1em 1em; + margin:0.5em auto 1em auto; + } +.contents td { + padding-bottom:0.5em; + } +.contents td.subhead { + padding-left:2em; + text-indent:-2em; + text-align:justify; + } +p.subhead { + padding-left:1em; + text-indent:-1em; + text-align:justify; + font-size:0.90em; + margin:0 auto 1em auto; + } +.contents td.tocpgn { + padding-left:3em; + text-indent:0; + vertical-align:bottom; + text-align:right; + } +div.footnotes table { + margin:0.51em auto 0.49em -2em; + text-indent:0; + } +td { + padding-left:2em; + } +table#SantaFeStats { + font-size:0.85em; + margin:0.5em auto; + padding:0 0 0 2em; + } +table#SantaFeStats td.td183233 { + border:thin gray solid; + } +#SantaFeStats td,th { + padding-left:0.5em; + } +table#fn59table { + font-size:0.9em; + margin:0.5em auto; + padding:0 0 0 2em; + } +.xxpgno { + font-size:0.6em; + color:#666; + } +.blockquot { + font-size:0.95em; + margin:1em; + } +.center { + text-align: center; + } +.right { + text-align: right; + } +.smcap { + font-variant: small-caps; + border-bottom:thin gray dotted; + } +.caption { + font-weight: bold; + } +span.seelarge { + display:block; + font-size:0.8em; + } +/* Images */ +.figcenter { + margin:1em auto; + text-align: center; + } +.figleft { + float: left; + clear: left; + margin:1em 1em 1em 0; + padding:0; + text-align: center; + } +.IlloRtn { + font-size:0.8em; + } +a.toclnk { + display:inline;padding-left:1em; + font-size:1em; +} +/*to prevent unfortunate wrapping*/ +.fraction { + display:inline; + white-space:nowrap; + } +/* Footnotes */ +.footnotes { + margin:4ex auto; + padding:0.5em; + border:thin gray dashed; + page-break-before:always; + } +.footnote { + margin-left:3em; + text-indent:-1em; + margin-right:2em; + font-size: 0.85em; + } +.footnote .label { + display:inline-block; + margin-left:-4em; + color:green; + font-size:1em; + } +.fnanchor { + vertical-align:super; + font-size:0.8em; + color:green; + text-decoration:none; + line-height:1em; + } +div.poetry { + margin:0.5em auto; + max-width:17em; + } +ul#ulglossary li { + list-style:none; + margin-top:0.51em; + } +ul#ulglossary li.first { + list-style:circle; + margin-top:1.0em; + } +dfn { + color:#460; + font-weight:600; + } +@media handheld { + .IlloRtn {display:none;} + .xxpgno {font-size:0.8em;color:#666;} + span.seelarge {display:none;} + div.poetry {margin:0.5em auto;max-width:100%;padding:0 3em;} + } +/* Transcriber's notes */ +div.transnote { + margin:4em 1em; + color: black; + padding:0.5em; + font-family:Monaco, "Lucida Console", monospace; + border:medium gray solid; + } +div.transnote p { + margin:0.5em auto; + font-size:0.9em; + text-indent:0; + } + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Early Western Travels 1748-1846, Volume XX, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Early Western Travels 1748-1846, Volume XX + Part II of Gregg's Commerce of the Prairies, 1831-1839 + +Author: Various + +Editor: Reuben Gold Thwaites + +Release Date: November 17, 2013 [EBook #44205] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EARLY WESTERN TRAVELS *** + + + + +Produced by RichardW, Greg Bergquist and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" width="600" height="800" alt="" /> +</div> + +<h1 title="Early Western Travels 1748-1846 Volume XX, + Part II of Gregg's Commerce of the Prairies, 1831-1839."> +Early Western Travels<br /> +1748-1846<br /> +Volume XX</h1> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Illustration_Indian_alarm_on_the_Cimarron_River" + id="Illustration_Indian_alarm_on_the_Cimarron_River"></a> +<img src="images/i004.jpg" width="600" height="362" alt="" /> +<div class="caption">Indian alarm on the Cimarron River</div> +<div class="IlloRtn"><a +href="#ILLUSTRATIONS_TO_VOLUME_XX">Illustrations List</a></div> +</div> + +<div class="front"> +<div class="fsize1">Early Western Travels +<br />1748-1846 +</div> + +<div class="fsize3"> +A Series of Annotated Reprints of some of the best and<br /> +rarest contemporary volumes of travel, descriptive<br /> +of the Aborigines and Social and Economic<br /> +Conditions in the Middle and Far West, <br /> +during the Period of Early <br /> +American Settlement +</div> + +<div class="fsize4"><br /><br />Edited with Notes, Introductions, Index, etc., by</div> + +<div class="fsize2">Reuben Gold Thwaites, LL. D.</div> + +<div class="fsize4"> +Editor of "The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents",<br /> +"Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition",<br /> +"Hennepin's New Discovery," etc. +</div> + +<div class="fsize2"><br />Volume XX</div> +<div class="fsize3">Part II of Gregg's Commerce of the Prairies, +1831-1839</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 50px;margin-top:3em; +margin-bottom:0;"> +<img src="images/i005.png" width="50" height="57" alt="trademark" /> +</div> + +<div class="fsize2"><br />Cleveland, Ohio</div> +<div class="fsize2">The Arthur H. Clark Company</div> +<div class="fsize2">1905</div> +</div> + +<div class="front"> +<div class="fsize3"><span class="smcap">Copyright 1905, by</span></div> + +<div class="fsize3">THE ARTHUR H. CLARK COMPANY</div> + +<div class="fsize3">ALL RIGHTS RESERVED<br /><br /><br /></div> + +<div class="fsize4"> +<span class="gothic">The Lakeside Press</span><br /> +R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY<br /> +CHICAGO</div> +</div> + +<h2 title="Contents of Volume XX"> +<a name="CONTENTS_OF_VOLUME_XX" id="CONTENTS_OF_VOLUME_XX"></a> +CONTENTS OF VOLUME XX</h2> + +<div class="contents"> +<table summary="contents of volume XX."> +<tr> + <td class="subhead"><span class="smcap">Commerce of the Prairies</span>; or, + The Journal of a Santa Fé Trader, during Eight Expeditions across the Great + Western Prairies, and a Residence of nearly Nine Years in Northern Mexico. + (Part II: Chapters xii-xvi of Volume I, and all of Volume II of original.) + <i>Josiah Gregg.</i></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#CONTENTS">Author's Table of Contents</a></td> + <td align="right">13</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#COMMERCE_OF_THE_PRAIRIES">Text of Part II</a>:</td> + <td align="right">21</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<h2 title="Illustrations to Volume XX"> +<a name="ILLUSTRATIONS_TO_VOLUME_XX" id="ILLUSTRATIONS_TO_VOLUME_XX"></a> +ILLUSTRATIONS TO VOLUME XX</h2> + +<div class="contents"> +<table summary="Illustrations to volume XX"> +<tr> + <td align="left">"<a href="#Illustration_Indian_alarm_on_the_Cimarron_River"> +Indian Alarm on the Cimarron River</a>"</td> + <td align="right"><i>Frontispiece</i></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">"<a href="#Map-of-the-Interior-of-Northern-Mexico"> +Map of the Interior of Northern Mexico</a>"</td> + <td align="right"><i>Facing</i></td> + <td align="left">21</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#Medal-of-Nuestra-Senora-de-Guadalupe-de-Mexico"> +Medal of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de Mexico</a> (text cut)</td> + <td align="right" colspan="2">40</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">"<a href="#Camp-Comanche">Camp Comanche</a>"</td> + <td align="right" colspan="2">123</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left"><a href="#Mule-emerging">Mule emerging from a mine;</a> + <a href="#Still-Hunting">Still Hunting</a> (text cuts in original)</td> + <td align="right" colspan="2">181</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">"'<a href="#Dog-Town">Dog Town</a>,' or Settlement of Prairie Dogs"</td> + <td align="right" colspan="2">279</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<div class="front"> +<h2 style="page-break-before:avoid;" title="Part II of Gregg's +Commerce of the Prairies, or The Journal of a Santa Fé +Trader——1831-1839"> + +<span class="smcap">Part II of Gregg's Commerce of the Prairies, or +The Journal of a Santa Fé Trader——1831-1839</span><br /><br /> +</h2> + +<div class="fsize3">Reprint of chapters xii-xvi of Volume I, and all of Volume II of the +second edition: New York, 1845</div> +</div> + +<h3 title="Contents"> +<a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h3> + +<div class="contents"> +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXII"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XII1">CHAPTER XII</a></div> +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"> +<tr> + <td class="subhead">Government of New Mexico — The Administration of Justice — +Judicial Corruption — Prejudices against Americans — Partiality for the English +— Anecdote of Governor Armijo and a Trapper — Outrage upon an American Physician +— Violence suffered by the American Consul and others — Arbitrary Impositions upon +Foreigners — <i>Contribucion de Guerra</i> — The Alcaldes and their System — +The <i>Fueros</i> — Mode of punishing Delinquents and Criminals — Mexican System +of Slavery — Thieves and Thieveries Outrage upon an American Merchant — Gambling +and Gambling-houses — Game of <i>Monte</i> — Anecdote of a Lady of Fashion — +<i>Chuza</i> — Cockpits — <i>Correr el gallo</i> — <i>El Coleo</i> — +Fandangoes — <i>Cigarritos</i>,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">21</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXIII"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a></div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"> +<tr> + <td class="subhead"> +Military Hierarchy of Mexico — Religious Superstitions — Legend +of <i>Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe</i> — A profane Version +of the Story — A curious Plan for manufacturing Water — Saints +and Images — Processions — How to make it Rain — The +Sacred Host — Fanaticism and Murder — Honors paid +to a Bishop — Servility to Priests — Attendance at Public +Worship — New Mexicans in Church — The Vesper Bells — Passion +Week and the Ceremonies pertaining thereto — Ridiculous +<i>Penitencia</i> — Whitewashing of Criminals — Matrimonial +Connexions and Mode of Contracting them — Restrictions +upon Lovers — Onerous Fees paid for Marriages +and Burials — Anecdote of a <i>Ranchero</i> — Ditto of a +Servant and of a Widow, illustrative of Priestly Extortion — Modes +of Burial, and Burial Ground of the Heretics,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">37</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXIV"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a></div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"> +<tr><td class="subhead">The Pueblos — Their Character for Sobriety, +Honesty, and Industry — Traditional +descent from Montezuma — Their +Languages — Former and present Population — The Pueblo +of Pecos — Singular Habits of that ill-fated Tribe — Curious +Tradition — Montezuma and the Sun — Legend of a Serpent — Religion +and government — Secret Council — Laws and +Customs — Excellent Provisions against Demoralization — Primitive +Pastimes of the Pueblos — Their Architecture — Singular +Structures of Taos, and other novel Fortifications — Primitive +state of the Arts among the Pueblos — Style of +Dress, Weapons, etc. — Their Diet — The <i>Guayave</i>,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">54</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXV"></a>{xvi} <a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a></div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"> +<tr><td class="subhead">The wild Tribes of New Mexico — Speculative Theories — Clavigero +and the <i>Azteques</i> — Pueblo Bonito and other Ruins — Probable +Relationship between the <i>Azteques</i> and Tribes of +New Mexico — The several Nations of this Province — <i>Navajóes</i> +and <i>Azteques</i> — Manufactures of the former — Their +Agriculture, Religion, etc. — Mexican Cruelty to the +Indians and its Consequences — Inroads of the Navajóes — Exploits +of a Mexican Army — How to make a Hole in +a powder-keg — The <i>Apaches</i> and their character — Their +Food — Novel Mode of settling Disputes — Range of their +marauding Excursions — Indian Traffic and imbecile Treaties — Devastation +of the Country — Chihuahua Rodomontades — Juan +José, a celebrated Apache Chief, and his +tragical End, etc. — Massacre of Americans in Retaliation — A +tragical Episode — <i>Proyecto de Guerra</i> and a 'gallant' +Display — The <i>Yutas</i> and their Hostilities — A personal Adventure +with them, but no Bloodshed — The Jicarillas,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">67</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXVI"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a></div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"> +<tr> + <td class="subhead">Incidents of a Return Trip from Santa Fé — Calibre of our Party — Return +Caravans — Remittances — Death of Mr. Langham — Burial +in the Desert — A sudden Attack — Confusion +in the Camp — The Pawnees — A Wolfish Escort — Scarcity +of Buffalo — Unprofitable Delusion — Arrival — Table +of Camping Sites and Distances — Condition of the +Town of Independence — The Mormons — Their Dishonesty +and Immorality — Their high-handed Measures, and a +Rising of the People — A fatal Skirmish — A chivalrous Parade +of the Citizens — Expulsion of the Mormons — The +Meteoric Shower, and Superstition, etc. — Wanderings and +Improprieties of the 'Latter-day Saints' — Gov. Boggs' +Recipe — The City of Nauvoo — Contemplated Retribution +of the Mormons,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">87</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXVII"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII_I68">CHAPTER XVII</a> {I of Vol. II, original ed.}</div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"> +<tr> + <td class="subhead">A Return to Prairie Life — Abandonment of the regular Route — The +Start — A Suicide — Arrest of a Mulatto for Debt — Cherokee +'Bankrupt Law' — Chuly, the Creek Indian — +The Muster and the Introduction — An '<i>Olla Podrida</i>' — Adventure +of a 'Down-Easter' — Arrival of U. S. Dragoons — Camp +Holmes, and the Road — A Visit from a Party +of Comanches — Tabba-quena, a noted Chief — His extraordinary +Geographical Talent — Indians set out for the +'Capitan Grande,' and we through an unexplored Region — Rejoined +by Tabba-quena and his '<i>suite</i>' — Spring Valley — The +Buffalo Fever — The Chase — A Green-horn Scamper — Prairie +Fuel,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">99</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXVIII"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII_II">CHAPTER XVIII</a> {II of Vol. II}</div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"> +<tr><td class="subhead">Travelling out of our Latitude — The Buffalo-gnat — A Kiawa +and Squaw — Indian <i>crim. con.</i> Affair — Extraordinary +Mark of confidence in the White Man — A Conflagration — An +Espy Shower — Region of Gypsum — Our Latitude — A +Lilliputian Forest — A Party of Comanches — A Visit to +a 'Dog-Town' — Indian Archery — Arrival of Comanche +Warriors — A 'Big Talk' and its Results — Speech of the +<i>Capitan Mayor</i> — Project of bringing Comanche Chiefs to +Washington — Return of Lieut. Bowman, and our March +resumed — Melancholy Reflections — Another Indian Visit — Mexican +Captives — Voluntary Captivity — A sprightly +Mexican Lad — Purchase of a Captive — Comanche Trade +and Etiquette — Indians least dangerous to such as trade +with them,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">114</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXIX"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX_III">CHAPTER XIX</a> {III of Vol. II}</div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"><tr> + <td class="subhead">Ponds and Buffalo Wallows — Valley of the Canadian, and +romantic Freaks of Nature — Formation of Ravines — Melancholy +Adventure of a Party of Traders in 1832 — Fears of +our being lost — Arrival of a Party of <i>Comancheros</i>, and +their wonderful Stories — Their Peculiarities and Traffic — Bitter +Water, and the <i>Salitre</i> of New Mexico — Avant-couriers +for Santa Fé — Patent Fire-arms and their Virtues — Ranchero +Ideas of Distance, and their Mode of giving Directions — The +Angostura, and erroneous Notions of the Texans — A +new Route revealed — Solitary Travel — Supply of Provisions +sent back — Arrival at Santa Fé — Gov. Armijo, etc. — A +'Flare-up' with His Excellency,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">132</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXX"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XX_IV">CHAPTER XX</a> {IV of Vol. II}</div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"><tr> + <td class="subhead">Preparations for a Start to Chihuahua — Ineptness of Married +Men for the Santa Fé Trade — Annoying Custom-house +Regulations — Mails in New Mexico — Insecurity of Correspondence — Outfit +and Departure — <i>Derecho de Consumo</i> +— Ruins of Valverde — 'Towns without Houses' — La +Jornado del Muerto — Laguna and Ojo del Muerto — A +Tradition of the <i>Arrieros</i> — Laborious Ferrying and Quagmires — Arrival +at Paso del Norte — Amenity of the Valley — <i>Sierra +Blanca</i> and <i>Los Organos</i> — Face of the Country — Seagrass — Médanos +or Sand-hills — An accidental River — Carrizal — Ojo +Caliente — Laguna de Encinillas — Southern +Haciendas — Arrival — Character of the Route +and Soil,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">145</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXXI"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI_V">CHAPTER XXI</a> {V of Vol. II}</div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"><tr> + <td class="subhead">Trip from Chihuahua to Aguascalientes, in 1835 — Southern +Trade and <i>Ferias</i> — Hacienda de la Zarca, and its innumerable +Stock — Rio Nazas, and Lakes without outlet — Perennial +Cotton — Exactions for Water and Pasturage — Village +of Churches — City of Durango and its Peculiarities — Fruits, +Pulque, etc. — Persecution of Scorpions — Negro-ship +in the ascendant — Robbers and their <i>modus operandi</i> — City +of Aguascalientes — Bathing Scene — Haste to return +to the North — Mexican Mule-shoeing — Difficulties +and Perplexities — A Friend in time of need — Reach Zacatecas — City +Accommodations — Hotels unfashionable — <i>Locale</i>, +Fortifications, etc., of the City of Zacatecas — Siege +by Santa Anna and his easy-won Victory — At Durango +again — Civil Warfare among the 'Sovereigns' — Hairbreadth +'scapes — Troubles of the Road — Safe Arrival at +Chihuahua — Character of the Southern Country,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">162</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXXII"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII_VI">CHAPTER XXII</a> {VI of Vol. II}</div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"><tr> + <td class="subhead">Visit to the Mining Town of Jesus-Maria — Critical Roads — Character +of the Town — Losing Speculations — Mine of +Santa Juliana — Curious mining Operations — Different +Modes of working the Ore — The Crushing-mill, etc. — <i>Barras +de Plata</i> — Value of Bullion — The Silver Trade — Return +to Chihuahua — Resumption of the regular Narrative — Curious +Wholesales — Money Table — Redundancy +of Copper Coin — City of Chihuahua and its Peculiarities — Ecclesiastical +Architecture — Hidalgo and his Monument — Public +Works, and their present Declension — <i>Fête</i> +in honor of Iturbide — Illiberality towards Americans — Shopping +Mania — Anti-Masonic <i>Auto de Fe</i>,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">178</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXXIII"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII_VII">CHAPTER XXIII</a> {VII of Vol. II}</div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"><tr> + <td class="subhead">Departure for Santa Fé — Straitened for Food — Summary Effort +to procure Beef — Seizure of one of our Party — Altercation +with a <i>Rico</i> — His pusillanimous Procedure — Great +Preparations in Chihuahua for our Arrest — Arrival of Mexican +Troops — A polite Officer — Myself with three of my +Men summoned back to Chihuahua — Amiable Conduct of +Señor Artalejo — <i>Junta Departmental</i> and Discussion of my +Affair — Writ of <i>Habeas Corpus</i> not in vogue — The Matter +adjusted and Passports granted — The <i>Morale</i> — Impunity +of savage Depredations — Final Start — Company of <i>Paseños</i> +with their Fruits and Liquors — Arrival at Santa Fé,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">193</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXXIV"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV_VIII">CHAPTER XXIV</a> {VIII of Vol. II}</div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"><tr> + <td class="subhead">Preparations for returning Home — Breaking out of the Small-pox — The +Start — Our Caravan — Manuel the Comanche — A +new Route — The Prairie on Fire — Danger to be apprehended +from these Conflagrations — A Comanche Buffalo-chase — A +Skirmish with the Pawnees — An intrepid Mexican — The +Wounded — Value of a thick Skull — Retreat of +the Enemy and their Failure — A bleak Northwester — Loss +of our Sheep — The Llano Estacado and Sources of Red +River — The Canadian River — Cruelties upon Buffalo — Feats +at 'Still Hunting' — Mr. Wethered's Adventure — Once +more on our own Soil — The False Washita — Enter our +former Trail — Character of the Country over which we had +travelled — Arrival at Van Buren — The two Routes to +Santa Fé — Some Advantages of that from Arkansas — Restlessness +of Prairie Travellers in civilized Life, and Propensity +for returning to the Wild Deserts,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">203</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXXV"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XXV_IX">CHAPTER XXV</a> {IX of Vol. II}<br /> +<small>CONCLUSION OF THE SANTA FE TRADE</small></div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"><tr> + <td class="subhead">Decline of Prices — Statistical Table — Chihuahua Trade — Its +Extent — Different Ports through which Goods are +introduced to that Market — Expedition between Chihuahua +and Arkansas — The Drawback — The more recent Incidents +of the Santa Fé Caravans — Adventures of 1843 — Robbery +and Murder of Chavez — Expedition from Texas — Defeat +of Gen. Armijo's Van-guard — His precipitate +Retreat — Texan Grievances — Unfortunate Results of indiscriminate +Revenge — Want of discipline among the Texans — Disarmed +by Capt. Cook — Return of the Escort of +U. S. Dragoons, and of the Texans — Demands of the Mexican +Government — Closing of the Santa Fé Trade,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">221</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXXVI"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI_X">CHAPTER XXVI</a> {X of Vol. II}<br /> +<small>GEOGRAPHY OF THE PRAIRIES</small></div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"><tr> + <td class="subhead">Extent of the Prairies — Mountains — <i>Mesas</i> or Table-lands — <i>El +Llano Estacado</i> — <i>Cañones</i> — Their Annoyance to the +early Caravans — Immense Gullies — Coal Mines and other +Geological Products — Gypsum — Metallic Minerals — Salines — Capt. +Boone's Exploration — 'Salt Plain' and 'Salt +Rock' — Mr. Sibley's Visit — Saline Exudations — Unhabitableness +of the high Prairies — Excellent Pasturage — Rich +border Country sufficient for two States — Northern +Texas — Rivers of the Prairies — Their Unfitness for Navigation — Timber — Cross +Timbers — Encroachments of the +Timber upon the Prairies — Fruits and Flowers — Salubrity +of Climate,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">237</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXXVII"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVII_XI">CHAPTER XXVII</a> {XI of Vol. II}<br /> +<small>ANIMALS OF THE PRAIRIES</small></div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"><tr> + <td class="subhead">The Mustang or Wild Horse — Capturing him by 'Creasing,' +and with the Lazo — Horse-flesh — The Buffalo — Its Appearance — Excellence +of its Meat — General Utility to the +Indian and Traveller — Prospect of its Extinction — Hunting +the Buffalo with Bow and Arrows, the Lance, etc. — 'Still-hunting' — The +Buffalo ferocious only when wounded — Butchering, +etc. — The Gray Wolf — Its Modes of killing +Buffalo — Their great numbers — A 'Wolf scrape' — The +Prairie Wolf, or 'Jackal of the Prairies' — The Elk, Deer and +Bear — The Antelope — The Bighorn — The Prairie Dog — Owls +and Rattlesnakes — The Horned Frog — Fowls — Bees, +etc.,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">259</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXXVIII"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVIII_XII">CHAPTER XXVIII</a> {XII of Vol. II}<br /> +<small>ABORIGINES OF AMERICA</small></div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"><tr> + <td class="subhead">Indian Cosmogony — Traditions of Origin — Identity of Religious +Notions — Adoration of the Sun — Shawnee Faith — Anecdote +of Tecumseh — Legendary Traditions — Missionaries, +and Success of the Catholics — The Indian's +Heaven — Burial Customs — Ancient Accounts — Depositing +the Dead on Scaffolds — Superstition and Witchcraft — Indian +Philosophy — Polygamy and other Matrimonial Affairs — Abhorrence +of Incest — Difference in Character — Indian +Hospitality — Traits of the Ancient Asiatics — Names — Relationship +of Different Tribes — Dreadful Decrease +of the Indians,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">283</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXXIX"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIX_XIII">CHAPTER XXIX</a> {XIII of Vol. II}<br /> +<small>THE FRONTIER INDIANS</small></div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"><tr> + <td class="subhead">Causes of Removal West — Annuities, etc. — Dissatisfaction of +the Indians — Their Melioration by the Change — Superiority +of their present Location — Lands granted to them +— Improvements, Agriculture, etc. — Their Slaves — Manufactures — Style +of Living, Dress, etc. — Literary Opportunities +and Improvements — Choctaw Academy — Harpies and +Frauds — Games — Systems of Government — Polygamy — Ancient +Laws and Customs — Intemperance — Preventive +Measures — A Choctaw Enactment — Marriage and +Funeral Customs of the Choctaws — The Creeks — Their +Summary Executions — Mourning — Indian Titles — The +Northern Tribes — Census of the Frontier Nations,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">299</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXXX"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XXX_XIV">CHAPTER XXX</a> {XIV of Vol. II}<br /> +<small>INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIES</small></div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"><tr> + <td class="subhead">System of Chiefs — Mode of Warfare — War-Council — The +Scalp-dance — The Calumet or Pipe of Peace — Treaties — Public +News-criers — Arms of the Indians — Bow and Arrows, +etc. — Hunting — Dancing — Language of Signs — Telegraphs — Wigwams +or Lodges — Pack-dogs — Costumes — Painting, +Tattooing, etc. — Indian Dandies — Manufactures, +and Dressing the Buffalo Rug — Indian Diet, Fasting, +etc. — Primitive Thomsonians — Their domestic Animals, +the Dog and the Horse — Wampum — Their Chronology,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">318</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocXXXI"></a><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXI_XV">CHAPTER XXXI</a> {XV of Vol. II}<br /> +<small>INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIES</small></div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"><tr> + <td class="subhead">Intermediate Tribes — Their Wigwams and their Hunting Excursions — Dress +and Cut of their Hair — The Pawnees — The +Osages — Their Roguery — Matrimonial Customs — Accomplished +Mourners — Their Superstitions — The Indian +Figure — The 'Pawnee Picts' — Wild Tribes — Census — The +Comanches — Their Range — Their Sobriety — Their Chiefs, +etc. — Female Chastity — Comanche Marriage — Costumes — Horsemanship — Comanche +Warfare — Predatory Forays — Martial Ceremonies — Treatment of +Captives — Burial and Religious Rites,</td> + <td class="tocpgn">336</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="fsize3"><a id="tocGlossary"></a><a href="#GLOSSARY">GLOSSARY</a>.</div> + +<table summary="1845 Table of Contents"><tr> + <td class="subhead">Containing such Spanish or Hispano-Mexican words as occur +undefined in this work, or recur without definition after +having been once translated</td> + <td class="tocpgn">353</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 513px;"> +<a id="Map-of-the-Interior-of-Northern-Mexico"></a> +<img src="images/i022.jpg" width="449" height="700" alt="" /> +<div class="caption">MAP OF THE INTERIOR OF NORTHERN MEXICO. +<span class="seelarge"><a href="images/i022-hd.jpg">see larger</a></span></div> +<div class="IlloRtn"><a +href="#ILLUSTRATIONS_TO_VOLUME_XX">Illustrations List</a></div> +</div> + +<div class="front"> +<div class="fsize2"><a name="COMMERCE_OF_THE_PRAIRIES" + id="COMMERCE_OF_THE_PRAIRIES"></a> + COMMERCE OF THE PRAIRIES</div> +<div class="fsize2">{PART II}</div> +</div> + +<h3 title="Chapter XII"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XII1" id="CHAPTER_XII1"></a>CHAPTER XII<a + name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" + class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h3> + +<p class="subhead"><a id="Pg021"></a> +Government of New Mexico — The Administration of Justice — Judicial +Corruption — Prejudices against Americans — Partiality for the +English — Anecdote of Governor Armijo and a Trapper — Outrage upon +an American Physician — Violence suffered by the American Consul +and others — Arbitrary Impositions upon Foreigners — <i>Contribucion +de Guerra</i> — The Alcaldes and their System — The <i>Fueros</i> — Mode +of punishing Delinquents and Criminals — Mexican System of Slavery +— Thieves and Thieveries — Outrage upon an American Merchant — +Gambling and Gambling-houses — Game of <i>Monte</i> — Anecdote of a +Lady of Fashion — <i>Chuza</i> — Cockpits — <i>Correr el gallo</i> — El +Coleo — Fandangoes — <i>Cigarritos</i>. <a href="#tocXII" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>Prior to the adoption of the <i>Sistema Central</i> in the Mexican +republic, the province of New Mexico was under a territorial +government. The executive was called <dfn>Gefe Político</dfn> +(political chief), and the <dfn>Diputacion Provincial</dfn> very inefficiently +supplied the place of a legislature. Under the +present system, however, New Mexico being a <dfn>department</dfn>, +the names of these powers have been changed, but their +functions remain very nearly the same. The <dfn>Gobernador</dfn> +(governor) is appointed by the President for eight years. +The legislative power is nominally vested in a <dfn>Junta Departamental</dfn>, +a kind of state council, with very circumscribed +{226} powers, somewhat analogous to, and certainly not more +extensive than, those of a board of aldermen with us. But +even this shadow of popular representation was 'prorogued' +by Gov. Armijo soon after his accession to power (five or +six years ago), and has never since been convened; so that +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg022"></a>[p022]</span> +its functions have been arbitrarily exercised by the governor +ever since.</p> + +<p>The administration of the laws in Northern Mexico +constitutes one of the most painful features of her institutions. +Justice, or rather judgments, are a common article +of traffic; and the hapless litigant who has not the means +to soften the claws of the alcalde with a 'silver unction,' +is almost sure to get severely scratched in the contest, no +matter what may be the justice of his cause, or the uprightness +of his character. It is easy to perceive, then, that the +poor and the humble stand no chance in a judicial contest +with the wealthy and consequential, whose influence, even +apart from their facilities for corrupting the court and +suborning witnesses, is sufficient to neutralize any amount +of plebeian testimony that might be brought against them.</p> + +<p>The evil consequences arising from maladministration +of justice in New Mexico are most severely felt by foreigners, +against whom a strong prejudice prevails throughout the +South. Of these, the citizens of the United States are by +far the most constant sufferers; an inevitable result of that +sinister feeling with which the 'rival republic' views the +advancement {227} and superiority of her more industrious +neighbors. It is a notorious fact, that while the English are +universally treated with comparative consideration and +respect, the Americans residing in the southern parts of +the republic are frequently taunted with the effeminacy of +their government and its want of decision. So openly has +this preference for British subjects been manifested, and +so thoroughly conscious have the Americans become of +the humiliating fact, that when a mercantile firm, consisting +of an American and an Englishman, has occasion to present +a memorial of any description, or to sue either for an act of +favor or of justice from the nation, the application is sure +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg023"></a>[p023]</span> +to be made in the name of the latter, knowing it will thus be +more likely to command proper attention.</p> + +<p>Few men, perhaps, have done more to jeopard the interests +of American traders, or to bring the American character +itself into contempt, than Armijo, the present arbitrary +governor of New Mexico. I am happy to say, however, that +in the midst of his many oppressions, he was once at least +obliged to 'knock under' to one of those bold and daring +spirits of the Rocky Mountains whom obstacles rather +energize than subdue. This was about the year 1828, during +Armijo's previous governorship. A law was then in existence +which had been enacted by the general Congress prohibiting +foreigners from trapping beaver in the Mexican territory, +under penalty of confiscation, etc.; but as there were +no native {228} trappers in New Mexico, Gov. Baca and his +successor (Narbona) thought it expedient to extend licenses +to foreigners, in the name of citizens, upon condition of their +taking a certain proportion of Mexicans to learn the art of +trapping. In pursuance of this disposition, Gov. Narbona +extended a license to one Ewing Young, who was accompanied +by a Mr. Sublette, brother of Capt. Wm. Sublette, +and almost equally celebrated for his mountain adventures.<a +name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg024"></a>[p024]</span> +Previous to the return of this party from their trapping +expedition, Armijo had succeeded Narbona in office, and +they were informed that it was his intention to seize their +furs. To prevent this, they deposited them at a neighboring +village, where they were afterwards discovered, seized, and +confiscated. The furs being damp, they were spread out in +the sun before the <i>Guardia</i>, in Santa Fé, when Sublette, perceiving +two packs of beaver which had been his own property, +got by honest labor, instantly seized them and carried them +away before the eyes of the whole garrison, and concealed +both them and his own person in a house opposite. The +entire military force was immediately put in requisition, and +a general search made for the offender and his prize; but +in vain: indeed, if the truth must be spoken, the troops +seemed to have as little desire to find Sublette as the latter +had of being found; for his character was too well known to +leave any room for hope that his capture could be effected +without a great deal {229} of trouble. In the meanwhile, +Armijo raved, and threatened the Americans for not ferreting +out their countryman and delivering him over to justice. +Failing to produce any impression by blustering, however, +he caused a couple of cannons to be pointed at the house +where the offender was supposed to be concealed, declaring +at the same time that he would batter it down; but all to no +purpose. Mr. Sublette finally conveyed his furs in safety +to the frontier, and thence to the United States. +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg025"></a>[p025]</span></p> + +<p> +The following anecdote affords another illustration of +Armijo's summary mode of dealing with Americans. In +the fall of 1840, a gross outrage was committed upon a +physician from Massachusetts (said to be a gentleman of +unexceptionable deportment), who was travelling through +the country for his health. He had loaned nine hundred +dollars to a person of the name of Tayon, who afterwards +borrowed the same amount of another foreigner and repaid +this debt. The doctor then left for the South, where he +intended to pass the winter, being afflicted with a pulmonary +disease. But the individual who had lent Tayon the money, +being informed that he was insolvent, applied to Gov. Armijo +for an order to compel the doctor to return, expecting thereby +to make him reimburse the money. The order overtook +him at the village of Algodones,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" +id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> +near forty miles from Santa +Fé, where he was at once arrested by the alcalde, and detained +some time, ignorant even of the offence for which he was doing +penance. {230} In the meantime, the American Consul at +Santa Fé, having been informed of what had taken place, +procured a counter-order from the governor for the release +of the prisoner. When the alcalde of Algodones received this +document, he determined at once that so extraordinary an +act of justice should cost the foreigner some trifle. Accordingly, +another order was forged on the spot, commanding +that he should be taken to the capital—yet a 'gentle hint' +was given, that his liberty might be purchased by the payment +of two hundred dollars. Being in a land of strangers, +among whom he had but little hope of receiving fair play, +the doctor resolved to pay the amount demanded, and fly +to Chihuahua, where he would at least be safe from Armijo's +clutches. Having been informed, however, of the fraud +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg026"></a>[p026]</span> +practised by the alcalde, before he had proceeded far on his +journey, he returned and made an attempt to bring the +delinquent officer to justice, but altogether without success.</p> + +<p>But perhaps the most glaring outrages upon American +citizens were committed in 1841, upon the occasion of the +capture of the Texan Santa Fé Expedition. In Taos, a +poor deaf and dumb U. S. creole Frenchman was beaten to +death in open day. In San Miguel, the alcalde, at the head +of a mob, entered the store of a Mr. Rowland, whom he +robbed of a considerable amount of merchandise.<a +name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> At the +same time, the greatest excitement raged in Santa Fé against +Americans, whose lives appeared in imminent danger; and +a most {231} savage attack was made upon our excellent +Consul, Manuel Alvarez, Esq., who had always taken an +active interest in the welfare of American citizens.<a +name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + +<p>A few minutes after the governor had departed for San +Miguel, to encounter the Texans, a fellow named Martin, his +nephew and confidential agent, aided by a band of ferocious +<i>sans culottes</i>, and armed with a large knife, secretly entered +the house of the Consul, who perceived him in time, however, +to avert the blow; yet he received a severe wound in the +face during the scuffle that ensued: the rabble running in +at the same time, and vociferating, "<dfn>Sáquenlo ajuera! mátenlo!</dfn>"—Drag +him out! kill him! Mr. Alvarez doubtless +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg027"></a>[p027]</span> owed his +preservation partially to the consternation with +which the failure of their clandestine attempt at his life +inspired the cowardly ruffians. Instead of being punished +for this diabolical act, the principal assassin, on the contrary, +was soon after promoted in the army.</p> + +<p>The outrage did not end here, however; for on the Consul's +demanding his passport for the United States, it was +refused for nearly a month; thus detaining him until the cold +season had so far advanced, that, of his party (about fifteen +in number), two perished from the cold; and not one arrived +without being more or less frost-bitten—some very severely—besides +suffering a loss of about fifty animals from the +same cause.</p> + +<p>Although these and other daring outrages have been duly +represented to our Government, {232} it does not appear +that any measures of redress have yet been taken.</p> + +<p>With a view of oppressing our merchants, Gov. Armijo +had, as early as 1839, issued a decree exempting all the +natives from the tax imposed on store-houses, shops, etc., +throwing the whole burden of impost upon foreigners and +naturalized citizens; a measure clearly and unequivocally +at variance with the treaties and stipulations entered into +between the United States and Mexico. A protest was presented +without effect; when our Consul, finding all remonstrances +useless, forwarded a memorial to the American +Minister at Mexico,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a +href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> who, although the vital interests of +American citizens were at stake, deemed the affair of too +little importance, perhaps, and therefore appears to have +paid no attention to it. But this system of levying excessive +taxes upon foreigners, is by no means an original invention of +Gov. Armijo. In 1835, the government of Chihuahua having +levied a <dfn>contribucion de guerra</dfn> for raising means to make +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg028"></a>[p028]</span> war upon the +savages, who were laying waste the surrounding +country, foreign merchants, with an equal disregard for their +rights and the obligations of treaties, were taxed twenty-five +dollars each per month; while the native merchants, many +of whom possessed large haciendas, with thousands of stock, +for the especial protection of which these taxes were chiefly +imposed, paid only from five to ten dollars each. Remonstrances +were presented to the governor, but in vain. In his +official {233} reply, that functionary declared, "<dfn>que el gobierno +cree arreglado el reparto de sus respectivas contribuciones</dfn>,"—the +government believes your respective contributions in +accordance with justice—which concluded the correspondence, +and the Americans paid their twenty-five dollars per +month.</p> + +<p>The only tribunals of 'justice' in New Mexico are those +of the ordinary <dfn>alcaldes</dfn> or justices of the peace; and an appeal +from them is carried to the Supreme Court in the department +of Chihuahua. The course of litigation is exceedingly +simple and summary. The plaintiff makes his verbal complaint +or demand before the alcalde, who orders him to +summon the defendant, which is done by simply saying, +"<dfn>Le llama el alcalde</dfn>" (the alcalde calls you) into his presence, +the applicant acting thus in the double capacity of constable +and complainant. The summons is always verbal, +and rarely for a future time—instant attendance being +expected. Should the defendant refuse to obey this simple +mandate (which, by the bye, is a very rare occurrence), the +alcalde sends his <dfn>baston de justicia</dfn>, his staff of justice, an +ordinary walking-cane, distinguished only by a peculiar +black silk tassel. This never fails to enforce compliance, +for a refusal to attend after being shown the staff, would be +construed into a contempt of court, and punished accordingly. +The witnesses are sometimes sworn upon a cross cut on the +<i>baston de justicia</i>, or more frequently, perhaps, upon a cross +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg029"></a>[p029]</span> formed with {234} +the finger and thumb. Generally speaking, +however, the process of examination is gone through +without a single oath being administered; and in the absence +of witnesses, the alcalde often proceeds to sentence upon the +simple statements of the contending parties. By a species +of mutual agreement, the issue of a suit is sometimes referred +to <dfn>hombres buenos</dfn> (arbitrators), which is the nearest approximation +that is made to trial by jury. In judicial proceedings, +however, but little, or rather no attention is paid to any code +of laws; in fact, there is scarcely one alcalde in a dozen who +knows what a law is, or who ever saw a law-book. Their +decisions, when not influenced by corrupt agencies, are controlled +by the prevailing customs of the country.</p> + +<p>In the administration of justice, there are three distinct +and privileged jurisdictions, known as <dfn>fueros</dfn>:<a +name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" +class="fnanchor">[7]</a> the <dfn>eclesiástico</dfn>, +which provides that no member of the clergy, at least of the +rank of curate and upwards, shall ever be arraigned before a +civil tribunal, but shall be tried by their superiors in the order; +the <dfn>militar</dfn>, which makes a similar provision in favor not +only of commissioned officers, but of every common soldier +from the ranks; and the <dfn>civil</dfn> or ordinary courts, for all cases +in which the defendants are laymen. These <dfn>fueros</dfn> have +hitherto maintained the ecclesiastical and military classes +in perfect independence of the civil authorities. The <i>civil</i>, in +fact, remains in some degree subordinate to the other two +<i>fueros</i>; for it can, under no circumstances, {235} have any +jurisdiction whatever over them; while the lay plaintiff, in +the privileged tribunals of these, may, if unsuccessful, have +judgment entered up against him: a consequence that can +never follow the suits of the ecclesiastical or military orders +before the civil tribunals. The judgments of the latter, in <span +class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg030"></a>[p030]</span> +such cases, would be void. It is no wonder, then, that the +cause of freedom in Mexico has made so little progress.</p> + +<p>Imprisonment is almost the only sort of punishment resorted +to in the North. For debt, petit larceny, highway +robbery, and murder, the usual sentence is "<dfn>A la cárcel</dfn>" +(to jail), where a person is likely to remain about as long for +inability to pay <i>dos reales</i>, as for the worst of crimes: always +provided he has not the means to pacify the offended majesty +of the law. I never heard of but one execution for murder +in New Mexico, since the declaration of independence. The +most desperate and blood-stained criminals escape with +impunity, after a few weeks of incarceration, unless the +prosecutor happens to be a person of great influence; in +which case, the prisoner is detained in the <i>calabozo</i> at will, +even when the offence committed has been of a trivial character. +Notwithstanding this laxity in the execution of the +laws, there are few murders of any kind committed.</p> + +<p>In case of debt, as before remarked, the delinquent is sent +to jail—provided the creditor will not accept his services. +If he will, however, the debtor becomes <dfn>nolens volens</dfn> the {236} +servant of the creditor till the debt is satisfied; and, serving, +as he does, at very reduced wages, his expenses for clothing, +and other necessaries, but too often retain him in perpetual +servitude. This system does not operate, however, upon +the higher classes, yet it acts with terrible severity upon the +unfortunate poor, whose condition is but little better, if not +worse indeed than that of the slaves of the South. They +labor for fixed wages, it is true; but all they can earn is hardly +sufficient to keep them in the coarsest clothing and pay their +contingent expenses. Men's wages range from two to five +dollars a month, and those of women from fifty cents to two +dollars; in payment of which, they rarely receive any money; +but instead thereof, articles of apparel and other necessaries +at the most exorbitant prices. The consequence is that the <span class="xxpgno"> +<a id="Pg031"></a>[p031]</span> +servant soon accumulates a debt which he is unable to pay—his +wages being often engaged for a year or two in advance. +Now, according to the usages, if not the laws of the country, +he is bound to serve his master until all arrearages are +liquidated; and is only enabled to effect an exchange of +masters, by engaging another to pay his debt, to whom he +becomes in like manner bound.</p> + +<p>As I have already remarked, capital crimes and highway +robberies are of comparatively rare occurrence in the North, +but in smaller delinquencies, such as pilfering and petty +rogueries of every shade and description, the common classes +can very successfully compete {237} with any other people. +Nothing indeed can be left exposed or unguarded without +great danger of its being immediately stolen. No husbandman +would think of leaving his axe or his hoe, or anything +else of the slightest value, lying out over night. Empty +wagons are often pillaged of every movable piece of iron, +and even the wheels have been carried away. Pieces of +merchandise are frequently purloined from the shelves, when +they happen to be in reach. In Chihuahua, goods have +actually been snatched from the counter while being exposed +to the inspection of a pretended purchaser. I once had a +trick of this kind played upon me by a couple of boys, who +made their escape through a crowd of spectators with their +booty exposed. In vain I cried "<dfn>Agarren á los ladrones!</dfn>" +(catch the thieves!) not a single individual moved to apprehend +them. I then proffered the goods stolen, to any person +who might succeed in bringing the rogues to me, but +to no purpose. In fact there seems to exist a great deal of +repugnance, even among the better classes, to apprehending +thieves; as if the mere act of informing against them was +considered dishonorable. I heard a very respectable caballero +once remark that he had seen a man purloin certain +articles of merchandise, but he could not be induced to give +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg032"></a>[p032]</span> +up his name; observing, "O, I can't think of exposing the +poor fellow!"</p> + +<p>The impunity with which delinquencies of this description +are every day committed is {238} perhaps in some degree, +the consequence of those severe enactments, such as the +<dfn>Leyes de las Indias</dfn> (the laws of the Indies), which rendered +many thefts and robberies punishable with death.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> The +magistracy contracted the habit of frequently winking at +crime, rather than resort to the barbarous expedients prescribed +by the letter of the law. The utmost that can be +gained now by public prosecution, is the recovery of the +stolen property, if that be anywhere to be found, and occasionally +a short period of imprisonment for the culprit. This +is more particularly the case when the prosecutor happens +to be a foreigner; while on the other hand, if he be the party +accused, he is likely to be subjected to very severe treatment. +A remarkable circumstance of this kind occurred in Chihuahua +in the year 1835. One of our most respectable +Missouri merchants had bought a mule of a stranger, but +the animal was soon after claimed by a third person, who +proved that it had been stolen from him. The Missourian +would have been perfectly satisfied to lose the mule, and end +the matter there; but to the surprise of all, he was directly +summoned before an alcalde, and forthwith sentenced to +jail: the partial judge having labored to fix the theft upon +the innocent purchaser, while the real culprit, who was a +native, was permitted to go at large.</p> + +<p>The love of gambling also deserves to be noticed as a +distinguishing propensity of these people. Indeed it may +well be said, without any undue stretch of imagination, that +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg033"></a>[p033]</span> +shop-lifting, {239} pocket-picking, and other elegant pastimes +of the same kindred, are the legitimate offspring, especially +among the lower classes, of that passion for gaming, which +in Mexico more than anywhere else—to use Madame +Calderon's language<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> +—"is impregnated with the constitution—in +man, woman, and child." It prevails in the +lowly hut, as well as in the glittering saloon; nor is the +sanctity of the gown nor the dignity of station sufficient +proof against the fascinations of this exciting vice. No one +considers it a degradation to be seen frequenting a <i>monte +bank</i>: the governor himself and his lady, the grave magistrate +and the priestly dignity, the gay caballero and the titled +señora may all be seen staking their doubloons upon the +turn of a card; while the humbler ranchero, the hired +domestic and the ragged pauper, all press with equal avidity +to test their fortune at the same shrine. There are other +games at cards practised among these people, depending +more upon skill; but that of <i>el monte</i>, being one exclusively +of chance, seems to possess an all-absorbing attraction, +difficult to be conceived by the uninitiated spectator.</p> + +<p>The following will not only serve to show the light in which +gambling is held by all classes of society, but to illustrate the +purifying effects of wealth upon character. Some twelve +or fifteen years ago there lived (or rather roamed) in Taos +a certain female of very loose habits, known as <dfn>La Tules</dfn>. +Finding it difficult to obtain the means of living in that {240} +district, she finally extended her wanderings to the capital. +She there became a constant attendant on one of those +pandemoniums where the favorite game of <i>monte</i> was dealt +<i>pro bono publico</i>. Fortune, at first, did not seem inclined +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg034"></a>[p034]</span> +to smile upon her efforts, and for some years she spent her +days in lowliness and misery. At last her luck turned, as +gamblers would say, and on one occasion she left the bank +with a spoil of several hundred dollars! This enabled her +to open a bank of her own, and being favored by a continuous +run of good fortune, she gradually rose higher and higher in +the scale of affluence, until she found herself in possession +of a very handsome fortune. In 1843, she sent to the +United States some ten thousand dollars to be invested in +goods. She still continues her favorite 'amusement,' being +now considered the most expert 'monte dealer' in all Santa +Fé. She is openly received in the first circles of society: +I doubt, in truth, whether there is to be found in the city a +lady of more fashionable reputation than this same Tules, +now known as Señora Doña Gertrudes Barceló.</p> + +<p>Among the multitude of games which seem to constitute +the real business of life in New Mexico, that of <dfn>chuza</dfn> evidently +presents the most attractions to ladies; and they +generally lay very heavy wagers upon the result. It is +played with little balls, and bears some faint resemblance +to what is called <i>roulette</i>. Bull-baiting and cock-fighting, +about which so much has been said by every traveller in +Mexico, {241} are also very popular 'amusements' in the +North, and generally lead to the same excesses and the same +results as gaming. The cock-pit rarely fails to be crowded +on Sundays and other feast days; on which occasions the +church, the ball-room, the gambling-house, and the cock-pit +look like so many opposition establishments; for nothing +is more common than to see people going from one place to +another by alternate fits, just as devotional feeling or love of +pleasure happens to prompt them.</p> + +<p>One of the most attractive sports of the rancheros and the +peasantry, and that which, more than any other, calls for +the exercise of skill and dexterity, is that called <dfn>correr el gallo</dfn>, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg035"></a>[p035]</span> +practised generally on St. John's day. A common cock or +hen is tied by the feet to some swinging limb of a tree, so as +to be barely within the reach of a man on horseback: or the +fowl is buried alive in a small pit in the ground leaving only +the head above the surface. In either case, the racers, +passing at full speed, grapple the head of the fowl, which +being well greased, generally slips out of their fingers. As +soon as some one, more dextrous than the rest, has succeeded +in tearing it loose, he claps spurs to his steed, and endeavors +to escape with the prize. He is hotly pursued, however, +by the whole sporting crew, and the first who overtakes him +tries to get possession of the fowl, when a strife ensues, during +which the poor chicken is torn into atoms. Should the +holder of the trophy be able to outstrip his pursuers, he +carries {242} it to a crowd of fair spectators and presents it +to his mistress, who takes it to the fandango which usually +follows, as a testimony of the prowess of her lover.</p> + +<p>Among the vaqueros, and even among persons of distinction, +<dfn>el coleo</dfn> (tailing) is a much nobler exercise than the +preceding, and is also generally reserved for days of festivity. +For this sport the most untractable ox or bull is turned +loose upon a level common, when all the parties who propose +to join in the amusement, being already mounted, start off +in pursuit of him. The most successful rider, as soon as he +gets near enough to the bull, seizes him by the tail, and with +a sudden manœuvre, whirls him topsy-turvy upon the plain—to +the no little risk of breaking his own neck, should his +horse stumble or be tripped by the legs of the falling bull.</p> + +<p>Respecting <dfn>fandangos</dfn>, I will observe that this term, as it +is used in New Mexico, is never applied to any particular +dance, but is the usual designation for those ordinary assemblies +where dancing and frolicking are carried on; <dfn>baile</dfn> +(or ball) being generally applied to those of a higher grade. +The former especially are very frequent; for nothing is more <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg036"></a>[p036]</span> +general, throughout the country, and with all classes than +dancing. From the gravest priest to the buffoon—from +the richest nabob to the beggar—from the governor to the +ranchero—from the soberest matron to the flippant belle—from +the grandest <i>señora</i> to the <i>cocinera</i>—all partake of this +exhilarating {243} amusement. To judge from the quantity +of tuned instruments which salute the ear almost every night +in the week, one would suppose that a perpetual carnival +prevailed everywhere. The musical instruments used at +the <dfn>bailes</dfn> and <dfn>fandangos</dfn> are usually the fiddle and <dfn>bandolin</dfn>, +or <dfn>guitarra</dfn>, accompanied in some villages by the <dfn>tombé</dfn> or +little Indian drum. The musicians occasionally acquire +considerable proficiency in the use of these instruments. +But what most oddly greets, and really outrages most Protestant +ears, is the accompaniment of divine service with +the very same instruments, and often with the same tunes.</p> + +<p>Of all the petty vices practised by the New Mexicans, the +<dfn>vicio inocente</dfn> of smoking among ladies, is the most intolerable; +and yet it is a habit of which the loveliest and the most +refined equally partake. The <dfn>puro</dfn> or <dfn>cigarro</dfn><a +name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> +is seen in +the mouths of all: it is handed round in the parlor, and +introduced at the dinner table—even in the ball-room it is +presented to ladies as regularly as any {244} other species of +'refreshment;' and in the dance the señorita may often be +seen whirling round with a lighted <dfn>cigarrito</dfn> in her mouth. +The belles of the Southern cities are very frequently furnished <span +class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg037"></a>[p037]</span> +with <dfn>tenazitas de oro</dfn> (little golden tongs), to hold +the cigar with, so as to prevent their delicate fingers from +being polluted either with the stain or scent of tobacco; +forgetting at the same time its disagreeable effects upon +the lips and breath.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding their numerous vices, however, I should +do the New Mexicans the justice to say that they are but +little addicted to inebriety and its attendant dissipations. +Yet this doubtlessly results to a considerable degree from +the dearness of spirituous liquors, which virtually places them +beyond the reach of the lower classes.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a +href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> +Chapter xii of volume i of the original edition.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span +class="label">[2]</span></a> Both Bartolomé Baca (Vaca) and Narbona were Mexican officers. The +former, whose term of office was from 1823 to September, 1825, belonged to a New +Mexican family, and was one of the captains of the companies organized in 1808. +Antonio Narbona came (1805) from the province of Chihuahua, as lieutenant of +soldiers sent to repel a Navaho raid. He was governor, September, 1825, to May +1827. In 1843 he was colonel of an expedition against the Apache in Arizona. +</p> +<p> +Ewing Young was a native of Knox County, Tennessee. He early went west +for hunting and trapping, having passports for Mexican territory signed at Washington +in 1828-29. In these years he made his first overland trip from New Mexico +to California, where he aided the padres of San José in an expedition against revolted +neophytes. In 1829 he returned to New Mexico, married a Taos woman, +and again (1831) set out for California. There in 1834 he met Hall Kelley, and +was persuaded to accompany him to Oregon, where he formed one of the first +American settlements in the Chehalem Valley, tributary to the Willamette. A +journey to California in 1836, to purchase cattle, resulted in stocking the Oregon +pioneers. Young's Oregon settlement prospered; he erected saw and grist mills, +and upon his death (1841) the administration of his estate was the occasion of the +first tentative experiment in civil government in Oregon. In after years, a son +Joachim came from New Mexico, and laid successful claim to the property, which +was paid by the state. +</p> +<p> +Milton J. Sublette was a younger brother of William (for whom see our volume +xix, p. 221, note 55, Gregg) and himself a noted trapper and trader, operating chiefly +in the Rocky Mountains. In 1833 he entered into arrangements with Nathaniel +Wyeth (see our volume xxi), but the next year was compelled to retire because of +injury to a leg, which caused his death at Fort Laramie, December 19, 1836.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span +class="label">[3]</span></a> Algodones is a small Mexican town in Sandoval County, about fifteen miles +above Albuquerque. It is now a station on the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé +Railway, and has promise of becoming a junction with the Santa Fé Central.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Thomas Rowland, a native Pennsylvanian, had been a resident of New Mexico +for a number of years, and had married there. His brother John was accused +of complicity with the Texans, which led to the attack upon Rowland's property. +This was shortly restored to him, as his friends were influential in official circles. +See George W. Kendall, <cite>Narrative of the Texan Santa Fé Expedition</cite> (New York, +1844), i, pp. 271, 272, 332. John Rowland led a party of immigrants to California +(1841), where he became a leading American pioneer.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Manuel Alvarez was a native of Spain, who showed much enterprise in establishing +the trade between the United States and New Mexico. In 1839 he was +appointed United States consul at Santa Fé, an office which he held until the American +conquest. In 1849 he took part in the new state movement, and was by the +suffrages of the people elected governor; but Congress having erected New Mexico +into a territory, the state government lapsed.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Powhattan Ellis, for notice of whom, see our volume xix, p. 274, note 100 +(Gregg).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Originally a <dfn>fuero</dfn> was any form of charter or privilege granted to a kingdom, +province, town, or person. <i>Fueros</i> played great part in the constitutional development +of Spain and her colonies.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The "Laws of the Indies," or the codification of the ordinances, acts, etc., +passed by the Council of the Indies and other administrative Spanish authorities +for the government of the colonies, was first issued at Madrid in 1681, under the +title <cite>Recopilacion de Leyes de los Reynos de Indias</cite>. A fourth edition, under the +direction of the Council of the Indies, issued in 1791.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Madame Frances Erskine Inglis Calderon de la Barca was a Scotchwoman +married to a Spaniard who was minister to the United States, and later to +Mexico. While in the latter country, she published <cite>Life in Mexico</cite> (London, +1843), an interesting, racy series of letters on the manners and customs of Spanish +America.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> + The <dfn>puro</dfn> is a common cigar of <em>pure</em> tobacco; but the term <dfn>cigarro</dfn> or <dfn>cigarrito</dfn> +is applied to those made of cut tobacco rolled up in a strip of paper or corn-husk. +The latter are by far in the most general use in New Mexico, even among the men, +and are those only smoked by the females. In this province cigarros are +rarely sold in the shops, being generally manufactured by every one just as +they are needed. Their expertness in this 'accomplishment' is often remarkable. +The mounted vaquero will take out his <dfn>guagito</dfn> (his little tobacco-flask), his packet +of <dfn>hojas</dfn> (or prepared husks), and his flint, steel, etc.,—make his cigarrito, strike +fire and commence smoking in a minute's time—all while at full speed: and +the next minute will perhaps lazo the wildest bull without interrupting his +smoke.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div></div> + +<h3 title="Chapter XIII"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h3> + +<p class="subhead">Military Hierarchy of Mexico — Religious Superstitions — Legend of +<cite>Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe</cite> — A profane version of the Story — A +curious Plan for manufacturing Water — Saints and Images — Processions — How +to make it Rain — The Sacred Host — Fanaticism +and Murder — Honors paid to a Bishop — Servility to Priests — Attendance +at Public Worship — New Mexicans in Church — The +Vesper Bells — Passion Week and the Ceremonies pertaining +thereto — Ridiculous <i>Penitencia</i> — Whitewashing of Criminals — Matrimonial +Connexions and Mode of Contracting them — Restrictions +upon Lovers — Onerous Fees paid for Marriages and Burials — Anecdote +of a <i>Ranchero</i> — Ditto of a Servant and a Widow, illustrative +of Priestly Extortion — Modes of Burial, and Burial Ground +of the Heretics.<a href="#tocXIII" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>The Mexicans seem the legitimate descendants of the +subjects of 'His Most Catholic Majesty;' for the Romish +faith is not only the religion established by law, but the only +one tolerated by the constitution: a system of republican +liberty wholly incomprehensible to the independent and +tolerant spirits of the United States. Foreigners only of +other creeds, in accordance with treaty stipulations, can +worship privately within their own houses.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> The Mexicans, +indeed, talk of a 'union of Church and State:' they should +rather say a 'union of Church and Army;' for, as has {246} +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg038"></a>[p038]</span> already been shown, the civil authority is so nearly merged +in the military and the ecclesiastical, that the government, +if not a military hierarchy, is something so near akin that it is +difficult to draw the distinction. As Mr. Mayer<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> very +appropriately remarks, you are warned of the double +dominion of the army and the church "by the constant sound +of the drum and the bell, which ring in your ears from morn +to midnight, and drown the sounds of industry and labor."</p> + +<p>In the variety and grossness of popular superstitions, +Northern Mexico can probably compete with any civilized +country in the world. Others may have their extravagant +traditions, their fanatical prejudices, their priestly impostures, +but here the popular creed seems to be the embodiment of as +much that is fantastic and improbable in idolatrous worship, +as it is possible to clothe in the garb of a religious faith. +It would fill volumes to relate one-half of the wonderful +miracles and extraordinary apparitions said to have occurred +during and since the conquest of the Indian Pueblos and +their conversion to the Romish faith. Their character +may be inferred from the following national legend of <cite>La +Maravillosa Aparicion de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe</cite>—<i>anglicè</i>, +the marvellous apparition of Our Lady of Guadalupe,—which, +in some one of its many traditionary shapes, +is generally believed throughout the republic. I have seen +some half a dozen written versions of this celebrated tradition, +and heard about as many oral {247} ones; but no two +agree in all the particulars. However, that which has +received most currency informs us, that, on the 12th of +December, 1531, an Indian called Juan Diego, while passing +over the barren hill of Tepeyacac (about a league northward <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg039"></a>[p039]</span> +from the city of Mexico), in quest of medicinal herbs, had +his attention suddenly arrested by the fragrance of flowers, +and the sound of delightful music; and on looking up, he +saw an angelic sort of figure directly before him. Being +terrified he attempted to flee; but the apparition calling +to him by name, "Juan Diego," said she, "go tell the bishop +to have me a place of worship erected on this very spot." +The Indian replied that he could not return, as he was +seeking <i>remedios</i> for a dying relative. But the figure bade +him to do as commanded, and have no further care about +his relative—that he was then well. Juan Diego went +to the city, but being unable to procure an audience from the +bishop, he concluded he had been acting under a delusion, +and again set off for his <i>remedios</i>. Upon ascending the +same hill, however, the apparition again accosted him, and +hearing his excuse, upbraided him for his want of faith and +energy; and said, "Tell the bishop that it is Guadalupe, the +Virgin Mary, come to dwell amongst and protect the Mexicans, +who sends thee." The Indian, returning again to the +city, forced his way into the presence of the bishop, who, +like a good sensible man, received the messenger with jeers, +and treated him as a maniac; {248} telling him finally to +bring some sign, which, if really the Mother of God, his +directress could readily furnish.</p> + +<p>The perplexed Indian left the bishop's presence resolved +to avoid further molestation from his spiritual acquaintance, +by taking another route; yet, when near the place of his first +meeting, he again encountered the apparition, who, hearing +the result of his mission, ordered him to climb a naked rock +hard by, and collect a bouquet of flowers which he would +find growing there. Juan Diego, albeit without faith, +obeyed, when, to his surprise he found the flowers referred +to, and brought them to the Virgin, who, throwing them into +his <i>tilma</i>, commanded him to carry them to the bishop; saying, +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg040"></a>[p040]</span> +"When he sees these he will believe, as he well knows +that flowers do not bloom at this season, much less upon that +barren rock." The humble messenger now with more courage +sought the bishop's presence, and threw out the blooming +credentials of his mission before him; when lo! to the +astonishment of all, and to the entire conviction of his +<i>Senoría ilustrísima</i>, the perfect image of the apparition +appeared imprinted on the inside of the <i>tilma</i>.<a +name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p> + +<p>The reverend Prelate now fully acknowledged the divinity +of the picture, and in a {249} conclave of ecclesiastics convened +for the purpose, he pronounced it the image of <i>La +verdadera Vírgen</i> and protectress of Mexico. A splendid +chapel was soon after erected upon the spot designated in +the mandate, in which the miraculous painting was deposited, +where it is preserved to the present day. In the suburbs of +every principal city in the republic, there is now a chapel +specially dedicated to <i>Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe</i>, where +coarse resemblances of the original picture are to be seen. +Rough paintings of the same, of various dimensions, are +also to be met with in nearly every dwelling, from the palace +to the most miserable hovel. The image, with an adapted <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg041"></a>[p041]</span> +motto, has also been stamped upon medals, which are swung +about the necks of the faithful.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" +id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 292px;"> +<a id="Medal-of-Nuestra-Senora-de-Guadalupe-de-Mexico"></a> +<img src="images/i042.png" width="292" height="206" +alt="medal with image of La verdadera Vírgen" /> +<div class="IlloRtn"><a +href="#ILLUSTRATIONS_TO_VOLUME_XX">Illustrations List</a></div> +</div> + +<p>{250} As a further confirmation of the miracle, it is also +told, that when Juan Diego returned to his home, he found +his relative in good health—that he had suddenly risen +from the last extremity about the time of the former's meeting +with the Virgin.</p> + +<p>Now comes the profane version of the story, which the +skeptical have set afloat, as the most reasonable one; but +against which, in the name of orthodoxy, I feel bound to +enter my protest. To the better understanding of this +'explanatory tradition,' it may be necessary to premise that +the name of Guadalupe was already familiar to the Spaniards, +the Virgin Mary having, it is said, long before appeared in +Spain, under the same title; on which occasion an order of +monks, styled <dfn>Frailes Guadalupanos</dfn>, had been instituted. +One of these worthy fathers who had been sent as a missionary +to Mexico, finding the Indians rather stubborn and +unyielding, conceived the plan of flattering their national +vanity by fabricating a saint suited for the occasion. The +Guadalupano had a poor friend who was an excellent +painter, to whom he said, one day, "Take this tilma"—presenting +him one of the coarsest and most slazy texture +{251} (a sort of <dfn>manta de guangoche</dfn>); "paste it upon canvass, +and paint me thereon the handsomest effigy of Nuestra +Señora de Guadalupe that your fancy can portray." When <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg042"></a>[p042]</span> +this was done according to order, and the tilma separated +from the canvass, the picture appeared somewhat miraculous. +Viewed very closely, it showed exceedingly dim; but upon +receding to some distance, so that the eye could embrace a +larger field of the open texture, it appeared quite distinct +and beautiful. This effect is often alluded to at the present +day, and easily as it might be accounted for upon philosophical +principles, I have heard many an ignorant Mexican +declare, that <i>la Santisima Vírgen</i> concealed herself from +such as profaned her shrine by a too near approach, and +only shone forth in all her brilliancy to those who kept at a +respectful distance. But in conclusion, the story relates, +that a suitable damsel being selected and decked out to +represent the Virgin, the affair was played off as it has been +narrated.</p> + +<p>As regards the miracle of the fresh flowers in December +the <i>profanos</i> say, that there was nothing very wonderful about +it, as flowers were known to bloom in the lowlands, and +only a few leagues from the spot where the affair took place, +at all seasons of the year; implying that these had been +engrafted upon the rock for the occasion. There are some +who go so far as to insinuate that the bishop and other +ecclesiastics were privy to the whole affair, and that every +precaution had been {252} taken to see the Indian who +played first fiddle in the matter, provided with a tilma, +similar to the one on which the image of the Virgin was +painted, and that this was artfully slipped in the place of the +former, which the Indian had doffed when he climbed the +rock after the flowers.—I have not seen the original portrait, +but most of the copies and imitations I have met with, +represent the Virgin with that peculiarly tawny complexion +which was probably deemed indispensable to conciliate the +prejudices of the aborigines. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg043"></a>[p043]</span></p> + +<p>The reader may reconcile the foregoing discrepancies in +the best way he can; all that I have to add is, that the +apparition having been canonized by the Pope, a belief in it +now constitutes as much a part of the religious faith of the +Mexicans, as any article of the Apostolic Creed. To judge +from the blind and reverential awe in which the Virgin +Guadalupe is held by the lowly and the ignorant, one +would suppose her to be the first person in the Divinity, +for to her their vows are directed, their prayers offered up, +and all their confessions made.</p> + +<p>Among the many traditions implicitly believed in by the +people, and which tend to obstruct the advancement of +knowledge, there is one equally as amusing and extravagant +as the foregoing, which has been gravely recounted by the +present Vicar of New Mexico and ex-delegate to Congress. +During the memorable insurrection of 1680, the Pueblo of +San Felipe was about the only one that {253} remained faithful +to the Spaniards in all the North. It was during that +exciting period that the padre of another Pueblo took refuge +among them. Being besieged by their neighbors and their +communication with the water entirely cut off, they applied +for advice to the reverend padre, who bade them not despair, +as he had it in his power to supply them with water. He +then began to pray very fervently, after which he opened a +vein in each of his arms, from whence there flowed two such +copious streams of water that all fears of being reduced by +thirst were completely allayed!<a name="FNanchor_15_15" +id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg044"></a>[p044]</span></p> + +<p>It is a part of the superstitious blindness of these people +to believe that every one of their legion of canonized saints +possesses the power of performing certain miracles; and their +aid is generally invoked on all occasions of sickness and +distress. The kindest office, therefore, that the friends +of a sick person can perform, is to bring forward the image +of some of those saints whose healing powers have been +satisfactorily tested. The efficacy of these superstitious +remedies will not be difficult to account for, when the +powerful influence of the imagination upon disease is taken +into consideration.</p> + +<p>The images of patron saints are never put in such general +requisition, however, as in seasons of severe drought. The +priests, being generally expert at guessing the approach +of a pluvial period, take good care not to make confident +promises till they have substantial {254} reason to anticipate +a speedy fulfilment of their prophecies. When the fitting +season draws nigh, they carry out the image of Nuestra +Señora de Guadalupe, or that of some other favorite saint, +and parade about the streets, the fields and the meadows, +followed by all the men, women, and children of the neighborhood, +in solemn procession. Should the clouds condescend +to vouchsafe a supply of rain within a week or +two of this general humiliation, no one ever thinks of begrudging +the scores of dollars that have been paid to the +priests for bringing about so happy a result.</p> + +<p>Speaking of processions, I am reminded of another +peculiar custom so prevalent in Mexico, that it never +fails to attract the attention of strangers. This is the +passage of the Sacred Host to the residence of persons +dangerously ill, for the purpose of administering to them +the Extreme Unction. In New Mexico, however, this +procession is not attended with so much ostentatious display +as it is in the South, the paradise of ecclesiastics, where <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg045"></a>[p045]</span> +it is conveyed in a black coach drawn by a pair of black +mules, accompanied by armed soldiers and followed by +crowds of <i>léperos</i> of all sexes and ages. During the procession +of the Host, two church-bells of different tones are +kept sounding by alternate strokes. Also the carriage +is always preceded by a bell-man tinkling a little bell in +regular time, to notify all within hearing of its approach, +that they may be prepared to pay it due homage. When +{255} this bell is heard, all those that happen to be within +sight of the procession, though at ever so great a distance, +instantly kneel and remain in that position till it has passed +out of sight. On these occasions, if an American happens +to be within hearing, he endeavors to avoid the <i>cortége</i>, +by turning the corner of a street or entering a shop or the +house of a friend; for although it may be expedient, and +even rational, to conform with the customs and ceremonies +of these countries we are sojourning in, very few Protestants +would feel disposed to fall on their knees before a coach +freighted with frail mortals pretending to represent the +Godhead! I am sorry to say that non-compliants are +frequently insulted and sometimes pelted with stones by +the rabble. Even a foreign artisan was once massacred +in the Mexican metropolis because he refused to come out +of his shop, where he was kneeling, and perform the act +of genuflexion in the street!</p> + +<p>This abject idolatry sometimes takes a still more humiliating +aspect, and descends to the worship of men in the +capacity of religious rulers. On the occasion of the Bishop +of Durango's visit to Santa Fé in 1833, an event which +had not taken place for a great many years, the infatuated +population hailed his arrival with as much devotional +enthusiasm as if it had been the second advent of the Messiah. +Magnificent preparations were made everywhere +for his reception: the streets were swept, the roads and <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg046"></a>[p046]</span> +bridges on his route repaired {256} and decorated; and +from every window in the city there hung such a profusion +of fancy curtains and rich cloths that the imagination was +carried back to those glowing descriptions of enchanted +worlds which one reads of in the fables of necromancers. +I must observe, however, that there is a custom in all the +towns of Mexico (which it would not be safe to neglect), +providing that whenever a religious procession takes place, +all the doors and windows facing the street along which it +is to pass, shall be decorated with shawls, carpets, or fancy +cloths, according to the means and capabilities of the proprietor. +During the bishop's sojourn in Santa Fé, which, +to the great joy of the inhabitants, lasted for several weeks, +he never appeared in the streets but that 'all true Catholics' +who were so fortunate as to obtain a glimpse of his <i>Señoría +Ilustrísima</i> immediately dropped upon their knees, and +never moved from that position till the mitred priest had +either vouchsafed his benediction or had disappeared. Even +the principal personages of the city would not venture to +address him till they had first knelt at his feet and kissed +his 'pastoral ring.' This, however, is only a heightened +picture of what occurs every day in the intercourse between +the rancheros and the common padres of the country. The +slavish obsequiousness of the lower classes towards these +pampered priests is almost incredible.</p> + +<p>No people are more punctual in their attendance upon +public worship, or more exact {257} in the performance of +the external rites of religion, than the New Mexicans. A +man would about as soon think of venturing in twenty +fathoms of water without being able to swim, as of undertaking +a journey without hearing mass first. These religious +exercises, however, partake but seldom of the character +of true devotion; for people may be seen chattering +or tittering while in the act of crossing themselves, or muttering <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg047"></a>[p047]</span> +some formal prayer. Indeed, it is the common +remark of strangers, that they are wont to wear much +graver countenances while dancing at a fandango than +during their devotional exercises at the foot of the altar. +In nothing, however, is their observance of the outward +forms of religion more remarkable than in their deportment +every day towards the close of twilight, when the large bell +of the <i>Parroquia</i> peals for <i>la oracion</i>, or vespers.<a +name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> All +conversation is instantly suspended—all labor ceases—people +of all classes, whether on foot or on horseback, make +a sudden halt—even the laden porter, groaning under +the weight of an insupportable burden, stops in the midst +of his career and stands still. An almost breathless silence +reigns throughout the town, disturbed only by the occasional +sibilations of the devout multitude: all of which, accompanied +by the slow heavy peals of a large sonorous bell, +afford a scene truly solemn and appropriate. At the expiration +of about two minutes the charm is suddenly broken +by the clatter of livelier-toned bells; and a <dfn>buenas {258} +tardes</dfn> (good evening) to those present closes the ceremony: +when <i>presto</i>, all is bustle and confusion again—the colloquial +chit-chat is resumed—the smith plies upon his +anvil with redoubled energy—the clink of the hammer +simultaneously resounds in every direction—the wayfarers +are again in motion,—both pleasure and business, in +short, assume their respective sway.</p> + +<p>Although the Catholics have a saint for each day in the +year, the number of canonized <i>fiestas</i> in which labor is prohibited +has been somewhat reduced in Mexico. <dfn>La Semana +Santa</dfn>, or Passion Week, is perhaps the period when +the religious feeling, such as it is, is most fully excited: <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg048"></a>[p048]</span> +<dfn>Viernes Santo</dfn> (Good Friday), especially, is observed with +great pomp and splendor. An image of Christ large as +life, nailed to a huge wooden cross, is paraded through +the streets, in the midst of an immense procession, accompanied +by a glittering array of carved images, representing +the Virgin Mary, Mary Magdalene, and several others; +while the most notorious personages of antiquity, who +figured at that great era of the World's history,—the centurion +with a band of guards, armed with lances, and apparelled +in the costume supposed to have been worn in +those days,—may be seen bestriding splendidly caparisoned +horses, in the breathing reality of flesh and blood. Taking +it all in all, this spectacle,—the ceremonies and manœuvres +which attend its career through the densely crowded and +ornamented {259} streets,—are calculated to produce impressions +of a most confused description, in which regret and +melancholy may be said to form no inconsiderable share.</p> + +<p>It has been customary for great malefactors to propitiate +Divine forgiveness by a cruel sort of <i>penitencia</i>, which +generally takes place during the <i>Semana Santa</i>. I once +chanced to be in the town of Tomé<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> on Good Friday, +when my attention was arrested by a man almost naked, +bearing, in imitation of Simon, a huge cross upon his shoulders, +which, though constructed of the lightest wood, must +have weighed over a hundred pounds. The long end +dragged upon the ground, as we have seen it represented +in sacred pictures, and about the middle swung a stone of +immense dimensions, appended there for the purpose of +making the task more laborious. Not far behind followed +another equally destitute of clothing, with his whole body +wrapped in chains and cords, which seemed buried in the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg049"></a>[p049]</span> +muscles, and which so cramped and confined him that +he was scarcely able to keep pace with the procession. +The person who brought up the rear presented a still more +disgusting aspect. He walked along with a patient and +composed step, while another followed close behind belaboring +him lustily with a whip, which he flourished with +all the satisfaction of an amateur; but as the lash was pointed +only with a tuft of untwisted sea-grass, its application merely +served to keep open the wounds upon the penitent's {260} +back, which had been scarified, as I was informed, with +the keen edge of a flint, and was bleeding most profusely. +The blood was kept in perpetual flow by the stimulating +juice of certain herbs, carried by a third person, into which +the scourger frequently dipped his lash. Although the +actors in this tragical farce were completely muffled, yet +they were well known to many of the by-standers, one of +whom assured me that they were three of the most notorious +rascals in the country. By submitting to this species of +penance, they annually received complete absolution of +their past year's sins, and, thus 'purified,' entered afresh +on the old career of wickedness and crime.</p> + +<p>In New Mexico, the institution of marriage changes the +legal rights of the parties, but it scarcely affects their moral +obligations. It is usually looked upon as a convenient +cloak for irregularities, which society less willingly tolerates +in the lives of unmarried women. Yet when it is considered +that the majority of matches are forced and ill-assorted, +some idea may be formed of the little incitement that is +given to virtue. There are very few parents who would +stoop to consult a young lady's wishes before concluding +a marriage contract, nor would maidens, generally, ever +dream of a matrimonial connection unless proposed first +by the father. The lover's proposals are, upon the same +principle, made in writing direct to the parents themselves, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg050"></a>[p050]</span> +and without the least deference to the wishes or inclinations +{261} of the young lady whose hand is thus sought in marriage. +The tender emotions engendered between lovers +during walks and rambles along the banks of silent streams, +are never experienced in this country; for the sexes are +seldom permitted to converse or be together alone. In +short, instances have actually occurred when the betrothed +couple have never seen each other till brought to the altar +to be joined in wedlock.</p> + +<p>Among the humbler classes, there are still more powerful +causes calculated to produce irregularity of life; not the +least of which is the enormous fee that must be paid to the +curate for tying the matrimonial knot. This system of +extortion is carried so far as to amount very frequently +to absolute prohibition: for the means of the bridegroom +are often insufficient for the exigency of the occasion; and +the priests seldom consent to join people in wedlock until +the money has been secured to them. The curates being +without control, the marriage rates are somewhat irregular, +but they usually increase in proportion to the character +of the ceremonies and to the circumstances of the parties. +The lowest (about twenty dollars) are adapted to the simplest +form, solemnized in church at mass; but with the +excuse of any extra service and ceremonies, particularly +if performed at a private house, the fees are increased often +as high as several hundred dollars: I have heard of $500 +being paid for a marriage ceremony. The following communication, +which {262} appeared in a Chihuahua paper +under the signature of "<i>Un Ranchero</i>" affords some illustration +of the grievances of the plebeians in this respect. +Literally translated it runs thus:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"<em>Messrs. Editors of the Noticioso de Chihuahua:</em></p> + +<p>"Permit me, through your paper, to say a few words in +print, as those of my pen have been unsuccessfully employed +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg051"></a>[p051]</span> with the <i>curas</i> of Allende and Jimenez, to whom I +applied the other day for the purpose of ascertaining their +legal charge to marry one of my sons. The following +simple and concise answer is all that I have been able to +elicit from either of these ecclesiastics:—'<em>The marriage +fees are a hundred and nineteen dollars</em>.' I must confess +that I was completely suffocated when I heard this outrageous +demand upon my poor purse; and did I not pride +myself on being a true Apostolic Roman Catholic, and +were it not that the charming graces of my intended daughter-in-law +have so captivated my son that nothing but marriage +will satisfy him, I would assuredly advise him to contrive +some other arrangement with his beloved, which +might not be so ruinous to our poor purse; for reflect that +$119 are the life and all of a poor ranchero. If nothing +else will do, I shall have to sell my few cows (<dfn>mis vaquitas</dfn>) +to help my son out of this difficulty."—The 'Ranchero' +then appeals to the Government to remedy such evils, by +imposing some salutary restrictions upon the clergy; and +concludes by saying, "If this is not done, I will {263} never +permit either of my remaining three sons to marry."</p></div> + +<p>This article was certainly an effort of boldness against +the priesthood, which may have cost the poor 'Ranchero' +a sentence of ex-communication. Few of his countrymen +would venture on a similar act of temerity; and at least +nine-tenths profess the most profound submission to their +religious rulers. Being thus bred to look upon their +priests as infallible and holy samples of piety and virtue, +we should not be so much surprised at the excesses of the +'flock' when a large portion of the <i>pastores</i>, the padres +themselves, are foremost in most of the popular vices of +the country: first at the fandango—first at the gaming +table—first at the cock-pit—first at bacchanalian orgies—and <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg052"></a>[p052]</span> +by no means last in the contraction of those +<i>liaisons</i> which are so emphatically prohibited by their +vows.</p> + +<p>The baptismal and burial fees (neither of which can be +avoided without incurring the charge of heresy) are also +a great terror to the candidates for married life. "If I +marry," says the poor yeoman, "my family must go unclad +to baptize my children; and if any of them should die, +we must starve ourselves to pay the burial charges." +The fee for baptism, it is true, is not so exorbitant, +and in accordance to custom, is often paid by the <dfn>padrino</dfn> +or sponsor; but the burial costs are almost equally extravagant +with those of marriage, varying in proportion to the +age and {264} circumstances of the deceased. A faithful +Mexican servant in my employ at Chihuahua, once solicited +forty dollars to bury his mother. Upon my expressing +some surprise at the exorbitancy of the amount, he replied—"That +is what the cura demands, sir, and if I do not +pay it my poor mother will remain unburied!" Thus this +man was obliged to sacrifice several months' wages, to +pamper the avarice of a vicious and mercenary priest. On +another occasion, a poor widow in Santa Fé, begged a little +medicine for her sick child: "Not," said the disconsolate +mother, "that the life of the babe imports me much, for I +know the <i>angelito</i> will go directly to heaven; but what shall +I do to pay the priest for burying it? He will take my +house and all from me—and I shall be turned desolate +into the street!"—and so saying, she commenced weeping +bitterly.</p> + +<p>Indigent parents are thus frequently under the painful +necessity of abandoning and disowning their deceased children, +to avoid the responsibility of burial expenses. To +this end the corpse is sometimes deposited in some niche +or corner of the church during the night; and upon being <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg053"></a>[p053]</span> +found in the morning, the priest is bound to inter it gratis, +unless the parent can be discovered, in which case the latter +would be liable to severe castigation, besides being bound +to pay the expenses.</p> + +<p>Children that have not been baptized are destined, according +to the popular faith, to a kind of negative existence in the +world of {265} spirits, called <dfn>Limbo</dfn>, where they remain for ever +without either suffering punishment or enjoying happiness. +Baptized infants, on the other hand, being considered without +sin, are supposed to enter at once into the joys of heaven. +The deceased child is then denominated an <dfn>angelito</dfn> (a little +angel), and is interred with joy and mirth instead of grief +and wailing. It is gaudily bedecked with fanciful attire +and ornaments of tinsel and flowers; and being placed upon +a small bier, it is carried to the grave by four children as +gaily dressed as their circumstances will allow; accompanied +by musicians using the instruments and playing the +tunes of the fandangos; and the little procession is nothing +but glee and merriment.</p> + +<p>In New Mexico the lower classes are very rarely, if ever, +buried in coffins: the corpse being simply wrapped in a +blanket, or some other covering, and in that rude attire +consigned to its last home. It is truly shocking to a sensitive +mind to witness the inhuman treatment to which the +remains of the dead are sometimes subjected. There being +nothing to indicate the place of the previous graves, it not +unfrequently happens that the partially decayed relics of a +corpse are dug up and forced to give place to the more +recently deceased, when they are again thrown with the +earth into the new grave with perfect indifference. The +operation of filling up the grave especially, is particularly +repulsive; the earth being pounded down with a large maul, +{266} as fast as it is thrown in upon the unprotected corpse, +with a force sufficient to crush a delicate frame to atoms. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg054"></a>[p054]</span></p> + +<p>As the remains of heretics are not permitted to pollute +either the church-yard or <i>Campo Santo</i>, those Americans +who have died in Santa Fé, have been buried on a hill which +overlooks the town to the northward. The corpses have +sometimes been disinterred and robbed of the shroud in +which they were enveloped; so that, on a few occasions, it +has been deemed expedient to appoint a special watch for +the protection of the grave.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Religious freedom, and entire separation of church and state, were secured +in Mexico, after a long and bitter struggle, by the constitution of 1873.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Brantz Mayer (1809-79), a native of Baltimore, Maryland, historian and +diplomat. In 1843 he was secretary of legation at Mexico, and upon his return +published <cite>Mexico as it was and as it is</cite> (New York, 1844), to which book Gregg +here refers. Mayer was the author of several other works, both on Mexico and +American history, and founder of the Maryland Historical Society.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> This is a kind of mantle or loose covering worn by the Indians, which, in the +present instance, was made of the coarse filaments of a species of maguey, and a +little resembled the common coffee sacks. The painting, as it necessarily must be +on such a material, is said to be coarse, and represents the Virgin covered with a +blue robe bespangled with stars.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> +The accompanying cut represents both sides of a medal of "<dfn>Nuestra Señora +de Guadalupe de Mexico</dfn>," of which, as I have been informed, 216,000 were struck +at Birmingham in the year 1831, designed for the Mexican market. Similar medals +are worn by nearly nine-tenths of the population of Northern Mexico. On one +side, as will be seen, the Virgin is represented in her star-spangled robe, supported +by a cherub and the moon under her feet: a design, which, it has been suggested, +was most probably drawn from Revelation xii. 1. The date, "A. 1805," is that +perhaps of some one of the innumerable miracles, which, according to fame in +Mexico, have been wrought by the Virgin Guadalupe. The motto, "<i>Non fecit +taliter omni nationi</i>" (She "hath not dealt so with any nation") which is found on +the reverse of the medal, is extracted from Psalm cxlvii. 20.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> This story is apochryphal, since the pueblo was besieged neither during the +revolt of 1680 nor that of 1696. The pueblo of San Felipe is of Queres origin, and +was known in the seventeenth century. Its first friar was Cristobal Quiñones, who +died in 1609. The pueblo was faithful to the Spanish, its people killing none of +that nation during the revolt. It now occupied its fourth site in Sandoval County, +at the foot of a mesa which is crowned with the ruins of an earlier site. It is the +southernmost pueblo of Queres stock, and had (1903) a population of five hundred +and sixteen.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The Parroquia, or cathedral of Santa Fé, stands upon the site of, and partially +incorporates the early building of 1627. It is built of light brown stone, and +flanked by two bell towers.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Tomé is a town on the east bank of the Rio Grande, some distance below +Albuquerque. It was at one time the seat of Valencia County, and in 1900 had a +population of about eight hundred.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div></div> + +<h3 title="Chapter XIV"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h3> + +<p class="subhead">The Pueblos — Their Character for Sobriety, Honesty, and Industry — Traditional +Descent from Montezuma — Their Languages — Former +and present Population — The Pueblo of Pecos — Singular +Habits of that ill-fated Tribe — Curious Tradition — Montezuma +and the Sun — Legend of a Serpent — Religion and Government — Secret +Council — Laws and Customs — Excellent Provisions +against Demoralization — Primitive Pastimes of the Pueblos — Their +Architecture — Singular Structures of Taos, and other novel +Fortifications — Primitive state of the Arts among the Pueblos — Style +of Dress, Weapons, etc. — Their Diet — The <i>Guayave</i>.<a href="#tocXIV" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>Allusion has so frequently been made to the aboriginal +tribes of New Mexico, known as <dfn>Los Pueblos</dfn>, that I think +I shall not be trespassing too much upon the patience of +the reader, in glancing rapidly at some of the more conspicuous +features of their national habits and character.</p> + +<p>Although the term <dfn>Pueblo</dfn> in Spanish literally means +the <i>people</i>, and their <i>towns</i>, it is here specifically applied +to the <i>Christianized Indians</i> (as well as their villages)—to +those aborigines whom the Spaniards not only subjected +to their laws, but to an acknowledgment of the Romish +faith, and upon whom they forced baptism and the cross +in exchange for {268} the vast possessions of which they +robbed them. All that was left them was, to each Pueblo +a league or two of land situated around their villages, the +conquerors reserving to themselves at least ninety-nine +hundredths of the whole domain as a requital for their +generosity. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg055"></a>[p055]</span></p> + +<p>When these regions were first discovered it appears that +the inhabitants lived in comfortable houses and cultivated +the soil, as they have continued to do up to the present +time. Indeed, they are now considered the best horticulturists +in the country, furnishing most of the fruits and +a large portion of the vegetable supplies that are to be found +in the markets. They were until very lately the only +people in New Mexico who cultivated the grape. They +also maintain at the present time considerable herds of +cattle, horses, etc. They are, in short, a remarkably sober +and industrious race, conspicuous for morality and honesty, +and very little given to quarrelling or dissipation, except +when they have had much familiar intercourse with the +Hispano-Mexican population.</p> + +<p>Most of these Pueblos call themselves the descendants +of Montezuma, although it would appear that they could +only have been made acquainted with the history of that +monarch, by the Spaniards; as this province is nearly two +thousand miles from the ancient kingdom of Mexico. At +the time of the conquest they must have been a very powerful +people—numbering near a hundred villages, as existing +{269} ruins would seem to indicate; but they are now reduced +to about twenty, which are scattered in various parts of +the territory.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a +href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> + +<p>There are but three or four different languages spoken +among them, and these, indeed, may be distantly allied +to each other. Those of Taos, Picuris, Isleta, and perhaps +some others, speak what has been called the <dfn>Piro</dfn> language. +A large portion of the others, viz., those of San Juan, Santa <span +class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg056"></a>[p056]</span> +Clara, Nambé, Pojuaque, Tezuque, and some others, +speak <dfn>Tegua</dfn>, having all been originally known by this +general name; and those of Cochití, Santo Domingo, San +Felipe, and perhaps Sandía, speak the same tongue, though +they seem formerly to have been distinguished as <dfn>Queres</dfn>. +The numerous tribes that inhabited the highlands between +Rio del Norte and Pecos, as those of Pecos, Ciénega, Galisteo, +etc., were known anciently as <dfn>Tagnos</dfn>, but these are now +all extinct; yet their language is said to be spoken by those +of Jemez and others of that section. Those further to +the westward<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a +href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> {270} are perhaps allied to the Navajoes. +Though all these Pueblos speak their native languages +among themselves, a great many of them possess a smattering +of Spanish, sufficient to carry on their intercourse with +the Mexicans.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> + +<p>The population of these Pueblos will average nearly +five hundred souls each (though some hardly exceed one +hundred), making an aggregate of nine or ten thousand. +At the time of the original conquest, at the close of the +sixteenth century, they were, as has been mentioned, much, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg057"></a>[p057]</span> +perhaps ten-fold, more numerous.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Ancient ruins are +now to be seen scattered in every quarter of the territory: +of some, entire stone walls are yet standing, while others +are nearly or quite obliterated, many of them being now +only known by their names which history or tradition has +preserved to us. Numbers were no doubt destroyed during +the insurrection of 1680, and the petty internal strifes which +followed.</p> + +<p>Several of these Pueblos have been converted into Mexican +villages, of which that of <dfn>Pecos</dfn> is perhaps the most +remarkable instance. What with the massacres of the +second conquest, and the inroads of the Comanches, they +gradually dwindled away, till they found themselves reduced +to about a dozen, comprising all ages and sexes; and +it was only a few years ago that they abandoned the home +of their fathers and joined the Pueblo of Jemez.</p> + +<p>Many curious tales are told of the singular habits of this +ill-fated tribe, which must no {271} doubt have tended to +hasten its utter annihilation. A tradition was prevalent +among them that Montezuma had kindled a holy fire, and +enjoined their ancestors not to suffer it to be extinguished +until he should return to deliver his people from the yoke +of the Spaniards. In pursuance of these commands, a +constant watch had been maintained for ages to prevent +the fire from going out; and, as tradition further informed +them, that Montezuma would appear with the sun, the +deluded Indians were to be seen every clear morning upon +the terraced roofs of their houses, attentively watching for +the appearance of the 'king of light,' in hopes of seeing +him 'cheek by jowl' with their immortal sovereign. I have <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg058"></a>[p058]</span> +myself descended into the famous <dfn>estufas</dfn>, or subterranean +vaults, of which there were several in the village, and have +beheld this consecrated fire, silently smouldering under a +covering of ashes, in the basin of a small altar. Some +say that they never lost hope in the final coming of +Montezuma until, by some accident or other, or a lack +of a sufficiency of warriors to watch it, the fire became +extinguished; and that it was this catastrophe that induced +them to abandon their villages, as I have before observed.</p> + +<p>The task of tending the sacred fire was, it is said, allotted +to the warriors. It is further related, that they took the +watch by turns for two successive days and nights, without +partaking of either food, water, or sleep; while some assert, +that instead of being restricted to {272} two days, each +guard continued with the same unbending severity of purpose +until exhaustion, and very frequently death, left their places +to be filled by others. A large portion of those who came +out alive were generally so completely prostrated by the +want of repose and the inhalation of carbonic gas that they +very soon died; when, as the vulgar story asseverates, their +remains were carried to the den of a monstrous serpent, +which kept itself in excellent condition by feeding upon +these delicacies. This huge snake (invented no doubt by +the lovers of the marvellous to account for the constant +disappearance of the Indians) was represented as the idol +which they worshipped, and as subsisting entirely upon +the flesh of his devotees: live infants, however, seemed +to suit his palate best. The story of this wonderful serpent +was so firmly believed in by many ignorant people, that on +one occasion I heard an honest ranchero assert, that upon +entering the village very early on a winter's morning, he +saw the huge trail of the reptile in the snow, as large as that +of a dragging ox. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg059"></a>[p059]</span></p> + +<p>This village, anciently so renowned, lies twenty-five +miles eastward of Santa Fé, and near the <i>Rio Pecos</i>, to +which it gave name. Even so late as ten years ago, when +it contained a population of fifty to a hundred souls, the +traveller would oftentimes perceive but a solitary Indian, +a woman, or a child, standing here and there like so many +statues upon the roofs of their houses, with their eyes fixed +on {273} the eastern horizon, or leaning against a wall or +a fence, listlessly gazing at the passing stranger; while at +other times not a soul was to be seen in any direction, and +the sepulchral silence of the place was only disturbed by +the occasional barking of a dog, or the cackling of hens.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> + +<p>No other Pueblo appears to have adopted this extraordinary +superstition: like Pecos, however, they have all +held Montezuma to be their perpetual sovereign. It would +likewise appear that they all worship the sun; for it is +asserted to be their regular practice to turn the face +towards the east at sunrise.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> They profess the Catholic +faith, however, of which, nevertheless, they cannot be expected +to understand anything beyond the formalities; as <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg060"></a>[p060]</span> +but very few of their Mexican neighbors and teachers +can boast of more.</p> + +<p>Although nominally under the jurisdiction of the federal +government, as Mexican citizens, many features of their +ancient customs are still retained, as well in their civil rule +as in their religion. Each Pueblo is under the control of a +<dfn>cacique</dfn> or <dfn>gobernadorcillo</dfn>, chosen from among their own +sages, and commissioned by the governor of New Mexico. +The cacique, when any public business is to be transacted, +collects together the principal chiefs of the Pueblo in an +<dfn>estufa</dfn>, or cell, usually under ground, and there lays before +them the subjects of debate, which are generally settled +by the opinion of the majority. No Mexican is admitted +to these councils, nor do the {274} subjects of discussion +ever transpire beyond the precincts of the cavern. The +council has also charge of the interior police and tranquility +of the village.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> One of their regulations is to appoint +a secret watch for the purpose of keeping down disorders +and vices of every description, and especially to keep +an eye over the young men and women of the village. When +any improper intercourse among them is detected, the +parties are immediately carried to the council, and the +cacique intimates to them that they must be wedded forthwith. +Should the girl be of bad character, and the man, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg061"></a>[p061]</span> +therefore, unwilling to marry her, they are ordered to +keep separate under penalty of the lash. Hence it is, that +the females of these Pueblos are almost universally noted +for their chastity and modest deportment.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> + +<p>They also elect a <dfn>capitan de guerra</dfn>, a kind of commander-in-chief +of the warriors, whose office it is to +defend their homes and their interests both in the field +and in the council chamber.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> Though not very warlike, +these Pueblos are generally valiant, and well skilled +in the strategies of Indian warfare; and although they +have been branded with cruelty and ferocity, yet they +can hardly be said to surpass the Mexicans in this respect: +both, in times of war, pay but little regard either to age or +sex. I have been told that when the Pueblos return from +their belligerent expeditions, instead of going directly to +their homes, they always visit their council cell first. Here +{275} they undress, dance, and carouse, frequently for two +days in succession before seeing their families.</p> + +<p>Although the Pueblos are famous for hospitality and +industry, they still continue in the rudest state of ignorance, +having neither books nor schools among them, as none of +their languages have been reduced to rules, and very few +of their children are ever taught in Spanish.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> A degree of +primitiveness characterizes all their amusements, which +bear a strong similarity to those of the wilder tribes. Before +the New Mexican government had become so much <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg062"></a>[p062]</span> +impoverished, there was wont to be held in the capital on +the 16th of September of every year, a national celebration +of the declaration of Independence, to which the Pueblos +were invited. The warriors and youths of each nation +with a proportionate array of dusky damsels would appear +on these occasions, painted and ornamented in accordance +with their aboriginal customs, and amuse the inhabitants +with all sorts of grotesque feats and native dances. Each +Pueblo generally had its particular uniform dress and its +particular dance. The men of one village would sometimes +disguise themselves as elks, with horns on their heads, +moving on all-fours, and mimicking the animal they were +attempting to personate. Others would appear in the +garb of a turkey, with large heavy wings, and strut about +in imitation of that bird. But the Pecos tribe, already +reduced to seven men, always occasioned most diversion. +{276} Their favorite exploit was, each to put on the skin +of a buffalo, horns, tail, and all, and thus accoutred scamper +about through the crowd, to the real or affected terror +of all the ladies present, and to the great delight of the +boys.</p> + +<p>The Pueblo villages are generally built with more regularity +than those of the Mexicans, and are constructed of +the same materials as were used by them in the most primitive +ages. Their dwelling-houses, it is true, are not so +spacious as those of the Mexicans, containing very seldom +more than two or three small apartments upon the ground +floor, without any court-yard, but they have generally a +much loftier appearance, being frequently two stories high +and sometimes more. A very curious feature in these +buildings, is, that there is most generally no direct communication +between the street and the lower rooms, into which +they descend by a trap-door from the upper story, the latter +being accessible by means of ladders. Even the entrance +to the upper stories is frequently at the roof. This style of <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg063"></a>[p063]</span> +building seems to have been adopted for security against +their marauding neighbors of the wilder tribes, with whom +they were often at war. When the family had all been +housed at night, the ladder was drawn up, and the inmates +were thus shut up in a kind of fortress, which bid defiance +to the scanty implements of warfare used by the wild Indians.</p> + +<p>Though this was their most usual style of architecture, +there still exists a Pueblo of Taos, {277} composed, for the +most part, of but two edifices of very singular structure—one +on each side of a creek, and formerly communicating +by a bridge. The base-story is a mass of near four hundred +feet long, a hundred and fifty wide, and divided into numerous +apartments, upon which other tiers of rooms are built, +one above another, drawn in by regular grades, forming +a pyramidal pile of fifty or sixty feet high, and comprising +some six or eight stories. The outer rooms only seem to +be used for dwellings, and are lighted by little windows +in the sides, but are entered through trap-doors in the +<dfn>azoteas</dfn> or roofs. Most of the inner apartments are employed +as granaries and store-rooms, but a spacious hall in +the centre of the mass, known as the <dfn>estufa</dfn>, is reserved for +their secret councils. These two buildings afford habitations, +as is said, for over six hundred souls.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> There is +likewise an edifice in the Pueblo of Picuris<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> of the same +class, and some of those of Moqui are also said to be similar.</p> + +<p>Some of these villages were built upon rocky eminences +deemed almost inaccessible: witness for instance <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg064"></a>[p064]</span> +the ruins of the ancient Pueblo of San Felipe, which +may be seen towering upon the very verge of a precipice +several hundred feet high, whose base is washed by +the swift current of the Rio del Norte. The still existing +Pueblo of Acoma also stands upon an isolated mound +whose whole area is occupied by the village, being fringed +all around by a precipitous <dfn>ceja</dfn> or cliff. {278} The inhabitants +enter the village by means of ladders, and by steps +cut into the solid rock upon which it is based.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> + +<p>At the time of the conquest, many of these Pueblos +manufactured some singular textures of cotton and other +materials; but with the loss of their liberty, they seem +to have lost most of their arts and ingenuity; so that the +finer specimens of native fabrics are now only to be met +with among the Moquis and Navajoes, who still retain +their independence. The Pueblos, however, make some +of the ordinary classes of blankets and <dfn>tilmas</dfn>,<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> as well as +other woolen stuffs. They also manufacture, according +to their aboriginal art, both for their own consumption, and +for the purpose of traffic, a species of earthenware not much +inferior to the coarse crockery of our common potters. +The pots made of this material stand fire remarkably well, +and are the universal substitutes for all the purposes of +cookery, even among the Mexicans, for the iron castings +of this country, which are utterly unknown there. Rude +as this kind of crockery is, it nevertheless evinces a +great deal of skill, considering that it is made entirely <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg065"></a>[p065]</span> +without lathe or any kind of machinery. It is often fancifully +painted with colored earths and the juice of a plant +called <dfn>guaco</dfn>, which brightens by burning. They also +work a singular kind of wicker-ware, of which some bowls +(if they may be so called) are so closely platted, {279} that, +once swollen by dampness, they serve to hold liquids, and +are therefore light and convenient vessels for the purposes +of travellers.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> + +<p>The dress of many of the Pueblos has become assimilated +in some respects to that of the common Mexicans; but by +far the greatest portion still retain most of their aboriginal +costume. The Taosas and others of the north somewhat +resemble the prairie tribes in this respect; but the Pueblos +to the south and west of Santa Fé dress in a different style, +which is said to be similar in many respects to that of the +aboriginal inhabitants of the city of Mexico. The moccasin +is the only part of the prairie suit that appears common +to them all, and of both sexes. They mostly wear +a kind of short breeches and long stockings, the use of +which they most probably acquired from the Spaniards. +The <dfn>saco</dfn>, a species of woollen jacket without sleeves, completes +their exterior garment; except during inclement +seasons, when they make use of the tilma. Very few of +them have hats or head-dress of any kind; and they generally +wear their hair long—commonly fashioned into a <dfn>queue</dfn>, +wrapped with some colored stuff. The squaws of the northern +tribes dress pretty much like those of the Prairies; but +the usual costume of the females of the southern and western +Pueblos is a handsome kind of small blanket of dark color, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg066"></a>[p066]</span> +which is drawn under one arm and tacked over the other +shoulder, leaving both arms free and naked. It is generally +{280} worn with a cotton chemise underneath and is bound +about the waist with a girdle. We rarely if ever see a +thorough-bred Pueblo woman in Mexican dress.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p> + +<p>The weapons most in use among the Pueblos are the +bow and arrow, with a long-handled lance and occasionally +a fusil. The rawhide shield is also much used, which, +though of but little service against fire-arms, serves to ward +off the arrow and lance.</p> + +<p>The aliment of these Indians is, in most respects, similar +to that of the Mexicans; in fact, as has been elsewhere +remarked, the latter adopted with their utensils numerous +items of aboriginal diet. The <i>tortilla</i>, the <i>atole</i>, the <i>pinole</i>,<a +name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> +and many others, together with the use of <i>chile</i>, are from +the Indians. Some of the wilder tribes make a peculiar +kind of <dfn>pinole</dfn>, by grinding the bean of the mezquite tree +into flour, which is then used as that of corn. And besides +the tortilla they make another singular kind of bread, if +we may so style it, called <dfn>guayave</dfn>, a roll of which so much +resembles a 'hornets' nest,' that by strangers it is often +designated by this title. It is usually made of Indian +corn prepared and ground as for tortillas, and diluted into +a thin paste. {281} I once happened to enter an Indian +hut where a young girl of the family was baking <i>guayaves</i>. +She was sitting by a fire, over which a large flat stone was +heating, with a crock of prepared paste by her side. She <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg067"></a>[p067]</span> +thrust her hand into the paste, and then wiped it over the +heated stone. What adhered to it was instantly baked and +peeled off. She repeated this process at the rate of a +dozen times or more per minute. Observing my curiosity, +the girl handed me one of the 'sheets,' silently; for she +seemed to understand but her native tongue. I found +it pleasant enough to the taste; though when cold, as I +have learned by experience, it is, like the cold tortilla, +rather tough and insipid. They are even thinner than +wafers; and some dozens, being folded in a roll, constitute +the laminate composition before mentioned. Being +thus preserved, they serve the natives for months upon +their journeys.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> +On the subject of Pueblo Indians, consult T. Donaldson, <cite>Moqui Pueblo +Indians of Arizona and Pueblo Indians of New Mexico</cite> (Washington, 1893), extra +bulletin of eleventh census; John T. Short, North <cite>Americans of Antiquity</cite> (New +York, 1880); A. F. A. Bandelier, Archæological Institute of America <i>Papers</i>, +American Series, i-iv; N. O. G. Nordenskiold, <cite>Cliff-dwellers of the Mesa Verde</cite> +(Chicago and Stockholm, 1893); C. F. Lummis, <cite>Land of Poco Tiempo</cite> (New York, +1893).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Of these, the Pueblo of Zuñi has been celebrated for honesty and hospitality. +The inhabitants mostly profess the Catholic faith, but have now no curate. They +cultivate the soil, manufacture, and possess considerable quantities of stock. Their +village is over 150 miles west of the Rio del Norte, on the waters of the Colorado +of the West, and is believed to contain between 1,000 and 1,500 souls. The "seven +Pueblos of Moqui" (as they are called) are a similar tribe living a few leagues +beyond. They formerly acknowledged the government and religion of the Spaniards, +but have long since rejected both, and live in a state of independence and +paganism. Their dwellings, however, like those of Zuñi, are similar to those of +the interior Pueblos, and they are equally industrious and agricultural, and still +more ingenious in their manufacturing. The language of the <dfn>Moquis</dfn> or <dfn>Moquinos</dfn> +is said to differ but little from that of the Navajoes.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span> +</p> +<p> +<i>Comment by Ed.</i> For the Moki (properly Hopi), see Pattie's <cite>Narrative</cite>, in our +volume xviii, p. 130, note 64. The articles by Frank H. Cushing in American +Bureau of Ethnology <cite>Reports</cite> first directed attention to the Zuñi; consult also Bandelier, +"Outline of Documentary History of Zuñi Tribe," in <cite>Journal of American +Ethnology and Archæology</cite> (Boston, 1891-94), iii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> On the linguistic stocks of the pueblos, consult our volume xix, p. 266, note 90 +(Gregg).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Bandelier, "Final Report," Archæological Institute of America <cite>Papers</cite>, +American Series, iii, pp. 121-136, considers the pueblo population at the time of +the Spanish conquest to have been about twenty-five thousand. The present +population of New Mexican pueblos, exclusive of the Moki, is about nine thousand.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> The pueblo of Pecos was situated thirty miles southeast of Santa Fé, and at +the close of the seventeenth century had a population of two thousand, being the +largest pueblo in either New Mexico or Arizona. It was visited as early as 1540 +by Alvarado, a lieutenant of Coronado. In 1598, the inhabitants rendered submission +to Oñate, and a mission was established among them for which a large +church was built in the seventeenth century, its ruins being still conspicuous. In +the revolt of 1680 the Pecos remained neutral; but soon thereafter decline in numbers +set in, and by 1837 but eighteen adults were left. A fever swept away the +majority of these, when in 1840 the remnant of five men sold their lands to the +government, and retired to their kinsmen at Jemez. A son of the tribe was found +in 1880 among the Mexicans of the village of Pecos, a small, comparatively modern +town. Bandelier discredits the Montezuma myth, which he considers a Spanish-Mexican +importation. See Archæological Institute of America <cite>Papers</cite>, American +Series, i, pp. 110-125. He found among the ruins, however, evidences of the +existence of the sacred fire.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> The Pueblo Indians still cling to many features of aboriginal worship. The +sun-father and moon-mother are revered—not the orbs themselves, but the +spiritual beings residing therein. Consult on this subject, Bandelier, <i>op. cit.</i>, iii, +pp. 276-316.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The office of the cacique is in essence religious; but as religion is interwoven +with the entire life of the Pueblos, he is in a sense a civil official as well. He is +chosen because of fitness, frequently on the nomination of his predecessor, and +his education in the mysteries and secrets of his people is exacting. The office is +for life, unless terminated by improper behavior, when the cacique may be deposed. +The candidate sometimes declines the office because of the severity of the duties, +which involve much fasting and abnegation. +</p> +<p> +The <i>estufa</i> is not always subterranean. It originated before the introduction +of Christian family life, in a common home for the male members of the pueblo. +It has become the council house of the tribe. Some pueblos contain more than +one; unless rites are in progress, it is a bare, rude room usually unornamented. +For details, consult John G. Bourke, <cite>Snake Dance of the Moquis of Arizona</cite> (New +York, 1884).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Matrimonial relations among these people have been much modified by the +introduction of Christianity, and the requirements of the friars, so that the monogamous +family is now the rule among the sedentary Indians; although there are still +in force certain clan restrictions in the choice of the mate.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Although the Pueblos have, since the subjugation of the Apache, engaged +in no wars, a war-captain is each year selected by the cacique, who has, as Gregg +relates, certain protective and religious functions.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Primary schools were established for several pueblos, about 1872, but met +with opposition from priests, who did not desire Indian children to learn English. +There are in the territory at present (1903), about eighteen day-schools, and two +industrial boarding schools.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> For a brief sketch of the history of Taos, see our volume xviii, p. 73, note 44. +The Taos communal architecture is of the primitive type; after the Spanish conquest, +the separate houses of the other pueblos were gradually adopted.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Picuries is one of the northern group. Like Taos, it is of Tiguan stock, and +participated in the history of the region, being visited by one of Coronado's party +in 1540. It yielded to Oñate in 1598, took part in the revolts of 1680 and 1696, +and in the uprising against the Americans in 1848. The pueblo was formerly +much larger than at present, its population now consisting of only about a hundred +poor and rather unprogressive Indians. It is in Taos County about seventy miles +north of Santa Fé.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Acoma is a Queres pueblo, built upon a cliff, about seventy miles southwest +of Santa Fé, in Valencia County. Because of its inaccessibility, and the charm +of its situation, it has been much noted. Coronado described it in his journey of +1540—see George P. Winship, <cite>Journey of Coronado</cite> (New York, 1904); and here +a great battle was fought between Spaniards and Acomans in 1599. The pueblo +took part in the revolts of 1680 and 1696; but has since lived quietly, and has at +present a population of about six hundred.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span +class="label">[31]</span></a> The <dfn>tilma</dfn> of the North is a + sort of small but durable blanket, worn by the +Indians as a mantle.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Recent authorities do not consider the decline of domestic arts a sign of deterioration +among the Pueblos. They taught the Navaho to weave, and now purchase +blankets from the latter. Pottery is still manufactured among the New Mexican +pueblos. See on these subjects Washington Matthews, "Navaho Weavers," in +U. S. Bureau of Ethnology <cite>Report</cite>, 1881-82, pp. 371-391; and William H. Holmes, +"Pottery of the Ancient Pueblos," <i>ibid.</i>, 1882-83, pp. 265-358.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> The Pueblos still retain their native dress, which is picturesque, healthful, +convenient, and often relatively costly—a woman's costume sometimes being +worth as much as twenty-five dollars.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span +class="label">[34]</span></a> <dfn>Pinole</dfn> is in effect the <i>cold-flour</i> of our hunters. It is the meal of parched +Indian corn, prepared for use by stirring it up with a little cold water. This food +seems also to have been of ancient use among the aborigines of other parts of +America. Father Charlevoix, in 1721, says of the savages about the northern +lakes, that they "reduce [the maize] to Flour which they call <dfn>Farine froide</dfn> (cold +Flour), and this is the best Provision that can be made for Travellers."—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div></div> + +<h3 title="Chapter XV"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h3> + +<p class="subhead">The wild Tribes of New Mexico — Speculative Theories — Clavigero +and the <i>Azteques</i> — Pueblo Bonito and other Ruins — Probable +Relationship between the <i>Azteques</i> and tribes of New Mexico — The +several Nations of this Province — <i>Navajóes</i> and <i>Azteques</i> — Manufactures +of the former — Their Agriculture, Religion, etc. — Mexican +Cruelty to the Indians and its Consequences — Inroads of the +Navajóes — Exploits of a Mexican Army — How to make a Hole +in a Powder-keg — The <i>Apaches</i> and their Character — Their Food — Novel +Mode of settling Disputes — Range of their marauding +Excursions — Indian Traffic and imbecile Treaties — Devastation +of the Country — Chihuahua Rodomontades — Juan José, a celebrated +Apache Chief, and his tragical End, etc. — Massacre of Americans +in Retaliation — A tragical Episode — <i>Proyecto de Guerra</i> and +a 'gallant' Display — The <i>Yutas</i> and their Hostilities — A personal +Adventure with them, but no blood shed — Jicarillas.<a href="#tocXV" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>All the Indians of New Mexico not denominated Pueblos—not +professing the Christian religion—are ranked as +<i>wild tribes</i>, although these include some who have made +great advances in arts, manufactures and agriculture. +Those who are at all acquainted with the ancient history +of Mexico, will recollect that, according to the traditions +of the aborigines, all the principal tribes of Anahuac descended +from the North: and that those of Mexico, especially <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg068"></a>[p068]</span> +the Azteques, emigrated {283} from the north of California, +or northwest of New Mexico. Clavigero, the famous +historian heretofore alluded to,<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> speaking of this emigration, +observes, that the <dfn>Azteques</dfn>, or Mexican Indians, who +were the last settlers in the country of Anahuac, lived until +about the year 1160 of the Christian era in Aztlan, a country +situated to the north of the Gulf of California; as is inferred +from the route of their peregrinations, and from the information +afterwards acquired by the Spaniards in their +expeditions through those countries. He then proceeds to +show by what incentives they were probably induced to +abandon their native land; adding that whatever may +have been the motive, no doubt can possibly exist as +to the journey's having actually been performed. He +says that they travelled in a southeastwardly direction +towards the Rio Gila, where they remained for some time—the +ruins of their edifices being still to be seen, upon +its banks. They then struck out for a point over two hundred +and fifty miles to the northwest of Chihuahua in about +29° of N. latitude, where they made another halt. This +place is known by the name of <dfn>Casas Grandes</dfn><a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> (big houses), +on account of a large edifice which still stands on the spot, +and which, according to the general tradition of those regions, +was erected by the Mexican Indians, during their <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg069"></a>[p069]</span> +wanderings. The building is constructed after the plan +of those in New Mexico, with three stories, covered with +an <dfn>azotea</dfn> or terrace, and without door or entrance {284} +into the lower story. A hand ladder is also used as a means +of communication with the second story.</p> + +<p>Even allowing that the traditions upon which Clavigero +founded his theoretical deductions are vague and uncertain, +there is sufficient evidence in the ruins that still exist to +show that those regions were once inhabited by a far more +enlightened people than are now to be found among the +aborigines. Of such character are the ruins of <i>Pueblo +Bonito</i>, in the direction of Navajó, on the borders of the +Cordilleras; the houses being generally built of slabs of +fine-grit sand-stone, a material utterly unknown in the +present architecture of the North.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> Although some of +these structures are very massive and spacious, they are +generally cut up into small irregular rooms, many of which +yet remain entire, being still covered, with the <dfn>vigas</dfn> or +joists remaining nearly sound under the <i>azoteas</i> of earth; +and yet their age is such that there is no tradition which +gives any account of their origin. But there have been +no images or sculptured work of any kind found about them. +Besides these, many other ruins (though none so perfect) +are scattered over the plains and among the mountains. +What is very remarkable is, that a portion of them are +situated at a great distance from any water; so that the +inhabitants must have depended entirely upon rain, as +is the case with the Pueblo of Acoma at the present day.</p> + +<p>The general appearance of Pueblo Bonito, {285} as +well as that of the existing buildings of Moqui in the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg070"></a>[p070]</span> +same mountainous regions, and other Pueblos of New +Mexico, resembles so closely the ruins of Casas Grandes, +that we naturally come to the conclusion that the founders +of each must have descended from the same common +stock. The present difference between their language and +that of the Indians of Mexico, when we take into consideration +the ages that have passed away since their separation, +hardly presents any reasonable objection to this hypothesis.</p> + +<p>The principal wild tribes which inhabit or extend their +incursions or peregrinations upon the territory of New +Mexico, are the <i>Navajóes</i>, the <i>Apaches</i>, the <i>Yutas</i>, the +<i>Caiguas</i> or Kiawas, and the <i>Comanches</i>.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" +id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> Of the latter +I will speak in another place. The two first are from one +and the same original stock, there being, even at the present +day, no very important difference in their language. The +Apaches are divided into numerous petty tribes, of one of +which an insignificant band, called Jicarillas, inhabiting +the mountains north of Taos, is an isolated and miserable +remnant.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p> + +<p>The <dfn>Navajóes</dfn> are supposed to number about 10,000 +souls, and though not the most numerous, they are certainly +the most important, at least in a historical point of view, +of all the northern tribes of Mexico. They reside in the +main range of Cordilleras, 150 to 200 miles west of Santa +Fé, on the waters of Rio Colorado of California, not far +from the region, according to historians, from whence the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg071"></a>[p071]</span> +{286} Azteques emigrated to Mexico; and there are many +reasons to suppose them direct descendants from the remnant, +which remained in the North, of this celebrated +nation of antiquity. Although they mostly live in rude +<dfn>jacales</dfn>, somewhat resembling the wigwams of the Pawnees, +yet, from time immemorial, they have excelled all others +in their original manufactures: and, as well as the Moquis, +they are still distinguished for some exquisite styles of cotton +textures, and display considerable ingenuity in embroidering +with feathers the skins of animals, according +to their primitive practice. They now also manufacture +a singular species of blanket, known as the <dfn>Sarape Navajó</dfn>, +which is of so close and dense a texture that it will frequently +hold water almost equal to gum-elastic cloth. It +is therefore highly prized for protection against the rains. +Some of the finer qualities are often sold among the Mexicans +as high as fifty or sixty dollars each.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the present predatory and somewhat +unsettled habits of the Navajóes, they cultivate all the +different grains and vegetables to be found in New Mexico. +They also possess extensive herds of horses, mules, cattle, +sheep and goats of their own raising, which are generally +celebrated as being much superior to those of the Mexicans; +owing, no doubt, to greater attention to the improvement +of their stocks.</p> + +<p>Though Baron Humboldt<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> tells us that some missionaries +were established among this tribe {287} prior to the +general massacre of 1680, but few attempts to christianize +them have since been made. They now remain in a state +of primitive paganism—and not only independent of the +Mexicans, but their most formidable enemies.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" +id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg072"></a>[p072]</span></p> + +<p> After the establishment of the national independence, +the government of New Mexico greatly embittered the +disposition of the neighboring savages, especially the +Navajoes, by repeated acts of cruelty and ill-faith well +calculated to provoke hostilities. On one occasion, a +party consisting of several chiefs and warriors of the Navajoes +assembled at the Pueblo of Cochiti,<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> by invitation +of the government, to celebrate a treaty of peace; when +the New Mexicans, exasperated no doubt by the remembrance +of former outrages, fell upon them unawares and +put them all to death. It is also related, that about the +same period, three Indians from the northern mountains +having been brought as prisoners into Taos, they were +peremptorily demanded by the Jicarillas, who were their +bitterest enemies; when the Mexican authorities, dreading +the resentment of this tribe, quietly complied with the +barbarous request, suffering the prisoners to be butchered +in cold blood before their very eyes! No wonder, then, +that the New Mexicans are so generally warred upon by +their savage neighbors.</p> + +<p>About fifteen years ago, the Navajoes were subjected +by the energy of Col. Vizcarra, who succeeded in keeping +them in submission for {288} some time; but since that +officer's departure from New Mexico, no man has been <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg073"></a>[p073]</span> +found of sufficient capacity to inspire this daring tribe either +with respect or fear; so that for the last ten years they have +ravaged the country with impunity, murdering and destroying +just as the humor happened to prompt them. When +the spring of the year approaches, terms of peace are generally +proposed to the government at Santa Fé, which the +latter never fails to accept. This amicable arrangement +enables the wily Indians to sow their crops at leisure, and +to dispose of the property stolen from the Mexicans during +their marauding incursions, to advantage; but the close of +their agricultural labors is generally followed by a renewal +of hostilities, and the game of rapine and destruction is +played over again.</p> + +<p>Towards the close of 1835, a volunteer corps, which most +of the leading men in New Mexico joined, was raised for +the purpose of carrying war into the territory of the Navajoes. +The latter hearing of their approach, and anxious no doubt +to save them the trouble of so long a journey, mustered a +select band of their warriors, who went forth to intercept +the invaders in a mountain pass, where they lay concealed +in an ambuscade. The valiant corps, utterly unconscious +of the reception that awaited them, soon came jogging +along in scattered groups, indulging in every kind of +boisterous mirth; when the war-whoop, loud and shrill, +followed by several shots, threw them all into a state of +speechless consternation. {289} Some tumbled off their +horses with fright, others fired their muskets at random: a +terrific panic had seized everybody, and some minutes +elapsed before they could recover their senses sufficiently +to betake themselves to their heels. Two or three persons +were killed in this ridiculous engagement, the most conspicuous +of whom was a Capt. Hinófos, who commanded +the regular troops.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg074"></a>[p074]</span></p> + +<p> A very curious but fully authentic anecdote may not be +inappropriately inserted here, in which this individual was +concerned. On one occasion, being about to start on a +belligerent expedition, he directed his orderly-sergeant to +fill a powder-flask from an unbroached keg of twenty-five +pounds. The sergeant, having bored a hole with a gimlet, +and finding that the powder issued too slowly, began to +look about for something to enlarge the aperture, when his +eyes haply fell upon an iron poker which lay in a corner of +the fire-place. To heat the poker and apply it to the hole +in the keg was the work of but a few moments; when an +explosion took place which blew the upper part of the +building into the street, tearing and shattering everything +else to atoms. Miraculous as their escape may appear, the +sergeant, as well as the captain who witnessed the whole +operation, remained more frightened than hurt, although +they were both very severely scorched and bruised. This +ingenious sergeant was afterwards Secretary of State to +Gov. Gonzalez, of revolutionary {290} memory,<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> and has +nearly ever since held a clerkship in some of the offices of +state, but is now captain in the regular army.</p> + +<p>I come now to speak of the <dfn>Apaches</dfn>, the most extensive +and powerful, yet the most vagrant of all the savage nations +that inhabit the interior of Northern Mexico. They are +supposed to number some fifteen thousand souls, although +they are subdivided into various petty bands, and scattered +over an immense tract of country. Those that are found +east of the Rio del Norte are generally known as <dfn>Mezcaleros</dfn>, +on account of an article of food much in use among them, +called <dfn>mezcal</dfn>,<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> but by far the greatest portion of the nation +is located in the west, and is mostly known by the sobriquet <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg075"></a>[p075]</span> +of <dfn>Coyoteros</dfn>, in consequence, it is said, of their eating the +<dfn>coyote</dfn> or prairie-wolf.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> The Apaches are perhaps more +given to itinerant habits than any other tribe in Mexico. +They never construct houses, but live in the ordinary +wigwam, or tent of skins and blankets. They manufacture +nothing—cultivate nothing: they seldom resort to the +chase, as their country is destitute of game—but depend +almost entirely upon pillage for the support of their immense +population, some two or three thousand of which are warriors.</p> + +<p>For their food, the Apaches rely chiefly upon the flesh of +the cattle and sheep they can steal from the Mexican ranchos +and haciendas. They are said, however, to be more fond of +{291} the meat of the mule than that of any other animal. +I have seen about encampments which they had recently +left, the remains of mules that had been slaughtered for +their consumption. Yet on one occasion I saw their whole +trail, for many miles, literally strewed with the carcasses of +these animals, which, it was evident, had not been killed for +this purpose. It is the practice of the Apache chiefs, as I +have understood, whenever a dispute arises betwixt their +warriors relative to the ownership of any particular animal, +to kill the brute at once, though it be the most valuable of +the drove; and so check all further cavil. It was to be +inferred from the number of dead mules they left behind +them, that the most harmonious relations could not have +existed between the members of the tribe, at least during +this period of their journeyings. Like most of the savage +tribes of North America, the Apaches are passionately fond +of spirituous liquors, and may frequently be seen, in times <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg076"></a>[p076]</span> +of peace, lounging about the Mexican villages, in a state of +helpless inebriety.</p> + +<p>The range of this marauding tribe extends over some +portions of California, most of Sonora, the frontiers of +Durango, and at certain seasons it even reaches Coahuila: +Chihuahua, however, has been the mournful theatre of their +most constant depredations. Every nook and corner of this +once flourishing state has been subjected to their inroads. +Such is the imbecility of the local governments, that the +savages, in order to dispose of {292} their stolen property +without even a shadow of molestation, frequently enter into +partial treaties of peace with one department, while they continue +to wage a war of extermination against the neighboring +states. This arrangement supplies them with an ever-ready +market, for the disposal of their booty and the purchase of +munitions wherewith to prosecute their work of destruction. +In 1840, I witnessed the departure from Santa Fé of a large +trading party freighted with engines of war and a great +quantity of whiskey, intended for the Apaches in exchange +for mules and other articles of plunder which they had stolen +from the people of the south. This traffic was not only +tolerated but openly encouraged by the civil authorities, as +the highest public functionaries were interested in its success—the +governor himself not excepted.</p> + +<p>The Apaches, now and then, propose a truce to the government +of Chihuahua, which is generally accepted very +nearly upon their own terms. It has on some occasions been +included that the marauders should have a <em>bonâ fide</em> right to +all their stolen property. A <dfn>venta</dfn> or quit-claim brand, has +actually been marked by the government upon large numbers +of mules and horses which the Indians had robbed from +the citizens. It is hardly necessary to add that these truces +have rarely been observed by the wily savages longer than <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg077"></a>[p077]</span> +the time necessary for the disposal of their plunder. As soon +as more mules were needed for service or for traffic—more +cattle for beef—more {293} scalps for the war-dance—they +would invariably return to their deeds of ravage and murder.</p> + +<p>The depredations of the Apaches have been of such long +duration, that, beyond the immediate purlieus of the towns, +the whole country from New Mexico to the borders of +Durango is almost entirely depopulated. The haciendas +and ranchos have been mostly abandoned, and the people +chiefly confined to towns and cities. To such a pitch has +the temerity of those savages reached, that small bands of +three or four warriors have been known to make their appearance +within a mile of the city of Chihuahua in open day, +killing the laborers and driving off whole herds of mules and +horses without the slightest opposition. Occasionally a +detachment of troops is sent in pursuit of the marauders, but +for no other purpose, it would seem, than to illustrate the +imbecility of the former, as they are always sure to make a +precipitate retreat, generally without even obtaining a +glimpse of the enemy.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> And yet the columns of a little +weekly sheet published in Chihuahua always teem with +flaming accounts of prodigious feats of valor performed by +the 'army of operations' against <i>los bárbaros</i>: showing how +"the enemy was pursued with all possible vigor"—how the +soldiers "displayed the greatest {294} bravery, and the most +unrestrainable desire to overhaul the dastards," and by what +extraordinary combinations of adverse circumstances they +were "compelled to relinquish the pursuit." Indeed, it +would be difficult to find a braver race of people than the +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg078"></a>[p078]</span> +<dfn>Chihuahueños</dfn><a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a +href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> +contrive to make themselves appear upon +paper. When intelligence was received in Chihuahua of the +famous skirmish with the French, at Vera Cruz, in which +Santa Anna acquired the glory of losing a leg,<a name="FNanchor_49_49" +id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> +the event was +celebrated with uproarious demonstrations of joy; and the +next number of the <cite>Noticioso</cite><a name="FNanchor_50_50" +id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> +contained a valiant fanfaronade, +proclaiming to the world the astounding fact, that one +Mexican was worth four French soldiers in battle: winding +up with a "<cite>Cancion Patriótica</cite>," of which the following exquisite +verse was the <i>refrain</i>:</p> + +<div class="poetry"> +"<i>Chihuahuenses, la Patria gloriosa<br /> +Otro timbre á su lustre ha añadido</i>;<br /> +<i>Pues la</i>, ıuʌıɔʇɐ lɐ פɐlıɐ ıupoɯɐqlǝ<br /> +Al valor mexicano <i>ha cedido</i>." +</div> + +<p class="continue">Literally translated:</p> + +<div class="poetry"> +Chihuahuenses! our glorious country<br /> +Another ray has added to her lustre;<br /> +For the <em>invincible, indomitable Gallia</em><br /> +Has succumbed to Mexican valor. +</div> + +<p>By the inverted letters of "<em>invicta, la Galia indomable</em>," +in the third line, the poet gives {295} the world to understand +that the kingdom of the Gauls had at length been whirled +topsy-turvy, by the glorious achievements of <em>el valor Mexicano</em>!</p> + +<p>From what has been said of the ravages of the Apaches, +one would be apt to believe them an exceedingly brave people; +but the Mexicans themselves call them cowards when compared +with the Comanches; and we are wont to look upon +the latter as perfect specimens of poltroonery when brought <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg079"></a>[p079]</span> +in conflict with the Shawnees, Delawares, and the rest of +our border tribes.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> + +<p>There was once a celebrated chief called Juan José at +the head of this tribe, whose extreme cunning and audacity +caused his name to be dreaded throughout the country. +What contributed more than anything else to render him a +dangerous enemy, was the fact of his having received a +liberal education at Chihuahua, which enabled him, when he +afterwards rejoined his tribe, to outwit his pursuers, and, +by robbing the mails, to acquire timely information of every +expedition that was set on foot against him. The following +account of the massacre in which he fell may not be +altogether uninteresting to the reader.</p> + +<p>The government of Sonora, desirous to make some +efforts to check the depredations of the Apaches, issued a +proclamation, giving a sort of <i>carte blanche</i> patent of 'marque +and reprisal,' and declaring all the booty that might be +taken from the savages to be the rightful property of the +captors. Accordingly, in the {296} spring of 1837, a party +of some 20 men composed chiefly of foreigners, spurred +on by the love of gain, and never doubting but the Indians, +after so many years of successful robberies, must be possessed +of a vast amount of property, set out with an American +as their commander, who had long resided in the country.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> +In a few days they reached a <i>ranchería</i> of about +fifty warriors with their families, among whom was the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg080"></a>[p080]</span> +famous Juan José himself, and three other principal chiefs. +On seeing the Americans advance, the former at once +gave them to understand, that, if they had come to fight, +they were ready to accommodate them; but on being assured +by the leader, that they were merely bent on a trading +expedition, a friendly interview was immediately established +between the parties. The American captain having +determined to put these obnoxious chiefs to death under +any circumstances, soon caused a little field-piece which +had been concealed from the Indians to be loaded with +chain and canister shot, and to be held in readiness for use. +The warriors were then invited to the camp to receive a +present of flour, which was placed within range of the cannon. +While they were occupied in dividing the contents +of the bag, they were fired upon and a considerable number +of their party killed on the spot! The remainder were +then attacked with small arms, and about twenty slain, +including Juan José and the other chiefs. Those who +escaped became afterwards their own avengers in a {297} +manner which proved terribly disastrous to another party +of Americans, who happened at the time to be trapping +on Rio Gila not far distant. The enraged savages resolved +to take summary vengeance upon these unfortunate trappers; +and falling upon them, massacred them every one!<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> +They were in all, including several Mexicans, about fifteen +in number.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg081"></a>[p081]</span></p> + +<p> The projector of this scheme had probably been under +the impression that treachery was justifiable against a +treacherous enemy. He also believed, no doubt, that the +act would be highly commended by the Mexicans who +had suffered so much from the depredations of these notorious +chiefs. But in this he was sadly mistaken; for the +affair was received with general reprehension, although +the Mexicans had been guilty of similar deeds themselves, +as the following brief episode will sufficiently show.</p> + +<p>In the summer of 1839, a few Apache prisoners, among +whom was the wife of a distinguished {298} chief, were +confined in the calabozo of Paso del Norte. The bereaved +chief, hearing of their captivity, collected a band of about +sixty warriors, and, boldly entering the town, demanded +the release of his consort and friends. The commandant +of the place wishing to gain time, desired them to return +the next morning, when their request would be granted. +During the night the forces of the country were concentrated; +notwithstanding, when the Apaches reappeared, +the troops did not show their faces, but remained concealed, +while the Mexican commandant strove to beguile the +Indians into the prison, under pretence of delivering to +them their friends. The unsuspecting chief and twenty +others were entrapped in this manner, and treacherously +dispatched in cold blood: not, however, without some loss +to the Mexicans, who had four or five of their men killed +in the fracas. Among these was the commandant himself, +who had no sooner given the word, "<dfn>¡Maten á los +carajos!</dfn>" (kill the scoundrels!) than the chief retorted, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg082"></a>[p082]</span> +"<dfn>¡Entónces morirás tu primero, carajo!</dfn>" (then you shall +die first, carajo!) and immediately stabbed him to the +heart!</p> + +<p>But as New Mexico is more remote from the usual haunts +of the Apaches, and, in fact, as her scanty ranchos present +a much less fruitful field for their operations than the +abundant haciendas of the South, the depredations of this +tribe have extended but little upon that province. The +only serious incursion that has come within my knowledge, +was some ten {299} years ago. A band of Apache warriors +boldly approached the town of Socorro<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> on the southern +border, when a battle ensued between them and the Mexican +force, composed of a company of regular troops and +all the militia of the place. The Mexicans were soon completely +routed and chased into the very streets, suffering +a loss of thirty-three killed and several wounded. The +savages bore away their slain, yet their loss was supposed +to be but six or seven. I happened to be in the vicinity +of the catastrophe the following day, when the utmost +consternation prevailed among the inhabitants, who were +in hourly expectation of another descent from the savages.</p> + +<p>Many schemes have been devised from time to time, +particularly by the people of Chihuahua, to check the +ravages of the Indians, but generally without success. +Among these the notorious <dfn>Proyecto de Guerra</dfn>, adopted +in 1837, stands most conspicuous. By this famous 'war-project' +a scale of rewards was established, to be paid out +of a fund raised for that purpose. A hundred dollars +reward were offered for the scalp of a full grown man, +fifty for that of a squaw, and twenty-five for that of every +papoose! To the credit of the republic, however, this +barbarous <i>proyecto</i> was in operation but a few weeks, and <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg083"></a>[p083]</span> +never received the sanction of the general government; +although it was strongly advocated by some of the most +intelligent citizens of Chihuahua. Yet, pending its existence, +it was rigidly complied with. I saw myself, on one +{300} occasion, a detachment of horsemen approach the +Palacio in Chihuahua, preceded by their commanding +officer, who bore a fresh scalp upon the tip of his lance, +which he waved high in the air in exultation of his exploit! +The next number of our little newspaper contained the +official report of the affair. The soldiers were pursuing +a band of Apaches, when they discovered a squaw who +had lagged far behind in her endeavors to bear away her +infant babe. They dispatched the mother without commiseration +and took her scalp, which was the one so 'gallantly' +displayed as already mentioned! The officer concluded +his report by adding, that the child had died not +long after it was made prisoner.</p> + +<p>The <dfn>Yutas</dfn> (or <dfn>Eutaws</dfn>, as they are generally styled by +Americans) are one of the most extensive nations of the +West, being scattered from the north of New Mexico to the +borders of Snake river and Rio Colorado, and numbering +at least ten thousand souls. The habits of the tribe are +altogether itinerant. A band of about a thousand spend +their winters mostly in the mountain valleys northward +of Taos, and the summer season generally in the prairie +plains to the east, hunting buffalo. The vernacular language +of the Yutas is said to be distantly allied to that of +the Navajoes, but it has appeared to me much more guttural, +having a deep sepulchral sound resembling ventriloquism. +Although these Indians are nominally at peace +with the New Mexican government, they do not hesitate +to lay {301} the hunters and traders who happen to fall in +with their scouring parties under severe contributions; +and on some occasions they have been known to proceed <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg084"></a>[p084]</span> +even to personal violence. A prominent Mexican officer<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> +was scourged not long ago by a party of Yutas, and yet +the government has never dared to resent the outrage. +Their hostilities, however, have not been confined to Mexican +traders, as will be perceived by the sequel.</p> + +<p>In the summer of 1837, a small party of but five or six +Shawnees fell in with a large band of Yutas near the eastern +borders of the Rocky Mountains, south of Arkansas river. +At first they were received with every demonstration of +friendship; but the Yutas, emboldened no doubt by the +small number of their visitors, very soon concluded to +relieve them of whatever surplus property they might be +possessed of. The Shawnees, however, much to the astonishment +of the marauders, instead of quietly surrendering +their goods and chattels, offered to defend them; upon +which a skirmish ensued that actually cost the Yutas several +of their men, including a favorite chief; while the Shawnees +made their escape unhurt toward their eastern homes.</p> + +<p>A few days after this event, and while the Yutas were +still bewailing the loss of their people, I happened to pass +near their <dfn>rancherías</dfn> (temporary village) with a small +caravan which mustered about thirty-five men. We {302} +had hardly pitched our camp, when they began to flock +about us—men, squaws, and papooses—in great numbers; +but the warriors were sullen and reserved, only now and +then muttering a curse upon the Americans on account of +the treatment they had just received from the Shawnees, +whom they considered as half-castes, and our allies. All +of a sudden, a young warrior seized a splendid steed which +belonged to our party, and, leaping upon his back, galloped <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg085"></a>[p085]</span> +off at full speed. Being fully convinced that, by acquiescing +in this outrage, we should only encourage them to commit +others, we resolved at once to make a peremptory demand +for the stolen horse of their principal chief. Our request +being treated with contumely, we sent in a warlike declaration, +and forthwith commenced making preparations +for descending upon the <i>rancherías</i>. The war-whoop +resounded immediately in every direction; and as the +Yutas bear a very high character for bravery and skill, +the readiness with which they seemed to accept our challenge +began to alarm our party considerably. We had +defied them to mortal combat merely by way of bravado, +without the least expectation that they would put themselves +to so much inconvenience on our account. It was +too late, however, to back out of the scrape.</p> + +<p>No sooner had the alarm been given than the <i>rancherías</i> +of the Indians were converted into a martial encampment; +and while the mounted warriors were exhibiting their +preliminary {303} feats of horsemanship, the squaws and +papooses flew like scattered partridges to the rocks and +clefts of a contiguous precipice. One-third of our party +being Mexicans, the first step of the Indians was to proclaim +a general <i>indulto</i> to them, in hopes of reducing our +force, scanty as it was already. "My Mexican friends," +exclaimed in good Spanish, a young warrior who daringly +rode up within a few rods of us, "we don't wish to hurt +<em>you</em>; so leave those Americans, for we intend to kill every +one of <em>them</em>." The Mexicans of our party to whom this +language was addressed, being rancheros of some mettle, +only answered, "<em>Al diablo</em>! we have not forgotten how +you treat us when you catch us alone: now that we are with +Americans who will defend their rights, expect ample <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg086"></a>[p086]</span> +retaliation for past insults." In truth, these rancheros +seemed the most anxious to begin the fight,—a remarkable +instance of the effects of confidence in companions.</p> + +<p>A crisis seemed now fast approaching: two swivels we +had with us were levelled and primed, and the matches +lighted. Every man was at his post, with his rifle ready +for execution, each anxious to do his best, whatever might +be the result; when the Indians, seeing us determined to +embrace the chances of war, began to open negotiations. +An aged squaw, said to be the mother of the principal +chief, rode up and exclaimed, "My sons! the Americans +and Yutas have been friends, and our old men wish to +continue so: it is only a {304} few impetuous and strong-headed +youths who want to fight." The stolen horse +having been restored soon after this harangue, peace was +joyfully proclaimed throughout both encampments, and +the <i>capitanes</i> exchanged ratifications by a social smoke.</p> + +<p>The little tribe of Jicarillas also harbored an enmity +for the Americans, which, in 1834, broke out into a hostile +<i>rencontre</i>. They had stolen some animals of a gallant +young backwoodsman from Missouri, who, with a few +comrades, pursued the marauders into the mountains and +regained his property; and a fracas ensuing, an Indian or +two were killed. A few days afterward all their warriors +visited Santa Fé in a body, and demanded of the authorities +there, the delivery of the American offenders to their vengeance. +Though the former showed quite a disposition +to gratify the savages as far as practicable, they had not +helpless creatures to deal with, as in the case of the Indian +prisoners already related. The foreigners, seeing their +protection devolved upon themselves, prepared for defence, +when the savages were fain to depart in peace.</p> + +<h3 title="Chapter XVI"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h3> + +<p class="subhead"><a id="Pg087"></a> Incidents of a Return Trip from Santa Fé — Calibre of our Party — Return +Caravans — Remittances — Death of Mr. Langham — Burial +in the Desert — A sudden Attack — Confusion in the Camp — A +Wolfish Escort — Scarcity of Buffalo — Unprofitable Delusion — Arrival — Table +of Camping Sites and Distances — Condition +of the Town of Independence — The Mormons — Their Dishonesty +and Immorality — Their high-handed Measures, and a Rising of +the People — A fatal Skirmish — A chivalrous Parade of the Citizens — Expulsion +of the Mormons — The Meteoric Shower, and Superstition, +etc. — Wanderings and Improprieties of the 'Latter-day +Saints' — Gov. Boggs' Recipe — The City of Nauvoo — Contemplated +Retribution of the Mormons.<a href="#tocXVI" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>I do not propose to detain the reader with an account +of my journeyings between Mexico and the United States, +during the seven years subsequent to my first arrival at +Santa Fé. I will here merely remark, that I crossed the +plains to the United States in the falls of 1833 and 1836, +and returned to Santa Fé with goods each succeeding +spring. It was only in 1838, however, that I eventually +closed up my affairs in Northern Mexico, and prepared +to take my leave of the country, as I then supposed, forever. +But in this I was mistaken, as will appear in the sequel.</p> + +<p>The most usual season for the return of the {306} caravans +to the United States is the autumn, and not one has elapsed +since the commencement of the trade which has not witnessed +some departure from Santa Fé with that destination. +They have also crossed occasionally in the spring, but +without any regularity or frequency, and generally in very +small parties. Even the 'fall companies,' in fact, are +small when compared with the outward-bound caravans; +for besides the numbers who remain permanently in the +country, many of those who trade southward return to +the United States <i>via</i> Matamoros or some other Southern +port. The return parties of autumn are therefore comparatively +small, varying in number from fifty to a hundred <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg088"></a>[p088]</span> +men. They leave Santa Fé some four or five weeks after +their arrival—generally about the first of September. +In these companies there are rarely over thirty or forty +wagons; for a large portion of those taken out by the annual +caravans are disposed of in the country.</p> + +<p>Some of the traders who go out in the spring, return the +ensuing fall, because they have the good fortune to sell +off their stock promptly and to advantage: others are compelled +to return in the fall to save their credit; nay, to preserve +their homes, which, especially in the earlier periods, +have sometimes been mortgaged to secure the payment of +the merchandise they carried out with them. In such +cases, their goods were not unfrequently sold at great +sacrifice, to avoid the penalties which the breaking of their +engagements at home {307} would involve. New adventurers, +too, are apt to become discouraged with an +unanticipated dullness of times, and not unfrequently +sell off at wholesale for the best price they can get, though +often at a serious loss. But those who are regularly engaged +in this trade usually calculate upon employing a +season—perhaps a year, in closing an enterprise—in +selling off their goods and making their returns.</p> + +<p>The wagons of the return caravans are generally but +lightly laden: one to two thousand pounds constitute the +regular return cargo for a single wagon; for not only are +the teams unable to haul heavy loads, on account of the +decay of pasturage at this season, but the approaching +winter compels the traders to travel in greater haste; so +that this trip is usually made in about forty days. The +amount of freight, too, from that direction is comparatively +small. The remittances, as has already been mentioned, +are chiefly in specie, or gold and silver bullion. The gold +is mostly <i>dust</i>, from the Placer or gold mine near Santa Fé:<a +name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" +class="fnanchor">[57]</a> +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg089"></a>[p089]</span> the silver +bullion is all from the mines of the South—chiefly +from those of Chihuahua. To these returns may +be added a considerable number of mules and asses—some +buffalo rugs, furs, and wool,—which last barely +pays a return freight for the wagons that would otherwise +be empty. Coarse Mexican blankets, which may be +obtained in exchange for merchandise, have been sold in +small quantities to advantage on our border.</p> + +<p>{308} On the 4th of April, 1838, we departed from +Santa Fé. Our little party was found to consist of twenty-three +Americans, with twelve Mexican servants. We had +seven wagons, one dearborn, and two small field-pieces, +besides a large assortment of small-arms. The principal +proprietors carried between them about $150,000 in specie +and bullion, being for the most part the proceeds of the +previous year's adventure.</p> + +<p>We moved on at a brisk and joyous pace until we reached +Ocaté creek, a tributary of the Colorado,<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> a distance of a +hundred and thirty miles from Santa Fé, where we encountered +a very sudden bereavement in the death of Mr. +Langham, one of our most respected proprietors. This +gentleman was known to be in weak health, but no fears +were entertained for his safety. We were all actively +engaged in assisting the more heavily laden wagons over +the miry stream, when he was seized with a fit of apoplexy +and expired instantly. As we had not the means of giving +the deceased a decent burial, we were compelled to consign +him to the earth in a shroud of blankets. A grave was +accordingly dug on an elevated spot near the north bank +of the creek, and on the morning of the 13th, ere the sun +had risen in the east, the mortal remains of this most worthy +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg090"></a>[p090]</span> man and valued friend were deposited in their last abode,—without +a tomb-stone to consecrate the spot, or an +epitaph to commemorate his virtues. The deceased was +from St. Louis, {309} though he had passed the last eleven +years of his life in Santa Fé, during the whole of which +period he had seen neither his home nor his relatives.</p> + +<p>The melancholy rites being concluded, we resumed our +line of march. We now continued for several days without +the occurrence of any important accident or adventure. +On the 19th we encamped in the Cimarron valley, about +twelve miles below the Willow Bar. The very sight of +this desolate region, frequented as it is by the most savage +tribes of Indians, was sufficient to strike dismay into the +hearts of our party; but as we had not as yet encountered +any of them, we felt comparatively at ease. Our mules +and horses were 'staked' as usual around the wagons, and +every man, except the watch, betook himself to his blanket, +in anticipation of a good night's rest. The hour of midnight +had passed away, and nothing had been heard except +the tramping of the men on guard, and the peculiar grating +of the mules' teeth, nibbling the short grass of the valley. +Ere long, however, one of our sentinels got a glimpse of +some object moving stealthily along, and as he was straining +his eyes to ascertain what sort of apparition it could be, a +loud Indian yell suddenly revealed the mystery. This +was quickly followed by a discharge of fire-arms, and the +shrill note of the 'Pawnee whistle,' which at once made +known the character of our visitors. As usual, the utmost +confusion prevailed in our camp: some, who had been +snatched {310} from the land of dreams, ran their heads +against the wagons—others called out for their guns while +they had them in their hands. During the height of the +bustle and uproar, a Mexican servant was observed leaning +with his back against a wagon, and his fusil elevated at an <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg091"></a>[p091]</span> +angle of forty-five degrees, cocking and pulling the trigger +without ceasing, and exclaiming at every snap, "<dfn>Carajo, +no sirve!</dfn>"—Curse it, it's good for nothing.</p> + +<p>The firing still continued—the yells grew fiercer and +more frequent; and everything betokened the approach of +a terrible conflict. Meanwhile a number of persons were +engaged in securing the mules and horses which were +staked around the encampment; and in a few minutes +they were all shut up in the <dfn>corral</dfn>—a hundred head or +more in a pen formed by seven wagons. The enemy +failing in their principal object—to frighten off our stock, +they soon began to retreat; and in a few minutes nothing +more was to be heard of them. All that we could discover +the next morning was, that none of our party had sustained +any injury, and that we had not lost a single animal.</p> + +<p>The Pawnees have been among the most formidable +and treacherous enemies of the Santa Fé traders. But +the former have also suffered a little in turn from the caravans. +In 1832, a company of traders were approached +by a single Pawnee chief, who commenced a parley with +them, when he was shot down by a Pueblo Indian of New +Mexico who happened {311} to be with the caravan. Though +this cruel act met with the decided reprobation of the traders +generally, yet they were of course held responsible for it +by the Indians.</p> + +<p>On our passage this time across the 'prairie ocean' +which lay before us, we ran no risk of getting bewildered +or lost, for there was now a plain wagon trail across the +entire stretch of our route, from the Cimarron to Arkansas +river.</p> + +<p>This track, which has since remained permanent, was +made in the year 1834. Owing to continuous rains during +the passage of the caravan of that year, a plain trail was +then cut in the softened turf, on the most direct route across <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg092"></a>[p092]</span> +this arid desert, leaving the Arkansas about twenty miles +above the 'Caches.' This has ever since been the regular +route of the caravans; and thus a recurrence of those distressing +sufferings from thirst, so frequently experienced +by early travellers in that inhospitable region, has been +prevented.</p> + +<p>We forded the Arkansas without difficulty, and pursued +our journey to the Missouri border with comparative ease; +being only now and then disturbed at night by the hideous +howling of wolves, a pack of which had constituted themselves +into a kind of 'guard of honor,' and followed in our +wake for several hundred miles—in fact to the very border +of the settlements. They were at first attracted no doubt +by the remains of buffalo which were killed by us upon the +high plains, and {312} afterwards enticed on by an occasional +fagged animal, which we were compelled to leave behind, +as well as by the bones and scraps of food, which they +picked up about our camps. Not a few of them paid the +penalty of their lives for their temerity.</p> + +<p>Had we not fortunately been supplied with a sufficiency +of meat and other provisions, we might have suffered of +hunger before reaching the settlements; for we saw no +buffalo after crossing the Arkansas river. It is true that, +owing to their disrelish for the long dry grass of the eastern +prairies, the buffalo are rarely found so far east in autumn +as during the spring; yet I never saw them so scarce in this +region before. In fact, at all seasons, they are usually +very abundant as far east as our point of leaving the Arkansas +river.</p> + +<p>Upon reaching the settlements, I had an opportunity of +experiencing a delusion which had been the frequent subject +of remark by travellers on the Prairies before. Accustomed +as we had been for some months to our little +mules, and the equally small-sized Mexican ponies, our <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg093"></a>[p093]</span> +sight became so adjusted to their proportions, that when +we came to look upon the commonest hackney of our +frontier horses, it appeared to be almost a monster. I +have frequently heard exclamations of this kind from the +new arrivals:—"How the Missourians have improved +their breed of horses!"—"What a huge gelding!"—"Did +you ever see such an animal!" This delusion is frequently +availed of by the frontiersmen {313} to put off their meanest +horses to these deluded travellers for the most enormous +prices.</p> + +<p>On the 11th of May we arrived at Independence, after +a propitious journey of only thirty-eight days.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> We +found the town in a thriving condition, although it had +come very near being laid waste a few years before by the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg094"></a>[p094]</span> +Mormons, who had originally selected this section of the +country for the site of their New Jerusalem. In this they +certainly displayed far more taste and good sense than +they are generally supposed to be endowed {314} with: for +the rich and beautiful uplands in the vicinity of Independence +might well be denominated the 'garden spot' of the +Far West. Their principal motive for preferring the +border country, however, was no doubt a desire to be in +the immediate vicinity of the Indians, as the reclamation +of the 'Lost tribes of Israel' was a part of their pretended +mission.</p> + +<p>Prior to 1833, the Mormons, who were then flocking in +great swarms to this favored region, had made considerable +purchases of lots and tracts of land both in the town of +Independence and in the adjacent country. A general +depot, profanely styled the 'Lord's Store,' was established, +from which the faithful were supplied with merchandise +at moderate prices; while those who possessed any surplus +of property were expected to deposit it in the same, for the +benefit of the mass. The Mormons were at first kindly +received by the good people of the country, who looked +upon them as a set of harmless fanatics, very susceptible +of being moulded into good and honest citizens. This +confidence, however, was not destined to remain long in +the ascendant, for they soon began to find that the corn +in their cribs was sinking like snow before the sun-rays, +and that their hogs and their cattle were by some mysterious +agency rapidly disappearing. The new-comers also drew +upon themselves much animadversion in consequence of +the immorality of their lives, and in particular their disregard +for the sacred rites of marriage.</p> + +<p>{315} Still they continued to spread and multiply, not +by conversion but by immigration, to an alarming extent; +and in proportion as they grew strong in numbers, they <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg095"></a>[p095]</span> +also became more exacting and bold in their pretensions. +In a little paper printed at Independence under their immediate +auspices,<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> everything was said that could provoke +hostility between the 'saints' and their 'worldly' neighbors, +until at last they became so emboldened by impunity, as +openly to boast of their determination to be the sole proprietors +of the 'Land of Zion;' a revelation to that effect +having been made to their prophet.</p> + +<p>The people now began to perceive, that, at the rate the +intruders were increasing, they would soon be able to command +a majority of the country, and consequently the +entire control of affairs would fall into their hands. It +was evident, then, that one of the two parties would in the +course of time have to abandon the country; for the old +settlers could not think of bringing up their families in the +midst of such a corrupt state of society as the Mormons +were establishing. Still the nuisance was endured very +patiently, and without any attempt at retaliation, until the +'saints' actually threatened to eject their opponents by +main force. This last stroke of impudence at once roused +the latent spirit of the honest backwoodsmen, some of +whom were of the pioneer settlers of Missouri, and had +become familiar with danger in their terrific wars with the +savages. They were therefore by no {316} means appropriate +subjects for yielding what they believed to be their +rights. Meetings were held for the purpose of devising +means of redress, which only tended to increase the insolence +of the Mormons. Finally a mob was collected +which proceeded at once to raze the obnoxious printing +establishment to the ground, and to destroy all the materials +they could lay hands upon. One or two of the Mormon +leaders who fell into the hands of the people, were treated <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg096"></a>[p096]</span> +to a clean suit of 'tar and feathers,' and otherwise severely +punished.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> The 'Prophet Joseph,' however, was not then +in the neighborhood. Having observed the storm-clouds +gathering apace in the frontier horizon, he very wisely +remained in Ohio, whence he issued his flaming mandates.</p> + +<p>These occurrences took place in the month of October, +1833, and I reached Independence from Santa Fé while +the excitement was raging at its highest. The Mormons +had rallied some ten miles west of the town, where their +strongest settlements were located. A hostile encounter +was hourly expected: nay, a skirmish actually took place +shortly after, in which a respectable lawyer of Independence, +who had been an active agent against the Mormons, +was killed. In short, the whole country was in a state of +dreadful fermentation.</p> + +<p>Early on the morning after the skirmish just referred +to, a report reached Independence that the Mormons were +marching in a {317} body towards the town, with the intention +of sacking and burning it. I had often heard the cry +of "Indians!" announcing the approach of hostile savages, +but I do not remember ever to have witnessed so much +consternation as prevailed at Independence on this memorable +occasion. The note of alarm was sounded far and +near, and armed men, eager for the fray, were rushing in +from every quarter. Officers were summarily selected +without deference to rank or station: the 'spirit-stirring +drum' and the 'ear-piercing fife' made the air resound with +music, and a little army of as brave and resolute a set of +fellows as ever trod a field of battle, was, in a very short +time, paraded through the streets. After a few preliminary +exercises, they started for a certain point on the road where +they intended to await the approach of the Mormons. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg097"></a>[p097]</span> +The latter very soon made their appearance, but surprised +at meeting with so formidable a reception, they never even +attempted to pull a trigger, but at once surrendered at +discretion. They were immediately disarmed, and subsequently +released upon condition of their leaving the country +without delay.</p> + +<p>It was very soon after this affair that the much talked +of phenomenon of the meteoric shower (on the night of +November 12th) occurred. This extraordinary visitation +did not fail to produce its effects upon the superstitious +minds of a few ignorant people, who began to wonder +whether, after all, the Mormons might not be in the right; +and whether this was not a sign sent from heaven as a +remonstrance for the injustice they had been guilty of +towards that chosen sect.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> Sometime afterward, a terrible +misfortune occurred which was in no way calculated to +allay the superstitious fears of the ignorant. As some +eight or ten citizens were returning with the ferry-boat +which had crossed the last Mormons over the Missouri +river, into Clay county, the district selected for their new +home, the craft filled with water and sunk in the middle +of the current; by which accident three or four men were +drowned!<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> It was owing perhaps to the craziness of the +boat, yet some persons suspected the Mormons of having +scuttled it by secretly boring auger-holes in the bottom +just before they had left it.</p> + +<p>After sojourning a few months in Clay county, to the +serious annoyance of the inhabitants (though, in fact, they <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg098"></a>[p098]</span> +had been kindly received at first), the <i>persecuted</i> 'Latter +day Saints' were again compelled to shift their quarters +further off. They now sought to establish themselves in +the new country of Caldwell, and founded their town of +Far West, where they lingered in comparative peace for +a few years.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> As the county began to fill up with settlers +however, quarrels repeatedly {319} broke out, until at last, +in 1838, they found themselves again at open war with their +neighbors. They appear to have set the laws of the state +at defiance, and to have acted so turbulently throughout, +that Governor Boggs deemed it necessary to order out a +large force of state militia to subject them: which was +easily accomplished without bloodshed. From that time +the Mormons have harbored a mortal enmity towards the +Governor: and the attempt which was afterwards made +to assassinate him at Independence, is generally believed +to have been instigated, if not absolutely perpetrated, by +that deluded sect.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> + +<p>Being once more forced to emigrate, they passed into +Illinois, where they founded the famous 'City of Nauvoo.' +It would seem that their reception from the people of this +state was even more strongly marked with kindness and +indulgence than it had been elsewhere, being generally +looked upon as the victims of persecution on account of <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg099"></a>[p099]</span> +their religious belief; yet it appears that the good people +of Illinois have since become about as tired of them as were +any of their former neighbors.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> It seems very clear then, +that fanatical delusion is not the only sin which stamps +the conduct of these people with so much obliquity, or they +would certainly have found permanent friends somewhere; +whereas it is well known that a general aversion has prevailed +against them wherever they have sojourned.</p> + +<p>Before concluding this chapter, it may be {320} proper +to remark, that the Mormons have invariably refused to +sell any of the property they had acquired in Missouri, but +have on the contrary expressed a firm determination to +reconquer their lost purchases.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> Of these, a large lot, +situated on an elevated point at Independence, known as +the 'Temple Lot,' upon which the 'Temple of Zion' was +to have been raised,—has lately been 'profaned,' by +cultivation, having been converted into a corn-field!</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> +See our volume xix, p. 293, note 116 (Gregg).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> The Casa Grande ruin in Pinal County, Arizona, just south of Gila River, +has been known to antiquarians since the first discovery of the region. The earliest +detailed description was written after the visit of Father Kuehne (Kino) in 1694. +American explorers noted it during the passage of 1846; Bartlett's description of +1854 was the most faithful. For recent accounts, see Cosmos Mindeleff, in U. S. +Bureau of Ethnology <cite>Reports</cite>, 1891-92, pp. 295-361; 1893-94, pp. 321-349. In +1889 congress appropriated funds for its preservation and repair, and in 1892 set +it apart as a public reservation. Modern archæologists discredit any connection +of its builders with Mexican Aztecs. It is a work of Pueblo Indians, probably of +the ancestors of the modern Pima—see our volume xviii, p. 200, note 96. This ruin +should not be confused with one of a like name in Northern Mexico, for which see +volume xviii of our series, p. 155, note 88.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> It is uncertain to which ruin Gregg here refers. That of Cebolitta, not far +from Acoma, answers his description as built of sandstone. There is a small ruin +at Ojos Bonitos, not far from Zuñi, that may be intended; but the more probable +is the former, on the well-known trace between Acoma and Zuñi, and of remarkably +good workmanship in stone.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> For the Navaho, Apache, and Ute tribes, see our volume xviii, p. 69 (note 41), +p. 109 (note 60), p. 140 (note 70); for the Kiowa, volume xv, p. 157, note 48; for the +Comanche, volume xvi, p. 233, note 109.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> + The Jicarrilla (Xicarrilla) are of <i>Athapascan</i> stock, but from the similarity +of their language are classed as Apache, although they are not known to have had +any tribal connection with them. Their alliance was more frequently with the +Ute, with whom they intermarried, and whose customs they assimilated. +They were a predatory race, and from their vantage ground on the upper waters +of the Rio Grande, Pecos, and Canadian, caused much annoyance. They are +now located on a reservation in Rio Arriba County, and number about seven hundred +and fifty.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> For Humboldt, see our volume xviii, p. 345, note 136.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> The Navaho were friendly with the Spaniards until about 1700, when they +began depredations and cattle lifting, and frequent campaigns against them were +undertaken. In 1744 a mission was attempted among them, which was abandoned +after six years' futile efforts. Serious difficulties, however, did not recur until the +beginning of the nineteenth century. The period of Gregg's sojourn in New +Mexico was that of greatest hostility. For over twenty-five years the United +States government had much difficulty with the Navaho. There are yet over +twenty thousand of these tribesmen on the different reservations, chiefly in Arizona.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Cochiti is one of the smaller Queres pueblos, situated on the west side of the +Rio Grande, almost directly west of Santa Fé. It was near the same spot, at the +time of the Spanish accession in 1598. The Cochitiaños took part in the rebellions +of 1680 and 1696, and part of the mutineers were, about 1699, removed to the +pueblo of Laguna. There are now less than two hundred and fifty inhabitants +of this Indian village.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> +The only other authority for this campaign is A. R. +Thümmel, <cite>Mexiko und +die Mexikaner</cite> (Erlangen, 1848), pp. 350, 351.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> + For Governor José Gonzalez and his exploits during the insurrection of 1837 +see preceding volume, ch. vi (Gregg).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> + <dfn>Mezcal</dfn> is the baked root of the <dfn>maguey</dfn> (<i>agave Americana</i>) and of another +somewhat similar plant.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Like the Jicarrilla, the Mescallero were in reality a distinct tribe, and related +to the Apache only by linguistic affinities. Since 1865 they have been confined +upon a reservation in southern New Mexico, where about four hundred still +exist. The Coyoteros is one of some dozen tribes or bands among the Apache +proper.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> It has been credibly asserted, that, during one of these 'bold pursuits,' a band +of Comanches stopped in the suburbs of a village on Rio Conchos, turned their +horses into the wheat-fields, and took a comfortable <i>siesta</i>—desirous, it seemed, +to behold their pursuers face to face; yet, after remaining most of the day, they +departed without enjoying that pleasure.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Or <i>Chihuahuenses</i>, citizens of Chihuahua.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> During the so-called "Pastry War," for which see our volume xix, p. 274, +note 101 (Gregg).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span +class="label">[50]</span></a> <cite>Noticioso de Chihuahua</cite> of December 28, + 1838.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> The experience of the United States army with the Apache has not proved +their cowardice. Since the running of the boundary line after the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo +(1848) up to 1886, one outbreak after another characterized our +relations with the Apache. For fifteen years (1871-86) General Crook watched +the Apache, and after each raid forced them back upon their reservations. +Geronimo's band, which surrendered in September, 1886, was transported to +Florida and Alabama.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> The leader's name was James Johnson, who afterwards removed to California, +where he died in poverty. See H. H. Bancroft, <cite>History of Arizona and +New Mexico</cite>, p. 407.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Bancroft (<i>op. cit.</i>) relates the escape of Benjamin Wilson, who afterwards +narrated the event, and the death of the leader, Charles Kemp.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> The Apaches, previous to this date, had committed but few depredations upon +foreigners—restrained either by fear or respect. Small parties of the latter were +permitted to pass the highways of the wilderness unmolested, while large caravans +of Mexicans suffered frequent attacks. This apparent partiality produced unfounded +jealousies, and the Americans were openly accused of holding secret +treaties with the enemy, and even of supplying them with arms and ammunition. +Although an occasional foreigner engaged in this clandestine and culpable traffic, +yet the natives themselves embarked in it beyond comparison more extensively, +as has been noted in another place. This unjust impression against Americans +was partially effaced as well by the catastrophes mentioned in the text, as by the +defeat and robbery (in which, however, no American lives were lost), of a small +party of our people, about the same period, in <cite>La Jornada del Muerto</cite>, on their way +from Chihuahua to Santa Fé.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> For Socorro, consult Pattie's <cite>Narrative</cite>, in our volume xviii, p. 86, note +52.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Don Juan Andrés Archuleta, who commanded at the capture of Gen. McLeod's +division of the Texans.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> For the placer mines, see our volume xix, p. 304, note 128 (Gregg).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Ocaté Creek is in Mora County, New Mexico, a tributary of the upper waters +of the Canadian, one of the several streams called Colorado by the Mexicans. +Because of this name, it was thought (until Long's expedition in 1820) to be the +headwaters of Red River.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span +class="label">[59]</span></a> Having crossed the Prairies between +Independence and Santa Fé six times, +I can now present a table of the most notable camping sites, and their respective +intermediate distances, with approximate accuracy—which may prove acceptable +to some future travellers. The whole distance has been variously estimated at +from 750 to 800 miles, yet I feel confident that the aggregate here presented is very +nearly the true distance.</p> + +<table id="fn59table" summary="Independence to Santa Fé camping sites and distances"> +<tr> + <td align="left">From <span class="smcap">Independence</span> to</td> + <td align="right"><i>M.</i></td> + <td align="right"><i>Agg.</i></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Round Grove,</td> + <td align="right">35</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Narrows,</td> + <td align="right">30</td> + <td align="right">65</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">110-mile Creek,</td> + <td align="right">30</td> + <td align="right">95</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Bridge Cr.,</td> + <td align="right">8</td> + <td align="right">103</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Big John Spring, (crossing sv'l. Crs.)</td> + <td align="right">40</td> + <td align="right">143</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Council Grove,</td> + <td align="right">2</td> + <td align="right">145</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Diamond Spring,</td> + <td align="right">15</td> + <td align="right">160</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Lost Spring,</td> + <td align="right">15</td> + <td align="right">175</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Cottonwood Cr.,</td> + <td align="right">12</td> + <td align="right">187</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Turkey Cr.,</td> + <td align="right">25</td> + <td align="right">212</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Little Arkansas,</td> + <td align="right">17</td> + <td align="right">229</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Cow Creek,</td> + <td align="right">20</td> + <td align="right">249</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Arkansas River,</td> + <td align="right">16</td> + <td align="right">265</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Walnut Cr., (up Ark. r.)</td> + <td align="right">8</td> + <td align="right">273</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Ash Creek,</td> + <td align="right">19</td> + <td align="right">292</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Pawnee Fork,</td> + <td align="right">6</td> + <td align="right">298</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Coon Creek,</td> + <td align="right">33</td> + <td align="right">331</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Caches,</td> + <td align="right">36</td> + <td align="right">367</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Ford of Arkansas,</td> + <td align="right">20</td> + <td align="right">387</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Sand Cr. (leav. Ark. r.)</td> + <td align="right">50</td> + <td align="right">437</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Cimarron r. (Lower sp.)</td> + <td align="right">8</td> + <td align="right">445</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Middle spr. (up Cim. r.)</td> + <td align="right">36</td> + <td align="right">481</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Willow Bar,</td> + <td align="right">26</td> + <td align="right">507</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Upper Spring,</td> + <td align="right">18</td> + <td align="right">525</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Cold spr. (leav. Cim. r.)</td> + <td align="right">5</td> + <td align="right">530</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">M'Nees's Cr.,</td> + <td align="right">25</td> + <td align="right">555</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Rabbit-ear Cr.,</td> + <td align="right">20</td> + <td align="right">575</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Round Mound,</td> + <td align="right">8</td> + <td align="right">583</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Rock Creek,</td> + <td align="right">8</td> + <td align="right">591</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Point of Rocks,</td> + <td align="right">19</td> + <td align="right">610</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Rio Colorado,</td> + <td align="right">20</td> + <td align="right">630</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Ocatè,</td> + <td align="right">6</td> + <td align="right">636</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Santa Clara Spr.,</td> + <td align="right">21</td> + <td align="right">657</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Rio Mora,</td> + <td align="right">22</td> + <td align="right">679</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Rio Gallinas (Vegas),</td> + <td align="right">20</td> + <td align="right">699</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Ojo de Bernal (spr.),</td> + <td align="right">17</td> + <td align="right">716</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">San Miguel,</td> + <td align="right">6</td> + <td align="right">722</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">Pecos village,</td> + <td align="right">23</td> + <td align="right">755</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Santa Fe</span>,</td> + <td align="right">25</td> + <td align="right">770</td></tr> +</table> +<p><span style="margin-left: 15em;">—<span + class="smcap">Gregg.</span></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> This paper, the first printed in Jackson County, was called The Evening and +Morning Star, the first issue being in June, 1832.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> This occurred July 20, 1833. Bishop Partridge and Charles Allen were the +victims of the punishment.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> In Northern Mexico, as I learned afterwards, the credulity of the superstitious +was still more severely tried by this celestial phenomenon. Their Church had been +deprived of some important privileges by the Congress but a short time before, and +the people could not be persuaded but that the meteoric shower was intended as a +curse upon the nation in consequence of that sacrilegious act.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> The following were drowned: James Campbell, George Bradbury, David +Linch, Thomas Harrington, William Everett, Smallwood Nolan.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Far West was begun in 1836; by 1838 there was a Mormon population of +twelve thousand in and around the city.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Lilburn W. Boggs was born in Kentucky in 1798. Early removed to Missouri, +he became prominent as a trader, pioneer, and political leader. In 1832 he was +elected lieutenant-governor, serving as the acting-governor during part of his term. +At its close (1836) he was chosen governor, and served for four years. During +this term he incurred the animosity of the Mormons, by what was known as his +"extermination order," issued in October, 1838. The attempt to assassinate +him at the close of his term of office, at his home in Independence (1841), was +popularly ascribed to a Mormon fanatic, who was, however, acquitted in the courts. +In 1846 Governor Boggs led an overland party to California, where he assisted in +the American occupation. Removed to Napa Valley in 1852, he died there nine +years later. His wife was a granddaughter of Daniel Boone.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> The year in which Gregg's book was published (June, 1844), Prophet Joseph +Smith was killed by a mob in the jail of Carthage, Illinois.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> After the death of the founder there was dissension in the ranks, one wing +being headed by his eldest son, Joseph Smith III. The latter founded what is +known as the Reorganized Church of Latter Day Saints, which repudiates polygamy. +These were the sectarians who returned to Jackson County, Missouri, where a +large number now reside.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div></div> + +<h3 title="Chapter XVII"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XVII_I68" id="CHAPTER_XVII_I68"></a>CHAPTER + XVII {I}<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a + href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></h3> + +<p class="subhead">A Return to Prairie Life — Abandonment of the regular Route — The +Start — A Suicide — Arrest of a Mulatto for Debt — Cherokee +'Bankrupt Law' — Chuly, the Creek Indian — The Muster and +the Introduction — An '<i>Olla Podrida</i>' — Adventure of a 'Down-Easter' — Arrival +of U.S. Dragoons — Camp Holmes, and the Road — A +Visit from a Party of Comanches — Tabba-quena, a noted Chief — His +extraordinary Geographical Talent — Indians set out for +the 'Capitan Grande,' and we through an Unexplored Region — Rejoined +by Tabba-quena and his '<i>suite</i>' — Spring Valley — The +Buffalo Fever — The Chase — A Green-horn Scamper — Prairie Fuel.<a href="#tocXVII" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>An unconquerable propensity to return to prairie life +inclined me to embark in a fresh enterprise. The blockade <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg100"></a>[p100]</span> +of the Mexican ports by the French also offered strong +inducements for undertaking such an expedition in the +spring of 1839; for as Chihuahua is supplied principally +through the sea-ports, it was now evident that the place +must be suffering from great scarcity of goods. Being +anxious to reach the market before the ports of the Gulf +were reopened, we deemed it expedient to abandon the +regular route from {10} Missouri for one wholly untried, +from the borders of Arkansas, where the pasturage springs +up nearly a month earlier. It is true, that such an attempt +to convey heavily laden wagons through an unexplored +region was attended with considerable risk; but as I was +familiar with the general character of the plains contiguous +to the north, I felt little or no apprehension of serious difficulties, +except from what might be occasioned by regions of +sandy soil. I have often been asked since, why we did not +steer directly for Chihuahua, as our trade was chiefly +destined for that place, instead of taking the circuitous +route <i>via</i> Santa Fé. I answer, that we dreaded a journey +across the southern prairies on account of the reputed aridity +of the country in that direction, and I had no great desire to +venture directly into a southern port in the present state +of uncertainty as to the conditions of entry.</p> + +<p>Suitable arrangements having been made, and a choice +stock of about $25,000 worth of goods shipped to Van Buren<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> +on the Arkansas river, we started on the evening of the 21st +of April, but made very little progress for the first eight days. +While we were yet but ten or fifteen miles from Van Buren, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg101"></a>[p101]</span> +an incident occurred which was attended with very melancholy +results. A young man named Hays, who had driven +a wagon for me for several months through the interior of +Mexico, and thence to the United States in 1838, having +heard that this expedition was projected, {11} was desirous +of engaging again in the same employ. I was equally +desirous to secure his services, as he was well-tried, and had +proved himself an excellent fellow on those perilous journeys. +But soon after our outset, and without any apparent reason, +he expressed an inclination to abandon the trip. I earnestly +strove to dissuade him from his purpose, and supposed I +had succeeded. What was my surprise, then, upon my +return after a few hours' absence in advance of the company, +to learn that he had secretly absconded! I was now led to +reflect upon some of his eccentricities, and bethought me of +several evident indications of slight mental derangement. +We were, however, but a few miles from the settlements of +the whites, and in the midst of the civilized Cherokees, where +there was little or no danger of his suffering; therefore, there +seemed but little occasion for serious uneasiness on his +account. As it was believed he had shaped his course back +to Van Buren, I immediately wrote to our friends there, +to have search made for him. However, nothing could be +found of him till the next day, when his hat and coat were +discovered upon the bank of the Arkansas, near Van Buren, +which were the last traces ever had of the unfortunate +Hays! Whether intentionally or accidentally, he was evidently +drowned.</p> + +<p>On the 28th of April we crossed the Arkansas river a few +miles above the mouth of the Canadian fork.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> We had only +proceeded {12} a short distance beyond, when a Cherokee +shop-keeper came up to us with an attachment for debt <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg102"></a>[p102]</span> +against a free mulatto whom we had engaged as teamster. +The poor fellow had no alternative but to return with the +importunate creditor, who committed him at once to the +care of 'Judge Lynch' for trial. We ascertained afterwards +that he had been sentenced to 'take the benefit of the bankrupt +law' after the manner of the Cherokees of that neighborhood. +This is done by stripping and tying the victim +to a tree; when each creditor, with a good cowhide or +hickory switch in his hand, scores the amount of the bill due +upon his bare back. One stripe for every dollar due is the +usual process of 'whitewashing;' and as the application of +the lash is accompanied by all sorts of quaint remarks, the +exhibition affords no small merriment to those present, with +the exception, no doubt, of the delinquent himself. After +the ordeal is over, the creditors declare themselves perfectly +satisfied: nor could they, as is said, ever be persuaded thereafter +to receive one red cent of the amount due, even if it +were offered to them. As the poor mulatto was also in our +debt, and was perhaps apprehensive that we might exact +payment in the same currency, he never showed himself +again.</p> + +<p>On the 2d of May we crossed the North Fork of the +Canadian about a mile from its confluence with the main +stream. A little westward of this there is a small village of +{13} Creek Indians, and a shop or two kept by American +traders.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> An Indian who had quarrelled with his wife, +came out and proposed to join us, and, to our great surprise, +carried his proposal into execution. The next morning his +repentant consort came into our camp, and set up a most +dismal weeping and howling after her truant husband, who, +notwithstanding, was neither to be caught by tears nor <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg103"></a>[p103]</span> +softened by entreaties, but persisted in his determination to +see foreign countries. His name was Echú-eleh-hadjó (or +<dfn>Crazy-deer-foot</dfn>), but, for brevity's sake, we always called +him <dfn>Chuly</dfn>. He was industrious, and possessed many clever +qualities, though somewhat disposed to commit excesses +whenever he could procure liquor, which fortunately did +not occur until our arrival at Santa Fé. He proved to be a +good and willing hand on the way, but as he spoke no +English, our communication with him was somewhat +troublesome. I may as well add here, that, while in Santa +Fé, he took another freak and joined a volunteer corps, +chiefly of Americans, organized under one James Kirker to +fight the Navajó and Apache Indians; the government of +Chihuahua having guarantied to them all the spoils they +should take.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> With these our Creek found a few of his 'red +brethren'—Shawnees and Delawares, who had wandered +thus far from the frontier of Missouri. After this little +army was disbanded, Chuly returned home, as I have been +informed, with a small {14} party who crossed the plains +directly from Chihuahua.</p> + +<p>We had never considered ourselves as perfectly <i>en chemin</i> +till after crossing the Arkansas river; and as our little party +experienced no further change, I may now be permitted to +introduce them collectively to the reader. It consisted of +thirty-four men, including my brother John Gregg and +myself. These men had all been hired by us except three, +two of whom were Eastern-bred boys—a tailor and a silversmith—good-natured, +clever little fellows, who had thought +themselves at the 'jumping-off place' when they reached <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg104"></a>[p104]</span> +Van Buren, but now seemed nothing loth to extend their +peregrinations a thousand miles or so further, in the hope +of 'doing' the 'Spaniards,' as the Mexicans are generally +styled in the West, out of a little surplus of specie. The other +was a German peddler, who somewhat resembled the +Dutchman's horse, "put him as you vant, and he ish alvays +tere;" for he did nothing during the whole journey but +descant on the value of a chest of trumperies which he carried, +and with which he calculated, as he expressed it, to +"py a plenty of te Shpanish tollar." The trip across the +Prairies cost these men absolutely nothing, inasmuch as we +furnished them with all the necessaries for the journey, in +consideration of the additional strength they brought to our +company.</p> + +<p>It is seldom that such a variety of ingredients are found +mixed up in so small a compass. {15} Here were the representatives +of seven distinct nations, each speaking his own +native language, which produced at times a very respectable +jumble of discordant sounds. There was one Frenchman +whose volubility of tongue and curious gesticulations, contrasted +very strangely with the frigidity of two phlegmatic +wanderers from Germany; while the calm eccentricity of +two Polish exiles, the stoical look of two sons of the desert +(the Creek already spoken of, and a Chickasaw), and the +pantomimic gestures of sundry loquacious Mexicans, contributed +in no small degree to heighten the effects of the +picture. The Americans were mostly backwoodsmen, who +could handle the rifle far better than the whip, but who +nevertheless officiated as wagoners.</p> + +<p>We had fourteen road-wagons, half drawn by mules, the +others by oxen (eight of each to the team); besides a carriage +and a Jersey wagon. Then we had two swivels mounted +upon one pair of wheels; but one of them was attached to +a movable truckle, so that, upon stopping, it could be transferred <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg105"></a>[p105]</span> +to the other side of the wagons. One of these was a +long brass piece made to order, with a calibre of but an inch +and a quarter, yet of sufficient metal to throw a leaden ball +to the distance of a mile with surprising accuracy. The +other was of iron, and a little larger. Besides these, our +party was well supplied with small arms. The Americans +mostly had their rifles and a musket in addition, which {16} +they carried in their wagons, always well charged with ball +and buckshot. Then my brother and myself were each +provided with one of Colt's repeating rifles, and a pair of +pistols of the same, so that we could, if necessary, carry +thirty-six ready-loaded shots apiece; which alone constituted +a capacity of defence rarely matched even on the Prairies.</p> + +<p>Previous to our departure we had received a promise from +the war department of an escort of U.S. Dragoons, as far as +the borders of the Mexican territory; but, upon sending an +express to Gen. Arbuckle at Fort Gibson to that effect,<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> we +were informed that in consequence of some fresh troubles +among the Cherokees, it was doubtful whether the force +could be spared in time. This was certainly no very agreeable +news, inasmuch as the escort would have been very +serviceable in assisting to search out a track over the unexplored +wilderness we had to pass. It was too late, however, +to recede; and so we resolved at all hazards to pursue our +journey. +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg106"></a>[p106]</span></p> + +<p> We had advanced beyond the furthest settlements of the +Creeks and Seminoles, and pitched our camp on a bright +balmy evening, in the border of a delightful prairie, when +some of the young men, attracted by the prospect of game, +shouldered their rifles and wended their steps through the +dense forest which lay contiguous to our encampment. +Among those that went forth, there was one of the 'down-easters' +already mentioned, who was much more familiar +with the interior of {17} a city than of a wilderness forest. +As the shades of evening were beginning to descend, and all +the hunters had returned except him, several muskets and +even our little field-pieces were fired, but without effect. +The night passed away, and the morning dawned upon the +encampment, and still he was absent. The firing was then +renewed; but soon after he was seen approaching, very +sullen and dejected. He came with a tale of perilous +adventures and 'hair-breadth 'scapes' upon his lips, which +somewhat abated the storm of ridicule by which he was at +first assailed. It seemed that he had heard our firing on +the previous evening, but believed it to proceed from a contrary +direction—a very common mistake with persons who +have become bewildered and lost. Thus deceived and +stimulated by the fear of Indians (from a party of whom he +supposed the firing to proceed), he continued his pathless +wanderings till dark, when, to render his situation still more +critical, he was attacked by a 'painter'—<dfn>anglicè</dfn>, panther—which +he actually succeeded in beating off with the breech +of his gun, and then betook himself to the topmost extremity +of a tree, where, in order to avoid a similar intrusion, he +passed the remainder of the night. From a peculiar odor +with which the shattered gun was still redolent, however, it +was strongly suspected that the 'terrific painter' was not +many degrees removed, in affinity, from a——polecat.</p> + +<p>We had just reached the extreme edge of {18} the far <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg107"></a>[p107]</span> +famed 'Cross Timbers,'<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> when we were gratified by the +arrival of forty dragoons, under the command of Lieut. +Bowman, who had orders to accompany us to the supposed +boundary of the United States.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" +id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> On the same evening we +had the pleasure of encamping together at a place known as +Camp Holmes, a wild romantic spot in latitude <span class="fraction">35° 5′</span>, and +but a mile north of the Canadian river. Just at hand there +was a beautiful spring, where, in 1835, Colonel Mason with a +force of U. S. troops, had a 'big talk' and still bigger 'smoke' +with a party of Comanche and Witchita Indians.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> Upon +the same site Col. Chouteau had also caused to be erected +not long after, a little stockade fort, where a considerable +trade was subsequently carried on with the Comanches and +other tribes of the southwestern prairies. The place had +now been abandoned, however, since the preceding winter.</p> + +<p>From the Arkansas river to Chouteau's Fort, our route +presented an unbroken succession of grassy plains and fertile +glades, intersected here and there with woody belts and +numerous rivulets, most of which, however, are generally +dry except during the rainy season. As far as Camp Holmes, +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg108"></a>[p108]</span> we had a passable wagon road, which was opened upon the +occasion of the Indian treaty before alluded to, and was +afterwards kept open by the Indian traders. Yet, notwithstanding +the road, this stretch gave us more trouble—presented +more rugged passes, miry ravines and steep {19} +ascents—than all the rest of our journey put together.</p> + +<p>We had not been long at the Fort, before we received a +visit from a party of Comanches, who having heard of our +approach came to greet us a welcome, on the supposition +that it was their friend Chouteau returning to the fort with +fresh supplies of merchandise. Great was their grief when +we informed them that their favorite trader had died at Fort +Gibson, the previous winter.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> On visiting their wigwams +and inquiring for their <i>capitan</i>,<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> we were introduced to a +corpulent, squint-eyed old fellow, who certainly had nothing +in his personal appearance indicative of rank or dignity. +This was Tábba-quena (or the Big Eagle), a name familiar +to all the Comanche traders. As we had frequently heard +that he spoke Spanish fluently, we at once prepared ourselves +for a social chit-chat; but, on accosting him in that tongue, +and inquiring whether he could talk Spanish, he merely +replied '<dfn>Poquito</dfn>,' putting at the same time his forefinger to +his ear, to signify that he merely understood a little—which +proved true to a degree, for our communication was chiefly <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg109"></a>[p109]</span> +by signs. We were now about to launch upon an unknown +region—our route lay henceforth across that unexplored +wilderness, of which I have so frequently spoken, without +either pilot or trail to guide us for nearly 500 miles. We had +to depend entirely upon {20} our knowledge of the geographical +position of the country for which we were steering, and +the indications of a compass and sextant. This was emphatically +a pioneer trip; such a one also as had, perhaps, +never before been undertaken—to convey heavily laden +wagons through a country almost wholly untrod by civilized +man, and of which <em>we</em>, at least, knew nothing. We were +therefore extremely anxious to acquire any information our +visitors might be able to give us; but Tábba-quena being +by no means experienced in wagon tactics, could only make +us understand, by gestures, mixed with a little wretched +Spanish, that the route up the Canadian presented no +obstacles according to <em>his</em> mode of travelling. He appeared, +however, very well acquainted with the whole Mexican +frontier, from Santa Fé to Chihuahua, and even to the Gulf, +as well as with all the Prairies. During the consultation he +seemed occasionally to ask the opinions of other chiefs who +had huddled around him. Finally, we handed him a sheet +of paper and a pencil, signifying at the same time a desire +that he would draw us a map of the Prairies. This he very +promptly executed; and although the draft was somewhat +rough, it bore, much to our astonishment, quite a map-like +appearance, with a far more accurate delineation of all the +principal rivers of the plains—the road from Missouri to +Santa Fé, and the different Mexican settlements, than is to +be found in many of the engraved maps of those regions.</p> + +<p>{21}Tabba-quena's party consisted of about sixty persons, +including several squaws and papooses, with a few Kiawa +chiefs and warriors, who, although of a tribe so entirely distinct, +are frequently found domiciled among the Comanches. +As we were about to break up the camp they all started for <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg110"></a>[p110]</span> +Fort Gibson, for the purpose, as they informed us, of paying +a visit to the 'Capitan Grande'—a Spanish phrase used by +many prairie tribes, and applied, in their confused notions +of rank and power, not only to the President of the United +States himself, but to the seat of the federal government. +These they are again apt to confound with Fort Gibson and +the commanding officer of that station.</p> + +<p>On the 18th of May, we set out from Chouteau's fort. +From this forward our wagons were marched in two lines +and regularly 'formed' at every camp, so as to constitute a +fortification and a <i>corral</i> for the stock. This is different +from the 'forming' of the large caravans. The two front +wagons are driven up, side by side, with their 'tails' a little +inclined outward. About half of the rest are drawn up in +the same manner, but each stopped with the fore-wheel a +little back of the hind-wheel of the next ahead. The remainder +are similarly brought up, but inclined inward behind, +so as nearly to close again at the rear of the pen; +leaving a gap through which to introduce the stock. Thus +the <i>corral</i> remains of an ovate form. After the drivers +become expert the whole is performed in a very short time.</p> + +<p>{22}On the following day we were again joined by old +Tabba-quena, and another Comanche chief, with five or +six warriors, and as many squaws, including Tab's wife and +infant son. As we were jogging along in the afternoon, I +held quite a long conversation in our semi-mute language +with the squinting old chief. He gave me to understand, +as well as he could, that his comrades<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> had proceeded on +their journey to see the Capitan Grande, but that he had concluded +to return home for better horses. He boasted in no +measured terms of his friendship for the Americans, and <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg111"></a>[p111]</span> +promised to exert his influence to prevent turbulent and +unruly spirits of his nation from molesting us. But he +could not disguise his fears in regard to the Pawnees and +Osages, who, he said, would be sure to run off with our +stock while we were asleep at night. When I informed him +that we kept a strict night-watch, he said, "<dfn>Está bueno</dfn>" +(that's good), and allowed that our chances for safety were +not so bad after all.</p> + +<p>These friendly Indians encamped with us that night, and +on the following morning the old chief informed us that some +of his party had a few "mulas para <dfn>swap</dfn>" (mules to trade; +for having learned the word <i>swap</i> of some American traders, +he very ingeniously tacked it at the tail of his little stock of +Spanish). A barter of five mules was immediately concluded +{23} upon, much to our advantage, as our teams were +rather in a weak condition. Old Tab and his party then +left us to join his band, which, he said, was located on the +Faux Ouachittâ river, and we never saw aught of them +more.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p> + +<p>After leaving the Fort we generally kept on the ridge +between the Canadian and the North Fork, crossing sometimes +the tributary brooks of the one and sometimes those +of the others. Having travelled in this manner for about +eighty miles, we entered one of the most charming prairie +vales that I have ever beheld, and which in the plenitude +of our enthusiasm, we named 'Spring Valley,' on account of +the numerous spring-fed rills and gurgling rivulets that +greeted the sight in every direction;<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> in whose limpid pools +swarms of trout and perch were carelessly playing. Much +of the country, indeed, over which we had passed was somewhat +of a similar character—yet nowhere quite so beautiful. +I must premise, however, that westward of this, it <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg112"></a>[p112]</span> +is only the valleys immediately bordering the streams that +are at all fit for cultivation: the high plains are too dry and +sandy. But here the soil was dark and mellow, and the +rich vegetation with which it was clothed plainly indicated +its fertility. 'Spring Valley' gently inclines towards the +North Fork, which was at the distance of about five miles +from our present route. It was somewhere along the border +of this enchanting vale that a little picket fort was erected in +{24} 1822, by an unfortunate trader named McKnight, who +was afterwards betrayed and murdered by the faithless +Comanches.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> The landscape is beautifully variegated with +stripes and fringes of timber: while the little herds of buffalo +that were scattered about in fantastic groups imparted a +degree of life and picturesqueness to the scene, which it was +truly delightful to contemplate.</p> + +<p>It was three days previous that we had first met with these +'prairie cattle.' I have often heard backwoodsmen speak +of the 'buck ague,' but commend me to the 'buffalo fever' +of the Prairies for novelty and amusement. Very few of +our party had ever seen a buffalo before in its wild state; +therefore at the first sight of these noble animals the excitement +surpassed anything I had ever witnessed before. Some +of our dragoons, in their eagerness for sport, had managed +to frighten away a small herd that were quietly feeding at +some distance, before our 'still hunters,' who had crawled +towards them, had been able to get within rifle-shot of them. +No sooner were the movements of our mounted men perceived, +than the whole extent of country, as far as the eye +could reach, became perfectly animate with living objects, +fleeing and scampering in every direction. From the surrounding +valleys sprang up numerous herds of these animals +which had hitherto been unobserved, many of which, in their +indiscriminate flight, passed so near the wagons, that the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg113"></a>[p113]</span> +drivers, carried away by the contagious excitement of {25} +the moment, would leave the teams and keep up a running +fire after them. I had the good fortune to witness the +exploits of one of our Northern greenhorns, who, mounted +upon a sluggish mule, and without any kind of weapon, +amused himself by chasing every buffalo that came scudding +along, as if he expected to capture him by laying hold of his +tail. Plying spur and whip, he would gallop after one +division till he was left far behind: and then turn to another +and another, with the same earnestness of purpose, until +they had all passed out of sight. He finally came back disheartened +and sullen, with his head hanging down like one +conscious of having done something supremely ridiculous; +but still cursing his lazy mule, which, he said, might have +caught the buffalo, if it had had a mind to.</p> + +<p>The next day the buffalo being still more numerous, the +chase was renewed with greater zest. In the midst of the +general hurly-burly which ensued, three persons on foot were +perceived afar off, chasing one herd of buffalo and then +another, until they completely disappeared. These were +two of our cooks, the one armed with a pistol, the other with +a musket, accompanied by Chuly (the Creek), who was +happily provided with a rifle. We travelled several miles +without hearing or seeing anything of them. At last, when +we had almost given them up for lost, Frank, the French +cook, came trudging in, and his rueful countenance was no +bad index of the {26} doleful tale he had to relate. Although +he had been chasing and shooting all day, he had, as he +expressed it, "no killet one," till eventually he happened +to stumble upon a wounded calf, which he boldly attacked; +but as ill luck would have it, the youngster took it into his +head to give him battle. "Foutre de varment! he butt me +down," exclaimed the exasperated Frenchman,—"Sacré! +me plentee scart; but me kill him for all." Chuly and the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg114"></a>[p114]</span> +other cook came in soon after, in equally dejected spirits; +for, in addition to his ill luck in hunting, the latter had been +lost. The Indian had perhaps killed buffalo with his rifle, +but he was in no humor to be communicative in his language +of signs; so nothing was ever known of his adventures. +One thing seemed pretty certain, that they were all cured of +the 'buffalo fever.'</p> + +<p>On the night after the first buffalo scamper, we encamped +upon a woodless ravine, and were obliged to resort to 'buffalo +chips' (dry ordure) for fuel. It is amusing to witness the +bustle which generally takes place in collecting this offal. +In dry weather it is an excellent substitute for wood, than +which it even makes a hotter fire; but when moistened by +rain, the smouldering pile will smoke for hours before it condescends +to burn, if it does at all. The buffalo meat which +the hunter roasts or broils upon this fire, he accounts more +savory than the steaks dressed by the most delicate cooks in +civilized life.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Chapter i of volume ii of the original edition.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> It is said that Major Long first chose the site of Van Buren for the fort afterwards +erected at Bellepoint, five miles higher up the river, and known as Fort Smith—see +our volume xiii, p. 197, note 166. The site was not occupied until after the +removal of the Cherokee in 1828; the next year it was made a post-office, and in +1838 the seat for Crawford County, Arkansas. For two decades Van Buren was a +prosperous frontier town, the home of a large Indian trade. Since the War of +Secession it has not regained its prestige.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> The caravan crossed the Arkansas, between the embouchment of the Illinois +and Canadian rivers, in what is now the Cherokee Nation, Indian Territory.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> The North Fork of the Canadian unites with the main stream on the boundary +between the Creek and Cherokee nations. The Creek town of Eufaula is near +the site mentioned by Gregg.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> James Kirker, known to the Mexicans as Santiago Querque, was an American +who led an adventurous life upon the plains. Like several others he embarked in +Apache warfare for the government of Chihuahua; and was accused, probably unjustly, +of cheating in the delivery of scalps. He retired in bad humor to his hacienda +in Sonora; later removing to California, where he died about 1853. See Kendall, +<cite>Texan Santa Fé Expedition</cite>, ii, pp. 57-59.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Matthew Arbuckle was the son of a Virginia pioneer of the same name, who +participated in the Battle of Point Pleasant in 1774. The son was born in 1776, +and entered the regular army at the age of twenty-three, passing through all of the +grades until in 1830 he was, for meritorious services, breveted brigadier-general. +He died at Fort Smith June 11, 1851. +</p> +<p> +Fort Gibson was erected in 1824 on the left bank of Neosho River, near its +mouth. The western boundary of Arkansas was in 1825 removed forty miles to +the west, so that this military post fell within its border. Later (1830), the boundary +was again replaced at the original limits, whereupon Fort Gibson fell into Cherokee +territory. Several unavailing efforts were made (1834-38) to have the garrison +removed to Fort Smith; and after numerous protests by the Cherokee against its +maintenance within their borders, Fort Gibson was finally abandoned in 1857.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span +class="label">[74]</span></a> For the description of the belt of woodland known as Cross Timbers, see +<i>post</i>, p. 253.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Lieutenant James Monroe Bowman entered the West Point military academy +from Pennsylvania, was made lieutenant in the mounted rangers in 1832, and +transferred to the dragoons in 1833. For his death (July 21, 1839), see <i>post</i>.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Camp Holmes was at the site later occupied by Fort Holmes, in the Creek +Nation, near its western boundary. In 1849 there was no habitation at this place; +see <cite>Senate Doc.</cite>, 31 Cong., 1 sess., 12. +</p> +<p> +Richard Barnes Mason was born in Fairfax County, Virginia, in 1797; at the +age of twenty he entered the army as lieutenant, two years later (1819) became +captain, and in 1833 major of the 1st dragoons. He was lieutenant-colonel in +1836, colonel in 1846, and brigadier-general two years later, dying at St. Louis in +1850. He served in the Black Hawk War, and was first military and civil governor +of California. +</p> +<p> +For the Comanche, see our volume xvi, p. 233, note 109. For the Wichita, also +called Pawnee Picts, <i>ibid.</i>, p. 95, note 55. +</p> +<p> +The treaty here alluded to was signed at Camp Holmes, August 24, 1835. If +Colonel Mason was present it was in a subordinate capacity, as General Arbuckle +and Montford Stokes were the federal commissioners. The treaty was one of +peace and friendship between the Comanche, Wichita, and associated bands +on the one part, and the tribes recently removed to the vicinity—Cherokee, +Creek, Choctaw, etc.—on the other, the government commissioners acting as +mediators.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Auguste Pierre Chouteau, eldest son of the senior Pierre (for whom see our +volume xvi, p. 275, note 127) and brother of Pierre (cadet), so well known in connection +with the Missouri Fur Company, was born at St. Louis in 1786. After +being educated at West Point, he entered the army, where he was ensign of the 1st +infantry. In 1809, he resigned, married his cousin Sophie Labadie, and embarked +in the fur trade, in which he had charge of the Arkansas branch of the business +until his death at Fort Gibson.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Most of the prairie Indians seem to have learned this Spanish word, by which, +when talking with the whites, all their chiefs are designated.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Some of these (principally Kiawas, as I afterwards learned), reached Fort +Gibson, and received a handsome reward of government presents for their visit.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> For this stream, see our volume xvi, p. 138, note 66.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> In Oklahoma, probably not far from the present town of that name.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> See our volume xix, p. 176, note 13 (Gregg).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div></div> + +<h3 title="Chapter XVIII"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XVIII_II" id="CHAPTER_XVIII_II"></a> +CHAPTER XVIII {II}</h3> + +<p class="subhead">Travelling out of our Latitude — The Buffalo-gnat — A Kiawa and +Squaw — Indian <i>crim. con.</i> Affair — Extraordinary Mark of Confidence +in the White Man — A Conflagration — An Espy Shower — Region +of Gypsum — Our Latitude — A Lilliputian Forest — A +Party of Comanches — A Visit to a 'Dog Town' — Indian Archery — Arrival +of Comanche Warriors — A 'Big Talk,' and its Results — Speech +of the <i>Capitan Mayor</i> — Project of bringing Comanche Chiefs +to Washington — Return of Lieut. Bowman, and our March resumed — Melancholy +Reflections — Another Indian Visit — Mexican +Captives — Voluntary Captivity — A sprightly Mexican Lad — Purchase +of a Captive — Comanche Trade and Etiquette — Indians +least dangerous to such as trade with them.<a href="#tocXVIII" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>As it now appeared that we had been forced at least two +points north of the course we had originally intended to +steer, by the northern bearing of the Canadian, we made an +effort to cross a ridge of timber to the south, which, after +considerable labor, proved successful. Here we found a <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg115"></a>[p115]</span> +multitude of gravelly, bright-flowing streams, with rich bottoms, +lined all along with stately white oak, black-walnut, +mulberry, and other similar growths, that yielded us excellent +materials for wagon repairs, of which the route from Missouri, +after passing Council Grove, is absolutely in want.</p> + +<p>{28} Although we found the buffalo extremely scarce westward +of Spring Valley, yet there was no lack of game; for +every nook and glade swarmed with deer and wild turkeys, +partridges and grouse. We had also occasion to become +acquainted with another species of prairie-tenant whose +visits generally produced impressions that were anything +but agreeable. I allude to a small black insect generally +known to prairie travellers as the 'buffalo-gnat.' It not +only attacks the face and hands, but even contrives to insinuate +itself under the clothing, upon the breast and arms, and +other covered parts. Here it fastens itself and luxuriates, +until completely satisfied. Its bite is so poisonous as to give +the face, neck, and hands, or any other part of the person +upon which its affectionate caresses have been bestowed, +the appearance of a pustulated varioloid. The buffalo-gnat +is in fact a much more annoying insect than the mosquito, +and also much more frequently met with on the prairie +streams.</p> + +<p>We now continued our line of march between the Canadian +and the timbered ridge with very little difficulty. Having +stopped to 'noon' in a bordering valley, we were quite surprised +by the appearance of an Indian with no other protection +than his squaw. From what we could gather by their +signs, they had been the victims of a 'love scrape.' The +fellow, whom I found to be a Kiawa, had, according to his +own account, stolen the wife of another, and then fled to the +thickets, {29} where he purposed to lead a lonely life, in hopes +of escaping the vengeance of his incensed predecessor. +From this, it would appear that affairs of gallantry are not <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg116"></a>[p116]</span> +evils exclusively confined to civilization. Plausible, however, +as the Indian's story seemed to be, we had strong suspicions +that others of his band were not far off; and that +he, with his 'better half,' had only been skulking about in +hopes of exercising their 'acquisitiveness' at our expense; +when, on finding themselves discovered, they deemed it the +best policy fearlessly to approach us. This singular visit +afforded a specimen of that confidence with which civilization +inspires even the most untutored savages. They remained +with us, in the utmost nonchalance, till the following +morning.</p> + +<p>Shortly after the arrival of the visitors, we were terribly +alarmed at a sudden prairie conflagration. The old grass +of the valley in which we were encamped had not been +burned off, and one of our cooks having unwittingly kindled +a fire in the midst of it, it spread at once with wonderful +rapidity; and a brisk wind springing up at the time, the +flames were carried over the valley, in spite of every effort +we could make to check them. Fortunately for us, the fire +had broken out to the leeward of our wagons, and therefore +occasioned us no damage; but the accident itself was a +forcible illustration of the danger that might be incurred by +pitching a camp in the midst of dry grass, and the advantages +{30} that might be taken by hostile savages in such a +locality.</p> + +<p>After the fire had raged with great violence for a few hours, +a cloud suddenly obscured the horizon, which was almost immediately +followed by a refreshing shower of rain: a phenomenon +often witnessed upon the Prairies after an extensive +conflagration; and affording a practical exemplification of +Professor Espy's celebrated theory of artificial showers.<a +name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg117"></a>[p117]</span></p> + +<p> We now continued our journey without further trouble, +except that of being still forced out of our proper latitude +by the northern bearing of the Canadian. On the 30th of +May, however, we succeeded in 'doubling' the spur of the +Great North Bend.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> Upon ascending the dividing ridge +again, which at this point was entirely destitute of timber, a +'prairie expanse' once more greeted our view. This and the +following day, our route lay through a region that abounded +in gypsum, from the finest quality down to ordinary plaster. +On the night of the 31st we encamped on a tributary of the +North Fork, which we called Gypsum creek, in consequence +of its being surrounded with vast quantities of that substance.<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p> + +<p>Being compelled to keep a reckoning of our latitude, by +which our travel was partly governed, and the sun being now +too high at noon for the use of the artificial horizon, we had +to be guided entirely by observations of the meridian altitude +of the moon, planets, or {31} fixed stars. At Gypsum creek +our latitude was <span class="fraction">36° 10′</span>—being the utmost northing we +had made. As we were now about thirty miles north of the +parallel of Santa Fé, we had to steer, henceforth, a few +degrees south of west in order to bring up on our direct +course.</p> + +<p>The following night we encamped in a region covered +with sandy hillocks, where there was not a drop of water +to be found: in fact, an immense sand-plain was now +opening before us, somewhat variegated in appearance, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg118"></a>[p118]</span> +being entirely barren of vegetation in some places, while +others were completely covered with an extraordinarily +diminutive growth which has been called <dfn>shin-oak</dfn>, and a +curious plum-bush of equally dwarfish stature. These +singular-looking plants (undistinguishable at a distance +from the grass of the prairies) were heavily laden with acorns +and plums, which, when ripe, are of considerable size +although the trunks of either were seldom thicker than oat-straws, +and frequently not a foot high. We also met with the +same in many other places on the Prairies.</p> + +<p>Still the most indispensable requisite, water, was nowhere +to be found, and symptoms of alarm were beginning to spread +far and wide among us. When we had last seen the Canadian +and the North Fork, they appeared to separate in their +course almost at right angles, therefore it was impossible +to tell at what distance we were from either. At last {32} my +brother and myself, who had been scouring the plains during +the morning without success, finally perceived a deep hollow +leading in the direction of the Canadian, where we found a +fine pool of water, and our wagons 'made port' again before +mid-day; thus quieting all alarm.</p> + +<p>Although we had encountered but very few buffalo since +we left Spring Valley, they now began to make their appearance +again, though not in very large droves; together with +the deer and the fleet antelope, which latter struck me as +being much more tame in this wild section of the Prairies +than I had seen it elsewhere. The graceful and majestic +mustang would also now and then sweep across the naked +country, or come curvetting and capering in the vicinity +of our little caravan, just as the humor prompted him. But +what attracted our attention most were the little dog settlements, +or, as they are more technically called, 'dog towns,' +so often alluded to by prairie travellers. As we were passing +through their 'streets,' multitudes of the diminutive inhabitants <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg119"></a>[p119]</span> +were to be seen among the numerous little hillocks +which marked their dwellings, where they frisked about, or +sat perched at their doors, yelping defiance, to our great +amusement—heedless of the danger that often awaited +them from the rifles of our party; for they had perhaps never +seen such deadly weapons before.</p> + +<p>On the 5th of June, we found ourselves once more travelling +on a firm rolling prairie, {33} about the region, as we +supposed,<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> of the boundary between the United States and +Mexico; when Lieut. Bowman, in pursuance of his instructions, +began to talk seriously of returning. While the +wagons were stopped at noon, a small party of us, including +a few dragoons, advanced some miles ahead to take a survey +of the route. We had just ascended the highest point of a +ridge to get a prospect of the country beyond, when we +descried a herd of buffalo in motion and two or three horsemen +in hot pursuit. "Mexican Ciboleros!" we all exclaimed +at once; for we supposed we might now be within the range +of the buffalo hunters of New Mexico. Clapping spurs to +our horses, we set off towards them at full speed. As we +might have expected, our precipitate approach frightened +them away and we soon lost sight of them altogether. On +reaching the spot where they had last been seen, we found a +horse and two mules saddled, all tied to the carcass of a +slain buffalo which was partly skinned. We made diligent +search in some copses of small growth, and among the +adjacent ravines, but could discover no further traces of the +fugitives. The Indian rigging of the animals, however, +satisfied us that they were not Mexicans.</p> + +<p>We were just about giving up the pursuit, when a solitary +Indian horseman was espied upon a ridge about a mile from <span +class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg120"></a>[p120]</span> +us. My {34} brother and myself set out towards him, but +on seeing us approach, he began to manifest some fear, and +therefore my brother advanced alone. As soon as he was +near enough he cried out "<i>Amigo!</i>" to which the Indian +replied "<i>Comantz!</i>" and giving himself a thump upon the +breast, he made a graceful circuit, and came up at full speed, +presenting his hand in token of friendship. Nothing, however, +could induce him to return to his animals with us, +where the rest of our party had remained. He evidently +feared treachery and foul play. Therefore we retraced our +steps to the wagons, leaving the Indian's property just as +we had found it, which, we subsequently discovered, was +taken away after our departure.</p> + +<p>In the afternoon of the same day, five more Indians +(including a squaw), made their appearance, and having +been induced by friendly tokens to approach us, they spent +the night at our encampment. The next morning, we +expressed a desire, by signs, to be conducted to the nearest +point on our route where good pasturage and water might +be found. A sprightly young chief, armed only with his +bow and arrows, at once undertook the task, while his comrades +still travelled along in our company. We had not progressed +far before we found ourselves in the very midst of +another large 'dog-town.'</p> + +<p>The task of describing the social and domestic habits of +these eccentric little brutes, has been so graphically and +amusingly executed {35} by the racy and popular pen of G. +Wilkins Kendall, that any attempt by me would be idle; +and I feel that the most agreeable service I can do my readers +is to borrow a paragraph from his alluring "Narrative," +describing a scene presented by one of these prairie commonwealths.<a +name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg121"></a>[p121]</span></p> + +<p> "In their habits they are clannish, social, and extremely +convivial, never living alone like other animals, but, on the +contrary, always found in villages or large settlements. +They are a wild, frolicsome, madcap set of fellows when +undisturbed, uneasy and ever on the move, and appear to +take especial delight in chattering away the time, and visiting +from hole to hole to gossip and talk over each other's affairs—at +least so their actions would indicate.... On +several occasions I crept close to their villages, without being +observed, to watch their movements. Directly in the centre +of one of them I particularly noticed a very large dog, sitting +in front of the door or entrance to his burrow, and by his +own actions and those of his neighbors it really seemed as +though he was the president, mayor, or chief—at all events, +he was the 'big dog' of the place. For at least an hour I +secretly watched the operations in this community. During +that time the large dog I have mentioned received at least a +dozen visits from his fellow-dogs, which would stop and chat +with him a few moments, and then run off to their domiciles. +All this while he never left his post for a moment, and I +thought I could discover a gravity in his deportment {36} not +discernible in those by which he was surrounded. Far is it +from me to say that the visits he received were upon business, +or had anything to do with the local government of the +village; but it certainly appeared so. If any animal has a +system of laws regulating the body politic, it is certainly the +prairie dog."</p> + +<p>As we sat on our horses, looking at these 'village transactions,' +our Comanche guide drew an arrow for the purpose +of cutting short the career of a little citizen that sat +yelping most doggedly in the mouth of his hole, forty or +fifty paces distant. The animal was almost entirely concealed +behind the hillock which encompassed the entrance +of his apartment, so that the dart could not reach it in a <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg122"></a>[p122]</span> +direct line; but the Indian had resort to a manœuvre which +caused the arrow to descend with a curve, and in an instant +it quivered in the body of the poor little quadruped. The +slayer only smiled at his feat, while we were perfectly astounded. +There is nothing strange in the rifleman's being +able to hit his mark with his fine-sighted barrel; but the +accuracy with which these savages learn to shoot their +feathered missiles, with such random aim, is almost incomprehensible. +I had at the same time drawn one of Colt's +repeating pistols, with a view of paying a similar compliment +to another dog; when, finding that it excited the curiosity +of the chief, I fired a few shots in quick succession, as an +explanation of its virtues. He seemed to {37} comprehend +the secret instantly, and, drawing his bow once more, he +discharged a number of arrows with the same rapidity, as a +palpable intimation that he could shoot as fast with his +instrument as we could with our patent fire-arms. This +was not merely a vain show: there was more of reality than +of romance in his demonstration.</p> + +<p>Shortly after this we reached a fresh brook, a tributary of +the North Fork, which wound its silent course in the midst +of a picturesque valley, surrounded by romantic hills and +craggy knobs. Here we pitched our camp: when three of +our visitors left us for the purpose of going to bring all the +'capitanes' of their tribe, who were said to be encamped +at no great distance from us.</p> + +<p>Our encampment, which we designated as 'Camp Comanche,' +was only five or six miles from the North Fork, +while, to the southward, the main Canadian was but a little +more distant.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a id="Camp-Comanche"></a> +<img src="images/i125.jpg" width="600" height="342" alt="" /> +<div class="caption">Camp Comanche</div> +<div class="IlloRtn"><a +href="#ILLUSTRATIONS_TO_VOLUME_XX">Illustrations List</a></div> +</div> + +<p>After waiting anxiously for the arrival of the Comanche +chiefs, until our patience was well nigh exhausted, I ascended +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg125"></a>[p125]</span> a high knoll just behind our camp, in company with the +younger of the two chiefs who had remained with us, to see +if anything could be discovered. By and by, the Comanche +pointed anxiously towards the northwest, where he espied a +party of his people, though at such a great distance, that it +was some time before I could discern them. With what +acuteness of vision are these savages endowed! Accustomed +{38} to the open plains, and like the eagle to look out +for their prey at immense distances, their optical perception +is scarcely excelled by that of the king of birds.</p> + +<p>The party, having approached still nearer, assembled +upon an eminence as if for the purpose of reconnoitring; +but our chief upon the knoll hoisting his blanket, which +seemed to say, 'come ahead,' they advanced slowly and +deliberately—very unlike the customary mode of approach +among all the prairie tribes.</p> + +<p>The party consisted of about sixty warriors, at the head +of whom rode an Indian of small stature and agreeable +countenance, verging on the age of fifty. He wore the usual +Comanche dress, but instead of moccasins, he had on a pair +of long white cotton hose, while upon his bare head waved +a tall red plume,—a mark of distinction which proclaimed +him at once the <dfn>capitan mayor</dfn>, or principal chief. We +addressed them in Spanish, inquiring if they had brought +an interpreter, when a lank-jawed, grum-looking savage +announced his readiness to officiate in that capacity. "<dfn>Sabes +hablar en Español, amigo?</dfn>" (can you talk Spanish, friend?) +I inquired. "<dfn>Si</dfn>" (yes), he gruffly replied. "Where are +your people?" "Encamped just above on yonder creek." +"How many of you are there?" "Oh, a great many—nearly +all the Comanche nation; for we are <i>en junta</i> to go +and fight the Pawnees." "Well, can you tell us how far it +is to Santa Fé?"—But the surly savage cut short my inquiries +by observing—{39} "<dfn>Ahí platícarémos despues</dfn>"—"We +will talk about that hereafter." <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg126"></a>[p126]</span></p> + +<p>We then showed them a spot a few rods from us, where +they might encamp so as not to intermix their animals with +ours; after which all the <i>capitanes</i> were invited to our camp +to hold a 'big talk.' In a very short time we had ten chiefs +seated in a circle within our tent, when the pipe, the Indian +token of peace, was produced: but, doubting perhaps the +sincerity of our professions, they at first refused to smoke. +The interpreter, however, remarked as an excuse for their +conduct, that it was not their custom to smoke until they had +received some presents: but a few Mexican <i>cigarritos</i> being +produced, most of them took a whiff, as if under the impression +that to smoke cigars was no pledge of friendship.</p> + +<p>Lieut. Bowman now desired us to broach the subject of +peace and amity betwixt the Comanches and our people, +and to invite them to visit the 'Capitan Grande' at Washington, +and enter into a perpetual treaty to that effect; but they +would not then converse on the subject. In fact, the interpreter +inquired, "Are we not at war?—how can we go to +see the Capitan Grande?" We knew they held themselves +at war with Mexico and Texas, and probably had mistaken +us for Texans, which had no doubt caused the interpreter +to speak so emphatically of their immense numbers. Upon +this we explained to them that the United States was a distinct +government {40} and at peace with the Comanches. +As an earnest of our friendly disposition, we then produced +some scarlet cloth, with a small quantity of vermilion, +tobacco, beads, etc., which being distributed among them, +they very soon settled down into a state of placidness and +contentment. Indeed, it will be found, that, with wild +Indians, presents are always the corner-stone of friendship. +"We are rejoiced," at last said the elder chief with a ceremonious +air, "our hearts are glad that you have arrived among +us: it makes our eyes laugh to see Americans walk in our +land. We will notify our old and young men—our boys <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg127"></a>[p127]</span> +and our maidens—our women and children,—that they +may come to trade with you. We hope you will speak well +of us to your people, that more of them may hunt the way +to our country, for we like to trade with the white man." +This was delivered in Comanche, but translated into Spanish +by the interpreter, who, although a full Indian, had lived +several years among the Mexicans and spoke that language +tolerably well. Our 'big talk' lasted several hours, after +which the Indians retired to sleep. The next morning, after +renewing their protestations of friendship, they took their +departure, the principal chief saying, "Tell the Capitan +Grande that when he pleases to call us we are all ready to +go to see him."</p> + +<p>The project of bringing some of the chiefs of these wild +prairie tribes to Washington city, has been entertained, but +never yet carried {41} into effect. The few who have penetrated +as far as Fort Gibson, or perhaps to a frontier village, +have probably left with more unfavorable impressions than +they had before. Believing the former to be our great +Capital, and the most insignificant among the latter, our +largest cities, they have naturally come to the conclusion +that they surpass us in numbers and power, if not in wealth +and grandeur. I have no doubt that the chiefs of the Comanches +and other prairie tribes, if rightly managed, might +be induced to visit our veritable 'Capitan Grande,' and our +large cities, which would doubtless have a far better effect +than all the treaties of peace that could be concluded with +them for an age to come. They would then 'see with their +own eyes and hear with their own ears' the magnificence +and power of the whites, which would inspire them at once +with respect and fear.</p> + +<p>This was on the 7th of June. About noon, Lieut. Bowman +and his command finally took leave of us, and at the same +time we resumed our forward march. This separation was <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg128"></a>[p128]</span> +truly painful: not so much on account of the loss we were +about to experience, in regard to the protection afforded us +by the troops (which, to say the truth, was more needed now +than it had ever been before), as for the necessity of parting +with a friend, who had endeared himself to us all by his +affable deportment, his social manners and accommodating +disposition. Ah! little did we think then that we should +never see that gallant officer more! {42} So young, so robust, +and so healthy, little did we suspect that the sound of that +voice which shouted so vigorously in responding to our +parting salute in the desert, would never greet our ears again! +But such was Fate's decree! Although he arrived safely +at Fort Gibson, in a few short weeks he fell a victim to disease.</p> + +<p>There were perhaps a few timid hearts that longed to +return with the dragoons, and ever and anon a wistful +glance would be cast back at the receding figures in the +distance. The idea of a handful of thirty-four men having +to travel without guide or protection through a dreary wilderness, +peopled by thousands of savages who were just as likely +to be hostile as friendly, was certainly very little calculated +to produce agreeable impressions. Much to the credit of +our men, however, the escort was no sooner out of sight than +the timorous regained confidence, and all seemed bound +together by stronger ties than before. All we feared were +ambuscades or surprise; to guard against which, it was only +necessary to redouble our vigilance.</p> + +<p>On the following day, while we were enjoying our noon's +rest upon a ravine of the Canadian, several parties of Indians, +amounting altogether to about three hundred souls, including +women and children, made their appearance. They belonged +to the same band of Comanches with whom we had +had so agreeable an intercourse, and had brought several +mules in the expectation of driving a trade with us. The +squaws and papooses {43} were so anxious to gratify their <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg129"></a>[p129]</span> +curiosity, and so very soon began to give such striking manifestations +of their pilfering propensities, that, at the request +of the chiefs, we carried some goods at a little distance, +where a trade was opened, in hopes of attracting their attention. +One woman, I observed, still lingered among the +wagons, who, from certain peculiarities of features, struck +me very forcibly as not being an Indian. In accordance +with this impression I addressed her in Spanish, and was +soon confirmed in all my suspicions. She was from the +neighborhood of Matamoros, and had been married to a +Comanche since her captivity. She did not entertain the +least desire of returning to her own people.</p> + +<p>Similar instances of voluntary captivity have frequently +occurred. Dr. Sibley, in a communication to the War +Department, in 1805, relates an affecting case, which shows +how a sensitive female will often prefer remaining with her +masters, rather than encounter the horrible ordeal of ill-natured +remarks to which she would inevitably be exposed +on being restored to civilized life.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> The Comanches, some +twenty years previous, having kidnapped the daughter of +the Governor-General of Chihuahua, the latter transmitted +$1000 to a trader to procure her ransom. This was soon +effected, but to the astonishment of all concerned, the unfortunate +girl refused to leave the Indians. She sent word to her +father, that they had disfigured her by tattooing; that she was +married and perhaps <i>enceinte</i>; {44} and that she would be +more unhappy by returning to her father under these circumstances +than by remaining where she was.</p> + +<p>My attention was next attracted by a sprightly lad, ten +or twelve years old, whose nationality could scarcely be +detected under his Indian guise. But, though quite 'Indianized,' +he was exceedingly polite. I inquired of him in Spanish, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg130"></a>[p130]</span> +"Are you not a Mexican?" "Yes, sir,—I once was." +"What is your name?" "Bernardino Saenz, sir, at your +service." "When and where were you taken?" "About +four years ago, at the Hacienda de las Animas, near Parral." +"Shan't we buy you and take you to your people?—we +are going thither." At this he hesitated a little, and then +answered in an affecting tone, "<dfn>No, señor; ya soy demasiado +bruto para vivir entre los Cristianos</dfn>" (O, no, sir; I am now +too much of a brute to live among Christians); adding that +his owner was not there, and that he knew the Indian in +whose charge he came would not sell him.</p> + +<p>The Hacienda de las Animas is in the department of +Chihuahua, some fifteen miles from the city of Parral, a +much larger place than Santa Fé. Notwithstanding this, +about three hundred Comanches made a bold inroad into +the very heart of the settlements—laid waste the unfortunate +hacienda, killing and capturing a considerable number—and +remained several days in the neighborhood, committing +all sorts of outrages. This occurred in 1835. I happened +to be in Chihuahua {45} at the time, and very well remember +the bustle and consternation that prevailed. A thousand +volunteers were raised, commanded by the governor himself, +who 'hotly pursued' the enemy during their tardy retreat; +but returned with the usual report—"<dfn>No les pudimos +alcanzar</dfn>,"—we could not overtake them.</p> + +<p>Out of half a dozen Mexican captives that happened to +be with our new visitors, we only met with one who manifested +the slightest inclination to abandon Indian life. This +was a stupid boy about fifteen years of age, who had probably +been roughly treated on account of his laziness. We very +soon struck a bargain with his owner, paying about the price +of a mule for the little outcast, whom I sent to his family as +soon as we reached Chihuahua. Notwithstanding the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg131"></a>[p131]</span> +inherent stupidity of my <i>protégé</i>, I found him abundantly +grateful—much to his credit be it spoken—for the little +service I had been able to render him.</p> + +<p>We succeeded in purchasing several mules which cost us +between ten and twenty dollars worth of goods apiece. In +Comanche trade the main trouble consists in fixing the price +of the first animal. This being settled by the chiefs, it often +happens that mule after mule is led up and the price received +without further cavil. Each owner usually wants a general +assortment; therefore the price must consist of several items, +as a blanket, a looking-glass, an awl, a flint, a little tobacco, +vermillion, beads, etc.</p> + +<p>Our trade with the new batch of Comanches {46} being +over, they now began to depart as they had come, in small +parties, without bidding us adieu, or even informing us of +their intention, it being the usual mode of taking leave among +Indians, to depart <i>sans cérémonie</i>, and as silently as possible.</p> + +<p>The Santa Fé caravans have generally avoided every +manner of trade with the wild Indians, for fear of being +treacherously dealt with during the familiar intercourse +which necessarily ensues. This I am convinced is an +erroneous impression; for I have always found, that savages +are much less hostile to those with whom they trade, than to +any other people. They are emphatically fond of traffic, +and, being anxious to encourage the whites to come among +them, instead of committing depredations upon those with +whom they trade, they are generally ready to defend them +against every enemy.</p> + +<h3 title="Chapter XIX"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XIX_III" id="CHAPTER_XIX_III"></a>CHAPTER XIX {III}</h3> + +<p class="subhead"><a id="Pg132"></a> +Ponds and Buffalo Wallows — Valley of the Canadian, and romantic +Freaks of Nature — Melancholy Adventure of a Party of Traders +in 1832 — Fears of being lost — Arrival of a Party of <i>Comancheros</i>, +and their wonderful Stories — Their Peculiarities and Traffic — Bitter +Water, and the <i>Salitre</i> of New Mexico — Avant-couriers for +Santa Fé — Patent Fire-arms and their Virtues — Ranchero Ideas +of Distance, and their Mode of giving Directions — The Angostura, +and erroneous Notions of the Texans — A new Route revealed — Solitary +Travel — Supply of Provisions sent back — Arrival at +Santa Fé — Gov. Armijo, etc. — A 'Flare-up' with His Excellency.<a href="#tocXIX" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>The Comanches having all disappeared, we resumed our +march, and soon emerged into an open plain or <i>mesa</i> which +was one of the most monotonous I had ever seen, there being +not a break, not a hill nor valley, nor even a shrub to obstruct +the view. The only thing which served to turn us +from a direct course pursued by the compass, was the innumerable +ponds which bespeckled the plain, and which +kept us at least well supplied with water. Many of these +ponds seem to have grown out of 'buffalo wallows,'—a +term used on the Prairies to designate a sink made by the +buffalo's pawing the earth for the purpose of obtaining a +smooth dusty surface to roll upon.</p> + +<p>{48} After three or four days of weary travel over this level +plain, the picturesque valley of the Canadian burst once +more upon our view, presenting one of the most magnificent +sights I had ever beheld. Here rose a perpendicular cliff, +in all the majesty and sublimity of its desolation;—there +another sprang forward as in the very act of losing its balance +and about to precipitate itself upon the vale below;—a little +further on, a pillar with crevices and cornices so curiously +formed as easily to be mistaken for the work of art; while +a thousand other objects grotesquely and fantastically +arranged, and all shaded in the sky-bound perspective by +the blue ridge-like brow of the <i>mesa</i> far beyond the Canadian, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg133"></a>[p133]</span> +constituted a kind of chaotic space where nature seemed to +have indulged in her wildest caprices. Such was the confusion +of ground-swells and eccentric cavities, that it was +altogether impossible to determine whereabouts the channel +of the Canadian wound its way among them.</p> + +<p>It would seem that these mesas might once have extended +up to the margin of the stream, leaving a <dfn>cañon</dfn> or chasm +through which the river flowed, as is still the case in some +other places. But the basis of the plain not having been +sufficiently firm to resist the action of the waters, these have +washed and cut the bordering <dfn>cejas</dfn> or brows into all the +shapes they now present. The buffalo and other animals +have no doubt assisted in these transmutations. Their +deep-worn paths over the {49} brows of the plains, form +channels for the descending rains; which are soon washed +into the size of ravines—and even considerable creeks. +The beds of these continue to be worn down until veins of +lasting water are opened, and constant-flowing streams thus +established. Numerous were the embryo rivulets which +might be observed forming in this way along the borders of +those streams. The frequent isolated benches and mounds, +whose tabular summits are on a level with the adjacent +plains, and appear entirely of a similar formation, indicate +that the intermediate earth has been washed away, or +removed by some other process of nature—all seeming to +give plausibility to our theory.</p> + +<p>It was somewhere in this vicinity that a small party of +Americans experienced a terrible calamity in the winter of +1832-3, on their way home; and as the incident had the tendency +to call into play the most prominent features of the Indian +character, I will digress so far here as to relate the facts.</p> + +<p>The party consisted of twelve men, chiefly citizens of +Missouri. Their baggage and about ten thousand dollars +in specie were packed upon mules. They took the route of <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg134"></a>[p134]</span> +the Canadian river, fearing to venture on the northern +prairies at that season of the year. Having left Santa Fé +in December, they had proceeded without accident thus +far, when a large body of Comanches and Kiawas were seen +advancing towards them. Being well acquainted with the +treacherous and pusillanimous {50} disposition of those races, +the traders prepared at once for defence; but the savages +having made a halt at some distance, began to approach one +by one, or in small parties, making a great show of friendship +all the while, until most of them had collected on the spot. +Finding themselves surrounded in every direction, the +travellers now began to move on, in hopes of getting rid of +the intruders: but the latter were equally ready for the start; +and, mounting their horses, kept jogging on in the same +direction. The first act of hostility perpetrated by the +Indians proved fatal to one of the American traders named +Pratt, who was shot dead while attempting to secure two +mules which had become separated from the rest. Upon +this, the companions of the slain man immediately dismounted +and commenced a fire upon the Indians, which was +warmly returned, whereby another man of the name of +Mitchell was killed.</p> + +<p>By this time the traders had taken off their packs and piled +them around for protection; and now falling to work with +their hands, they very soon scratched out a trench deep +enough to protect them from the shot of the enemy. The +latter made several desperate charges, but they seemed too +careful of their own personal safety, notwithstanding the +enormous superiority of their numbers, to venture too near +the rifles of the Americans. In a few hours all the animals of +the traders were either killed or wounded, but no personal +damage was done to the remaining ten men, {51} with the +exception of a wound in the thigh received by one, which +was not at the time considered dangerous. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg135"></a>[p135]</span></p> + +<p>During the siege, the Americans were in great danger of perishing +from thirst, as the Indians had complete command of +all the water within reach. Starvation was not so much to be +dreaded; because, in case of necessity, they could live on the +flesh of their slain animals, some of which lay stretched close +around them. After being pent up for thirty-six hours in this +horrible hole, during which time they had seldom ventured +to raise their heads above the surface without being shot at, +they resolved to make a bold <i>sortie</i> in the night, as any death +was preferable to the fate which awaited them there. As +there was not an animal left that was at all in a condition +to travel, the proprietors of the money gave permission to all +to take and appropriate to themselves whatever amount each +man could safely undertake to carry. In this way a few +hundred dollars were started with, of which, however, but +little ever reached the United States. The remainder was +buried deep in the sand, in hopes that it might escape the +cupidity of the savages; but to very little purpose, for they +were afterwards seen by some Mexican traders making a +great display of specie, which was without doubt taken from +this unfortunate <i>cache</i>.</p> + +<p>With every prospect of being discovered, overtaken, and +butchered, but resolved to sell their lives as dearly as possible, +they at last {52} emerged from their hiding-place, and moved +on silently and slowly until they found themselves beyond +the purlieus of the Indian camps. Often did they look back +in the direction where from three to five hundred savages +were supposed to watch their movements, but, much to their +astonishment, no one appeared to be in pursuit. The +Indians, believing no doubt that the property of the traders +would come into their hands, and having no amateur predilection +for taking scalps at the risk of losing their own, +appeared willing enough to let the spoliated adventurers +depart without further molestation. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg136"></a>[p136]</span></p> + +<p>The destitute travellers having run themselves short of +provisions, and being no longer able to kill game for want +of materials to load their rifles with, they were very soon +reduced to the necessity of sustaining life upon roots, and +the tender bark of trees. After travelling for several days +in this desperate condition, with lacerated feet, and utter +prostration of mind and body, they began to disagree among +themselves about the route to be pursued, and eventually +separated into two distinct parties. Five of these unhappy +men steered a westward course, and after a succession of +sufferings and privations which almost surpassed belief, they +reached the settlements of the Creek Indians, near the +Arkansas river, where they were treated with great kindness +and hospitality. The other five wandered about in the +greatest state of distress and bewilderment, and only two +{53} finally succeeded in getting out of the mazes of the +wilderness. Among those who were abandoned to their +fate, and left to perish thus miserably, was a Mr. Schenck, +the same individual who had been shot in the thigh; a gentleman +of talent and excellent family connections, who was +a brother, as I am informed, of the Hon. Mr. Schenck, at +present a member of Congress from Ohio.<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p> + +<p>But let us resume our journey. We had for some days, +while travelling along the course of the Canadian, been in +anxious expectation of reaching a point from whence there +was a cart-road to Santa Fé, made by the Ciboleros; but +being constantly baffled and disappointed in this hope, +serious apprehensions began to be entertained by some of <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg137"></a>[p137]</span> +the party that we might after all be utterly lost. In this +emergency, one of our Mexicans who pretended to be a great +deal wiser than the rest, insisted that we were pursuing a +wrong direction, and that every day's march only took us +further from Santa Fé. There appeared to be so much +plausibility in his assertion, as he professed a perfect knowledge +of all the country around, that many of our men were +almost ready to mutiny,—to take the command from the +hands of my brother and myself and lead us southward in +search of the Colorado, into the fearful <i>Llano Estacado</i>, +where we would probably have perished.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> But our observations +of the latitude, which we took very frequently, as +well as the course we were pursuing, completely contradicted +the {54} Mexican wiseacre. A few days afterwards we were +overtaken by a party of <dfn>Comancheros</dfn>, or Mexican Comanche +traders, when we had the satisfaction of learning that we were +in the right track.</p> + +<p>These men had been trading with the band of Comanches +we had lately met, and learning from them that we had +passed on, they had hastened to overtake us, so as to obtain +our protection against the savages, who, after selling their +animals to the Mexicans, very frequently take forcible +possession of them again, before the purchasers have been +able to reach their homes. These parties of <i>Comancheros</i> +are usually composed of the indigent and rude classes of +the frontier villages, who collect together, several times a +year, and launch upon the plains with a few trinkets and +trumperies of all kinds, and perhaps a bag of bread and +may-be another of <i>pinole</i>, which they barter away to the +savages for horses and mules. The entire stock of an individual +trader very seldom exceeds the value of twenty dollars, +with which he is content to wander about for several months, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg138"></a>[p138]</span> +and glad to return home with a mule or two, as the proceeds +of his traffic.</p> + +<p>These Mexican traders had much to tell us about the +Comanches: saying, that they were four or five thousand in +number, with perhaps a thousand warriors, and that the +fiery young men had once determined to follow and attack +us; but that the chiefs and sages had deterred them, by +stating that our cannons {55} could kill to the distance of +many miles, and shoot through hills and rocks and destroy +everything that happened to be within their range. The +main object of our visitors, however, seemed to be to raise +themselves into importance by exaggerating the perils we +had escaped from. That they had considered themselves +in great jeopardy, there could be no doubt whatever, for, +in their anxiety to overtake us, they came very near killing +their animals.</p> + +<p>It was a war-party of this band of Comanches that paid +the 'flying visit' to Bent's Fort on the Arkansas river, to +which Mr. Farnham alludes in his trip to Oregon.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> A +band of the same Indians also fell in with the caravan from +Missouri, with whom they were for a while upon the verge +of hostilities.</p> + +<p>The next day we passed the afternoon upon a ravine +where we found abundance of water, but to our great surprise +our animals refused to drink. Upon tasting the water, +we found it exceedingly nauseous and bitter; far more <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg139"></a>[p139]</span> +repugnant to some palates than a solution of Epsom salts. +It is true that the water had been a little impregnated with +the same loathsome substance for several days; but we +had never found it so bad before. The salinous compound +which imparts this savor, is found in great abundance in +the vicinity of the table-plain streams of New Mexico, and +is known to the natives by the name of <dfn>salitre</dfn>.<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> We {56} had +the good fortune to find in the valley, a few sinks filled by +recent rains, so that actually we experienced no great inconvenience +from the want of fresh water. As far as our own +personal necessities were concerned, we were abundantly +supplied; it being an unfailing rule with us to carry in each +wagon a five-gallon keg always filled with water, in order to +guard against those frightful contingencies which so frequently +occur on the Prairies. In truth upon leaving one watering +place, we never knew where we would find the next.</p> + +<p>On the 20th of June we pitched our camp upon the north +bank of the Canadian or Colorado, in latitude <span +class="fraction">35° 24′</span> +according to a meridian altitude of Saturn. On the following +day, I left the caravan, accompanied by three Comancheros, +and proceeded at a more rapid pace towards Santa +Fé. This was rather a hazardous journey, inasmuch as we +were still within the range of the Pawnee and Comanche +war-parties, and my companions were men in whom I could +not repose the slightest confidence, except for piloting; +being fully convinced that in case of meeting with an enemy, +they would either forsake or deliver me up, just as it might +seem most conducive to their own interest and safety. All +I had to depend upon were my fire-arms, which could hardly +fail to produce an impression in my favor; for, thanks to +Mr. Colt's invention, I carried thirty-six charges ready-loaded, +which I could easily fire at the rate of {57} a dozen <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg140"></a>[p140]</span> +per minute. I do not believe that any band of those timorous +savages of the western prairies would venture to approach +even a single man, under such circumstances. If, +according to an old story of the frontier, an Indian supposed +that a white man fired both with his tomahawk and scalping +knife, to account for the execution done by a brace of +pistols, thirty-six shots discharged in quick succession would +certainly overawe them as being the effect of some great +medicine.</p> + +<p>As we jogged merrily along, I often endeavored to while +away the time by catechising my three companions in relation +to the topography of the wild region we were traversing; +but I soon found, that, like the Indians, these ignorant +rancheros have no ideas of distances, except as compared +with time or with some other distance. They will tell you +that you may arrive at a given place by the time the sun +reaches a certain point: otherwise, whether it be but half +a mile or half a day's ride to the place inquired for, they are +as apt to apply <dfn>está cerquita</dfn> (it is close by), or <dfn>está lejos</dfn> (it +is far off), to the one as to the other, just as the impression +happens to strike them, when compared with some other +point more or less distant. This often proves a source of +great annoyance to foreign travellers, as I had an opportunity +of experiencing before my arrival. In giving directions, +these people—in fact, the lower classes of Mexicans generally—are +also in the habit of using very odd gesticulations, +altogether {58} peculiar to themselves. Instead of +pointing with their hands and fingers, they generally employ +the mouth, which is done by thrusting out the lips in the +direction of the spot, or object, which the inquirer wishes +to find out—accompanied by <i>aquí</i> or <i>allí está</i>. This habit +of substituting labial gestures for the usual mode of indicating, +has grown from the use of the <i>sarape</i>, which keeps +their hands and arms perpetually confined. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg141"></a>[p141]</span></p> + +<p>From the place where we left the wagons, till we reached +the <dfn>Angostura</dfn>, or narrows,<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> (a distance of 60 miles), we +had followed a plain cart-road, which seemed everywhere +passable for wagons. Here, however, we found the point +of a table plain projecting abruptly against the river, so as +to render it impossible for wagons to pass without great +risk. The huge masses of solid rock, which occur in this +place, and the rugged cliffs or brows of the table lands which +rise above them, appear to have been mistaken by a detachment +of the Texan Santa Fé expedition, for spurs of the +Rocky Mountains; an error which was rational enough, as +they not unfrequently tower to the height of two thousand +feet above the valley, and are often as rocky and rough as +the rudest heaps of trap-rock can make them. By ascending +the main summit of these craggy promontories, however, +the eastern ridge of the veritable Rocky Mountains may be +seen, still very far off in the western horizon, with a widespread +and apparently level table plain, intervening and +extending in every direction, {59} as far as the eye can reach; +for even the deep-cut chasms of the intersecting rivers are +rarely visible except one be upon their very brink.</p> + +<p>Upon expressing my fears that our wagons would not be +able to pass the <i>Angostura</i> in safety, my comrades informed +me that there was an excellent route, of which no previous +mention had been made, passing near the <dfn>Cerro de Tucumcari</dfn>, +a round mound plainly visible to the southward.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> After +several vain efforts to induce some of the party to carry a <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg142"></a>[p142]</span> +note back to my brother, and to pilot the caravan through +the Tucumcari route, one of them, known as Tio Baca, +finally proposed to undertake the errand for a bounty of +ten dollars, besides high wages till they should reach the +frontier. His conditions being accepted, he set out after +breakfast, not, however, without previously recommending +himself to the Virgin Guadalupe, and all the saints in the +calendar, and desiring us to remember him in our prayers. +Notwithstanding his fears, however, he arrived in perfect +safety, and I had the satisfaction of learning afterward that +my brother found the new route everything he could have +desired.</p> + +<p>I continued my journey westward with my two remaining +companions; but, owing to their being provided with a relay +of horses, they very soon left me to make the balance of the +travel alone—though yet in a region haunted by hostile +savages. On the following day, about the hour of twelve, +as I was pursuing a horse-path along the course of the {60} +Rio Pecos, near the frontier settlements, I met with a shepherd, +of whom I anxiously inquired the distance to San +Miguel. "O, it is just there," responded the man of sheep. +"Don't you see that point of mesa yonder? It is just beyond +that." This welcome information cheered me greatly; for, +owing to the extraordinary transparency of the atmosphere, +it appeared to me that the distance could not exceed two +or three miles. "<dfn>Está cerquita</dfn>," exclaimed the shepherd +as I rode off; "<dfn>ahora está V. allá</dfn>"—"it is close by; you will +soon be there."</p> + +<p>I set off at as lively a pace as my jaded steed could carry +me, confident of taking dinner in San Miguel.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> Every +ridge I turned I thought must be the last, and thus I jogged +on, hoping and anticipating my future comforts till the +shades of evening began to appear; when I descended into <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg143"></a>[p143]</span> +the valley of the Pecos, which, although narrow, is exceedingly +fertile and beautifully lined with verdant fields, among +which stood a great variety of mud cabins. About eight +o'clock, I called at one of these cottages and again inquired +the distance to San Miguel; when a swarthy-looking ranchero +once more saluted mine ears with "<i>Está cerquita; ahora está +V. allá</i>." Although the distance was designated in precisely +the same words used by the shepherd eight hours before, I +had the consolation at least of believing that I was something +nearer. After spurring on for a couple of miles over +a rugged road, I at last reached the long-sought village.</p> + +<p>{61} The next day, I hired a Mexican to carry some flour +back to meet the wagons; for our party was by this time +running short of provisions. In fact, we should long before +have been in danger of starvation, had it not been for our +oxen; for we had not seen a buffalo since the day we first +met with the Comanches. Some of our cattle being in good +plight, and able, as we were, to spare a few from our teams, +we made beef of them when urged by necessity: an extra +advantage in ox teams on these perilous expeditions.</p> + +<p>On the 25th of June I arrived safely at Santa Fé,—but +again rode back to meet the wagons, which did not reach +the capital till the 4th of July. We did not encounter a very +favorable reception from 'his majesty,' Gov. Armijo. He +had just established his arbitrary impost of $500 per wagon, +which bore rather heavily upon us; for we had an overstock +of coarse articles which we had merely brought along for +the purpose of increasing the strength of our company, by +adding to the number of our wagons.</p> + +<p>But these little troubles in a business way, were entirely +drowned in the joyful sensations arising from our safe arrival, +after so long and so perilous an expedition. Considering +the character and our ignorance of the country over which +we had travelled, we had been exceedingly successful. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg144"></a>[p144]</span> +Instances are certainly rare of heavily-laden wagons' having +been conducted, without a guide, through an unexplored +desert; and yet we {62} performed the trip without any +important accident—without encountering any very difficult +passes—without suffering for food or for water.</p> + +<p>We had hoped that at least a few days of rest and quiet +recreation might have been allowed us after our arrival; +for relaxation was sorely needed at the end of so long a +journey and its concomitant privations: but it was ordered +otherwise. We had scarcely quartered ourselves within the +town before a grand 'flare-up' took place between Gov. +Armijo and the foreigners<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> in Santa Fé, which, for a little +while, bid fair to result in open hostilities. It originated in +the following circumstances.</p> + +<p>In the winter of 1837-8, a worthy young American, named +Daley, was murdered at the Gold Mines, by a couple of +villains, solely for plunder. The assassins were arrested, +when they confessed their guilt; but, in a short time, they +were permitted to run at large again, in violation of every +principle of justice or humanity. About this time they were +once more apprehended, however, by the interposition of +foreigners: and, at the solicitation of the friends of the +deceased, a memorial from the Americans in Santa Fé was +presented to Armijo, representing the injustice of permitting +the murderers of their countrymen to go unpunished; and +praying that the culprits might {63} be dealt with according +to law. But the governor affected to consider the affair as +a conspiracy; and, collecting his ragamuffin militia, attempted +to intimidate the petitioners. The foreigners were +now constrained to look to their defence, as they saw that <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg145"></a>[p145]</span> +no justice was to be expected. Had Armijo persisted, +serious consequences might have ensued; but seeing the +'conspirators' firm, he sent an apology, affecting to have +misconstrued their motives, and promising that the laws +should be duly executed upon the murderers.</p> + +<p>Besides the incentives of justice and humanity, foreigners +felt a deep interest in the execution of this promise. But a +few years previous, another person had been assassinated +and robbed at the same place; yet the authorities having +taken no interest in the matter, the felons were never discovered; +and now, should these assassins escape the merited forfeit +of their atrocious crime, it was evident there would be +no future security for our lives and property. But the governor's +<em>due execution of the laws</em> consisted in retaining them +a year or two in nominal imprisonment, when they were +again set at liberty. Besides these, other foreigners have +been murdered in New Mexico with equal impunity:—all +which contrasts very strikingly with the manner our courts +of justice have since dealt with those who killed Chavez, in +1843, on the Santa Fé road.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> James Pollard Espy (1785-1860), a well-known meteorologist. His collection +of reports on the weather, while occupied in his experiments, contributed towards +the founding of the present United States weather-bureau. His theory was, that +storms could be produced artificially by heating the atmosphere with long-continued +fires. He published <cite>Philosophy of Storms</cite> (Boston and London, 1841).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> About the ninety-ninth meridian, the Canadian extends above the thirty-sixth +parallel, forming the Great North Bend. The Oklahoma town of Taloga +is on the southern curve of the bow.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> The Canadian and its North Fork approach very closely at this point. The +region between the North Bend and the one hundredth meridian contains much +gypsum. See James's <cite>Long's Expedition</cite>, in our volume xvi, pp. 141-143.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> From subsequent observations, this point appears to have been some miles +west of the 100th degree of longitude.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span> +</p> +<p> +<i>Comment by Ed.</i> See volume xix, p. 217, note 52 (Gregg).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Kendall, <cite>Texan Santa Fé Expedition</cite>, i, p. 192.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Camp Comanche would appear to have been in Lipscombe or Ochiltree +County, Texas.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> For Dr. John Sibley, see our volume xvii, p. 68, note 60. This anecdote is +found in his report in <cite>American State Papers</cite>, "Indian Affairs," i, p. 724.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Robert C. Schenck was born at Franklin, Ohio, in 1809, graduated from +Miami University, and practised law at Dayton. After one term in the state +legislature (1841-42), he was sent to Congress (1843-51), which he left to become +American minister to Brazil (1851-53). In the War of Secession he attained a +major-generalship, and resigned to re-enter Congress (1863-70). For six years +(1870-76) Schenck served as minister to Great Britain, being one of the commissioners +to adjust the Alabama claims. He died in Washington in 1890. Another +brother was an admiral in the American navy.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> Colorado is the usual Spanish term for Red River, which Gregg here intends. +For Llano Estacado, see his description <i>post</i>, p. 239.—<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span +class="label">[92]</span></a> Thomas J. Farnham, <cite>Travels in the Great Western Prairie, the Anahuac +and Rocky Mountains, and in Oregon Territory</cite> (London, 1843), reprinted in +volume xxvii of our series. +</p> +<p> +Bent's Fort, sometimes called Fort William for its founder Colonel William +Bent, was situated on the north bank of the Arkansas, between the present towns +of La Junta and Las Animas, Colorado. Founded in 1829, it was an important +fur-trade post, and base of supplies for the mountain trail to Santa Fé. The +United States army of occupation (1846) passed by this post. In 1852, the government +attempted to purchase the post; but not satisfied with the terms, its owner +destroyed the stockade.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span +class="label">[93]</span></a> Literally <dfn>saltpetre</dfn>; but the +<dfn>salitre</dfn> of New Mexico is a compound of several +other salts beside nitre.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> On the eastern border of San Miguel County, New Mexico, are three peaks +known as Los Cuervos, or The Crows. The river winding through this high land, +forms the narrows of which Gregg speaks. Consult Kendall, <cite>Texan Santa Fé +Expedition</cite>, i, p. 174.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Tucumcari Mountain is in eastern Quay County, with a town of the same +name at its base—a junction on the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific Railway. +For an interesting description of this mound, which he likens to the dome of the +capitol at Washington, see report of James H. Simpson (1849), in <cite>Senate Doc.</cite>, +31 cong., 2 sess., vi, 12, p. 14.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> For San Miguel, see our volume xix, p. 253, note 76 (Gregg).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span +class="label">[97]</span></a> Among the New Mexicans, the terms +<i>foreigner</i> and <i>American</i> are synonymous: +indeed, the few citizens of other nations to be found there identify themselves with +those of the United States. All foreigners are known there as <dfn>Americanos</dfn>; but +south of Chihuahua they are indiscriminately called <dfn>Los Ingleses</dfn>, the +English.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span +class="label">[98]</span></a> +See post, pp. 227-232.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div></div> + +<h3 title="Chapter XX"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XX_IV" id="CHAPTER_XX_IV"></a>CHAPTER XX {IV}</h3> + +<p class="subhead">Preparations for a Start to Chihuahua — Ineptness of Married Men +for the Santa Fé Trade — The Chihuahua Trade — Annoying +Custom-house Regulations — Mails in New Mexico — Insecurity +of Correspondence — Outfit and Departure — <i>Derecho de Consumo</i> — Ruins +of Valverde — 'Towns without Houses' — La Jornada del +Muerto — Laguna and Ojo del Muerto — A Tradition of the +<i>Arrieros</i> — Laborious Ferrying and Quagmires — Arrival at Paso +del Norte — Amenity of the Valley — <i>Sierra Blanca</i> and <i>Los Organos</i> — Face +of the Country — Seagrass — An accidental River — Laguna +de Encinillas — Southern Haciendas — Arrival — Character of the +Route and Soil.<a href="#tocXX" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>After passing the custom-house ordeal, and exchanging +some of our merchandise for 'Eagle Dollars'—an operation +which occupied us several weeks, I prepared to set out for <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg146"></a>[p146]</span> +the Chihuahua market, whither a portion of our stock had +been designed. Upon this expedition I was obliged to +depart without my brother, who was laboring under the +'home fever,' and anxious to return to his family. "He that +hath wife and children," says Lord Bacon, "hath given +hostages to fortune; for they are impediments to great enterprises, +either of virtue or mischief." Men under such bonds +are peculiarly unfitted for the chequered life of a Santa Fé +trader. The domestic hearth, {65} with all its sacred and +most endearing recollections, is sure to haunt them in the +hour of trial, and almost every step of their journey is apt +to be attended by melancholy reflections of home and +domestic dependencies.</p> + +<p>Before starting on this new journey I deem it proper to +make a few observations relative to the general character +of the <i>Chihuahua Trade</i>. I have already remarked, that +much surprise has frequently been expressed by those who +are unacquainted with all the bearings of the case, that the +Missouri traders should take the circuitous route to Santa +Fé, instead of steering direct for Chihuahua, inasmuch as +the greatest portion of their goods is destined for the latter +city. But as Chihuahua never had any port of entry for +foreign goods till the last six or eight years, the market of +that department had to be supplied in a great measure from +Santa Fé. By opening the ports of El Paso and Presidio +del Norte,<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> the commercial interest was so little affected, +that when Santa Anna's decree for closing them again was +issued, the loss was scarcely felt at all.</p> + +<p>The mode of transmitting merchandise from the ports +to the interior, is very different from what it is in the United +States. It is not enough to have to pass the tedious ordeal <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg147"></a>[p147]</span> +of custom-houses on the frontier, and we have not only to +submit to a supervision and repayment of duty on arriving +at our point of destination, but our cargo is subject to scrutiny +at every town we have to pass through on our {66} journey. +Nor would it be advisable to forsake the main route in order +to avoid this tyrannical system of taxation; because, according +to the laws of the country, every <i>cargamento</i> which is +found out of the regular track (except in cases of unavoidable +necessity), is subject to confiscation, although accompanied +by the necessary custom-house documents.</p> + +<p>There are also other risks and contingencies very little +dreamed of in the philosophy of the inexperienced trader. +Before setting out, the entire bill of merchandise has to be +translated into Spanish; when, duplicates of the translation +being presented to the custom-house, one is retained, while +the other, accompanied by the <dfn>guia</dfn> (a sort of clearance or +mercantile passport), is carried along with the cargo by the +conductor. The trader can have three points of destination +named in his <dfn>guia</dfn>, to either of which he may direct his course, +but to no others: while in the drawing up of the <dfn>factura</dfn>, +or invoice, the greatest care is requisite, as the slightest mistake, +even an accidental slip of the pen, might, according +to the terms of the law, subject the goods to confiscation.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p> + +<p>The <i>guia</i> is not only required on leaving the ports for the +interior, but is indispensable to the safe conveyance of goods +from one department of the republic to another: nay, the +{67} simple transfer of property from town to town, and +from village to village, in the same department, is attended +by precisely the same proportion of risk, and requires the +same punctilious accuracy in the accompanying documents. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg148"></a>[p148]</span> +Even the produce and manufactures of the country are +equally subject to these embarrassing regulations. New +Mexico has no internal custom-houses, and is therefore exempt +from this rigorous provision; but from Chihuahua +south every village has its revenue officers; so that the same +stock of merchandise sometimes pays the internal duty at +least half-a-dozen times before the sale is completed.</p> + +<p>Now, to procure this same <i>guia</i>, which is the cause of so +much difficulty and anxiety in the end, is no small affair. +Before the authorities condescend to draw a single line on +paper, the merchant must produce an endorser for the +<dfn>tornaguía</dfn>, which is a certificate from the custom-house to +which the cargo goes directed, showing that the goods have +been legally entered there. A failure in the return of this +document within a prescribed limit of time, subjects the +endorser to a forfeiture equal to the amount of the impost. +Much inconvenience and not a little risk are also occasioned +on this score by the irregularity—I may say, insecurity of +the mails.</p> + +<p>Speaking of mails, I beg leave to observe, that there are no +conveniences of this kind in New Mexico, except on the +route from Santa Fé to Chihuahua, and these are very +{68} irregular and uncertain. Before the Indians had +obtained such complete possession of the highways through +the wilderness, the mails between these two cities were carried +semi-monthly; but now they are much less frequent, +being mere expresses, in fact, dispatched only when an occasion +offers. There are other causes, however, besides the +dread of marauding savages, which render the transportation +of the mails in New Mexico very insecure: I mean the dishonesty +of those employed in superintending them. Persons +known to be inimical to the post-master, or to the 'powers +that be,' and wishing to forward any communication to the +South, most generally either wait for private conveyance, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg149"></a>[p149]</span> +or send their letters to a post-office (the only one besides +that of Santa Fé in all New Mexico) some eighty miles +on the way; thus avoiding an overhauling at the capital. +Moreover, as the post-rider often carries the key +of the mail-bag (for want of a supply at the different +offices), he not unfrequently permits whomsoever will pay +him a trifling <i>douceur</i>, to examine the correspondence. I +was once witness to a case of this kind in the Jornada del +Muerto, where the entire mail was tumbled out upon the +grass, that an individual might search for letters, for which +luxury he was charged by the accommodating carrier the +moderate price of one dollar.</p> + +<p>The <dfn>derecho de consumo</dfn> (the internal or consumption +duty) is an impost averaging nearly twenty per cent. on the +United States cost of {69} the bill. It supplies the place of a +direct tax for the support of the departmental government, +and is decidedly the most troublesome, if not the most oppressive +revenue system that ever was devised for internal +purposes. It operates at once as a drawback upon the +commercial prosperity of the country, and as a potent incentive +to fraudulent practices. The country people especially +have resort to every species of clandestine intercourse, to +escape this galling burden; for, every article of consumption +they carry to market, whether fish, flesh or fowl, as well as +fruit and vegetables, is taxed more or less; while another +impost is levied upon the goods they purchase with the +proceeds of their sales. This system, so beautifully entangled +with corruptions, is supported on the ground that it +supersedes direct taxation, which, in itself, is an evil that +the 'free and independent' people of Mexico would never +submit to. Besides the petty annoyances incidental upon +the laxity of custom-house regulations, no one can travel +through the country without a passport, which to free-born +Americans, is a truly insupportable nuisance. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg150"></a>[p150]</span></p> + +<p>Having at last gone through with all the vexatious preparations +necessary for our journey, on the 22d of August we +started for Chihuahua. I fitted out myself but six wagons +for this market, yet joining in company with several other +traders, our little caravan again amounted to fourteen +wagons, with about forty men. Though our route lay +through {70} the interior of Northern Mexico, yet, on account +of the hostile savages which infest most of the country through +which we had to pass, it was necessary to unite in caravans of +respectable strength, and to spare few of those precautions +for safety which are required on the Prairies.</p> + +<p>The road we travelled passes down through the settlements +of New Mexico for the first hundred and thirty miles, on +the east side of the Rio del Norte. Nevertheless, as there +was not an inn of any kind to be found upon the whole route, +we were constrained to put up with very primitive accommodations. +Being furnished from the outset, therefore, +with blankets and buffalo rugs for bedding, we were prepared +to bivouac, even in the suburbs of the villages, in the +open air; for in this dry and salubrious atmosphere it is +seldom that travellers go to the trouble of pitching tents.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> +When travelling alone, however, or with but a comrade or +two, I have always experienced a great deal of hospitality +from the rancheros and villageois of the country. Whatever +sins these ignorant people may have to answer for, we must +accord to them at least two glowing virtues—gratitude and +hospitality. I have suffered like others, however, from one +very disagreeable custom which prevails {71} among them. +Instead of fixing a price for the services they bestow upon +travellers, they are apt to answer, "<dfn>Lo que guste</dfn>," or "<dfn>Lo</dfn> <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg151"></a>[p151]</span> +<dfn>que le dé la gana</dfn>" (whatever you please, or have a mind to +give), expecting, of course, that the liberal foreigner will give +more than their consciences would permit them to exact.</p> + +<p>In about ten days' drive we passed the southernmost settlements +of New Mexico, and twenty or thirty miles further +down the river we came to the ruins of Valverde. This +village was founded about twenty years ago, in one of the +most fertile valleys of the Rio del Norte. It increased +rapidly in population, until it was invaded by the Navajoes, +when the inhabitants were obliged to abandon the place +after considerable loss, and it has never since been repeopled. +The bottoms of the valley, many of which are of rich alluvial +loam, have lain fallow ever since, and will perhaps continue +to be neglected until the genius of civilization shall have +spread its beneficent influences over the land. This soil is +the more valuable for cultivation on account of the facilities +for irrigation which the river affords; as it too frequently +happens that the best lands of the settlements remain +unfruitful for want of water.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p> + +<p>Our next camping place deserving of mention was <i>Fray +Cristóbal</i>, which, like many others on the route, is neither +town nor village, but a simple isolated point on the river-bank—a +mere <dfn>parage</dfn>, or camping-ground. We had +already passed San Pascual, El Contadero, {72} and many +others, and we could hear Aleman, Robledo, and a dozen +such spoken of on the way, leading the stranger to imagine +that the route was lined with flourishing villages. The +arriero will tell one to hasten—"we must reach San Diego +before sleeping." We spur on perhaps with redoubled <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg152"></a>[p152]</span> +vigor, in hopes to rest at a town; but lo! upon arriving, +we find only a mere watering-place, without open ground +enough to graze the <i>caballada</i>. Thus every point along +these wilderness highways used as a camping-site, has +received a distinctive name, well known to every muleteer +who travels them. Many of these <dfn>parages</dfn>, without the +slightest vestige of human improvement, figure upon most +of the current maps of the day as towns and villages. +Yet there is not a single settlement (except of very recent +establishment) from those before mentioned to the vicinity +of El Paso, a distance of near two hundred miles.</p> + +<p>We arrived at Fray Cristóbal<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> in the evening, but this +being the threshold of the famous <i>Jornada del Muerto</i>, we +deemed it prudent to let our animals rest here until the +following afternoon. The road over which we had hitherto +been travelling, though it sometimes traverses upland ridges +and undulating sections, runs generally near the border of the +river, and for the most part in its immediate valley: but here +it leaves the river and passes for nearly eighty miles over a +table-plain to the eastward of a small ledge of mountains, +whose western base is hugged {73} by the circuitous channel +of the Rio del Norte. The craggy cliffs which project from +these mountains render the eastern bank of the river altogether +impassable. As the direct route over the plain is +entirely destitute of water, we took the precaution to fill all +our kegs at Fray Cristóbal, and late in the afternoon we +finally set out. We generally find a great advantage in +travelling through these arid tracts of land in the freshness +of the evening, as the mules suffer less from thirst, and move <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg153"></a>[p153]</span> +on in better spirits—particularly in the season of warm +weather.</p> + +<p>Early the next morning we found ourselves at the <dfn>Laguna +del Muerto</dfn>, or 'Dead Man's Lake,' where there was not even +a vestige of water. This <i>lake</i> is but a sink in the plain of +a few rods in diameter, and only filled with water during +the rainy season. The <i>marshes</i>, which are said by some +historians to be in this vicinity, are nowhere to be found: +nothing but the firmest and driest table land is to be seen +in every direction. To procure water for our thirsty animals +it is often necessary to make a halt here, and drive them to +the <dfn>Ojo del Muerto</dfn> (Dead Man's Spring), five or six miles +to the westward, in the very heart of the mountain ridge that +lay between us and the river. This region is one of the +favorite resorts of the Apaches, where many a poor arriero +has met with an untimely end. The route which leads to the +spring winds for two or three miles down a narrow cañon or +gorge, overhung on either side by abrupt precipices, {74} while +the various clefts and crags, which project their gloomy +brows over the abyss below, seem to invite the murderous +savage to deeds of horror and blood.</p> + +<p>There is a tradition among the arrieros from which it +would appear that the only road known in ancient time about +the region of the <i>Jornada</i>, wound its circuitous course on the +western side of the river. To save distance, an intrepid +traveller undertook to traverse this desolate tract of land in +one day, but having perished in the attempt, it has ever +after borne the name of <dfn>La Jornada del Muerto</dfn>, 'the Dead +Man's Journey,' or, more strictly, 'the Day's Journey of the +Dead Man.' One thing appears very certain, that this +dangerous pass has cost the life of many travellers in days +of yore; and when we at last reached Robledo, a camping-site +upon the river, where we found abundance of wood and +water, we felt truly grateful that the arid <i>Jornada</i> had not <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg154"></a>[p154]</span> +been productive of more serious consequences to our party. +We now found ourselves within the department of Chihuahua, +as the boundary betwixt it and New Mexico passes +not far north of Robledo.<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p> + +<p>We were still some sixty miles above Paso del Norte, but +the balance of the road now led down the river valley or +over the low bordering hills. During our journey between +this and El Paso we passed the ruins of several settlements, +which had formerly been the seats of opulence and prosperity, +but which have since been abandoned in consequence {75} of +the marauding incursions of the Apaches.</p> + +<p>On the 12th of September we reached the usual ford of the +Rio del Norte, six miles above El Paso; but the river being +somewhat flushed we found it impossible to cross over with +our wagons. The reader will no doubt be surprised to +learn that there is not a single ferry on this 'Great River of +the North' till we approach the mouth. But how do people +cross it? Why, during three-fourths of the year it is everywhere +fordable, and when the freshet season comes on, each +has to remain on his own side, or swim, for canoes even are +very rare. But as we could neither swim our wagons and +merchandise, nor very comfortably wait for the falling of +the waters, our only alternative was to unload the vehicles, +and ferry the goods over in a little 'dug-out' about thirty +feet long and two feet wide, of which we were fortunate +enough to obtain possession.</p> + +<p>We succeeded in finding a place shallow enough to haul +our empty wagons across: but for this good fortune we should +have been under the necessity of taking them to pieces (as +I had before done), and of ferrying them on the 'small craft' <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg155"></a>[p155]</span> +before mentioned. Half of a wagon may thus be crossed at +a time, by carefully balancing it upon the canoe, yet there +is of course no little danger of capsizing during the passage.</p> + +<p>This river even when fordable often occasions a great +deal of trouble, being, like the Arkansas, embarrassed with +many quicksand {76} mires. In some places, if a wagon is +permitted to stop in the river but for a moment, it sinks to +the very body. Instances have occurred where it became +necessary, not only to drag out the mules by the ears and to +carry out the loading package by package, but to haul out +the wagon piece by piece—wheel by wheel.</p> + +<p>On the 14th we made our entrance into the town of <i>El +Paso del Norte</i>,<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> which is the northernmost settlement in +the department of Chihuahua. Here our cargo had to be +examined by a stern, surly officer, who, it was feared, would +lay an embargo on our goods upon the slightest appearance +of irregularity in our papers; but notwithstanding our gloomy +forebodings, we passed the ordeal without any difficulty.</p> + +<p>The valley of El Paso is supposed to contain a population +of about four thousand inhabitants, scattered over the western +bottom of the Rio del Norte to the length of ten or twelve +miles. These settlements are so thickly interspersed with +vineyards, orchards, and corn-fields, as to present more the +appearance of a series of plantations than of a town: in fact, +only a small portion at the head of the valley, where the +<i>plaza pública</i> and parochial church are located, would seem +to merit this title. {77} Two or three miles above the <i>plaza</i> +there is a dam of stone and brush across the river, the purpose +of which is to turn the current into a dike or canal, +which conveys nearly half the water of the stream, during a <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg156"></a>[p156]</span> +low stage, through this well cultivated valley, for the irrigation +of the soil. Here we were regaled with the finest fruits +of the season: the grapes especially were of the most exquisite +flavor. From these the inhabitants manufacture a very +pleasant wine, somewhat resembling Malaga. A species of +<dfn>aguardiente</dfn> (brandy) is also distilled from the same fruit, +which, although weak, is of very agreeable flavor. These +liquors are known among Americans as 'Pass wine' and +'Pass whiskey,' and constitute a profitable article of trade, +supplying the markets of Chihuahua and New Mexico.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" +id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p> + +<p>As I have said before, the road from Santa Fé to El Paso +leads partly along the margin of the Rio del Norte, or across +the bordering hills and plains; but the <i>sierra</i> which separates +the waters of this river and those of the Rio Pecos was always +visible on our left. In some places it is cut up into detached +ridges, one of which is known as <dfn>Sierra Blanca</dfn>, in consequence +of its summit's being covered with snow till late in +the spring, and having all {78} the appearance of a glittering +white cloud. There is another still more picturesque ridge +further south, called <dfn>Los Organos</dfn>, presenting an immense +cliff of basaltic pillars, which bear some resemblance to the +pipes of an <i>organ</i>, whence the mountain derived its name. +Both these sierras are famous as being the strongholds of the +much-dreaded Apaches.</p> + +<p>The mountains from El Paso northward are mostly clothed +with pine, cedar, and a dwarfish species of oak. The valleys +are timbered with cottonwood, and occasionally with <i>mezquite</i>, +which, however, is rarely found higher up than the +lower settlements of New Mexico. In the immediate vicinity <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg157"></a>[p157]</span> +of El Paso there is another small growth called <dfn>tornillo</dfn> (or +screw-wood), so denominated from a spiral pericarp, which, +though different in shape, resembles that of the mezquite in +flavor.<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a +href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> +The plains and highlands generally are of a +prairie character, and do not differ materially from those +of all Northern Mexico, which are almost everywhere completely +void of timber.</p> + +<p>One of the most useful plants to the people of El Paso is +the <dfn>lechuguilla</dfn>, which abounds on the hills and mountain +sides of that vicinity, as well as in many other places from +thence southward.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> Its blades, which resemble those of +the palmilla, being mashed, scraped, and washed, afford +very strong fibres like the common Manilla sea-grass, and +equally serviceable for the manufacture of ropes, and other +purposes.</p> + +<p>{79} After leaving El Paso, our road branched off at an +angle of about two points to the westward of the river, the +city of Chihuahua being situated nearly a hundred miles to +the west of it. At the distance of about thirty miles we +reached <dfn>Los Médanos</dfn>, a stupendous ledge of sand-hills, +across which the road passes for about six miles. As teams +are never able to haul the loaded wagons over this region of +loose sand, we engaged an <i>atajo</i> of mules at El Paso, upon +which to convey our goods across. These Médanos consist of +huge hillocks and ridges of pure sand, in many places without +a vestige of vegetation. Through the lowest gaps between +the hills, the road winds its way.</p> + +<p>What renders this portion of the route still more unpleasant +and fatiguing, is the great scarcity of water. All that is to <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg158"></a>[p158]</span> +be found on the road for the distance of more than sixty +miles after leaving El Paso, consists in two fetid springs or +pools, whose water is only rendered tolerable by necessity. +A little further on, however, we very unexpectedly encountered, +this time, quite a superabundance of this necessary +element. Just as we passed Lake Patos,<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> we were struck +with astonishment at finding the road ahead of us literally +overflowed by an immense body of water, with a brisk current, +as if some great river had suddenly been conjured into +existence by the aid of supernatural arts. A considerable +time elapsed before we could unravel the mystery. At last +we discovered that a freshet had lately occurred {80} in the +streams that fed Lake Patos, and caused it to overflow its +banks, which accounted for this unwelcome visitation. We +had to flounder through the mud and water for several +hours, before we succeeded in getting across.</p> + +<p>The following day we reached the <dfn>acequia</dfn> below Carrizal, +a small village with only three or four hundred inhabitants, +but somewhat remarkable as being the site of a <dfn>presidio</dfn> +(fort), at which is stationed a company of troops to protect +the country against the ravages of the Apaches, who, notwithstanding, +continue to lay waste the ranchos in the +vicinity, and to depredate at will within the very sight of the +fort.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p> + +<p>About twelve miles south of Carrizal there is one of the +most charming warm springs called Ojo Caliente, where we +arrived the next day. It forms a basin some thirty feet long +by about half that width, and just deep and warm enough +for a most delightful bath at all seasons of the year. Were +this spring (whose outlet forms a bold little rivulet) anywhere <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg159"></a>[p159]</span> +within the United States, it would doubtless soon be converted +into a place of fashionable resort. There appears to +be a somewhat curious phenomenon connected with this +spring. It proceeds, no doubt, from the little river of +Cármen, which passes within half a mile, and finally discharges +itself into the small lake of Patos before mentioned. +During the dry season, this stream disappears in the sand +some miles above the spring; and what medium it traverses +in its subterranean passage to impart {81} to it so high a +temperature, before breaking out in this fountain, would +afford to the geologist an interesting subject of inquiry.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p> + +<p>After fording the Rio Cármen, which, though usually +without a drop of water in its channel, we now found a very +turbulent stream, we did not meet with any object particularly +worthy of remark, until we reached the <dfn>Laguna de +Encinillas</dfn>.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a +href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> +This lake is ten or twelve miles long by two +or three in width, and seems to have no outlet even during +the greatest freshets, though fed by several small constantly-flowing +streams from the surrounding mountains. The +water of this lake during the dry season is so strongly impregnated +with nauseous and bitter salts, as to render it +wholly unpalatable to man and beast. The most predominant +of these noxious substances is a species of alkali, known +there by the title of <dfn>tequesquite</dfn>. It is often seen oozing out +from the surface of marshy grounds, about the table plains +of all Northern Mexico, forming a grayish crust, and is +extensively used in the manufacture of soap, and sometimes +by the bakers even for raising bread. Here we had another +evidence of the alarming effects of the recent flood, the road +for several miles along the margin of the lake being <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg160"></a>[p160]</span> +completely inundated. It was, however, in the city of Chihuahua +itself that the disastrous consequences of the freshet were +most severely felt. Some inferior houses of <i>adobe</i> were so +much soaked by the rains, that they tumbled to the ground, +occasioning the loss of several lives.</p> + +<p>{82} The valley of Encinillas is very extensive and fertile, +and is the locale of one of those princely estates which are +so abundant further south, and known by the name of +<dfn>Haciendas</dfn>. It abounds in excellent pasturage, and in +cattle of all descriptions. In former times, before the +Apaches had so completely devastated the country, the +herds which grazed in this beautiful valley presented much +the appearance of the buffalo of the plains, being almost as +wild and generally of dark color. Many of the proprietors +of these princely haciendas pride themselves in maintaining +a uniformity in the color of their cattle: thus some are found +stocked with black, others red, others white—or whatsoever +shade the owner may have taken a fancy to.</p> + +<p>As we drew near to Chihuahua, our party had more the +appearance of a funeral procession than of a band of adventurers, +about to enter into the full fruition of 'dancing hopes,' +and the realization of 'golden dreams.' Every one was +uneasy as to what might be the treatment of the revenue +officers. For my own part, I had not quite forgotten sundry +annoyances and trials of temper I had been made to experience +in the season of 1837, on a similar occasion. Much +to our surprise, however, as well as delight, we were handled +with a degree of leniency by the custom-house deities, on +our arrival, that was almost incomprehensible. But the +charm which operated in our favor, when understood, was +very simple. A caravan had left Chihuahua direct {83} for +the United States, the spring previous, and was daily expected +back. The officers of the custom-house were already +compromised by certain cogent arguments to receive the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg161"></a>[p161]</span> +proprietors of this caravan with striking marks of favor, and +the <i>Señor Administrador de Rentas</i>, Zuloaga himself, was +expecting an <i>ancheta</i> of goods. Therefore, had they treated +us with their wonted severity, the contrast would have been +altogether too glaring.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p> + +<p>We arrived at Chihuahua on the first of October, after a +trip of forty days, with wagons much more heavily laden +than when we started from the United States. The whole +distance from Santa Fé to Chihuahua is about 550 miles,—being +reckoned 320 to Paso del Norte, and 230 from thence +to Chihuahua. The road from El Paso south is mostly firm +and beautiful, with the exception of the sand-hills before +spoken of; and is only rendered disagreeable by the scarcity +and occasional ill-savor of the water. The route winds over +an elevated plain among numerous detached ridges of low +mountains—spurs, as it were, of the main Cordilleras, +which lie at a considerable distance to the westward. Most +of these extensive intermediate plains, though in many places +of fertile looking soil, must remain wholly unavailable for +agricultural purposes, on account of their natural aridity and +a total lack of water for irrigation.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> For El Paso, see Pattie's <cite>Narrative</cite>, in our volume xviii, p. 155, note 89. +</p> +<p> +Presidio del Norte is in the Mexican state of Chihuahua, at the mouth of Los +Conchos River; hence the town is sometimes called Presidio de las Juntas (junction). +It is one of the oldest posts in northern Mexico.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a +href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> In confirmation of +this, it is only necessary to quote the following from the +<cite>Pauta de Comisos</cite>, Cap. II., Art. 22: "Ni las guias, ni las facturas, ni los pases, +en todos los casos de que trata este decreto, han de contener enmendadura, raspadura, +ni entrerenglonadura alguna"—and this under penalty of confiscation.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> How scant soever our outfit of 'camp comforts' might appear, our Mexican +muleteers were much more sparely supplied. The exposure endured by this hardy +race is really surprising. Even in the coldest winter weather, they rarely carry +more than one blanket apiece—the <dfn>sarape</dfn>, which serves as a cloak during the +day, and at night is their only 'bed and bedding.'—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> The precinct of Valverde, on the east bank of the Rio Grande, a few miles +below Socorro, has now a population of three hundred. Although of considerable +importance in the early nineteenth century, the town has never been rebuilt since +Gregg's time. The site was, however, the rendezvous for Doniphan's troops (1846) +preparatory to his march into Chihuahua. It was also the field for a battle in the +War of Secession (1862), wherein the Texans won a victory over the Federal +troops.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Fray Cristobal was long an important station in New Mexico; but, as Gregg +says, never a town of any size, merely a camping place at the beginning of the +Jornada del Muerto. The latter is well described by Gregg, and was the dreaded +portion of the journey from north to south until the building of the railway, which +traverses the larger part of the old caravan route, but leaves the river somewhat +higher up and returns to it at Rincon, some distance above Robledo.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> Robledo was on the Rio Grande at the site where the Americans later erected +Fort Selden. +</p> +<p> +El Paso and the district north had formerly been a part of New Mexico; but +the act of 1824, reconstituting the northern states, assigned El Paso district to +Chihuahua, hence the boundary here mentioned.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> This place is often known among Americans as '<dfn>The Pass</dfn>.' It has been +suggested in another place, that it took its name from the <i>passing</i> thither of the +refugees from the massacre of 1680; yet many persons very rationally derive it from +the <i>passing</i> of the river (<i>el paso del Rio del Norte</i>) between two points of mountains +which project against it from each side, just above the town.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> There is very little wine or legitimate <dfn>aguardiente</dfn> manufactured in New +Mexico. There was not a distillery, indeed, in all the province until established +by Americans some fifteen or twenty years ago. Since that period, considerable +quantities of whiskey have been made there, particularly in the vicinity of Taos,—distilled +mainly from wheat, as this is the cheapest grain the country affords.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> For the ordinary mesquit, see Pattie's <cite>Narrative</cite>, in our volume xviii, p. 94, +note 56. The tornillo is <dfn>Prosopis pubescens</dfn>, the fruit of which is often called the +screw-bean, and used by the Indians both for food and fodder.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> A particular species of <i>agave</i>, called <i>A. lechuguilla</i>, abounding in the El Paso +region. See J. N. Rose, "Useful Plants of Mexico," in U. S. Herbarium <cite>Contributions</cite>, +volume v, no. 4, p. 209.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Lake Patos (Lake of Geese), in northern Chihuahua, is the outlet for Rio +Carmen.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Carrizal was founded about 1750, and at one time considered a part of the +province of New Mexico. It was later made a presidio, or frontier fort, with a +surrounding wall.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Wislizenus found the temperature of these springs 84° Fahrenheit. There is +now a station called Ojo Calientes, on the Mexican Central Railway, but it is some +distance from the springs.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> The size of Laguna de Encinillas (Lake of Live-Oaks) varies greatly with the +season of drouth or rain.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> For a brief sketch of Chihuahua, see Pattie's <cite>Narrative</cite>, in our volume xviii, +p. 153, note 85.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div></div> + +<h3 title="Chapter XXI"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XXI_V" id="CHAPTER_XXI_V"></a>CHAPTER XXI {V}</h3> + +<p class="subhead"><a id="Pg162"></a> +Trip from Chihuahua to Aguascalientes, in 1835 — Southern Trade +and <i>Ferias</i> — Hacienda de la Zarca, and its innumerable Stock — Rio +Nazas, and Lakes without outlet — Perennial Cotton — Exactions +for Water and Pasturage — Village of Churches — City of +Durango and its Peculiarities — Persecution of Scorpions — Negro-ship +in the ascendant — Robbers and their <i>modus operandi</i> — City +of Aguascalientes — Bathing Scene — Haste to return to the North — Mexican +Mule-shoeing — Difficulties and Perplexities — A Friend +in time of need — Reach Zacatecas — City Accommodations — Hotels +unfashionable — <i>Locale</i>, Fortifications, etc. of the City of +Zacatecas — Siege by Santa Anna and his easy-won Victory — At +Durango again — Civil Warfare among the 'Sovereigns' — Hairbreadth +'scapes — Troubles of the Road — Safe Arrival at Chihuahua — Character +of the Southern Country.<a href="#tocXXI" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>The patient reader who may have accompanied me thus +far, without murmuring at the dryness of some of the details, +will perhaps pardon me for presenting here a brief account +of a trip which I made to <i>Aguascalientes</i>, in the interior of +Northern Mexico, in the year 1835, and which the arrangement +I have adopted has prevented me from introducing +before, in its chronological order.</p> + +<p>The trade of the South constitutes a very important +branch of the commerce of the country, in which foreigners, +as well as natives, {85} are constantly embarking. It is +customary for most of those who maintain mercantile establishments +in Chihuahua, to procure assortments of Mexican +fabrics from the manufactories of Leon, Aguascalientes, and +other places of the same character in the more southern districts +of the republic. At certain seasons of the year, here +are held regular <dfn>ferias</dfn>, at which the people assemble in +great numbers, as well of sellers as of purchasers. There +are some eight or ten of these annual fairs held in the republic, +each of which usually lasts a week or more. It was +about as much, however, from a desire to behold the sunny +districts of the South, as for commercial purposes, that I +undertook this expedition in 1835; and as my engagements +have not permitted me to revisit this section since, the few <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg163"></a>[p163]</span> +notes of interest I was then able to collect, seem to come +more appropriately in this part of my work than in any +other place that I could readily select.</p> + +<p>I set out from Chihuahua on the 26th of February, 1835. +My party consisted of four men (including myself) and two +empty wagons—not a very formidable escort to protect +our persons as well as specie and bullion (the only transmissible +currency of the country) against the bands of robbers +which at all times infest that portion of our route that +lay south of Durango. From Chihuahua to that city the +road was rendered still more perilous by the constant hostilities +of the Indians. On the 7th of March, however, we +arrived, without {86} accident, at the town of Cerro Gordo, +the northernmost settlement in the department of Durango; +and the following day we reached La Zarca, which is the +principal village of one of the most extensive haciendas in +the North. So immense is the amount of cattle on this +estate, that, as it was rumored, the proprietor once offered +to sell the whole hacienda, stock, etc., for the consideration +alone of fifty cents for each head of cattle found on the estate; +but that no person has ever yet been able or willing to muster +sufficient capital to take up the offer. It is very likely, however, +that if such a proposition was ever made, the proprietor +intended to include all his stock of rats and mice, +reptiles and insects—in short, every genus of 'small cattle' +on his premises. This estate covers a territory of perhaps +a hundred miles in length, which comprises several flourishing +villages.</p> + +<p>In two days more, we reached Rio Nazas, a beautiful +little river that empties itself into Lake Cayman.<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> Rio <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg164"></a>[p164]</span> +Nazas has been celebrated for the growth of cotton, which, +owing to the mildness of the climate, is sometimes planted +fresh only every three or four years. The light frosts of +winter seldom destroy more than the upper portion of the +stalk, so that {87} the root is almost perennial. About +twenty-five miles further, we stopped at the mining village of +La Noria, where we were obliged to purchase water for our +mules—a novel expense to the American traveller, but +scarcely to be complained of, inasmuch as the water had to +be drawn from wells with a great deal of labor. It is not +unusual, also, for the proprietors of haciendas to demand +remuneration for the pasturage on the open plains, consumed +by the animals of travellers—a species of exaction +which one never hears of further north.</p> + +<p>Our next stopping-place was Cuencamé, which may well +be called the Village of Churches: for, although possessing +a very small population, there are five or six edifices of this +description.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> As I had business to transact at Durango, +which is situated forty or fifty miles westward of the main +Southern road, I now pursued a direct route for that city, +where I arrived on the 16th of March.</p> + +<p>Durango is one of the handsomest cities in the North, with +a population of about 20,000. It is situated in a level plain, +surrounded in every direction by low mountains. It presents +two or three handsome squares, with many fine edifices and +some really splendid churches. The town is supplied with +water for irrigating the gardens, and for many other ordinary +purposes, by several open aqueducts, which lead through +the streets, from a large spring, a mile or {88} two distant; but +as these are kept filthy by the offal that is thrown into them, +the inhabitants who are able to buy it, procure most of their <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg165"></a>[p165]</span> +water for drinking and culinary purposes, from the <dfn>aguadores</dfn>, +who pack it, on asses, usually in large jars, from the spring.</p> + +<p>This is the first Northern city in which there is to be +found any evidence of that variety of tropical fruits, for which +Southern Mexico is so justly famed. Although it was rather +out of season, yet the market actually teemed with all that +is most rich and exquisite in this kind of produce. The +<dfn>maguey</dfn>, from which is extracted the popular beverage called +<dfn>pulque</dfn>,<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> is not only cultivated extensively in the fields, but +grows wild everywhere upon the plains. This being the +height of the pulque season, a hundred shanties might be +seen loaded with jugs and goblets filled with this favorite +liquor, from its sweetest unfermented state to the grade of +'hard cider;' while the incessant cries of "Pulque! pulque +dulce! pulque bueno!" added to the shrill and discordant +notes of the fruit venders, created a confusion of {89} sounds +amidst which it was impossible to hear oneself talk.</p> + +<p>Durango is also celebrated as being the head-quarters, +as it were, of the whole scorpion family. During the spring, +especially, so much are the houses infested by these poisonous +insects, that many people are obliged to have resort to a +kind of mosquito-bar, in order to keep them out of their +beds at night. As an expedient to deliver the city from +this terrible pest, a society has actually been formed, which +pays a reward of a <dfn>cuartilla</dfn> (three cents) for every <dfn>alacran</dfn> +(or scorpion) that is brought to them. Stimulated by the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg166"></a>[p166]</span> +desire of gain, the idle boys of the city are always on the +look-out: so that, in the course of a year, immense numbers +of this public enemy are captured and slaughtered. The +body of this insect is of the bulk and cast of a medium spider, +with a jointed tail one to two inches long, at the end of which +is a sting whose wounds are so poisonous as often to prove +fatal to children, and are very painful to adults.</p> + +<p>The most extraordinary peculiarity of these scorpions is, +that they are far less dangerous in the North than in the +South, which in some manner accounts for the story told +Capt. Pike, that even those of Durango lose most of their +venom as soon as they are removed a few miles from the +city.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p> + +<p>Although we were exceedingly well armed, yet so many +fearful stories of robberies said to be committed, almost +daily, on the Southern roads, reached my ears, that before +{90} leaving Durango, I resolved to add to my 'weapons of +defence' one of those peculiarly terrible dogs which are sometimes +to be found in this country, and which are very serviceable +to travellers situated as I was. Having made my +wishes known to a free negro from the United States, named +George, he recommended me to a custom-house officer, and +a very particular friend of his, as being possessed of the very +article I was in search of. I accordingly called at the house +of that functionary, in company with my sable informant, +and we were ushered into a handsome parlor, where two or +three well-dressed señoritas sat discussing some of the +fruitful topics of the day. One of them—the officer's wife, +as it appeared, and a very comely dame she was—rose immediately, +and, with a great deal of ceremonious deference, +saluted <i>Señor Don Jorge</i>, inviting him at the same time to a <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg167"></a>[p167]</span> +seat, while I was left to remain perfectly unnoticed in my +standing position. George appeared considerably embarrassed, +for he had not quite forgotten the customs and manners +of his native country, and was even yet in the habit of +treating Americans not only with respect but with humility. +He therefore declined the tendered distinction, and remarked +that '<i>el señor</i>' had only come to purchase their dog. Upon +this, the lady pointed to a kennel in a corner, when the very +first glimpse of the ferocious animal convinced me that he +was precisely the sort of a customer I wanted for a companion. +Having therefore paid {91} down six dollars, the +stipulated sum of purchase, I bowed myself out of the +presence of the ladies, not a little impressed with my own +insignificance, in the eyes of these fair <i>doñas</i>, contrasted +with the grandeur of my sable companion. But the popularity +of negroes in Northern Mexico has ceased to be a +matter of surprise to the traveller.</p> + +<p>With regard to <i>Don Jorge</i>, if I was surprised at the marks +of attention paid him by a white lady, I had cause to be +much more astonished shortly after. As the sooty don was +lounging about my wagons, a clever-visaged youth approached +and placed in his hands a satin stock, with the +compliments of his sister (the officer's wife), hoping that he +would accept that trifle, wrought by her own hand, as a +token of her particular regard! But, notwithstanding these +marks of distinction (to apply no harsher epithet), George +was exceedingly anxious to engage in my employ, in whatsoever +capacity I might choose to take him; for he had +discovered that such honors were far from affording him a +livelihood: yet I did not then need his services, and have +never heard of him since.</p> + +<p>On the 22d we left Durango, and after a few days' march +found ourselves once more in the <i>camino real</i> that led from +Chihuahua to Zacatecas. All the frightful stories I had <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg168"></a>[p168]</span> +heard about robbers now began to flash upon my memory, +which made me regard every man I encountered on the road +with a very suspicious eye. As all travellers go armed, it +{92} is impossible to distinguish them from banditti;<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> so +that the unsuspecting traveller is very frequently set upon +by the very man he had been consorting with in apparent +good-fellowship, and either murdered on the spot, or dragged +from his horse with the lazo, and plundered of all that is +valuable about him.</p> + +<p>I have heard it asserted that there is a regular bandit +trade organized throughout the country, in which some of +the principal officers of state (and particularly of the judicial +corps) are not unfrequently engaged. A capital is made up +by shares, as for any other enterprise, bandits are fitted out +and instructed where to operate, and at stated periods of the +year a regular dividend is paid to the stockholders. The +impunity which these 'gentlemen of the order' almost everywhere +enjoy in the country, is therefore not to be marvelled +at. In Durango, during my sojourn there, a well dressed +caballero was frequently in the habit of entering our <i>meson</i>, +whom mine host soon pointed out to me as a notorious +brigand. "Beware of him," said the honest publican; "he +is prying into your affairs"—and so it turned out; for my +muleteer informed me that the fellow had been trying to +pump from him all the particulars in regard to our condition +and destination. Yet this worthy was not only suffered to +prowl about unmolested {93} by the authorities, but appeared +to be on familiar terms with many of the principal dignitaries +of the city. Notwithstanding all our apprehensions, however, +we arrived at our place of destination without even +the novelty of an incident to swell our budget of gossip. +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg169"></a>[p169]</span></p> + +<p> The city of Aguascalientes is beautifully situated in a level +plain, and would appear to contain about twenty thousand +inhabitants, who are principally engaged in the manufacture +of <i>rebozos</i> and other textures mostly of cotton.<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> As soon +as I found myself sufficiently at leisure, I visited the famous +warm spring (<i>ojo caliente</i>) in the suburbs, from which the +city derives its euphonious name. I followed up the <i>acequia</i> +that led from the spring—a ditch four or five feet wide, +through which flowed a stream three or four feet in depth. +The water was precisely of that agreeable temperature to +afford the luxury of a good bath, which I had hoped to enjoy; +but every few paces I found men, women, and children, submerged +in the acequia; and when I arrived at the basin, it +was so choked up with girls and full-grown women, who +were paddling about with all the nonchalance of a gang of +ducks, that I was forced to relinquish my long-promised +treat.</p> + +<p>It had been originally my intention to continue on to +Leon, another manufacturing town some seventy or eighty +miles from Aguascalientes; but, hearing that Santa Anna +had just arrived there with a large army, on his way to +Zacatecas to quell an insurrection,<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> I {94} felt very little +curiosity to extend my rambles further. Having, therefore, +made all my purchases in the shortest possible time, in a +few days I was again in readiness to start for the North.</p> + +<p>That my mules might be in condition for the hard travel +before me, it was necessary to have them shod: a precaution, +however, which is seldom used in the north of Mexico, either <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg170"></a>[p170]</span> +with mules or horses. Owing a little to the peculiar breed, +but more still no doubt to the dryness of the climate, Mexican +animals have unusually hard hoofs. Many will travel for +weeks, and even months, over the firm<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> and often rocky +roads of the interior (the pack-mules carrying their huge +loads), without any protection whatever to the feet, save +that which nature has provided. But most of mine being a +little tender-footed, I engaged Mexican <dfn>herreros</dfn> to fit them +out in their own peculiar style. Like almost everything +else of their manufacturing, their mule-shoes are of a rather +primitive model—broad thin plates, tacked on with large +club-headed nails. But the expertness of the shoers compensated +in some degree for the defects of the <i>herraduras</i>. +It made but little odds how wild and vicious the mule—an +assistant would draw up his foot in an instant, and soon +place him <i>hors de combat</i>; and then fixing a nail, the shoer +{95} would drive it to the head at a single stroke, standing +usually at full arm's length, while the assistant held the foot. +Thus in less than half the time I had ever witnessed the execution +of a similar job before, they had completely shod more +than twenty of the most unruly brutes—without once +resorting to the expedient so usual in such cases, of throwing +the animals upon the ground.</p> + +<p>Just as the process of shoeing my mules had been completed, +a person who proved to be a public officer entered +the <i>corral</i>, and pointing to the mules, very politely informed +me that they were wanted by the government to transport +troops to Zacatecas. "They will be called for to-morrow +afternoon," he continued; "let them not be removed!" I +had of course to bow acquiescence to this imperative edict, +well knowing that all remonstrance would be vain; yet fully <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg171"></a>[p171]</span> +determined to be a considerable distance on the road northward +before that 'morrow' should be very far advanced.</p> + +<p>But a new difficulty now presented itself. I must procure +a <dfn>guia</dfn> or passport for my cargo of merchandise, with a +<i>responsible endorser</i>,—an additional imposition I was wholly +unprepared for, as I was then ignorant of any law to that +effect being in force, and had not a single acquaintance in +the city. I was utterly at a loss what to do: under any other +circumstances I might have left the amount of the <i>derecho +de consumo</i> in deposit, as others have been obliged to do on +similar occasions; but {96} unfortunately I had laid out the +last dollar of my available means.</p> + +<p>As I left the custom-house brooding over these perplexities, +one of the principal clerks of the establishment slipped a +piece of paper into my hand containing the following laconic +notice:—"<dfn>Aguárdeme afuera</dfn>" (wait for me without);—an +injunction I passively obeyed, although I had not the least +idea of its purport. The clerk was soon with me, and +remarked, "You are a stranger in the city, and ignorant of +our severe revenue laws: meet me in an hour from this at +my lodgings, and we will devise some remedy for your +difficulties." It may be well supposed that I did not fail to +be punctual. I met the obliging officer in his room with a +handful of blank custom-house <i>pases</i>. It should be understood +that a <dfn>pase</dfn> only differs from a <i>guia</i> in requiring no +endorser, but the former can only be extended for amounts +of goods not exceeding fifty dollars. Taking my bill, he +very soon filled me up a <i>pase</i> for every package, directing +each to a different point in the North. "Now," observed +my amiable friend, "if you are disposed to do a little smuggling, +these will secure your safety, if you avoid the principal +cities, till you reach the borders of Chihuahua: if not, you +may have a friend on the way who will endorse your <i>guia</i>." +I preferred the latter alternative. I had formed an acquaintance <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg172"></a>[p172]</span> +with a worthy German merchant in Durango, who, I +felt convinced, would generously lend his signature to the +required document.</p> + +<p>{97} As the revenue officers of Northern Mexico are not +celebrated for liberality and disinterestedness, I took it for +granted that my friend of the custom-house was actuated +by selfish motives, and therefore proffered him a remuneration +for the trouble he had taken on my account; but to my +surprise, he positively refused accepting anything, observing +that he held it the duty of every honest man to assist his +fellow creatures in case of difficulty. It is truly a pleasant +task to bear record of such instances of disinterestedness, in +the midst of so many contaminating influences.</p> + +<p>While speaking of <i>guias</i>, I may as well remark that they +are also frequently required for specie and always for bullion. +This is often very annoying to the traveller, not only because +it is sometimes inconvenient to find an endorser, but because +the robbers are thus enabled to obtain precise and timely +information of the funds and route of every traveller; for +they generally have their agents in all the principal cities, +who are apt to collude with some of the custom-house clerks, +and thus procure regular reports of the departures, with the +amounts of valuables conveyed.</p> + +<p>I was not long in taking leave of Aguascalientes, and +heard nothing more of the impressment of my mules. It +was not my good fortune, however, to remain for any length +of time out of trouble. Being anxious to take the city of +Zacatecas in my route without jeopardizing my goods, I +took passage by the <i>diligencia</i>, while my wagons continued +on in {98} the <dfn>camino real</dfn> or main road. On my arrival at +Zacatecas, I very soon discovered that by leaving 'my bed +and board' behind with the wagons, I had doomed myself +to no small inconvenience and privation. It was with the +greatest difficulty I could obtain a place to lie upon, and <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg173"></a>[p173]</span> +clean victuals with which to allay my hunger. I could get +a room, it is true, even for a <i>real</i> per day, in one of those +great barn-like <i>mesones</i> which are to be met with in all these +cities, but not one of them was at all furnished. There is +sometimes, in a corner, a raised platform of mud, much +resembling a common blacksmith's hearth, which is to supply +the place of a bedstead, upon which the traveller may +spread his blankets, if he happen to have any. On this +occasion I succeeded in borrowing one or two of the stage-driver +who was a Yankee, and so made out 'pretty comfortably' +in the sleeping way. These <i>mesones</i> are equally +ill-prepared to furnish food for the traveller, unless he is +willing to put up with a dish of <i>frijoles</i> and <i>chile guisado</i> with +<i>tortillas</i>, all served up in the most filthy manner. I therefore +sought out a public <i>fonda</i> kept by an Italian, where I procured +an excellent supper. Fondas, however, are mere +<i>restaurants</i>, and consequently without accommodations for +lodging.</p> + +<p>Strange as the fact may appear, one may travel fifteen +hundred miles, and perhaps more, on the main public highway +through Northern Mexico, without finding a single +tavern with general accommodations. This, however, may +{99} be accounted for, by taking into consideration the +peculiar mode of travelling of the country, which renders +resorts of this kind almost unnecessary. <i>Arrieros</i> with +their <i>atajos</i> of pack-mules always camp out, being provided +with their cooks and stock of provisions, which they +carry with them. Ordinary travellers generally unite in +little caravans, for security against robbers and marauders; +and no caballero ever stirs abroad without a train of servants, +and a pack-mule to carry his <dfn>cantinas</dfn> (a pair of large wallets +or leathern boxes), filled with provisions, on the top of which +is lashed a huge machine containing a mattress and all the +other 'fixings' for bed furniture. Thus equipped, the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg174"></a>[p174]</span> +caballero snaps his fingers at all the <i>hotels garnis</i> of the +universe, and is perfectly independent in every movement.</p> + +<p>The city of Zacatecas, as my readers are doubtless aware, +is celebrated for its mining interests. Like all other Mexican +towns of the same class, it originated in small, insignificant +settlements on the hillsides, in the immediate vicinity of the +mines, until it gradually grew up to be a large and wealthy +city, with a population of some 30,000 inhabitants. Its +locale is a deep ravine formed among rugged mountain +ridges; and as the houses are mostly built in rows, overtopping +one another, along the hillsides, some portions of the +city present all the appearance of a vast amphitheatre. +Many of the streets are handsomely paved, and two of the +squares are finely ornamented with curiously carved <i>jets-d'eau</i>, +{100} which are supplied with water raised by mule +power, from wells among the adjacent hills. From these +the city is chiefly furnished with water.</p> + +<p>I have already mentioned, that General Santa Anna was +at this time marching against Zacatecas with a large force. +It may be remembered that after the General's accession to +the supreme authority of Mexico (upon the establishment of +<i>Centralismo</i>), he deemed it expedient to issue a decree abolishing +the state militia, known as <dfn>Cívicos</dfn>, as being dangerous +to the liberties of——the <i>dictador</i>. Zacatecas, so far from +obeying this despotic mandate, publicly called on the +Cívicos to defend their rights, and Santa Anna was now +descending upon them with an army double that which the +city could raise, to enforce their obedience. The <i>Zacatecanos</i>, +however, were not idle. The militia was pouring in from +the surrounding villages, and a degree of enthusiasm prevailed +throughout the city, which seemed to be the presage +of a successful defence. In fact, the city itself, besides being +from its location almost impregnable, was completely protected +by artificial fortifications. The only accessible point <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg175"></a>[p175]</span> +was by the main road, which led from the south immediately +up the narrow valley of the ravine. Across this a strong +wall had been erected some years before, and the road passed +through a large gate, commanded by a bastion upon the +hillside above, whence a hundred men well supplied with +arms and ammunition, might easily cut {101} off thousands +upon thousands, as fast as they advanced. The city was +therefore deemed impregnable, and being supplied with provisions +for a lengthy siege, the patriots were in high spirits. +A foreign engineer or two had been engaged to superintend +the fortifications.</p> + +<p>Santa Anna reached Zacatecas a few days after my departure. +As he had no idea of testing the doubtful mettle of +his army, by an attempt to storm the place, which presented +so formidable an appearance, he very quietly squatted himself +down at the village of Guadalupe, three miles below. +From this point he commenced his operations by throwing +'missiles' into the city—not of lead, or cast-iron, or any +such cruel agents of warfare, but <i>bombs of paper</i>, which fell +among the besieged, and burst with gentle overtures to their +commanding officers. This novel 'artillery' of the dictator +produced a perfectly electric effect; for the valor of the +commandant of the Cívicos rose to such a pitch, that he at +once marched his forces out of the fortifications, to attack +the besiegers in the open field—face to face, as true bravery +required. But on the very first onset, this valiant officer, +by some mysterious agency which could not be accounted +for, was suddenly seized with a strange panic, and, with all +his forces, made a precipitate retreat, fleeing helter-skelter, +as if all the engines of destruction that were ever invented, +had been brought to bear upon them; when the victorious +army of Santa Anna marched into the city without further +opposition.</p> + +<p>{102} This affair is a pretty just sample of most of the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg176"></a>[p176]</span> +successful battles of this 'great general.' The treacherous +collusion of the principal Zacatecas officers was so apparent, +that they deemed it prudent to fly the city for safety, lest +the wrath of their incensed fellow-citizens should explode +upon them. Meanwhile the soldiery amused themselves by +sacking the city, and by perpetrating every species of outrage +that their mercenary and licentious appetites could +devise. Their savage propensities were particularly exercised +against the few foreigners that were found in the place.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile I was journeying very leisurely towards +Durango, where I arrived on the 21st of April. As the main +wagon road to the north does not pass through that city, it +was most convenient and still more prudent for me to leave +my wagons at a distance: their entrance would have occasioned +the confiscation of my goods, for the want of the +'necessary documents,' as already alluded to. But I now +procured a <i>guia</i> without further difficulty; which was indeed +a principal object of my present visit to that city.</p> + +<p>Before leaving Durango I witnessed one of those civil +broils which are so common in Mexico. I was not even +aware that any difficulty had been brewing, till I was waked +on the morning of the 25th by a report of fire-arms. Stepping +out to ascertain what was the matter, I perceived the +<i>azotea</i> of the parochial church occupied by armed men, who +seemed to be employed in amusing themselves {103} by +discharging their guns at random upon the people in the +streets. These <i>bravos</i>, as I was afterwards informed, belonged +to the bishop's party, or that of the <i>Escoceses</i>, which +was openly at war with the liberalists, anti-hierarchists, or +<i>Yorkinos</i>, and were resorting to this summary mode of proceeding, +in order to bring about a change of affairs; for at +this time the liberal party had the ascendency in the civil +government of Durango. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg177"></a>[p177]</span></p> + +<p>Being somewhat curious to have a nearer view of what +was going on, I walked down past the church, towards a +crowd which was assembled in a <i>plaza</i> beyond. This movement +on my part was rather inconsiderate: for foreigners +were in extremely bad odor with the belligerents; nor had I +mingled with the multitude many minutes, before a sober-looking +citizen plucked me by the sleeve, and advised me, if +I valued my two ears, and did not wish to have my career of +usefulness cut short prematurely, to stay within doors. Of +course I needed no further persuasion, and returned at once +to my lodgings, where I made immediate preparations for a +speedy departure. As I was proceeding through the streets +soon afterward, with a cargo of goods, I received, just after +leaving the custom-house, a very warm salutation from the +belligerents, which made the dust start from almost under +my very feet. The <i>cargadores</i> who were carrying my packages +were no doubt as much frightened as myself. They +supposed the reason of their shooting at us to be because {104} +they imagined we were carrying off the <dfn>parque</dfn> (ammunition) +of the government, which was deposited in the building we +had just left.</p> + +<p>We were soon under way, and very little regret did I feel +when I fairly lost sight of the city of scorpions. But I was +not yet wholly beyond the pale of difficulties. Owing to +the fame of the Indian hostilities in the North, it was almost +impossible to procure the services of Mexican muleteers for +the expedition. One I engaged, took the first convenient +opportunity to escape at night, carrying away a gun with +which I had armed him; yet I felt grateful that he did not also +take a mule, as he had the whole <i>caballada</i> under his exclusive +charge: and soon after, a Mexican wagoner was frightened +back by the reports of savages.</p> + +<p>After a succession of such difficulties, and still greater <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg178"></a>[p178]</span> +risks from the Indians that infested the route, I was of +course delighted when I reached Chihuahua, on the 14th of +May, in perfect safety.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> The numerous little lakes throughout the interior of Mexico, without outlets +yet into which rivers are continually flowing, present a phenomenon which seem, +quite singular to the inhabitants of our humid climates. But the wastage in the +sand, and still greater by evaporation in those elevated dry regions, is such that +there are no important rises in the lakes except during unusual freshets.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> The road passed southeast through the state of Durango, where all these +small stations may be found on any good map. According to Pike the owner of +the vast estate near La Zarca was the Marquis de San Miguel.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Also, from the <i>Pulque</i> is distilled a spiritous liquor called <dfn>mezcal</dfn>. The +<dfn>maguey</dfn> (<i>Agave Americana</i>) is besides much used for hedging. It here performs +the double purpose of a cheap and substantial fence, and of being equally valuable +for <i>pulque</i>. When no longer serviceable in these capacities, the pulpy stalk is converted, +by roasting, into a pleasant item of food, while the fibrous blades, being +suitably dressed, are still more useful. They are manufactured into ropes, bags, +etc., which resemble those made of the common sea-grass, though the fibres are +finer. There is one species (which does not produce pulque, however), whose +fibres, known in that country as <dfn>pita</dfn>, are nearly as fine as dressed hemp, and are +generally used for sewing shoes, saddlery, and similar purposes.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> +See Elliott Coues, <cite>Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike</cite> (New York, 1895), ii, p. +763, note 34. That editor identifies the scorpion as <dfn>Androctomus biaculeatus</dfn>, and +favorably comments on Gregg's sensible explanation of Pike's story.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span +class="label">[118]</span></a> Travellers on these public highways not only go 'armed to the teeth,' but +always carry their weapons exposed. Even my wagoners carried their guns and +pistols swung upon the pommels of their saddles. At night, as we generally camped +out, they were laid under our heads, or close by our sides.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Aguascalientes is the capital of a small interior Mexican state of the same +name, now on the line of the Mexican Central Railway. It was founded in 1575, +and at the close of the eighteenth century was a place of considerable importance. +During the negotiations for peace between the United States and Mexico (1848), +a revolution broke out at this place, that was with difficulty subdued.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> This was part of the centralist revolution, for which see our volume xix, p. 271, +note 96 (Gregg). Santa Ana himself subdued the opposition in Zacatecas, where +his soldiers were permitted to plunder widely.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> Some of these table-plain highways, though of but a dry sandy and clayey +soil, are as firm as a brick pavement. In some places, for miles, I have +remarked that the nail-heads of my shod animals would hardly leave any visible +impression.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div></div> + +<h3 title="Chapter XXII"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XXII_VI" id="CHAPTER_XXII_VI"></a>CHAPTER XXII {VI}</h3> + +<p class="subhead">Visit to the Mining Town of Jesus-Maria — Critical Roads — Losing +Speculations — Mine of Santa Juliana — Curious mining Operations — Different +Modes of working the Ore — The Crushing-mill, +etc. — <i>Barras de Plata</i> — Value of Bullion — The Silver Trade — Return +to Chihuahua — Resumption of the regular Narrative — Curious +Wholesales — Money Table — Redundancy of Copper +Coin — City of Chihuahua and its Peculiarities — Ecclesiastical +Architecture — Hidalgo and His Monument — Public Works, and +their present Declension — <i>Fête</i> in honor of Iturbide — Illiberality +towards Americans — Shopping Mania — Anti-Masonic <i>Auto de Fe</i>.<a href="#tocXXII" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>Before resuming my regular narrative, I trust the reader +will pardon me for introducing here a brief account of an +excursion which I made in the fall of the year 1835, to the +mining town of Jesus-Maria, one of the most important +mineral districts in the department of Chihuahua, situated +about a hundred and fifty miles west of the city, in the very +heart of the great Cordilleras.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a></p> + +<p>I had long been desirous of visiting some of the mining +establishments of Mexico, and seeing a favorable opportunity +of embarking in a profitable enterprise, I set out from Chihuahua +on the 15th of October. My party consisted of but +one American comrade, with {106} a Mexican muleteer—and +three or four mules freighted with specie to be employed +in the <i>silver trade</i>: a rather scanty convoy for a route subject +to the inroads both of savages and robbers. For transportation, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg179"></a>[p179]</span> +we generally pack our specie in sacks made of raw +beef hide, which shrinks upon drying, and thus presses the +contents so closely as to prevent friction. A pair of these +packages, usually containing between one and two thousand +dollars each, constitutes an ordinary mule-load on the mountain +routes.</p> + +<p>The road in this direction leads through the roughest +mountain passes; and, in some places, it winds so close along +the borders of precipices, that by a single misstep an animal +might be precipitated several hundred feet. Mules, however, +are very surefooted; and will often clamber along the +most craggy cliffs with nearly as much security as the goat. +I was shown the projecting edge of a rock over which the +road had formerly passed. This shelf was perhaps thirty feet +in length by only two or three in width. The road which leads +into the town of Jesus-Maria from the west side of the mountain +is also extremely perilous and steep, and seems almost +to overhang the houses below. Heavily laden mules have +sometimes slipped off the track, and tumbled headlong into +the town. This place is even more pent up between ridges +than Zacatecas: the valley is narrower and the mountains +much higher; while, as is the case with that remarkable city, +the houses are {107} sometimes built in successive tiers, one +above another; the <i>azoteas</i> of the lower ones forming the +yard of those above.</p> + +<p>The first mine I visited consisted of an immense horizontal +shaft cut several hundred feet into a hill-side, a short distance +below the town of Jesus-Maria, upon which the proprietors +had already sunk, in the brief space of one year, +the enormous sum of one hundred and twenty thousand +dollars! Such is often the fate of the speculative miner, +whose vocation is closely allied to gaming, and equally precarious. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg180"></a>[p180]</span></p> + +<p>The most important mine of Jesus-Maria at this time was +one called Santa Juliana, which had been the means of +alternately making and sinking several splendid fortunes. +This mine had then reached a depth of between eight and +nine hundred feet, and the operations were still tending +downwards. The materials were drawn up by mule power +applied to a windlass: but as the rope attached to it only +extended half way down, another windlass had been erected +at the distance of about four hundred feet from the mouth of +the cavern, which was also worked by mules, and drew the +ores, etc., from the bottom. On one occasion, as I was +standing near the aperture of this great pit, watching the +ascent of the windlass-rope, expecting every moment the +appearance of the large leathern bucket which they employ +for drawing up the minerals as well as the rubbish and +water<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> from the bottom, {108} what should greet my vision +but a mule, puffing and writhing, firmly bound to a huge +board constructed for the purpose, and looking about as +demure upon the whole as a sheep under the shears. On +being untied, the emancipated brute suddenly sprang to +his feet, and looked around him at the bright scenes of +the upper world with as much astonishment as Rip Van +Winkle may be supposed to have felt after waking up from +his twenty years' sleep.</p> + +<p>The ore which is obtained from these mines, if sufficiently +rich to justify the operation, is transferred to the smelting +furnaces, where the pure metal is melted down and extracted +from the virgin fossil. If, on the contrary, the ore is deemed +of inferior quality, it is then submitted to the process of +amalgamation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 373px;"> +<a id="Mule-emerging"></a> +<img src="images/i183a.png" width="373" height="274" alt="" /> +<div class="caption">Mule emerging from a mine</div> + +<a id="Still-Hunting"></a> +<img src="images/i183b.png" width="373" height="274" alt="" /> +<div class="caption">Still Hunting</div> +<div class="IlloRtn"><a +href="#ILLUSTRATIONS_TO_VOLUME_XX">Illustrations List</a></div> +</div> + +<p>{109} The <dfn>moliendas</dfn>, or crushing-mills (<dfn>arrastres</dfn>, as called +at some mines), employed for the purpose of grinding the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg183"></a>[p183]</span> +ores, are somewhat singular machines. A circular (or +rather annular) cistern of some twenty or thirty feet in +diameter is dug in the earth, and the sides as well as the +bottom are lined with hewn stone of the hardest quality. +Transversely through an upright post which turns upon +its axis in the centre of the plan, passes a shaft of wood, at +each end of which are attached by cords one or two grinding-stones +with smooth flat surfaces, which are dragged (by +mules fastened to the extremities of the shaft) slowly around +upon the bottom of the cistern, into which the ore is thrown +after being pounded into small pieces. It is here ground, +with the addition of water, into an impalpable mortar, by +the constant friction of the dragging stones against the sides +and bottom of the cistern. A suitable quantity of quicksilver +is perfectly mixed with the mortar; to which are added +some muriates, sulphates, and other chemical substances, to +facilitate the amalgamation. The compound is then piled +up in small heaps, and not disturbed again until this process +is supposed to be complete, when it is transferred to the +washing-machine. Those I have observed are very simple, +consisting of a kind of stone tub, into which a stream of +water is made to flow constantly, so as to carry off all the +lighter matter, which is kept stirred up by an upright studded +with pegs, that revolves in the centre, while the amalgamated +metals sink {110} to the bottom. Most of the quicksilver is +then pressed out, and the silver submitted to a burning +process, by which the remaining portion of mercury is +expelled.</p> + +<p>The silver which is taken from the furnace, generally contains +an intermixture of gold, averaging from ten to thirty +per cent.; but what is extracted by amalgamation is mostly +separated in the washing. While in a liquid state, the gold, +from its greater specific gravity, mostly settles to the bottom: +yet it usually retains a considerable alloy of silver. The <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg184"></a>[p184]</span> +compound is distinguished by the name of <dfn>oroche</dfn>. The +main portion of the silver generally retains too little gold to +make it worth separating.</p> + +<p>Every species of silver is moulded into <dfn>barras</dfn> or ingots, +weighing from fifty to eighty pounds each, and usually +worth between one and two thousand dollars. These are +assayed by an authorized agent of the government, and +stamped with their weight and character, which enables the +holder to calculate their value by a very simple rule. When +the bullion is thus stamped, it constitutes a species of currency, +which is much safer for remittances than coin. In +case of robbery, the <i>barras</i> are easily identified, provided +the robbers have not had time to mould them into some other +form. For this reason, people of wealth frequently lay up +their funds in ingots; and the cellars of some of the <i>ricos</i> of +the South, are often found teeming with large quantities of +them, presenting the appearance of a winter's supply of +firewood.</p> + +<p>{111} As the charge for parting the gold and silver at the +Mexican mints, is generally from one to two dollars, and +coinage about fifty cents, per pound, this assayed bullion +yields a profit upon its current value of nearly ten per cent. +at the United States Mint; but, if unassayed, it generally +produces an advance of about double that amount upon the +usual cost at the mines. The exportation of bullion, however, +is prohibited, except by special license from the general +government. Still a large quantity is exported in this way, +and considerable amounts smuggled out through some of +the ports.</p> + +<p>A constant and often profitable business in the 'silver +trade' is carried on at these mines. As the miners rarely +fail being in need of ready money, they are generally obliged +to sell their bullion for coin, and that often at a great sacrifice, +so as to procure available means to prosecute their mining <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg185"></a>[p185]</span> +operations. To profit by this trade, as is already mentioned, +was a principal object of my present visit. Having concluded +my business transactions, and partially gratified my +curiosity, I returned to Chihuahua, where I arrived, November +24, 1835, without being molested either by robbers or +Indians, though the route is sometimes infested by both +these classes of independent gentry.</p> + +<p>But, as it is now high time I should put an end to this +digression, I will once more resume my narrative, where it +was interrupted at my arrival in Chihuahua, on the first of +October, 1839.</p> + +<p>{112} It is usual for each trader, upon his arrival in that +city, to engage a store-room, and to open and exhibit his +goods, as well for the purpose of disposing of them at wholesale +as retail. His most profitable custom is that of the +petty country merchants from the surrounding villages. +Some traders, it is true, continue in the retail business for a +season or more, yet the greater portion are transient dealers, +selling off at wholesale as soon as a fair bargain is offered.</p> + +<p>The usual mode of selling by the lot in Chihuahua is somewhat +singular. All such cottons as calicoes and other +prints, bleached, brown and blue domestics both plain and +twilled, stripes, checks, etc., are rated at two or three <i>reales</i><a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> +per <i>vara</i>, without the least reference to quality or cost, and +the 'general assortment' at 60 to 100 per cent. upon the +bills of cost, according to the demand. The <i>varage</i> is <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg186"></a>[p186]</span> +usually estimated by adding eight per cent. to the yardage, but +the <i>vara</i> being thirty-three inches (nearly), the actual difference +is more than nine. In these sales, cloths—{113} indeed +all measurable goods, except ribands and the like, sometimes +enter at the <i>varage</i> rate. I have heard of some still +more curious contracts in these measurement sales, particularly +in Santa Fé, during the early periods of the American +trade. Everything was sometimes rated by the vara—not +only all textures, but even hats, cutlery, trinkets, and so on! +In such cases, very singular disputes would frequently arise +as to the mode of measuring some particular articles: for +instance, whether pieces of riband should be measured in +bulk, or unrolled, and yard by yard; looking-glasses, cross or +lengthwise; pocket-knives, shut or open; writing-paper, in +the ream, in the quire, or by the single sheet; and then, +whether the longer or shorter way of the paper; and so of +many others.</p> + +<p>Before the end of October, 1839, I had an opportunity of +selling out my stock of goods to a couple of English merchants, +which relieved me from the delays, to say nothing of +the inconveniences attending a retail trade: such, for +instance, as the accumulation of copper coin, which forms +almost the exclusive currency in petty dealings. Some +thousands of dollars' worth are frequently accumulated upon +the hands of the merchant in this way, and as the copper of +one department is worthless in another, except for its intrinsic +value, which is seldom more than ten per cent. of +the nominal value, the holders are subjected to a great deal +of trouble and annoyance.</p> + +<p>With regard to the city, there is but little to {114} be said +that is either very new or unusually interesting. When +compared with Santa Fé and all the towns of the North, +Chihuahua might indeed be pronounced a magnificent place; +but, compared with the nobler cities of <i>tierra afuera</i>, it sinks <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg187"></a>[p187]</span> +into insignificance. According to Capt. Pike, the city of +Chihuahua was founded in 1691. The ground-plan is much +more regular than that of Santa Fé, while a much greater +degree of elegance and classic taste has been exhibited in +the style of the architecture of many buildings; for though +the bodies be of <i>adobe</i>, all the best houses are cornered with +hewn stone, and the doors and windows are framed in the +same. The streets, however, remain nearly in the same +state as Nature formed them, with the exception of a few +roughly-paved side-walks. Although situated about a hundred +miles east of the main chain of the Mexican Cordilleras, +Chihuahua is surrounded on every side by detached ridges +of mountains, but none of them of any great magnitude. +The elevation of the city above the ocean is between four +and five thousand feet; its latitude is <span class="fraction">28° 36′;</span> and its entire +population numbers about ten thousand souls.</p> + +<p>The most splendid edifice in Chihuahua is the principal +church, which is said to equal in architectural grandeur anything +of the sort in the republic. The steeples, of which there +is one at each front corner, rise over a hundred feet above +the azotea. They are composed of very fancifully-carved +columns; and {115} in appropriate niches of the frontispiece, +which is also an elaborate piece of sculpture, are to be seen +a number of statues, as large as life, the whole forming a +complete representation of Christ and the twelve Apostles. +This church was built about a century ago, by contributions +levied upon the mines (particularly those of Santa Eulalia, +fifteen or twenty miles from the city), which paid over a +per centage on all the metal extracted therefrom; a <i>medio</i>, +I believe, being levied upon each <i>marco</i> of eight ounces. In +this way, about a million of dollars was raised and expended +in some thirty years, the time employed in the construction +of the building. It is a curious fact, however, that, +notwithstanding the enormous sums of money expended <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg188"></a>[p188]</span> +in outward embellishments, there is not a church from +thence southward, perhaps, where the interior arrangements +bear such striking marks of poverty and neglect. If, +however, we are not dazzled by the sight of those costly +decorations for which the churches of Southern Mexico +are so much celebrated, we have the satisfaction of knowing +that the turrets are well provided with bells, a fact of which +every person who visits Chihuahua very soon obtains auricular +demonstration. One, in particular, is so large and +sonorous that it has frequently been heard, so I am informed, +at the distance of twenty-five miles.</p> + +<p>A little below the <i>Plaza Mayor</i> stands the ruins (as they +may be called) of San Francisco—the mere skeleton of +another great church {116} of hewn-stone, which was commenced +by the Jesuits previous to their expulsion in 1767, +but never finished. By the outlines still traceable amid the +desolation which reigns around, it would appear that the +plan of this edifice was conceived in a spirit of still greater +magnificence than the Parroquia which I have been describing. +The abounding architectural treasures that are mouldering +and ready to tumble to the ground, bear sufficient evidence +that the mind which had directed its progress was at +once bold, vigorous and comprehensive.</p> + +<p>This dilapidated building has since been converted into +a sort of state prison, particularly for the incarceration of +distinguished prisoners. It was here that the principals of +the famous Texan Santa Fé Expedition were confined, when +they passed through the place, on their way to the city of +Mexico.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> This edifice has also acquired considerable +celebrity as having received within its gloomy embraces +several of the most distinguished patriots, who were taken +prisoners during the first infant struggles for Mexican independence. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg189"></a>[p189]</span> +Among these was the illustrious ecclesiastic, +Don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who made the first declaration +at the village of Dolores, September 16, 1810.<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> He +was taken prisoner in March, 1811, some time after his total +defeat at Guadalaxara; and being brought to Chihuahua, +he was shot on the 30th of July following, in a little square +back of the prison, where a plain white monument of hewn +stone {117} has been erected to his memory. It consists of +an octagon base of about twenty-five feet in diameter, upon +which rises a square, unornamented pyramid to the height +of about thirty feet. The monument indeed is not an unapt +emblem of the purity and simplicity of the curate's character.</p> + +<p>Among the few remarkable objects which attract the +attention of the traveller is a row of columns supporting a +large number of stupendous arches which may be seen from +the heights, long before approaching the city from the north. +This is an aqueduct of considerable magnitude which conveys +water from the little river of Chihuahua, to an eminence +above the town, whence it is passed through a succession of +pipes to the main public square, where it empties itself into +a large stone cistern; and by this method the city is supplied +with water. This and other public works to be met with in +Chihuahua, and in the southern cities, are glorious remnants +of the prosperous times of the Spanish empire. No improvements +on so exalted a scale have ever been made under +the republican government. In fact, everything in this benighted +country now seems to be on the decline, and the +plain honest citizen of the old school is not unfrequently +heard giving vent to his feelings by ejaculating "<dfn>¡Ojalá por +los dias felices del Rey!</dfn>"—Oh, for the happy days of the +King! In short, there can be no doubt, that the common +people enjoyed more ease—more protection against the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg190"></a>[p190]</span> +savages—more {118} security in their rights and property—more +<i>liberty</i>, in truth, under the Spanish dynasty than at +present.</p> + +<p>No better evidence can be found of the extensive operations +which have been carried on in this the greatest mining +district of Northern Mexico, than in the little mountains of +<i>scoria</i> which are found in the suburbs of the city. A great +number of poor laborers make a regular business of hammering +to pieces these metallic excrescences, from which they +collect silver enough to buy their daily bread. An opinion +has often been expressed by persons well acquainted with +the subject, that a fair business might be done by working +this same scoria over again. There are still in operation +several furnaces in the city, where silver ores extracted from +the mines of the surrounding mountains are smelted. There +is also a rough mint in Chihuahua (as there is indeed in all +the mining departments), yet most of its silver and all of its +gold have been coined in the cities further south.</p> + +<p>When I arrived at Chihuahua, in 1839, a great fête had +just come off for the double purpose of celebrating the anniversary +of the Emperor Iturbide's birth day (Sept. 27, 1783), +and that of his triumphal entrance into the city of Mexico +in 1821. It will be remembered, that, after Mexico had +been struggling for independence several years, General +Iturbide, who had remained a faithful officer of the crown, +and an active agent in persecuting the champions of Mexican +liberty, finding {119} himself, about the close of 1820, at the +head of a large division of the royal army sent against the +patriot Guerrero, suddenly turned over his whole force to +the support of the republican cause, and finally succeeded +in destroying the last vestige of Spanish authority in Mexico. +How he was afterwards crowned emperor, and subsequently <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg191"></a>[p191]</span> +dethroned, outlawed by a public decree and eventually +executed, is all matter of history.<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> But it is not generally +known, I believe, that this unfortunate soldier has since received +the honors of the Father of the Republic, a dignity +to which he was probably as much entitled as any one else—absurd +though the adoption of such a hero as the 'champion +of liberty,' may appear to 'republicans of the Jefferson +school.' A <i>grande fête d'hilarité</i> takes place annually, in +honor of his political canonization, which 'comes off' at the +date already mentioned. To this great ball, however, no +Americans were invited, with the exception of a Mexicanized +denizen or two, whose invitation tickets informed the <i>honored +party</i> that the price of admission to this famous feast,—a +ball given by the governor and other magnates of the land, +in honor of the hero of independence,—was twenty-five +dollars.</p> + +<p>Balls or reunions of this kind, however, seem not as +frequent in Chihuahua as in New Mexico: and to those +we hear of, claiming the title of 'fashionable,' Americans +are very rarely invited. There is, in fact, but little social +intercourse between foreigners and the natives, {120} except +in a business way, or with a certain class of the former, +at the gambling-table. This want of hospitable feelings +is one of the worst traits in the character of the Chihuahueños, +and when placed in contrast with the kind and +courteous treatment those who visit the United States invariably +experience from the lawgivers of fashion among +us, their illiberality will appear a hundred fold more +ungracious. These exclusive laws are the more severely +felt in Chihuahua, because in that city there are no <i>cafés</i>, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg192"></a>[p192]</span> +nor reading rooms, nor in short any favorite public resorts, +except of a gambling character, at which gentlemen can +meet to lounge or amuse themselves.</p> + +<p>Besides the cock-pit, the gaming-table, and the <dfn>Alameda</dfn>, +which is the popular promenade for the wealthy and the +indolent, one of the most favorite pastimes of the females +generally is shopping; and the most fashionable time for +this is by candle-light, after they have partaken of their +chocolate and their <i>cigarritos</i>. The streets and shops are +literally filled from dusk till nine or ten o'clock; and many +a time have I seen the counter of a store actually lined till +a late hour, with the fairest and most fashionable señoritas +of the city. On such occasions it is not a little painful +as well as troublesome to be compelled to keep a strict +eye to the rights of property, not that the dealers are all +dishonest, but because there never fail to be some present +who are painfully afflicted with the self-appropriating mania, +{121} even among the fairest-looking señoritas. This, with +other purposes no less culpable, has no doubt tended to +establish the custom of night-shopping.</p> + +<p>It may already be generally known perhaps, that the +predominant party, in Mexico, (and particularly in the +North), is decidedly anti-masonic. During my stay in +Chihuahua I had an opportunity to test their antipathy +for that mysterious brotherhood. This was evinced in +the seizure of a dozen or two cotton handkerchiefs, which, +unknown to myself, happened to bear the stamp of the +'masonic carpet.' These obnoxious articles having attracted +the attention of some lynx-eyed friars, one day, +much to my consternation, my store was suddenly invaded +by the alcalde and some ecclesiastics. The handkerchiefs +were seized without ceremony, and by an <i>auto de fe</i>, condemned +to be publicly burned.</p> + +<h3 title="Chapter XXIII"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XXIII_VII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII_VII"></a> +CHAPTER XXIII {VII}</h3> + +<p class="subhead"><a id="Pg193"></a> +Departure for Santa Fé — Straitened for Food — Summary Effort +to procure Beef — Seizure of one of our Party — Altercation with +a <i>Rico</i> — His pusillanimous Procedure — Great Preparations in +Chihuahua for our Arrest — Arrival of Mexican Troops — A polite +Officer — Myself with three of my Men summoned back to Chihuahua — Amiable +Conduct of Señor Artalejo — <i>Junta Departmental</i> +and Discussion of my Affair — Writ of <i>Habeas Corpus</i> not +in vogue — The Matter adjusted and Passport granted — The <i>Morale</i> — Impunity +of savage Depredators — Final Start — Company +of <i>Paseños</i> with their Fruits and Liquors — Arrival at Santa Fé.<a href="#tocXXIII" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>Having closed all my affairs in Chihuahua, and completed +my preparations for departing, I took my leave of +that city for the North, on the 31st of October, 1839. I +was accompanied by a caravan consisting of twenty-two +wagons (all of which save one belonged to me), and forty +odd men, armed to the teeth, and prepared for any emergency +we might be destined to encounter: a precaution +altogether necessary, in view of the hordes of hostile savages +which at all times infested the route before us.</p> + +<p>We also set out provided with an ample stock of bread +and other necessaries; for, from the suburbs of Chihuahua +to the village of {123} Carrizal, a distance of nearly a hundred +and fifty miles, there are no settlements on the route, +from whence to procure supplies. To furnish the party +with meat, I engaged twenty sheep, to be delivered a few +miles on the way, which were to be driven along for our +daily consumption. But the contractor having failed, +we found ourselves entering the wilderness without a morsel +of meat. The second day our men began to murmur—it +was surely 'dry living' upon mere bread and coffee: in +fact, by the time we entered the 'territory' of the Hacienda +de Encinillas, spoken of in another chapter, they were +clearly suffering from hunger. I was therefore under the +necessity of sending three Mexican muleteers of our party <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg194"></a>[p194]</span> +to <i>lazo</i> a beef from a herd which was grazing at some distance +from where we had pitched our camp; being one of +those buffalo-like droves which run so nearly wild upon +this extensive domain. It had been customary, from time +immemorial, for travellers when they happened to be distressed +for meat, to supply their wants out of the wild cattle +which nominally belonged to this hacienda, reserving to +themselves the privilege of paying a reasonable price afterwards +to the proprietor for the damage committed. I +must say, however, that, although I had travelled over +the same road nine times, I had never before resorted to +this summary mode of procuring food; nor should I, on the +present occasion, have deviated from my regular practice, +though thus partially authorized by a custom of the {124} +country, but for the strait in which we found ourselves, +and the fact that I was confident I should meet either +with a <i>mayordomo</i> or some of the <i>vaqueros</i>, to whom I could +pay the value of the beef, before passing beyond the purlieus +of the hacienda, upon the lands of which we had yet +to travel for sixty or eighty miles.</p> + +<p>The muleteers had just commenced giving chase to the +cattle, when we perceived several horsemen emerge from +behind a contiguous eminence, and pursue them at full +speed. Believing the assailants to be Indians, and seeing +them shoot at one of the men, chase another, and seize +the third, bearing him off prisoner, several of us prepared +to hasten to the rescue, when the other two men came +running in and informed us that the aggressors were Mexican +vaqueros. We followed them, notwithstanding, to +the village of Torreon, five or six miles to the westward, +where we found a crowd of people already collected around +our poor friend, who was trembling from head to foot, +as though he had really fallen into the hands of savages. +I immediately inquired for the mayordomo, when I was <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg195"></a>[p195]</span> +informed that the proprietor himself, Don Angel Trias, +was present. Accordingly I addressed myself to <i>su señoría</i>, +setting forth the innocence of my servant, and declaring +myself solely responsible for whatever crime had been +committed. Trias, however, was immovable in his determination +to send the boy back to Chihuahua to be tried +for robbery, and all further expostulation only drew down +the {125} grossest and coarsest insults upon myself, as +well as my country, of which he professed no inconsiderable +knowledge.<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a></p> + +<p>The altercation was at first conducted solely in Spanish; +but the princely señor growing weary of hearing so many +unpalatable truths told of himself in the vernacular of his +own humble and astounded menials, he stepped out from +among the crowd, and addressed me in English,—a language +in which he had acquired some proficiency in the +course of his travels. The change of language by no means +altered his views, nor abated his pertinacity. At last, +finding there was nothing to be gained by this war of words, +I ordered the boy to mount his horse and rejoin the wagons. +"Beware of the consequences!" vociferated the enraged +Trias. "Well, let them come," I replied; "here we are." +But we were suffered to depart in peace with the prisoner.</p> + +<p>That the reader may be able to form some idea of the +pusillanimity of this lordly <i>haciendero</i>, it is only necessary +to add, that when the altercation took place we were inside +of the fortifications, from which our egress might easily +have been prevented by simply closing the outer gate. We <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg196"></a>[p196]</span> +were surrounded by the whole population of the village, +besides a {126} small detachment of regular troops, whose +commandant took a very active part in the controversy, +and fought most valiantly with his tongue. But the valor +of the illustrious Señor Don Angel knew a much safer +course than to vent itself where there was even a remote +chance of personal risk. His influence could not fail to +enlist the public in his behalf, and he thought no doubt +that his battles might just as well be fought by the officers +of justice as by himself.</p> + +<p>Yet ignorant of his designs, and supposing the matter +would end at this, we continued our march the next day, +and by the time night approached we were full twenty +miles from the seat of our late troubles. While at breakfast +on the following morning we were greatly surprised +by the appearance of two American gentlemen direct from +Chihuahua, who had ridden thus far purposely to apprise +us of what was brewing in the city to our detriment. It +appeared that Trias had sent an express to the governor +accusing me of rescuing a culprit from the hands of justice +by force of arms, and that great preparations were accordingly +being made to overtake and carry me back. That +the reader may be able to understand the full extent and +enormity of my offence, he has only to be informed that +the proprietor of an hacienda is at once governor, justice +of the peace, and everything besides which he has a mind +to fancy himself—a perfect despot within the limits of +his little dominion. It was, therefore, through contempt +for <em>his</em> 'excellency' {127} that I had insulted the majesty +of the laws!</p> + +<p>Having expressed my sentiments of gratitude to my worthy +countrymen for the pains they had taken on my account, +we again pursued our journey, determined to abide the +worst. This happened on the 3d of November: on the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg197"></a>[p197]</span> +5th we encamped near the Ojo Caliente, a hundred and +thirty miles from Chihuahua. About eleven o'clock at +night, a large body of men were seen approaching. They +very soon passed us, and quietly encamped at a distance +of several hundred yards. They were over a hundred in +number.</p> + +<p>Nothing further occurred till next morning, when, just +as I had risen from my pallet, a soldier approached and +inquired if I was up. In a few minutes he returned with +a message from <i>El Señor Capitan</i> to know if he could see +me. Having answered in the affirmative, a very courteous +and agreeable personage soon made his appearance, who, +after bowing and scraping until I began to be seriously +afraid that his body would break in two, finally opened +his mission by handing me a packet of letters, one of which +contained an order from the Governor for my immediate +presence in Chihuahua, together with the three muleteers +whom I had sent after the cattle; warning me, at the same +time, not to give cause, by my resistance, for any other +measure, which might be unpleasant to my person. The +next document was from Señor Trias himself, in which +he expressed his regret {128} at having carried the matter +to such an extreme, and ended with the usual offer of his +services to facilitate an adjustment. Those, however, +which most influenced my course, were from Don José +Artalejo (<dfn>Juez de Hacienda</dfn>, Judge of the Customs, of +Chihuahua), who offered to become responsible for a +favorable issue if I would peaceably return; and another +from a Mr. Sutton, with whom I had formerly been connected +in business. The manly and upright deportment +of this gentleman had inspired me with the greatest confidence, +and therefore caused me to respect his opinions. +But, besides my obligation to submit to a mandate from +the government, however arbitrary and oppressive, another <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg198"></a>[p198]</span> +strong motive which induced me to return, in obedience +to the Governor's order, was a latent misgiving lest any +hostile movement on my part, no matter with what justice +or necessity, might jeopardize the interests if not the lives +of many of my countrymen in Chihuahua.</p> + +<p>With regard to ourselves and our immediate safety, we +would have found but very little difficulty in fighting our +way out of the country. We were all well-armed, and +many appeared even anxious to have a brush with the +besiegers. However, I informed the captain that I was +willing to return to Chihuahua, with the three 'criminals,' +provided we were permitted to go armed and free, as I +was not aware of having committed any crime to justify +an arrest. He rejoined that {129} this was precisely in +accordance with his orders, and politely tendered me an +escort of five or six soldiers, who should be placed under +my command, to strengthen us against the Indians, that +were known to infest our route. Thanking him for his +favor, I at once started for Chihuahua, leaving the wagons +to continue slowly on the journey, and the amiable captain +with his band of <i>valientes</i> to retrace their steps at leisure +towards the capital.</p> + +<p>Late on the evening of the third day, I reached the city, +and put up at the American Fonda, where I was fortunate +enough to meet with my friend Artalejo, who at once proposed +that we should proceed forthwith to the Governor's +house. When we found ourselves in the presence of his +excellency, my valued friend began by remarking that I +had returned according to orders, and that he would answer +for me with his person and property; and then, without +even waiting for a reply, he turned to me and expressed a +hope that I would make his house my residence while I +remained in the city. I could not, of course, decline so +friendly an invitation, particularly as I thought it probable <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg199"></a>[p199]</span> +that, being virtually my bail, he might prefer to have me +near his person. But, as soon as we reached the street, +he very promptly removed that suspicion from my mind. +"I invite you to my house," said he, "as a friend, and not +as a prisoner. If you have any business to transact, do +not hold yourself under the least restraint. To-morrow +I will see the affair satisfactorily settled."</p> + +<p>{130} The <dfn>Junta Departamental</dfn>, or State Council, of +which Señor Artalejo was an influential member, was convened +the following day. Meanwhile, every American I met +with expressed a great deal of surprise to see me at liberty, +as, from the excitement which had existed in the city, they +expected I would have been lodged in the safest calabozo. +I was advised not to venture much into the streets, as the +rabble were very much incensed against me; but, although +I afterwards wandered about pretty freely, no one offered +to molest me; in fact, I must do the 'sovereigns of the city' +the justice to say, that I was never more politely treated +than during this occasion. Others suggested that, as +Trias was one of the most wealthy and influential citizens +of Chihuahua, I had better try to pave my way out of the +difficulty with <i>plata</i>, as I could stand no chance in law +against him. To this, however, I strenuously objected. +I felt convinced that I had been ordered back to Chihuahua +mainly for purposes of extortion, and I was determined +that the <i>oficiales</i> should be disappointed. I had unbounded +confidence in the friendship and integrity of Don José +Artalejo, who was quite an exception to the general character +of his countrymen. He was liberal, enlightened and +honorable, and I shall ever remember with gratitude the +warm interest he took in my affair, when he could have +had no other motive for befriending me except what might +spring from the consciousness of having performed a generous +action. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg200"></a>[p200]</span></p> + +<p>{131} At first, when the subject of my liberation was +discussed in the <i>Junta Departamental</i>, the symptoms were +rather squally, as some bigoted and unruly members of +the Council seemed determined to have me punished, +right or wrong. After a long and tedious debate, however, +my friend brought me the draft of a petition which he +desired me to copy and sign, and upon the presentation of +which to the Governor, it had been agreed I should be +released. This step, I was informed, had been resolved +upon, because, after mature deliberation, the Council came +to the conclusion that the proceedings against me had been +extremely arbitrary and illegal, and that, if I should hereafter +prosecute the Department, I might recover heavy +damages. The wholesome lesson which had so lately +been taught the Mexicans by France, was perhaps the +cause of the fears of the Chihuahua authorities. A clause +was therefore inserted in the petition, wherein I was made +to renounce all intention on my part of ever troubling the +Department on the subject, and became myself a suppliant +to have the affair considered as concluded.</p> + +<p>This petition I would never have consented to sign, had +I not been aware of the arbitrary power which was exercised +over me. Imprisonment, in itself, was of but little consequence; +but the total destruction of my property, which +might have been the result of further detention, was an +evil which I deemed it necessary to ward off, even at a great +sacrifice {132} of feeling. Moreover, being in duress, no +forced concession would, of course, be obligatory upon +me after I resumed my liberty. Again, I felt no very great +inclination to sue for redress where there was so little prospect +of procuring anything. I might certainly have represented +the matter to the Mexican government, and even +have obtained perhaps the acknowledgment of my claims +against Chihuahua for damages; but the payment would <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg201"></a>[p201]</span> +have been extremely doubtful. As to our own Government, +I had too much experience to rely for a +moment upon her interposition.</p> + +<p>During the progress of these transactions, I strove to +ascertain the character of the charges made against me; +but in vain. All I knew was, that I had offended a <i>rico</i>, +and had been summoned back to Chihuahua at his instance; +yet whether for 'high treason,' for an attempt at robbery, +or for contempt to his <i>señoría</i>, I knew not. It is not unusual, +however, in that 'land of liberty,' for a person to +be arrested and even confined for weeks without knowing +the cause. The writ of <i>Habeas Corpus</i> appears unknown +in the judicial tribunals of Northern Mexico.</p> + +<p>Upon the receipt of my petition, the Governor immediately +issued the following decree, which I translate for +the benefit of the reader, as being not a bad specimen of +Mexican grand eloquence:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"In consideration of the memorial which you have this day directed +to the Superior Government, His Excellency, {133} the Governor, +has been pleased to issue the following decree:</p> + +<p>"'That, as Don Angel Trias has withdrawn his prosecution, so far +as relates to his personal interests, the Government, using the equity +with which it ought to look upon faults committed without a deliberate +intention to infringe the laws, which appears presumable in the +present case, owing to the memorialist's ignorance of them, the grace +which he solicits is granted to him; and, in consequence, he is at +liberty to retire when he chooses: to which end, and that he may +not be interrupted by the authorities, a copy of this decree will be +transmitted to him.'</p> + +<p>"In virtue of the above, I inclose the said decree to you, for +the purposes intended.</p> + +<p>"God and Liberty. <span style="margin-left:2em;">Chihuahua, + Nov. 9, 1839.</span></p> + +<p><span style="margin-left:10em;"> +"<span class="smcap">Amado de la Vega</span>, Sec.<br /> +</span></p> + +<p>"<span class="smcap">To Don Josiah Gregg</span>."</p> +</div> + +<p>Thus terminated this 'momentous' affair. The moral +of it may be summed up in a few words. A citizen <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg202"></a>[p202]</span> +of the United States who, under the faith of treaties, is +engaged in his business, may be seized and harassed by +the arbitrary authorities of Chihuahua with perfect impunity, +because experience has proved that the American +Government winks at almost every individual outrage, as +utterly unworthy of its serious consideration. At the same +time, the Indians may enter, as they frequently do, the +suburbs of the city,—rob, plunder, and destroy life, without +a single soldier being raised, or an effort made to bring +the savage malefactors within the pale of justice. But a +few days before the occasion of my difficulty at Torreon, +the Apaches had killed a ranchero or two in the immediate +neighborhood of the same village; and afterwards, {134} +at the very time such a bustle was being made in Chihuahua +to raise troops for my 'special benefit,' the Indians entered +the corn-fields in the suburbs of the city, and killed several +<i>labradores</i> who were at work in them. In neither of these +cases, however, were there any troops at command to +pursue and chastise the depredators—though a whole +army was in readiness to persecute our party. The truth +is, they felt much less reluctance to pursue a band of civil +traders, who, they were well aware, could not assume a +hostile attitude, than to be caught in the wake of a band +of savages, who would as little respect their lives as their +laws and their property.</p> + +<p>Early on the morning of the 10th, I once more, and for +the last time, and with anything but regret, took my leave +of Chihuahua, with my companions in trouble. Toward +the afternoon we met my old friend the captain, with his +valiant followers, whom I found as full of urbanity as ever—so +much so, indeed, that he never even asked to see my +passport.</p> + +<p>On the evening of the next day, now in the heart of the +savage haunts, we were not a little alarmed by the appearance +of a large body of horsemen in the distance. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg203"></a>[p203]</span> +They turned out, however, to be <dfn>Paseños</dfn>, or citizens of the +Paso del Norte. They were on their way to Chihuahua +with a number of pack-mules laden with apples, pears, +grapes, wine, and <dfn>aguardiente</dfn>—proceeds of their productive +orchards and vineyards. It is from El Paso that +Chihuahua is chiefly supplied with fruits and {135} liquors, +which are transported on mules or in carretas. The fruits, +as well fresh as in a dried state, are thus carried to the +distant markets. The grapes, carefully dried in the shade, +make excellent <dfn>pasas</dfn> or raisins, of which large quantities +are annually prepared for market by the people of that +delightful town of vineyards and orchards, who, to take +them altogether, are more sober and industrious than those +of any other part of Mexico I have visited; and are happily +less infested by the extremes of wealth and poverty.</p> + +<p>On the 13th, I overtook my wagons a few miles south +of El Paso, whence our journey was continued, without +any additional casualty, and on the 6th of December we +reached Santa Fé, in fine health and spirits.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> The distance from Chihuahua to Durango is about five hundred miles, and +from thence to Aguascalientes it is nearly three hundred—upon the route we +travelled, which was very circuitous. All the intermediate country resembles, in +its physical features, that lying immediately north of Chihuahua, which has +already been described.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> Jesus-Maria is still a mining town in western Chihuahua, in the heart of a +sierra of the same name.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> Water has sometimes accumulated so rapidly in this mine as to stop operations +for weeks together.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> +The Mexican money table +is as follows: 12 <dfn>granos</dfn> make 1 <dfn>real</dfn>; 8 <i>reales</i>, 1 +<dfn>peso</dfn>, or dollar. These are the divisions used in computation, but instead of <i>granos</i>, +the copper coins of Chihuahua and many other places, are the <dfn>claco</dfn> or <dfn>jola</dfn> (<span +class="fraction"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub></span> real) +and the <dfn>cuartilla</dfn> (<span +class="fraction"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></span> real). The silver coins are the <dfn>medio</dfn> (<span +class="fraction">6<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></span> cents), the <dfn>real</dfn> +(<span class="fraction">12<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub></span> +cents), the <dfn>peseta</dfn> (2 reales), the <dfn>toston</dfn> or half dollar, and the <i>peso</i> or dollar. The +gold coins are the <dfn>doblon</dfn> or <dfn>onza</dfn> (doubloon), with the same subdivisions as the +silver dollar, which are also of the same weight. The par value of the doubloon is +sixteen dollars; but, as there is no kind of paper currency, gold, as the most convenient +remittance, usually commands a high premium—sometimes so high, +indeed, that the doubloon is valued in the North at from eighteen to twenty +dollars.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> See Kendall, <cite>Texan Santa Fé Expedition</cite>, ii, pp. 66-73.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> For Hidalgo, see our volume xix, p. 176, note 11 (Gregg).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> For Guerrero and Iturbide see Pattie's <cite>Narrative</cite>, in our volume xviii, p. 314 +(note 130), p. 362 (note 141).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> Trias, while yet a youth, was dispatched by his adopted father to take the +tour of Europe and the United States. He was furnished for 'pocket money' (as +I have been told) with nearly a hundred <i>barras de plata</i>, each worth a thousand +dollars or upwards. This money he easily got rid of during his travels, but retained +most of his innate bigotry and self-importance: and, with his knowledge of the +superiority of the people among whom he journeyed, grew his hatred for +foreigners.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div></div> + +<h3 title="Chapter XXIV"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XXIV_VIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIV_VIII"></a> +CHAPTER XXIV [VIII]</h3> + +<p class="subhead">Preparations for returning Home — Breaking out of the Small-pox — The +Start — Our Caravan — Manuel the Comanche — A New +Route — The Prairie on Fire — Danger to be apprehended from +these Conflagrations — A Comanche Buffalo-chase — A Skirmish +with the Pawnees — An intrepid Mexican — The Wounded — Value +of a thick Skull — Retreat of the Enemy and their Failure — A +bleak Northwester — Loss of our Sheep — The Llano Estacado +and Sources of Red River — The Canadian River — Cruelties upon +Buffalo — Feats at 'Still-hunting' — Mr. Wethered's Adventure — Once +more on our own Soil — The False Washita — Enter our +former Trail — Character of the Country over which we had travelled — Arrival +at Van Buren — The two Routes to Santa Fé — Some +Advantages of that from Arkansas — Restlessness of Prairie +Travellers in civilized life, and Propensity for returning to the Wild +Deserts.<a href="#tocXXIV" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>About the beginning of February, 1840, and just as I +was making preparations to return to the United States, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg204"></a>[p204]</span> +the small-pox broke out among my men, in a manner which +at first occasioned at least as much astonishment as alarm. +One of them, who had been vaccinated, having travelled +in a district where the small-pox prevailed, complained +of a little fever, which was followed by slight eruptions, +but so unlike true variolous pustules, that I treated the +matter very lightly; not even suspecting a varioloid. These +slight symptoms {137} having passed off, nothing more +was thought of it until eight or ten days after, when every +unvaccinated member of our company was attacked by +that fell disease, which soon began to manifest very malignant +features. There were no fatal cases, however; yet +much apprehension was felt, lest the disease should break +out again on the route; but, to our great joy, we escaped +this second scourge.</p> + +<p>A party that left Santa Fé for Missouri soon afterward, +was much more unfortunate. On the way, several of their +men were attacked by the small-pox: some of them died, +and, others retaining the infection till they approached +the Missouri frontier, they were compelled to undergo a +'quarantine' in the bordering prairie, before they were +permitted to enter the settlements.</p> + +<p>On the 25th of February we set out from Santa Fé; but +owing to some delays, we did not leave San Miguel till +the 1st of March. As the pasturage was yet insufficient +for our animals, we here provided ourselves with over six +hundred bushels of corn, to feed them on the way. This +time our caravan consisted of twenty-eight wagons, two +small cannons, and forty-seven men, including sixteen +Mexicans and a Comanche Indian who acted in the capacity +of guide.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> Two gentlemen of Baltimore, {138} Messrs. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg205"></a>[p205]</span> +S. Wethered and J. R. Ware, had joined our caravan with +one wagon and three men, making up the aggregate above-mentioned. +We had also a caballada of more than two +hundred mules, with nearly three hundred sheep and +goats. The sheep were brought along partially to supply +us with meat in case of emergency: the surplusage, however, +could not fail to command a fair price in the United +States.</p> + +<p>Instead of following the trail of the year before, I determined +to seek a nearer and better route down the south +side of the Canadian river, under the guidance of the Comanche; +by which movement, we had again to travel a distance +of four hundred miles over an entirely new country. We +had just passed the Laguna Colorada, where, the following +year, a division of Texan volunteers, under General McLeod, +surrendered to Col. Archuleta,<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> when our fire was +carelessly permitted to communicate with the prairie grass. +As there was a head-wind blowing at the time, we very +soon got out of reach of the conflagration: but the next day, +the wind having changed, the fire was again perceived in +our rear approaching us at a very brisk pace. The terror <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg206"></a>[p206]</span> +which these prairie conflagrations are calculated to inspire, +when the grass is tall and dry, as was the case in the present +instance, has often {139} been described, and though the +perils of these disasters are not unfrequently exaggerated, +they are sometimes sufficient to daunt the stoutest heart. +Mr. Kendall relates a frightful incident of this kind which +occurred to the Texan Santa Fé Exposition; and all those +who have crossed the Prairies have had more or less experience +as to the danger which occasionally threatens the +caravans from these sweeping visitations. The worst +evil to be apprehended with those bound for Santa Fé is +from the explosion of gunpowder, as a keg or two of twenty-five +pounds each, is usually to be found in every wagon. +When we saw the fire gaining so rapidly upon us, we had +to use the whip very unsparingly; and it was only when +the lurid flames were actually rolling upon the heels of our +teams, that we succeeded in reaching a spot of short-grass +prairie, where there was no further danger to be apprehended.</p> + +<p>The headway of the conflagration was soon after checked +by a small stream which traversed our route; and we had +only emerged fairly from its smoke, on the following day +(the 9th), when our Comanche guide returned hastily +from his accustomed post in advance, and informed us that +he had espied three buffaloes, not far off. They were +the first we had met with, and, being heartily anxious for +a change from the dried beef with which we were provided, +I directed the Comanche, who was by far our surest hunter, +to prepare at once for the <i>chasse</i>. He said he preferred to +hunt on {140} horseback and with his bow and arrow; and +believing my riding-horse the fleetest in company (which, +by the by, was but a common pony, and thin in flesh withal), +I dismounted and gave him the bridle, with many charges +to treat him kindly, as we still had a long journey before <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg207"></a>[p207]</span> +us. "Don't attempt to kill but one—that will serve us +for the present!" I exclaimed, as he galloped off. The +Comanche was among the largest of his tribe—bony and +muscular—weighing about two hundred pounds: but +once at his favorite sport, he very quickly forgot my injunction, +as well as the weakness of my little pony. He +soon brought down two of his game,—and shyly remarked +to those who followed in his wake, that, had he not feared +a scolding from me, he would not have permitted the third +to escape.</p> + +<p>On the evening of the 10th our camp was pitched in +the neighborhood of a ravine in the prairie, and as the +night was dark and dreary, the watch tried to comfort +themselves by building a rousing fire, around which they +presently drew, and commenced 'spinning long yarns' +about Mexican fandangoes, and black-eyed damsels. All +of a sudden the stillness of the night was interrupted by +a loud report of fire-arms, and a shower of bullets came +whizzing by the ears of the heedless sentinels. Fortunately, +however, no one was injured; which must be looked upon +as a very extraordinary circumstance, when we consider +what a fair mark our men, thus huddled {141} round a +blazing fire, presented to the rifles of the Indians. The +savage yells, which resounded from every part of the ravine, +bore very satisfactory testimony that this was no false +alarm; and the 'Pawnee whistle' which was heard in every +quarter, at once impressed us with the idea of its being a +band of that famous prairie banditti.</p> + +<p>Every man sprang from his pallet with rifle in hand; for, +upon the Prairies, we always sleep with our arms by our +sides or under our heads. Our Comanche seemed at first +very much at a loss what to do. At last, thinking it might +possibly be a band of his own nation, he began a most +boisterous harangue in his vernacular tongue, which he <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg208"></a>[p208]</span> +continued for several minutes; when finding that the enemy +took no notice of him, and having become convinced also, +from an occasional Pawnee word which he was able to +make out, that he had been wasting breath with the mortal +foes of his race, he suddenly ceased all expostulations, and +blazed away with his rifle, with a degree of earnestness +which was truly edifying, as if convinced that that was +the best he could do for us.</p> + +<p>It was now evident that the Indians had taken possession +of the entire ravine, the nearest points of which were not +fifty yards from our wagons: a warning to prairie travellers +to encamp at a greater distance from whatsoever might +afford shelter for an enemy. The banks of the gully were +low, but still they formed a very good breastwork, behind +which {142} the enemy lay ensconced, discharging volleys +of balls upon our wagons, among which we were scattered. +At one time we thought of making an attempt to rout them +from their fortified position; but being ignorant of their +number, and unable to distinguish any object through +the dismal darkness which hung all around, we had to +remain content with firing at random from behind our +wagons, aiming at the flash of their guns, or in the direction +whence any noise appeared to emanate. Indeed their +yelling was almost continuous, breaking out every now +and then in the most hideous screams and vociferous chattering, +which were calculated to appal such timorous persons +as we may have had in our caravan. All their screeching +and whooping, however, had no effect—they could +not make our animals break from the enclosure of the +wagons, in which they were fortunately shut up; which +was no doubt their principal object for attacking us.</p> + +<p>I cannot forbear recording a most daring feat performed +by a Mexican muleteer, named Antonio Chavez, during +the hottest of the first onset. Seeing the danger of my <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg209"></a>[p209]</span> +two favorite riding horses, which were tethered outside +within a few paces of the savages, he rushed out and brought +safely in the most valuable of the two, though fusil-balls +were showering around him all the while. The other +horse broke his halter and made his escape.</p> + +<p>Although sundry scores of shots had been fired at our +people, we had only two men {143} wounded. One, a +Mexican, was but slightly injured in the hand, but the +wound of the other, who was an Italian, bore a more serious +aspect, and deserves especial mention. He was a short, +corpulent fellow, and had been nicknamed 'Dutch'—a +loquacious, chicken-hearted <i>fainéant</i>, and withal in the +daily habit of gorging himself to such an enormous extent, +that every alternate night he was on the sick list. On this +memorable occasion, Dutch had 'foundered' again, and +the usual prescription of a double dose of Epsom salts had +been his supper potion. The skirmish had continued +for about an hour, and although a frightful groaning had +been heard in Dutch's wagon for some time, no one paid +any attention to it, as it was generally supposed to be from +the effects of his dose. At length, however, some one +cried out, "Dutch is wounded!" I immediately went to +see him, and found him writhing and twisting himself as +if in great pain, crying all the time that he was shot. "Shot!—where?" +I inquired. "Ah! in the head, sir?" "Pshaw! +Dutch, none of that; you've only bumped your head in +trying to hide yourself." Upon lighting a match, however, +I found that a ball had passed through the middle of his +hat, and that, to my consternation, the top of his head was +bathed in blood. It turned out, upon subsequent examination, +that the ball had glanced upon the skull, inflicting +a serious-looking wound, and so deep that an inch of sound +skin separated the holes at which the {144} bullet had entered +and passed out. Notwithstanding I at first apprehended <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg210"></a>[p210]</span> +a fracture of the scull, it very soon healed, and Dutch was +'up and about' again in the course of a week.</p> + +<p>Although teachers not unfrequently have cause to deplore +the thickness of their pupils' skulls, Dutch had every +reason to congratulate himself upon possessing such a +treasure, as it had evidently preserved him from a more +serious catastrophe. It appeared he had taken shelter +in his wagon at the commencement of the attack, without +reflecting that the boards and sheets were not ball-proof: +and as Indians, especially in the night, are apt to shoot +too high, he was in a much more dangerous situation than +if upon the ground.</p> + +<p>The enemy continued the attack for nearly three hours, +when they finally retired, so as to make good their retreat +before daylight. As it rained and snowed from that time +till nine in the morning, their 'sign' was almost entirely +obliterated, and we were unable to discover whether they +had received any injury or not. It was evidently a foot +party, which we looked upon as another proof of their +being Pawnees; for these famous marauders are well known +to go forth on their expeditions of plunder without horses, +although they seldom fail to return well mounted.</p> + +<p>Their shot had riddled our wagons considerably: in one +we counted no less than eight bullet-holes. We had the +gratification to believe, however, that they did not get a +single {145} one of our animals: the horse which broke +away at the first onset, doubtless made his escape; and a +mule which was too badly wounded to travel, was dispatched +by the muleteers, lest it should fall into the hands of the +savages, or into the mouths of the wolves; and they deemed +it more humane to leave it to be eaten dead than alive. +We also experienced considerable damage in our stock of +sheep, a number of them having been devoured by wolves. +They had been scattered at the beginning of the attack; <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg211"></a>[p211]</span> +and, in their anxiety to fly from the scene of action, had +jumped, as it were, into the very jaws of their ravenous +enemies.</p> + +<p>On the 12th of March, we ascended upon the celebrated +<i>Llano Estacado</i>, and continued along its borders for a few +days. The second night upon this dreary plain, we experienced +one of the strongest and bleakest 'northwesters' +that ever swept across those prairies; during which, our +flock of sheep and goats, being left unattended, fled over +the plain, in search of some shelter, it was supposed, from +the furious element. Their disappearance was not observed +for some time, and the night being too dark to discern +anything, we were obliged to defer going in pursuit of them +till the following morning. After a fruitless and laborious +search, during which the effects of the mirage proved a +constant source of annoyance and disappointment, we +were finally obliged to relinquish the pursuit, and return +to the caravan without finding one of them.</p> + +<p>{146} These severe winds are very prevalent upon the +great western prairies, though they are seldom quite so +inclement. At some seasons, they are about as regular +and unceasing as the 'trade winds' of the ocean. It will +often blow a gale for days, and even weeks together, without +slacking for a moment, except occasionally at night. It +is for this reason, as well as on account of the rains, that +percussion guns are preferable upon the Prairies, particularly +for those who understand their use. The winds are +frequently so severe as to sweep away both sparks and +priming from a flint lock, and thus render it wholly ineffective.</p> + +<p>The following day we continued our march down the +border of the Llano Estacado. Knowing that our Comanche +guide was about as familiar with all those great plains as +a landlord with his premises, I began to question him, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg212"></a>[p212]</span> +as we travelled along, concerning the different streams +which pierced them to the southward. Pointing in that +direction, he said there passed a water-course, at the distance +of a hard day's ride, which he designated as a <dfn>cañada</dfn> or +valley, in which there was always water to be found at +occasional places, but that none flowed in its channel except +during the rainy season. This cañada he described +as having its origin in the Llano Estacado some fifty or +sixty miles east of Rio Pecos, and about the same distance +south of the route we came, and that its direction was a +little south of east, passing to the southward {147} of the +northern portion of the Witchita mountains, known to +Mexican Ciboleros and Comancheros as <dfn>Sierra Jumanes</dfn>. +It was, therefore, evident that this was the principal northern +branch of Red River. The False Washita, or <dfn>Rio +Negro</dfn>, as the Mexicans call it, has its rise, as he assured +me, between the Canadian and this cañada, at no great +distance of the southeastward of where we were then travelling.</p> + +<p>On the 15th, our Comanche guide, being fearful lest we +should find no water upon the plain, advised us to pursue +a more northwardly course, so that, after a hard day's +ride, we again descended the <dfn>ceja</dfn> or brow of the Llano +Estacado, into the undulating lands which border the +Canadian; and, on the following day, we found ourselves +upon the southern bank of that stream.</p> + +<p>Although, but a few days' travel above where we now +were, the Canadian runs pent up in a narrow channel, +scarcely four rods across, we here found it spread out to +the width of from three to six hundred yards, and so full +of sand-bars (only interspersed with narrow rills) as to +present the appearance of a mere sandy valley instead of +the bed of a river. In fact, during the driest seasons, the +water wholly disappears in many places. Captain Boone, +of the U. S. Dragoons, being upon an exploring expedition <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg213"></a>[p213]</span> +in the summer of 1843, came to the Canadian about the +region of our western boundary, where he found the channel +perfectly dry.<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> Notwithstanding {148} it presents the +face of one of the greatest rivers of the west during freshets, +yet even then it would not be navigable on account of its +rapidity and shallowness. It would appear almost incredible +to those unacquainted with the prairie streams, that a +river of about 1500 miles in length, and whose head wears +a cap of perennial snow (having its source in the Rocky +Mountains), should scarcely be navigable, for even the +smallest craft, over fifty miles above its mouth.</p> + +<p>We pursued our course down the same side of the river +for several days, during which time we crossed a multitude +of little streams which flowed into the Canadian from the +adjoining plains, while others presented nothing but dry +beds of sand. One of these was so remarkable, on account +of its peculiarity and size, that we named it 'Dry River.' +The bed was at least 200 yards wide, yet without a vestige +of water; notwithstanding, our guide assured us that it +was a brisk-flowing stream some leagues above: and from +the drift-wood along its borders, it was evident that, even +here, it must be a considerable river during freshets.<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></p> + +<p>While traveling down the course of the Canadian, we +sometimes found the buffalo very abundant. On one <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg214"></a>[p214]</span> +occasion, two or three hunters, who were a little in advance +of the caravan, perceiving a herd quietly grazing in an +open glade, they 'crawled upon' them after the manner +of the 'still hunters.' Their first shot having brought down +a fine {149} fat cow, they slipped up behind her, and, resting +their guns over her body, shot two or three others, without +occasioning any serious disturbance or surprise to their +companions; for, extraordinary as it may appear, if the +buffalo neither see nor smell the hunter, they will pay but +little attention to the crack of guns, or to the mortality +which is being dealt among them.</p> + +<p>The slaughter of these animals is frequently carried +to an excess, which shows the depravity of the human heart +in very bold relief. Such is the excitement that generally +prevails at the sight of these fat denizens of the prairies, +that very few hunters appear able to refrain from shooting +as long as the game remains within reach of their rifles; +nor can they ever permit a fair shot to escape them. Whether +the mere pleasure of taking life is {150} the incentive of +these brutal excesses, I will not pretend to decide; but +one thing is very certain, that the buffalo killed yearly on +these prairies far exceeds the wants of the traveller, or +what might be looked upon as the exigencies of rational +sport.<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></p> + +<p>But in making these observations, I regret that I cannot +give to my precepts the force of my own example: I have +not always been able wholly to withstand the cruel temptation. +Not long after the incident above alluded to, as I +was pioneering alone, according to my usual practice, at +a distance of a mile or two ahead of the wagons, in search +of the best route, I perceived in a glade, a few rods in front <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg215"></a>[p215]</span> +of me, several protuberances, which at first occasioned +me no little fright, for I took them, as they loomed dimly +through the tall grass, for the tops of Indian lodges. But +I soon discovered they were the huge humps of a herd of +buffalo, which were quietly grazing.</p> + +<p>I immediately alighted, and approached unobserved +to within forty or fifty yards of the unsuspecting animals. +Being armed with one of Cochran's nine-chambered rifles, +I took aim at one that stood broad-side, and 'blazed away.' +The buffalo threw up their heads and looked about, but +seeing nothing (for I remained concealed in the grass), +they again {151} went on grazing as though nothing had +happened. The truth is, the one I had shot was perhaps +but little hurt; for, as generally happens with the inexperienced +hunter—and often with those who know better, +the first excitement allowing no time for reflection—I +no doubt aimed too high, so as to lodge the ball in the hump. +A buffalo's heart lies exceedingly low, so that to strike it +the shot should enter not over one-fourth of the depth of +the body above the lower edge of the breast bone.</p> + +<p>The brutes were no sooner quiet, than I took another +and more deliberate aim at my former victim, which resulted +as before. But believing him now mortally wounded, +I next fired in quick succession at four others of the gang. +It occurred to me, by this time, that I had better save my +remaining three shots; for it was possible enough for my +firing to attract the attention of strolling savages, who +might take advantage of my empty gun to make a sortie +upon me—yet there stood my buffalo, some of them still +quietly feeding.</p> + +<p>As I walked out from my concealment, a party of our +own men came galloping up from the wagons, considerably +alarmed. They had heard the six shots, and, not recollecting +my repeating rifle, supposed I had been attacked <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg216"></a>[p216]</span> +by Indians, and therefore came to my relief. Upon their +approach the buffalo all fled, except three which appeared +badly wounded—one indeed soon fell and expired. The +other two would doubtless have followed {152} the example +of the first, had not a hunter, anxious to dispatch them +more speedily, approached too near; when, regaining +strength from the excitement, they fled before him, and +entirely escaped, though he pursued them for a considerable +distance.</p> + +<p>A few days after this occurrence, Mr. Wethered returned +to the camp one evening with seven buffalo tongues (the +hunter's usual trophy) swung to his saddle. He said that, +in the morning, one of the hunters had ungenerously objected +to sharing a buffalo with him; whereupon Mr. W. +set out, vowing he would kill buffalo for himself, and 'no +thanks to any one.' He had not been out long when he +spied a herd of only seven bulls, quietly feeding near a +ravine; and slipping up behind the banks, he shot down +one and then another, until they all lay before him; and +their seven tongues he brought in to bear testimony of +his skill.</p> + +<p>Not long after crossing Dry River, we ascended the high +grounds, and soon found ourselves upon the high ridge +which divides the waters of the Canadian and False Washita, +whose 'breaks' could be traced descending from the Llano +Estacado far to the southwest.</p> + +<p>By an observation of an eclipse of one of Jupiter's satellites, +on the night of the 25th of March, in latitude <span +class="fraction">35° 51′ 30″,</span> I found that we were very near the 100th degree +of longitude west from Greenwich. On the following day, +therefore, we celebrated our entrance into the United States +territory. Those who {153} have never been beyond the +purlieus of the land of their nativity, can form but a poor +conception of the joy which the wanderer in distant climes <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg217"></a>[p217]</span> +experiences on treading once more upon his own native +soil! Although we were yet far from the abodes of civilization, +and further still from home, nevertheless the heart +within us thrilled with exhilarating sensations; for we were +again in our own territory, breathed our own free atmosphere, +and were fairly out of reach of the arbitrary power +which we had left behind us.</p> + +<p>As we continued our route upon this narrow dividing +ridge, we could not help remarking how nearly these streams +approach each other: in one place they seemed scarcely +five miles apart. On this account our Comanche guide, +as well as several Mexicans of our party, who had some +acquaintance with these prairies, gave it as their opinion +that the Washita or <i>Rio Negro</i> was in fact a branch of the +Canadian; for its confluence with Red River was beyond +the bounds of their peregrinations.</p> + +<p>As the forest of Cross Timbers was now beginning to be +seen in the distance, and fearing we might be troubled to +find a passway through this brushy region, south of the +Canadian, we forded this river on the 29th, without the +slightest trouble, and very soon entered our former trail, +a little west of Spring Valley. This gave a new and joyful +impulse to our spirits; for we had been travelling over +twenty days without even a trail, {154} and through a region +of which we knew absolutely nothing, except from what we +could gather from our Comanche pilot. This trail, which +our wagons had made the previous summer, was still visible, +and henceforth there was an end to all misgivings.</p> + +<p>If we take a retrospective view of the country over which +we travelled, we shall find but little that can ever present +attractions to the agriculturist. Most of the low valleys +of the Canadian, for a distance of five hundred miles, are +either too sandy or too marshy for cultivation; and the +upland prairies are, in many places, but little else than <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg218"></a>[p218]</span> +sand-hills. In some parts, it is true, they are firm and +fertile, but wholly destitute of timber, with the exception +of a diminutive branch of the Cross Timbers, which occupies +a portion of the ridge betwixt the Canadian and the +North Fork. The Canadian river itself is still more bare +of timber than the upper Arkansas. In its whole course +through the plains, there is but little except cottonwood, +and that very scantily scattered along its banks—in some +places, for leagues together, not a stick is to be seen. Except +it be near the Mountains, where the valleys are more +fertile, it is only the little narrow bottoms which skirt many +of its tributary rivulets that indicate any amenity. Some +of these are rich and beautiful in the extreme, timbered +with walnut, mulberry, oak, elm, hackberry, and occasionally +cedar about the bluffs.</p> + +<p>We now continued our journey without encountering +any further casualty, except in {155} crossing the Arkansas +river, where we lost several mules by drowning; and on +the 22d of April we made our entrance into Van Buren. +This trip was much more tedious and protracted than I +had contemplated—owing, in the first part of the journey, +to the inclemency of the season, and a want of pasturage +for our animals; and, towards the conclusion, to the frequent +rains, which kept the route in a miserable condition.</p> + +<p>Concerning this expedition, I have only one or two more +remarks to offer. As regards the two different routes to +Santa Fé, although Missouri, for various reasons which +it is needless to explain here, can doubtless retain the +monopoly of the Santa Fé trade, the route from Arkansas +possesses many advantages. Besides its being some days' +travel shorter,<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> it is less intersected with large streams; +there are fewer sandy stretches, and a greater variety of <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg219"></a>[p219]</span> +wood-skirted brooks, affording throughout the journey +very agreeable camping-places. Also, as the grass springs +up nearly a month earlier than in Upper Missouri, caravans +could start much sooner, and the proprietors would have +double the time to conduct their mercantile transactions. +Moreover, the return companies would find better pasturage +on their way back, and reach their homes before the +season of frost had far advanced. Again, such as should +desire to engage in the 'stock {156} trade' would at once +bring their mules and horses into a more congenial climate—one +more in accordance with that of their nativity; for +the rigorous winters of Missouri often prove fatal to the +unacclimated Mexican animals.</p> + +<p>This was my last trip across the Plains, though I made +an excursion, during the following summer, among the +Comanche Indians, and other wild tribes, living in the +heart of the Prairies, but returned without crossing to +Mexico. The observations made during this trip will +be found incorporated in the notices, which are to follow, +of the Prairies and their inhabitants.</p> + +<p>Since that time I have striven in vain to reconcile myself +to the even tenor of civilized life in the United States; and +have sought in its amusements and its society a substitute +for those high excitements which have attached me so +strongly to Prairie life. Yet I am almost ashamed to +confess that scarcely a day passes without my experiencing +a pang of regret that I am not now roving at large upon +those western plains. Nor do I find my taste peculiar; +for I have hardly known a man, who has ever become +familiar with the kind of life which I have led for so many +years, that has not relinquished it with regret.</p> + +<p>There is more than one way of explaining this apparent +incongruity. In the first place—the wild, unsettled and +independent life of the Prairie trader, makes perfect freedom <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg220"></a>[p220]</span> +from nearly every kind of social dependence an absolute +necessity of his being. He is in {157} daily, nay, hourly exposure +of his life and property, and in the habit of relying +upon his own arm and his own gun both for protection +and support. Is he wronged? No court or jury is called +to adjudicate upon his disputes or his abuses, save his +own conscience; and no powers are invoked to redress +them, save those with which the God of Nature has endowed +him. He knows no government—no laws, save +those of his own creation and adoption. He lives in no +society which he must look up to or propitiate. The +exchange of this untrammelled condition—this sovereign +independence, for a life in civilization, where both his +physical and moral freedom are invaded at every turn, +by the complicated machinery of social institutions, is +certainly likely to commend itself to but few,—not even +to all those who have been educated to find their enjoyments +in the arts and elegancies peculiar to civilized society;—as +is evinced by the frequent instances of men of letters, +of refinement and of wealth, voluntarily abandoning society +for a life upon the Prairies, or in the still more savage +mountain wilds.</p> + +<p>A 'tour on the Prairies' is certainly a <em>dangerous</em> experiment +for him who would live a quiet contented life at home +among his friends and relatives: not so dangerous to life +or health, as prejudicial to his domestic habits. Those +who have lived pent up in our large cities, know but little +of the broad, unembarrassed freedom of the Great Western +Prairies. {158} Viewing them from a snug fire-side, they +seem crowded with dangers, with labors and with sufferings; +but once upon them, and these appear to vanish—they +are soon forgotten.</p> + +<p>There is another consideration, which, with most men +of the Prairies, operates seriously against their reconciliation +to the habits of civilized life. Though they be <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg221"></a>[p221]</span> +endowed naturally with the organs of taste and refinement, +and though once familiar with the ways and practices of +civilized communities, yet a long absence from such society +generally obliterates from their minds most of those common +laws of social intercourse, which are so necessary to +the man of the world. The awkwardness and the <i>gaucheries</i> +which ignorance of their details so often involves, are +very trying to all men of sensitive temperaments. Consequently, +multitudes rush back to the Prairies, merely +to escape those criticisms and that ridicule, which they +know not how to disarm.</p> + +<p>It will hardly be a matter of surprise then, when I add, +that this passion for Prairie life, how paradoxical soever +it may seem, will be very apt to lead me upon the +Plains again, to spread my bed with the mustang and the +buffalo, under the broad canopy of heaven,—there to +seek to maintain undisturbed my confidence in men, by +fraternizing with the little prairie dogs and wild colts, and +the still wilder Indians—the <i>unconquered Sabæans</i> of +the Great American Deserts.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span + class="label">[130]</span></a> Manuel <i>el Comanche</i> was a full Indian, + born and bred upon the great prairies. +Long after having arrived at the state of manhood, he accompanied some Mexican +<i>Comancheros</i> to the frontier village of San Miguel, where he fell in love with a +Mexican girl—married her—and has lived in that place, a sober, 'civilized' +citizen for the last ten or twelve years—endowed with much more goodness of +heart and integrity of purpose than a majority of his Mexican neighbors. He +had learned to speak Spanish quite intelligibly, and was therefore an excellent +Comanche interpreter: and being familiar with every part of the prairies, he was +very serviceable as a guide.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> Laguna Colorada is in the northeastern part of what is now Quay County, +New Mexico, about twelve miles west of Tucumcari Mount. +</p> +<p> +General Hugh McLeod was born in New York in 1814. Graduated at West +Point, he resigned from the army to offer his services to the Texans in their struggle +for independence. He also commanded in a campaign against the Cherokee in +1839. After the unfortunate Texan-Santa Fé expedition, McLeod was imprisoned +in Mexico for about a year, and finally released at the request of the United States +government. He served throughout the Mexican War, and joining the Confederate +army in 1861 died in Virginia the following year. +</p> +<p> +Colonel Juan Andrés Archuleta, to whom McLeod surrendered, was not the +Archuleta who conspired against the United States in 1846-47.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> Nathan Boone was the youngest son of the noted pioneer Daniel. Born in +Kentucky in 1780, he emigrated to Missouri late in the eighteenth century, and +distinguished himself in frontier service during the War of 1812-15. He made his +home in St. Charles County, Missouri, and built therein the first stone house, in +which his father died in 1820. The younger Boone entered the regular army in +1832, as captain of rangers; the following year saw him in command of a company +of the 1st dragoons, with whom he saw much frontier service. In 1847 he received +his majoralty, and in 1850 became lieutenant-colonel. Three years later, he +resigned from the army, dying at his home in Green County, Missouri, in 1857.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Dry River is not laid down on current modern maps. It is in northwestern +Texas, apparently near the line of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Railway, +in Roberts and Hemphill counties. See our volume XVI, p. 130, note 61; also map +2 in <cite>Senate Docs.</cite>, 31 cong., 1 sess., 12.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> The same barbarous propensity is observable in regard to wild horses. Most +persons appear unable to restrain this wanton inclination to take life, when a mustang +approaches within rifle-shot. Many a stately steed thus falls a victim to the +cruelty of man.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a +href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> +The latitude of Independence, Mo., is <span class="fraction">39° 8′,</span> while that of Van Buren +is <span class="fraction">35° 26′,</span>—within a few miles +of the parallel of Santa Fé: and being on about the same +meridian as Independence, the distance, of course, is considerably shorter.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div></div> + +<h3 title="Chapter XXV: Conclusion of the Santa Fé Trade"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XXV_IX" id="CHAPTER_XXV_IX">CHAPTER XXV {IX} +<br />CONCLUSION OF THE SANTA FÉ TRADE</a></h3> + +<p class="subhead">Decline of Prices — Statistical Table — Chihuahua Trade — Its Extent — Different +Ports through which Goods are introduced to that +Market — Expedition between Chihuahua and Arkansas — The +more recent Incidents of the Santa Fé Caravans — Adventures +of 1843 — Robbery and Murder of Chavez — Expedition from +Texas — Defeat of Gen. Armijo's Van-guard — His precipitate +Retreat — Texan Grievances — Unfortunate Results of Indiscriminate +Revenge — Want of Discipline among the Texans — Disarmed +by Capt. Cook — Return of the Escort of U.S. Dragoons, +and of the Texans — Demands of the Mexican Government — Closing +of the Santa Fé Trade.<a href="#tocXXV" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>Before proceeding to the graver matters to be presented +in the succeeding chapters, a few words to those +who are curious about the history of the Santa Fé trade <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg222"></a>[p222]</span> +intervening between the conclusion of my personal narrative +and the closing of the trade by the Mexican government, +in 1843, may not be amiss.</p> + +<p>The Santa Fé trade, though more or less fluctuating +from its origin, continued to present an average increase +and growth down to the year 1831. During the same period, +the prices of goods continued to go down in even a more +rapid ratio. Since 1831, the rates of {160} sales have continued +steadily to fall, to the latest period of the trade, +although there has been no average increase in the number +of adventurers, or amount of merchandise.<a name="FNanchor_136_136" +id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" +class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p> + +<p>{161} From 1831 to the present date, prices have scarcely +averaged, for medium calicoes, thirty-seven cents, and +for plain domestic cottons thirty-one cents per yard. Taking <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg223"></a>[p223]</span> +assortments round, 100 per cent, upon United States +costs were generally considered excellent sales: many +stocks have been sold at a much lower rate. The average +prices of Chihuahua are equally low, yet a brisker demand +has rendered this the most agreeable and profitable branch +of the trade.</p> + +<p>{162} The first attempt to introduce American goods +into the more southern markets of Mexico from Santa Fé, +was made in the year 1824. The amounts were very small, +however, till towards the year 1831. For a few of the first +years, the traders were in the habit of conveying small lots +to Sonora and California; but this branch of the trade has, +I believe, latterly ceased altogether. Yet the amounts +transferred to Chihuahua have generally increased; so +that for the last few years, that trade has consumed very +nearly half of the entire imports by the Missouri Caravans.</p> + +<p>The entire consumption of foreign goods in the department +of Chihuahua, has been estimated by intelligent +Mexican merchants, at from two to three millions annually; <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg224"></a>[p224]</span> +the first cost of which might be set down at nearly one half. +Of this amount the Santa Fé trade, as will be seen from +the accompanying table, has not furnished a tenth part; +the balance being introduced through other ports, viz.: +<i>Matamoras</i>, whence Chihuahua has received nearly half +its supplies—<i>Vera Cruz</i> via the city of Mexico, whence +considerable amounts have been brought to this department—<i>Tampico</i> +on the Gulf of Mexico, and <i>Mazatlan</i> +on the Pacific, via Durango, whence the imports have been +of some importance—while nearly all the west of the +department, and especially the heavy consumption of the +mining town of Jesus-Maria, receives most of its supplies +from the port of <i>Guaymas</i> on the Gulf of {163} California; +whence, indeed, several stocks of goods have been introduced +as far as the city of Chihuahua itself. In 1840, a +large amount of merchandise was transported directly +from the Red River frontier of Arkansas to Chihuahua; but +no other expedition has ever been made in that direction.<a +name="FNanchor_137_138" id="FNanchor_137_138"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_137_138" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg225"></a>[p225]</span></p> + +<p> {164} By far the greatest portion of the introductions +through the sea-ports just alluded to, have been made +by British merchants. It is chiefly the preference given +to American manufacturers, which has enabled the merchandise +of the Santa Fé adventurers to compete in the +Southern markets, with goods introduced through the +sea-ports, which have had the {165} benefit of the drawback. +In this last respect our traders have labored under +a very unjust burden.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to conceive any equitable reason why merchants +conveying their goods across the Prairies in wagons, +should not be as much entitled to the protection of the +Government, as those who transport them in vessels across +the ocean. This assistance (with the reopening of the +ports) might enable our merchants to monopolize the rich +trade of Chihuahua; and they would obtain a share of +that of the still richer departments of Durango and Zacatecas, +as well as some portion of the Sonora and California <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg226"></a>[p226]</span> +trade. Then rating that of Chihuahua at two millions, +half that of Durango at the same, and a million from +Zacatecas, Sonora, etc., it would ascend to the clever amount +of some five millions of dollars per annum.</p> + +<p>In point of revenue, the Santa Fé trade has been +of but little importance to the government of Mexico. +Though the amount of duties collected annually at this +port has usually been fifty to eighty thousand dollars, yet +nearly one-half has been embezzled by the officers of the +customs, leaving an average net revenue of perhaps less +than forty thousand dollars per annum.</p> + +<p>It is not an unimportant fact to be known, that, since +the year 1831, few or none of the difficulties and dangers +which once environed the Santa Fé adventurer have been +encountered. No traders have been killed by the {166} +savages on the regular route, and but few animals stolen +from the caravans. On the whole, the rates of insurance +upon adventures in this trade should hardly be as high +as upon marine adventures between New York and Liverpool. +While I declare, however, the serious dangers and +troubles to have been in general so slight, I ought not to +suppress at least an outline of the difficulties that occurred +on the Prairies in 1843, which were attended with very +serious consequences. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg227"></a>[p227]</span></p> + +<p>It had been reported in Santa Fé as early as November, +1842, that a party of Texans were upon the Prairies, prepared +to attack any Mexican traders who should cross +the plains the succeeding spring; and as some Americans +were accused of being spies, and in collusion with the +Texans, many were ordered to Santa Fé for examination, +occasioning a deal of trouble to several innocent persons. +Than this, however, but little further attention was paid +to the report, many believing it but another of those rumors +of Texan invasion which had so often spread useless consternation +through the country.</p> + +<p>So little apprehension appeared to exist, that, in February, +1843, Don Antonio José Chavez, of New Mexico, left +Santa Fé for Independence, with but five servants, two +wagons, and fifty-five mules. He had with him some ten +or twelve thousand dollars in specie and gold bullion, besides +a small lot of furs. As the month of March was +extremely inclement, the little party suffered inconceivably +{167} from cold and privations. Most of them were frost-bitten, +and all their animals, except five, perished from +the extreme severity of the season; on which account Chavez +was compelled to leave one of his wagons upon the Prairies. +He had worried along, however, with his remaining wagon +and valuables, till about the tenth of April, when he found +himself near the Little Arkansas; at least a hundred miles <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg228"></a>[p228]</span> +within the territory of the United States. He was there +met by fifteen men from the border of Missouri, professing +to be Texan troops, under the command of one John +M'Daniel. This party had been collected, for the most +part, on the frontier, by their leader, who was recently +from Texas, from which government he professed to hold +a captain's commission. They started no doubt with the +intention of joining one Col. Warfield (also said to hold a +Texan commission), who had been upon the Plains near +the Mountains, with a small party, for several months—with +the avowed intention of attacking the Mexican traders.</p> + +<p>Upon meeting Chavez, however, the party of M'Daniel +at once determined to make sure of the prize he was possessed +of, rather than take their chances of a similar booty +beyond the U. S. boundary. The unfortunate Mexican +was therefore taken a few miles south of the road, and his +baggage rifled. Seven of the party then left for the settlements +with their share of the booty, amounting to some +four or five hundred dollars apiece; making the journey +on foot, as their horses had taken {168} a stampede and +escaped. The remaining eight, soon after the departure +of their comrades, determined to put Chavez to death,—for +what cause it would seem difficult to conjecture, as +he had been, for two days, their unresisting prisoner. Lots +were accordingly cast to determine which four of the party +should be the cruel executioners; and their wretched victim +was taken off a few rods and shot down in cold blood. +After his murder a considerable amount of gold was found +about his person, and in his trunk. The body of the unfortunate +man, together with his wagon and baggage, +was thrown into a neighboring ravine; and a few of the +lost animals of the marauders having been found, their +booty was packed upon them and borne away to the frontier +of Missouri. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg229"></a>[p229]</span></p> + +<p>Great exertions had been made to intercept this lawless +band at the outset; but they escaped the vigilance even +of a detachment of dragoons that had followed them over +a hundred miles. Yet the honest citizens of the border +were too much on the alert to permit them to return to +the interior with impunity. However, five of the whole +number (including three of the party that killed the man) +effected their escape, but the other ten were arrested, committed, +and sent to St. Louis for trial before the United +States Court. It appears that those who were engaged +in the killing of Chavez have since been convicted of murder; +and the others, who were only concerned in the robbery, +were found guilty {169} of larceny, and sentenced to fine +and imprisonment.<a name="FNanchor_138_139" id="FNanchor_138_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_139" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></p> + +<p>About the first of May of the same year, a company of +a hundred and seventy-five men, under one Col. Snively, +was organized in the north of Texas, and set out from the +settlements for the Santa Fé trace. It was at first reported +that they contemplated a descent upon Santa Fé; +but their force was evidently too weak to attempt an invasion +at that crisis. Their prime object, therefore, seems +to have been to attack and make reprisals upon the Mexicans +engaged in the Santa Fé trade, who were expected to cross +the Prairies during the months of May and June.</p> + +<p>After the arrival of the Texans upon the Arkansas, they +were joined by Col. Warfield with a few followers. This +officer, with about twenty men, had some time previously +attacked the village of Mora, on the Mexican frontier, +killing five men (as was reported) and driving off a number +of horses.<a name="FNanchor_139_140" id="FNanchor_139_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_140" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> They were afterwards followed by a party <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg230"></a>[p230]</span> +of Mexicans, however, who <i>stampeded</i> and carried away, +not only their own horses, but those of the Texans. Being +left afoot the latter burned their saddles, and walked to +Bent's Fort, where they were disbanded; whence Warfield +passed to Snively's camp, as before mentioned.</p> + +<p>The Texans now advanced along the Santa Fé road, +beyond the sand hills south of the Arkansas, when they +discovered that a party of Mexicans had passed towards +the river. They soon came upon them, and a skirmish +{170} ensuing, eighteen Mexicans were killed, and as many +wounded, five of whom afterwards died. The Texans +suffered no injury, though the Mexicans were a hundred +in number. The rest were all taken prisoners except two, +who escaped and bore the news to Gen. Armijo, encamped +with a large force at the Cold Spring, 140 miles beyond. +As soon as the General received notice of the defeat of his +vanguard, he broke up his camp most precipitately, and retreated +to Santa Fé. A gentleman of the caravan which +passed shortly afterward, informed me that spurs, lareats +and other scraps of equipage, were found scattered in +every direction about Armijo's camp—left by his troops +in the hurly-burly of their precipitate retreat.<a name="FNanchor_140_141" id="FNanchor_140_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_141" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></p> + +<p>Keeping beyond the territory of the United States, the +right of the Texans to harass the commerce of Mexicans +will hardly be denied, as they were at open war: yet another +consideration, it would seem, should have restrained them +from aggressions in that quarter. They could not have +been ignorant that but a portion of the traders were Mexicans—that +many American citizens were connected in <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg231"></a>[p231]</span> +the same caravans. The Texans assert, it is true, that the +lives and property of Americans were to be respected, +<em>provided</em> they abandoned the Mexicans. But did they +reflect upon the baseness of the terms they were imposing? +What American, worthy of the name, to save his own +interests, or even his life, could deliver up his travelling +companions {171} to be sacrificed? Then, after having +abandoned the Mexicans, or betrayed them to their enemy—for +such an act would have been accounted treachery—where +would they have gone? They could not then have +continued on into Mexico; and to have returned to the United +States with their merchandise, would have been the ruin +of most of them.</p> + +<p>The inhuman outrages suffered by those who were +captured in New Mexico in 1841, among whom were many +of the present party, have been pleaded in justification of +this second Texan expedition. When we take their grievances +into consideration, we must admit that they palliate, +and indeed justify almost any species of revenge +consistent with the laws of Nature and of nations: yet +whether, under the existing circumstances, this invasion +of the Prairies was proper or otherwise, I will leave for +others to determine, as there seems to be a difference of +opinion on the subject. The following considerations, +however, will go to demonstrate the unpropitious consequences +which are apt to result from a system of indiscriminate +revenge.</p> + +<p>The unfortunate Chavez (whose murder, I suppose, +was perpetrated under pretext of the cruelties suffered by +the Texans, in the name of whom the party of M'Daniel +was organized) was of the most wealthy and influential +family of New Mexico, and one that was anything but +friendly to the ruling governor, Gen. Armijo. Don Mariano +Chavez, a brother to the deceased, is a gentleman of very <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg232"></a>[p232]</span> +amiable {172} character, such as is rarely to be met with +in that unfortunate land. It is asserted that he furnished +a considerable quantity of provisions, blankets, etc., to +Col. Cooke's division of Texan prisoners.<a name="FNanchor_141_142" id="FNanchor_141_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_142" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> Señora Chavez +(the wife of Don Mariano), as is told, crossed the river +from the village of Padillas, the place of their residence, +and administered comforts to the unfortunate band of +Texans.<a name="FNanchor_142_143" id="FNanchor_142_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_143" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> Though the murder of young Chavez was +evidently not sanctioned by the Texans generally, it will, +notwithstanding, have greatly embittered this powerful +family against them—a family whose liberal principles +could not otherwise have been very unfavorable to Texas.<a name="FNanchor_143_144" id="FNanchor_143_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_144" class="fnanchor">[143]</a></p> + +<p>The attack upon the village of Mora, though of less +important results, was nevertheless an unpropitiatory movement. +The inhabitants of that place are generally very +simple and innocent rancheros and hunters, and, being +separated by the snowy mountains from the principal +settlements of New Mexico, their hearts seem ever to have +been inclined to the Texans. In fact, the village having +been founded by some American denizens, the Mexican +inhabitants appear in some degree to have imitated their +character.</p> + +<p>The defeat of Armijo's vanguard was attended by still +more disastrous consequences, both to the American and +Texan interest. That division was composed of the militia +of {173} the North—from about Taos—many of them +Taos Pueblos. These people had not only remained <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg233"></a>[p233]</span> +embittered against Gov. Armijo since the revolution of 1837, +but had always been notably in favor of Texas. So loth +were they to fight the Texans, that, as I have been assured, +the governor found it necessary to bind a number of them +upon their horses, to prevent their escape, till he got them +fairly upon the Prairies. And yet the poor fellows were +compelled to suffer the vengeance which was due to their +guilty general!</p> + +<p>When the news of their defeat reached Taos, the friends +and relatives of the slain—the whole population indeed, +were incensed beyond measure; and two or three, naturalized +foreigners who were supposed to favor the cause of +Texas, and who were in good standing before, were now +compelled to flee for their lives; leaving their houses and +property a prey to the incensed rabble. Such appears to +have been the reaction of public sentiment resulting from +the catastrophe upon the Prairies!</p> + +<p>Had the Texans proceeded differently—had they induced +the Mexicans to surrender without battle, which +they might no doubt easily have accomplished, they could +have secured their services, without question, as guides to +Gen. Armijo's camp, and that unmitigated tyrant might +himself have fallen into their hands. The difficulty of +maintaining order among the Texans was perhaps the +cause of many of their unfortunate proceedings. {174} +And no information of the caravan having been obtained, +a detachment of seventy or eighty men left, to return to +Texas.</p> + +<p>The traders arrived soon after, escorted by about two +hundred U. S. Dragoons under the command of Capt. +Cook.<a name="FNanchor_144_145" id="FNanchor_144_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_145" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> Col. Snively with a hundred men being then +encamped on the south side of the Arkansas river, some +ten to fifteen miles below the point called the 'Caches,' <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg234"></a>[p234]</span> +he crossed the river and met Capt. Cook, who soon made +known his intention of disarming him and his companions,—an +intention which he at once proceeded to put into +execution. A portion of the Texans, however, deceived the +American captain in this wise. Having concealed their +own rifles, which were mostly Colt's repeaters, they delivered +to Capt. Cook the worthless fusils they had taken +from the Mexicans; so that, when they were afterwards +released, they still had their own valuable arms; of which, +however, so far as the caravan in question was concerned, +they appear to have had no opportunity of availing themselves.</p> + +<p>These facts are mentioned merely as they are said to +have occurred. Capt. Cook has been much abused by +the Texans, and accused of having violated a friendly flag—of +having taken Col. Snively prisoner while on a friendly +visit. This is denied by Capt. Cook, and by other persons +who were in company at the time. But apart from the +means employed by the American commander (the propriety +or impropriety of which I shall not attempt {175} to +discuss), the act was evidently the salvation of the Santa +Fé caravan, of which a considerable portion were Americans. +Had he left the Texans with their arms, he would doubtless +have been accused by the traders of escorting them to the +threshold of danger, and then delivering them over to +certain destruction, when he had it in his power to secure +their safety.</p> + +<p>Capt. Cook with his command soon after returned to +the United States,<a name="FNanchor_145_146" id="FNanchor_145_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_146" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> and with him some forty of the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg235"></a>[p235]</span> +disarmed Texans, many of whom have been represented +as gentlemen worthy of a better destiny. A large portion +of the Texans steered directly home from the Arkansas +river; while from sixty to seventy men, who elected Warfield +their commander, were organized for the pursuit and +capture of the caravan, which had already passed on some +days in advance towards Santa Fé. They pursued in the +wake of the traders, it is said, as far as the Point of Rocks +(twenty miles east of the crossing of the Colorado or Canadian), +but made no attempt upon them<a name="FNanchor_146_147" id="FNanchor_146_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_147" class="fnanchor">[146]</a>—whence they +returned direct to Texas. Thus terminated the 'Second +Texan Santa Fé Expedition,' as it has been styled; and +{176} though not so disastrous as the first, it turned out +nearly as unprofitable.</p> + +<p>Although this expedition was composed wholly of Texans, +or persons not claiming to be citizens of the United States, +and organized entirely in Texas—and, notwithstanding +the active measures adopted by the United States government +to defend the caravans, as well of Mexicans as of Americans, +against their enemy—Señor Bocanegra, Mexican Minister +of Foreign Relations, made a formal demand upon the +United States (as will be remembered), for damages resulting +from this invasion. In a rejoinder to Gen. Thompson +(alluding to Snively's company), he says, that "Independence, +in Missouri, was the starting point of these men." +The preceding narrative will show the error under which +the honorable secretary labored.<a name="FNanchor_147_148" id="FNanchor_147_148"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_147_148" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg236"></a>[p236]</span></p> + +<p> A portion of the party who killed Chavez was from the +frontier of Missouri; but witness the active exertions on +the border to bring these depredators to justice—and +then let the contrast be noted betwixt this affair and the +impunity with which robberies are every day committed +throughout Mexico, where well-known highwaymen often +run at large, unmolested either by the citizens or by the +authorities. What would Señor Bocanegra say if every +other government were to demand indemnity for all the +robberies committed upon their citizens in Mexico?</p> + +<p>But the most unfortunate circumstance attending this +invasion of the Prairies—unfortunate {177} at least to the +United States and to New Mexico—was the closing of +the Northern ports to foreign commerce, which was doubtless, +to a great degree, a consequence of the before-mentioned +expedition, and which of course terminated the +Santa Fé Trade, at least for the present.<a name="FNanchor_148_149" id="FNanchor_148_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_149" class="fnanchor">[148]</a></p> + +<p>I am of the impression, however, that little apprehension +need be entertained, that this decree of Gen. Santa Anna +will be permitted much longer to continue,<a name="FNanchor_149_150" +id="FNanchor_149_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_150" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> +unless our +peaceful relations with Mexico should be disturbed; an +event, under any circumstances, seriously to be deprecated. +With the continuation of peace between us, the Mexicans +will certainly be compelled to open their northern frontier <span +class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg237"></a>[p237]</span> +ports, to avoid a revolution in New Mexico, with which +they are continually threatened while this embargo continues. +Should the obnoxious decree be repealed, the +Santa Fé Trade will doubtless be prosecuted again with +renewed vigor and enterprise.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a +href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> +Some general statistics of the Santa Fé Trade may prove not wholly without +interest to the mercantile reader. With this view, I have prepared the following +table of the probable amounts of merchandise invested in the Santa Fé Trade, from +1822 to 1843 inclusive, and about the portion of the same transferred to the Southern +markets (chiefly Chihuahua) during the same period; together with the approximate +number of wagons, men and proprietors engaged each year.</p> + +<table id="SantaFeStats" + summary="statistics of the Santa Fé Trade"> +<tr> + <th>Years.</th> + <th>Amt. Mdse.</th> + <th>W'gs.</th> + <th>Men.</th> + <th>Pro's.</th> + <th>T'n to Ch'a.</th> + <th>Remarks.</th></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1822</td> + <td align="right">15,000</td> + <td></td> + <td align="right">70</td> + <td align="right">60</td> + <td align="right">9,000</td> + <td align="left">Pack-animals only used.</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1823</td> + <td align="right">12,000</td> + <td></td> + <td align="right">50</td> + <td align="right">30</td> + <td align="right">3,000</td> + <td align="left">Pack-animals only used.</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1824</td> + <td align="right">35,000</td> + <td align="right">26</td> + <td align="right">100</td> + <td align="right">80</td> + <td align="right">3,000</td> + <td align="left">Pack-animals and wagons.</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1825</td> + <td align="right">65,000</td> + <td align="right">37</td> + <td align="right">130</td> + <td align="right">90</td> + <td align="right">5,000</td> + <td align="left">Pack-animals and wagons.</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1826</td> + <td align="right">90,000</td> + <td align="right">60</td> + <td align="right">100</td> + <td align="right">70</td> + <td align="right">7,000</td> + <td align="left">Wagons only henceforth.</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1827</td> + <td align="right">85,000</td> + <td align="right">55</td> + <td align="right">90</td> + <td align="right">50</td> + <td align="right">8,000</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1828</td> + <td align="right">150,000</td> + <td align="right">100</td> + <td align="right">200</td> + <td align="right">80</td> + <td align="right">20,000</td> + <td align="left">3 men killed, being the first.</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1829</td> + <td align="right">60,000</td> + <td align="right">30</td> + <td align="right">50</td> + <td align="right">20</td> + <td align="right">5,000</td> + <td align="left">1st U.S.Es.—1 trader killed.</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1830</td> + <td align="right">120,000</td> + <td align="right">70</td> + <td align="right">140</td> + <td align="right">60</td> + <td align="right">20,000</td> + <td align="left">First oxen used by traders.</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1831</td> + <td align="right">250,000</td> + <td align="right">130</td> + <td align="right">320</td> + <td align="right">80</td> + <td align="right">80,000</td> + <td align="left">Two men killed.</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1832</td> + <td align="right">140,000</td> + <td align="right">70</td> + <td align="right">150</td> + <td align="right">40</td> + <td align="right">50,000</td> + <td align="left" rowspan="2" + class="td183233"> + Party defeated on Canadian 2 men killed, 3 perished.</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1833</td> + <td align="right">180,000</td> + <td align="right">105</td> + <td align="right">185</td> + <td align="right">60</td> + <td align="right">80,000</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1834</td> + <td align="right">150,000</td> + <td align="right">80</td> + <td align="right">160</td> + <td align="right">50</td> + <td align="right">70,000</td> + <td align="left">2d U.S. Escort</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1835</td> + <td align="right">140,000</td> + <td align="right">75</td> + <td align="right">140</td> + <td align="right">40</td> + <td align="right">70,000</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1836</td> + <td align="right">130,000</td> + <td align="right">70</td> + <td align="right">135</td> + <td align="right">35</td> + <td align="right">50,000</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1837</td> + <td align="right">150,000</td> + <td align="right">80</td> + <td align="right">160</td> + <td align="right">35</td> + <td align="right">60,000</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1838</td> + <td align="right">90,000</td> + <td align="right">50</td> + <td align="right">100</td> + <td align="right">20</td> + <td align="right">80,000</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1839</td> + <td align="right">250,000</td> + <td align="right">130</td> + <td align="right">250</td> + <td align="right">40</td> + <td align="right">100,000</td> + <td align="left">Arkansas Expedition.</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1840</td> + <td align="right">50,000</td> + <td align="right">30</td> + <td align="right">60</td> + <td align="right">5</td> + <td align="right">10,000</td> + <td align="left">Chihuahua Expedition.</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1841</td> + <td align="right">150,000</td> + <td align="right">60</td> + <td align="right">100</td> + <td align="right">12</td> + <td align="right">80,000</td> + <td align="left">Texan Santa Fé Expedition.</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1842</td> + <td align="right">160,000</td> + <td align="right">70</td> + <td align="right">120</td> + <td align="right">15</td> + <td align="right">90,000</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">1843</td> + <td align="right">450,000</td> + <td align="right">230</td> + <td align="right">350</td> + <td align="right">30</td> + <td align="right">300,000</td> + <td align="left">3d U.S.Es.—Ports closed.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The foregoing table is not given as perfectly accurate, yet it is believed to be +about as nearly so as any that could be made out at the present day. The column +marked "Pro's." (Proprietors), though even less precise than the other statistics, presents, +I think, about the proportion of the whole number engaged each year who +were owners. At first, as will be seen, almost every individual of each caravan was +a proprietor, while of late the capital has been held by comparatively few hands. +In 1843, the greater portion of the traders were New Mexicans, several of whom, +during the three years previous, had embarked in this trade, of which they bid fair +to secure a monopoly.</p> + +<p>The amount of merchandise transported to Santa Fé each year, is set down at +its probable cost in the Eastern cities of the United States. Besides freights and +insurance to Independence, there has been an annual investment, averaging nearly +twenty-five per cent. upon the cost of the stocks, in wagons, teams, provisions, hire +of hands, &c., for transportation across the Prairies. A large portion of this +remaining unconsumed, however, the ultimate loss on the outfit has not been more +than half of the above amount. Instead of purchasing outfit, some traders prefer +employing freighters, a number of whom are usually to be found on the frontier of +Missouri, ready to transport goods to Santa Fé, at ten to twelve cents per pound. +From thence to Chihuahua the price of freights is six to eight cents—upon mules, +or in wagons. +</p> +<p> +The average gross returns of the traders has rarely exceeded fifty per cent. upon +the cost of their merchandise, leaving a net profit of between twenty and forty per +cent.; though their profits have not unfrequently been under ten per cent.: in fact, +as has before been mentioned, their adventures have sometimes been losing +speculations.<a name="FNanchor_A_137" id="FNanchor_A_137"></a><a +href="#Footnote_A_137" class="fnanchor">[A]</a>—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_A_137" id="Footnote_A_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_137"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Those who are familiar with Mr. Mayer's very interesting work on Mexico, will observe +that a portion of the preceding table corresponds substantially with one presented on page +318 of that work. In justice to myself, I feel compelled to state, that, in 1841, I published, +in the Galveston "Daily Advertiser," a table of the Santa Fé trade from 1831 to +1840 inclusive, of which that of Mr. Mayer embraces an exact copy. I have since made +additions, and corrected it to some extent, but still the correspondence is such as seemed +to require of me this explanation.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_137_138" id="Footnote_137_138"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_137_138"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> +With a view to encourage adventurers, the government of Chihuahua agreed +to reduce the impost duties to a very low rate, in favor of a pioneer enterprise; and +to furnish an escort of dragoons for the protection of the traders. +</p> +<p> +The expedition was undertaken chiefly by Mexicans; but one American merchant, +Dr. H. Connelly, having invested capital in it. I obtained from this intelligent +gentleman a very interesting sketch of the adventures of this pioneer party, +which I regret that my plan will not permit me to present in detail. +</p> +<p> +The adventurers set out from Chihuahua on the 3d of April, 1839, amidst the +benisons of the citizens, and with the confident hope of transferring the valuable +trade of the North to their city. The caravan (including fifty dragoons), consisted +of over a hundred men, yet only about half a dozen of the number were proprietors. +Though they had but seven wagons, they brought about seven hundred mules, and +two or three hundred thousand dollars in specie and bullion, for the purposes of +their adventure. +</p> +<p> +They took the Presidio del Norte in their route, and then proceeding northwestwardly, +finally arrived at Fort Towson after a protracted journey of three months; +but without meeting with any hostile savages, or encountering any serious casualty, +except getting bewildered, after crossing Red River, which they mistook for the +Brazos. This caused them to shape their course thence nearly north, in search of +the former stream, until they reached the Canadian river, where they met with +some Delaware Indians, of whom they obtained the first correct information of their +whereabouts; and by whom they were piloted safely to Fort Towson. +</p> +<p> +It had been the intention of these adventurers to return to Chihuahua the ensuing +fall; but from various accidents and delays, they were unable to get ready until the +season had too far advanced; which, with an incessant series of rains that followed, +prevented them from travelling till the ensuing spring. Learning that the Texans +were friendly disposed towards them, they now turned their course through the +midst of the northern settlements of that republic. Of the kind treatment they +experienced during their transit, Dr. Connelly speaks in the following terms: "I +have never been more hospitably treated, or had more efficient assistance, than was +given by the citizens of Red River. All seemed to vie with each other in rendering +us every aid in their power; and our Mexican friends, notwithstanding the hostile +attitude in which the two countries stood towards each other, were treated with a +kindness which they still recollect with the warmest feelings of gratitude." This +forms a very notable contrast with the treatment which the Texan traders, who +afterwards visited Santa Fé, received at the hands of the Mexicans. +</p> +<p> +The Caravan now consisted of sixty or seventy wagons laden with merchandise, +and about two hundred and twenty-five men, including their escort of Mexican +dragoons. They passed the Texan border early in April, and expected to intersect +their former track beyond the Cross Timbers, but that trail having been partially +obliterated, they crossed it unobserved, and were several days lost on the waters +of the Brazos river. Having turned their course south for a few days, however, +they fortunately discovered their old route at a branch of the Colorado. +</p> +<p> +After this they continued their journey without further casualty; for notwithstanding +they met with a large body of Comanches, they passed them amicably, and +soon reached the Rio Pecos. Though very narrow, this stream was too deep to be +forded, and they were compelled to resort to an expedient characteristic of the +Prairies. There being not a stick of timber anywhere to be found, of which to make +even a raft, they buoyed up a wagon-body by binding several empty water-kegs to +the bottom, which served them the purpose of a ferry-boat. +</p> +<p> +When they reached Presidio del Norte again, they learned that Gov. Irigóyen, +with whom they had celebrated the contract for a diminution of their duties, had +died during their absence. A new corps of officers being in power, they were now +threatened with a charge of full tariff duties. After a delay of forty-five days at the +Presidio, however, they made a compromise, and entered Chihuahua on the 27th +of August, 1840. +</p> +<p> +The delays and accumulated expenses of this expedition caused it to result so +disastrously to the interests of all who were engaged in it, that no other enterprise +of the kind has since been undertaken.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_138_139" id="Footnote_138_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_139"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> John McDaniel and his brother David were both executed. For the names +of other participators, consult <cite>Niles' Register</cite>, lxiv, pp. 195, 280. The Texas government +disclaimed all responsibility for McDaniel.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_139_140" id="Footnote_139_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_140"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> Mora is on a stream of the same name, for which see our volume xix, p. 252, note +73 (Gregg), and is the seat of Mora County. The first settlement was made in 1832, +but repulsed by Indians; not until 1840, therefore, could the place be called permanent. +In the revolution of 1847, Mora was involved against the United States +whose troops burned the town in reprisal. The present population is about seven +hundred.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_140_141" id="Footnote_140_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_141"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> +For a more detailed account of this expedition, see H. Yoakum, <cite>History of +Texas</cite> (New York, 1856), ii, pp. 399-405.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_141_142" id="Footnote_141_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_142"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> Colonel William G. Cooke, of Texas, appointed one of the commissioners +to negotiate with the New Mexicans. He was treacherously induced to surrender +to a force under Dimasio Salezar, at Anton Chico.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_142_143" id="Footnote_142_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_143"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> Padilla is a small village on the eastern side of Rio Grande, a few miles below +Albuquerque. The Chavez family owned a large ranch, and its younger members +had been engaged in the American trade for some years.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_143_144" id="Footnote_143_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_144"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> This family is very distinct from one Manuel Chavez (who, though Gov. +Armijo's nephew, is a very low character), a principal agent in the treacheries +practised upon the Texan Santa Fé Expedition.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_144_145" id="Footnote_144_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_145"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> Philip St. George Cooke, for whom see volume xix, +p. 187, note 32 (Gregg).-<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_145_146" id="Footnote_145_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_146"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> As U. S. troops cannot go beyond our boundary, which, on this route is the +Arkansas river, these escorts afford but little protection to the caravans. Such +an extensive, uninhabitable waste as the great prairies are, ought certainly to be +under maritime regulations. Some international arrangements should be made +between the United States and Texas or Mexico (accordingly as the proprietorship +of the region beyond our boundary may be settled), whereby the armies of either +might indiscriminately range upon this desert, as ships of war upon the ocean.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_146_147" id="Footnote_146_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_147"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> For Point of Rocks, see our volume xix, p. 249, note 70 (Gregg).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_147_148" id="Footnote_147_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_148"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> José Maria Bocanegra was a member of the liberal party in Mexico, who +came into power under Guerrero in 1829. He was also president ad interim, +and for some years minister of foreign affairs. +</p> +<p> +Waddy Thompson, of South Carolina, was born in 1798; and after serving +in the state legislature was member of Congress (1835-41). In 1842 he was made +minister to Mexico, which position he filled but two years. Upon his return he +published <cite>Recollections</cite> (New York, 1846). Going to Mexico as an advocate of +Texas annexation, he returned its opponent, convinced that slavery could not be +maintained on soil acquired from Mexico. The latter years of his life were devoted +to cotton-raising in Florida, where he died in 1868.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_148_149" id="Footnote_148_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_149"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> The following is the substance of Santa Anna's decree, dated at his Palace +of Tacubaya, August 7, 1843: +</p> +<p> +"Article 1st. The frontier custom-houses of Taos, in the department of New +Mexico, Paso del Norte and Presidio del Norte in that of Chihuahua, are entirely +closed to all commerce. +</p> +<p> +"Art. 2d. This decree shall take effect within forty-five days after its publication +in the capital of the Republic." +</p> +<p> +It should be understood that the only port in New Mexico for the introduction +of foreign goods was nominally Taos, though the custom-house was at Santa Fé, +where all the entrances were made.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_149_150" id="Footnote_149_150"></a><a +href="#FNanchor_149_150"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> +These northern ports have since been reopened by decree of March 31, 1844; +and about ninety wagons, with perhaps $200,000 cost of goods, (and occupying +150 to 200 men), crossed the plains to Santa Fé, during the following summer and +fall.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div></div> + +<h3 title="Chapter XXVI: Geography of the Prairies"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XXVI_X" id="CHAPTER_XXVI_X"></a>CHAPTER XXVI {X} +<br />GEOGRAPHY OF THE PRAIRIES</h3> + +<p class="subhead">Extent of Prairies — Mountains — <i>Mesas</i> or Table-lands — <i>El +Llano Estacado — Cañones</i> — Their Annoyance to the early +Caravans — Immense Gullies — Coal Mines and other geological +Products — Gypsum — Metallic Minerals — Salines — Capt. +Boone's Exploration — 'Salt Plain' and 'Salt Rock' — Mr. Sibley's +Visit — Saline Exudations — Unhabitableness of the high Prairies — Excellent +Pasturage — Rich border Country sufficient for two +States — Northern Texas — Rivers of the Prairies — Their Unfitness +for Navigation — Timber — Cross Timbers — Encroachments of +the Timber upon the Prairies — Fruits and Flowers — Salubrity of +Climate.<a href="#tocXXVI" class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>While I have endeavored in the preceding pages to +give the reader some general idea of life upon the Prairies, +I feel that I have wholly failed thus far to convey any +adequate notions of their natural history. I propose in +the following pages to repair this deficiency as far as I am +able, and to present a rapid sketch of the vastness of those +mighty territories; of their physical geography; and of the +life, as well vegetable as animal, which they sustain. It +is to be regretted that this ample field for observation +should have received so little of the consideration of scientific +men; for there {179} is scarcely a province in the whole +wide range of Nature's unexplored domains, which is so +worthy of study, and yet has been so little studied by the +natural philosopher.</p> + +<p>If we look at the Great Western Prairies, independently +of the political powers to which portions of them respectively +belong, we shall find them occupying the whole of that <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg238"></a>[p238]</span> +extensive territory lying between the spurs of the Rocky +Mountains on the north, and the rivers of Texas on the +south—a distance of some seven or eight hundred miles +in one direction; and from the frontiers of Missouri and +Arkansas on the east to the eastern branches of the southern +Rocky Mountains on the west—about six hundred miles +in the transverse direction: the whole comprising an area +of about 400,000 square miles, some 30,000 of which are +within the original limits of Texas, and 70,000 in those of +New Mexico (if we extend them east to the United States +boundary), leaving about 300,000 in the territory of the +United States.</p> + +<p>This vast territory is not interrupted by any important +mountainous elevations, except along the borders of the +great western sierras, and by some low, craggy ridges about +the Arkansas frontier—skirts of the Ozark mountains. +There is, it is true, high on the dividing ridge between +Red River and the False Washita, a range of hills, +the southwestern portion of which extends about to +the 100th degree of longitude west from Greenwich; that +is, to the United States {180} boundary line. These are +generally called the Witchita mountains, but sometimes +<dfn>Towyash</dfn> by hunters, perhaps from <dfn>tóyavist</dfn>, the Comanche +word for mountain. I inquired once of a Comanche +Indian how his nation designated this range of mountains, +which was then in sight of us. He answered, "<i>Tóyavist</i>." +"But this simply means a mountain," I replied. "How do +you distinguish this from any other mountain?" "There +are no other mountains in the Comanche territory," he +rejoined—"none till we go east to your country, or south +to Texas, or west to the land of the Mexican."</p> + +<p>With these exceptions, there are scarcely any elevations +throughout these immense plains which should be dignified +by the title of mountains. Those seen by the Texan Santa <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg239"></a>[p239]</span> +Fé Expedition about the sources of Red River, were without +doubt the <dfn>cejas</dfn> or brows of the elevated table plains with +which the Prairies abound, and which, when viewed from +the plain below, often assume the appearance of formidable +mountains; but once upon their summit, the spectator sees +another vast plain before him.</p> + +<p>These <i>table lands</i>, or <dfn>mesas</dfn>, as the Mexicans term them, +of which there are many thousands of square miles lying +between the frontier of the United States and the Rocky +Mountains, are level plains, elevated a considerable distance +above the surrounding country, and may be likened to +the famous steppes of Asia. They are cut up with numerous +{181} streams, the largest of which are generally bordered +for several miles back by hilly uplands, which are +for the most part sandy, dry and barren.</p> + +<p>The most notable of the great <i>plateaux</i> of the Prairies +is that known to Mexicans as <i>El Llano Estacado</i>, which +is bounded on the north by the Canadian river—extends +east about to the United States boundary, including the +heads of the False Washita and other branches of Red +River—and spreads southward to the sources of Trinity, +Brazos and Colorado rivers, and westward to Rio Pecos. +It is quite an elevated and generally a level plain, without +important hills or ridges, unless we distinguish as such +the craggy breaks of the streams which border and pierce +it. It embraces an area of about 30,000 square miles, +most of which is without water during three-fourths of the +year; while a large proportion of its few perennial streams +are too brackish to drink of.</p> + +<p>I have been assured by Mexican hunters and Indians, +that, from Santa Fé southeastward, there is but one route +upon which this plain can be safely traversed during the +dry season; and even some of the watering-places on this +are at intervals of fifty to eighty miles, and hard to find. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg240"></a>[p240]</span> +Hence the Mexican traders and hunters, that they might +not lose their way and perish from thirst, once staked out +this route across the plain, it is said; whence it has received +the name of <dfn>El Llano Estacado</dfn>, or the Staked Plain.</p> + +<p>{182} In some places the brows of these <i>mesas</i> approach +the very borders of the streams. When this occurs on +both sides, it leaves deep chasms or ravines between, called +by the Mexicans <dfn>cañones</dfn>, and which abound in the vicinity +of the mountains. The Canadian river flows through one +of the most remarkable of these cañones for a distance of +more than fifty miles—extending from the road of the +Missouri caravans downward—throughout the whole extent +of which the gorge is utterly impassable for wagons, +and almost so for animals.</p> + +<p>Intersecting the direct route from Missouri, this cañon +was a source of great annoyance to some of the pioneers in +the Santa Fé trade. In 1825, a caravan with a number +of wagons reached it about five miles below the present +ford. The party was carelessly moving along, without +suspecting even a ravine at hand, as the bordering plains +were exceedingly level, and the opposite margins of equal +height, when suddenly they found themselves upon the +very brink of an immense precipice, several hundred +yards deep, and almost perpendicular on both sides of +the river. At the bottom of those cliffs, there was, as is +usually the case, a very narrow but fertile valley, through +which the river wound its way, sometimes touching the +one bluff and sometimes the other.</p> + +<p>Ignorant of a ford so near above, the caravan turned +down towards the crossing of the former traders. "We +travelled fifty miles," {183} says Mr. Stanley, who was +of the caravan, "the whole of which distance the river is +bound in by cliffs several hundred feet high, in many places +nearly perpendicular. We at length came to the termination +of the table land; but what scene presented itself! <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg241"></a>[p241]</span> +The valley below could only be reached by descending a +frightful cliff of from 1200 to 1500 feet, and more or less +precipitous. After a search of several hours, a practicable +way was found; and, with the greatest fatigue and exertion, +by locking wheels, holding on with ropes, and literally +lifting the wagons down in places, we finally succeeded +in reaching the bottom.... How did the Canadian and +other streams in New Mexico sink themselves to such +immense depths in the solid rock? It seems impossible +that the water should have worn away the rock while as +hard as in its present state. What a field of speculation +for the geologist, in the propositions—Were the chasms +made for the streams, or did the streams make the chasms? +Are they not of volcanic origin?"</p> + +<p>Nor are the flat prairies always free from this kind of +annoyance to travellers. They are not unfrequently intersected +by diminutive chasms or water-cuts, which, though +sometimes hardly a rod in width, are often from fifty to +a hundred feet deep. These little cañones are washed +out by the rains, in their descent to the bordering streams, +which is soon effected after an opening is once made through +the surface; for though the clayey {184} foundation is +exceedingly firm and hard while dry, it seems the most +soluble of earths, and melts almost as rapidly as snow +under the action of water. The tenacious turf of the +'buffalo grass,' however, retains the marginal surface, +so that the sides are usually perpendicular—indeed, +often shelving inward at the base, and therefore utterly +impassable. I have come unsuspectingly upon the verge +of such a chasm; and though, to a stranger, the appearance +would indicate the very head of the ravine, I would sometimes +be compelled to follow its meandering course for +miles without being able to double its 'breaks.' These +I have more especially observed high on the borders of the +Canadian. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg242"></a>[p242]</span></p> + +<p>The geological constitution of the Prairies is exceedingly +diversified. Along the eastern border, especially towards +the north, there is an abundance of limestone, interspersed +with sandstone, slate, and many extensive beds of bituminous +coal. The coal is particularly abundant in some +of the regions bordering the Neosho river; where there +are also said to be a few singular bituminous or 'tar springs,' +as they are sometimes called by the hunters. There are +also many other mineral, and particularly sulphur springs, +to be met with.</p> + +<p>Further westward, the sandstone prevails; but some of +the table plains are based upon strata of a sort of friable +calcareous rock, which has been denominated 'rotten limestone:' +yet along the borders of the mountains the base of +the plains seems generally {185} to be of trap and greenstone. +From the waters of Red River to the southwest +corner of Missouri, throughout the range of the Ozark +mountains, granite, limestone, flint and sandstone prevail. +But much of the middle portion of the Prairies is without +any apparent rocky foundation—we sometimes travel +for days in succession without seeing even as much as a +pebble.</p> + +<p>On passing towards Santa Fé in 1839, and returning +in 1840, I observed an immense range of plaster of Paris, +both north and south of the Canadian river, and between +thirty and fifty miles east of the United States western +boundary. The whole country seemed based upon this +fossil, and cliffs and huge masses of it were seen in every +direction. It ranges from the coarsest compact sulphate +of lime or ordinary plaster, to the most transparent gypsum +or selenite, of which last there is a great abundance. By +authentic accounts from other travellers, this range of +gypsum extends, in a direction nearly north, almost to the +Arkansas river. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg243"></a>[p243]</span></p> + +<p>Of metallic minerals, iron, lead, and perhaps copper, are +found on the borders of the Prairies; and it is asserted +that several specimens of silver ores have been met with +on our frontier, as well as about the Witchita and the Rocky +Mountains. Gold has also been found, no doubt, in different +places; yet it is questionable whether it has anywhere +been discovered in sufficient abundance to render it worth +the seeking. Some trappers have reported {186} an extensive +gold region about the sources of the Platte river; +yet, although recent search has been made, it has not been +discovered.<a name="FNanchor_150_151" id="FNanchor_150_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_151" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></p> + +<p>The most valuable perhaps, and the most abundant +mineral production of the Prairies is <i>Salt</i>. In the Choctaw +country, on the waters of Red River, there are two salt-works +in operation; and in the Cherokee nation salt springs +are numerous, three or four of which are now worked on +a small scale; yet a sufficient quantity of salt might easily +be produced to supply even the adjoining States. The +<i>Grand Saline</i>, about forty miles above Fort Gibson, near +the Neosho river, was considered a curiosity of its kind, +before its natural beauties were effaced by 'improvements.'<a name="FNanchor_151_152" id="FNanchor_151_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_152" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> +In the border of a little valley, a number of small salt springs +break out, around the orifice of each of which was formed, +in the shape of a pot, a kind of calcareous saline concretion. +None of the springs are very bold, but the water is strong, +and sufficiently abundant for extensive works.</p> + +<p>There have been several <dfn>Salines</dfn>, or mines (if we may +so term them) of pure salt, discovered in different parts +of the Prairies. The most northern I have heard of, is <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg244"></a>[p244]</span> +fifty or sixty miles west of the Missouri river, and thirty +or forty south of the Platte, near a tributary called the +Saline; where the Otoes and other Indians procure salt. +It is described as resembling the <i>salinas</i> of New Mexico, +and the quantity of salt as inexhaustible. South of the +Arkansas river and a degree or two further {187} westward, +there are several of these salines, which are perhaps still +more extensive.</p> + +<p>I have been favored with some extracts from the journal +of Capt. Nathan Boone<a name="FNanchor_152_153" id="FNanchor_152_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_153" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> of the United States' Dragoons, +who made an exploring tour through those desolate regions +during the summer of 1843. In his journey, between +the Canadian and Upper Arkansas, he found efflorescent +salt in many places, as well as a superabundance of strongly +impregnated salt-water; but, besides these, he visited +two considerable salines.</p> + +<p>Of the first, which he calls the 'Salt Plain,' he remarks, +that "the approach was very gratifying, and from the +appearance one might expect to find salt in a solid mass, +for the whole extent of the plain, of several feet in thickness." +This is situated in the forks of the Salt Fork of +the Arkansas. The plain is described as being level as a +floor, and evidently sometimes overflowed by the streams +which border it. Yet the extent of salt, it would seem, +did not realize Capt. Boone's anticipations, as he remarks +that it was covered "with the slightest possible +film of crystallized salt on the surface, enough to make +it white." But he explored only a small portion of the +plain, which was very extensive. +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg245"></a>[p245]</span></p> + +<p> However, the most wonderful saline is the great <i>Salt +Rock</i>, which he found further to the {188} southwestward, +on the main Red Fork. "The whole cove on the right +of the two forks of the river," says Capt. Boone, "appears +to be one immense salt spring of water so much concentrated, +that, as soon as it reaches the point of breaking +forth, it begins depositing its salt. In this way a large +crust, or rock is formed all over the bottom for perhaps +160 acres. Digging through the sand for a few inches +anywhere in this space, we could find the solid salt, so +hard that there was no means in our power of getting up +a block of it. We broke our mattock in the attempt. In +many places, through this rock-salt crust the water boiled +up as clear as crystal ... but so salt that our hands, +after being immersed in it and suffered to dry, became as +white as snow. Thrusting the arm down into these holes, +they appeared to be walled with salt as far down as one +could reach. The cliffs which overhang this place are +composed of red clay and gypsum, and capped with a +stratum of the latter.... We found this salt a little +bitter from the impurities it contained, probably Epsom +salts principally." As it is overhung with sulphate of lime, +and perhaps also based upon the same, might not this +'salt-rock' be heavily impregnated with this mineral, occasioning +its excessive hardness? Capt. Boone also speaks +of gypsum in various other places, both north and south +of this, during his travel.</p> + +<p>Mr. Sibley (then of Fort Osage), who was quite familiar +with the western prairies, visited {189} a saline, over thirty +years ago, which would seem to be the 'Salt Plain' first +mentioned by Capt. Boone. The former, it is true, found +the salt much more abundant than as described by the +latter; but this may be owing to Capt. Boone's not having <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg246"></a>[p246]</span> +penetrated as far as the point alluded to by Mr. Sibley,—whose +description is in the following language:<a name="FNanchor_153_154" id="FNanchor_153_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_154" class="fnanchor">[153]</a></p> + +<p>"The Grand Saline is situated about 280 miles southwest +of Fort Osage, between two forks of a small branch +of the Arkansas, one of which washes its southern extremity, +and the other, the principal one, runs nearly parallel, +within a mile of its opposite side. It is a hard level +plain of reddish colored sand, and of an irregular or mixed +figure. Its greatest length is from northwest to southeast, +and its circumference about thirty miles. From the appearance +of the driftwood that is scattered over, it would +seem the whole plain is at times inundated by the overflowing +of the streams that pass near it. This plain is +entirely covered in dry hot weather, from two to six inches +deep, with a crust of beautiful clean white salt, of a quality +rather superior to the imported blown salt. It bears a +striking resemblance to a field of brilliant snow after a +rain, with a light crust on its top."</p> + +<p>This is, in extent and appearance, nearly as described +by several hunters and Indian traders with whom I have +conversed. Col. Logan, a worthy former agent of the +Creek Indians,<a name="FNanchor_154_155" id="FNanchor_154_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_155" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> {190} visited no doubt the same, not far +from the same period; and he describes it in a similar manner—only +representing the depth of the salt as greater. +Everywhere that he dug through the stratum of earth about +the margin, at the depth of a few inches he came to a <i>rock +of solid salt</i>, which induced him to believe that the whole +country thereabouts was based upon a stratum of 'rock salt.' <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg247"></a>[p247]</span> +This was of a reddish cast, partaking of the color of the surface +of the surrounding country. Mr. Sibley remarks that +"the distance to a navigable branch of Arkansas is about +eighty miles"—referring perhaps to the Red Fork; though +the saline is no doubt at a still less distance from the main +stream.</p> + +<p>With such inexhaustible mines of salt within two or +three days' journey of the Arkansas river, and again within +the same distance of the Missouri, which would cost no +further labor than the digging it up and the transporting +of it to boats for freighting it down those streams, it seems +strange that they should lie idle, while we are receiving +much of our supplies of this indispensable commodity from +abroad.</p> + +<p>Besides the <i>salines</i> already mentioned, there is one high +on the Canadian river, some two hundred miles east of +Santa Fé. Also, it is said, there are some to be found on +the waters of Red River; and numerous others are no +doubt scattered throughout the same regions, which have +never been discovered.</p> + +<p>Many of the low valleys of all the western {191} streams +(Red River as well as Arkansas and its branches), are +impregnated with salinous qualities, and, during wet +weather, ooze saltish exudations, which effloresce in a thin +scum. This is sometimes pure salt, but more frequently +compounded of different salts—not only of the muriate, +but of the sulphate of soda, and perhaps magnesia; often +strongly tinctured with nitre. Some of the waters of these +sections (particularly when stagnant) are so saturated +with this compound during dry weather, that they are +insupportable even for brutes—much to the consternation +of a forlorn traveller. In these saline flats nothing +grows but hard wiry grass, which a famished beast will +scarcely eat. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg248"></a>[p248]</span></p> + +<p>It is from these exudations, as well as from the salines +or salt plains before mentioned, that our western waters, +especially from Arkansas to Red River, acquire their +brackishness during the low seasons; and not from the +mountains, as some have presumed. Such as issue from +thence are there as pure, fresh and crystalline as snow-fed +rills and icy fountains can make them.</p> + +<p>It will now readily be inferred that the Great Prairies +from Red River to the western sources of the Missouri, +are, as has before been intimated, chiefly uninhabitable—not +so much for want of wood (though the plains are altogether +naked), as of soil and of water; for though some +of the plains appear of sufficiently fertile soil, they are +mostly of a sterile character, and all too dry to be cultivated. +{192} These great steppes seem only fitted for the +haunts of the mustang, the buffalo, the antelope, and their +migratory lord, the prairie Indian. Unless with the +progressive influence of time, some favorable mutation +should be wrought in nature's operations, to revive the +plains and upland prairies, the occasional fertile valleys +are too isolated and remote to become the abodes of +civilized man.</p> + +<p>Like the table plains of Northern Mexico, these high +prairies could at present only be made available for grazing +purposes, and that in the vicinity of the water-courses. +The grass with which they are mostly clothed, is of a superior +quality. The celebrated 'buffalo grass' is of two kinds, +both of which are species of the <dfn>grama</dfn> of New Mexico, +and equally nutritious at all seasons. It is the same, I +believe, that is called 'mezquite grass' in Texas, from the +mezquite tree which grows there in the same dry regions +with it. Of this unequalled pasturage the great western +prairies afford a sufficiency to graze cattle for the supply +of all the United States. It is particularly adapted to <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg249"></a>[p249]</span> +sheep-raising, as is shown by example of the same species +in New Mexico.</p> + +<p>But from the general sterility and unhabitableness of +the Prairies is excepted, as will be understood, that portion, +already alluded to, which borders our western frontier. +The uplands from the Arkansas boundary to the Cross +Timbers, are everywhere beautifully interspersed with +isolated prairies and glades, many of which are fertile, +though some are {193} too flat, and consequently inclined +to be marshy. The valleys of the streams are principally +of a rich loam, rather subject to inundations, but mostly +tillable. The timbered uplands are mostly of fair quality, +except on the broken ridges and mountainous sections +before referred to. Some of the uplands, however, known +usually as 'post-oak flats,' like the marshy prairies, seem +to be based upon quick-sand. The soil is of a dead unproductive +character, and covered with small lumps or mounds +of various sizes, and of irregular shapes.</p> + +<p>The country lying west of Missouri, which includes +the sources of the Neosho, the Verdigris, the Marais-des-Cygnes +and other branches of the Osage, and the lower +sections of the Kansas river, vies with any portion of the +Far West in the amenity of its upland prairies—in the +richness of its alluvial bottoms—in the beauty and freshness +of its purling rills and rivulets—and in the salubrity +of its atmosphere.</p> + +<p>We have here then, along the whole border, a strip of +country, averaging at least two hundred miles wide by +five hundred long—and even more if we extend it up the +Missouri river—affording territory for two States, respectable +in size, and though more scant in timber, yet more +fertile, in general, than the two conterminous States of +Missouri and Arkansas. But most of this delightful region +has been ceded to the different tribes of the Frontier Indians. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg250"></a>[p250]</span></p> + +<p>{194} Concerning that portion of the Prairies which +lies south of Red River, in Northern Texas, I learn from +some interesting memoranda, politely furnished me by +Dr. Henry Connelly, one of the principals of the pioneer +expedition from Chihuahua to Arkansas, of which I have +already spoken, that, besides some beautiful lands among +the Cross Timbers, there is a great deal of delightful country +still further west, of a part of which that gentleman +holds the following language:—"Between the Brazos and +Red River, there is surely the most beautiful and picturesque +region I have ever beheld. I saw some of the finest timber, +generally oak—not that scrubby oak which characterizes +so much of the Texan territory—but large black and +bur-oak; such as would answer all the purposes for which +the largest timber is useful. Between those two rivers, +no doubt there is destined to be one of the most dense and +prosperous settlements. The fertility of the soil is not +exceeded by any I have seen; and, from the high and undulating +character of the country, there can be no doubt +of its being very healthy."</p> + +<p>To the westward of Rio Brazos, and south of some +sandy and saline regions which border the upper portions +of this stream, the same enterprising traveller represents +many of the valleys as rich and beautiful, and the uplands +as being in many places sparsely timbered with mezquite +trees. This is particularly the case on the sources of the +Colorado, where the country is delightfully watered. But +immediately {195} north of this sets in that immense desert +region of the Llano Estacado.</p> + +<p>The chief natural disadvantage to which the Great +Western Prairies are exposed, consists in the absence of +navigable streams. Throughout the whole vast territory +which I have been attempting to describe, there is not a +single river, except the Missouri, which is navigable during <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg251"></a>[p251]</span> +the whole season. The remaining streams, in their course +through the plains, are and must continue to be, for all +purposes of commerce, comparatively useless.</p> + +<p>The chief of these rivers are the Missouri, the Arkansas, +and Red River, with their numerous tributaries. The +principal western branches of the Missouri are the Yellow +Stone, the Platte and the Kansas. Small 'flats' and 'buffalo +boats' have passed down the two former for a considerable +distance, during high water; but they are never +navigable to any extent by steamboats.</p> + +<p>The <i>Arkansas</i> river penetrates far into the Rocky Mountains, +its ramifications, interlocking with some of the waters +of the Missouri, Columbia, San Buenaventura, Colorado +of the West, and Rio del Norte.<a name="FNanchor_155_156" id="FNanchor_155_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_156" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> The channel of this +stream, in its course through the Prairies, is very wide and +shallow, with banks in many places hardly five feet above +low water. It will probably measure nearly 2000 miles +in length, from its source to the frontier of Arkansas. It +is called <i>Rio Napeste</i> by the Mexicans; but among the +early French voyagers it acquired the name of <i>Arkansas</i>, +or rather {196} <i>Akansa</i>,<a name="FNanchor_156_157" id="FNanchor_156_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_157" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> from a tribe of the Dahcotah or +Osage stock, who lived near its mouth. This river has +numerous tributaries, some of which are of great length, +yet there is not one that is at all navigable, except the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg252"></a>[p252]</span> +Neosho from the north, which has been descended by small +boats for at least a hundred miles.</p> + +<p><i>Red River</i> is much shorter and narrower from the frontier +westward than the Arkansas, bearing but little over half +the volume of water. Even in its serpentine course it can +hardly exceed 1200 miles from the Arkansas boundary to +its source. This river rises in the table plains of the Llano +Estacado, and has not, as I have been assured by traders +and hunters, any mountainous elevations about its source +of any consequence;<a name="FNanchor_157_158" id="FNanchor_157_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_158" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> although we are continually hearing +the inhabitants of its lower borders speak of the "<i>June +freshets</i> produced by the melting of the snow in the mountains."</p> + +<p>The upper portions of this river, and emphatically from +the mouth of the False Washita (or Faux Ouachittâ) upward, +present little or no facilities for navigation; being +frequently spread out over sand-bars to the width of several +hundred yards. A very credible Indian trader, who had +been on Red River {197} some two hundred miles above +the False Washita, informed me, that, while in some places +he found it not over fifty yards wide, in others it was at least +five hundred. This and most other prairie streams have +commonly very low banks with remarkably shallow channels, +which, during droughts, sometimes go dry in their +transit through the sandy plains.<a name="FNanchor_158_159" id="FNanchor_158_159"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_158_159" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg253"></a>[p253]</span></p> + +<p> It would be neither interesting nor profitable to present +to my readers a detailed account of all the tributaries of +the three principal rivers already mentioned. They may +be {198} found for the most part laid down, with their +bearings and relative magnitudes, upon the map which +accompanies this work. It is only necessary to say in +addition, that none of them can ever be availed of to any +considerable extent for purposes of navigation.</p> + +<p>With regard to the productions of the soil of these regions, +the reader will probably have formed, in the main, a tolerably +correct idea already; nevertheless a few further specifications +may not be altogether unacceptable.</p> + +<p>The timber of that portion of the United States territory +which is included between the Arkansas frontier and the +Cross Timbers, throughout the highlands, is mostly oak +of various kinds, of which black-jack and post-oak predominate, +as these, and especially the former, seem only +capable of withstanding the conflagrations to which they +are exposed, and therefore abound along the prairie borders. +The black-jack presents a blackened, scrubby appearance, +with harsh rugged branches—partly on account of being +so often scorched and crisped by the prairie fires. About +the streams we find an intermixture of elm, hackberry, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg254"></a>[p254]</span> +peccan (or pecan), ash, walnut, mulberry, cherry, persimmon, +cottonwood, sycamore, birch, etc., with varieties +of hickory, gum, dogwood, and the like. All of the foregoing, +except paccan, gum and dogwood, are also found +west of Missouri, where, although the uplands are almost +wholly prairie, the richest growths predominate in the +valleys.</p> + +<p>{199} In many of the rich bottoms from the Canadian +to Red River, for a distance of one or two hundred miles +west of the frontier, is found the celebrated <dfn>bois-d'arc</dfn> +(literally, <i>bow-wood</i>), usually corrupted in pronunciation +to <i>bowdark</i>. It was so named by the French on account +of its peculiar fitness for <i>bows</i>. This tree is sometimes +found with a trunk two or three feet in diameter, but, +being much branched, it is rarely over forty or fifty feet +high. The leaves are large, and it bears a fruit a little +resembling the orange in general appearance, though +rougher and larger, being four or five inches in diameter; +but it is not used for food. The wood is of a beautiful +light orange color, and, though coarse, is susceptible of +polish. It is one of the hardest, firmest and most durable +of timbers, and is much used by wagon-makers and millwrights, +as well as by the wild Indians, who make bows +of the younger growths.<a name="FNanchor_159_160" id="FNanchor_159_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_160" class="fnanchor">[159]</a></p> + +<p>On the Arkansas and especially its southern tributaries +as far west as the Verdigris, and up those of Red River +nearly to the False Washita, the bottoms are mostly covered +with cane. And scattered over all the south to about +the same distance westward, the sassafras abounds, which +grows here in every kind of soil and locality.</p> + +<p>The celebrated <i>Cross Timbers</i>, of which frequent mention +has been made, extend from the Brazos, or perhaps from +the Colorado of Texas, across the sources of Trinity, traversing <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg255"></a>[p255]</span> +Red River above the False Washita, and thence {200} +west of north, to the Red Fork of Arkansas, if not further. +It is a rough hilly range of country, and, though not mountainous, +may perhaps be considered a prolongation of that +chain of low mountains which pass to the northward of +Bexar and Austin city in Texas.<a name="FNanchor_160_161" id="FNanchor_160_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_161" class="fnanchor">[160]</a></p> + +<p>The Cross Timbers vary in width from five to thirty +miles, and entirely cut off the communication betwixt the +interior prairies and those of the great plains. They may +be considered as the 'fringe' of the great prairies, being +a continuous brushy strip, composed of various kinds of +undergrowth; such as black-jacks, post-oaks, and in some +places hickory, elm, etc., intermixed with a very diminutive +dwarf oak, called by the hunters 'shin-oak.' Most of the +timber appears to be kept small by the continual inroads +of the 'burning prairies;' for, being killed almost annually, +it is constantly replaced by scions of undergrowth; so that +it becomes more and more dense every reproduction. In +some places, however, the oaks are of considerable size, +and able to withstand the conflagrations. The underwood +is so matted in many places with grape-vines, greenbriars, +etc., as to form almost impenetrable 'roughs,' which +serve as hiding-places for wild beasts, as well as wild Indians; +and would, in savage warfare, prove almost as formidable +as the hammocks of Florida.</p> + +<p>South of the Canadian, a branch of these Cross Timbers +projects off westward, extending across this stream, and +up its course for 100 {201} miles or so, from whence, it +inclines northwest beyond the North Fork, and ultimately +ceases, no doubt, in the great sandy plains in that direction. +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg256"></a>[p256]</span></p> + +<p> The region of the Cross Timbers is generally well-watered; +and is interspersed with romantic and fertile tracts. The +bottoms of the tributaries of Red River, even for some +distance west of the Cross Timbers (perhaps almost to +the U. S. boundary), are mostly very fertile, and timbered +with narrow stripes of elm, hackberry, walnut, hickory, +mulberry, bur-oak and other rich growths.</p> + +<p>But further north, and west of the Cross Timbers, even +the streams are nearly naked. The Cimarron river for +more than a hundred miles is absolutely without timber; +and the Arkansas, for so large a stream, is remarkably +scant. The southern border, being protected from the +prairie fires by a chain of sand-hills, which extends for two +hundred miles along it, is not so bare as the northern bank; +though even here it is only skirted with occasional sparsely +set groves of cottonwood in the nooks and bends. It is +upon the abundance of islands which intersperse its channel, +that the greatest quantity of timber (though purely +cottonwood) is to be found; yet withal, there are stretches +of miles without a tree in view. The banks of the Canadian +are equally naked; and, having fewer islands, the river +appears still more barren. In fact, there is scarce anything +else but cottonwood, and that very sparsely scattered +{202} along the streams, throughout most of the far-western +prairies.</p> + +<p>It is unquestionably the prairie conflagrations that keep +down the woody growth upon most of the western uplands. +The occasional skirts and fringes which have escaped their +rage, have been protected by the streams they border. Yet +may not the time come when these vast plains will be +covered with timber? It would seem that the prairie +region, long after the discovery of America, extended to +the very banks of the Mississippi. Father Marquette, +in a voyage down this river, in 1673, after passing below <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg257"></a>[p257]</span> +the mouth of the Ohio, remarks:—"The banks of the +river began to be covered with high trees, which hindered +us from observing the country as we had done all along; +but we judged from the bellowing of the oxen [buffalo] that +the meadows are very near."<a name="FNanchor_161_162" id="FNanchor_161_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_162" class="fnanchor">[161]</a>—Indeed, there are parts +of the southwest now thickly set with trees of good size, +that, within the remembrance of the oldest inhabitants, +were as naked as the prairie plains; and the appearance +of the timber in many other sections indicates that it has +grown up within less than a century. In fact, we are now +witnessing the encroachment of the timber upon the prairies, +wherever the devastating conflagrations have ceased their +ravages.</p> + +<p>The high plains seem too dry and lifeless to produce +timber; yet might not the vicissitudes of nature operate a +change likewise upon the seasons? Why may we not suppose +{203} that the genial influences of civilization—that +extensive cultivation of the earth—might contribute to the +multiplication of showers, as it certainly does of fountains? +Or that the shady groves, as they advance upon the prairies, +may have some effect upon the seasons? At least, many +old settlers maintain that the droughts are becoming less +oppressive in the West. The people of New Mexico also +assure us that the rains have much increased of latter +years, a phenomenon which the vulgar superstitiously +attribute to the arrival of the Missouri traders. Then +may we not hope that these sterile regions might yet be +thus revived and fertilized, and their surface covered one +day by flourishing settlements to the Rocky Mountains?</p> + +<p>With regard to fruits, the Prairies are of course not very +plentifully supplied. West of the border, however, for +nearly two hundred miles, they are covered, in many places, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg258"></a>[p258]</span> +with the wild strawberry; and the groves lining the streams +frequently abound in grapes, plums, persimmons, mulberries, +peccans, hackberries, and other 'sylvan luxuries.' +The high prairies beyond, however, are very bare of fruits. +The prickly pear may be found over most of the dry plains; +but this is neither very palatable nor wholesome, though +often eaten by travellers for want of other fruits. Upon +the branches of the Canadian, North Fork, and Cimarron, +there are, in places, considerable quantities of excellent +plums, grapes, choke-cherries, gooseberries, and +currants—of the {204} latter there are three kinds, black, red, and +white. About the ravines and marshy grounds (particularly +towards the east) there are different kinds of small +onions, with which the traveller may season his fresh meats. +On the plains, also, I have met with a species resembling +garlic in flavor.</p> + +<p>But the flowers are among the most interesting products +of the frontier prairies. These gay meadows wear their +most fanciful piebald robes from the earliest spring till +divested of them by the hoary frosts of autumn. When +again winter has fled, but before the grassy green appears, +or other vegetation has ventured to peep above the earth, +they are bespeckled in many places with a species of <i>erythronium</i>, +a pretty lilaceous little flower, which springs +from the ground already developed, between a pair of +lanceolate leaves, and is soon after in full bloom.<a name="FNanchor_162_163" id="FNanchor_162_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_163" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> But +the floriferous region only extends about two hundred +miles beyond the border: the high plains are nearly as +destitute of flowers as they are of fruits.</p> + +<p>The <i>climate</i> of most parts of the Prairies is no doubt +healthy in the extreme; for a purer atmosphere is hardly +to be found. But the cold rains of the 'wet season,' and +the colder snows of winter, with the annoying winds <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg259"></a>[p259]</span> +that prevail at nearly all times, often render it very unpleasant. +It can hardly be said, it is true, that the Prairies +have their regular 'dry and rainy seasons;' yet the summers +are often so droughty, that, unless some change should +{205} be effected in nature's functions, cultivators would +generally find it necessary, no doubt, to resort to irrigation. +That portion, however, which is conterminous with our +western border, and to the distance of nearly two hundred +miles westward, in every respect resembles the adjacent +States of Missouri and Arkansas in climate. The south +is a little disposed to chills and fevers; but the northern +portion is as healthy as the most salubrious uplands of +Missouri.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_150_151" id="Footnote_150_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_151"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> This discovery was verified by the finding of gold near Denver in 1858. A +reader of Gregg's book, in the St. Louis Mercantile Library, wrote upon the margin +in 1858, opposite this paragraph: "The truth of this report has been verified +this year."—Chittenden, <cite>Fur-Trade</cite>, ii, p. 486.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_151_152" id="Footnote_151_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_152"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> For an early description of the Grand Saline, see Bradbury's <cite>Travels</cite>, in our +volume v, pp. 192, 193.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_152_153" id="Footnote_152_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_153"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> Capt. Boone is a son of the late Col. Daniel Boone, the celebrated pioneer +of the West. Being of practical habits, and of extensive experience upon those +deserts, much weight is due to his observations.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_153_154" id="Footnote_153_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_154"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> Brackenbridge's [Brackenridge's] Voyage up the Missouri River, p. 205.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span> +</p> +<p> +<i>Comment by Ed.</i> See our volume vi, p. 153, note 54; also our volume v, pp. +191-194.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_154_155" id="Footnote_154_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_155"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> James Logan was appointed agent among the Creeks shortly after their +final removal to Indian Territory (about 1838), and was replaced about 1842.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_155_156" id="Footnote_155_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_156"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> Gregg probably takes this information from Pike's journals. In his edition +thereof, Elliott Coues claims (ii, p. 733, note 18) that San Buenaventura River +was a myth of this early period. Pike describes it as emptying into the Pacific +north of California; but upon his map it runs into a nameless salt lake, and is +probably to be identified with Sevier River.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_156_157" id="Footnote_156_157"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_156_157"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> +A stranger would be led to suppose we were without a system of orthography, +from the fact of our so generally adopting the French spelling of Indian names, +whereby all sight is soon lost of the original. The French first corrupt them, and +we, by adapting our pronunciation to their orthography, at once transform them +into new names. Thus 'polite usage' has converted into <i>Arkan´sas</i> the plural +of the primitive <i>Arkansa</i> or <i>Arkonsah</i>; though an approximate, <i>Ar´kansaw</i>, is still +the current 'vulgar' pronunciation. <i>Osage</i> and a great many others have suffered +similar metamorphoses.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_157_158" id="Footnote_157_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_158"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> For the exploration of the sources of Red River, see our volume xvi, p. 85, +note 52. Gregg would appear to be one of the first correctly to locate the headwaters +of this stream.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_158_159" id="Footnote_158_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_159"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> Of all the rivers of this character, the Cimarron, being on the route from +Missouri to Santa Fé, has become the most famous. Its water disappears in the +sand and reappears again, in so many places, that some travellers have contended +that it 'ebbs and flows' periodically. This is doubtless owing to the fact, that +the little current which may flow above the sand in the night, or in cloudy weather, +is kept dried up, in an unshaded channel, during the hot sunny days. But in some +places the sand is so porous that the water never flows above it, except during +freshets. +</p> +<p> +I was once greatly surprised upon encountering one of these sandy sections of the +river after a tremendous rain-storm. Our caravan was encamped at the 'Lower +Cimarron Spring:' and, a little after night-fall, a dismal, murky cloud was seen +gathering in the western horizon, which very soon came lowering upon us, driven +by a hurricane, and bringing with it one of those tremendous bursts of thunder +and lightning, and rain, which render the storms of the Prairies, like those of the +tropics, so terrible. Hail-stones, as large as turkeys' eggs, and torrents of rain +soon drenched the whole country; and so rapidly were the banks of the river +overflowed, that the most active exertions were requisite to prevent the mules that +were 'staked' in the valley from drowning. Next morning, after crossing the +neck of a bend, we were, at the distance of about three miles, upon the river-bank +again; when, to our astonishment, the wetted sand, and an occasional pool, fast +being absorbed, were the only vestiges of the recent flood—no water was flowing +there! +</p> +<p> +In these sandy stretches of the Cimarron, and other similar 'dry streams,' +travellers procure water by excavating basins in the channel, a few feet deep, into +which the water is filtrated from the saturated sand.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_159_160" id="Footnote_159_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_160"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> This is the shrub now known as Osage orange +(<i>Maclura aurantiaca</i>).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_160_161" id="Footnote_160_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_161"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Bexar is the older name for San Antonio, Texas, which was founded (1718) +as a presidio and mission to the memory of San Antonio de Bejar (Bexar). Austin +was laid out (1839) as the capital of the independent state of Texas. See George +P. Garrison, <cite>Texas</cite> (New York, 1902).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_161_162" id="Footnote_161_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_162"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> See Thwaites, <cite>Jesuit Relations</cite>, lix, for Marquette's +journal. This quotation +is found on p. 149.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_162_163" id="Footnote_162_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_163"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> Commonly known as dog-toothed violet.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div></div> + +<h3 title="Chapter XXVII: Animals of the Prairies"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XXVII_XI" id="CHAPTER_XXVII_XI"></a>CHAPTER XXVII {XI} +<br />ANIMALS OF THE PRAIRIES</h3> + +<p class="subhead">The Mustang or Wild Horse — Capturing him by 'Creasing,' and with +the Lazo — Horse-flesh — The Buffalo — Its Appearance — Excellence +of its Meat — General Utility to the Indian and Traveller — Prospect +of its Extinction — Hunting the Buffalo with Bow and +Arrows, the Lance, etc. — 'Still-hunting' — The Buffalo ferocious +only when wounded — Butchering, etc. — The Gray Wolf — Its +Modes of killing Buffalo — Their great Numbers — A 'Wolf-scrape' — The +Prairie Wolf, or 'Jackal of the Prairies' — Elk, Deer and +Bear — The Antelope — The Bighorn — The Prairie Dog — Owls +and Rattlesnakes — The Horned Frog — Fowls — Bees, etc.<a href="#tocXXVII" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>The zoology of the Prairies has probably attracted more +attention than any other feature of their natural history. +This has not arisen altogether from the peculiar interest +the animals of the Prairies possess; but they constitute +so considerable a portion of the society of the traveller +who journeys among them, that they get to hold somewhat +the same place in his estimation that his fellow-creatures +would occupy if he were in civilization. Indeed, the +animals are <i>par éminence</i> the communities of the Prairies.</p> + +<p>By far the most noble of these, and therefore {207} the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg260"></a>[p260]</span> +best entitled to precedence in the brief notice I am able +to present of the animals of those regions, is the <dfn>mustang</dfn><a name="FNanchor_163_164" id="FNanchor_163_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_164" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> +or wild horse of the Prairies. As he is descended from the +stock introduced into America by the first Spanish colonists, +he has no doubt a partial mixture of Arabian blood. Being +of domestic origin, he is found of various colors, and sometimes +of a beautiful piebald.</p> + +<p>It is a singular fact in the economy of nature, that all +<em>wild</em> animals of the same species should have one uniform +color (with only occasional but uniform differences between +males and females); while that of the <em>domestic</em> animals, +whether quadruped or fowl, is more or less diversified.</p> + +<p>The beauty of the mustang is proverbial. One in particular +has been celebrated by hunters, of which marvellous +stories are told. He has been represented as a medium-sized +stallion of perfect symmetry, milk-white, save a pair +of black ears—a natural 'pacer,' and so fleet, it has been +said, as to leave far behind every horse that had been tried +in pursuit of him, without breaking his 'pace.' But I +infer that this story is somewhat mythical, from the difficulty +which one finds in fixing the abiding place of its +equine hero. He is familiarly known, by common report, +all over the great Prairies. The trapper celebrates him +in the vicinity of the northern Rocky {208} Mountains; +the hunter, on the Arkansas, or in the midst of the Plains; +while others have him pacing at the rate of half a mile a +minute on the borders of Texas. It is hardly a matter +of surprise, then, that a creature of such an ubiquitary +existence should never have been caught.</p> + +<p>The wild horses are generally well-formed, with trim and +clean limbs; still their elegance has been much exaggerated +by travellers, because they have seen them at large, abandoned <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg261"></a>[p261]</span> +to their wild and natural gaiety. Then, it is true, they +appear superb indeed; but when caught and tamed, they +generally dwindle down to ordinary ponies. Large droves +are very frequently seen upon the Prairies, sometimes of +hundreds together, gambolling and curvetting within a +short distance of the caravans. It is sometimes difficult +to keep them from dashing among the loose stock of the +traveller, which would be exceedingly dangerous; for, once +together, they are hard to separate again, particularly if +the number of mustangs is much the greatest. It is a +singular fact, that the gentlest wagon-horse (even though +quite fagged with travel), once among a drove of mustangs, +will often acquire in a few hours all the intractable wildness +of his untamed companions.</p> + +<p>The mustang is sometimes taken by the cruel expedient +of 'creasing,' which consists in shooting him through the +upper <i>crease</i> of the neck, above the cervical vertebræ; +when, the ball cutting a principal nerve, he falls as suddenly +{209} as if shot in the brain, and remains senseless +for a few minutes, during which he is secured with a rope. +He soon recovers from the shock, however, and springs to +his feet, but finds himself deprived of his liberty. He is +easily tamed after this, and the wound heals without leaving +any physical injury. But 'creasing' is so nice an operation +that many are killed in the attempt. If the ball pass a +little too low, it fractures a vertebra and kills the poor +brute instantly.</p> + +<p>But the most usual mode, among the Mexicans and +Indians, of taking the <dfn>mesteña</dfn> (as the former call these +animals), is with the lazo. They pursue them on fleet +horses, and great numbers are thus noosed and tamed. +The mustang has been taken in Texas in considerable +numbers by preparing a strong pen at some passway or +crossing of a river, into which they are frightened and +caught. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg262"></a>[p262]</span></p> + +<p>Upon the plains, I once succeeded in separating a gay-looking +stallion from his herd of <i>mesteñas</i>, upon which he +immediately joined our <i>caballada</i>, and was directly lazoed +by a Mexican. As he curvetted at the end of the rope, or +would stop and gaze majestically at his subjecters, his +symmetrical proportions attracted the attention of all; +and our best jockeys at once valued him at five hundred +dollars. But it appeared that he had before been tamed, +for he soon submitted to the saddle, and in a few days +dwindled down to scarce a twenty-dollar hackney.</p> + +<p>Prairie travellers have often been reduced {210} to the +necessity of eating the flesh of the mustang; and, when +young and tender, it has been accounted savory enough; +but, when of full age, it is said to be exceedingly rancid, +particularly when fat. They are sometimes hunted by +Mexicans for their oil, which is used by the curriers.</p> + +<p>The <i>buffalo</i>, though making no pretensions to the elegance +and symmetry of the mustang, is by far the most important +animal of the Prairies to the traveller. It is sufficiently +well known that these animals bear but little resemblance +to the buffalo of India; but that they are a species of bison, +or <dfn>bos Americanus</dfn>, according to naturalists. They are +called <dfn>Cíbolos</dfn> by the Mexicans; and it would certainly +have prevented ambiguity, had they been distinguished +by some other name than buffalo with us.</p> + +<p>Their dusky black color becomes much paler during +the season of long hair.<a name="FNanchor_164_165" + id="FNanchor_164_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_165" + class="fnanchor">[164]</a> The phenomenon of a white +buffalo has frequently been remarked upon the Prairies; +but as the white skin is said to have been used in the +mystic ceremonies of many of the northern tribes of +Indians, this probably created such a demand for them, +that they have become nearly extinct. Their unusual <span + class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg263"></a>[p263]</span> +color has commonly been considered a <i>lusus naturæ</i>, yet +it is probable that they stand in about the same relation +to the black or brown buffalo that black sheep do to white +ones. The horns of {211} the buffalo are short and black, +and almost concealed under the frightfully shaggy frontlets +of long woolly hair that crown the foreheads of the bulls; +which, with the goat-like beard, and ill-shapen hump, +form the chief distinction between them and the domestic +cattle: in fact, they are so nearly of the same species that +they will breed together; though the offspring, like the +mule, is said to be unfruitful. Between the males and +females there is still a greater disproportion in size than +among the domestic cattle. A buffalo cow is about as +heavy as a common ox, while a large fat bull will weigh +perhaps double as much.</p> + +<p>These are very gregarious animals. At some seasons, +however, the cows rather incline to keep to themselves; +at other times they are mostly seen in the centre of the +gang, while the bulls are scattered around, frequently to +a considerable distance, evidently guarding the cows and +calves. And on the outskirts of the buffalo range, we +are apt to meet with small gangs of bulls alone, a day or +two's travel distant, as though performing the office of +'piquet guards' for the main herds.</p> + +<p>The flesh of the buffalo is, I think, as fine as any meat +I ever tasted: the old hunter will not admit that there is +anything equal to it. Much of its apparent savoriness, +however, results perhaps from our sharpened 'prairie +appetites,' and our being usually upon salt provisions +awhile before obtaining it. The {212} flesh is of coarser +texture than beef, more juicy, and the fat and lean better +distributed. This meat is also very easy of digestion,<a name="FNanchor_165_166" id="FNanchor_165_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_166" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg264"></a>[p264]</span> +possessing even aperient qualities. The circumstance that +bulls of all ages, if fat, make good beef, is a further proof +of the superiority of buffalo meat. These are generally +selected for consumption in the winter and early spring, +when the cows, unless barren, are apt to be poor; but during +most of the year, the latter are the fattest and tenderest +meat. Of these, the udder is held as hardly second to +the tongue in delicacy. But what the tail of the beaver +is to the trapper, the tongue of the buffalo is to the hunter. +Next to this are the 'marrow-bones,' the tender-loins, and +the hump-ribs. Instead of a gristly substance, as sometimes +stated, the hump is produced by a convex tier of +vertical ribs, which project from the spine, forming a gradual +curve over the shoulders: those of the middle being sometimes +nearly two feet in length. The 'veal' is rarely good, +being generally poor, owing to the scanty supply of milk +which their dams afford, and to their running so much +from hunters and wolves.</p> + +<p>This animal furnishes almost the exclusive food of the +prairie Indians, as well as covering for their wigwams +and most of their clothing; also their bedding, ropes, bags +for their meat, &c.; sinews for bow-strings, for sewing +moccasins, leggins, and the like; besides {213} sustenance +for the numerous travellers and trappers who range upon +their grazing regions. Were they only killed for food, +however, their natural increase would perhaps replenish +the loss: yet the continual and wanton slaughter of them +by travellers and hunters, and the still greater havoc +made among them by the Indians, not only for meat, but +often for the skins and tongues alone (for which they find +a ready market among their traders), are fast reducing +their numbers, and must ultimately effect their total annihilation +from the continent. It is believed that the annual <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg265"></a>[p265]</span> +'export' of <i>buffalo rugs</i><a name="FNanchor_166_167" id="FNanchor_166_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_167" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> from the Prairies and bordering +'buffalo range,' is about a hundred thousand: and the +number killed wantonly, or exclusively for meat, is no +doubt still greater, as the skins are fit to dress scarcely +half the year. The vast extent of the prairies upon which +they now pasture is no argument against the prospect of +their total extinction, when we take into consideration the +extent of country from which they have already disappeared; +for it is well known, that, within the recollection of our +oldest pioneers, they were nearly as abundant east of the +Mississippi as they now are upon the western prairies; and +from history we learn, that they once ranged to the Atlantic +coast. Even within thirty years, they were abundant +over much of the present States of Missouri and Arkansas; +yet they are now rarely seen within two hundred miles of +the frontier. Indeed, upon the high {214} plains they +have very sensibly decreased within the last ten years. +Nevertheless, the number of buffalo upon the Prairies is +still immense. But, as they incline to migrate <i>en masse</i> +from place to place, it sometimes happens, that, for several +days' travel together, not a single one is to be met with; +but, in other places, many thousands are often seen at one +view.</p> + +<p>The Indians, as well as Mexicans, hunt the buffalo +mostly with the bow and arrows. For this purpose they +train their fleetest horses to run close beside him; and, +when near enough, with almost unerring aim, they pierce +him with their arrows, usually behind the short ribs, ranging +forward, which soon disables and brings him to the +ground. When an arrow has been ill-directed, or does +not enter deep enough, and even sometimes when it has +penetrated a vital part, but is needed to use again, the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg266"></a>[p266]</span> +hunter sometimes rides up and draws it out while the +animal is yet running. An athletic Indian will not unfrequently +discharge his darts with such force, that I have +seen them (30 inches long) wholly buried in the body of +a buffalo: and I have been assured by hunters that the +arrows, missing the bones, have been known to pass entirely +through the huge carcass and fall upon the ground.</p> + +<p>The dexterity acquired by these wild hunters in shooting +the buffalo, is very surprising. On one occasion, upon +the prairies, a party of Witchita Indians were encamped +near us; and {215} a drove of buffalo passing in the vicinity, +I requested a chief to take my horse and kill one 'upon +the shares.' He delighted in the sport: so, gathering his +arrows, he mounted the pony, which was slow, and withal +very lean, and giving chase, in a few minutes he had two +buffaloes lying upon the plain, and two others went off so +badly wounded, that, with a little exertion, they might +have been secured.</p> + +<p>But the dexterity of the Comanches in the buffalo chase +is perhaps superior to that of any other tribe. The Mexican +<i>Ciboleros</i>, however, are scarcely if at all inferior to the +Indians in this sport. I once went on a hunting expedition +with a Cibolero, who carried no arms except his bow and +arrows and a butcher's knife. Espying a herd of buffalo, +he put spurs to his horse, and, though I followed as fast as +a mule I rode could trudge, when I came up with him, +after a chase of two or three miles, he had the buffalo partly +skinned! This was rather unusual dispatch, to be sure, +for the animal oftener lingers awhile after receiving the +fatal dart.</p> + +<p>In the chase, the experienced hunter singles out the +fattest buffalo as his victim, and having given him a mortal +wound, he in like manner selects another, and so on, till +the plain is sometimes literally strewed with carcasses. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg267"></a>[p267]</span></p> + +<p>It seems that Capt. Bonneville<a name="FNanchor_167_168" id="FNanchor_167_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_168" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> marvelled greatly that +some Indians, during his peregrinations in the Rocky +Mountains, should have {216} killed buffalo "without +guns or arrows, and with only an old spear;" and he was +no doubt mistaken in supposing "that they had chased the +herds of buffalo at full speed, until they tired them down, +when they easily dispatched them with the spear:" for +both Indians and Mexicans often chase with a long-handled +spear or lance, which, if the horse be well trained, is still +a more expeditious mode of killing them than with the +bow and arrow. An expert lancer will enter a drove, and +drawing up alongside, will pierce buffalo after buffalo +until several are brought down.</p> + +<p>In default of bow or lance, they chase with the fusil, but +seldom so successfully as with the former weapons. The +Americans generally prefer 'running' with the horseman's +pistol; yet the Indian is apt to kill double as many with +his arrows or lance.</p> + +<p>In all these modes of hunting, the buffalo is sometimes +dangerous; for, becoming enraged from his wounds, he +will often make desperate lunges at his pursuer; and, +if the horse be not well trained, he may be himself disembowelled, +leaving his rider at the mercy of the buffalo, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg268"></a>[p268]</span> +as has happened on some occasions. But if the steed +understand his business, he will dodge the animal with +the expertness of a fencer.</p> + +<p>Buffalo calves (but not full-grown buffalo) are often +taken with the lazo by Mexicans and Indians; yet, being +separated from their dams and the droves during chases, +these simple little creatures not unfrequently take up with +{217} the riding animals of the hunters, and follow them +to the camp as tamely as though they were their dams. +If provided with domestic cows, they may be raised without +much difficulty.</p> + +<p>Some of the northern Indians, particularly the Assiniboins,<a name="FNanchor_168_169" id="FNanchor_168_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_169" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> +are said to practise still a distinct mode of taking +the buffalo. A staunch pound is erected at some convenient +point, and, after a course of mystic rites by their +medicine-men, they start upon the enterprise. A gang +of buffalo is frightened towards the pen, while an Indian, +covered with one of their woolly skins, runs at a distance +ahead. Being seen by the animals, they mistake him +for one of their kind, and follow him into the pen. Once +secured in the enclosure, they leisurely dispatch them with +their arrows, as they are said to believe it would offend +the Great Spirit and render future hunts unpropitious to +use fire arms in killing their imprisoned game.</p> + +<p>However, of all other modes, our backwoodsmen prefer +'still-hunting'—that is, stealing upon their game afoot +with the rifle. Buffalo are much more easily approached +than deer. When the hunter perceives a herd at rest, or +quietly feeding, he crawls upon them behind a bank, a +shrub, or a tuft of grass, with the greatest facility, provided +he 'has the wind of them,' as hunters say—that is, if the +wind blows from the buffalo; but if the reverse, he will <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg269"></a>[p269]</span> +find it impossible to approach them, however securely +he may have {218} concealed himself from their sight. In +fact, their scent being acute, they seem to depend more +upon it than their sight; for if a gang of buffalo be frightened, +from any quarter whatever, they are apt to shape their +course against the wind, that they may scent an enemy +in their way.</p> + +<p>If the hunter succeed in 'bringing down' his first shot, +he may frequently kill several out of the same herd; for, +should the game neither see nor smell him, they may hear +the rifle-cracks, and witness their companions fall one +after another, without heeding, except to raise their heads, +and perhaps start a little at each report. They would seem +to fancy that the fallen are only lying down to rest, and +they are loth to leave them. On one occasion, upon the +Cimarron river, I saw some ten or a dozen buffaloes lying +upon a few acres of ground, all of which had been shot +from the same herd by a couple of our hunters. Had +not the gang been frightened by the approaching caravan, +perhaps a dozen more of them might have fallen.</p> + +<p>A dexterous hunter will sometimes 'crawl upon' a gang +of buffalo, on a perfectly level plain. As their sight is +at best not acute, and is always more or less obscured by +the shaggy hair of their foreheads, they will hardly observe +an approaching enemy when they are feeding, unless the +wind bears them the scent. The hunter is, therefore, careful +to 'have the wind' of them, and crawls slowly and closely +upon the ground, until within gun-shot. If {219} he bring +down the first, the others will perhaps retire a little, when +he may sometimes approach behind the fallen buffalo, +and shoot several others.</p> + +<p>The tenacity of these animals for life is often very extraordinary. +When one receives even a mortal shot, he +frequently appears not hurt—he seems to disdain to <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg270"></a>[p270]</span> +flinch—but will curl his tail and step about as though +he neither felt nor feared anything! If left undisturbed, +however, he begins to stagger, and in a few moments expires: +but if provoked, he might run for miles before he +would fall. I have seen a party of hunters around a wounded +and enraged bull, fire, at a few paces distance, a dozen +or two shots, aimed at his very heart, without their seeming +to have any effect till his anger cooled, when in an instant +he would lie lifeless upon the ground. In such cases, +the inexperienced hunter often aims to shoot them in the +brain, but without success. Owing not only to the thickness +of the scull, but to the matted wool upon it, I have +never witnessed an instance of a rifle-ball's penetrating +to the brain of a buffalo bull.</p> + +<p>The 'still-hunter' must needs be upon his guard; for the +wounded buffalo is prone to make battle, upon the too near +approach of his enemy. With a little presence of mind, +however, his attacks are easily shunned. If he makes a +lunge, the pedestrian hunter has only to wheel abruptly +to one side; for the animal is apt to pass on in a direct line. +I have never heard of a serious accident of the {220} kind; +yet some frightful though amusing incidents have occurred +in such cases.</p> + +<p>The buffalo never attacks, however, except when wounded. +Even the largest droves (the opinion of some travellers +to the contrary notwithstanding), though in the wildest +career, are easily turned from their course by a single man +who may intercept their way. I have crouched in the tall +grass in the direct route of a frighted gang, when, firing +at them on their near approach, they would spread in consternation +to either side. Still their advance is somewhat +frightful—their thundering rumble over the dry plain—their +lion-like fronts and dangling beards—their open +mouths and hanging tongues—as they come on, puffing <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg271"></a>[p271]</span> +like a locomotive engine at every bound, does at first make +the blood settle a little heavy about the heart.</p> + +<p>The gait of these animals is a clumsy gallop, and any +common pony can overtake them in the chase; though, +as the hunter would express it, they 'lumber' over the ground +rather deceivingly. The cows are usually much faster +than the bulls. It has been the remark of travellers that +the buffalo jumps up from the ground differently from +any other animal. The horse rises upon his fore feet +first, and the cow upon her hind feet, but the buffalo seems +to spring up on them all at once.</p> + +<p>American hunters, as well as Indians, to butcher the +buffalo, generally turn it upon the belly, and commence +on the back. The {221} hump-ribs, tender-loins, and +a few other choice bits being appropriated, the remainder +is commonly left for the wolves. The skin is chiefly used for +buffalo rugs, but for which it is only preserved by the +Indians during fall and winter (and then rarely but +from the cows and bullocks), when the hair is long and +woolly. I have never seen the buffalo hide tanned, but +it seems too porous and spongy to make substantial +leather. Were it valuable, thousands of hides might be +saved that are annually left to the wolves upon the Prairies.</p> + +<p>Although the buffalo is the largest, he has by no means +the control among the prairie animals: the sceptre of authority +has been lodged with the large <i>gray wolf</i>. Though but +little larger than the wolf of the United States, he is much +more ferocious. The same species abound throughout +the north of Mexico, where they often kill horses, mules +and cattle of all sizes; and on the Prairies they make considerable +havoc among the buffalo.</p> + +<p>Many curious tales are told of the wiles and expedients +practised by these animals to secure their prey. Some <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg272"></a>[p272]</span> +assert that they collect in companies, and chase a buffalo +by turns, till he is fatigued, when they join and soon dispatch +him: others, that, as the buffalo runs with the tongue +hanging out, they snap at it in the chase till it is torn off, +which preventing him from eating, he is reduced by starvation, +and soon overpowered: others, that, while running, +they gnaw and lacerate {222} the legs and ham-strings till +they disable him, and then he is killed by the gang. Be +this as it may, certain it is that they overcome many of the +largest buffaloes, employing perhaps different means of +subduing them, and among these is doubtless the last +mentioned, for I have myself seen them with the muscles +of the thighs cruelly mangled—a consequence no doubt +of some of these attacks. Calves are constantly falling +victims to the rapacity of these wolves; yet, when herds +of buffalo are together, they defend their offspring with +great bravery.</p> + +<p>Though the color of this wolf is generally a dirty gray, +it is sometimes met with nearly white. I am of opinion, +however, that the diversity of color originates chiefly from +the different ages of the hair, and the age and condition +of the animal itself. The few white wolves I have seen, +have been lean, long-haired, and apparently very old. +There are immense numbers of them upon the Prairies. +Droves are frequently to be seen following in the wake of +caravans, hunting companies, and itinerant Indian bands, +for weeks together—not, like the jackal, so much to disinter +the dead (though this they sometimes do), as to feast +upon the abandoned carcasses of the buffalo which are +so often wantonly killed and wasted. Unless in these cases, +they are rarely seen, except in the neighborhood of buffalo; +therefore, when the hungry traveller meets with wolves, he +feels some assurance that supplies of his favorite game +are at hand. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg273"></a>[p273]</span></p> + +<p>{223} I have never known these animals, rapacious as +they are, [to] extend their attacks to man, though they probably +would, if very hungry and a favorable opportunity +presented itself. I shall not soon forget an adventure with +one of them, many years ago, on the frontier of Missouri. +Riding near the prairie border, I perceived one of the +largest and fiercest of the gray species, which had just +descended from the west, and seemed famished to desperation. +I at once prepared for a chase; and, being without +arms, I caught up a cudgel, when I betook me valiantly +to the charge, much stronger, as I soon discovered, in +my cause than in my equipment. The wolf was in no +humor to flee, however, but boldly met me full half-way. +I was soon disarmed, for my club broke upon the animal's +head. He then 'laid to' my horse's legs, which, not relishing +the conflict, gave a plunge and sent me whirling +over his head, and made his escape, leaving me and the +wolf at close quarters. I was no sooner upon my feet than +my antagonist renewed the charge; but, being without +weapon, or any means of awakening an emotion of terror, +save through his imagination, I took off my large black +hat, and using it for a shield, began to thrust it towards +his gaping jaws. My <i>ruse</i> had the desired effect; for, after +springing at me a few times, he wheeled about and trotted +off several paces, and stopped to gaze at me. Being apprehensive +that he might change his mind and return to the +attack, and conscious that, under the {224} compromise, +I had the best of the bargain, I very resolutely—— took +to my heels, glad of the opportunity of making a drawn +game, though I had myself given the challenge.</p> + +<p>There is a small species called the <dfn>prairie wolf</dfn> on the +frontier, and <dfn>coyote</dfn><a name="FNanchor_169_170" id="FNanchor_169_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_170" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> by the Mexicans, which is also found <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg274"></a>[p274]</span> +in immense numbers on the Plains. It is rather smaller +than an ordinary dog, nearly the color of the common gray +wolf, and though as rapacious as the larger kind, it seems +too cowardly to attack stout game. It therefore lives upon +the remains of buffalo killed by hunters and by the large +wolves, added to such small game as hares, prairie dogs, +etc., and even reptiles and insects. It will lie for hours +beside a 'dog-hole,' watching for the appearance of the +little animal, which no sooner peeps out than the enemy +pounces upon it.</p> + +<p>The coyote has been denominated the 'jackal of the +Prairies;' indeed, some have reckoned it really a species +of that animal, yet it would seem improperly, as this creature +{225} partakes much less of the nature of the jackal than +of the common wolf. Still, however noisy the former may +be, he cannot exceed the prairie wolf. Like ventriloquists, +a pair of these will represent a dozen distinct voices in such +quick succession—will bark, chatter, yelp, whine, and +howl in such variety of note, that one would fancy a score +of them at hand. This, added to the long and doleful +bugle-note of the large wolf, which often accompanies it, +sometimes makes a night upon the Prairies perfectly hideous.—Some +hunters assert that the coyote and the dog will +breed together. Be this as it may, certain it is that the +Indian dogs have a wonderfully wolfish appearance.</p> + +<p>The <i>elk</i> as well as the <i>deer</i> is found somewhat abundant <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg275"></a>[p275]</span> +upon the Arkansas river, as high as the Santa Fé road, +but from thence westward they are both very scarce; for +these animals do not resort to the high prairie plains. Further +south, however, in the prairies bordering the brushy +tributaries of the Canadian and Red River, deer are exceedingly +plenty—herds of hundreds are sometimes seen +together; but in these southern regions there are but few +elks.</p> + +<p>About the thickety streams above-mentioned, as well +as among the Cross Timbers, the <i>black bear</i> is very common, +living chiefly upon acorns and other fruits. The grape +vines and the branches of the scrubby oaks, and plum-bushes, +are in some places so torn and broken by the +bear in pursuit of fruits, that a stranger {226} would conclude +a violent hurricane had passed among them.</p> + +<p>That species of gazelle known as the <i>antelope</i> is very +numerous upon the high plains. This beautiful animal, +though reckoned a link between the deer and goat, is certainly +much nearest the latter. It is about the size and +somewhat of the figure of a large goat. Its horns also +resemble those of the latter, being likewise persistent; +but they are more erect, and have a short prong projecting +in front. The ground of this animal's color a little resembles +that of the common deer, but it is variegated with a +whitish section or two on each side.</p> + +<p>The antelope is most remarkable for its fleetness: not +bounding like the deer, but skimming over the ground +as though upon skates. The fastest horse will rarely +overtake them. I once witnessed an effort to catch one +that had a hind-leg broken, but it far outstripped our +fleetest 'buffalo-horse.' It is, therefore, too swift to be +hunted in the chase. I have seen dogs run after this animal, +but they would soon stop and turn about, apparently much +ashamed of being left so far behind. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg276"></a>[p276]</span></p> + +<p>The flesh of the antelope is, like that of the goat, rather +coarse, and but little esteemed: consequently, no great +efforts are made to take them. Being as wild as fleet, +the hunting of them is very difficult, except they be entrapped +by their curiosity. Meeting a stranger, they seem +loth to leave him until they have fully found him out. They +will often {227} take a circuit around the object of their +curiosity, usually approaching nearer and nearer, until +within rifle-shot—frequently stopping to gaze. Also, they +are often decoyed with a scarlet coat, or a red handkerchief +attached to the tip of a ramrod, which will sometimes +allure them within reach of the hunter's aim. But this +interesting animal, like the buffalo, is now very rarely seen +within less than 200 miles of the frontier: though early +voyagers tell us that it once frequented as far east as the +Mississippi.</p> + +<p>The <i>bighorn</i> (<dfn>carnero cimarron</dfn>, as called by the Mexicans, +and sometimes known to trappers as the mountain sheep), +so abundant in most of the Rocky Mountain chain, is found +in the spurs and table-plain cliffs about the sources of the +Cimarron river (whence this stream acquired its name), +as well as in the highland gorges, and other parts of those +mountain borders. Its flesh is said to be excellent, and +is preferred by many hunters to venison. It is larger than +a common sheep, and covered with brownish hair instead +of wool—darker than the deer, but whitish on the belly. +It is most remarkable for its huge spiral horns, resembling +in shape and curvature those of the sheep, but sometimes +over three feet long, and four to six inches in diameter at +the base.<a name="FNanchor_170_171" id="FNanchor_170_171"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_170_171" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg277"></a>[p277]</span></p> + +<p>{228} The bighorn is quite celebrated for its agility, and +its habit of secluding itself among the most inaccessible +mountain crags. It seems to delight in perching and +capering upon the very verge of the most frightful precipices +and overhanging cliffs, and in skipping from rock +to rock, regardless of the yawning chasms, hundreds of +feet in depth, which intervene. In fact, when pursued, +it does not hesitate, as I have been assured, to leap from +a cliff into a valley a hundred or more feet below, where, +lighting upon its huge horns, it springs to its feet uninjured; +for the neck is so thick and strong as to support the greatest +shock the animal's weight can bring upon it. Being exceedingly +timorous, it rarely descends to the valleys, but +feeds and sleeps about such craggy fastnesses as are inaccessible +to the wolves and other animals of prey. This +animal seems greatly to resemble the <i>moufflon</i> of Buffon, +in color, figure and horns, but the <i>chamois</i> in habits.</p> + +<p>But of all the prairie animals, by far the most curious, +and by no means the least celebrated, is the little <i>prairie +dog</i>. This singular quadruped is but little larger than a +common squirrel, its body being nearly a foot long, with a +tail of three or four inches. The color ranges from brown +to a dirty yellow. The flesh, though often eaten by travellers, +is not esteemed savory. It was denominated the +'barking squirrel,' the 'prairie ground-squirrel,' etc., by +early explorers, with much more apparent propriety than +the present established {229} name. Its yelp, which resembles +that of the little toy-dog, seems its only canine +attribute. It rather appears to occupy a middle ground +betwixt the rabbit and squirrel—like the former in feeding +and burrowing—like the latter in frisking, flirting, sitting +erect, and somewhat so in its barking.</p> + +<p>The prairie dog has been reckoned by some naturalists +a species of the marmot (<i>arctomys ludoviciana</i>); yet it seems <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg278"></a>[p278]</span> +to possess scarce any other quality in common with this +animal except that of burrowing. Some have supposed, +it is true, that like the marmot, they lie torpid during the +cold season; and it is observed in 'Long's Expedition,' +that, "as they pass the winter in a lethargic state, they +lay up no provisions," &c.: but this is no doubt erroneous; +for I have the concurrent testimony of several persons, +who have been upon the Prairies in winter, that, like rabbits +and squirrels, they issue from their holes every soft day; +and therefore lay up no doubt a hoard of 'hay' (as there +is rarely anything else to be found in the vicinity of their +towns) for winter's use.</p> + +<p>A collection of their burrows has been termed by travellers +a 'dog town,' which comprises from a dozen or so, to +some thousands in the same vicinity; often covering an +area of several square miles. They generally locate upon +firm dry plains, coated with fine short grass, upon which +they feed; for they are no doubt exclusively herbivorous. +But even when tall coarse grass surrounds, they seem commonly +to destroy this within their 'streets,' {230} which +are nearly always found 'paved' with a fine species suited +to their palates. They must need but little water, if any +at all, as their 'towns' are often, indeed generally, found +in the midst of the most arid plains—unless we suppose +they dig down to subterranean fountains. At least they +evidently burrow remarkably deep. Attempts either to +dig or drown them out of their holes have generally proved +unsuccessful.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a id="Dog-Town"></a> +<img src="images/i281.jpg" width="600" height="344" alt="" /> +<div class="caption">"Dog Town," or Settlement of Prairie Dogs</div> +<div class="IlloRtn"><a +href="#ILLUSTRATIONS_TO_VOLUME_XX">Illustrations List</a></div> +</div> + +<p>Approaching a 'village,' the little dogs may be observed +frisking about the 'streets'—passing from dwelling to +dwelling apparently on visits—sometimes a few clustered +together as though in council—here feeding upon the +tender herbage—there cleansing their 'houses,' or brushing +the little hillock about the door—yet all quiet. Upon +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg281"></a>[p281]</span> seeing a stranger, however, each streaks it to its home, +but is apt to stop at the entrance, and spread the general +alarm by a succession of shrill yelps, usually sitting erect. +Yet at the report of a gun or the too near approach of the +visitor, they dart down and are seen no more till the cause +of alarm seems to have disappeared.</p> + +<p>Two other animals appear to live in communion with the +prairie dogs—the <i>rattle-snake</i> and a small <i>owl</i>;<a name="FNanchor_171_172" id="FNanchor_171_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_172" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> but both +are no doubt intruders, resorting to these burrows for +shelter, and to feed, it is presumed, upon the 'pups' of the +inmates.</p> + +<p>{231} Rattle-snakes are exceedingly abundant upon these +plains: scores of them are sometimes killed in the course +of a day's travel; yet they seem remarkably harmless, for +I have never witnessed an instance of a man's being bitten, +though they have been known to crawl even into the beds +of travellers.<a name="FNanchor_172_173" id="FNanchor_172_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_173" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> Mules are sometimes bitten by them, +yet very rarely, though they must daily walk over considerable +numbers.</p> + +<p>The <dfn>horned frog</dfn>, as modern travellers have christened +it, or horned lizard,<a name="FNanchor_173_174" id="FNanchor_173_174"></a><a +href="#Footnote_173_174" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> as those of earlier times more rationally +called it, is the most famed and curious reptile of the +plains. Like the prairie dog, it is only found in the dry +regions, often many miles from water. It no doubt lives +nearly, if not wholly, without drink. Its food probably +consists chiefly of ants and other insects; though many +Mexicans will have it, that the <dfn>camaleon</dfn> (as they call it) +<dfn>vive del aire</dfn>—lives upon the air. It has been kept several <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg282"></a>[p282]</span> +months without partaking of a particle of aliment. I once +took a pair of them upon the far-western plains, which I +shut up in a box and carried to one of the eastern cities, +where they were kept for several months before they died,—without +having taken food or water, though repeatedly +offered them.</p> + +<p>{232} The whole length of the horned frog is from two +to five inches—body flatted horizontally, oval-shaped, +and between one and two inches wide in the middle. The +back is beautifully variegated, with white and brown, and +sometimes a yellowish purple. The belly is whitish and +covered with brown specks. It acquired its name from +a pair of short horns projecting from the top of the head—with +other smaller horny protuberances upon the head and +body. It has a short tail, which gives it a lizard-like appearance. +It is a very inoffensive creature, and may be +handled with perfect impunity, notwithstanding its uncouth +appearance, and sometimes vicious demonstrations.</p> + +<p>As birds mostly incline to the timbered regions, there +is but a scant variety to be met with upon the plains. About +the Cross Timbers and indeed on all the brushy creeks, +especially to the southward, are quantities of wild <i>turkeys</i>, +which are frequently seen ranging in large flocks in the +bordering prairies. That species of American grouse, +known west as the <i>prairie-hen</i>, is very abundant on the +frontier, and is quite destructive, in autumn, to the prairie +corn-fields. This fowl is rarely seen over two hundred +miles beyond the border. <i>Partridges</i> are found about as +far west; but their number is quite limited anywhere beyond +the precincts of the settlements. About the streams +there are different species of geese and ducks, as well as +both sand-hill and white cranes: also flocks of a species +of plover and {233} curlew. Add to these numbers of +hawks and ravens, and we have most of the fowls of the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg283"></a>[p283]</span> +Prairies. Flocks of the latter follow in the wake of caravans +with even greater constancy than wolves.</p> + +<p>The <i>bee</i>, among Western pioneers, is the proverbial precursor +of the Anglo-American population: in fact, the +aborigines of the frontier have generally corroborated +the notion; for they used to say, they knew the whites were +not far behind, when bees appeared among them. This +partial coincidence, I suppose, is the result of their emigration +westward being at nearly an even pace with that +of the settlers. As yet no honey-bees seem to have been +discovered as far westward as any part of the Rocky Mountains. +They are scattered, however, to the distance of +two or three hundred miles west of the Missouri and Arkansas +frontier, where there is timber affording them suitable +habitations. On the Santa Fé route but few have been +found beyond the Council Grove.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_163_164" id="Footnote_163_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_164"><span +class="label">[163]</span></a> <i>Mustang</i> would most naturally seem a corruption of the Spanish adjective +<dfn>mostrenco</dfn> (without owner), but the Mexicans call wild horses <dfn>mesteñas</dfn>, a synonyme +in one of its senses with <dfn>mostrenco</dfn>.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_164_165" id="Footnote_164_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_165"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> The bulls usually shed in the spring, from the shoulders back, but not in +front, which imparts to them quite a lion-like appearance.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_165_166" id="Footnote_165_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_166"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> It has often been remarked by travellers, that +however much buffalo meat +one may eat, no inconvenience is ever suffered from it.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_166_167" id="Footnote_166_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_167"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> Often, but it would seem improperly, called +'buffalo <i>robes</i>.'—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_167_168" id="Footnote_167_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_168"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> Benjamin Louis Eulalie de Bonneville was born in France in 1796. At an +early age he came to America with his mother, where he was cared for by Thomas +Paine, who secured for him a cadetship in the United States Military Academy, from +which he was graduated in 1819, when he entered the army. During Lafayette's +visit of 1825, Bonneville was detailed as his aide. He was later stationed on the +Western frontier, and obtaining leave of absence (1831) planned an extensive +fur-trading and exploring expedition. This is the journey graphically described +by Washington Irving, in <cite>Rocky Mountains, or Scenes, Incidents and Adventures +in the far West, digested from the journal of B. L. E. Bonneville of the army of the +United States</cite> (Phila., 1837). Bonneville was absent from civilization for three +years (1832-35), and wandered as far west as the Columbia. His trading venture +was but moderately successful, and he returned to army life, participating in both +the Seminole and Mexican wars, in the latter of which he was severely wounded. +During the War of Secession, he was stationed chiefly at frontier posts, being +breveted brigadier-general in 1865. He died at Fort Smith in 1878.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_168_169" id="Footnote_168_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_169"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> For the Assiniboin consult our volume xiv, p. 275, +note 197.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_169_170" id="Footnote_169_170"></a><a +href="#FNanchor_169_170"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> +<i>Canis latrans</i>, a distinction to which its +noisiness emphatically entitles it. +Clavigero says of this animal: "El <i>coyotl, ó coyote</i>, +como dicen los Españoles, +es una fiera semejante al lobo en la voracidad, á la zorra en la astucia, al perro +en la forma, y en otras propiedades al <i>adive</i>, ó <i>chacal</i>; por lo que algunos escritores +Megicanos lo han numerado entre varias de aquellas especias; pero es indudable +que se diferencia de todas ellas," etc.—<cite>Hist. Ant. de Még. Tom. I. p. 40.</cite> +</p> +<p> +A similar propensity is observable among us to refer nearly all American animals +to European species, whereas but very few that are legitimately indigenous to this +continent, agree in every particular to those of the Old World. It would surely +have contributed to the copiousness and euphony of the language, as well as to +perspicuity in the distinction of species, had we, like the Mexicans, retained the +Indian names of our indigenous animals.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_170_171" id="Footnote_170_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_171"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> Mr. Irving furnishes the following dimensions of a male of this species: +"From the nose to the base of the tail, five feet; length of the tail, four inches; +girth of the body, four feet; height, three feet eight inches," &c.—<cite>Rocky Mts., +Vol. I., p.</cite> 48.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_171_172" id="Footnote_171_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_172"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> This has been called the <i>Coquimbo owl</i>. Its note, whether natural or imitative, +much resembles that of the prairie dog.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_172_173" id="Footnote_172_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_173"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Though I never saw it tried, it has been said that snakes will not crawl over +a hair-rope stretched upon the ground, and that consequently these form good +barriers to keep these reptiles out of a bed.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_173_174" id="Footnote_173_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_174"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> Orbicular lizard, as it has been technically denominated. It would seem +a species of chameleon, having apparently some, though very little, variability of +color.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div></div> + +<h3 title="Chapter XXVIII: Aborigines of America"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XXVIII_XII" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII_XII"></a> +CHAPTER XXVIII {XII} +<br />ABORIGINES OF AMERICA</h3> + +<p class="subhead">Indian Cosmogony — Traditions of Origin — Identity of Religious +Notions — Adoration of the Sun — Shawnee Faith — Anecdote of +Tecumseh — Legendary Traditions — Missionaries, and Success +of the Catholics — The Indian's Heaven — Burial Customs — Ancient +Accounts — Depositing the Dead on Scaffolds — Superstition +and Witchcraft — Indian Philosophy — Polygamy and other +Matrimonial Affairs — Abhorrence of Incest — Difference in Character — Indian +Hospitality — Traits of the Ancient Asiatics — Names — Relationship +of Different Tribes — Dreadful Decrease +of the Indians.<a href="#tocXXVIII" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>It will hardly be expected from a work making so little +pretension as this to scientific accuracy and completeness, +that the remarks which my plan necessarily leads me to +make, concerning the aborigines of western America, +should be either critical or comprehensive. Neither can +I feel that it is a topic which I am at liberty wholly to disregard. +The opportunities which I have enjoyed for <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg284"></a>[p284]</span> +obtaining a knowledge of the character and habits of the +western Indians have been such, that I trust that a brief +account of them may prove in some measure new, and not +altogether uninteresting to a portion of my readers. Impressed +with this belief, I propose, in the few {235} following +pages, to record such facts as shall seem to be most novel, +and to corroborate, in my humble measure, occasional +others which have before been related. With this view, +I shall proceed to notice, in the present chapter, such leading +characteristics of the aborigines generally, as shall +seem most noteworthy; and then, in those that follow, ask +the reader's attention to many peculiarities which make the +most conspicuous differences between them.</p> + +<p>No aboriginal nation or people has ever yet been discovered, +to my knowledge, which has not professed to +have a mysterious ancestry of a mythical character. It +is interesting to mark the analogies and the differences +between their various systems. Although among some +tribes who have lived much in communication with the +whites, their cosmogony has been confounded very much +with the Mosaic or Scripture account, so that it is now +often difficult to distinguish clearly the aboriginal from +the imported, yet all the Americo-Indian tribes have more +or less preserved their traditions on this subject. The +old full-blood Choctaws, for instance, relate that the first +of their tribe issued from a cave in Nunnewaya or Bending +Mountain, in the 'Old Nation,' east of the Mississippi; +yet this tradition has but little currency among the young +men and mixed-bloods of the tribe. The minute account +of this supposed origin cannot now be readily procured; +yet some idea may be formed of it from a kindred tradition +among {236} the Mandans which has been preserved to +us by Lewis and Clark, and is thus related: <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg285"></a>[p285]</span></p> + +<p>"The whole nation resided in one large village under +ground near a subterraneous lake: a grape vine extended +its roots down to their habitation and gave them a view of +the light: some of the most adventurous climbed up the +vine, and were delighted with the sight of the earth, which +they found covered with buffalo, and rich with every kind +of fruits: returning with the grapes they had gathered, their +countrymen were so pleased with the taste of them that +their whole nation resolved to leave their dull residence for +the charms of the upper regions; men, women and children +ascended by means of the vine; but when about half the +nation had reached the surface of the earth, a corpulent +woman who was clambering up the vine broke it with her +weight, and closed upon herself and the rest of the nation, +the light of the sun."<a name="FNanchor_174_175" id="FNanchor_174_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_175" class="fnanchor">[174]</a></p> + +<p>Besides the Mandans it seems that other neighboring +tribes had somewhat analogous notions of their origin. +An early explorer relates that the Osages believed that +their fore-fathers grew from a snail, which, having become +a man, married the daughter of a beaver, whence sprang +the present race.</p> + +<p>The resemblance of the American Indians to each other, +however, is not more conspicuous in anything than in their +religious opinions. They seem to have no well-defined +creeds: yet there are very few but profess a faith in some +sort of First Cause—a Great {237} Spirit, a Master of +Life, who rules the destinies of the world. Though the +different nations have not always typified their deity by +the same objects, yet by far the greater number seem to +have fixed upon the sun as the fit object of their adoration.<a name="FNanchor_175_176" id="FNanchor_175_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_176" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> +"Next to <dfn>Virachocha</dfn>, or their supreme God," says Father <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg286"></a>[p286]</span> +Acosta,<a name="FNanchor_176_177" id="FNanchor_176_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_177" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> speaking of the Indians of Peru, "that which +most commonly they have and do adore amongst the Infidells +is the Sunne." Many of the Mexican tribes<a name="FNanchor_177_178" id="FNanchor_177_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_178" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> profess +the same faith, and particularly those of New Mexico, +as has already been mentioned. This seems also the +most current among the Comanches and other wild tribes +of the Prairies: and the Choctaws and several other nations +of the frontier appear at least to have held the sun in great +veneration.</p> + +<p>But of all the Indian tribes, none appear to have ascribed +to the 'fountain of light' more of the proper attributes of +deity than the Shawnees. They argue, with some plausibility, +that the sun animates everything—therefore, he is +clearly the Master of Life, or the Great Spirit; and that +everything is produced originally from the bosom of the +earth—therefore, she is the mother of creation. The +following anecdote<a name="FNanchor_178_179" id="FNanchor_178_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_179" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> (as told to me by a gentleman of +integrity), which transpired upon {238} the occasion of an +interview of Tecumseh with Gen. Harrison, is as illustrative +of the religious opinions of the Shawnees, as it is characteristic +of the hauteur and independent spirit of that celebrated <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg287"></a>[p287]</span> +Shawnee chief. The General, having called Tecumseh +for a 'talk,' desired him to take a seat, saying, "Come +here, Tecumseh, and sit by your father." "You my +father?" replied the chief, with a stern air—"No! yonder +sun is my father (pointing towards it), and the earth is +my mother; so I will rest on her bosom"—and immediately +seated himself upon the ground, according to Indian +custom.</p> + +<p>But though the Shawnees consider the sun the type, +if not the essence, of the Great Spirit, many also believe in +an evil genius, who makes all sorts of bad things, to counterbalance +those made by the Good Spirit. For instance, +when the latter made a sheep, a rose, wholesome herbs, etc., +the bad spirit matched them with a wolf, a thorn, poisonous +plants, and the like. They also appear to think there +is a kind of purgatory in which the spirits of the wicked +may be cleansed before entering into their elysium.</p> + +<p>The worship of all the aborigines seems to consist chiefly +in feasting and dancing. A worthy missionary among the +Shawnees related to me the following legendary tradition, +as explanatory of their ideas of another world, and the +institution of their worship, which may serve as a fair +sample of the traditions of many other tribes.</p> + +<p>{239} In days of yore (say the Shawnees) there lived a +pious brother and an affectionate sister, who were inordinately +attached to each other. It came to pass that the +sister sickened and died, and was carried to the world of +spirits. The good brother was inconsolable, and for a +while refused to eat or drink, or to partake of any kind of +nourishment: he wished to follow his beloved sister. At +length he resolved to set out in search of her; so he commenced +his pilgrimage toward the setting sun. Steadily +pursuing the same course for days and moons together, +he at last came to where the sky and earth meet; and finding <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg288"></a>[p288]</span> +an opening, he ascended into the upper regions. He +now turned his course towards the rising sun, which he +continued, above the sky, till he came to the abode of his +grandfather—which seems but another name for one of +the good spirits. This sage, knowing his errand, gave +him 'medicine' to transform him into a spirit, that he +might pass through the celestial courts. He also gave him +instructions how to proceed, and where he would find his +sister. He said she would be at a dance; and when she +rose to join in the amusement, he must seize and ensconce +her in the hollow of a reed with which he was furnished, +and cover the orifice with the end of his finger.</p> + +<p>After an arduous peregrination through the land of +spirits, the brother found and secured his sister as directed. +He returned with his charge to the habitation of his grandfather, +who gave another 'medicine' to transform {240} +them both into material beings again, that they might +revisit their brothers on earth. The sage also explained +to them the mysteries of heaven and the sacred rites of +worship, that they might instruct their tribe therein. When +about to start back, the venerable spirit told them that the +route by which the brother had come was very circuitous—there +was a much nearer way; and opening a trap-door +through the sky, they beheld their native town just below +them. So the good brother and sister descended; and +returning home, a great feast was celebrated, accompanied +by a solemn dance—in accordance with the grandfather's +instructions. Thus originated, as they say, the sacred +dances and other religious ceremonies now in practice.</p> + +<p>As they believe the Indian heaven separate, and essentially +different and distinct from that of the whites, and as +they do not wish their people divided, this has often occasioned +a serious opposition to the labors of the missionaries.<a name="FNanchor_179_180" id="FNanchor_179_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_180" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg289"></a>[p289]</span> +For the purpose of thwarting the {241} measures of these, +a noted anti-christian sage 'played off,' a few years ago, +the following 'vision.' Being very ill (as they relate), this +sage, to all appearance, died, and became stiff and cold, +except a spot upon his breast, which still retained the heat +of life. In this state he remained a day or more, when he +again breathed and returned among the living: and calling +his friends about him, he related the scenes he had witnessed. +He had ascended to the Indian's heaven, he said, which he +described as usual: a fine country, abounding in all sorts +of game, and everything an Indian could desire. There +he met with his grandfather, who said to him, "It is meet, +my son, that thou return to the earth, and warn thy brothers +against the dangers that await them. Tell them to beware +of the religion of the white man: that every Indian who +embraces it is obliged to take the road to the white man's +heaven; and yet no red man is permitted to enter there, +but will have to wander about forever without a resting-place."</p> + +<p>The identity of the notions which the different tribes +have conceived of a future existence, and the character of +the 'world of spirits,' seems still more general. They <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg290"></a>[p290]</span> +fancy {242} heaven but another material world, superior, +it is true, yet resembling this—a kind of elysian vale, or +paradise—a 'happy hunting-ground,' abounding in game +and all their comforts of life, which may be procured without +labor. This elysium they generally seem to locate +'upon the sky,' which they fancy a material solid vault. +It appears impossible for them, in their pristine barbarism, +to conceive of a spiritual existence, or of a world differing +materially from that which they see around them.</p> + +<p>Father Hennepin (writing about 1680) relates, that the +northern Indians inquired about the manner of living in +heaven, and remarks: "When I made answer that they +live there without eating or drinking, 'We will not go +thither,' said they, 'because we must not eat;' and when +I have added that there would be no occasion for food there, +they clapt their hands to their mouths, as a sign of admiration, +and said, '<em>Thou art a great liar!—is there anything +can live without eating?</em>'"<a name="FNanchor_180_181" id="FNanchor_180_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_181" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></p> + +<p>Similar opinions, among many different tribes, I have +heard declared in direct terms; yet, did we want further +testimony, some of their burial customs and funeral rites +would seem to indicate their ideas of the future state. The +Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Kansas, and kindred tribes, +besides many others, or perhaps most others of the frontier, +have been accustomed to inter the most valuable property +of the deceased and many necessaries with them. "Their +whole property was buried {243} with them,"<a name="FNanchor_181_182" id="FNanchor_181_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_182" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> says an +intelligent Cherokee, in some manuscript notes concerning +his ancestors, I have in my possession: and I have been +assured by creditable natives, that, within their recollection <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg291"></a>[p291]</span> +they have seen, at these burials, provisions, salt, and other +necessaries, interred with the dead for their long journey.</p> + +<p>There are very few of the prairie Indians but practise +something of this kind: many kill the favorite hunting-horses, +and deposit the arms, etc., of the deceased, for +his use in the chase, when he arrives at the 'happy hunting +ground.' We are also informed by Capt. Bonneville, and +other travellers, that this is practised by some, if not all, +of the natives beyond the Rocky Mountains. The same +is told of the Navajoes, Apaches, and other uncatholicized +tribes of the north of Mexico.</p> + +<p>Peter Martyr, a learned and celebrated protestant divine, +who wrote his "Decades of the Newe Worlde"<a name="FNanchor_182_183" id="FNanchor_182_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_183" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> towards +the middle of the sixteenth century, observes that, "in +many places of the firme lande, when any of the kynges +dye, all his householde servauntes, as well women as men +which have continually served hym, kyl themselves, beleavynge, +as they are taught by the devyl <i>Tuyra</i>, that they +which kyll themselves when the kynge dyeth, go with hym +to heaven and serve hym in the same place and office as +they dyd before on {244} the earth whyle he lyved.<a name="FNanchor_183_184" id="FNanchor_183_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_184" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> And +that all that refuse so to doo, when after they dye by theyr +naturall death or otherwyse, theyr soules to dye with theyr +bodyes, and to bee dissolved into ayer and become nothynge +as do the soules of hogges, byrdes or fysshes, or other brute <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg292"></a>[p292]</span> +beastes."<a name="FNanchor_184_185" id="FNanchor_184_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_185" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> In corroboration of a similar custom among +the natives along the Mississippi, in 1542, Herrera relates,<a name="FNanchor_185_186" id="FNanchor_185_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_186" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> +that, after the death of Fernando de Soto, and his party +had set out westward, they were joined by a youth, who +stated that he had fled to escape being buried with his lord +who had died; which was the practice in that country. +Travellers from the upper lakes to the Mississippi speak +of similar customs, at an early day, among the tribes of that +quarter.</p> + +<p>It would appear that they believe everything, both animate +and inanimate—beasts, arms, ornaments, etc.—to +possess immortal attributes, subject to resurrection in +the world of spirits. However, did not their motives seem +so well defined by the direct allusions to their notions of +futurity, we might suppose, as is frequently urged, that the +burying of property, slaves, etc., with the deceased, was +only intended as a mark of respect; which, indeed, is hardly +more irrational than the custom {245} of interring costly +garniture and appendages with the dead among us.</p> + +<p>Some of the modes of burial adopted by the American +aborigines are different, I believe, from those of any other +people. Though, as among civilized nations, even the +wildest tribes sometimes inter in ordinary graves, yet they +frequently deposit their dead, in a sitting and even in a +standing posture, in pits, caves, and hollow trees; and +occasionally, they lay the corpse out upon scaffolds suspended +from the branches of trees, or resting upon them +where they will admit of it, so as to be out of reach of the +wolves and other beasts.</p> + +<p>I was once, with a little caravan, travelling up the course +of the Arkansas river, when, a thunder-storm coming up <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg293"></a>[p293]</span> +suddenly, and night drawing near, we turned the wagons +as soon as we could, to the river-bank, to encamp. The +bustle of ungearing and securing the teams before they +should be frightened by the tempest, was hardly over, +when we discovered a platform suspended above our heads, +upon the branches of a cottonwood, which, upon examination, +was found to contain an Indian corpse, from whose +bones the putrid flesh had not yet separated!</p> + +<p>This mode of disposing of the dead would seem once +to have been quite extensive; for, as well as upon the western +prairies, it formerly prevailed among the Potawatomies +of the north, and the Choctaws of the south, at least while +on their expeditions. In this case, if practicable, they +would leave a band of {246} aged men, known as bone-pickers,' +to clean the bones, when the flesh decayed, and +carry them to their village for interment.</p> + +<p>Barbarians are generally superstitious to an extreme, +believing in hobgoblins, witchcraft, legerdemain and all +sorts of mummeries.<a name="FNanchor_186_187" id="FNanchor_186_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_187" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> Like many grandmothers in backwoods +life, they delight in recounting the extraordinary +apparitions, transmigrations, sorceries, etc., which they +pretend to have witnessed. Nothing seems too absurd for +their belief. Among many other cases of similar cast, +an intelligent Potawatomie once assured me that he had +witnessed the death of one of his nation, who had received <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg294"></a>[p294]</span> +a stab in his side with a knife (probably in some illicit +adventure); and it being unknown to his friends how the +wound had been inflicted, it was currently reported and +believed, that from their {247} present home on the frontier +of Missouri, he had visited the 'Old Nation' in Michigan,<a name="FNanchor_187_188" id="FNanchor_187_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_188" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> +poisoned an enemy there, received the fatal stab, +and returned and died, all in one day.</p> + +<p>If you tell an Indian that such things are absurd and +impossible, he is apt to answer, "It may be so with the white +man, but how do you know it to be impossible with the +Indian? You tell us many strange things which happened +to your fathers—we don't contradict them, though we +believe such things never could have happened to the red +man." Or, they will reply, perhaps, as they did to Father +Hennepin in a similar case: "Fie, thou knowest not what +thou sayest; thou may'st know what has passed in thy own +Country, for thy Ancestors have told thee of them; but thou +canst not know what has passed in ours before the Spirits +(that is to say the Europeans) came hither."</p> + +<p>In their matrimonial customs there is also a similarity +among most of the American savages. Polygamy seems +once to have been universal; and I believe still is so among +the uncivilized tribes. Every man takes as many wives +as he can obtain, or is able to support. The squaws, however, +the more willingly consent to this multiplicity, as it +affords additional helpmates in their labors. Polygamy +among these savages would appear, indeed, not altogether +an unwise provision. At least it seems palliated with such <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg295"></a>[p295]</span> +a belligerent people, who lose so many males in their continual +wars, leaving a great surplus of females; and {248} +where the duties of the latter are so numerous and so severe.</p> + +<p>The custom of buying wives, or at least making large +presents to their parents, has always been very general; +and still exists, not only among the more savage, but even +with many of the partially civilized nations. Yet, notwithstanding +their depravity in other respects, there is one +thing truly remarkable in their marriages. All modern +observers seem to agree with the ancient authors, that they +universally abhor incestuous connections. Among the +Creeks, even the marrying of cousins was punished by +cutting off the ears. The Cherokees (according to some +manuscript notes which I have of an intelligent member +of the tribe) were prohibited from marrying in their own +clans (i. e. kindred) under penalty of death; and their clans +themselves were their executioners. But, although the +Indians thus so strictly prohibit marriage within the degree +of consanguinity, it is not so with those of affinity among +many tribes. The Otoes, Kansas, and others of the same +stock, will not only marry several sisters, but their deceased +brothers' wives; in fact, this last seems considered a duty +so that the orphan children of the brother may not be without +a protector.<a name="FNanchor_188_189" id="FNanchor_188_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_189" class="fnanchor">[188]</a></p> + +<p>While the aborigines of the New World {249} have been +noted above almost every other uncivilized nation in history, +for their vindictiveness and cruelty towards their enemies, +there are, in these attributes, wide differences apparent +among them. The Indians along the Pacific coast, as +well as in most of Mexico, were always more mild and +peaceable than those of the United States. Hence it is, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg296"></a>[p296]</span> +in fact, that the Spaniards did not meet with that formidable +resistance to their conquests which they encountered among +the fiery tribes of Florida, or that relentless and desperate +hostility which the Anglo-Americans experienced in the +first settlement of most parts of the United States.</p> + +<p>But in the common trait of hospitality to strangers all +the western tribes are alike distinguished. The traveller +who is thrown upon their charity, is almost universally +received and treated with the greatest kindness; and, +though they might pilfer him to the skin, and even place +his person in jeopardy, if he show want of confidence in +them, and endeavor to conceal his effects, yet his property +is generally secure when under their charge: they appear +to consider a breach of confidence one of the greatest crimes.</p> + +<p>Among the wild tribes, as well as among most of the +unadulterated border Indians, to set something to eat before +a friend, and even a stranger, immediately upon his arrival +at a lodge or a cabin, is deemed not only an act of hospitality +but of necessary etiquette; and a refusal to partake is looked +upon as an unfriendly {250} token—an insult, in fact, to +the family. Travellers are often severely taxed to preserve +the good feeling of their hosts in this particular, especially +among the prairie Indians. One at all fastidious in matters +of diet, would find it hard to relish food from a greasy hornspoon +which every urchin had been using; and then to +ladle it out of a pot which had been common for all the +papooses and pups of the premises: or to partake from a +slice rolled up in a musty skin, or a dirtier blanket. And +yet an apology even of having already dined half-a-dozen +times would scarcely palliate the insult of a refusal. Though +one visit fifty lodges in the course of a day, he must taste +the food of every one.</p> + +<p>The Indian system of chiefs, which still prevails, and +is nearly the same everywhere, except with the Cherokees, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg297"></a>[p297]</span> +Choctaws, Chickasaws, and the Creeks to a degree, seems +to bear a strong resemblance to that of the patriarchs of +old; which, with their clans so analogous to those of our +forefathers, perhaps affords as strong a proof as any other +of their Asiatic origin.<a name="FNanchor_189_190" id="FNanchor_189_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_190" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> To this might be added their +{251} mode of naming;<a name="FNanchor_190_191" id="FNanchor_190_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_191" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> for the Indians universally apply <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg298"></a>[p298]</span> +names significant of acts, qualities, beasts, birds, etc., to +their offspring,—a practice which seems to have prevailed +generally among the ancient Asiatics. Surnames have +only been adopted by educated families {252} and mixed-bloods +of the border nations, and are generally taken from +their missionaries or some favorite friends; except they +inherit surnames from parents of white extraction.</p> + +<p>That the Indians of America are decreasing in numbers is +very well known, but many are dwindling away, perhaps, +at a more rapid pace than is generally suspected. The +number of the Osages, it is confidently believed, has diminished +fifty per cent. within the last ten years: the once +powerful tribe of Missouries is now reduced to a mere +remnant; while the Mandans, as a nation, have become +entirely extinct: and others have shared or bid fair soon +to share the same fate. This has resulted partially from +the ravages of the small-pox and other diseases, yet as much +no doubt from the baneful effects of intoxicating liquors. +On this account, their diminution has generally been less +in proportion as they are more remote from the whites. +But the 'red man' has suffered from his intercourse with the +whites not in this respect alone. The incentives to luxury +and avarice continually presented by them, have had a very +pernicious influence. Formerly the savages were contented +with the indispensables of life—generally sober, +just and charitable; but now they will sacrifice their comfort—risk +their lives, and commit the most atrocious outrages +to gratify their vanity and lusts—to bedeck themselves +with gewgaws and finery.</p> + +<h3 title="Chapter XXIX: The Frontier Indians"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XXIX_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIX_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XXIX {XIII} +<br />THE FRONTIER INDIANS</h3> + +<p class="subhead"><a id="Pg299"></a> +Causes of Removal West — Annuities, etc. — Dissatisfaction of the +Indians — Their Melioration by the Change — Superiority of their +present Location — Lands granted to them — Improvements, Agriculture, +etc. — Their Slaves — Manufactures — Style of Living, +Dress, etc. — Literary Opportunities and Improvements — Choctaw +Academy — Harpies and Frauds — Games — Systems of Government — +Polygamy — Ancient +Laws and Customs — Intemperance — Preventive +Measures — A Choctaw Enactment — Marriage +and Funeral Customs of the Choctaws — The Creeks — Their +Summary Executions — Mourning — Indian Titles — The Northern +Tribes — Census of the Frontier Nations.<a href="#tocXXIX" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>For the purpose of a somewhat more discriminating +notice of the Indian tribes beyond our western border—for +it is to those I intend my remarks, in these pages, to be +strictly confined—I will distinguish them, according to +the prevailing classification of the West, as 'Frontier' or +'Border Indians,' which title includes those occupying that +district lying west of and immediately adjoining Arkansas +and Missouri, and known as the <dfn>Indian Territory</dfn>; and +the 'Wild Tribes' or 'Prairie Indians,' by which are meant +those who are found west of the others, and who range +those immense {254} plains from the borders of the Indian +Territory to the Rocky Mountains. Of these I will speak +in their order.</p> + +<p>The most important of the frontier tribes, as is well +known, are the Cherokees, Choctaws and Chickasaws, +Creeks and Seminoles, Shawnees, Delawares, etc. It is +equally well known that most of these tribes were removed +from within the States, not less because of the vicious propensities +which they contracted and the imposition to which +they were continually exposed, than on account of the +difficulty of maintaining peaceful relations between them +and our own citizens, while they remained in their midst. +Their situation within the States certainly presented quite <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg300"></a>[p300]</span> +an anomaly in government—independent powers within +the limits of others claiming sovereign jurisdiction.<a name="FNanchor_191_192" id="FNanchor_191_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_192" class="fnanchor">[191]</a></p> + +<p>A mistaken philanthropy—mistaken for want of a full +knowledge of all the bearings of the subject—among some +people, has occasioned much censure upon this branch +of the policy of our government. But were we to take into +consideration the treatment of other nations towards the +aborigines of America, that of the United States, when +placed in contrast, would certainly present a very benevolent +aspect. They have always been removed by their +own consent, obtained through their chiefs and councils; +and have not only been given equal amounts of land, west +of the border, but have generally been removed and furnished +a year's subsistence {255} at the expense of the government, +and received valuable equivalents beside, in utensils +and other necessaries, and in regular annuities. These +are sums, generally in money, annually paid, for a series +of years, to the several tribes, proportioned usually to the +size of the tribe and the amount of territory acquired from +it. This institution of annuities, however, though intended +as the most charitable, has doubtless been the most injurious +branch of the policy of the United States towards the Indians. +Being thus afforded the means of living without much labor, +they have neglected manufactures, and even agriculture, +to a considerable degree, and many of them have acquired <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg301"></a>[p301]</span> +confirmed habits of indolence and dissipation; and now +that their annuities are growing short, they are being left +destitute, without the energy, the industry, or the means +wherewith to procure a livelihood.</p> + +<p>But, notwithstanding the constant efforts of the general +government to make them comfortable, and the immense +sums of money which have been paid them, and their being +located in regions far better suited to their wants and their +habits of life than those they abandoned, many of them +appear greatly dissatisfied with the change and with the +government; which seems painfully demonstrative of that +perverse, restless disposition, which appears ever to have +characterized the conduct of half-civilized nations.</p> + +<p>One ostensible reason for their unwillingness {256} to +remove, has been a reluctance to abandon their native +homes and the 'graves of their fathers.' Many fabulous +legends are told of the attachment of the Indian to his +native soil, yet but few who are acquainted with their +habitudes, will place much stress on this. Their own +traditions, as well as experience, have shown, that, when +left to themselves, they incline to migrate; of which the +Azteques of Mexico, and the Osages, with others of our +border, afford striking examples: in fact, there is scarcely +a tribe on the frontier which has not its traditions of migrations +at some period. The Shawnees say their forefathers +emigrated from the south to the regions north of the Ohio—the +Creeks, as well as many of the Choctaws, that they +were originally from west of the Mississippi—besides +many other cases.</p> + +<p>But, with regard to this passage of our country's history, +I will merely say, in addition, that, so far as I am able to +judge, the condition of the 'red man' has been very materially +bettered by the change. The lands they at present +occupy are, for the most part, of a more fertile character <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg302"></a>[p302]</span> +than those which they have left. The climate is equally +or perhaps more healthy, in general; notwithstanding the +dreadful mortality which afflicted many of them shortly +after their removal—a calamity which was attributable, +primarily, to the change of climate, as well as to the change +of habits which their new dwelling-places involved; and +secondarily, to the too abundant use of {257} spirituous +liquors, with which they were frequently provided by both +native and white peddlers and traders, before any measures, +efficient enough to check the evil, were taken either by +themselves or by the general government. But, although +the latter cause still prevails to some degree, I have little +doubt that the average mortality among the frontier tribes, +at present, is less than it was before their removal.</p> + +<p>To each tribe has generally been granted a greater number +of acres, with definite metes and boundaries, than had +been ceded by them east of the Mississippi. It is deemed +unnecessary, however, to swell this brief notice with a statement +of the several amounts of land given to each tribe, +and their localities, as these may be seen with sufficient +accuracy and definiteness by consulting the map which +accompanies this work.</p> + +<p>The lands of each tribe are the property of the Indian +commonwealth; and, therefore, even among the most +civilized of them, the settler has a title only in his improvement, +which he holds by occupancy, and can sell at pleasure. +To prevent collisions in improvements, the first occupant +is entitled to a certain distance in every direction. Among +the Cherokees, no one can build within a quarter of a mile +of the house or field of another: so, to extend their possessions, +the more wealthy sometimes make several isolated +improvements, scattered in different directions, within half +a mile of each other. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg303"></a>[p303]</span></p> + +<p>{258} The game in the interspersed forests having now +become scarce, and that of the western prairies being too +remote, the frontier Indians have generally turned their +attention to agriculture, and to the raising of stock; and +most of them have large numbers of horses, cattle, and +hogs.</p> + +<p>Some of these Indians, particularly of the southern nations, +have very extensive farms: but the mass of their population +extend their culture no further than they seem compelled +by necessity. The traveller, passing through the Cherokee +Nation, is struck with the contrast between an occasional +stately dwelling, with an extensive farm attached, and the +miserable hovels of the indigent, sometimes not ten feet +square, with a little patch of corn, scarce large enough for +a family garden. In fact, among all the tribes who have +no slaves, what little there is of cultivation, is mostly the +work of the women. Scattered through the country, one +continually encounters dilapidated huts with trifling improvements, +which have been abandoned by the owners +for some fancy they may have taken to some other location +at a distance, better adapted, as they think, to the promotion +of their comfort, and upon which they may live +with less labor.</p> + +<p>Most of the labor among the wealthier classes of Cherokees, +Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks and Seminoles, is +done by negro slaves; for they have all adopted substantially +the Southern system of slavery.<a name="FNanchor_192_193" id="FNanchor_192_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_193" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> Some individuals +of these nations own over fifty slaves each: {259} but they <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg304"></a>[p304]</span> +are the only slaveholders of the frontier tribes, except very +few among the Shawnees.</p> + +<p>With some tribes, and particularly among the lower +classes of the Creeks, they are inclined to settle in 'towns,' +as they are called,—making large fields, which are cultivated +in common, and the produce proportionally distributed. +But these 'towns' are rather settlements than +villages, being but sparse clusters of huts without any +regularity. Indeed, there is not, I believe, a regularly +laid out town in all the Indian country, nor a place that +could even merit the name of a village; except Doaksville +near Fort Towson, and perhaps Park Hill in the Cherokee +Nation.<a name="FNanchor_193_194" id="FNanchor_193_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_194" class="fnanchor">[193]</a></p> + +<p>Besides agriculture, most of the frontier tribes attend +a little to manufactures, though with no greater energy. +The women have generally learned to spin, weave and +sew, at which they occupy themselves, occasionally, during +recess from the labors of the field. But very few of the +men acquire mechanical arts or follow trades of any kind: +their carpenter, wheelwright and smith work is done by +a few mechanics provided the several tribes in accordance +with treaty stipulations. To each tribe is furnished in +particular one or more blacksmiths from the United States.</p> + +<p>These frontier Indians for the most part live in cabins +of logs, like those of our backwoods settlers; and many of +them are undistinguishable, except in color, language, +and to some degree in costume, from the poorer {260} +classes of their white neighbors. Even in dress and +language the more civilized are fast conforming to the latter. +In many families, especially of the Cherokees, the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg305"></a>[p305]</span> +English tongue only is spoken; and great numbers of these, +as well as of the Choctaws and Chickasaws, dress according +to the American fashions: but the ruder portions of even +these, the most enlightened nations, as is also the case +with nearly all of the northern tribes, wear the hunting-shirt, +sometimes of buckskin, but now more commonly +of calico, cotton plaid or linsey. Instead of using hats, +they wreathe about their heads a fancy-colored shawl or +handkerchief. Neither do the women of these classes +wear bonnets, but leave their heads exposed, or protected +only with a shawl, somewhat after the manner of the Mexican +females; to the lower classes of whom, indeed, the +mixed-bloods of these Indians bear a strong resemblance. +Their most usual dress is a short petticoat of cotton goods, +or as frequently with the tribes of the north, of coarse red +or blue broad-cloth.</p> + +<p>The literary opportunities afforded to the border tribes +are so important in their consequences as to deserve some +notice. To each tribe has been granted, by the United +States, a school fund, generally somewhat proportioned +to the extent of the tribe. The Cherokees and Choctaws +seem to have availed themselves of this provision to the +greatest advantage. These funds are for the most part +invested in American stocks, and the proceeds {261} appropriated +to educational uses, establishing schools, etc.<a name="FNanchor_194_195" id="FNanchor_194_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_195" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg306"></a>[p306]</span> +The tuition is, I believe, in every case, free to the Indians; +and yet it is painful to know that comparatively few of the +common classes will send their children.</p> + +<p>The most extensive literary institution which has ever +been in operation, for the benefit of the 'red man,' was +the 'Choctaw Academy,' established in Kentucky, and +supported by a common fund of several different tribes. +It was not as successful, however, as was anticipated by +its projectors; and is now being transferred and merged +into an academy near Fort Towson, in the Choctaw country, +wholly supported out of the Choctaw fund. This Academy +proved very unsatisfactory to many of the tribes concerned. +They said, with apparent justice, that their boys, educated +there, forgot all their customs, their language, their relatives, +their national attachments; and, in exchange, often +acquired indolent and effeminate, if not vicious habits; +and were rendered {262} unfit to live among their people, +or to earn a maintenance by labor. There seems but little +doubt that the funds of each tribe might be employed to a +much better advantage in their own country. The influence +of the institutions would there be more likely to +extend to all classes; and by gradual, the only practicable +means, a change might be wrought upon the nation.<a name="FNanchor_195_196" id="FNanchor_195_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_196" class="fnanchor">[195]</a></p> + +<p>It is one of the calamities incident to the state of ignorance +in which most of these poor Indians remain, and their close, +indeed political connection with the more civilized people <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg307"></a>[p307]</span> +of the United States, that they are continually preyed upon +by the unprincipled harpies who are ever prowling through +their country, ready to seize every opportunity of deceiving +and defrauding them out of their money or effects.<a name="FNanchor_196_197" id="FNanchor_196_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_197" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> {263} +The most depraving agencies employed to this end are +the ministration of intoxicating drinks, and gaming, of +both which the Indians are passionately fond, and by +which they are frequently robbed of their money as soon +almost as received.</p> + +<p>Apart from the usual games at cards, dice, etc., the Indians +of the border have some peculiar games of their own, as +well at cards as otherwise. Among these the most celebrated +is the 'Ball Play,' which resembles, in some respects, +the old-fashioned game of <dfn>bandy</dfn>. The wagers are usually +laid upon beating the majority of a given number, a dozen +or more of these games; and large amounts in horses, +blankets, and other goods, and even money, are frequently +staked upon the result.</p> + +<p>Besides the ball play, <i>dancing</i> is a most favorite amusement +of these tribes, indeed of all the frontier as well as +prairie Indians. They formerly had many kinds of dances,—the +green-corn dance, the medicine, the eagle, the scalp +and the war dances. But these are now only practised +by the ruder portions of the border nations and the less +improved tribes; among whom may still be witnessed +frequently their genuine aboriginal frolics. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg308"></a>[p308]</span></p> + +<p>The green-corn dance generally lasts several {264} days, +commencing when the new crop begins to ripen. A large +arbor of green branches is usually prepared, and numerous +parties of both sexes dance in a body to their native songs +and rude instrumental music, accompanied by their monotonous +"heh! heh! heh!" with a chorus of yells at intervals; +and their movements are attended with the most comical +gesticulations. Having passed through a course of 'purification' +by drinking a decoction of certain stimulant herbs, +prepared by their medicine-men, and put out all the fires, +they strike fire anew by rubbing sticks together; and a +quantity of corn, pulse and other fruits of the season, being +cooked with the 'new fire,' the dance is closed with a general +feast. Each family, as it is said, then takes a supply from +the 'new breed' of fire. A more interesting and salutary +influence of this custom, which is said to prevail among +some tribes at this festival, is the cancelling or composing +of all old difficulties and disputes.</p> + +<p>The most advanced of these border nations, the <i>Cherokees</i> +and the united tribes of the <i>Choctaws</i> and <i>Chickasaws</i>, +have adopted systems of government, which are based upon <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg309"></a>[p309]</span> +the constitutions of our States. The Cherokee being the +most complete, some account of it may not be out of place +in this connection.</p> + +<p>A council or convention of the wise men of the nation +was convened on the first of July, 1839, who framed a +constitution, of which the following are the general features, +it being somewhat similar to one previously adopted in +{265} the 'Old Nation.' The three powers, legislative, +executive and judicial, are distinguished and established. +The legislative consists of a National Committee and +Council. The former is composed of two and the latter +of three members from each of the eight or ten districts +into which the nation was to be divided—elected for two +years by the people. They convene annually on the first +Monday in October, and each house elects a presiding +officer out of its own body. Bills are introduced, discussed +and passed according to parliamentary usage.</p> + +<p>The executive, called Principal Chief, and an assistant +chief, are elected for four years by the people. The executive +has the usual veto and pardoning power. He is assisted +by an 'Executive Council' of five, and the common +cabinet of secretaries. The judiciary consists of a Supreme +and Circuit Court, and the ordinary justices of the peace. +Trial by jury is secured; and the common law of England +appears to have been generally adopted. Religious toleration +is guarantied, but no person can hold a civil office who +denies the existence of a God, and a future state of rewards +and punishments.<a name="FNanchor_197_198" id="FNanchor_197_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_198" class="fnanchor">[197]</a></p> + +<p>According to laws subsequently enacted by the same +council, the punishment for murder is death; and for an +attempt to kill, a fine correspondent to the damage, for the +benefit of the injured party: for rape, a hundred lashes—but <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg310"></a>[p310]</span> +for infanticide, only twenty-five to fifty!<a name="FNanchor_198_199" id="FNanchor_198_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_199" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> Whipping +seems the punishment {266} for all inferior crimes; which +is the same with the Choctaws and Creeks, among whom +the executioners are called the 'light-horse,' a kind of +police-guard, also formerly in use by the Cherokees, but +now their place is supplied by a common sheriff and <i>posse</i>.</p> + +<p>As is to be inferred from their institutions, the Cherokees +stand first among the 'red men' in refinement, though in +industry, morality, and sobriety, they are no doubt excelled +by the Choctaws and Chickasaws, who are reckoned the +most quiet and Christian-like Indians of the border.</p> + +<p>No laws have yet been passed to enforce the payment of +debts, except by the Cherokees; and these found it necessary +to suspend their operation for two years. Even the +most improved have not prohibited polygamy by any law; +though, from the example of the whites and of the more +civilized among them, as well as the exertions of the missionaries, +it is growing out of repute with most of the border +nations. It is still occasionally practised, however; and +the ruder classes among them all, I believe, sometimes still +take any number of wives, and divorce them at pleasure. +But the more enlightened are married by preachers, or +authorized civil officers.</p> + +<p>With the united nation of Choctaws and Chickasaws, +the executive power is vested in four chiefs, called in Choctaw +<dfn>mingoes</dfn>, who are selected one from each of the districts +into which the country is divided, {267} and of which the +Chickasaw tribe constitutes one.<a name="FNanchor_199_200" id="FNanchor_199_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_200" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> These chiefs are vested +with the usual veto and pardoning powers, and are elected <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg311"></a>[p311]</span> +for four years. Most of their other constitutional provisions +resemble those of the Cherokees. The Choctaws, +as well as the Creeks, punish the crime of murder with +death by shooting, which is generally executed immediately +after trial, by the 'light-horse.'</p> + +<p>It has become evident, however, that written laws and +courts of justice, judges and juries, are still rather in advance +of the state of civilization of the ruder classes, even +among these most enlightened tribes. It has been found +very difficult to bring them under their subordination. +They have had, notwithstanding, a salutary effect in many +cases, and especially with regard to murder. Among +most of these nations (as well as the wild tribes), it was +formerly the custom to leave the punishment of homicide +to the relatives of the murdered. With the Choctaws +and Cherokees, in particular, the entire clan or +family of the murderer were held responsible for the crime; +and though the real offender might escape, the bereaved +family had a right to kill any one of his nearest relatives +that could be found, up to the most remote kindred. There +seemed no exceptions for accidental homicide, or killing +in self-defence: the Mosaic precept of 'life for life' must +be fulfilled, unless satisfactorily commuted. This savage +custom had at least one salutary effect, however: the relatives +themselves, instead of assisting {268} the escape, as +so often occurs in civilized life, were generally the first +to apprehend and bring the fugitive criminal to justice.</p> + +<p>But among the Choctaws, at least, any one might take +the place of the murderer, and in the death of the substitute +the law was satisfied, and the true criminal remained exempt. +An intelligent and creditable Choctaw related to +me an affecting incident, for the truth of which he vouched. +An Indian had remained responsible for the appearance, +on a certain day, of his brother, who had killed a man. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg312"></a>[p312]</span> +When the day arrived, the murderer exhibited some reluctance +to fulfil the pledge, when the other said to him: "My +brother, you are no brave—you are afraid to die—stay +here and take care of my family—I will die in your place:" +whereupon he immediately attended the appointed spot, +and was executed accordingly.</p> + +<p>The highest honor known among them, in fact, being +that of a 'great brave,' it reflected the greatest credit to +meet death boldly. Instead of being visited by his tribe +with infamy for the crime he had committed, it rather +tended to make his name illustrious, if he met the consequences +without fear or flinching: whereas, any effort to +avoid death was attributed to cowardice. It would have +been esteemed quite as ignominious for the murderer to +flee the established forfeit of his life, as for a 'gentleman' +under the 'civilized code of honor,' to back out from a +duel.</p> + +<p>But among most of the frontier, as also the {269} wild +tribes, a commutation, though not honorable to the perpetrator, +was and still is permitted, except by the Cherokees +and Choctaws. Any recompense which would satisfy the +bereft family, released the murderer from further penalty.</p> + +<p>There is scarcely any temptation which the Indian +tribes have to encounter so frequently, and so seriously +fatal to their social improvement, as intemperance. Of +this they are conscious themselves, and most of them have +adopted measures for prohibiting the introduction of ardent +spirits among them, and for checking the propensity to +use them, with various degrees of success. Among the +Choctaws, a law was passed upon this subject, which, +though not entirely, was measurably successful; and the +spirit which effected its passage was worthy of the most +exalted state of civilization.</p> + +<p>It seems that the tribe had generally become sensible <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg313"></a>[p313]</span> +of the pernicious influences of strong drink upon their +prosperity and happiness, and had attempted various +plans for its suppression, without success. At last, it was +determined by the chiefs, captains, and head men, to strike +a blow which should reach the very root of the evil at once. +A council was called, and many and long were the speeches +which were made, and much enthusiasm was created +against the monster 'Whiskey,' and all his brood of compound +enormities. Still every one seemed loth to move +his arrest and execution. Finally, a {270} captain of more +than ordinary temerity arose, and offered a resolution that +each and every individual who should thenceforward dare to +introduce any of the liquid curses into their country, should +be punished with a hundred lashes on his bare back, and +the liquor be poured out. This was passed, after some +slight changes, by acclamation: but, with a due sense of +the injustice of <i>ex-post-facto</i> restrictions, all those who had +liquors on hand were permitted to sell them. The council +adjourned; but the members soon began to canvass among +each other the pernicious consequences which might result +from the protracted use of the whiskey already in the shops, +and therefore concluded the quicker it was drank up, the +more promptly would the evil be over: so, falling to, in less +than two hours Bacchus never mustered a drunker troop +than were these same temperance legislators. The consequences +of their determination were of lasting importance +to them. The law, with some slight improvements, has ever +since been rigorously enforced.</p> + +<p>Among most of the Indian tribes the daughter has very +little to do with the selection of her husband. The parents +usually require to be satisfied first, and their permission +being secured the daughter never presumes to offer any +important resistance. There is a post-nuptial custom +peculiar to the full-blood Indians of the Choctaws, which <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg314"></a>[p314]</span> +deserves particular notice. For years, and perhaps for +life, {271} after the marriage of her daughter, the mother +is forbidden to look upon her son-in-law. Though they +converse together, he must be hidden from her by a +wall, a tent, a curtain, or, when nothing else offers, by +covering the eyes. During their emigration, it is said +these poor superstitious matrons were put to infinite trouble +so as not to infract this custom. While travelling, or in +camp often without tents, the mother-in-law was afraid to +raise her head or open her eyes, lest they should meet the +interdicted object.</p> + +<p>It is another peculiarity, which they have in common +with some of the more northern tribes, that the Choctaw +wife, of the 'old school,' can never call her husband by +name. But if they have offspring—she calls him "my +son's father;" or, more commonly using the child's name, +when, if Ok-le-no-wa, for instance, she calls the husband +"Ok-le-no-wa's father." And yet another oddity regarding +names: the ignorant Choctaw seems to have a superstitious +aversion to telling his own name: indeed it appears +impossible to get it from him, unless he have an acquaintance +present, whom he will request to tell it for him.</p> + +<p>In burials, the civilized Choctaws follow the customs of +the whites, but the ruder classes still preserve their aboriginal +usages. According to these, a painted pole with a +flag is stuck up at the grave, which usually remains three +months. During this period they have regular mourning +exercises every morning and evening; and are always prompt +to avail themselves, {272} at any other hour of the day, of +the assistance of any friend who may visit them to help +them to weep. At the end of the prescribed term, the +friends of the bereft family attend a feast at their house, +and, after dancing all night, the next morning visit the +grave and pull down the pole; which is called 'the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg315"></a>[p315]</span> +pole-pulling.' After this all mourning ceases, and the family +is permitted to join in the usual amusements and festivities +of the tribe, which was not allowable before.</p> + +<p>Though the <i>Creeks</i><a name="FNanchor_200_201" id="FNanchor_200_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_201" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> are generally a very industrious +people, raising an abundance of corn and vegetables, yet +they are quite behind their neighbors, of whom I have been +speaking, as well politically as in a social and literary view. +Their executive consists of two principal chiefs, and their +legislature or council of about forty minor chiefs or captains, +who are also, <i>ex officio</i>, justices of the peace.<a name="FNanchor_201_202" id="FNanchor_201_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_202" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> They +have no trial by jury, and their judicial proceedings are +exceedingly summary—frequently without witnesses; for +the warriors are generally too proud to deny a charge, lest +it be construed into cowardice. Executions sometimes +take place within an hour after the commencement of trial. +Murder, rape and a third conviction of stealing are punished +with death, usually by shooting; but, in case of homicide, +if claimed by the relatives of the {273} deceased, the criminal +is executed with the same kind of weapon, or, if possible, +the very same, with which he committed the murder.</p> + +<p>Most inferior crimes, as has been mentioned, are punished +by whipping: for the first offence of stealing, fifty +lashes; for the second, a hundred and ears cropped. Adultery +is punished by cutting off both the nose and ears of +the adulteress; but the husband has a right to say if the +law shall be executed: in fact, he is generally the executioner, +and that often without trial. Notwithstanding +the severity of these laws, they are for the most part rigorously +enforced; though a commutation satisfactory to the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg316"></a>[p316]</span> +aggrieved is still permitted to release the offender. Their +laws, in cases of accidental homicide, are still more barbarously +rigid than those of the other nations.</p> + +<p>The obsequies of the Creeks are peculiar in this,—that +at the moment an Indian expires, a gun is discharged. +Their graves are generally under the floors of their dwellings, +and a husband's is apt to be under the bed of his +widow. The fate of the unfortunate relict is miserable +enough in any country, but among the Creeks her doom +is barbarously rigorous. She remains in strict mourning +for four years,<a name="FNanchor_202_203" id="FNanchor_202_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_203" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> with dishevelled hair and without {274} +combing,—unless the relatives of the deceased interfere; +whereby it is sometimes put an end to in a few months, +provided the sincerity of her grief be evident and her conduct +meritorious. In their mourning, however, they do +not weep and cry with such clamorous vehemence as the +Choctaws and others. But the Shawnees and Delawares +are still more celebrated for quiet mourning.<a name="FNanchor_203_204" id="FNanchor_203_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_204" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> As warlike +nations, they appear to disdain to mourn and wail aloud, +as is the practice among the greater portion of the savage +tribes.</p> + +<p>Though these people have no family names, they generally +take a kind of honorary title or <i>sobriquet</i>, as is also the +case with the wild tribes, upon the occurrence of any important +incident, or the performance of a meritorious feat. +A singular mode of inheritance prevails among the Cherokees, +the Creeks, and perhaps others. Though the women +in other respects are mostly held as very inferior beings, +the clans are all reckoned by them: the children pertain to <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg317"></a>[p317]</span> +the mother, and the estates descend through the female +branch of the family. They say it is easy enough to verify +the mothers of families, but it is difficult to identify the +fathers.</p> + +<p>The remaining tribes, inhabiting the more northern +frontier, as well as the Seminoles who are located among +the Creeks, possess so few distinct or striking characteristics, +and, indeed, are mostly so few in number, that a particular +notice of them seems hardly to be required. Suffice it to +say, that all of them, {275} as I believe, still retain their +ancient systems of arbitrary chiefs and councils of sages +and braves, nearly in their primitive state; and that the +greater portion of them live in log huts, and cultivate the +soil to a considerable extent. Though the Shawnees, +Delawares, and Kickapoos, are among the most agricultural +of the northern Indians, yet a few of these spend the +greater portion of their time on the Prairies in hunting and +in trading with the wild tribes.<a name="FNanchor_204_205" id="FNanchor_204_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_205" class="fnanchor">[204]</a></p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_174_175" id="Footnote_174_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_175"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> Consult Thwaites, <cite>Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition</cite>, +(New York, 1904-05) v, p. 347.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_175_176" id="Footnote_175_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_176"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> The consensus of modern opinion is, that the Indians worshipped the sun +only as a symbol. They were in a stage neither monotheistic nor pantheistic, +but recognized all manifestations of the unseen, without a sense of personal unity. +Consult on this subject, J. W. Powell, "Mythology of North American Indians," +in U. S. Bureau of Ethnology <cite>Report</cite>, 1879-80, pp. 17-56; D. G. Brinton, <cite>Myths +of the New World</cite> (third edition, Philadelphia, 1896); R. M. Dorman, <cite>Origin of +Primitive Superstitions among the Aborigines of America</cite> (Phila., 1881).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_176_177" id="Footnote_176_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_177"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> José de Acosta, a Jesuit historian (1539-1600), born in Spain, was missionary +to Peru for many years. Upon his return to Spain he published <cite>Historia Natural +y Moral de las Indias</cite> (Seville, 1590), both in Latin and Spanish. An English +translation appeared in 1604.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_177_178" id="Footnote_177_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_178"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> Clavigero asserts of the Indians of Mexico, that their first heaven (that of +the warriors, &c.) they called "<dfn>la casa del sol</dfn>" (the house of the sun), which luminary +they worshipped every morning at sunrise.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_178_179" id="Footnote_178_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_179"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> I have since met with the same, in substance, related by Mr. Schoolcraft.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span> +</p> +<p> +<i>Comment by Ed.</i> Henry Rowe Schoolcraft (1793-1864), for many years Indian +agent at Mackinac, and a prolific writer on Indian subjects.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_179_180" id="Footnote_179_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_180"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> The Shawnees have four missionary establishments among them, viz. a +Methodist, Baptist, Moravian, and Quaker. There are also missionaries of different +sects among most of the tribes of the border, the labors of whom have been +attended with some degree of success. There is, I believe, but one Catholic Mission +upon the frontier, which is among the Potawatomies, about a thousand of whom +have embraced this faith. The Catholics, however, appear to have succeeded +better than most other denominations, in their missionary efforts. It is so in Mexico, +so in Canada, and appears so everywhere else that they have undertaken the Christianization +of the heathen. I would not be understood to attribute this to any +intrinsic superiority of their religion, but to the peculiarities of its forms and ceremonies. +The pageantry of their worship, the palpable representation of the +divine mysteries by the introduction of images, better accords with their pristine +idolatry, than a more spiritual faith. Catholics, indeed, have had the sagacity +to permit the Indians (at least in some countries) to interweave many of their +own heathen ceremonies with the sacred Christian rites, forming a singular <i>mêlée</i> +of Romish and pagan worship, which is especially the case in Mexico. Also, the +less rigid Catholic creed and customs do not debar them from their wonted favorite +amusements, not to say vices. It is therefore that whole tribes sometimes simultaneously +embrace this imposing creed.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_180_181" id="Footnote_180_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_181"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> See Thwaites, <cite>Hennepin's New Discovery</cite> (Chicago, 1903), ii, pp. 537, +538.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_181_182" id="Footnote_181_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_182"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> Adair, who resided forty years with the southern Indians, previous to 1775, +speaks of the same among them all.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span> +</p> +<p> +<i>Comment by Ed.</i> Consult J. Long's <cite>Voyages</cite> in our volume ii, p. 64, note 31.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_182_183" id="Footnote_182_183"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_182_183"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> +Peter Martyr de Anghiera (1457 (?)-1526) was the first historian of +the new world. Born in North Italy, he went to Rome in 1477, in the +train of Cardinal Ascanio Sforza. Ten years later he was invited +to Spain, where he became tutor to the royal children, and later +protonothary and royal historiographer. his <cite>Decades</cite> +(<cite>De Rebus Oceanicis et Novo Orbe Decades</cite>) first +appearing in 1530, are a prime source for the early history +of America, he having known and conversed with the Spanish +discoverers.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_183_184" id="Footnote_183_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_184"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> Also Clavigero speaks of similar beliefs and practices among the Mexican +Indians, particularly in the obsequies of the kings; and adds—"El número de +víctimas correspondía á la grandeza del funeral, y, segun algunos autores, llegaban +á veces á doscientas."—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_184_185" id="Footnote_184_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_185"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> Edition of 1555, translated from the Latin, fol. 181.—In another place, the +same author also says they buried corn, etc., with the dead, for their use in the +world to come.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_185_186" id="Footnote_185_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_186"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> For Herrera, see our volume xix, p. 258, note 79 (Gregg).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_186_187" id="Footnote_186_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_187"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> The Indians often so imposed upon the credulous ancients as to make them +believe they had direct communication with Satan. The learned divine, Peter +Martyr, has a whole chapter "Of the familiaritie which certeyne of the Indians +have with the devyll, and howe they receave answere of hym of thynges to coome:" +and very seriously and philosophically concludes, that, "the devyll beynge so +auncient an Astronomer, knowethe the tymes of thynges, and seeth howe they are +naturally directed:" to which he appends numerous instances of the evil spirit's +revelations of the "tymes of thynges to coome" to his ministers, the magi. And +even as late as 1721, Father Charlevoix gravely says, an instance he relates, and +many others that he "knows, which are equally certain, prove that the Devil is +sometimes concerned in the magic of the Savages." The Choctaws, and perhaps +some others, used to punish witchcraft with all the rigor of our own ancestors, +putting poor creatures to death upon the slightest proof of their tampering with +the black art: but this barbarity is now prohibited by their more civilized laws. +Yet the more barbarous tribes still have their conjurers and medicine-men, who +deal in auguries and mystic ceremonies; which, with their dances, constitute the +greater part of their worship.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_187_188" id="Footnote_187_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_188"><span +class="label">[187]</span></a> For the early habitat of the Potawatomi, consult Croghan's +<cite>Journals</cite>, in +our volume i, p. 115 note 84.—<i>Ed.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_188_189" id="Footnote_188_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_189"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> Clavigero remarks of the Indians of Mexico, "Estaba severamante prohibido +.  .  .  todo enlace matrimonial, entre parientes en primer grado de consanguinidad, +ó de afinidad, excepto entre cuñados."—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_189_190" id="Footnote_189_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_190"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> The origin of the American Indians has been discussed by too many able +writers for me to enter into it here: nor will I attempt to show the general traits +of similarity that are to be observed in their various languages: yet it may interest +an occasional reader, to be informed of the relations of consanguinity which subsist +between many of the different Indian tribes. They may be arranged principally +under the following heads: 1. The Dahcotah stock, which is by far the most +extensive of those indigenous west of the Mississippi. It embraces the Arkansas +(of which the Quapaws are now the only remnant), the Osages, Kansas or Kaws, +Iowas, Winnebagoes, Otoes, Missouries, Omahas, Poncas, and the various bands +of the Sioux: all of whom speak a language still traceable to the same origin, though +some of them have been separated for several centuries. I call these indigenous +to the West, because most of them have been so from the period of the earliest +explorers on the Mississippi; yet the tradition among them is that they came from +about the northern lakes; which appears corroborated by the fact, that the language +of the Naudowessies, Assiniboins, and perhaps others in that quarter, shows them +to be of the same family.—2. The different bands of the Comanches and Shoshonies +or Snakes, constitute another extensive stock, speaking one language.—3. The +Blackfeet, Gros Ventres or Minnatarees, Crows and Arrapahoes, speak dialects +of another.—4. The Pawnees and Rickaras of the north, and the Wacoes, Wichitas, +Towockanoes, Towyash and Keechyes, of Red River, are of the same origin. +The Chayennes, originally from near Lake Winnipeg, and the Kiawas (or Caiguas, +according to Mexican orthography), appear unallied to any of the foregoing nations.—5. +Of those from the north and east, the Algonquin stock appears most extensive,—embracing +the Potawatomies, Ottawas, Chippewas, Knisteneaux, Crees, +Sacs and Foxes; with whom the Delawares have also been classed, though their +language would now appear very distinct.—6. The Wyandots, Senecas, and +others of the Six Nations, are of the Huron or Iroquois.—7. The Shawnees and +Kickapoos are of one stock.—8. The Kaskaskias, Piorias, Piankeshaws and +Weaws, are descendants of the Miamies.—9. The Choctaws and Chickasaws +are nearly the same people.—10. The Creeks and Seminoles—though old authors +speak of the Creeks as being akin to the Choctaws, yet there is now but little relationship +to be traced in their language; while that of the Cherokees appears +entirely <i>sui generis</i>.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span> +</p> +<p> +<i>Comment by Ed.</i> On this subject consult J. W. Powell, "Indian Linguistic +Families of America north of Mexico" in U. S. Bureau of Ethnology +<cite>Report</cite>, 1885-86. Gregg is unusually correct in his classification, but nevertheless +has fallen into a few errors.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_190_191" id="Footnote_190_191"></a><a +href="#FNanchor_190_191"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> +The <i>tribes</i> often take the names of the seceding chiefs +who originate them, +or are called from some circumstance attending their separation; but frequently +they assume a name from an important word in their languages: thus <i>Choctaw</i> +and <i>Chickasaw</i> are said to have been the names of chiefs; <dfn>Seminole</dfn> (or <i>Seminóleh</i>) +and <i>Pioria</i> imply runaways or seceders; while <i>Illinois</i>, in the language of that +ancient tribe, and <dfn>Lunnapáe</dfn>, by which the Delawares distinguish themselves, +signify <i>man</i>. This last is perhaps most common; for, as each nations holds itself +superior to all others, its members call themselves <i>men</i>, in contradistinction to +<i>boys</i> or <i>squaws</i>, as they are wont to denominate their enemies.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_191_192" id="Footnote_191_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_192"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> Pressure of the white population upon the southern tribes, induced them to +migrate to the west of the Mississippi, a movement which began with detached +parties of Choctaw as early as 1805. In 1824 President Monroe recommended +their removal, and in 1830 Jackson ordered it. Large bands of these Indians had +already received lands in Arkansas; wherefore, in 1832, Indian Territory was set +apart for the tribes and removals thither began. The Choctaw, Chickasaw, and +Creek made but little difficulty; the Cherokee and Seminole opposed the removal. +The former were forcibly ejected (1836-38), and by 1839 were united on their +present site in Indian Territory. The Seminole resistance led to the war with +that people (1835-42), in which a large portion of the tribesmen perished. The +remainder were finally united in Indian Territory in 1846.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_192_193" id="Footnote_192_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_193"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> The civilized tribes had been slave-holders before their removal to Indian +Territory. At the outbreak of the War of Secession their sympathies were with +the Confederacy, with whom the Cherokee made a treaty October 7, 1861. Early +in 1863, however, they abolished slavery by law, and the large majority of their +regiments went over to the Union side. A constitutional amendment in 1866, +forever abolished slavery or involuntary servitude, except for crime. See <cite>Constitution +and Laws of Cherokee Nation</cite>.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_193_194" id="Footnote_193_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_194"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> Neither of these places has developed into towns of importance, although +both are still on the map of Indian Territory. By an act of 1898, towns were to +be incorporated, and town sites surveyed. In 1900, the largest town was Ardmore, +in the Chickasaw Nation. There were seven towns of more than two thousand +population, and twelve more exceeding one thousand.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_194_195" id="Footnote_194_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_195"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> Their schools are mostly conducted in English, yet among some tribes they +are often taught in their native languages. As in other respects, the Cherokees +have made the greatest advancement in a literary point. Their singular system +of characters representing syllables, invented by an illiterate native, is no doubt +known to most of my readers. In these characters, a considerable number of +books have been printed in their vernacular tongue. Many Cherokees, however, +as well as Choctaws, have received good English educations. In the language of +the latter also a great number of books have been published, but in which the common +letter is used. A few books have also been printed in the languages of the +Creeks, Wyandots, Potawatomies, and Ottawas, Shawnees, Delawares, and some +in the different dialects of Osage, Kansas, Otoes, etc. There is now a printing-office +in operation at Park Hill, in the Cherokee Nation, and another among the +Shawnees at the Baptist Mission.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_195_196" id="Footnote_195_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_196"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> By the treaty of 1825 with the Choctaw, a fund of six thousand dollars per +year for twenty years was to be allotted for the use of schools. The Indians requested +that a portion of this fund might be used to educate boys at a distance +from home. This was a cherished plan of Colonel Richard M. Johnson, who was +chosen sponsor for the new academy, and began the erection of buildings near +his home at Great Crossings, in Scott County, Kentucky, where the first boys +were received in the autumn of 1825. Baptist co-operation was enlisted, and Rev. +Thomas Henderson chosen first principal of Choctaw Academy. At first the +school flourished, and Indian boys from many other tribes were sent to Kentucky, +until at one time the academy had an enrollment of more than one hundred and +fifty lads. In consequence of the dissatisfaction which Gregg here describes +the Choctaw and other Southern Indians began to withdraw their boys about 1842, +and the school's usefulness terminated. Consult <cite>House Ex. Docs.</cite>, 26 Cong., +2 sess., 109. The civilized tribes now maintain several higher boarding schools +and academies in the territory. The Choctaw and Chickasaw each have five; +the Cherokee two at Tallequah, in which the nation is much interested.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_196_197" id="Footnote_196_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_197"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> By no means the least considerable of the frauds practised upon the frontier +Indians, have been by contractors and government agents. The character of +these impositions may be inferred from the following instance, as it is told, and +very generally believed, upon the southwestern frontier. +</p> +<p> +It had been pretty well known, that some of those who had been in the habit +of contracting to furnish with subsistence several of the southern tribes, in the +year 1838 <i>et seq.</i>, had been imposing most grossly upon the Indians as well as the +Government, in the way of 'short rations' and other delinquencies, which resulted +in the gain of a very large sum to the parties concerned. About the close of their +operations, one of the <i>employés</i>, who was rather more cunning than the principals, +took it into his head, on account of some ill-treatment he had suffered, to make +an <i>exposé</i> of their transactions. He happened to hold a letter of instructions +(which were of course of a confidential character), wherein were set forth the +processes by which these frauds were to be practised. And to turn the affair +to his particular profit, he threatened the parties with a complete exposure, unless +a satisfactory <i>gratification</i> should interpose. A compromise being indispensable +to the welfare of 'all whom it concerned,' a negotiation was soon set on foot: but +the 'noisy customer' was not silenced, until he was paid $13,500 in cash; whereupon +he delivered up the obnoxious 'papers,' and agreed to abscond. Some +notice of the facts of this case are said to have been brought to the knowledge of +the Government; and how it has escaped an investigation—and, more especially, +how it escaped the attention of the Superintendent of that immediate district, +have been matters of great surprise to those who had a knowledge of the particulars.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_197_198" id="Footnote_197_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_198"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> See <cite>Constitution and Laws of Cherokee Nation</cite>, published at Tallequah. +The constitution was signed at the latter place, September 6, 1839.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_198_199" id="Footnote_198_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_199"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> These laws have now been changed, and correspond to those of the United +States.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_199_200" id="Footnote_199_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_200"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> In 1837, the Chickasaw bought an interest in Choctaw lands; but in 1855 +they purchased from the latter tribe the right of self-government, and established +a Chickasaw Nation. Their constitution, drawn in 1867, is liberal, being closely +modelled on that of the United States.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_200_201" id="Footnote_200_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_201"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> +These Indians call themselves <i>Muscogee</i> or <i>Muscóhgeh</i>. They acquired +the name of <i>Creeks</i>, by the whites, from the great number of small streams that +intersect the country which they formerly inhabited—being first called, "Indians +of the country of <i>creeks</i>."—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_201_202" id="Footnote_201_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_202"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> The Creeks established a republican government in 1867, modelled upon +that of the neighboring tribes.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_202_203" id="Footnote_202_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_203"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> This custom seems to have descended from antiquity. Adair, prior to +1775, writes, that "The Muscohge widows are obliged to live a chaste single life +for the space of four years; and the Chikkasah women, for the term of three, at +the risk of the law of adultery being executed against the recusants." But I have +not heard this custom spoken of among the Chickasaws at the present day.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_203_204" id="Footnote_203_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_204"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> The Delaware and Shawnee removed from Kansas in 1866-67, and 1869 +respectively, and became incorporated with the Cherokee Nation. The Delaware, +however, still maintain a form of tribal autonomy.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_204_205" id="Footnote_204_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_205"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> No complete census has been taken of the frontier Indians since their removal; +but the aggregate population of those settled west of the border, exclusive of the +Osages, Kansas, and others of the north (who are more appropriately ranked +among the Prairie Indians), is 76,664, according to the report of the Commissioner +of Indian Affairs for the year 1844. Of these there are reckoned of Cherokees, +25,911; Choctaws, 12,410; Chickasaws, 4,111; Creeks, 24,594; Seminoles, or Florida +Indians, 3,136; Senecas from Sandusky, 125; Senecas and Shawnees, 211; Quapaws, +400; Wyandots, 585; Potawatomies, Chippewas and Ottawas, located on the +waters of the Osage, 2,028; Kaskaskias and Piorias, 150; Piankeshaws, 98; Weaws, +176; Shawnees, 887; Delawares, 1,059; Stockbridges, Munsees, &c., 278; Kickapoos, +505; In addition to these, there still remain east of the Mississippi, of Cherokees, +1,000; Choctaws, 7,000, (but which are now, January, 1845, in progress of +emigration); Chickasaws, 20; Creeks, 744; Potawatomies, &c., 92; Weaws, 30; +besides some entire remnant tribes. +</p> +<p> +Many of the foregoing amounts, however, have been standing numbers in the +tables of the reports of the Indian Department, ever since the removal of these +tribes, and as it is known that most of them have been on the decline, the above +aggregate is no doubt excessive. For instance, instead of 25,911, as given in the +report for the Cherokees, their very intelligent agent, Governor Butler, reckoned +them, in 1842, at only about 18,000: the Creeks in place of 24,594, have, in like +manner, been set down at about 20,000; and in the 'Choctaw Almanac' for 1843, I +find the population of that nation rated at 12,690, instead of 15,177, as stated in +the Commissioner's report for the same year.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div></div> + +<h3 title="Chapter XXX: Indians of the Prairies"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XXX_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XXX_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XXX {XIV} + +<br />INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIES</h3> + +<p class="subhead"><a id="Pg318"></a> +System of Chiefs — Mode of Warfare — War-Council — The Scalp-dance — The +Calumet or Pipe of Peace — Treaties — Public News-criers — Arms +of the Indians — Bow and Arrows, etc. — Hunting — Dancing — Language +of Signs — Telegraphs — Wigwams or +Lodges — Pack-dogs — Costumes — Painting, Tattooing, etc. — Indian +Dandies — Manufactures, and Dressing the Buffalo Rug — Indian +Diet, Feasting, etc. — Primitive Thomsonians — Their domestic Animals, +the Dog and the Horse — Wampum — Their Chronology.<a href="#tocXXX" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>Those savage hordes which may be considered as the +Prairie Indians proper, have made little or no perceptible +progress in civilization. They mostly live by plunder +and the chase: a few eke out a subsistence by agriculture. +They consist of various distinct tribes, but among whom +there is a greater diversity of language than of habitudes. +I would not have it understood, however, that all the customs +of every band are entirely similar: it is this assumption, +together with the practice of setting down as standing +customs what they have observed on some particular occasions, +that has frequently created such a discrepancy between +the accounts of transient travellers.</p> + +<p>{277} There is scarcely a prairie tribe, however limited +in numbers, but is subdivided into petty bands, each under +the immediate control of its own chief. Their systems of +government are frequently compounded of the patriarchal +and military. The most influential heads of families +exercise a petty rule, which often extends beyond their own +household to a circle of adherents. Several of these clans, +bound by the ties of consanguinity or friendship, are apt +to come under the control, by common consent, of some +more influential chief, who may have gained celebrity in +their wars; but a regular hereditary descent seems rarely +established. These petty bands seldom unite under one +general leader, except for the common defence, when <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg319"></a>[p319]</span> +threatened with danger. Occasionally there springs up a +master spirit—a great brave and a great sage, who is able +to unite his whole tribe, in which he is generally aided by +a sufficient knack at sorcerous tricks to give him the character +of a great 'medicine-man.'</p> + +<p>War seems to be the element of the prairie Indians, +notwithstanding but few possess much intrinsic bravery. +They are, in fact, the most cowardly savages east of the +Rocky Mountains, bearing but little similitude in this +respect to the aborigines of the interior of the United States. +They rarely attack an enemy except with a decided advantage; +for the prospect of losing even a single warrior will +often deter them from undertaking the most flattering +adventure. It is true that, in addition {278} to their timidity, +they are restrained by the fact that the loss of a man often +casts a gloom upon the most brilliant victory, and throws +a whole clan into mourning. On this account they generally +attack by surprise, and in the night, when all are presumed +to be asleep; having care, if against a formidable enemy, +that it be long enough before the morning dawn to allow +them to retire beyond reach of pursuit before daylight. +When the moon rises at a late hour, just before she appears, +is a favorite time; for then they will have a gleam of light +by which to collect and drive off the prize of stock which +they may be able to frighten away. These prowling parties +around a camp sometimes employ a species of signals in +imitation of wolves, owls and other nocturnal animals, by +which they communicate with each other—mimicking +so to the life as not to give alarm to unsuspecting travellers.</p> + +<p>War is seldom concluded upon, or even a campaign +undertaken, without a general council, in which all the +chiefs and most distinguished braves and sages assemble. +After all are seated in a circle, the pipe is passed around +until their brains are sufficiently soothed to enable them <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg320"></a>[p320]</span> +to consult the Great Spirit, and take freely into advisement +the important matters under consideration. Therefore the +tobacco smoke is usually blown upwards, as a propitiatory +incense to the invoked spirits or genii who dwell 'upon the +sky.' In this operation the smoke is generally inhaled +into {279} the lungs, and discharged in murky streams +from the olfactories. If a council be preparatory to a campaign, +the warriors sometimes catch the tobacco smoke +in the hand, anointing their bodies with it; which they +fancy renders them, if not invulnerable, at least far more +secure from the darts of their enemies.</p> + +<p>Although in their warfare they employ every wile and +stratagem, and faithless subterfuge, to deceive their enemies, +and in battle are relentless and cruel in the extreme, yet +they seldom resort to those horrid punishments and tortures +upon their prisoners which were wont to be inflicted +by the savages of the interior of the United States, during +their early wars with the whites. The practice of burning +their captives alive, said to have prevailed many years ago +among some prairie tribes, seems now to have grown quite +out of use.</p> + +<p>Upon returning from a campaign after a defeat, the +village resounds for many days with the lamentations, the +shrieks and wailings of the women and children; in which, +not only the bereft families, but all the relatives and most +of the friends of the deceased join. If, on the contrary, the +warriors have been successful, and bring home scalps of +their enemies, all join in their most famous festival, the +scalp-dance. In this fête the savage trophies are usually +elevated upon a pole in the centre of the dance; or perhaps +the brave captors retain them in their hands, tossing and +swinging them about their heads; at the same time vehemently +apostrophizing these ghastly representatives {280} +of their enemies, with the most taunting and insulting <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg321"></a>[p321]</span> +bravadoes; branding the nation with cowardice and effeminacy; +daring them to come forward and revenge the +blood of their slain; then concluding with scoffs and exulting +yells at the dastardly silence of their enemies, whom +they represent as afraid to whisper a note of vengeance +against their superiors and masters, the triumphing conquerors. +After the warriors have become fatigued, the +squaws and children generally continue the barbarous +festivity; in the midst of which some vainglorious brave +will rise perhaps, and repeat the apostrophic fanfaronades, +representing that the very squaws and papooses hold them +in cowering submission, and that henceforth these only +will be sent to subdue them; their warriors being reserved +for more noble enemies. These brutal rites and rodomontades +being concluded, the scalps are handed to their +owners, who cure and paint them for future war-dances +and other kindred ceremonies.</p> + +<p>When a tribe wishes to celebrate a treaty of peace with +an enemy, a number of their warriors, as ambassadors, or +perhaps a whole band, move to the neighborhood, and +send the calumet or pipe of peace, which supplies the place +of the flag of truce among civilized nations:<a name="FNanchor_205_206" id="FNanchor_205_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_206" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> though, when +the embassy {281} is to the whites, a flag usually accompanies, +as they have learned that this is our token of peace. +The overture being accepted, the chiefs and principals of +each band meet in council, sometimes in a wigwam, if there <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg322"></a>[p322]</span> +be a suitable one, else in the open air, taking their seats, +as usual, upon their haunches in a circle proportioned to +the number. If there be presents—and these are an +indispensable earnest of friendship from the whites—the +essence, the seal of the treaty, without which negotiation +is vain—these are laid in the centre. A personage in the +capacity of an orderly sergeant then lights the calumet, +which he hands to a principal chief, who, before smoking, +usually points the stem towards the four cardinal points, +and towards the heavens and the earth—then takes +a certain number of whiffs (generally about three), and +passing it to the next, who draws an equal number of +whiffs, it thus continues around the circle, in the direction +of the sun, each sending fumid {282} currents upward from +the nozzle. It seems looked upon as sacrilege for a person +to pass before the pipe while the chiefs are smoking; and +the heedless or impudent are sometimes severely punished +for the act. The 'big talk' follows, and the presents are +distributed by a chief who exercises the office of commissary. +But in the petty truces among each other, presents +are scarcely expected, except they be claimed by the more +powerful party as a matter of tribute.</p> + +<p>Travellers and hunters are generally obliged to hold a +treaty or 'big talk' with every band of prairie Indians they +may encounter, if they wish to maintain friendly relations +with them. Treaties have also been held, at different +periods, with most of the wild tribes, by agents of the U. S. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg323"></a>[p323]</span> +Government, yet for the most part with but very little effect—they +generally forget or disregard them by the time +the presents they may have received are consumed.</p> + +<p>These treaties, as well as other council deliberations, +are generally promulgated by a sort of public crier, who +proclaims the stipulations and resolutions from lodge to +lodge; and the event is preserved in the memory of the +sages to future generations. Among some of the tribes +their memory is assisted by the famous 'wampum belt,' +which is a list or belt made of wampum beads, so interwoven +in hieroglyphic figures as to form a record of important +events. Others preserve the same by hieroglyphic +paintings on their buffalo rugs, and the like.</p> + +<p>{283} The <i>arms</i> of the wild Indians are chiefly the bow +and arrows, with the use of which they become remarkably +expert. A dexterous savage will lay a wager, at short +shots, against many riflemen. Indeed, there is hardly +any more effective weapon than the bow and arrow in the +hands of an expert archer. While the musketeer will load +and fire once, the bowman will discharge a dozen arrows, +and that, at distances under fifty yards, with an accuracy +nearly equal to the rifle. In a charge, they are eminently +serviceable; for the Indian seems to discharge his arrows +with about as much certainty when running at full speed +as when standing.</p> + +<p>The usual length of the Indian bow is about three feet, +though it is sometimes as much as four. It is generally +made of elastic wood, yet elk's horn is occasionally used. +Those of the latter are made of two of the longest and +straightest shafts, which, being shaved down to the necessary +proportions, are united by lapping their ends together +and binding them firmly with sinew. Bows have also +been made, in the same manner, of a pair of buffalo ribs; +but as well these as those of elk-horn, are rather items of <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg324"></a>[p324]</span> +curiosity than of service: at least, they are not equal to bows +of the bois-d'arc tree. Even the backs of the <i>wooden</i> bows +are often lined the whole length with a broad strip of sinew, +and the whole wrapped with shreds of the same. The +arrows are generally about thirty inches long, and pointed +with iron, though the primitive {284} flint points are still +met with among some of the wildest tribes.</p> + +<p>Besides these, the lance or spear, the use of which they +may have learned from the Mexicans, is an effective weapon +in the charge as well as the chase. Many are also provided +with the Northwestern fusil, and some have rifles. Very +few, however, have acquired the dexterity of our frontier +Indians with this deadly weapon. But no Indian deems +his equipage complete without a 'scalping-knife;' yet +among the western prairie Indians the tomahawk is but +little known. These employ, in its stead, the war-club +or 'war-hawk,' which are bludgeons with an encased stone +for a head in the former, and with a transverse blade or +spike in its place in the latter. Many are provided with +shields of raw buffalo or elk skin, upon which are frequently +painted some rude hieroglyphical devices representing the +enemies they have slain, as well as any other notable exploits +of which they can boast. Such as are without these +have their titles to renown recorded commonly upon the +handles of their hatchets, their war-clubs, or perhaps tattooed +upon their breasts or arms.</p> + +<p>Besides war, <i>hunting</i> seems the only creditable employment +in which a warrior can engage. Every other labor +is put upon the squaws; and even when a party of hunters +set out, they generally provide themselves with enough of +these 'menials' to take charge of the meat: the Indian +only deigns to shoot {285} down the game; the squaws +not only have it to cure and pack, but to skin and dress. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg325"></a>[p325]</span></p> + +<p>Except such tribes as are expert with the rifle, very few +of the prairie Indians hunt other game than the buffalo: +not, as some have presumed, because they deem all small +game too ignoble for them, but because the former is at +once easiest taken, and affords the most bounteous supply +of food. The antelope is too wild and fleet for their mode +of hunting, and is only occasionally taken by stratagem; +while the deer, as difficult to take in the chase, is less easily +entrapped. But, mounted upon their trained steeds, and +with the arrow or lance, they are not to be excelled in the +chase. A few of them, let loose among a herd of buffalo, +will soon have the plain strewed with their carcasses.</p> + +<p>Among the amusements of the Indians generally, <i>dancing</i> +is perhaps the most favorite. Besides a war accompaniment, +it is practised as a recreation, and often connected +with their worship. Their social frolics, in which the +squaws are commonly permitted to join, are conducted +with less ferocity of manner than their war dances; though +even these are accompanied with the wildest and most +comical gesticulations, and songs full at once of mirth +and obscenity. In these, as well as in the war and scalp +dances, a sort of little drum and a shrill squeaking pipe +are their common instruments of music.</p> + +<p>As so many tongues, entirely different, are spoken by +the prairie Indians, a 'language of {286} signs' has become +the general medium of communication between the different +nations. This system of signs has been brought to such perfection +among them, that the most intricate correspondence +seems to be intelligibly conducted by such as have acquired +a proficiency in this 'dumb language.'</p> + +<p>Their systems of telegraphs are very peculiar, and though +they might seem impracticable at first, yet so thoroughly +are they understood by the savages, that it is availed of <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg326"></a>[p326]</span> +frequently to immense advantage. The most remarkable +is by raising smokes, by which many important facts are +communicated to a considerable distance—and made +intelligible by the manner, size, number or repetition of the +smokes, which are commonly raised by firing spots of dry +grass. When travelling, they will also pile heaps of stones +upon mounds or conspicuous points, so arranged as to be +understood by their passing comrades; and sometimes +they set up the bleached buffalo heads, which are everywhere +scattered over those plains, to indicate the direction +of their march, and many other facts which may be communicated +by those simple signs.</p> + +<p>Almost every tribe has some peculiarity in the construction +of their lodges or wigwams, in the manner of arranging +their camps, and in the different items of dress, +by any or all which peculiarities the experienced traveller +is able to recognize the tribe of their owner. If a moccasin, +or other article of apparel be {287} found, he at once +designates the nation to which it belongs—even a track +is often sufficient to identify them.<a name="FNanchor_206_207" id="FNanchor_206_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_207" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> Also by the 'sign,' +and especially the remains of fires, he determines the interval +elapsed since their departure, with remarkable accuracy.</p> + +<p>The lodges are composed of a frame of small poles or +rods, covered usually with buffalo skins, which receive but +little further preparation than the currying off of the hair. +Some give their lodges a round wagon-top shape, as those +of the Osages, which commonly consist of a frame of bent +rods, resembling wagon-bows, and covered with skins, +the bark of trees, or, as is generally the case in their villages, +with grass and earth. Again, some dispose the poles in +two parallel lines, and incline them against a ridge-pole, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg327"></a>[p327]</span> +which gives the wigwam the shape of a house-roof: others, +planting small rods in a circle, to swine the points together +as to resemble, in some degree, when covered, a rounded +hay-mow: but by far the most general style, among the +wild tribes, of constructing their wigwams, is by planting +the lodge-poles so as to enclose a circular area of from ten +to twenty feet in diameter (the size depending upon the +number of the family); and the tops being brought together, +it forms a conical frame, which is closely covered with +skins, except an aperture in the apex for the escape of the +{288} smoke. This is the style of the Comanches and most +other tribes of the great plains. The doors of the lodges +being closed with a skin, they are kept very comfortable +in winter with but little fire. This is kindled in the centre, +and a hole is left in the vertex of the lodge, through which +the smoke is discharged so freely, that the interior is but +seldom infected by it.</p> + +<p>These lodges are always pitched or set up by the squaws, +and with such expedition, that, upon the stopping of an +itinerant band, a town springs up in a desert valley in a +few minutes, as if by enchantment. The lodge-poles are +often neatly prepared, and carried along from camp to +camp. In conveying them, one end frequently drags on +the ground; whereby the trail is known to be that of a band +with families, as war parties never carry lodge-poles. The +Chayennes, Sioux and some other northern tribes, often +employ dogs for carrying and dragging their lodge covers +and poles; indeed for conveying most of their light baggage: +but, for ordinary travelling purposes and packing their +more weighty baggage, they use horses. So few navigable +waters traverse the Prairies, that none of the Indians of +the high plains have learned the use of canoes or water-craft +of any kind.</p> + +<p>There is some variety in the dress in vogue among the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg328"></a>[p328]</span> +different tribes; though they all use moccasins, leggins, +flap or breech-clout, and, when not in active pursuits, +they generally wrap their bodies in buffalo rugs, blankets +or {289} mantles of strouding, according to their wealth +or opportunities. Some of the northern tribes display +considerable ingenuity and taste in the manufacture of +moccasins. But this is the work of the women, who often +embroider them with beads and colored porcupine quills, +in a most beautiful manner. The <dfn>leggin</dfn> is a buckskin +or cloth covering for the leg and thigh, as of the pantaloon. +A superfluous list is usually left outside the seam, which, +if of skin, is slitted into long tassels, or if of cloth, the wide +border remains entire, to dangle and flap upon the exterior +of the legs. A strip of strouding (that is, coarse broad-cloth) +about a foot in width and a yard or more long, constitutes +the most usual flap; which being passed betwixt the +legs, the ends are secured under the belt around the waist, +whence the leggins are suspended. As the flap is sometimes +near two yards long, a surplusage of half a yard or +more at each end is sometimes left dangling down before +and behind.</p> + +<p>The Indians use no head-dress, but support the bleakest +rains and hottest suns of those bare plains with naked +heads. Nevertheless, their coarse black hair seems 'fertilized' +by exposure; for they rarely become gray till an +exceeding old age; and I do not recollect to have ever seen +a bald Indian. Their eyesight also, they retain in extraordinary +vigor, notwithstanding the want of protection +even of the eye-lashes and brows (which are plucked out), +and in spite of the constant use of apparently deleterious +paints around the edges {290} of the lids. Though using +no regular head-dress, they sometimes wear, as a temporary +ornament, a fantastic cap of skins; and it is not unusual +to see a brave with the entire shaggy frontlet of a buffalo, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg329"></a>[p329]</span> +horns and all, set upon his head—which, with his painted +face, imparts a diabolical ferocity to his aspect.</p> + +<p>The Indians of the Plains, almost without exception, +wear long hair, which dangles in clotted tresses over the +shoulders—besmeared with gum, grease and paints, and +ornamented with feathers and trinkets. But most of those +intermediate tribes nearer our border, trim their hair in a +peculiar manner.</p> + +<p>Vermillion seems almost indispensable to the Indian's +toilet; but in default of this they paint with colored earths. +When going to war, they bedaub their bodies with something +black—mud, charcoal or gunpowder, which gives +them a frightful appearance. But 'ornamental' painting +is much more gay and fanciful. The face, and sometimes +arms and breast are oddly striped and chequered, interspersed +with shades of yellow and white clay, as well as +occasional black, though the latter is chiefly appropriated +to war. Especial pains are taken to tip the eyelids most +gaily with vermillion.</p> + +<p>Besides painting, most of the tribes tattoo—some sparingly, +while others make their faces, breasts, and particularly +their arms, perfectly piebald. This seems practised +to some extent by all the savages from the Atlantic {291} +to the Pacific. Figures are pierced in the skin with any +sharp pointed instrument—often the keen prickles of +the cactus—and pulverized charcoal or gunpowder, or +sometimes the coloring juice of a plant, is rubbed into +the fresh punctures, which leaves a lasting stain.</p> + +<p>The most usual female dress is of the style worn by the +Comanche squaws, which is described in speaking of that +nation. With respect to dress and other ornaments, however, +the order of the civilized world is reversed among +the Indians. The 'fair sex' paint less than the men—use +fewer ornaments generally, and particularly, wear <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg330"></a>[p330]</span> +no pendants in the ears. While a savage beauty pays +but little attention to her person, a 'brave' will spend as +much time at his toilet as a French belle, in the adjustment +of his ornaments—his paint, trinkets, beads and +other gewgaws. A mirror is his idol: no warrior is +equipped without this indispensable toilet companion, +which he very frequently consults. He usually takes it +from its original case, and sets it in a large fancifully carved +frame of wood, which is always carried about him. He is +also rarely without his tweezers, whether of a fold of tin, of +hardened wood, or of spirally twisted wire, with which +he carefully eradicates, not only his beard, eye-lashes and +brows, but every villous particle from his body, as fast +as it appears; for everything of the kind is considered +as extremely unbecoming a warrior. It is on this account +that Indians {292} have frequently been represented as +naturally beardless.</p> + +<p>All Indians are passionately fond of beads, trinkets +and gewgaws of every kind. The men often cut up the +rim of the ears in a frightful manner to admit their pendants +of beads, plate, shells, etc.; and even strips of lead +are sometimes twined around the separated rim, by the +weight of which the detached portion of the ear is frequently +swagged down some inches. It is not unusual to see near +half a pound even of beads and 'jewelry' swung to each +ear; and among some tribes, also a large quantity to the +nose. The hair is likewise garnished with the same, and +the neck with strings of beads, bear's claws, and the like; +while the arms are profusely ornamented with bracelets +of wire or plated metal. The 'braves' are those who +commonly deck themselves with the most gaudy trappings, +and would usually be taken by a stranger for the chiefs of +the band, who, on the other hand, are often apparelled +in the most ordinary manner. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg331"></a>[p331]</span></p> + +<p>The squaws are, in every sense of the word the slaves of +the men. They are called upon to perform every toilsome +service—to carry wood and make fires—to skin and dress +the meat and prepare the food—to herd, drive up, saddle +and unsaddle their lords' horses—to pitch and strike the +lodges—to pack up the baggage, and often indeed to +carry heavy loads during travel—in short, everything +else pretty much but fight and hunt, which the {293} Indian +boasts of, as being his peculiar, if not his sole vocations.</p> + +<p>What little of manufacturing is done among the Indians +is also the work of the women. They prepare the different +articles of apparel. In embroidering moccasins and their +leathern petticoats, etc., their greatest skill, particularly +among the northern tribes, is exhibited. But the most +extensive article of their manufacture is the <i>buffalo rug</i>, +which they not only prepare for their own use, but which constitutes +the largest item of their traffic with the Indian traders. +These are dressed and cured exclusively by the squaws.</p> + +<p>To dress a buffalo rug, the first step is to 'flesh' the skin, +or neatly scrape from the inner surface every carneous +particle. This is generally done with an instrument of +bone, cut something in the shape of a small adz, with a +serrate edge. For this operation the skin is sometimes +suspended in a frame upon the branch of a tree, or a fork +of the lodge—though more commonly, perhaps, stretched +with pegs upon the smooth ground, with the flesh-side up. +After it dries, the spongy surface of the skin is neatly curried +off with another adz-shaped bone or handle of wood, +with a flat bit of iron transversely set for the blade, which +is edged after the manner of a currier's instrument. The +surface is then besmeared with brains (which the Canadians +call <dfn>mettre à la cervelle</dfn>), and rolled up with the flesh-side +in, in which condition it is left for two or three days. The +brains of the same {294} animals are generally used; those <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg332"></a>[p332]</span> +of a buffalo being more than sufficient to dress his own +hide. The pores of the skin being fully penetrated by +the brains, it is again wetted, and softened by continual +working and rubbing till it dries. To facilitate this last +operation, it is sometimes stretched in a frame and suspended +before a fire, when the inner surface is scraped +with the serrated adz before mentioned, and finished off +by assiduous rubbing with a pumice-stone, if that article +can be had; if not, by passing the skin by small sections +rapidly back and forth over a slack cord.</p> + +<p>Buffalo rugs are often observed with a seam in the middle. +This is caused by cutting them in two, partly for +convenience in dressing them, and partly to take out the +hollow occasioned by the hump, particularly of the bulls. +The hump of the cow being less, their skins generally bear +dressing without being cut. The hide is frequently split +in two, however, in skinning the animal, the Indians preferring +to commence on the back.</p> + +<p>The buffalo skin is often dressed without the wool. To +this end the hide is soaked in water till the hair is loosened, +when it is 'curried' and 'brained,' and softened as above. +Of these dressed buffalo skins (known among Mexicans +as <dfn>anta blanca</dfn>) is made a considerable portion of the Indian +clothing for both sexes—even the petticoats of the females; +though these prefer buckskin when they can procure it.</p> + +<p>The chief aliment of the Prairie Indians is {295} flesh, +though in default of this they often sustain themselves +for weeks together upon roots, herbs and fruits. The buffalo +are the common herds of these savages, affording them +'food, raiment and shelter.' It seems there were anciently +occasional cannibal tribes<a name="FNanchor_207_208" id="FNanchor_207_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_208" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> in those regions, but not a <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg333"></a>[p333]</span> +vestige of cannibalism, as I believe, now remains; except +such an inhuman appetite may be ascribed to some of +the more savage warriors, who, as I have heard, in the +delirium of exultant victory, have been known to devour +the hearts of their bravest victims, at once to satiate their +blood-thirsty propensities, and to appropriate to themselves, +as they fancy, the valor of the slain enemy.</p> + +<p>However, they make food of nearly every animal of their +country, and often of insects and even the filthiest vermin. +By some tribes, grasshoppers, locusts and the like are +collected and dried for future use. Among nearly all the +northern tribes, the flesh of the dog<a name="FNanchor_208_209" id="FNanchor_208_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_209" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> is considered as the +greatest delicacy; so much so, indeed, that when a favorite +visitor is expected to dine, they are sure to have served +up for him the choicest pieces from some one of the many +fat whelps which pertain to every lodge. In this way +travellers have often been {296} constrained to eat Indian +dog-meat, and which, prejudice apart, is by no means an +unsavory viand; but the flesh of the wolf, and even the +American dog, is generally said to be ill-flavored and sometimes +insupportable. The polecat is also a favorite food +among the Indians; and though the celebrated Irving, +during a "Tour on the Prairies," seems to claim a deal +of credit for having "plumped into the river" a dressed +polecat, whereby he prevented an Osage from "disgracing" +their fire by the cooking of it, yet all travellers who have +tasted the flesh of this animal have pronounced it fine, and +of exquisite relish.<a name="FNanchor_209_210" id="FNanchor_209_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_210" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> "The flesh of the skunk," observes +Dr. James, in his account of Maj. Long's Expedition, "we <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg334"></a>[p334]</span> +sometimes had dressed for dinner, and found it remarkably +rich and delicate food."</p> + +<p>These wild tribes are without other kitchen utensils than +an occasional kettle. They sometimes broil their meats, +but often eat them raw. A savage will feast upon the +warm carcass of the buffalo; selecting bits of the tenderloin, +liver, etc., and it is not uncommon to see him use the gall +as sauce! Feasting is one of their favorite enjoyments; +though their ability to endure hunger almost exceeds belief. +They will fast a week and yet retain their strength and +vigor: but then when they do procure food again, it seems +as if they never would be satiated.</p> + +<p>The Indians of the Prairies have become acquainted +with the medical virtues of many of their indigenous plants, +which are often {297} used in connection with the vapor +sweat, and cold bath: wherefore we may consider them as +the primitive Thomsonians.<a name="FNanchor_210_211" id="FNanchor_210_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_211" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> After a profuse sweating, +assisted by decoctions of sudorific herbs, in a tight lodge +filled with vapor by pouring water over heated stones, and +while still dripping, they will leap into a pool of cold water, +and afterwards wrap themselves in a buffalo rug. This +course has proved successful in some diseases, and extraordinary +cures have thus been performed: but in other +cases, and especially in the small-pox, it has been attended +with horrible fatality. They frequently let blood for disease, +which is oftenest performed with the keen edge of a +flint: and though they sometimes open a vein, they more +commonly make their incisions indiscriminately. They +have great faith in their 'medicine men,' who pretend to +cure the sick with conjurations and charms; and the Comanches +and many others often keep up an irksome, monotonous +singing over the diseased person, to frighten away <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg335"></a>[p335]</span> +the evil spirit which is supposed to torment him: all of +which, from its effect upon the imagination, often tends, +no doubt, to hasten recovery.</p> + +<p>These Indians keep no domestic animals, except horses, +mules, and dogs. With the latter every lodge is abundantly +supplied; yet, as has already been shown, they are more +useful appendages than the annoying packs which so often +infest the country cabins, and frequently the villages, in +the United States. {298} Horses, however, constitute the +chief wealth of the prairie Indian. These are the incentives +to most of their predatory excursions. The tribes of the +north in particular, as well as the white trappers, frequently +maintain their horses, during winter, upon the tender +bark of the sweet cottonwood, the <i>populus angulata</i> of the +Mississippi valley.</p> + +<p>The western savages know nothing of the value of money. +The wampum bead, it is true, among a few tribes, somewhat +resembles a currency: for, being generally esteemed, +it acquires a value in proportion to size, and sometimes +passes from hand to hand, in exchange for necessaries. +The legitimate wampum is only of shells, and was of aboriginal +manufacture; being small long tubes with an ovate +surface, or sometimes simply cylindrical; and handsomely +polished: but imitations of glass or porcelain seem now +the most common. The color is generally white, though +sometimes blue or striped.</p> + +<p>These Indians have no knowledge of the divisions of +time, except by palpable distinctions; as days, moons and +years; which last they commonly represent as so many +springs, or falls of the leaves, or as often by winters, that +is, frosts or snows. Distances are represented by days' +journey, which are oftener designated by camps or 'sleeps.' +When a day's journey is spoken of in general terms, it is +meant that of a band in regular travel, which rarely exceeds +twenty miles.</p> + +<h3 title="Chapter XXXI: Indians of the Prairies"> +<a name="CHAPTER_XXXI_XV" id="CHAPTER_XXXI_XV"></a>CHAPTER XXXI [XV] +<br />INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIES</h3> + +<p class="subhead"><a id="Pg336"></a> +Intermediate Tribes — Their Wigwams and their Hunting Excursions — Dress +and Cut of their Hair — The Pawnees — The Osages — Their +Roguery — Matrimonial Customs — Accomplished Mourners — Their +Superstitions — The Indian Stature — The 'Pawnee Picts' — Wild +Tribes — Census — The Comanches — Their Range — Their +Sobriety — Their Chiefs, etc. — Female Chastity — Comanche +Marriage — Costumes — Horsemanship — Comanche Warfare — Predatory +Forays — Martial Ceremonies — Treatment of Captives — Burial +and Religious Rites.<a href="#tocXXXI" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<p>The tribes inhabiting near the borders of the frontier +Indians differ from those that range the far-western prairies +in several traits of general character. The former have +their fixed villages, and, for the most part, combine the +pursuits of agriculture and the chase. They form, indeed, +a sort of intermediate class between the frontier and the +wild tribes, resembling the one or the other in all important +particulars. I will merely notice in this place a few of the +characteristics by which the more conspicuous of these +tribes are distinguished.</p> + +<p>Their village wigwams differ from the lodges of the +wilder tribes, in their being {300} much more substantial, +and usually covered with grass and earth instead of skins. +The Indians commonly remain in their villages during +the inclement portion of the winter; yet most of them spend +the early spring upon the Prairies in buffalo-hunting; +as well as such portions of the summer and autumn as are +not occupied in the cultivation and gathering of their crops, +which they secure in <i>caches</i> till their return.</p> + +<p>In dress they differ but little from the wilder tribes, +except that, having more communication with the whites, +they make greater use of our fabrics—blankets, coarse +cloths, calicoes and the like. Their most striking peculiarity +consists in the cut of their hair. Most of them, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg337"></a>[p337]</span> +instead, like the Indians of the Plains, of wearing the hair +long, trim and arrange it in the most fantastic style. In +the care bestowed upon this part of their toilet, they cannot +be excelled by the most <i>soigneux</i> of civilized dandies. +They shave a large portion of the head, but leave a fanciful +lock upon the crown as a scalp-crest (an indispensable +trophy for the enemy), which is in general gorgeously +bedecked with painted feathers and gewgaws.</p> + +<p>The <i>Pawnees</i>, who now have their principal village +on the Loup Fork of the Platte river, are perhaps the most +famous of these tribes. Small bands of their war-parties +roam on foot through every portion of the Prairies, often +to the Mexican frontier, though they generally contrive +to return well mounted. {301} When upon these expeditions, +they may properly enough be considered the Ishmaelites +of the Prairies—their hands are against every +man, and every man's hand is against them. They will +skulk about in the vicinity of a prize of mules or horses +for several days unsuspected, till a favorable opportunity +offers to pounce upon them.</p> + +<p>This nation is divided into four principal bands, the +Grand Pawnees (or <i>Grand Pans</i>, as called by the Canadians), +the Republics, the Mahas or Loups, and the Tapage or +Noisy Pawnees. Their relatives, the Rickaras, are now +considered a distinct tribe.<a name="FNanchor_211_212" id="FNanchor_211_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_212" class="fnanchor">[211]</a></p> + +<p>The <i>Osages</i> are at present the most important western +branch of the Dahcotah stock, after the Sioux. There +are two bands of them, the Big and Little Osages.<a name="FNanchor_212_213" id="FNanchor_212_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_213" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> +Though the Pawnees stand most prominent as prairie +marauders, these are unsurpassed in simple rogueries. +Expertness at stealing appears indeed to constitute a part <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg338"></a>[p338]</span> +of their faith, and an all-important branch of education, +in which degrees are conferred in true 'academic order;' +for I have been assured, that, in their councils, the claims +of the candidates to the honors of rogueship are duly considered, +and to the most proficient is awarded an honorary +badge—the right to wear a fancy feather stuck athwart +his scalp-crest.</p> + +<p>The habitudes of the Osages do not appear to have +undergone any material change, notwithstanding the exertions +of the government and the missionaries to civilize +and to christianize {302} them. Some of their matrimonial +customs are very curious and rather peculiar. The eldest +daughter seems not only 'heiress apparent,' but, when +married, becomes absolute owner of the entire property +and household of her parents—family and all. While +single, however, she has no authority, but is herself held +as a piece of merchantable property, estimated somewhat +as in civilized life, in proportion to her 'charms,' and to +the value of her 'hereditaments.' She is therefore kept +under the strictest watch by her parents, that she may not +diminish her worth by any improper conduct.</p> + +<p>When some warrior 'beau' has taken a fancy to the +heiress and wishes to possess her and her estate of sisters, +dogs, rugs and household, he takes his finest horses, (and +if she be a 'belle' he need not attempt it unless he have +some of the noblest), and tying them at her lodge door +departs without saying a word; leaving them, like a slow-match, +silently to effect his purpose. After the 'pretender' +has disappeared, the matron of the premises and her lord +inspect the valuables, the 'demure damsel' barely venturing +a sly peep through some crevice of the wigwam. If the +offer be found unworthy, the horses are sent back to the +owner as silently as they came, or maybe with some apology, +provided he be a warrior whom they are afraid of offending. <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg339"></a>[p339]</span> +But if accepted, the father takes instead some of his own +horses and ties them at the door of the proposer, as a token +of admission. If the {303} parties be without horses, some +other valuables are employed in lieu. After this the marriage +is solemnized with a joyous fête, and their primitive +ceremonies.</p> + +<p>But now the son-in-law is fully indemnified for his heavy +'disbursement' in the <i>purchase</i> of his bride; for he at once +becomes possessor of the entire wealth of his father-in-law—master +of the family-lodge and all the household: if +there be a dozen younger daughters, they are all <i>de droit</i>—his +wives or slaves as we may choose to consider them: +in fact, the 'heiress' herself seems in the same predicament, +and the wife among them all who may have the tact +to gain the husband's affections, generally becomes mistress +of the 'harem.' From the refuse of this estate of 'fair +ones' the indigent warriors and inferior Indians who are +not able to purchase an 'heiress' are apt to supply themselves +with wives upon a cheaper scale.<a name="FNanchor_213_214" id="FNanchor_213_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_214" class="fnanchor">[213]</a></p> + +<p>The Osages bury their dead according to the usual +Indian mode; and, though it seems always to have been +the custom among most {304} savage nations, to keep up +a chorus of hideous cries and yells for a long while after +the death of a relative, yet the Osages are by far the most +accomplished mourners of them all. Being once encamped +near a party of them, I was awakened at the dawn of day <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg340"></a>[p340]</span> +by the most doleful, piteous, heart-rending howls and +lamentations. The apparently distressed mourners would +cry with a protracted expiration till completely out of breath. +For some instants he seemed to be in the very last agonies: +then he would recover breath with a smothered, gurgling +inspiration: and thus he continued for several minutes, +giving vent to every variety of hideous and terrific sounds. +Looking around, I perceived the weeper standing with +his face towards the faint gleam which flitted from the +still obscured sun. This was perhaps his idol; else he +was standing thus because his deceased relation lay in +that direction. A full 'choir' of these mourners (which +is always joined by the howls and yelps of their myriads +of dogs), imparts the most frightful horror to a wilderness +camp.</p> + +<p>It is considered among these as well as other 'crying' +tribes, quite a merit to be a graceful weeper: it becomes +even a profitable vocation to those whose eyes and lungs +are most capacious of such things. If you tell an Osage +that you have lost a kinsman or friend for whom you wish +him to mourn, he will undertake the service for a trifling +reward—and acquit himself with more 'credit'—more +to the spirit than the best tragic {305} actor. He will +mimic every exterior indication of grief and the most heart-felt +wailing, till the tears trickle in torrents down his cheeks.<a name="FNanchor_214_215" id="FNanchor_214_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_215" class="fnanchor">[214]</a></p> + +<p>The Osages seem generally to worship a good and evil +spirit, and to believe in the most usual Indian paradise. +No people can have more implicit faith in witchcraft and +all kinds of sorcery and superstitions—such as holding +converse with deceased friends or relations—appointing +a time to die, etc.: and instances are related of their fancying <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg341"></a>[p341]</span> +themselves thus called to the world of spirits, which +would so powerfully affect the imagination as to cause them +to pine away, and sometimes die even to the appointed day.</p> + +<p>Owing partially, no doubt, to the burdensome life they +lead, the squaws of all the tribes are, for the most part, +much more inclined to corpulency than the men. They +are generally chubby and ill-favored, while the males are +usually tall, erect, well-turned and active. For their +proverbial straightness, however, the Osages are perhaps +more famous than any of the other prairie Indians.</p> + +<p>The <i>Wacoes</i>, <i>Witchitas</i> and their kindred tribes on Red +River, are, for the most part, a very indigent race. They +are chiefly remarkable for their profuse tatooing, whereby +they have sometimes acquired the title of 'Pawnee Picts:' +the females particularly make a perfect calico of the whole +under-jaw, breast and arms, and the mammæ are fancifully +ornamented with rings and rays. The tattoo, in fact, +seems to constitute the chief female ornament {306} of +these tribes; for their only gown consists of about a yard +and a half of strouding, or else a small dressed skin, suspended +from the waist, and constituting a sort of primitive +petticoat. The upper portion of the body remains uncovered, +except by a blanket or small skin, thrown loosely +over the shoulders. The men are often without any other +vesture than the flap, and sometimes a buffalo rug or blanket.</p> + +<p>As the remaining tribes of this intermediate class present +few or no distinctive characteristics, we will pass at once +to the consideration of the <i>wild tribes</i> proper<a name="FNanchor_215_216" id="FNanchor_215_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_216" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> of the Great <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg342"></a>[p342]</span> +Western Prairies. These neither cultivate the soil nor +live in fixed villages, but lead a roving life in pursuit of +plunder and game, and without ever submitting themselves +to that repose—to those fixed habits, which must always +precede any progress in civilization. But as the <i>Comanches</i> +are the only tribe of these 'wandering Arabs' of the Plains +which {307} present any distinguishing features of interest—any +prominent points of national character—the remarks +that follow will be devoted almost exclusively to +them.</p> + +<p>The relationship of the Comanches to the Snakes or +Shoshonies, shows them to have descended from the north: +in fact, it is but half a century since their range was from +the Arkansas river northward; but at present this stream +is their <i>ultima Thule</i>. Yet they even now acknowledge +no boundaries, but call themselves the lords of the entire +Prairies—all others are but 'tenants at will.' They +lead a wandering sort of life, betaking themselves whithersoever +the seasons or the habits of the buffalo, their chief +object of pursuit, may lead them. Although during summer +they are not unfrequently found as far north as the +Arkansas river, their winters they usually pass about the +head branches of the Brazos and Colorado rivers of Texas.</p> + +<p>In their domestic habits, these Indians, for the most +part, resemble the other wild tribes; yet in some respects +they differ materially. One of the most interesting traits +of difference is to be found in their distaste for ardent <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg343"></a>[p343]</span> +spirits: but few of them can be induced to taste a drop of +intoxicating liquors; thus forming an exception, I believe, +to the entire race of the 'red man,' who appears to have a +constitutional appetite for strong drinks. The frontier +as well as the prairie tribes—the Mexican as well as the +Mountain Indians—all are equally slaves to their use.</p> + +<p>{308} The Comanches are divided into numerous petty +bands, each under the control of its own particular chief. +When a chief becomes old and care-worn, he exercises +but the 'civil authority' of his clan; while his son, if deemed +worthy, otherwise some distinguished brave, assumes, +by 'common consent,' the functions of war-chief. As is +the case with all barbarous tribes, their chiefs assume +every judicial and executive authority. Complaints are +made to them and sentence summarily pronounced, and +often as summarily executed. For most offences, the chief, +if he considers his authority sufficiently well established, +freely uses the rod upon his subjects. He rarely attempts +this, however, upon noted warriors or 'braves,' whose +influence and resentment he may have reason to fear. The +punishment of murder among these, as among most of +the savage nations, devolves upon the bereaved relatives, +who are free to pursue and punish the perpetrators according +to their own liking, which is seldom short of death. +But the offended party, if disposed to compromise, has +also the privilege of accepting a commutation and releasing +the murderer.</p> + +<p>The husband seems to have complete power over the +destinies of his wife and children. For adultery, his punishment +is most usually to cut off the nose or ears,<a name="FNanchor_216_217" id="FNanchor_216_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_217" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> or {309} +both; and he may even take the life of his unfaithful wife <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg344"></a>[p344]</span> +with impunity. The squaw who has been mutilated for +such a cause, is <i>ipso facto</i> divorced, and, it is said, for ever +precluded from marrying again. The consequence is, +that she becomes a confirmed harlot in the tribe. Owing +in part, no doubt, to such severity in their customs, the +Comanche squaws have ever been noted for their chastity. +This may result also, in some degree, from the circumstance, +that the Comanche husbands, fathers and brothers, seldom +or never subject their wives, daughters and sisters, to that +debasing traffic practised among so many of the northern +nations.</p> + +<p>Like other wild tribes, the Comanches tolerate polygamy, +the chiefs and braves sometimes taking as many as eight +or ten wives at a time. Three is considered the usual +number, however, for 'subjects' or common warriors, +and nine for the chiefs. Their marriage ceremonies vary +in different bands; but the following has been represented +as the most usual. Unlike most other tribes, the consent +of the maiden has to be obtained. This done, the lover, +from apparent delicacy, goes not to the father of his intended, +but, in accordance with a custom which prevails +among some other tribes, communicates his desire to an +uncle or other aged relative, who enters into the marriage +contract. The parties, however, are not yet fully betrothed; +but, as a test of the submission of the bride to the service +of her proposed lord, the latter ties his riding-horse {310} +at her lodge door. If she turn him loose, she has resolved +finally to reject him; but if she lead him to the <i>caballada</i>, +it is an unequivocal agreement to take the charge of his +horses and other property; and the marriage is soon concluded. +The 'uncle' now communicates the engagement +to the chief, who causes the 'bans' to be published, that +no other wooer may interfere. As the horse is with them +the type of every important interest, the bridegroom next <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg345"></a>[p345]</span> +proceeds to kill the least valuable one he is possessed of; +and, taking out the heart, hangs it at the door of his betrothed, +who takes and roasts it, and then dividing it into +two parts, each eats a half, which perfects the bond of +wedlock. The heart of the buffalo or other animal may +perhaps be substituted, if the bridegroom has not a superabundance +of horses. Should the circumstances of the +parties admit of it, the marriage is usually celebrated with +feasting and dances; though, in general, the Comanches +are less fond of dancing than most other Indians.</p> + +<p>The Comanche dress consists of the usual leggins, moccasins, +flap and blanket or robe. Many wear in addition +a kind of leathern jerkin, or tight jacket closed before. +Their moccasins differ from those of other tribes, by having +a lengthy tassel of leathern fringes attached to the heels, +which trail the ground as they walk. Instead of this fringe, +the tassels sometimes consists of the tail of a polecat or +some other animal. When he can procure {311} it, the +young warrior is wont to wear a mantle and leggins of +strouding. Both of these articles, according to the 'latest +fashions,' should be one-half red, the other blue. The +bi-colored mantle, as well as the blanket or buffalo rug, +is carelessly thrown over the shoulders, and must be long +enough to drag the ground; for they seem to have an instinct +for the 'regal grandeur of a sweeping gown.'</p> + +<p>Though all the far-western Indians wear their hair long, +the Comanche seems to take most pride in the voluminousness +of his 'tresses,' and the length of his <i>queue</i>, which is +sometimes eked out with buffalo or other hair, till its tip +reaches the ground, and is bedaubed with gum, grease and +paint, and decorated with beads and other gewgaws. We +are not to think that foppery and coxcombry are generated +exclusively in civilized life. I am sure I never saw a vainer +creature than a Comanche brave in full costume, of dress, <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg346"></a>[p346]</span> +trinkets and paint. He steps as if he disdained the very +ground upon which he walks.</p> + +<p>The dress of the Comanche squaw is usually a kind of +loose gown or tunic of leather, or cotton if it can be procured, +which hangs from the shoulders and is bound around +the waist with a girdle; thus presenting a resemblance in +its appearance to our ordinary female costume. They +wear moccasins, to which short leggins are attached, and +which constitute a sort of leathern hose. They are not +permitted to wear long hair: that 'manly' prerogative +would be degraded by such an {312} association. It is +therefore kept docked so as scarcely to reach the shoulders.</p> + +<p>A style of dress similar to that of the Comanche females, +is worn by those of most of the erratic tribes. The squaws +of the north usually embroider their leathern frocks in a +fanciful manner with colored porcupine quills and beads, +and bedeck the borders with rattling shells, tags, hawk-bells, +and the like. Such as have the fortune to marry +Canadian or American trappers, are those who usually +dress most gaily.</p> + +<p>The prairie Indians generally are an equestrian race; +yet in horsemanship the Comanches stand decidedly preeminent; +and can only be equalled by the Northern Mexicans, +and perhaps the Arabs. Like the latter, they dote +upon their steeds: one had as well undertake to purchase +a Comanche's child as his favorite riding-horse. They +have a peculiar mark for their animals: every one which has +pertained to them may always be recognized by a slit in +the tip of each ear; a practice apparently universal among +all their tribe.</p> + +<p>In their warlike expeditions they avail themselves of their +equestrian skill with wonderful success. As they always +fight on horseback, they depend chiefly upon the charge, +at which they use their arrows and javelins with wonderful <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg347"></a>[p347]</span> +efficacy.<a name="FNanchor_217_218" id="FNanchor_217_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_218" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> On such occasions a Comanche will often throw +himself upon {313} the opposite side of his charger, so as +to be protected from the darts of the enemy; and, while +clinging there, he will discharge his arrows with extraordinary +dexterity from underneath his horse's neck. Different +from the 'prowling' tribes, they seldom attack at night, +or in timbered or rough regions; for they would then be +unable to manœuvre their coursers to advantage.</p> + +<p>Although not meriting the title of brave Indians, they +are held by the Mexicans as the most valiant of their border: +but when they come in contact with Americans or any of +our frontier tribes, they generally appear timid and cowardly. +Their predatory forays are therefore directed mostly +westward. They make continual inroads upon the whole +eastern frontier of Mexico, from Chihuahua to the coast; +driving off immense numbers of horses and mules, and +killing the citizens they may encounter, or making them +prisoners—particularly the females and boys. Of the +latter they make slaves, to perform such menial service +as usually pertains to the squaws, particularly the herding +of the stock. It is perhaps this alleviation of their labor by +slaves, that has contributed to elevate the Comanche women +above those of many of the northern tribes. Of their +female captives they often make wives; a fate which has +befallen some of those taken from Texas.</p> + +<p>Strange as it may appear, their captives frequently become +attached to their masters and to the savage life, and +with difficulty are {314} induced to leave them after a few +years' captivity. In fact, these prisoners, it is said, in time +often turn out to be the most formidable savages. Combining +the subtlety of the Mexican with the barbarity of +the Indian, they sometimes pilot into their native frontier <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg348"></a>[p348]</span> +and instigate horrid outrages. The department of Chihuahua +has been the greatest sufferer from their inroads.</p> + +<p>But, though at continual war with the south of the republic, +for many years the Comanches have cultivated +peace with the New Mexicans—not only because the +poverty of the country offers fewer inducements for their +inroads, but because it is desirable, as with the interior +Mexican tribes, to retain some friendly point with which +to keep an amicable intercourse and traffic. Parties of +them have therefore sometimes entered the settlements +of New Mexico for trading purposes; while every season +numerous bands of New Mexicans, known as <i>Comancheros</i>, +supplied with arms, ammunitions, trinkets, provisions +and other necessaries, launch upon the Prairies to barter +for mules, and the different fruits of their ravages upon +the south.</p> + +<p>This powerful nation, combined with the petty southern +tribes, has also waged an almost unceasing warfare upon +Texas, ever since her independence. War-parties have +frequently penetrated to the very heart of the settlements, +perpetrating murderous outrages, and bearing away into +captivity numerous women and children. They have +entered {315} the city of Austin, then the seat of government, +in open day; and, at other times, have been known +to descend to the very seacoast, committing many frightful +depredations. "On the 8th of August, 1840," writes a +friend who resided at Linnville, on Matagorda Bay, "several +hundred Comanches came down from the mountains, +and charged upon us without the least notice. They +burned and made a perfect destruction of the village and +everything pertaining to it."<a name="FNanchor_218_219" id="FNanchor_218_219"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_218_219" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg349"></a>[p349]</span></p> + +<p> Besides continual hostilities with Mexico and Texas, the +Comanches are at war with most of the Indians of the +Mexican interior, as also with the tribes of the more northern +prairies—and particularly the Arrapahoes and Chayennes, +with whom they have many bloody rencounters.<a name="FNanchor_219_220" id="FNanchor_219_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_220" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> But +they generally remain on friendly terms with the petty +tribes of the south, whom, indeed, they seem to hold as their +vassals.</p> + +<p>As these Indians always go to war on horseback, several +days are often spent previous to a campaign in equestrian +exercises and ceremonies, which seem partly to supply the +place of the war-dance of other tribes; though they sometimes +join in preparatory dances also. It is not an unusual +custom, when a campaign is in agitation, for a band of about +twenty Comanche maidens to chant, for three nights in +succession, the victories of their ancestors, the valor of their +brothers and cotemporaries, and the individual prowess +of all such young warriors as they consider should engage in +{316} the contemplated enterprise: and all those designated +by the serenading band are held as drafted for the <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg350"></a>[p350]</span> +campaign. Fired by the encomiums and excitations of the +'fair <i>cantatrices</i>,' they fly at once to the standard of their +favorite chief: and the ceremony is concluded by a war-dance.</p> + +<p>Upon their return from a successful expedition, the +'war-worn corps' halts on some elevation at a distance +from the village, and a herald is sent forward to announce +their arrival. Thereupon, one of their most respectable +and aged matrons issues forth to receive them, carrying +with her a very long-handled lance kept for the purpose. +On the top of this the victorious Indians fasten all the +scalps they may have taken, so arranged that each shall +be conspicuous. The matron squaw then approaches the +wigwams, holding her scalp-garnished lance high in the +air, and chanting some favorite war-legend. She is soon +joined by other squaws and Indian lasses, who dance +around as the procession moves through the entire circuit +of the village. If the victory has been brilliant, the dancing +and feasting are apt to be kept up for several days, all +parties joining in the general jubilee.</p> + +<p>If the conquerors bring any prisoners with them, these +have to encounter the scourgings and insults of the squaws +and children. Each seems entitled to a blow, a kick, a +pinch, a bite, or whatever simple punishment they may +choose to inflict upon the unfortunate captives. This +done, they are delivered {317} over to the captors as slaves, +and put to the service and drudgery of the camp.</p> + +<p>After their first entrance it seems rare for them to treat +their captives with much cruelty: though an instance was +related to me by some Mexican prisoners, of a very barbarous +massacre which they witnessed during their captivity. +Two white men, supposed to be Texans, were +tied to a stake, and a number of their marksmen, retiring +to a distance and using the naked bodies of their victims <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg351"></a>[p351]</span> +as targets, began wantonly to fire at them, and continued +their horrid sport, until some fatal balls put an end to their +sufferings! The capture of these had probably been attended +with some aggravating circumstances, which induced +the savages to resort to this cruel method of satiating +their revenge.</p> + +<p>If a campaign has been unsuccessful, the warriors separate +upon their return, and drop into the village one by +one. Nothing is now heard for several days, but the wailings +and howlings of the bereft relatives and friends. They +will also scarify their arms and legs, and subject themselves +to other carnal mortifications of the most powerful +character. On these occasions their previous captives, +and particularly such as may belong to the nation of their +victorious enemy, are sure to be roughly treated, and sometimes +massacred by the enraged relatives of the slain.</p> + +<p>When a Comanche dies, a similar course of mourning +is practised; and he is usually wrapped in his best blankets +or robes, and interred {318} with most of his 'jewelry' and +other articles of esteem; accompanying which, it is said, +an awl and some moccasin leather is generally added, as +a provision, it would appear, for his use during his long +journey to the 'happy hunting ground' beyond the grave. +They also kill the favorite horses of the deceased, which +are often buried by his side, doubtless with the same object.</p> + +<p>The religious notions of the Comanches resemble, in +most particulars, those of the other prairie tribes; yet they +appear to have an occasional peculiarity. Some say the +dry buffalo head or cranium is their idol. True it is that +they show it great reverence, and use it in many of their +mystic ceremonies. The Pawnees also hold these buffalo +heads, with which the plains are strewed, in great reverence; +and usually for many leagues around, these skulls are set +up facing towards their villages, in the belief that the herds <span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg352"></a>[p352]</span> +of buffalo will thus be conducted by them into their neighborhood.<a name="FNanchor_220_221" id="FNanchor_220_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_221" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> +Of the Comanches the sun is no doubt the +principal deity. When preparing for a campaign, it is +said they do not fail to place their arms betimes every +morning on the east side of their lodges, that they may +receive the blessing of the fountain of light at his first appearance. +This indeed seems the usual time for offering +their devotions to the sun, of many tribes of the American +aborigines.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_205_206" id="Footnote_205_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_206"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> This seems to have been of ancient and general use among the savages of +North America. "I must speak here of the <i>Calumet</i>," remarks Father Marquette, +"the most mysterious thing in the world. The sceptres of our kings are not so +much respected; for the savages have such a deference for this pipe, that one may +call it <i>the god of peace and war, and the arbiter of life and death</i>. One, with this +calumet, may venture amongst his enemies, and in the hottest engagement they +lay down their arms before this sacred pipe." The deference is perhaps not so +great at the present day, though the 'pipe of peace' is still very much respected. +Even the ashes from the calumet seem to be held sacred; for, usually after smoking, +the pipe is emptied in some corner of the lodge specially allotted for the purpose. +But as they have generally learned that smoking is not practised by the whites +on these occasions, it is now not commonly held important for us to smoke with +them; but presents are expected instead. Anciently, however, they were more +strict; for, in another place, the same author (in 1673) relates:—"As soon as we +sat down, they presented us, according to custom, their <i>calumet</i>, which one must +needs accept, for else he should be lookt upon as an enemy, or a meer brute; however, +it is not necessary to smoak, and provided one puts it to his mouth, +it is enough."—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span> +</p> +<p> +<i>Comment by Ed.</i> See Thwaites, <cite>Jesuit Relations</cite>, lix, pp. 117, 119, 131.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_206_207" id="Footnote_206_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_207"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> As many tribes make their moccasins of different shapes—some with hooked +toes, others broad—some with the seam on the bottom, etc., there is always a +palpable difference in the tracks.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_207_208" id="Footnote_207_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_208"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> A diminutive tribe on the Texas border, called Tonkewas, made food of +human flesh within the present century, and, it may be of late years, though I have +not heard it mentioned.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_208_209" id="Footnote_208_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_209"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> Dogs seem always to have been a favorite article of food among the aborigines +of different parts. Father Marquette, in his voyage down the Mississippi in 1673, +remarks of an Indian feast, "The third service was a huge Dog, whom they killed +on purpose," &c.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_209_210" id="Footnote_209_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_210"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> See Irving, <cite>Tour on the Prairies</cite>, pp. 83, 84.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_210_211" id="Footnote_210_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_211"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> Dr. Samuel Thomson (1769-1843), a New England physician, advocated +a method of treating fevers and similar diseases by means of steaming.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_211_212" id="Footnote_211_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_212"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> For the Pawnee groups and habitat, see Pattie's <cite>Narrative</cite>, in our volume +xviii, p. 40, note 24. For the Arikara, consult Bradbury's <cite>Travels</cite>, in our volume +v, p. 127, note 83.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_212_213" id="Footnote_212_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_213"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> For the Osage see our volume v, p. 50, note 22.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_213_214" id="Footnote_213_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_214"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> The custom of taking all the sisters of a family is also said to be common +among the Kansas, Omahas and other kindred tribes; indeed it appears to have +prevailed from the earliest ages among all the Dahcotah family as well as many +Algonquins and most other tribes about the great Lakes. Mons. La Salle, in his +trip from these to the Mississippi in 1673, remarks of the savages of those regions: +"They marry several Wives, and commonly all Sisters, if they can, thinking they +agree better in their Family." Hennepin, Charlevoix and others speak of the +same custom. Murray also mentions something of the kind among the Pawnees. +Forbes alludes to the same in California. But I am uninformed, whether, in +these several instances, the husband's right was only <i>de facto</i>, or <i>de jure</i> as among +the Osages, to all the younger sisters.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_214_215" id="Footnote_214_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_215"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> Note Bradbury's experience with the mourning Osage, in our volume v, pp. +63, 64.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_215_216" id="Footnote_215_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_216"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> The population of the intermediate tribes, according to the Report of the +Commissioner of Indian Affairs, for 1844 is as follows: Pawnees, 12,500 souls +(though some experienced traders rate them at only about 5,000); Rickaras, 1,200; +Chippewas, Potawatomies and Ottawas of the North, 2,298; Sacs and Foxes, +2,762; Winnebagoes, 2,183; Iowas, 470; Poncas, 777; Omahas, 1,301; Otoes and +Missouries, 931; Kansas, 1,700; Osages, 4,102;—besides of Caddoes and Inyes +about 500; Wacoes, Witchitas, Towockanoes, Towyashes and Keechyes, 1,000; +who maintain themselves chiefly in Northern Texas. The wild tribes proper of +the Prairies, are, the Comanches, consisting of about 10,000 souls; Kiawas, 2,000; +Apaches, 100; Arrapahoes, 2,000; Chayennes, 2,000; besides many others to the +north and westward, who rarely descend within the regions to the notice of which +these pages are confined. As these tribes would doubtless average at least three-fifths +females, they could hardly turn out one-fifth of their numbers in warriors, +though this is the usual rule of estimating them by men of Indian experience.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_216_217" id="Footnote_216_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_217"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> This custom was perhaps once quite extensive. It prevails among the +Creeks to the present day, and was anciently practised by other southern nations; +and "Among the Miamis," says Father Charlevoix, "the Husband has a right +to cut off his wife's nose if she runs away from him."—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_217_218" id="Footnote_217_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_218"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> The Comanches employ usually short-handled javelins or lances, declaring, +like the Spartan mother, that cowards only need long weapons.—<span class="smcap">Gregg.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_218_219" id="Footnote_218_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_219"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> The Comanche had been hostile to the Spanish in Texas, preventing its +settlement, and about 1757 destroying the mission of San Saba. In 1785 the +troops were obliged to retire into the Alamo at San Antonio, in order to be secured +from their raids. The Texans were at first friendly with the Comanche; but in +1832 a Mexican deputation visited the border tribes, and incited them against +the Texans. Open war broke out in 1837, and several battles were fought. In +February, 1840, twelve chiefs with a numerous retinue came to San Antonio to +make peace. Refusing to deliver up their white captives, troops were set upon +them, and in the ensuing mêlée all the chiefs and twenty other Indians were killed. +The Comanche retired to plan revenge. Early in August, they advanced, avoiding +Austin and San Antonio, and fell upon the town of Victoria. The inhabitants +resisting, about fifteen of them were killed. When the Indians reached Linnville, +a village of only five houses, its inhabitants fled to a ship in the bay, whereupon +the hamlet was destroyed. A pursuing party under General Felix Houston defeated +the natives, and recovered the white prisoners. In September, an expedition +headed by Colonel John Moore attained the Comanche village high up on +the Colorado River, and severely chastised them, killing one hundred and twenty-eight, +and capturing thirty-two. After this the Comanche avoided the Texans +for some years.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_219_220" id="Footnote_219_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_220"><span + class="label">[219]</span></a> For the Arapaho, consult +James's <cite>Long's Expedition</cite>, our volume xv, p. 157, +note 48. A brief notice of the Cheyenne is in our volume v, p. 140, note 88.—<span +class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_220_221" id="Footnote_220_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_221"><span +class="label">[220]</span></a> Most of the plains Indians had superstitions regarding the buffalo. Consult +on this subject, James O. Dorsey, "Study of Siouan Cults," in U. S. Bureau of +Ethnology <cite>Reports</cite>, 1889-90, pp. 361-544; George A. Dorsey, <cite>Traditions of the +Skidi Pawnee</cite> (Boston and New York, 1904).—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div></div> + +<h3 title="Glossary"> +<a name="GLOSSARY" id="GLOSSARY"></a>GLOSSARY</h3> + +<p class="subhead"><a id="Pg353"></a> +<span class="smcap">Containing such Spanish or Hispano-Mexican words +as occur undefined in this work, or recur +without definition after having been once +translated.</span><a href="#tocGlossary" +class="toclnk">toc</a></p> + +<ul id="ulglossary"> +<li class="first"><dfn>A</dfn>, <dfn>al</dfn>, to, to the.</li> + +<li><dfn>Abajo</dfn>, down, under, below.</li> + +<li><dfn>Acequia</dfn>, ditch, canal.</li> + +<li><dfn>Adelantado</dfn>, governor of a province.</li> + +<li><dfn>A dios</dfn>, adieu, farewell.</li> + +<li><dfn>Administrador de Rentas</dfn>, a custom-house officer.</li> + +<li><dfn>Adobe</dfn>, a sort of unburnt brick.</li> + +<li><dfn>Afuera</dfn>, without, abroad.</li> + +<li><dfn>Aguador</dfn>, water-carrier.</li> + +<li><dfn>Aguardiente</dfn>, brandy.</li> + +<li><dfn>Alacran</dfn>, scorpion.</li> + +<li><dfn>Alameda</dfn>, public walk, with rows of trees, usually the <i>álamo</i>.</li> + +<li><dfn>Alamo</dfn> (in Mexico), cotton-wood.</li> + +<li><dfn>Alcalde</dfn>, justice of the peace.</li> + +<li><dfn>Alegria</dfn>, mirth; a plant.</li> + +<li><dfn>Allí</dfn>, there.</li> + +<li><dfn>Amigo</dfn>, friend.</li> + +<li><dfn>Ancheta</dfn>, adventure of goods.</li> + +<li><dfn>Angelito</dfn>, little angel.</li> + +<li><dfn>Angostura</dfn>, narrowness.</li> + +<li><dfn>Aparejo</dfn>, sort of pack-saddle.</li> + +<li><dfn>Aquí</dfn>, here.</li> + +<li><dfn>Arancel</dfn>, tariff.</li> + +<li><dfn>Armas</dfn>, arms.</li> + +<li><dfn>Arriba</dfn>, up, above.</li> + +<li><dfn>Arriero</dfn>, muleteer.</li> + +<li><dfn>Asambléa</dfn>, assembly.</li> + +<li><dfn>Astucia</dfn>, cunning, artifice.</li> + +<li><dfn>Atajo</dfn>, drove of pack mules, &c.</li> + +<li><dfn>Atole</dfn>, sort of thick gruel.</li> + +<li><dfn>Auto</dfn>, act, edict.</li> + +<li><dfn>Ayotéa</dfn>, flat roof, terrace.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>Baile</dfn>, ball, dance.</li> + +<li><dfn>Bandolin</dfn>, species of small guitar.</li> + +<li><dfn>Bárbaro</dfn>, barbarous; a savage.</li> + +<li><dfn>Barra</dfn>, ingot, bar of silver, &c.</li> + +<li><dfn>Baston</dfn>, staff, cane.</li> + +<li><dfn>Blanco</dfn>, white.</li> + +<li><dfn>Bolsa</dfn>, pocket, purse.</li> + +<li><dfn>Bonanza</dfn>, prosperity.</li> + +<li><dfn>Bonito</dfn>, pretty.</li> + +<li><dfn>Bota</dfn>, boot, leggin.</li> + +<li><dfn>Bravo</dfn>, brave, bold.</li> + +<li><dfn>Bueno</dfn>, good.</li> + +<li><dfn>Burro</dfn>, ass.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>Caballada</dfn>, drove of horses, &c.</li> + +<li><dfn>Caballero</dfn>, gentleman, knight.</li> + +<li><dfn>Caballo</dfn>, horse.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cacique</dfn>, Indian chief or prince.</li> + +<li><dfn>Café</dfn>, coffee; coffee-house.</li> + +<li><dfn>Calabozo</dfn>, dungeon, jail.</li> + +<li><dfn>Caliente</dfn>, warm, hot.</li> + +<li><dfn>Camino</dfn>, road.</li> + +<li><dfn>Campo</dfn>, field, camp.</li> + +<li><dfn>Campo santo</dfn>, cemetery without a church.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cancion</dfn>, song, poem.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cañada</dfn>, valley.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cañon</dfn>, deep gorge or ravine; cannon.</li> + +<li><dfn>Capilla</dfn>, chapel.</li> + +<li><dfn>Capitan</dfn>, captain.</li> + +<li><dfn>Carajo</dfn>, an oath; scoundrel.</li> + +<li><dfn>Caravana</dfn>, caravan.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cárcel</dfn>, prison, jail.</li> + +<li><dfn>Carga</dfn>, load.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cargador</dfn>, carrier.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cargamento</dfn>, cargo.</li> + +<li><dfn>Carnero</dfn>, male sheep.</li> + +<li><dfn>Carreta</dfn>, cart.</li> + +<li><dfn>Carro</dfn>, wagon, &c.</li> + +<li><dfn>Casa</dfn>, house.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cautivo</dfn>, captive.</li> + +<li><dfn>Ceja</dfn>, brow.</li> + +<li><dfn>Centralismo</dfn>, central government.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cerro</dfn>, mound.</li> + +<li><dfn>Chacal</dfn>, jackal.</li> + +<li><dfn>Chico</dfn>, small; small person. +<span class="xxpgno"><a id="Pg354"></a>[p354]</span></li> + +<li><dfn>Chile</dfn>, red pepper.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cibolero</dfn>, buffalo-hunter.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cibolo</dfn>, the American buffalo.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cigarrito</dfn>, little cigar.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cigarro</dfn>, cigar.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cimarron</dfn>, wild.</li> + +<li><dfn>Claco</dfn>, small copper coin.</li> + +<li><dfn>Coche</dfn>, coach.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cocina</dfn>, kitchen.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cocinera</dfn>, female cook.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cola</dfn>, tail; glue.</li> + +<li><dfn>Colorado</dfn>, red.</li> + +<li><dfn>Comanchero</dfn>, Comanche trader.</li> + +<li><dfn>Comiso</dfn>, confiscation.</li> + +<li><dfn>Consumo</dfn>, consumption.</li> + +<li><dfn>Contra-revolucion</dfn>, counter-revolution.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cordillera</dfn>, chain of mountains.</li> + +<li><dfn>Corral</dfn>, yard, pen.</li> + +<li><dfn>Correr</dfn>, to run.</li> + +<li><dfn>Coyote</dfn>, prairie-wolf.</li> + +<li><dfn>Crepúsculo</dfn>, dawn, twilight.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cristo</dfn>, Christ.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cruz</dfn>, cross.</li> + +<li><dfn>Cuñado</dfn>, brother-in-law.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>De</dfn>, <dfn>del</dfn>, of, of the, &c.</li> + +<li><dfn>Decreto</dfn>, decree.</li> + +<li><dfn>Derecho</dfn>, tax; right.</li> + +<li><dfn>Descubrimiento</dfn>, discovery.</li> + +<li><dfn>Dia</dfn>, day.</li> + +<li><dfn>Diablo</dfn>, devil.</li> + +<li><dfn>Dictador</dfn>, dictator.</li> + +<li><dfn>Diligencia</dfn>, diligence; stage-coach.</li> + +<li><dfn>Dios</dfn>, God.</li> + +<li><dfn>Doblon</dfn>, doubloon.</li> + +<li><dfn>Domingingo</dfn>, Sunday; Dominic.</li> + +<li><dfn>Doña</dfn>, Madam, Mrs., Miss.</li> + +<li><dfn>Dorado</dfn>, gilt.</li> + +<li><dfn>Dos</dfn>, two.</li> + +<li><dfn>Dulce</dfn>, sweet.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>Eclesiástico</dfn>, ecclesiastical.</li> + +<li><dfn>El</dfn>, the; he, him.</li> + +<li><dfn>Enáguas</dfn>, sort of petticoat.</li> + +<li><dfn>En junta</dfn>, in council.</li> + +<li><dfn>Enmendadura</dfn>, enmendation.</li> + +<li><dfn>Entrada</dfn>, entrance.</li> + +<li><dfn>Entrerenglonadura</dfn>, interlineation.</li> + +<li><dfn>Escritor</dfn>, writer.</li> + +<li><dfn>Escuadron</dfn>, squadron.</li> + +<li><dfn>Español</dfn>, Spanish; Spaniard.</li> + +<li><dfn>Está</dfn>, is, he is, it is, &c.</li> + +<li><dfn>Estacado</dfn>, staked.</li> + +<li><dfn>Estrangero</dfn>, stranger, foreigner.</li> + +<li><dfn>Estufa</dfn>, cell; stove.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>Factura</dfn>, invoice.</li> + +<li><dfn>Fandango</dfn>, dance; ball.</li> + +<li><dfn>Fiera</dfn>, wild beast.</li> + +<li><dfn>Fe</dfn>, faith.</li> + +<li><dfn>Feria</dfn>, fair.</li> + +<li><dfn>Fierro</dfn>, iron; branding-iron, &c.</li> + +<li><dfn>Fiesta</dfn>, feast.</li> + +<li><dfn>Fonda</dfn>, eating-house, inn.</li> + +<li><dfn>Fraile</dfn>, <dfn>Fray</dfn>, friar.</li> + +<li><dfn>Frijol</dfn>, bean.</li> + +<li><dfn>Fueros</dfn>, chartered privileges.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>Gachupin</dfn>, Spaniard in America.</li> + +<li><dfn>Gallina</dfn>, hen.</li> + +<li><dfn>Gallo</dfn>, cock.</li> + +<li><dfn>Ganado</dfn>, cattle.</li> + +<li><dfn>Gefe</dfn>, chief.</li> + +<li><dfn>Gobernador</dfn>, governor.</li> + +<li><dfn>Gobernadorcillo</dfn>, petty governor, or chief.</li> + +<li><dfn>Gobierno</dfn>, government.</li> + +<li><dfn>Grama</dfn>, species of grass.</li> + +<li><dfn>Gran</dfn>, <dfn>grande</dfn>, great, large.</li> + +<li><dfn>Grandeza</dfn>, greatness, grandeur.</li> + +<li><dfn>Grano</dfn>, grain.</li> + +<li><dfn>Gauge</dfn>, gourd, flask.</li> + +<li><dfn>Guardia</dfn>, guard, watch; watch-house.</li> + +<li><dfn>Guerra</dfn>, war.</li> + +<li><dfn>Guia</dfn>, sort of passport for goods.</li> + +<li><dfn>Guisado</dfn>, cooked, stewed.</li> + +<li><dfn>Guitarra</dfn>, guitar.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>Hacienda</dfn>, estate; lands; treasure.</li> + +<li><dfn>Haciendero</dfn>, proprietor of an hacienda.</li> + +<li><dfn>Herradura</dfn>, horse-shoe.</li> + +<li><dfn>Herrero</dfn>, blacksmith.</li> + +<li><dfn>Hidalgo</dfn>, nobleman.</li> + +<li><dfn>Hoja</dfn>, leaf, husk, &c.</li> + +<li><dfn>Hombre</dfn>, man.</li> + +<li><dfn>Hombre bueno</dfn>, arbitrator.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>Ilustrísimo</dfn>, most illustrious.</li> + +<li><dfn>Imprenta</dfn>, printing-office.</li> + +<li><dfn>Inocente</dfn>, innocent.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>Jacal</dfn>, hut, wigwam.</li> + +<li><dfn>Jola</dfn>, copper coin, penny.</li> + +<li><dfn>Jornada</dfn>, day's travel; journey.</li> + +<li><dfn>Juez</dfn>, judge.</li> + +<li><dfn>Junta</dfn>, council; union.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>La</dfn>, <dfn>las</dfn>, the; her, it, them.</li> + +<li><dfn>Labor</dfn>, labor; field; mining-pit.</li> + +<li><dfn>Labrador</dfn>, laborer, farmer.</li> + +<li><dfn>Ladron</dfn>, thief, robber.</li> + +<li><dfn>Laguna</dfn>, lake.</li> + +<li><dfn>Lanzada</dfn>, thrust with a lance.</li> + +<li><dfn>Layador</dfn>, nooser.</li> + +<li><dfn>Lazito</dfn>, little lazo.</li> + +<li><dfn>Lazo</dfn>, noosing rope.</li> + +<li><dfn>Legua</dfn>, league.</li> + +<li><dfn>Lépero</dfn>, vagabond, <i>sans-culotte</i>.</li> + +<li><dfn>Ley</dfn>, law.</li> + +<li><dfn>Limosnero</dfn>, beggar.</li> + +<li><dfn>Llano</dfn>, plain; prairie; smooth.</li> + +<li><dfn>Lo</dfn>, <dfn>los</dfn>, the; it, them, &c.</li> + +<li><dfn>Lobo</dfn>, wolf.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>Madre</dfn>, mother.</li> + +<li><dfn>Manifiesto</dfn>, manifest; bill of goods presented to the custom-house.</li> + +<li><dfn>Manta</dfn>, covering; cotton-cloth.</li> + +<li><dfn>Marco</dfn>, weight of eight ounces; mark.</li> + +<li><dfn>Mayor</dfn>, great, superior.</li> + +<li><dfn>Mayordomo</dfn>, overseer.</li> + +<li><dfn>Médano</dfn>, sand-hill.</li> + +<li><dfn>Medio</dfn>, half; picayune.</li> + +<li><dfn>Menor</dfn>, less, inferior.</li> + +<li><dfn>Mesa</dfn>, table; table-plain.</li> + +<li><dfn>Meson</dfn>, inn, hotel.</li> + +<li><dfn>Mestizo</dfn>, mongrel.</li> + +<li><dfn>Mezquite</dfn>, a tree, acacia.</li> + +<li><dfn>Mi</dfn>, <dfn>mis</dfn>, my.</li> + +<li><dfn>Militar</dfn>, military.</li> + +<li><dfn>Monte</dfn>, a game; grove; mount.</li> + +<li><dfn>Mora</dfn>, mulberry.</li> + +<li><dfn>Muerto</dfn>, dead; dead man.</li> + +<li><dfn>Mula</dfn>, mule; unsalable item.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>Negro</dfn>, black; a black person.</li> + +<li><dfn>Noria</dfn>, machine for drawing water; well.</li> + +<li><dfn>Norte</dfn>, north.</li> + +<li><dfn>Noticioso</dfn>, giving information.</li> + +<li><dfn>Número</dfn>, number.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>Oficial</dfn>, official; officer.</li> + +<li><dfn>Ojo</dfn>, eye; spring of water.</li> + +<li><dfn>Oro</dfn>, gold.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>Padre</dfn>, father; priest.</li> + +<li><dfn>Padrino</dfn>, godfather, sponsor.</li> + +<li><dfn>Paisano</dfn>, countryman.</li> + +<li><dfn>Palacio</dfn>, palace.</li> + +<li><dfn>Panza</dfn>, paunch.</li> + +<li><dfn>Papa</dfn>, pope; potato.</li> + +<li><dfn>Parage</dfn>, place; camping-site.</li> + +<li><dfn>Pariente</dfn>, relative, kin.</li> + +<li><dfn>Parroquia</dfn>, parish; parish church.</li> + +<li><dfn>Pasa</dfn>, raisin.</li> + +<li><dfn>Paséo</dfn>, pleasure walk or ride.</li> + +<li><dfn>Paso</dfn>, pass, passage; step.</li> + +<li><dfn>Pastor</dfn>, pastor; shepherd.</li> + +<li><dfn>Patio</dfn>, court, enclosed yard.</li> + +<li><dfn>Pato</dfn>, duck.</li> + +<li><dfn>Patriótico</dfn>, patriotic.</li> + +<li><dfn>Pauta</dfn>, rule, model.</li> + +<li><dfn>Pelo</dfn>, hair.</li> + +<li><dfn>Penitencia</dfn>, penance, penitence.</li> + +<li><dfn>Perro</dfn>, dog.</li> + +<li><dfn>Peso</dfn>, dollar; weight.</li> + +<li><dfn>Piedra</dfn>, stone.</li> + +<li><dfn>Pinole</dfn>, food of parched Indian meal stirred in water.</li> + +<li><dfn>Placer</dfn>, pleasure; gold region.</li> + +<li><dfn>Plata</dfn>, silver.</li> + +<li><dfn>Plaza</dfn>, square; place; village.</li> + +<li><dfn>Poquito</dfn>, very little.</li> + +<li><dfn>Portal</dfn>, porch, corridor.</li> + +<li><dfn>Perfecto</dfn>, perfect.</li> + +<li><dfn>Presidio</dfn>, garrison, fort.</li> + +<li><dfn>Presto</dfn>, quick, soon.</li> + +<li><dfn>Profano</dfn>, profane.</li> + +<li><dfn>Pronunciamento</dfn>, act of making a public declaration.</li> + +<li><dfn>Proyecto</dfn>, project, plan.</li> + +<li><dfn>Público</dfn>, public.</li> + +<li><dfn>Pueblo</dfn>, people; Catholic Indians, &c.</li> + +<li><dfn>Puerta</dfn>, door.</li> + +<li><dfn>Puro</dfn>, pure; pure tobacco cigar.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>Ranchera</dfn>, country woman.</li> + +<li><dfn>Ranchería</dfn>, village of wild Indians.</li> + +<li><dfn>Ranchero</dfn>, inhabitant of a rancho.</li> + +<li><dfn>Rancho</dfn>, stock-farm.</li> + +<li><dfn>Raspadura</dfn>, erasure; rasping.</li> + +<li><dfn>Real</dfn>, a coin; royal, real, grand.</li> + +<li><dfn>Rebozo</dfn>, muffler, species of scarf.</li> + +<li><dfn>Remedio</dfn>, remedy, medicine.</li> + +<li><dfn>Rey</dfn>, king.</li> + +<li><dfn>Rico</dfn>, rich; rich man.</li> + +<li><dfn>Rio</dfn>, river.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>Sala</dfn>, hall, parlor.</li> + +<li><dfn>Salina</dfn>, salt pond or pit.</li> + +<li><dfn>San</dfn>, <dfn>santo</dfn>, <dfn>santa</dfn>, saint, holy.</li> + +<li><dfn>Sandía</dfn>, watermelon.</li> + +<li><dfn>Sangre</dfn>, blood.</li> + +<li><dfn>Santísimo</dfn>, most holy.</li> + +<li><dfn>Saquéo</dfn>, sack, pillage.</li> + +<li><dfn>Sarape</dfn>, sort of blanket.</li> + +<li><dfn>Semana</dfn>, week.</li> + +<li><dfn>Señor</dfn>, sir, Mr.; lord.</li> + +<li><dfn>Señora</dfn>, Madam, Mrs.; lady.</li> + +<li><dfn>Señoría</dfn>, lordship.</li> + +<li><dfn>Señoría ilustrísima</dfn>, title of a bishop, &c.</li> + +<li><dfn>Señorita</dfn>, madam, miss, Mrs., &c.</li> + +<li><dfn>Sierra</dfn>, ridge of mountains; saw.</li> + +<li><dfn>Siesta</dfn>, afternoon's sleep.</li> + +<li><dfn>Silla</dfn>, chair; saddle.</li> + +<li><dfn>Sistema</dfn>, system.</li> + +<li><dfn>Sol</dfn>, sun.</li> + +<li><dfn>Soldado</dfn>, soldier.</li> + +<li><dfn>Sombrero</dfn>, hat.</li> + +<li><dfn>Sonoreño</dfn>, citizen of Sonora.</li> + +<li><dfn>Su</dfn>, <dfn>sus</dfn>, his, her, its, their.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>Tarde</dfn>, evening.</li> + +<li><dfn>Tierra</dfn>, country, land.</li> + +<li><dfn>Tierra Afuera</dfn> (in Mexico), the exterior, or country near the coast, &c.</li> + +<li><dfn>Tilma</dfn>, Indian mantle.</li> + +<li><dfn>Tio</dfn>, uncle.</li> + +<li><dfn>Todo</dfn>, all, every, whole.</li> + +<li><dfn>Tonillo</dfn>, screw.</li> + +<li><dfn>Tortilla</dfn>, thin cake, diminutive of <dfn>torta</dfn>, cake, loaf.</li> + +<li class="first"><dfn>Un</dfn>, <dfn>uno</dfn>, a, one.</li> + +<li class="first"><dfn>Vado</dfn>, ford.</li> + +<li><dfn>Valiente</dfn>, valiant, brave.</li> + +<li><dfn>Valle</dfn>, valley, dale.</li> + +<li><dfn>Vaquero</dfn>, cowherd.</li> + +<li><dfn>Vaquita</dfn>, diminutive of <dfn>vaca</dfn>, cow.</li> + +<li><dfn>Vara</dfn>, Spanish yard of 33 inches.</li> + +<li><dfn>Venta</dfn>, sale; sale-brand; inn.</li> + +<li><dfn>Verdadero</dfn>, true.</li> + +<li><dfn>Verde</dfn>, green.</li> + +<li><dfn>Vicio</dfn>, vice.</li> + +<li><dfn>Viernes</dfn>, Friday.</li> + +<li class="first"><dfn>Y</dfn>, <dfn>é</dfn>, and.</li> + +<li><dfn>Yeso</dfn>, gypsum.</li> + + +<li class="first"><dfn>Zambo</dfn>, offspring of the Indian and negro.</li> + +<li><dfn>Zaguan</dfn>, entry, porch.</li> + +<li><dfn>Zarco</dfn>, light blue.</li> + +<li><dfn>Zorra</dfn>, fox.</li> +</ul> + +<div class="transnote"> +<a id="TRANSCRIBER_NOTE"></a>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: + +<p>Original spelling and grammar has mostly been retained. Figures +were moved from within paragraphs to between paragraphs. Footnotes +were moved to the ends of chapters. This 1905 edition is an annotated +reprint of "Part II of Gregg's Commerce of the Prairies, 1831-1839"; +the pagination of the latter document is shown herein as a number +enclosed in curly brackets, e.g. {226}. The pagination of the +1905 publication is shown in square brackets, e.g. [p009]. <span +class="smcap">Small caps</span> are not well supported in mobile +formats, so they are reinforced with an underline herein.</p> + +<p>The Transcriber created the cover page, and hereby +places it in the public domain.</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Pg078">78</a>: the phrase "invicta, la Galia indomable" is printed upside +down. This was not a mistake, as it is explained in a following +paragraph. This has been reproduced herein as well as possible +("ıuʌıɔʇɐ lɐ פɐlıɐ ıupoɯɐqlǝ"), using Unicode characters. Some of +these characters may not be properly displayed in all browsers and +fonts.</p> + +<p>Footnote <a href="#Footnote_59_59">59</a>: +the original large table was broken into two pieces.</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Pg099">99</a>: "ofthe regular Route" was changed to "of the regular Route".</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Pg144">144</a>: "consipracy" was changed to "conspiracy".</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Pg145">145</a>: "futurese curity" to "future security".</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Pg168">168</a>: an initial quotation mark was added to "he is prying into + your affairs".</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Pg173">173</a>: "mattrass" to "mattress".</p> + +<p>Footnote <a href="#Footnote_123_123">123</a>: "Jesus Maria" changed to "Jesus-Maria".</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Pg193">193</a>: "invogue" to "in vogue".</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Pg208">208</a>: "discharging valleys" to "discharging volleys".</p> + +<p>Footnote <a href="#Footnote_136_136">136</a>: Several instances of "do." (abbreviation for "ditto") +were replaced by repeated text.</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Pg268">268</a>: "Assinaboins" to "Assiniboins", to match the footnote. +The more usual modern spelling seems to be "Assiniboine" +("Assiniboines", plural).</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Pg274">274</a>: "dolefu" to "doleful".</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Pg296">296</a>: "resistence" to "resistance".</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Pg320">320</a>: "tancy" to "fancy".</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Early Western Travels 1748-1846, +Volume XX, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EARLY WESTERN TRAVELS *** + +***** This file should be named 44205-h.htm or 44205-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/2/0/44205/ + +Produced by RichardW, Greg Bergquist and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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