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diff --git a/old/44205.txt b/old/44205.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c417240 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44205.txt @@ -0,0 +1,12814 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Early Western Travels 1748-1846, Volume XX, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Early Western Travels 1748-1846, Volume XX + Part II of Gregg's Commerce of the Prairies, 1831-1839 + +Author: Various + +Editor: Reuben Gold Thwaites + +Release Date: November 17, 2013 [EBook #44205] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EARLY WESTERN TRAVELS *** + + + + +Produced by RichardW, Greg Bergquist and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + Early Western Travels + + 1748-1846 + + Volume XX + + [Illustration: Indian alarm on the Cimarron River] + + + + + Early Western Travels + 1748-1846 + + + A Series of Annotated Reprints of some of the best + and rarest contemporary volumes of travel, descriptive + of the Aborigines and Social and + Economic Conditions in the Middle + and Far West, during the Period + of Early American Settlement + + Edited with Notes, Introductions, Index, etc., by + Reuben Gold Thwaites, LL. D. + + Editor of "The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents", "Original + Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition", "Hennepin's + New Discovery," etc. + + Volume XX + Part II of Gregg's Commerce of the Prairies, 1831-1839 + + [Illustration] + + Cleveland, Ohio + The Arthur H. Clark Company + 1905 + + + + + COPYRIGHT 1905, BY + THE ARTHUR H. CLARK COMPANY + + ALL RIGHTS RESERVED + + The Lakeside Press + R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY + CHICAGO + + + + +CONTENTS OF VOLUME XX + + + COMMERCE OF THE PRAIRIES; or, The Journal of a Santa Fe + Trader, during Eight Expeditions across the Great Western + Prairies, and a Residence of nearly Nine Years in Northern + Mexico. (Part II: Chapters xii-xvi of Volume I, and all + of Volume II of original.) _Josiah Gregg._ + + Author's Table of Contents 13 + + Text of Part II: 21 + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS TO VOLUME XX + + + "Indian Alarm on the Cimarron River" _Frontispiece_ + + "Map of the Interior of Northern Mexico" _Facing_ 21 + + Medal of Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe de Mexico (text cut) 40 + + "Camp Comanche" 123 + + Mule emerging from a mine; Still Hunting (text cuts in + original) 181 + + "'Dog Town,' or Settlement of Prairie Dogs" 279 + + + + + PART II OF GREGG'S COMMERCE OF THE PRAIRIES, OR THE + JOURNAL OF A SANTA FE TRADER--1831-1839 + + Reprint of chapters xii-xvi of Volume I, and all of Volume + II of the second edition: New York, 1845 + + +CONTENTS + + CHAPTER XII + + Government of New Mexico -- The Administration of Justice + -- Judicial Corruption -- Prejudices against Americans + -- Partiality for the English -- Anecdote of Governor + Armijo and a Trapper -- Outrage upon an American + Physician -- Violence suffered by the American Consul + and others -- Arbitrary Impositions upon Foreigners -- + _Contribucion de Guerra_ -- The Alcaldes and their + System -- The _Fueros_ -- Mode of punishing Delinquents + and Criminals -- Mexican System of Slavery -- Thieves + and Thieveries Outrage upon an American Merchant -- + Gambling and Gambling-houses -- Game of _Monte_ -- + Anecdote of a Lady of Fashion -- _Chuza_ -- Cockpits -- + _Correr el gallo_ -- _El Coleo_ -- Fandangoes -- + _Cigarritos_, 21 + + CHAPTER XIII + + Military Hierarchy of Mexico -- Religious Superstitions -- + Legend of _Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe_ -- A profane + Version of the Story -- A curious Plan for manufacturing + Water -- Saints and Images -- Processions -- How to make + it Rain -- The Sacred Host -- Fanaticism and Murder -- + Honors paid to a Bishop -- Servility to Priests -- + Attendance at Public Worship -- New Mexicans in Church + -- The Vesper Bells -- Passion Week and the Ceremonies + pertaining thereto -- Ridiculous _Penitencia_ -- + Whitewashing of Criminals -- Matrimonial Connexions and + Mode of Contracting them -- Restrictions upon Lovers -- + Onerous Fees paid for Marriages and Burials -- Anecdote + of a _Ranchero_ -- Ditto of a Servant and of a Widow, + illustrative of Priestly Extortion -- Modes of Burial, + and Burial Ground of the Heretics, 37 + + CHAPTER XIV + + The Pueblos -- Their Character for Sobriety, Honesty, and + Industry -- Traditional descent from Montezuma -- Their + Languages -- Former and present Population -- The Pueblo + of Pecos -- Singular Habits of that ill-fated Tribe -- + Curious Tradition -- Montezuma and the Sun -- Legend of + a Serpent -- Religion and government -- Secret Council + -- Laws and Customs -- Excellent Provisions against + Demoralization -- Primitive Pastimes of the Pueblos -- + Their Architecture -- Singular Structures of Taos, and + other novel Fortifications -- Primitive state of the + Arts among the Pueblos -- Style of Dress, Weapons, etc. + -- Their Diet -- The _Guayave_, 54 + + {xvi} CHAPTER XV + + The wild Tribes of New Mexico -- Speculative Theories -- + Clavigero and the _Azteques_ -- Pueblo Bonito and other + Ruins -- Probable Relationship between the _Azteques_ + and Tribes of New Mexico -- The several Nations of this + Province -- _Navajoes_ and _Azteques_ -- Manufactures of + the former -- Their Agriculture, Religion, etc. -- + Mexican Cruelty to the Indians and its Consequences -- + Inroads of the Navajoes -- Exploits of a Mexican Army -- + How to make a Hole in a powder-keg -- The _Apaches_ and + their character -- Their Food -- Novel Mode of settling + Disputes -- Range of their marauding Excursions -- + Indian Traffic and imbecile Treaties -- Devastation of + the Country -- Chihuahua Rodomontades -- Juan Jose, a + celebrated Apache Chief, and his tragical End, etc. -- + Massacre of Americans in Retaliation -- A tragical + Episode -- _Proyecto de Guerra_ and a 'gallant' Display + -- The _Yutas_ and their Hostilities -- A personal + Adventure with them, but no Bloodshed -- The Jicarillas, 67 + + CHAPTER XVI + + Incidents of a Return Trip from Santa Fe -- Calibre of our + Party -- Return Caravans -- Remittances -- Death of Mr. + Langham -- Burial in the Desert -- A sudden Attack -- + Confusion in the Camp -- The Pawnees -- A Wolfish Escort + -- Scarcity of Buffalo -- Unprofitable Delusion -- + Arrival -- Table of Camping Sites and Distances -- + Condition of the Town of Independence -- The Mormons -- + Their Dishonesty and Immorality -- Their high-handed + Measures, and a Rising of the People -- A fatal Skirmish + -- A chivalrous Parade of the Citizens -- Expulsion of + the Mormons -- The Meteoric Shower, and Superstition, + etc. -- Wanderings and Improprieties of the 'Latter-day + Saints' -- Gov. Boggs' Recipe -- The City of Nauvoo -- + Contemplated Retribution of the Mormons, 87 + + CHAPTER XVII {I of Vol. II, original ed.} + + A Return to Prairie Life -- Abandonment of the regular + Route -- The Start -- A Suicide -- Arrest of a Mulatto + for Debt -- Cherokee 'Bankrupt Law' -- Chuly, the Creek + Indian -- The Muster and the Introduction -- An '_Olla + Podrida_' -- Adventure of a 'Down-Easter' -- Arrival of + U. S. Dragoons -- Camp Holmes, and the Road -- A Visit + from a Party of Comanches -- Tabba-quena, a noted Chief + -- His extraordinary Geographical Talent -- Indians set + out for the 'Capitan Grande,' and we through an + unexplored Region -- Rejoined by Tabba-quena and his + '_suite_' -- Spring Valley -- The Buffalo Fever -- The + Chase -- A Green-horn Scamper -- Prairie Fuel, 99 + + CHAPTER XVIII {II of Vol. II} + + Travelling out of our Latitude -- The Buffalo-gnat -- A + Kiawa and Squaw -- Indian _crim. con._ Affair -- + Extraordinary Mark of confidence in the White Man -- A + Conflagration -- An Espy Shower -- Region of Gypsum -- + Our Latitude -- A Lilliputian Forest -- A Party of + Comanches -- A Visit to a 'Dog-Town' -- Indian Archery + -- Arrival of Comanche Warriors -- A 'Big Talk' and its + Results -- Speech of the _Capitan Mayor_ -- Project of + bringing Comanche Chiefs to Washington -- Return of + Lieut. Bowman, and our March resumed -- Melancholy + Reflections -- Another Indian Visit -- Mexican Captives + -- Voluntary Captivity -- A sprightly Mexican Lad -- + Purchase of a Captive -- Comanche Trade and Etiquette -- + Indians least dangerous to such as trade with them, 114 + + CHAPTER XIX {III of Vol. II} + + Ponds and Buffalo Wallows -- Valley of the Canadian, and + romantic Freaks of Nature -- Formation of Ravines -- + Melancholy Adventure of a Party of Traders in 1832 -- + Fears of our being lost -- Arrival of a Party of + _Comancheros_, and their wonderful Stories -- Their + Peculiarities and Traffic -- Bitter Water, and the + _Salitre_ of New Mexico -- Avant-couriers for Santa Fe + -- Patent Fire-arms and their Virtues -- Ranchero Ideas + of Distance, and their Mode of giving Directions -- The + Angostura, and erroneous Notions of the Texans -- A new + Route revealed -- Solitary Travel -- Supply of + Provisions sent back -- Arrival at Santa Fe -- Gov. + Armijo, etc. -- A 'Flare-up' with His Excellency, 132 + + CHAPTER XX {IV of Vol. II} + + Preparations for a Start to Chihuahua -- Ineptness of + Married Men for the Santa Fe Trade -- Annoying + Custom-house Regulations -- Mails in New Mexico -- + Insecurity of Correspondence -- Outfit and Departure -- + _Derecho de Consumo_ -- Ruins of Valverde -- 'Towns + without Houses' -- La Jornado del Muerto -- Laguna and + Ojo del Muerto -- A Tradition of the _Arrieros_ -- + Laborious Ferrying and Quagmires -- Arrival at Paso del + Norte -- Amenity of the Valley -- _Sierra Blanca_ and + _Los Organos_ -- Face of the Country -- Seagrass -- + Medanos or Sand-hills -- An accidental River -- Carrizal + -- Ojo Caliente -- Laguna de Encinillas -- Southern + Haciendas -- Arrival -- Character of the Route and Soil, 145 + + CHAPTER XXI {V of Vol. II} + + Trip from Chihuahua to Aguascalientes, in 1835 -- Southern + Trade and _Ferias_ -- Hacienda de la Zarca, and its + innumerable Stock -- Rio Nazas, and Lakes without outlet + -- Perennial Cotton -- Exactions for Water and Pasturage + -- Village of Churches -- City of Durango and its + Peculiarities -- Fruits, Pulque, etc. -- Persecution of + Scorpions -- Negro-ship in the ascendant -- Robbers and + their _modus operandi_ -- City of Aguascalientes -- + Bathing Scene -- Haste to return to the North -- Mexican + Mule-shoeing -- Difficulties and Perplexities -- A + Friend in time of need -- Reach Zacatecas -- City + Accommodations -- Hotels unfashionable -- _Locale_, + Fortifications, etc., of the City of Zacatecas -- Siege + by Santa Anna and his easy-won Victory -- At Durango + again -- Civil Warfare among the 'Sovereigns' -- + Hairbreadth 'scapes -- Troubles of the Road -- Safe + Arrival at Chihuahua -- Character of the Southern + Country, 162 + + CHAPTER XXII {VI of Vol. II} + + Visit to the Mining Town of Jesus-Maria -- Critical Roads + -- Character of the Town -- Losing Speculations -- Mine + of Santa Juliana -- Curious mining Operations -- + Different Modes of working the Ore -- The Crushing-mill, + etc. -- _Barras de Plata_ -- Value of Bullion -- The + Silver Trade -- Return to Chihuahua -- Resumption of the + regular Narrative -- Curious Wholesales -- Money Table + -- Redundancy of Copper Coin -- City of Chihuahua and + its Peculiarities -- Ecclesiastical Architecture -- + Hidalgo and his Monument -- Public Works, and their + present Declension -- _Fete_ in honor of Iturbide -- + Illiberality towards Americans -- Shopping Mania -- + Anti-Masonic _Auto de Fe_, 178 + + CHAPTER XXIII {VII of Vol. II} + + Departure for Santa Fe -- Straitened for Food -- Summary + Effort to procure Beef -- Seizure of one of our Party -- + Altercation with a _Rico_ -- His pusillanimous Procedure + -- Great Preparations in Chihuahua for our Arrest -- + Arrival of Mexican Troops -- A polite Officer -- Myself + with three of my Men summoned back to Chihuahua -- + Amiable Conduct of Senor Artalejo -- _Junta_ + _Departmental_ and Discussion of my Affair -- Writ of + _Habeas Corpus_ not in vogue -- The Matter adjusted and + Passports granted -- The _Morale_ -- Impunity of savage + Depredations -- Final Start -- Company of _Pasenos_ with + their Fruits and Liquors -- Arrival at Santa Fe, 193 + + CHAPTER XXIV {VIII of Vol. II} + + Preparations for returning Home -- Breaking out of the + Small-pox -- The Start -- Our Caravan -- Manuel the + Comanche -- A new Route -- The Prairie on Fire -- Danger + to be apprehended from these Conflagrations -- A + Comanche Buffalo-chase -- A Skirmish with the Pawnees -- + An intrepid Mexican -- The Wounded -- Value of a thick + Skull -- Retreat of the Enemy and their Failure -- A + bleak Northwester -- Loss of our Sheep -- The Llano + Estacado and Sources of Red River -- The Canadian River + -- Cruelties upon Buffalo -- Feats at 'Still Hunting' -- + Mr. Wethered's Adventure -- Once more on our own Soil -- + The False Washita -- Enter our former Trail -- Character + of the Country over which we had travelled -- Arrival at + Van Buren -- The two Routes to Santa Fe -- Some + Advantages of that from Arkansas -- Restlessness of + Prairie Travellers in civilized Life, and Propensity for + returning to the Wild Deserts, 203 + + CHAPTER XXV {IX of Vol. II} + CONCLUSION OF THE SANTA FE TRADE + + Decline of Prices -- Statistical Table -- Chihuahua Trade + -- Its Extent -- Different Ports through which Goods are + introduced to that Market -- Expedition between + Chihuahua and Arkansas -- The Drawback -- The more + recent Incidents of the Santa Fe Caravans -- Adventures + of 1843 -- Robbery and Murder of Chavez -- Expedition + from Texas -- Defeat of Gen. Armijo's Van-guard -- His + precipitate Retreat -- Texan Grievances -- Unfortunate + Results of indiscriminate Revenge -- Want of discipline + among the Texans -- Disarmed by Capt. Cook -- Return of + the Escort of U. S. Dragoons, and of the Texans -- + Demands of the Mexican Government -- Closing of the + Santa Fe Trade, 221 + + CHAPTER XXVI {X of Vol. II} + GEOGRAPHY OF THE PRAIRIES + + Extent of the Prairies -- Mountains -- _Mesas_ or + Table-lands -- _El Llano Estacado_ -- _Canones_ -- Their + Annoyance to the early Caravans -- Immense Gullies -- + Coal Mines and other Geological Products -- Gypsum -- + Metallic Minerals -- Salines -- Capt. Boone's + Exploration -- 'Salt Plain' and 'Salt Rock' -- Mr. + Sibley's Visit -- Saline Exudations -- Unhabitableness + of the high Prairies -- Excellent Pasturage -- Rich + border Country sufficient for two States -- Northern + Texas -- Rivers of the Prairies -- Their Unfitness for + Navigation -- Timber -- Cross Timbers -- Encroachments + of the Timber upon the Prairies -- Fruits and Flowers -- + Salubrity of Climate, 237 + + CHAPTER XXVII {XI of Vol. II} + ANIMALS OF THE PRAIRIES + + The Mustang or Wild Horse -- Capturing him by 'Creasing,' + and with the Lazo -- Horse-flesh -- The Buffalo -- Its + Appearance -- Excellence of its Meat -- General Utility + to the Indian and Traveller -- Prospect of its + Extinction -- Hunting the Buffalo with Bow and Arrows, + the Lance, etc. -- 'Still-hunting' -- The Buffalo + ferocious only when wounded -- Butchering, etc. -- The + Gray Wolf -- Its Modes of killing Buffalo -- Their great + numbers -- A 'Wolf scrape' -- The Prairie Wolf, or + 'Jackal of the Prairies' -- The Elk, Deer and Bear -- + The Antelope -- The Bighorn -- The Prairie Dog -- Owls + and Rattlesnakes -- The Horned Frog -- Fowls -- Bees, + etc., 259 + + CHAPTER XXVIII {XII of Vol. II} + ABORIGINES OF AMERICA + + Indian Cosmogony -- Traditions of Origin -- Identity of + Religious Notions -- Adoration of the Sun -- Shawnee + Faith -- Anecdote of Tecumseh -- Legendary Traditions -- + Missionaries, and Success of the Catholics -- The + Indian's Heaven -- Burial Customs -- Ancient Accounts -- + Depositing the Dead on Scaffolds -- Superstition and + Witchcraft -- Indian Philosophy -- Polygamy and other + Matrimonial Affairs -- Abhorrence of Incest -- + Difference in Character -- Indian Hospitality -- Traits + of the Ancient Asiatics -- Names -- Relationship of + Different Tribes -- Dreadful Decrease of the Indians, 283 + + CHAPTER XXIX {XIII of Vol. II} + THE FRONTIER INDIANS + + Causes of Removal West -- Annuities, etc. -- + Dissatisfaction of the Indians -- Their Melioration by + the Change -- Superiority of their present Location -- + Lands granted to them -- Improvements, Agriculture, + etc. -- Their Slaves -- Manufactures -- Style of Living, + Dress, etc. -- Literary Opportunities and Improvements + -- Choctaw Academy -- Harpies and Frauds -- Games -- + Systems of Government -- Polygamy -- Ancient Laws and + Customs -- Intemperance -- Preventive Measures -- A + Choctaw Enactment -- Marriage and Funeral Customs of the + Choctaws -- The Creeks -- Their Summary Executions -- + Mourning -- Indian Titles -- The Northern Tribes -- + Census of the Frontier Nations, 299 + + CHAPTER XXX {XIV of Vol. II} + INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIES + + System of Chiefs -- Mode of Warfare -- War-Council -- The + Scalp-dance -- The Calumet or Pipe of Peace -- Treaties + -- Public News-criers -- Arms of the Indians -- Bow and + Arrows, etc. -- Hunting -- Dancing -- Language of Signs + -- Telegraphs -- Wigwams or Lodges -- Pack-dogs -- + Costumes -- Painting, Tattooing, etc. -- Indian Dandies + -- Manufactures, and Dressing the Buffalo Rug -- Indian + Diet, Fasting, etc. -- Primitive Thomsonians -- Their + domestic Animals, the Dog and the Horse -- Wampum -- + Their Chronology, 318 + + CHAPTER XXXI {XV of Vol. II} + INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIES + + Intermediate Tribes -- Their Wigwams and their Hunting + Excursions -- Dress and Cut of their Hair -- The Pawnees + -- The Osages -- Their Roguery -- Matrimonial Customs -- + Accomplished Mourners -- Their Superstitions -- The + Indian Figure -- The 'Pawnee Picts' -- Wild Tribes -- + Census -- The Comanches -- Their Range -- Their Sobriety + -- Their Chiefs, etc. -- Female Chastity -- Comanche + Marriage -- Costumes -- Horsemanship -- Comanche Warfare + -- Predatory Forays -- Martial Ceremonies -- Treatment + of Captives -- Burial and Religious Rites, 336 + + GLOSSARY. + + Containing such Spanish or Hispano-Mexican words as occur + undefined in this work, or recur without definition + after having been once translated 353 + + +[Illustration: MAP OF THE INTERIOR OF NORTHERN MEXICO.] + + + + + COMMERCE OF THE PRAIRIES + {PART II} + + + + +CHAPTER XII[1] + +Government of New Mexico -- The Administration of Justice -- + Judicial Corruption -- Prejudices against Americans -- Partiality + for the English -- Anecdote of Governor Armijo and a Trapper -- + Outrage upon an American Physician -- Violence suffered by the + American Consul and others -- Arbitrary Impositions upon Foreigners + -- _Contribucion de Guerra_ -- The Alcaldes and their System -- + The _Fueros_ -- Mode of punishing Delinquents and Criminals -- + Mexican System of Slavery -- Thieves and Thieveries -- Outrage upon + an American Merchant -- Gambling and Gambling-houses -- Game of + _Monte_ -- Anecdote of a Lady of Fashion -- _Chuza_ -- Cockpits -- + _Correr_ _el gallo_ -- El Coleo -- Fandangoes -- _Cigarritos_. + + +Prior to the adoption of the _Sistema Central_ in the Mexican +republic, the province of New Mexico was under a territorial +government. The executive was called _Gefe Politico_ (political +chief), and the _Diputacion Provincial_ very inefficiently supplied +the place of a legislature. Under the present system, however, New +Mexico being a _department_, the names of these powers have been +changed, but their functions remain very nearly the same. The +_Gobernador_ (governor) is appointed by the President for eight years. +The legislative power is nominally vested in a _Junta Departamental_, +a kind of state council, with very circumscribed {226} powers, +somewhat analogous to, and certainly not more extensive than, those of +a board of aldermen with us. But even this shadow of popular +representation was 'prorogued' by Gov. Armijo soon after his accession +to power (five or six years ago), and has never since been convened; +so that [Pg022] its functions have been arbitrarily exercised by the +governor ever since. + +The administration of the laws in Northern Mexico constitutes one of +the most painful features of her institutions. Justice, or rather +judgments, are a common article of traffic; and the hapless litigant +who has not the means to soften the claws of the alcalde with a +'silver unction,' is almost sure to get severely scratched in the +contest, no matter what may be the justice of his cause, or the +uprightness of his character. It is easy to perceive, then, that the +poor and the humble stand no chance in a judicial contest with the +wealthy and consequential, whose influence, even apart from their +facilities for corrupting the court and suborning witnesses, is +sufficient to neutralize any amount of plebeian testimony that might +be brought against them. + +The evil consequences arising from maladministration of justice in New +Mexico are most severely felt by foreigners, against whom a strong +prejudice prevails throughout the South. Of these, the citizens of the +United States are by far the most constant sufferers; an inevitable +result of that sinister feeling with which the 'rival republic' views +the advancement {227} and superiority of her more industrious +neighbors. It is a notorious fact, that while the English are +universally treated with comparative consideration and respect, the +Americans residing in the southern parts of the republic are +frequently taunted with the effeminacy of their government and its +want of decision. So openly has this preference for British subjects +been manifested, and so thoroughly conscious have the Americans become +of the humiliating fact, that when a mercantile firm, consisting of an +American and an Englishman, has occasion to present a memorial of any +description, or to sue either for an act of favor or of justice from +the nation, the application is sure [Pg023] to be made in the name of +the latter, knowing it will thus be more likely to command proper +attention. + +Few men, perhaps, have done more to jeopard the interests of American +traders, or to bring the American character itself into contempt, than +Armijo, the present arbitrary governor of New Mexico. I am happy to +say, however, that in the midst of his many oppressions, he was once +at least obliged to 'knock under' to one of those bold and daring +spirits of the Rocky Mountains whom obstacles rather energize than +subdue. This was about the year 1828, during Armijo's previous +governorship. A law was then in existence which had been enacted by +the general Congress prohibiting foreigners from trapping beaver in +the Mexican territory, under penalty of confiscation, etc.; but as +there were no native {228} trappers in New Mexico, Gov. Baca and his +successor (Narbona) thought it expedient to extend licenses to +foreigners, in the name of citizens, upon condition of their taking a +certain proportion of Mexicans to learn the art of trapping. In +pursuance of this disposition, Gov. Narbona extended a license to one +Ewing Young, who was accompanied by a Mr. Sublette, brother of Capt. +Wm. Sublette, and almost equally celebrated for his mountain +adventures.[2] [Pg024] Previous to the return of this party from +their trapping expedition, Armijo had succeeded Narbona in office, and +they were informed that it was his intention to seize their furs. To +prevent this, they deposited them at a neighboring village, where they +were afterwards discovered, seized, and confiscated. The furs being +damp, they were spread out in the sun before the _Guardia_, in Santa +Fe, when Sublette, perceiving two packs of beaver which had been his +own property, got by honest labor, instantly seized them and carried +them away before the eyes of the whole garrison, and concealed both +them and his own person in a house opposite. The entire military force +was immediately put in requisition, and a general search made for the +offender and his prize; but in vain: indeed, if the truth must be +spoken, the troops seemed to have as little desire to find Sublette as +the latter had of being found; for his character was too well known to +leave any room for hope that his capture could be effected without a +great deal {229} of trouble. In the meanwhile, Armijo raved, and +threatened the Americans for not ferreting out their countryman and +delivering him over to justice. Failing to produce any impression by +blustering, however, he caused a couple of cannons to be pointed at +the house where the offender was supposed to be concealed, declaring +at the same time that he would batter it down; but all to no purpose. +Mr. Sublette finally conveyed his furs in safety to the frontier, and +thence to the United States. [Pg025] + +The following anecdote affords another illustration of +Armijo's summary mode of dealing with Americans. In the fall of 1840, +a gross outrage was committed upon a physician from Massachusetts +(said to be a gentleman of unexceptionable deportment), who was +travelling through the country for his health. He had loaned nine +hundred dollars to a person of the name of Tayon, who afterwards +borrowed the same amount of another foreigner and repaid this debt. +The doctor then left for the South, where he intended to pass the +winter, being afflicted with a pulmonary disease. But the individual +who had lent Tayon the money, being informed that he was insolvent, +applied to Gov. Armijo for an order to compel the doctor to return, +expecting thereby to make him reimburse the money. The order overtook +him at the village of Algodones,[3] near forty miles from Santa Fe, +where he was at once arrested by the alcalde, and detained some time, +ignorant even of the offence for which he was doing penance. {230} In +the meantime, the American Consul at Santa Fe, having been informed of +what had taken place, procured a counter-order from the governor for +the release of the prisoner. When the alcalde of Algodones received +this document, he determined at once that so extraordinary an act of +justice should cost the foreigner some trifle. Accordingly, another +order was forged on the spot, commanding that he should be taken to +the capital--yet a 'gentle hint' was given, that his liberty might be +purchased by the payment of two hundred dollars. Being in a land of +strangers, among whom he had but little hope of receiving fair play, +the doctor resolved to pay the amount demanded, and fly to Chihuahua, +where he would at least be safe from Armijo's clutches. Having been +informed, however, of the fraud [Pg026] practised by the alcalde, +before he had proceeded far on his journey, he returned and made an +attempt to bring the delinquent officer to justice, but altogether +without success. + +But perhaps the most glaring outrages upon American citizens were +committed in 1841, upon the occasion of the capture of the Texan Santa +Fe Expedition. In Taos, a poor deaf and dumb U. S. creole Frenchman +was beaten to death in open day. In San Miguel, the alcalde, at the +head of a mob, entered the store of a Mr. Rowland, whom he robbed of a +considerable amount of merchandise.[4] At the same time, the greatest +excitement raged in Santa Fe against Americans, whose lives appeared +in imminent danger; and a most {231} savage attack was made upon our +excellent Consul, Manuel Alvarez, Esq., who had always taken an active +interest in the welfare of American citizens.[5] + +A few minutes after the governor had departed for San Miguel, to +encounter the Texans, a fellow named Martin, his nephew and +confidential agent, aided by a band of ferocious _sans culottes_, and +armed with a large knife, secretly entered the house of the Consul, +who perceived him in time, however, to avert the blow; yet he received +a severe wound in the face during the scuffle that ensued: the rabble +running in at the same time, and vociferating, "_Saquenlo ajuera! +matenlo!_"--Drag him out! kill him! Mr. Alvarez doubtless [Pg027] +owed his preservation partially to the consternation with which the +failure of their clandestine attempt at his life inspired the cowardly +ruffians. Instead of being punished for this diabolical act, the +principal assassin, on the contrary, was soon after promoted in the +army. + +The outrage did not end here, however; for on the Consul's demanding +his passport for the United States, it was refused for nearly a month; +thus detaining him until the cold season had so far advanced, that, of +his party (about fifteen in number), two perished from the cold; and +not one arrived without being more or less frost-bitten--some very +severely--besides suffering a loss of about fifty animals from the +same cause. + +Although these and other daring outrages have been duly represented to +our Government, {232} it does not appear that any measures of redress +have yet been taken. + +With a view of oppressing our merchants, Gov. Armijo had, as early as +1839, issued a decree exempting all the natives from the tax imposed +on store-houses, shops, etc., throwing the whole burden of impost upon +foreigners and naturalized citizens; a measure clearly and +unequivocally at variance with the treaties and stipulations entered +into between the United States and Mexico. A protest was presented +without effect; when our Consul, finding all remonstrances useless, +forwarded a memorial to the American Minister at Mexico,[6] who, +although the vital interests of American citizens were at stake, +deemed the affair of too little importance, perhaps, and therefore +appears to have paid no attention to it. But this system of levying +excessive taxes upon foreigners, is by no means an original invention +of Gov. Armijo. In 1835, the government of Chihuahua having levied a +_contribucion de guerra_ for raising means to make [Pg028] war upon +the savages, who were laying waste the surrounding country, foreign +merchants, with an equal disregard for their rights and the +obligations of treaties, were taxed twenty-five dollars each per +month; while the native merchants, many of whom possessed large +haciendas, with thousands of stock, for the especial protection of +which these taxes were chiefly imposed, paid only from five to ten +dollars each. Remonstrances were presented to the governor, but in +vain. In his official {233} reply, that functionary declared, "_que el +gobierno cree arreglado el reparto de sus respectivas contribuciones_," +--the government believes your respective contributions in accordance +with justice--which concluded the correspondence, and the Americans +paid their twenty-five dollars per month. + +The only tribunals of 'justice' in New Mexico are those of the +ordinary _alcaldes_ or justices of the peace; and an appeal from them +is carried to the Supreme Court in the department of Chihuahua. The +course of litigation is exceedingly simple and summary. The plaintiff +makes his verbal complaint or demand before the alcalde, who orders +him to summon the defendant, which is done by simply saying, "_Le +llama el alcalde_" (the alcalde calls you) into his presence, the +applicant acting thus in the double capacity of constable and +complainant. The summons is always verbal, and rarely for a future +time--instant attendance being expected. Should the defendant refuse +to obey this simple mandate (which, by the bye, is a very rare +occurrence), the alcalde sends his _baston de justicia_, his staff of +justice, an ordinary walking-cane, distinguished only by a peculiar +black silk tassel. This never fails to enforce compliance, for a +refusal to attend after being shown the staff, would be construed into +a contempt of court, and punished accordingly. The witnesses are +sometimes sworn upon a cross cut on the _baston de justicia_, or more +frequently, perhaps, upon a cross [Pg029] formed with {234} the +finger and thumb. Generally speaking, however, the process of +examination is gone through without a single oath being administered; +and in the absence of witnesses, the alcalde often proceeds to +sentence upon the simple statements of the contending parties. By a +species of mutual agreement, the issue of a suit is sometimes referred +to _hombres buenos_ (arbitrators), which is the nearest approximation +that is made to trial by jury. In judicial proceedings, however, but +little, or rather no attention is paid to any code of laws; in fact, +there is scarcely one alcalde in a dozen who knows what a law is, or +who ever saw a law-book. Their decisions, when not influenced by +corrupt agencies, are controlled by the prevailing customs of the +country. + +In the administration of justice, there are three distinct and +privileged jurisdictions, known as _fueros_:[7] the _eclesiastico_, +which provides that no member of the clergy, at least of the rank of +curate and upwards, shall ever be arraigned before a civil tribunal, +but shall be tried by their superiors in the order; the _militar_, +which makes a similar provision in favor not only of commissioned +officers, but of every common soldier from the ranks; and the _civil_ +or ordinary courts, for all cases in which the defendants are laymen. +These _fueros_ have hitherto maintained the ecclesiastical and +military classes in perfect independence of the civil authorities. The +_civil_, in fact, remains in some degree subordinate to the other two +_fueros_; for it can, under no circumstances, {235} have any +jurisdiction whatever over them; while the lay plaintiff, in the +privileged tribunals of these, may, if unsuccessful, have judgment +entered up against him: a consequence that can never follow the suits +of the ecclesiastical or military orders before the civil tribunals. +The judgments of the latter, in [Pg030] such cases, would be void. It +is no wonder, then, that the cause of freedom in Mexico has made so +little progress. + +Imprisonment is almost the only sort of punishment resorted to in the +North. For debt, petit larceny, highway robbery, and murder, the usual +sentence is "_A la carcel_" (to jail), where a person is likely to +remain about as long for inability to pay _dos reales_, as for the +worst of crimes: always provided he has not the means to pacify the +offended majesty of the law. I never heard of but one execution for +murder in New Mexico, since the declaration of independence. The most +desperate and blood-stained criminals escape with impunity, after a +few weeks of incarceration, unless the prosecutor happens to be a +person of great influence; in which case, the prisoner is detained in +the _calabozo_ at will, even when the offence committed has been of a +trivial character. Notwithstanding this laxity in the execution of the +laws, there are few murders of any kind committed. + +In case of debt, as before remarked, the delinquent is sent to +jail--provided the creditor will not accept his services. If he will, +however, the debtor becomes _nolens volens_ the {236} servant of the +creditor till the debt is satisfied; and, serving, as he does, at very +reduced wages, his expenses for clothing, and other necessaries, but +too often retain him in perpetual servitude. This system does not +operate, however, upon the higher classes, yet it acts with terrible +severity upon the unfortunate poor, whose condition is but little +better, if not worse indeed than that of the slaves of the South. They +labor for fixed wages, it is true; but all they can earn is hardly +sufficient to keep them in the coarsest clothing and pay their +contingent expenses. Men's wages range from two to five dollars a +month, and those of women from fifty cents to two dollars; in payment +of which, they rarely receive any money; but instead thereof, articles +of apparel and other necessaries at the most exorbitant prices. The +consequence is that the [Pg031] servant soon accumulates a debt which +he is unable to pay--his wages being often engaged for a year or two +in advance. Now, according to the usages, if not the laws of the +country, he is bound to serve his master until all arrearages are +liquidated; and is only enabled to effect an exchange of masters, by +engaging another to pay his debt, to whom he becomes in like manner +bound. + +As I have already remarked, capital crimes and highway robberies are +of comparatively rare occurrence in the North, but in smaller +delinquencies, such as pilfering and petty rogueries of every shade +and description, the common classes can very successfully compete +{237} with any other people. Nothing indeed can be left exposed or +unguarded without great danger of its being immediately stolen. No +husbandman would think of leaving his axe or his hoe, or anything else +of the slightest value, lying out over night. Empty wagons are often +pillaged of every movable piece of iron, and even the wheels have been +carried away. Pieces of merchandise are frequently purloined from the +shelves, when they happen to be in reach. In Chihuahua, goods have +actually been snatched from the counter while being exposed to the +inspection of a pretended purchaser. I once had a trick of this kind +played upon me by a couple of boys, who made their escape through a +crowd of spectators with their booty exposed. In vain I cried +"_Agarren a los ladrones!_" (catch the thieves!) not a single +individual moved to apprehend them. I then proffered the goods stolen, +to any person who might succeed in bringing the rogues to me, but to +no purpose. In fact there seems to exist a great deal of repugnance, +even among the better classes, to apprehending thieves; as if the mere +act of informing against them was considered dishonorable. I heard a +very respectable caballero once remark that he had seen a man purloin +certain articles of merchandise, but he could not be induced to give +[Pg032] up his name; observing, "O, I can't think of exposing the poor +fellow!" + +The impunity with which delinquencies of this description are every +day committed is {238} perhaps in some degree, the consequence of +those severe enactments, such as the _Leyes de las Indias_ (the laws +of the Indies), which rendered many thefts and robberies punishable +with death.[8] The magistracy contracted the habit of frequently +winking at crime, rather than resort to the barbarous expedients +prescribed by the letter of the law. The utmost that can be gained now +by public prosecution, is the recovery of the stolen property, if that +be anywhere to be found, and occasionally a short period of +imprisonment for the culprit. This is more particularly the case when +the prosecutor happens to be a foreigner; while on the other hand, if +he be the party accused, he is likely to be subjected to very severe +treatment. A remarkable circumstance of this kind occurred in +Chihuahua in the year 1835. One of our most respectable Missouri +merchants had bought a mule of a stranger, but the animal was soon +after claimed by a third person, who proved that it had been stolen +from him. The Missourian would have been perfectly satisfied to lose +the mule, and end the matter there; but to the surprise of all, he was +directly summoned before an alcalde, and forthwith sentenced to jail: +the partial judge having labored to fix the theft upon the innocent +purchaser, while the real culprit, who was a native, was permitted to +go at large. + +The love of gambling also deserves to be noticed as a distinguishing +propensity of these people. Indeed it may well be said, without any +undue stretch of imagination, that [Pg033] shop-lifting, {239} +pocket-picking, and other elegant pastimes of the same kindred, are +the legitimate offspring, especially among the lower classes, of that +passion for gaming, which in Mexico more than anywhere else--to use +Madame Calderon's language[9]--"is impregnated with the +constitution--in man, woman, and child." It prevails in the lowly hut, +as well as in the glittering saloon; nor is the sanctity of the gown +nor the dignity of station sufficient proof against the fascinations +of this exciting vice. No one considers it a degradation to be seen +frequenting a _monte bank_: the governor himself and his lady, the +grave magistrate and the priestly dignity, the gay caballero and the +titled senora may all be seen staking their doubloons upon the turn of +a card; while the humbler ranchero, the hired domestic and the ragged +pauper, all press with equal avidity to test their fortune at the same +shrine. There are other games at cards practised among these people, +depending more upon skill; but that of _el monte_, being one +exclusively of chance, seems to possess an all-absorbing attraction, +difficult to be conceived by the uninitiated spectator. + +The following will not only serve to show the light in which gambling +is held by all classes of society, but to illustrate the purifying +effects of wealth upon character. Some twelve or fifteen years ago +there lived (or rather roamed) in Taos a certain female of very loose +habits, known as _La Tules_. Finding it difficult to obtain the means +of living in that {240} district, she finally extended her wanderings +to the capital. She there became a constant attendant on one of those +pandemoniums where the favorite game of _monte_ was dealt _pro bono +publico_. Fortune, at first, did not seem inclined [Pg034] to smile +upon her efforts, and for some years she spent her days in lowliness +and misery. At last her luck turned, as gamblers would say, and on one +occasion she left the bank with a spoil of several hundred dollars! +This enabled her to open a bank of her own, and being favored by a +continuous run of good fortune, she gradually rose higher and higher +in the scale of affluence, until she found herself in possession of a +very handsome fortune. In 1843, she sent to the United States some ten +thousand dollars to be invested in goods. She still continues her +favorite 'amusement,' being now considered the most expert 'monte +dealer' in all Santa Fe. She is openly received in the first circles +of society: I doubt, in truth, whether there is to be found in the +city a lady of more fashionable reputation than this same Tules, now +known as Senora Dona Gertrudes Barcelo. + +Among the multitude of games which seem to constitute the real +business of life in New Mexico, that of _chuza_ evidently presents the +most attractions to ladies; and they generally lay very heavy wagers +upon the result. It is played with little balls, and bears some faint +resemblance to what is called _roulette_. Bull-baiting and +cock-fighting, about which so much has been said by every traveller in +Mexico, {241} are also very popular 'amusements' in the North, and +generally lead to the same excesses and the same results as gaming. +The cock-pit rarely fails to be crowded on Sundays and other feast +days; on which occasions the church, the ball-room, the +gambling-house, and the cock-pit look like so many opposition +establishments; for nothing is more common than to see people going +from one place to another by alternate fits, just as devotional +feeling or love of pleasure happens to prompt them. + +One of the most attractive sports of the rancheros and the peasantry, +and that which, more than any other, calls for the exercise of skill +and dexterity, is that called _correr el gallo_, [Pg035] practised +generally on St. John's day. A common cock or hen is tied by the feet +to some swinging limb of a tree, so as to be barely within the reach +of a man on horseback: or the fowl is buried alive in a small pit in +the ground leaving only the head above the surface. In either case, +the racers, passing at full speed, grapple the head of the fowl, which +being well greased, generally slips out of their fingers. As soon as +some one, more dextrous than the rest, has succeeded in tearing it +loose, he claps spurs to his steed, and endeavors to escape with the +prize. He is hotly pursued, however, by the whole sporting crew, and +the first who overtakes him tries to get possession of the fowl, when +a strife ensues, during which the poor chicken is torn into atoms. +Should the holder of the trophy be able to outstrip his pursuers, he +carries {242} it to a crowd of fair spectators and presents it to his +mistress, who takes it to the fandango which usually follows, as a +testimony of the prowess of her lover. + +Among the vaqueros, and even among persons of distinction, _el coleo_ +(tailing) is a much nobler exercise than the preceding, and is also +generally reserved for days of festivity. For this sport the most +untractable ox or bull is turned loose upon a level common, when all +the parties who propose to join in the amusement, being already +mounted, start off in pursuit of him. The most successful rider, as +soon as he gets near enough to the bull, seizes him by the tail, and +with a sudden man[oe]uvre, whirls him topsy-turvy upon the plain--to the +no little risk of breaking his own neck, should his horse stumble or +be tripped by the legs of the falling bull. + +Respecting _fandangos_, I will observe that this term, as it is used +in New Mexico, is never applied to any particular dance, but is the +usual designation for those ordinary assemblies where dancing and +frolicking are carried on; _baile_ (or ball) being generally applied +to those of a higher grade. The former especially are very frequent; +for nothing is more [Pg036] general, throughout the country, and with +all classes than dancing. From the gravest priest to the buffoon--from +the richest nabob to the beggar--from the governor to the +ranchero--from the soberest matron to the flippant belle--from the +grandest _senora_ to the _cocinera_--all partake of this exhilarating +{243} amusement. To judge from the quantity of tuned instruments which +salute the ear almost every night in the week, one would suppose that +a perpetual carnival prevailed everywhere. The musical instruments +used at the _bailes_ and _fandangos_ are usually the fiddle and +_bandolin_, or _guitarra_, accompanied in some villages by the _tombe_ +or little Indian drum. The musicians occasionally acquire considerable +proficiency in the use of these instruments. But what most oddly +greets, and really outrages most Protestant ears, is the accompaniment +of divine service with the very same instruments, and often with the +same tunes. + +Of all the petty vices practised by the New Mexicans, the _vicio +inocente_ of smoking among ladies, is the most intolerable; and yet it +is a habit of which the loveliest and the most refined equally +partake. The _puro_ or _cigarro_[10] is seen in the mouths of all: it +is handed round in the parlor, and introduced at the dinner +table--even in the ball-room it is presented to ladies as regularly as +any {244} other species of 'refreshment;' and in the dance the +senorita may often be seen whirling round with a lighted _cigarrito_ +in her mouth. The belles of the Southern cities are very frequently +furnished [Pg037] with _tenazitas de oro_ (little golden tongs), to +hold the cigar with, so as to prevent their delicate fingers from +being polluted either with the stain or scent of tobacco; forgetting +at the same time its disagreeable effects upon the lips and breath. + +Notwithstanding their numerous vices, however, I should do the New +Mexicans the justice to say that they are but little addicted to +inebriety and its attendant dissipations. Yet this doubtlessly results +to a considerable degree from the dearness of spirituous liquors, +which virtually places them beyond the reach of the lower classes. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] Chapter xii of volume i of the original edition.--ED. + +[2] Both Bartolome Baca (Vaca) and Narbona were Mexican officers. The +former, whose term of office was from 1823 to September, 1825, +belonged to a New Mexican family, and was one of the captains of the +companies organized in 1808. Antonio Narbona came (1805) from the +province of Chihuahua, as lieutenant of soldiers sent to repel a +Navaho raid. He was governor, September, 1825, to May 1827. In 1843 he +was colonel of an expedition against the Apache in Arizona. + +Ewing Young was a native of Knox County, Tennessee. He early went west +for hunting and trapping, having passports for Mexican territory +signed at Washington in 1828-29. In these years he made his first +overland trip from New Mexico to California, where he aided the padres +of San Jose in an expedition against revolted neophytes. In 1829 he +returned to New Mexico, married a Taos woman, and again (1831) set out +for California. There in 1834 he met Hall Kelley, and was persuaded to +accompany him to Oregon, where he formed one of the first American +settlements in the Chehalem Valley, tributary to the Willamette. A +journey to California in 1836, to purchase cattle, resulted in +stocking the Oregon pioneers. Young's Oregon settlement prospered; he +erected saw and grist mills, and upon his death (1841) the +administration of his estate was the occasion of the first tentative +experiment in civil government in Oregon. In after years, a son +Joachim came from New Mexico, and laid successful claim to the +property, which was paid by the state. + +Milton J. Sublette was a younger brother of William (for whom see our +volume xix, p. 221, note 55, Gregg) and himself a noted trapper and +trader, operating chiefly in the Rocky Mountains. In 1833 he entered +into arrangements with Nathaniel Wyeth (see our volume xxi), but the +next year was compelled to retire because of injury to a leg, which +caused his death at Fort Laramie, December 19, 1836.--ED. + +[3] Algodones is a small Mexican town in Sandoval County, about +fifteen miles above Albuquerque. It is now a station on the Atchison, +Topeka, and Santa Fe Railway, and has promise of becoming a junction +with the Santa Fe Central.--ED. + +[4] Thomas Rowland, a native Pennsylvanian, had been a resident of New +Mexico for a number of years, and had married there. His brother John +was accused of complicity with the Texans, which led to the attack +upon Rowland's property. This was shortly restored to him, as his +friends were influential in official circles. See George W. Kendall, +_Narrative of the Texan Santa Fe Expedition_ (New York, 1844), i, pp. +271, 272, 332. John Rowland led a party of immigrants to California +(1841), where he became a leading American pioneer.--ED. + +[5] Manuel Alvarez was a native of Spain, who showed much enterprise +in establishing the trade between the United States and New Mexico. In +1839 he was appointed United States consul at Santa Fe, an office +which he held until the American conquest. In 1849 he took part in the +new state movement, and was by the suffrages of the people elected +governor; but Congress having erected New Mexico into a territory, the +state government lapsed.--ED. + +[6] Powhattan Ellis, for notice of whom, see our volume xix, p. 274, +note 100 (Gregg).--ED. + +[7] Originally a _fuero_ was any form of charter or privilege granted +to a kingdom, province, town, or person. _Fueros_ played great part in +the constitutional development of Spain and her colonies.--ED. + +[8] The "Laws of the Indies," or the codification of the ordinances, +acts, etc., passed by the Council of the Indies and other +administrative Spanish authorities for the government of the colonies, +was first issued at Madrid in 1681, under the title _Recopilacion de +Leyes de los Reynos de Indias_. A fourth edition, under the direction +of the Council of the Indies, issued in 1791.--ED. + +[9] Madame Frances Erskine Inglis Calderon de la Barca was a +Scotchwoman married to a Spaniard who was minister to the United +States, and later to Mexico. While in the latter country, she +published _Life in Mexico_ (London, 1843), an interesting, racy series +of letters on the manners and customs of Spanish America.--ED. + +[10] The _puro_ is a common cigar of _pure_ tobacco; but the term +_cigarro_ or _cigarrito_ is applied to those made of cut tobacco +rolled up in a strip of paper or corn-husk. The latter are by far in +the most general use in New Mexico, even among the men, and are those +only smoked by the females. In this province cigarros are rarely sold +in the shops, being generally manufactured by every one just as they +are needed. Their expertness in this 'accomplishment' is often +remarkable. The mounted vaquero will take out his _guagito_ (his +little tobacco-flask), his packet of _hojas_ (or prepared husks), and +his flint, steel, etc.,--make his cigarrito, strike fire and commence +smoking in a minute's time--all while at full speed: and the next +minute will perhaps lazo the wildest bull without interrupting his +smoke.--GREGG. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +Military Hierarchy of Mexico -- Religious Superstitions -- Legend of + _Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe_ -- A profane version of the Story -- A + curious Plan for manufacturing Water -- Saints and Images -- + Processions -- How to make it Rain -- The Sacred Host -- Fanaticism + and Murder -- Honors paid to a Bishop -- Servility to Priests -- + Attendance at Public Worship -- New Mexicans in Church -- The Vesper + Bells -- Passion Week and the Ceremonies pertaining thereto -- + Ridiculous _Penitencia_ -- Whitewashing of Criminals -- Matrimonial + Connexions and Mode of Contracting them -- Restrictions upon Lovers + -- Onerous Fees paid for Marriages and Burials -- Anecdote of a + _Ranchero_ -- Ditto of a Servant and a Widow, illustrative of + Priestly Extortion -- Modes of Burial, and Burial Ground of the + Heretics. + + +The Mexicans seem the legitimate descendants of the subjects of 'His +Most Catholic Majesty;' for the Romish faith is not only the religion +established by law, but the only one tolerated by the constitution: a +system of republican liberty wholly incomprehensible to the +independent and tolerant spirits of the United States. Foreigners only +of other creeds, in accordance with treaty stipulations, can worship +privately within their own houses.[11] The Mexicans, indeed, talk of a +'union of Church and State:' they should rather say a 'union of Church +and Army;' for, as has {246} [Pg038] already been shown, the civil +authority is so nearly merged in the military and the ecclesiastical, +that the government, if not a military hierarchy, is something so near +akin that it is difficult to draw the distinction. As Mr. Mayer[12] +very appropriately remarks, you are warned of the double dominion of +the army and the church "by the constant sound of the drum and the +bell, which ring in your ears from morn to midnight, and drown the +sounds of industry and labor." + +In the variety and grossness of popular superstitions, Northern Mexico +can probably compete with any civilized country in the world. Others +may have their extravagant traditions, their fanatical prejudices, +their priestly impostures, but here the popular creed seems to be the +embodiment of as much that is fantastic and improbable in idolatrous +worship, as it is possible to clothe in the garb of a religious faith. +It would fill volumes to relate one-half of the wonderful miracles and +extraordinary apparitions said to have occurred during and since the +conquest of the Indian Pueblos and their conversion to the Romish +faith. Their character may be inferred from the following national +legend of _La Maravillosa Aparicion de Nuestra Senora de +Guadalupe--anglice_, the marvellous apparition of Our Lady of +Guadalupe,--which, in some one of its many traditionary shapes, is +generally believed throughout the republic. I have seen some half a +dozen written versions of this celebrated tradition, and heard about +as many oral {247} ones; but no two agree in all the particulars. +However, that which has received most currency informs us, that, on +the 12th of December, 1531, an Indian called Juan Diego, while passing +over the barren hill of Tepeyacac (about a league northward [Pg039] +from the city of Mexico), in quest of medicinal herbs, had his +attention suddenly arrested by the fragrance of flowers, and the sound +of delightful music; and on looking up, he saw an angelic sort of +figure directly before him. Being terrified he attempted to flee; but +the apparition calling to him by name, "Juan Diego," said she, "go +tell the bishop to have me a place of worship erected on this very +spot." The Indian replied that he could not return, as he was seeking +_remedios_ for a dying relative. But the figure bade him to do as +commanded, and have no further care about his relative--that he was +then well. Juan Diego went to the city, but being unable to procure an +audience from the bishop, he concluded he had been acting under a +delusion, and again set off for his _remedios_. Upon ascending the +same hill, however, the apparition again accosted him, and hearing his +excuse, upbraided him for his want of faith and energy; and said, +"Tell the bishop that it is Guadalupe, the Virgin Mary, come to dwell +amongst and protect the Mexicans, who sends thee." The Indian, +returning again to the city, forced his way into the presence of the +bishop, who, like a good sensible man, received the messenger with +jeers, and treated him as a maniac; {248} telling him finally to bring +some sign, which, if really the Mother of God, his directress could +readily furnish. + +The perplexed Indian left the bishop's presence resolved to avoid +further molestation from his spiritual acquaintance, by taking another +route; yet, when near the place of his first meeting, he again +encountered the apparition, who, hearing the result of his mission, +ordered him to climb a naked rock hard by, and collect a bouquet of +flowers which he would find growing there. Juan Diego, albeit without +faith, obeyed, when, to his surprise he found the flowers referred to, +and brought them to the Virgin, who, throwing them into his _tilma_, +commanded him to carry them to the bishop; saying, [Pg040] "When he +sees these he will believe, as he well knows that flowers do not bloom +at this season, much less upon that barren rock." The humble messenger +now with more courage sought the bishop's presence, and threw out the +blooming credentials of his mission before him; when lo! to the +astonishment of all, and to the entire conviction of his _Senoria +ilustrisima_, the perfect image of the apparition appeared imprinted +on the inside of the _tilma_.[13] + +The reverend Prelate now fully acknowledged the divinity of the +picture, and in a {249} conclave of ecclesiastics convened for the +purpose, he pronounced it the image of _La verdadera Virgen_ and +protectress of Mexico. A splendid chapel was soon after erected upon +the spot designated in the mandate, in which the miraculous painting +was deposited, where it is preserved to the present day. In the +suburbs of every principal city in the republic, there is now a chapel +specially dedicated to _Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe_, where coarse +resemblances of the original picture are to be seen. Rough paintings +of the same, of various dimensions, are also to be met with in nearly +every dwelling, from the palace to the most miserable hovel. The +image, with an adapted [Pg041] motto, has also been stamped upon +medals, which are swung about the necks of the faithful.[14] + +[Illustration] + +{250} As a further confirmation of the miracle, it is also told, that +when Juan Diego returned to his home, he found his relative in good +health--that he had suddenly risen from the last extremity about the +time of the former's meeting with the Virgin. + +Now comes the profane version of the story, which the skeptical have +set afloat, as the most reasonable one; but against which, in the name +of orthodoxy, I feel bound to enter my protest. To the better +understanding of this 'explanatory tradition,' it may be necessary to +premise that the name of Guadalupe was already familiar to the +Spaniards, the Virgin Mary having, it is said, long before appeared in +Spain, under the same title; on which occasion an order of monks, +styled _Frailes Guadalupanos_, had been instituted. One of these +worthy fathers who had been sent as a missionary to Mexico, finding +the Indians rather stubborn and unyielding, conceived the plan of +flattering their national vanity by fabricating a saint suited for the +occasion. The Guadalupano had a poor friend who was an excellent +painter, to whom he said, one day, "Take this tilma"--presenting him +one of the coarsest and most slazy texture {251} (a sort of _manta de +guangoche_); "paste it upon canvass, and paint me thereon the +handsomest effigy of Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe that your fancy can +portray." When [Pg042] this was done according to order, and the +tilma separated from the canvass, the picture appeared somewhat +miraculous. Viewed very closely, it showed exceedingly dim; but upon +receding to some distance, so that the eye could embrace a larger +field of the open texture, it appeared quite distinct and beautiful. +This effect is often alluded to at the present day, and easily as it +might be accounted for upon philosophical principles, I have heard +many an ignorant Mexican declare, that _la Santisima Virgen_ concealed +herself from such as profaned her shrine by a too near approach, and +only shone forth in all her brilliancy to those who kept at a +respectful distance. But in conclusion, the story relates, that a +suitable damsel being selected and decked out to represent the Virgin, +the affair was played off as it has been narrated. + +As regards the miracle of the fresh flowers in December the _profanos_ +say, that there was nothing very wonderful about it, as flowers were +known to bloom in the lowlands, and only a few leagues from the spot +where the affair took place, at all seasons of the year; implying that +these had been engrafted upon the rock for the occasion. There are +some who go so far as to insinuate that the bishop and other +ecclesiastics were privy to the whole affair, and that every +precaution had been {252} taken to see the Indian who played first +fiddle in the matter, provided with a tilma, similar to the one on +which the image of the Virgin was painted, and that this was artfully +slipped in the place of the former, which the Indian had doffed when +he climbed the rock after the flowers.--I have not seen the original +portrait, but most of the copies and imitations I have met with, +represent the Virgin with that peculiarly tawny complexion which was +probably deemed indispensable to conciliate the prejudices of the +aborigines. [Pg043] + +The reader may reconcile the foregoing discrepancies in the best way +he can; all that I have to add is, that the apparition having been +canonized by the Pope, a belief in it now constitutes as much a part +of the religious faith of the Mexicans, as any article of the +Apostolic Creed. To judge from the blind and reverential awe in which +the Virgin Guadalupe is held by the lowly and the ignorant, one would +suppose her to be the first person in the Divinity, for to her their +vows are directed, their prayers offered up, and all their confessions +made. + +Among the many traditions implicitly believed in by the people, and +which tend to obstruct the advancement of knowledge, there is one +equally as amusing and extravagant as the foregoing, which has been +gravely recounted by the present Vicar of New Mexico and ex-delegate +to Congress. During the memorable insurrection of 1680, the Pueblo of +San Felipe was about the only one that {253} remained faithful to the +Spaniards in all the North. It was during that exciting period that +the padre of another Pueblo took refuge among them. Being besieged by +their neighbors and their communication with the water entirely cut +off, they applied for advice to the reverend padre, who bade them not +despair, as he had it in his power to supply them with water. He then +began to pray very fervently, after which he opened a vein in each of +his arms, from whence there flowed two such copious streams of water +that all fears of being reduced by thirst were completely allayed![15] +[Pg044] + +It is a part of the superstitious blindness of these people to +believe that every one of their legion of canonized saints possesses +the power of performing certain miracles; and their aid is generally +invoked on all occasions of sickness and distress. The kindest office, +therefore, that the friends of a sick person can perform, is to bring +forward the image of some of those saints whose healing powers have +been satisfactorily tested. The efficacy of these superstitious +remedies will not be difficult to account for, when the powerful +influence of the imagination upon disease is taken into consideration. + +The images of patron saints are never put in such general requisition, +however, as in seasons of severe drought. The priests, being generally +expert at guessing the approach of a pluvial period, take good care +not to make confident promises till they have substantial {254} reason +to anticipate a speedy fulfilment of their prophecies. When the +fitting season draws nigh, they carry out the image of Nuestra Senora +de Guadalupe, or that of some other favorite saint, and parade about +the streets, the fields and the meadows, followed by all the men, +women, and children of the neighborhood, in solemn procession. Should +the clouds condescend to vouchsafe a supply of rain within a week or +two of this general humiliation, no one ever thinks of begrudging the +scores of dollars that have been paid to the priests for bringing +about so happy a result. + +Speaking of processions, I am reminded of another peculiar custom so +prevalent in Mexico, that it never fails to attract the attention of +strangers. This is the passage of the Sacred Host to the residence of +persons dangerously ill, for the purpose of administering to them the +Extreme Unction. In New Mexico, however, this procession is not +attended with so much ostentatious display as it is in the South, the +paradise of ecclesiastics, where [Pg045] it is conveyed in a black +coach drawn by a pair of black mules, accompanied by armed soldiers +and followed by crowds of _leperos_ of all sexes and ages. During the +procession of the Host, two church-bells of different tones are kept +sounding by alternate strokes. Also the carriage is always preceded by +a bell-man tinkling a little bell in regular time, to notify all +within hearing of its approach, that they may be prepared to pay it +due homage. When {255} this bell is heard, all those that happen to be +within sight of the procession, though at ever so great a distance, +instantly kneel and remain in that position till it has passed out of +sight. On these occasions, if an American happens to be within +hearing, he endeavors to avoid the _cortege_, by turning the corner of +a street or entering a shop or the house of a friend; for although it +may be expedient, and even rational, to conform with the customs and +ceremonies of these countries we are sojourning in, very few +Protestants would feel disposed to fall on their knees before a coach +freighted with frail mortals pretending to represent the Godhead! I am +sorry to say that non-compliants are frequently insulted and sometimes +pelted with stones by the rabble. Even a foreign artisan was once +massacred in the Mexican metropolis because he refused to come out of +his shop, where he was kneeling, and perform the act of genuflexion in +the street! + +This abject idolatry sometimes takes a still more humiliating aspect, +and descends to the worship of men in the capacity of religious +rulers. On the occasion of the Bishop of Durango's visit to Santa Fe +in 1833, an event which had not taken place for a great many years, +the infatuated population hailed his arrival with as much devotional +enthusiasm as if it had been the second advent of the Messiah. +Magnificent preparations were made everywhere for his reception: the +streets were swept, the roads and [Pg046] bridges on his route +repaired {256} and decorated; and from every window in the city there +hung such a profusion of fancy curtains and rich cloths that the +imagination was carried back to those glowing descriptions of +enchanted worlds which one reads of in the fables of necromancers. I +must observe, however, that there is a custom in all the towns of +Mexico (which it would not be safe to neglect), providing that +whenever a religious procession takes place, all the doors and windows +facing the street along which it is to pass, shall be decorated with +shawls, carpets, or fancy cloths, according to the means and +capabilities of the proprietor. During the bishop's sojourn in Santa +Fe, which, to the great joy of the inhabitants, lasted for several +weeks, he never appeared in the streets but that 'all true Catholics' +who were so fortunate as to obtain a glimpse of his _Senoria +Ilustrisima_ immediately dropped upon their knees, and never moved +from that position till the mitred priest had either vouchsafed his +benediction or had disappeared. Even the principal personages of the +city would not venture to address him till they had first knelt at his +feet and kissed his 'pastoral ring.' This, however, is only a +heightened picture of what occurs every day in the intercourse between +the rancheros and the common padres of the country. The slavish +obsequiousness of the lower classes towards these pampered priests is +almost incredible. + +No people are more punctual in their attendance upon public worship, +or more exact {257} in the performance of the external rites of +religion, than the New Mexicans. A man would about as soon think of +venturing in twenty fathoms of water without being able to swim, as of +undertaking a journey without hearing mass first. These religious +exercises, however, partake but seldom of the character of true +devotion; for people may be seen chattering or tittering while in the +act of crossing themselves, or muttering [Pg047] some formal prayer. +Indeed, it is the common remark of strangers, that they are wont to +wear much graver countenances while dancing at a fandango than during +their devotional exercises at the foot of the altar. In nothing, +however, is their observance of the outward forms of religion more +remarkable than in their deportment every day towards the close of +twilight, when the large bell of the _Parroquia_ peals for _la +oracion_, or vespers.[16] All conversation is instantly suspended--all +labor ceases--people of all classes, whether on foot or on horseback, +make a sudden halt--even the laden porter, groaning under the weight +of an insupportable burden, stops in the midst of his career and +stands still. An almost breathless silence reigns throughout the town, +disturbed only by the occasional sibilations of the devout multitude: +all of which, accompanied by the slow heavy peals of a large sonorous +bell, afford a scene truly solemn and appropriate. At the expiration +of about two minutes the charm is suddenly broken by the clatter of +livelier-toned bells; and a _buenas {258} tardes_ (good evening) to +those present closes the ceremony: when _presto_, all is bustle and +confusion again--the colloquial chit-chat is resumed--the smith plies +upon his anvil with redoubled energy--the clink of the hammer +simultaneously resounds in every direction--the wayfarers are again in +motion,--both pleasure and business, in short, assume their respective +sway. + +Although the Catholics have a saint for each day in the year, the +number of canonized _fiestas_ in which labor is prohibited has been +somewhat reduced in Mexico. _La Semana Santa_, or Passion Week, is +perhaps the period when the religious feeling, such as it is, is most +fully excited: [Pg048] _Viernes Santo_ (Good Friday), especially, is +observed with great pomp and splendor. An image of Christ large as +life, nailed to a huge wooden cross, is paraded through the streets, +in the midst of an immense procession, accompanied by a glittering +array of carved images, representing the Virgin Mary, Mary Magdalene, +and several others; while the most notorious personages of antiquity, +who figured at that great era of the World's history,--the centurion +with a band of guards, armed with lances, and apparelled in the +costume supposed to have been worn in those days,--may be seen +bestriding splendidly caparisoned horses, in the breathing reality of +flesh and blood. Taking it all in all, this spectacle,--the ceremonies +and man[oe]uvres which attend its career through the densely crowded and +ornamented {259} streets,--are calculated to produce impressions of a +most confused description, in which regret and melancholy may be said +to form no inconsiderable share. + +It has been customary for great malefactors to propitiate Divine +forgiveness by a cruel sort of _penitencia_, which generally takes +place during the _Semana Santa_. I once chanced to be in the town of +Tome[17] on Good Friday, when my attention was arrested by a man +almost naked, bearing, in imitation of Simon, a huge cross upon his +shoulders, which, though constructed of the lightest wood, must have +weighed over a hundred pounds. The long end dragged upon the ground, +as we have seen it represented in sacred pictures, and about the +middle swung a stone of immense dimensions, appended there for the +purpose of making the task more laborious. Not far behind followed +another equally destitute of clothing, with his whole body wrapped in +chains and cords, which seemed buried in the [Pg049] muscles, and +which so cramped and confined him that he was scarcely able to keep +pace with the procession. The person who brought up the rear presented +a still more disgusting aspect. He walked along with a patient and +composed step, while another followed close behind belaboring him +lustily with a whip, which he flourished with all the satisfaction of +an amateur; but as the lash was pointed only with a tuft of untwisted +sea-grass, its application merely served to keep open the wounds upon +the penitent's {260} back, which had been scarified, as I was +informed, with the keen edge of a flint, and was bleeding most +profusely. The blood was kept in perpetual flow by the stimulating +juice of certain herbs, carried by a third person, into which the +scourger frequently dipped his lash. Although the actors in this +tragical farce were completely muffled, yet they were well known to +many of the by-standers, one of whom assured me that they were three +of the most notorious rascals in the country. By submitting to this +species of penance, they annually received complete absolution of +their past year's sins, and, thus 'purified,' entered afresh on the +old career of wickedness and crime. + +In New Mexico, the institution of marriage changes the legal rights of +the parties, but it scarcely affects their moral obligations. It is +usually looked upon as a convenient cloak for irregularities, which +society less willingly tolerates in the lives of unmarried women. Yet +when it is considered that the majority of matches are forced and +ill-assorted, some idea may be formed of the little incitement that is +given to virtue. There are very few parents who would stoop to consult +a young lady's wishes before concluding a marriage contract, nor would +maidens, generally, ever dream of a matrimonial connection unless +proposed first by the father. The lover's proposals are, upon the same +principle, made in writing direct to the parents themselves, [Pg050] +and without the least deference to the wishes or inclinations {261} of +the young lady whose hand is thus sought in marriage. The tender +emotions engendered between lovers during walks and rambles along the +banks of silent streams, are never experienced in this country; for +the sexes are seldom permitted to converse or be together alone. In +short, instances have actually occurred when the betrothed couple have +never seen each other till brought to the altar to be joined in +wedlock. + +Among the humbler classes, there are still more powerful causes +calculated to produce irregularity of life; not the least of which is +the enormous fee that must be paid to the curate for tying the +matrimonial knot. This system of extortion is carried so far as to +amount very frequently to absolute prohibition: for the means of the +bridegroom are often insufficient for the exigency of the occasion; +and the priests seldom consent to join people in wedlock until the +money has been secured to them. The curates being without control, the +marriage rates are somewhat irregular, but they usually increase in +proportion to the character of the ceremonies and to the circumstances +of the parties. The lowest (about twenty dollars) are adapted to the +simplest form, solemnized in church at mass; but with the excuse of +any extra service and ceremonies, particularly if performed at a +private house, the fees are increased often as high as several hundred +dollars: I have heard of $500 being paid for a marriage ceremony. The +following communication, which {262} appeared in a Chihuahua paper +under the signature of "_Un Ranchero_" affords some illustration of +the grievances of the plebeians in this respect. Literally translated +it runs thus: + + "_Messrs. Editors of the Noticioso de Chihuahua:_ + + "Permit me, through your paper, to say a few words in print, as + those of my pen have been unsuccessfully employed [Pg051] with the + _curas_ of Allende and Jimenez, to whom I applied the other day for + the purpose of ascertaining their legal charge to marry one of my + sons. The following simple and concise answer is all that I have + been able to elicit from either of these ecclesiastics:--'_The_ + _marriage fees are a hundred and nineteen dollars_.' I must confess + that I was completely suffocated when I heard this outrageous demand + upon my poor purse; and did I not pride myself on being a true + Apostolic Roman Catholic, and were it not that the charming graces + of my intended daughter-in-law have so captivated my son that + nothing but marriage will satisfy him, I would assuredly advise him + to contrive some other arrangement with his beloved, which might not + be so ruinous to our poor purse; for reflect that $119 are the life + and all of a poor ranchero. If nothing else will do, I shall have to + sell my few cows (_mis vaquitas_) to help my son out of this + difficulty."--The 'Ranchero' then appeals to the Government to + remedy such evils, by imposing some salutary restrictions upon the + clergy; and concludes by saying, "If this is not done, I will {263} + never permit either of my remaining three sons to marry." + +This article was certainly an effort of boldness against the +priesthood, which may have cost the poor 'Ranchero' a sentence of +ex-communication. Few of his countrymen would venture on a similar act +of temerity; and at least nine-tenths profess the most profound +submission to their religious rulers. Being thus bred to look upon +their priests as infallible and holy samples of piety and virtue, we +should not be so much surprised at the excesses of the 'flock' when a +large portion of the _pastores_, the padres themselves, are foremost +in most of the popular vices of the country: first at the +fandango--first at the gaming table--first at the cock-pit--first at +bacchanalian orgies--and [Pg052] by no means last in the contraction +of those _liaisons_ which are so emphatically prohibited by their +vows. + +The baptismal and burial fees (neither of which can be avoided without +incurring the charge of heresy) are also a great terror to the +candidates for married life. "If I marry," says the poor yeoman, "my +family must go unclad to baptize my children; and if any of them +should die, we must starve ourselves to pay the burial charges." The +fee for baptism, it is true, is not so exorbitant, and in accordance +to custom, is often paid by the _padrino_ or sponsor; but the burial +costs are almost equally extravagant with those of marriage, varying +in proportion to the age and {264} circumstances of the deceased. A +faithful Mexican servant in my employ at Chihuahua, once solicited +forty dollars to bury his mother. Upon my expressing some surprise at +the exorbitancy of the amount, he replied--"That is what the cura +demands, sir, and if I do not pay it my poor mother will remain +unburied!" Thus this man was obliged to sacrifice several months' +wages, to pamper the avarice of a vicious and mercenary priest. On +another occasion, a poor widow in Santa Fe, begged a little medicine +for her sick child: "Not," said the disconsolate mother, "that the +life of the babe imports me much, for I know the _angelito_ will go +directly to heaven; but what shall I do to pay the priest for burying +it? He will take my house and all from me--and I shall be turned +desolate into the street!"--and so saying, she commenced weeping +bitterly. + +Indigent parents are thus frequently under the painful necessity of +abandoning and disowning their deceased children, to avoid the +responsibility of burial expenses. To this end the corpse is sometimes +deposited in some niche or corner of the church during the night; and +upon being [Pg053] found in the morning, the priest is bound to inter +it gratis, unless the parent can be discovered, in which case the +latter would be liable to severe castigation, besides being bound to +pay the expenses. + +Children that have not been baptized are destined, according to the +popular faith, to a kind of negative existence in the world of {265} +spirits, called _Limbo_, where they remain for ever without either +suffering punishment or enjoying happiness. Baptized infants, on the +other hand, being considered without sin, are supposed to enter at +once into the joys of heaven. The deceased child is then denominated +an _angelito_ (a little angel), and is interred with joy and mirth +instead of grief and wailing. It is gaudily bedecked with fanciful +attire and ornaments of tinsel and flowers; and being placed upon a +small bier, it is carried to the grave by four children as gaily +dressed as their circumstances will allow; accompanied by musicians +using the instruments and playing the tunes of the fandangos; and the +little procession is nothing but glee and merriment. + +In New Mexico the lower classes are very rarely, if ever, buried in +coffins: the corpse being simply wrapped in a blanket, or some other +covering, and in that rude attire consigned to its last home. It is +truly shocking to a sensitive mind to witness the inhuman treatment to +which the remains of the dead are sometimes subjected. There being +nothing to indicate the place of the previous graves, it not +unfrequently happens that the partially decayed relics of a corpse are +dug up and forced to give place to the more recently deceased, when +they are again thrown with the earth into the new grave with perfect +indifference. The operation of filling up the grave especially, is +particularly repulsive; the earth being pounded down with a large +maul, {266} as fast as it is thrown in upon the unprotected corpse, +with a force sufficient to crush a delicate frame to atoms. [Pg054] + +As the remains of heretics are not permitted to pollute either the +church-yard or _Campo Santo_, those Americans who have died in Santa +Fe, have been buried on a hill which overlooks the town to the +northward. The corpses have sometimes been disinterred and robbed of +the shroud in which they were enveloped; so that, on a few occasions, +it has been deemed expedient to appoint a special watch for the +protection of the grave. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[11] Religious freedom, and entire separation of church and state, +were secured in Mexico, after a long and bitter struggle, by the +constitution of 1873.--ED. + +[12] Brantz Mayer (1809-79), a native of Baltimore, Maryland, +historian and diplomat. In 1843 he was secretary of legation at +Mexico, and upon his return published _Mexico as it was and as it is_ +(New York, 1844), to which book Gregg here refers. Mayer was the +author of several other works, both on Mexico and American history, +and founder of the Maryland Historical Society.--ED. + +[13] This is a kind of mantle or loose covering worn by the Indians, +which, in the present instance, was made of the coarse filaments of a +species of maguey, and a little resembled the common coffee sacks. The +painting, as it necessarily must be on such a material, is said to be +coarse, and represents the Virgin covered with a blue robe bespangled +with stars.--GREGG. + +[14] The accompanying cut represents both sides of a medal of +"_Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe de Mexico_," of which, as I have been +informed, 216,000 were struck at Birmingham in the year 1831, designed +for the Mexican market. Similar medals are worn by nearly nine-tenths +of the population of Northern Mexico. On one side, as will be seen, +the Virgin is represented in her star-spangled robe, supported by a +cherub and the moon under her feet: a design, which, it has been +suggested, was most probably drawn from Revelation xii. 1. The date, +"A. 1805," is that perhaps of some one of the innumerable miracles, +which, according to fame in Mexico, have been wrought by the Virgin +Guadalupe. The motto, "_Non fecit taliter omni nationi_" (She "hath +not dealt so with any nation") which is found on the reverse of the +medal, is extracted from Psalm cxlvii. 20.--GREGG. + +[15] This story is apochryphal, since the pueblo was besieged neither +during the revolt of 1680 nor that of 1696. The pueblo of San Felipe +is of Queres origin, and was known in the seventeenth century. Its +first friar was Cristobal Quinones, who died in 1609. The pueblo was +faithful to the Spanish, its people killing none of that nation during +the revolt. It now occupied its fourth site in Sandoval County, at the +foot of a mesa which is crowned with the ruins of an earlier site. It +is the southernmost pueblo of Queres stock, and had (1903) a +population of five hundred and sixteen.--ED. + +[16] The Parroquia, or cathedral of Santa Fe, stands upon the site of, +and partially incorporates the early building of 1627. It is built of +light brown stone, and flanked by two bell towers.--ED. + +[17] Tome is a town on the east bank of the Rio Grande, some distance +below Albuquerque. It was at one time the seat of Valencia County, and +in 1900 had a population of about eight hundred.--ED. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +The Pueblos -- Their Character for Sobriety, Honesty, and Industry -- + Traditional Descent from Montezuma -- Their Languages -- Former and + present Population -- The Pueblo of Pecos -- Singular Habits of that + ill-fated Tribe -- Curious Tradition -- Montezuma and the Sun -- + Legend of a Serpent -- Religion and Government -- Secret Council -- + Laws and Customs -- Excellent Provisions against Demoralization -- + Primitive Pastimes of the Pueblos -- Their Architecture -- Singular + Structures of Taos, and other novel Fortifications -- Primitive + state of the Arts among the Pueblos -- Style of Dress, Weapons, etc. + -- Their Diet -- The _Guayave_. + + +Allusion has so frequently been made to the aboriginal tribes of New +Mexico, known as _Los Pueblos_, that I think I shall not be +trespassing too much upon the patience of the reader, in glancing +rapidly at some of the more conspicuous features of their national +habits and character. + +Although the term _Pueblo_ in Spanish literally means the _people_, +and their _towns_, it is here specifically applied to the +_Christianized Indians_ (as well as their villages)--to those +aborigines whom the Spaniards not only subjected to their laws, but to +an acknowledgment of the Romish faith, and upon whom they forced +baptism and the cross in exchange for {268} the vast possessions of +which they robbed them. All that was left them was, to each Pueblo a +league or two of land situated around their villages, the conquerors +reserving to themselves at least ninety-nine hundredths of the whole +domain as a requital for their generosity. [Pg055] + +When these regions were first discovered it appears that the +inhabitants lived in comfortable houses and cultivated the soil, as +they have continued to do up to the present time. Indeed, they are now +considered the best horticulturists in the country, furnishing most of +the fruits and a large portion of the vegetable supplies that are to +be found in the markets. They were until very lately the only people +in New Mexico who cultivated the grape. They also maintain at the +present time considerable herds of cattle, horses, etc. They are, in +short, a remarkably sober and industrious race, conspicuous for +morality and honesty, and very little given to quarrelling or +dissipation, except when they have had much familiar intercourse with +the Hispano-Mexican population. + +Most of these Pueblos call themselves the descendants of Montezuma, +although it would appear that they could only have been made +acquainted with the history of that monarch, by the Spaniards; as this +province is nearly two thousand miles from the ancient kingdom of +Mexico. At the time of the conquest they must have been a very +powerful people--numbering near a hundred villages, as existing {269} +ruins would seem to indicate; but they are now reduced to about +twenty, which are scattered in various parts of the territory.[18] + +There are but three or four different languages spoken among them, and +these, indeed, may be distantly allied to each other. Those of Taos, +Picuris, Isleta, and perhaps some others, speak what has been called +the _Piro_ language. A large portion of the others, viz., those of San +Juan, Santa [Pg056] Clara, Nambe, Pojuaque, Tezuque, and some others, +speak _Tegua_, having all been originally known by this general name; +and those of Cochiti, Santo Domingo, San Felipe, and perhaps Sandia, +speak the same tongue, though they seem formerly to have been +distinguished as _Queres_. The numerous tribes that inhabited the +highlands between Rio del Norte and Pecos, as those of Pecos, Cienega, +Galisteo, etc., were known anciently as _Tagnos_, but these are now +all extinct; yet their language is said to be spoken by those of Jemez +and others of that section. Those further to the westward[19] {270} +are perhaps allied to the Navajoes. Though all these Pueblos speak +their native languages among themselves, a great many of them possess +a smattering of Spanish, sufficient to carry on their intercourse with +the Mexicans.[20] + +The population of these Pueblos will average nearly five hundred souls +each (though some hardly exceed one hundred), making an aggregate of +nine or ten thousand. At the time of the original conquest, at the +close of the sixteenth century, they were, as has been mentioned, +much, [Pg057] perhaps ten-fold, more numerous.[21] Ancient ruins are +now to be seen scattered in every quarter of the territory: of some, +entire stone walls are yet standing, while others are nearly or quite +obliterated, many of them being now only known by their names which +history or tradition has preserved to us. Numbers were no doubt +destroyed during the insurrection of 1680, and the petty internal +strifes which followed. + +Several of these Pueblos have been converted into Mexican villages, of +which that of _Pecos_ is perhaps the most remarkable instance. What +with the massacres of the second conquest, and the inroads of the +Comanches, they gradually dwindled away, till they found themselves +reduced to about a dozen, comprising all ages and sexes; and it was +only a few years ago that they abandoned the home of their fathers and +joined the Pueblo of Jemez. + +Many curious tales are told of the singular habits of this ill-fated +tribe, which must no {271} doubt have tended to hasten its utter +annihilation. A tradition was prevalent among them that Montezuma had +kindled a holy fire, and enjoined their ancestors not to suffer it to +be extinguished until he should return to deliver his people from the +yoke of the Spaniards. In pursuance of these commands, a constant +watch had been maintained for ages to prevent the fire from going out; +and, as tradition further informed them, that Montezuma would appear +with the sun, the deluded Indians were to be seen every clear morning +upon the terraced roofs of their houses, attentively watching for the +appearance of the 'king of light,' in hopes of seeing him 'cheek by +jowl' with their immortal sovereign. I have [Pg058] myself descended +into the famous _estufas_, or subterranean vaults, of which there were +several in the village, and have beheld this consecrated fire, +silently smouldering under a covering of ashes, in the basin of a +small altar. Some say that they never lost hope in the final coming of +Montezuma until, by some accident or other, or a lack of a sufficiency +of warriors to watch it, the fire became extinguished; and that it was +this catastrophe that induced them to abandon their villages, as I +have before observed. + +The task of tending the sacred fire was, it is said, allotted to the +warriors. It is further related, that they took the watch by turns for +two successive days and nights, without partaking of either food, +water, or sleep; while some assert, that instead of being restricted +to {272} two days, each guard continued with the same unbending +severity of purpose until exhaustion, and very frequently death, left +their places to be filled by others. A large portion of those who came +out alive were generally so completely prostrated by the want of +repose and the inhalation of carbonic gas that they very soon died; +when, as the vulgar story asseverates, their remains were carried to +the den of a monstrous serpent, which kept itself in excellent +condition by feeding upon these delicacies. This huge snake (invented +no doubt by the lovers of the marvellous to account for the constant +disappearance of the Indians) was represented as the idol which they +worshipped, and as subsisting entirely upon the flesh of his devotees: +live infants, however, seemed to suit his palate best. The story of +this wonderful serpent was so firmly believed in by many ignorant +people, that on one occasion I heard an honest ranchero assert, that +upon entering the village very early on a winter's morning, he saw the +huge trail of the reptile in the snow, as large as that of a dragging +ox. [Pg059] + +This village, anciently so renowned, lies twenty-five miles eastward +of Santa Fe, and near the _Rio Pecos_, to which it gave name. Even so +late as ten years ago, when it contained a population of fifty to a +hundred souls, the traveller would oftentimes perceive but a solitary +Indian, a woman, or a child, standing here and there like so many +statues upon the roofs of their houses, with their eyes fixed on {273} +the eastern horizon, or leaning against a wall or a fence, listlessly +gazing at the passing stranger; while at other times not a soul was to +be seen in any direction, and the sepulchral silence of the place was +only disturbed by the occasional barking of a dog, or the cackling of +hens.[22] + +No other Pueblo appears to have adopted this extraordinary +superstition: like Pecos, however, they have all held Montezuma to be +their perpetual sovereign. It would likewise appear that they all +worship the sun; for it is asserted to be their regular practice to +turn the face towards the east at sunrise.[23] They profess the +Catholic faith, however, of which, nevertheless, they cannot be +expected to understand anything beyond the formalities; as [Pg060] +but very few of their Mexican neighbors and teachers can boast of +more. + +Although nominally under the jurisdiction of the federal government, +as Mexican citizens, many features of their ancient customs are still +retained, as well in their civil rule as in their religion. Each +Pueblo is under the control of a _cacique_ or _gobernadorcillo_, +chosen from among their own sages, and commissioned by the governor of +New Mexico. The cacique, when any public business is to be transacted, +collects together the principal chiefs of the Pueblo in an _estufa_, +or cell, usually under ground, and there lays before them the subjects +of debate, which are generally settled by the opinion of the majority. +No Mexican is admitted to these councils, nor do the {274} subjects of +discussion ever transpire beyond the precincts of the cavern. The +council has also charge of the interior police and tranquility of the +village.[24] One of their regulations is to appoint a secret watch for +the purpose of keeping down disorders and vices of every description, +and especially to keep an eye over the young men and women of the +village. When any improper intercourse among them is detected, the +parties are immediately carried to the council, and the cacique +intimates to them that they must be wedded forthwith. Should the girl +be of bad character, and the man, [Pg061] therefore, unwilling to +marry her, they are ordered to keep separate under penalty of the +lash. Hence it is, that the females of these Pueblos are almost +universally noted for their chastity and modest deportment.[25] + +They also elect a _capitan de guerra_, a kind of commander-in-chief of +the warriors, whose office it is to defend their homes and their +interests both in the field and in the council chamber.[26] Though not +very warlike, these Pueblos are generally valiant, and well skilled in +the strategies of Indian warfare; and although they have been branded +with cruelty and ferocity, yet they can hardly be said to surpass the +Mexicans in this respect: both, in times of war, pay but little regard +either to age or sex. I have been told that when the Pueblos return +from their belligerent expeditions, instead of going directly to their +homes, they always visit their council cell first. Here {275} they +undress, dance, and carouse, frequently for two days in succession +before seeing their families. + +Although the Pueblos are famous for hospitality and industry, they +still continue in the rudest state of ignorance, having neither books +nor schools among them, as none of their languages have been reduced +to rules, and very few of their children are ever taught in +Spanish.[27] A degree of primitiveness characterizes all their +amusements, which bear a strong similarity to those of the wilder +tribes. Before the New Mexican government had become so much [Pg062] +impoverished, there was wont to be held in the capital on the 16th of +September of every year, a national celebration of the declaration of +Independence, to which the Pueblos were invited. The warriors and +youths of each nation with a proportionate array of dusky damsels +would appear on these occasions, painted and ornamented in accordance +with their aboriginal customs, and amuse the inhabitants with all +sorts of grotesque feats and native dances. Each Pueblo generally had +its particular uniform dress and its particular dance. The men of one +village would sometimes disguise themselves as elks, with horns on +their heads, moving on all-fours, and mimicking the animal they were +attempting to personate. Others would appear in the garb of a turkey, +with large heavy wings, and strut about in imitation of that bird. But +the Pecos tribe, already reduced to seven men, always occasioned most +diversion. {276} Their favorite exploit was, each to put on the skin +of a buffalo, horns, tail, and all, and thus accoutred scamper about +through the crowd, to the real or affected terror of all the ladies +present, and to the great delight of the boys. + +The Pueblo villages are generally built with more regularity than +those of the Mexicans, and are constructed of the same materials as +were used by them in the most primitive ages. Their dwelling-houses, +it is true, are not so spacious as those of the Mexicans, containing +very seldom more than two or three small apartments upon the ground +floor, without any court-yard, but they have generally a much loftier +appearance, being frequently two stories high and sometimes more. A +very curious feature in these buildings, is, that there is most +generally no direct communication between the street and the lower +rooms, into which they descend by a trap-door from the upper story, +the latter being accessible by means of ladders. Even the entrance to +the upper stories is frequently at the roof. This style of [Pg063] +building seems to have been adopted for security against their +marauding neighbors of the wilder tribes, with whom they were often at +war. When the family had all been housed at night, the ladder was +drawn up, and the inmates were thus shut up in a kind of fortress, +which bid defiance to the scanty implements of warfare used by the +wild Indians. + +Though this was their most usual style of architecture, there still +exists a Pueblo of Taos, {277} composed, for the most part, of but two +edifices of very singular structure--one on each side of a creek, and +formerly communicating by a bridge. The base-story is a mass of near +four hundred feet long, a hundred and fifty wide, and divided into +numerous apartments, upon which other tiers of rooms are built, one +above another, drawn in by regular grades, forming a pyramidal pile of +fifty or sixty feet high, and comprising some six or eight stories. +The outer rooms only seem to be used for dwellings, and are lighted by +little windows in the sides, but are entered through trap-doors in the +_azoteas_ or roofs. Most of the inner apartments are employed as +granaries and store-rooms, but a spacious hall in the centre of the +mass, known as the _estufa_, is reserved for their secret councils. +These two buildings afford habitations, as is said, for over six +hundred souls.[28] There is likewise an edifice in the Pueblo of +Picuris[29] of the same class, and some of those of Moqui are also +said to be similar. + +Some of these villages were built upon rocky eminences deemed almost +inaccessible: witness for instance [Pg064] the ruins of the ancient +Pueblo of San Felipe, which may be seen towering upon the very verge +of a precipice several hundred feet high, whose base is washed by the +swift current of the Rio del Norte. The still existing Pueblo of Acoma +also stands upon an isolated mound whose whole area is occupied by the +village, being fringed all around by a precipitous _ceja_ or cliff. +{278} The inhabitants enter the village by means of ladders, and by +steps cut into the solid rock upon which it is based.[30] + +At the time of the conquest, many of these Pueblos manufactured some +singular textures of cotton and other materials; but with the loss of +their liberty, they seem to have lost most of their arts and +ingenuity; so that the finer specimens of native fabrics are now only +to be met with among the Moquis and Navajoes, who still retain their +independence. The Pueblos, however, make some of the ordinary classes +of blankets and _tilmas_,[31] as well as other woolen stuffs. They +also manufacture, according to their aboriginal art, both for their +own consumption, and for the purpose of traffic, a species of +earthenware not much inferior to the coarse crockery of our common +potters. The pots made of this material stand fire remarkably well, +and are the universal substitutes for all the purposes of cookery, +even among the Mexicans, for the iron castings of this country, which +are utterly unknown there. Rude as this kind of crockery is, it +nevertheless evinces a great deal of skill, considering that it is +made entirely [Pg065] without lathe or any kind of machinery. It is +often fancifully painted with colored earths and the juice of a plant +called _guaco_, which brightens by burning. They also work a singular +kind of wicker-ware, of which some bowls (if they may be so called) +are so closely platted, {279} that, once swollen by dampness, they +serve to hold liquids, and are therefore light and convenient vessels +for the purposes of travellers.[32] + +The dress of many of the Pueblos has become assimilated in some +respects to that of the common Mexicans; but by far the greatest +portion still retain most of their aboriginal costume. The Taosas and +others of the north somewhat resemble the prairie tribes in this +respect; but the Pueblos to the south and west of Santa Fe dress in a +different style, which is said to be similar in many respects to that +of the aboriginal inhabitants of the city of Mexico. The moccasin is +the only part of the prairie suit that appears common to them all, and +of both sexes. They mostly wear a kind of short breeches and long +stockings, the use of which they most probably acquired from the +Spaniards. The _saco_, a species of woollen jacket without sleeves, +completes their exterior garment; except during inclement seasons, +when they make use of the tilma. Very few of them have hats or +head-dress of any kind; and they generally wear their hair +long--commonly fashioned into a _queue_, wrapped with some colored +stuff. The squaws of the northern tribes dress pretty much like those +of the Prairies; but the usual costume of the females of the southern +and western Pueblos is a handsome kind of small blanket of dark +color, [Pg066] which is drawn under one arm and tacked over the other +shoulder, leaving both arms free and naked. It is generally {280} worn +with a cotton chemise underneath and is bound about the waist with a +girdle. We rarely if ever see a thorough-bred Pueblo woman in Mexican +dress.[33] + +The weapons most in use among the Pueblos are the bow and arrow, with +a long-handled lance and occasionally a fusil. The rawhide shield is +also much used, which, though of but little service against fire-arms, +serves to ward off the arrow and lance. + +The aliment of these Indians is, in most respects, similar to that of +the Mexicans; in fact, as has been elsewhere remarked, the latter +adopted with their utensils numerous items of aboriginal diet. The +_tortilla_, the _atole_, the _pinole_,[34] and many others, together +with the use of _chile_, are from the Indians. Some of the wilder +tribes make a peculiar kind of _pinole_, by grinding the bean of the +mezquite tree into flour, which is then used as that of corn. And +besides the tortilla they make another singular kind of bread, if we +may so style it, called _guayave_, a roll of which so much resembles a +'hornets' nest,' that by strangers it is often designated by this +title. It is usually made of Indian corn prepared and ground as for +tortillas, and diluted into a thin paste. {281} I once happened to +enter an Indian hut where a young girl of the family was baking +_guayaves_. She was sitting by a fire, over which a large flat stone +was heating, with a crock of prepared paste by her side. She [Pg067] +thrust her hand into the paste, and then wiped it over the heated +stone. What adhered to it was instantly baked and peeled off. She +repeated this process at the rate of a dozen times or more per minute. +Observing my curiosity, the girl handed me one of the 'sheets,' +silently; for she seemed to understand but her native tongue. I found +it pleasant enough to the taste; though when cold, as I have learned +by experience, it is, like the cold tortilla, rather tough and +insipid. They are even thinner than wafers; and some dozens, being +folded in a roll, constitute the laminate composition before +mentioned. Being thus preserved, they serve the natives for months +upon their journeys. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[18] On the subject of Pueblo Indians, consult T. Donaldson, _Moqui +Pueblo Indians of Arizona and Pueblo Indians of New Mexico_ +(Washington, 1893), extra bulletin of eleventh census; John T. Short, +North _Americans of Antiquity_ (New York, 1880); A. F. A. Bandelier, +Archaeological Institute of America _Papers_, American Series, i-iv; N. +O. G. Nordenskiold, _Cliff-dwellers of the Mesa Verde_ (Chicago and +Stockholm, 1893); C. F. Lummis, _Land of Poco Tiempo_ (New York, +1893).--ED. + +[19] Of these, the Pueblo of Zuni has been celebrated for honesty and +hospitality. The inhabitants mostly profess the Catholic faith, but +have now no curate. They cultivate the soil, manufacture, and possess +considerable quantities of stock. Their village is over 150 miles west +of the Rio del Norte, on the waters of the Colorado of the West, and +is believed to contain between 1,000 and 1,500 souls. The "seven +Pueblos of Moqui" (as they are called) are a similar tribe living a +few leagues beyond. They formerly acknowledged the government and +religion of the Spaniards, but have long since rejected both, and live +in a state of independence and paganism. Their dwellings, however, +like those of Zuni, are similar to those of the interior Pueblos, and +they are equally industrious and agricultural, and still more +ingenious in their manufacturing. The language of the _Moquis_ or +_Moquinos_ is said to differ but little from that of the +Navajoes.--GREGG. + +_Comment by Ed._ For the Moki (properly Hopi), see Pattie's +_Narrative_, in our volume xviii, p. 130, note 64. The articles by +Frank H. Cushing in American Bureau of Ethnology _Reports_ first +directed attention to the Zuni; consult also Bandelier, "Outline of +Documentary History of Zuni Tribe," in _Journal of American Ethnology +and Archaeology_ (Boston, 1891-94), iii. + +[20] On the linguistic stocks of the pueblos, consult our volume xix, +p. 266, note 90 (Gregg).--ED. + +[21] Bandelier, "Final Report," Archaeological Institute of America +_Papers_, American Series, iii, pp. 121-136, considers the pueblo +population at the time of the Spanish conquest to have been about +twenty-five thousand. The present population of New Mexican pueblos, +exclusive of the Moki, is about nine thousand.--ED. + +[22] The pueblo of Pecos was situated thirty miles southeast of Santa +Fe, and at the close of the seventeenth century had a population of +two thousand, being the largest pueblo in either New Mexico or +Arizona. It was visited as early as 1540 by Alvarado, a lieutenant of +Coronado. In 1598, the inhabitants rendered submission to Onate, and a +mission was established among them for which a large church was built +in the seventeenth century, its ruins being still conspicuous. In the +revolt of 1680 the Pecos remained neutral; but soon thereafter decline +in numbers set in, and by 1837 but eighteen adults were left. A fever +swept away the majority of these, when in 1840 the remnant of five men +sold their lands to the government, and retired to their kinsmen at +Jemez. A son of the tribe was found in 1880 among the Mexicans of the +village of Pecos, a small, comparatively modern town. Bandelier +discredits the Montezuma myth, which he considers a Spanish-Mexican +importation. See Archaeological Institute of America _Papers_, American +Series, i, pp. 110-125. He found among the ruins, however, evidences +of the existence of the sacred fire.--ED. + +[23] The Pueblo Indians still cling to many features of aboriginal +worship. The sun-father and moon-mother are revered--not the orbs +themselves, but the spiritual beings residing therein. Consult on this +subject, Bandelier, _op. cit._, iii, pp. 276-316.--ED. + +[24] The office of the cacique is in essence religious; but as +religion is interwoven with the entire life of the Pueblos, he is in a +sense a civil official as well. He is chosen because of fitness, +frequently on the nomination of his predecessor, and his education in +the mysteries and secrets of his people is exacting. The office is for +life, unless terminated by improper behavior, when the cacique may be +deposed. The candidate sometimes declines the office because of the +severity of the duties, which involve much fasting and abnegation. + +The _estufa_ is not always subterranean. It originated before the +introduction of Christian family life, in a common home for the male +members of the pueblo. It has become the council house of the tribe. +Some pueblos contain more than one; unless rites are in progress, it +is a bare, rude room usually unornamented. For details, consult John +G. Bourke, _Snake Dance of the Moquis of Arizona_ (New York, +1884).--ED. + +[25] Matrimonial relations among these people have been much modified +by the introduction of Christianity, and the requirements of the +friars, so that the monogamous family is now the rule among the +sedentary Indians; although there are still in force certain clan +restrictions in the choice of the mate.--ED. + +[26] Although the Pueblos have, since the subjugation of the Apache, +engaged in no wars, a war-captain is each year selected by the +cacique, who has, as Gregg relates, certain protective and religious +functions.--ED. + +[27] Primary schools were established for several pueblos, about 1872, +but met with opposition from priests, who did not desire Indian +children to learn English. There are in the territory at present +(1903), about eighteen day-schools, and two industrial boarding +schools.--ED. + +[28] For a brief sketch of the history of Taos, see our volume xviii, +p. 73, note 44. The Taos communal architecture is of the primitive +type; after the Spanish conquest, the separate houses of the other +pueblos were gradually adopted.--ED. + +[29] Picuries is one of the northern group. Like Taos, it is of Tiguan +stock, and participated in the history of the region, being visited by +one of Coronado's party in 1540. It yielded to Onate in 1598, took +part in the revolts of 1680 and 1696, and in the uprising against the +Americans in 1848. The pueblo was formerly much larger than at +present, its population now consisting of only about a hundred poor +and rather unprogressive Indians. It is in Taos County about seventy +miles north of Santa Fe.--ED. + +[30] Acoma is a Queres pueblo, built upon a cliff, about seventy miles +southwest of Santa Fe, in Valencia County. Because of its +inaccessibility, and the charm of its situation, it has been much +noted. Coronado described it in his journey of 1540--see George P. +Winship, _Journey of Coronado_ (New York, 1904); and here a great +battle was fought between Spaniards and Acomans in 1599. The pueblo +took part in the revolts of 1680 and 1696; but has since lived +quietly, and has at present a population of about six hundred.--ED. + +[31] The _tilma_ of the North is a sort of small but durable blanket, +worn by the Indians as a mantle.--GREGG. + +[32] Recent authorities do not consider the decline of domestic arts a +sign of deterioration among the Pueblos. They taught the Navaho to +weave, and now purchase blankets from the latter. Pottery is still +manufactured among the New Mexican pueblos. See on these subjects +Washington Matthews, "Navaho Weavers," in U. S. Bureau of Ethnology +_Report_, 1881-82, pp. 371-391; and William H. Holmes, "Pottery of the +Ancient Pueblos," _ibid._, 1882-83, pp. 265-358.--ED. + +[33] The Pueblos still retain their native dress, which is +picturesque, healthful, convenient, and often relatively costly--a +woman's costume sometimes being worth as much as twenty-five +dollars.--ED. + +[34] _Pinole_ is in effect the _cold-flour_ of our hunters. It is the +meal of parched Indian corn, prepared for use by stirring it up with a +little cold water. This food seems also to have been of ancient use +among the aborigines of other parts of America. Father Charlevoix, in +1721, says of the savages about the northern lakes, that they "reduce +[the maize] to Flour which they call _Farine froide_ (cold Flour), and +this is the best Provision that can be made for Travellers."--GREGG. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +The wild Tribes of New Mexico -- Speculative Theories -- Clavigero and + the _Azteques_ -- Pueblo Bonito and other Ruins -- Probable + Relationship between the _Azteques_ and tribes of New Mexico -- The + several Nations of this Province -- _Navajoes_ and _Azteques_ -- + Manufactures of the former -- Their Agriculture, Religion, etc. -- + Mexican Cruelty to the Indians and its Consequences -- Inroads of + the Navajoes -- Exploits of a Mexican Army -- How to make a Hole in + a Powder-keg -- The _Apaches_ and their Character -- Their Food -- + Novel Mode of settling Disputes -- Range of their marauding + Excursions -- Indian Traffic and imbecile Treaties -- Devastation of + the Country -- Chihuahua Rodomontades -- Juan Jose, a celebrated + Apache Chief, and his tragical End, etc. -- Massacre of Americans in + Retaliation -- A tragical Episode -- _Proyecto de Guerra_ and a + 'gallant' Display -- The _Yutas_ and their Hostilities -- A personal + Adventure with them, but no blood shed -- Jicarillas. + + +All the Indians of New Mexico not denominated Pueblos--not professing +the Christian religion--are ranked as _wild tribes_, although these +include some who have made great advances in arts, manufactures and +agriculture. Those who are at all acquainted with the ancient history +of Mexico, will recollect that, according to the traditions of the +aborigines, all the principal tribes of Anahuac descended from the +North: and that those of Mexico, especially [Pg068] the Azteques, +emigrated {283} from the north of California, or northwest of New +Mexico. Clavigero, the famous historian heretofore alluded to,[35] +speaking of this emigration, observes, that the _Azteques_, or Mexican +Indians, who were the last settlers in the country of Anahuac, lived +until about the year 1160 of the Christian era in Aztlan, a country +situated to the north of the Gulf of California; as is inferred from +the route of their peregrinations, and from the information afterwards +acquired by the Spaniards in their expeditions through those +countries. He then proceeds to show by what incentives they were +probably induced to abandon their native land; adding that whatever +may have been the motive, no doubt can possibly exist as to the +journey's having actually been performed. He says that they travelled +in a southeastwardly direction towards the Rio Gila, where they +remained for some time--the ruins of their edifices being still to be +seen, upon its banks. They then struck out for a point over two +hundred and fifty miles to the northwest of Chihuahua in about 29 deg. of +N. latitude, where they made another halt. This place is known by the +name of _Casas Grandes_[36] (big houses), on account of a large +edifice which still stands on the spot, and which, according to the +general tradition of those regions, was erected by the Mexican +Indians, during their [Pg069] wanderings. The building is constructed +after the plan of those in New Mexico, with three stories, covered +with an _azotea_ or terrace, and without door or entrance {284} into +the lower story. A hand ladder is also used as a means of +communication with the second story. + +Even allowing that the traditions upon which Clavigero founded his +theoretical deductions are vague and uncertain, there is sufficient +evidence in the ruins that still exist to show that those regions were +once inhabited by a far more enlightened people than are now to be +found among the aborigines. Of such character are the ruins of _Pueblo +Bonito_, in the direction of Navajo, on the borders of the +Cordilleras; the houses being generally built of slabs of fine-grit +sand-stone, a material utterly unknown in the present architecture of +the North.[37] Although some of these structures are very massive and +spacious, they are generally cut up into small irregular rooms, many +of which yet remain entire, being still covered, with the _vigas_ or +joists remaining nearly sound under the _azoteas_ of earth; and yet +their age is such that there is no tradition which gives any account +of their origin. But there have been no images or sculptured work of +any kind found about them. Besides these, many other ruins (though +none so perfect) are scattered over the plains and among the +mountains. What is very remarkable is, that a portion of them are +situated at a great distance from any water; so that the inhabitants +must have depended entirely upon rain, as is the case with the Pueblo +of Acoma at the present day. + +The general appearance of Pueblo Bonito, {285} as well as that of the +existing buildings of Moqui in the [Pg070] same mountainous regions, +and other Pueblos of New Mexico, resembles so closely the ruins of +Casas Grandes, that we naturally come to the conclusion that the +founders of each must have descended from the same common stock. The +present difference between their language and that of the Indians of +Mexico, when we take into consideration the ages that have passed away +since their separation, hardly presents any reasonable objection to +this hypothesis. + +The principal wild tribes which inhabit or extend their incursions or +peregrinations upon the territory of New Mexico, are the _Navajoes_, +the _Apaches_, the _Yutas_, the _Caiguas_ or Kiawas, and the +_Comanches_.[38] Of the latter I will speak in another place. The two +first are from one and the same original stock, there being, even at +the present day, no very important difference in their language. The +Apaches are divided into numerous petty tribes, of one of which an +insignificant band, called Jicarillas, inhabiting the mountains north +of Taos, is an isolated and miserable remnant.[39] + +The _Navajoes_ are supposed to number about 10,000 souls, and though +not the most numerous, they are certainly the most important, at least +in a historical point of view, of all the northern tribes of Mexico. +They reside in the main range of Cordilleras, 150 to 200 miles west of +Santa Fe, on the waters of Rio Colorado of California, not far from +the region, according to historians, from whence the [Pg071] {286} +Azteques emigrated to Mexico; and there are many reasons to suppose +them direct descendants from the remnant, which remained in the North, +of this celebrated nation of antiquity. Although they mostly live in +rude _jacales_, somewhat resembling the wigwams of the Pawnees, yet, +from time immemorial, they have excelled all others in their original +manufactures: and, as well as the Moquis, they are still distinguished +for some exquisite styles of cotton textures, and display considerable +ingenuity in embroidering with feathers the skins of animals, +according to their primitive practice. They now also manufacture a +singular species of blanket, known as the _Sarape Navajo_, which is of +so close and dense a texture that it will frequently hold water almost +equal to gum-elastic cloth. It is therefore highly prized for +protection against the rains. Some of the finer qualities are often +sold among the Mexicans as high as fifty or sixty dollars each. + +Notwithstanding the present predatory and somewhat unsettled habits of +the Navajoes, they cultivate all the different grains and vegetables +to be found in New Mexico. They also possess extensive herds of +horses, mules, cattle, sheep and goats of their own raising, which are +generally celebrated as being much superior to those of the Mexicans; +owing, no doubt, to greater attention to the improvement of their +stocks. + +Though Baron Humboldt[40] tells us that some missionaries were +established among this tribe {287} prior to the general massacre of +1680, but few attempts to christianize them have since been made. They +now remain in a state of primitive paganism--and not only independent +of the Mexicans, but their most formidable enemies.[41] [Pg072] + +After the establishment of the national independence, the +government of New Mexico greatly embittered the disposition of the +neighboring savages, especially the Navajoes, by repeated acts of +cruelty and ill-faith well calculated to provoke hostilities. On one +occasion, a party consisting of several chiefs and warriors of the +Navajoes assembled at the Pueblo of Cochiti,[42] by invitation of the +government, to celebrate a treaty of peace; when the New Mexicans, +exasperated no doubt by the remembrance of former outrages, fell upon +them unawares and put them all to death. It is also related, that +about the same period, three Indians from the northern mountains +having been brought as prisoners into Taos, they were peremptorily +demanded by the Jicarillas, who were their bitterest enemies; when the +Mexican authorities, dreading the resentment of this tribe, quietly +complied with the barbarous request, suffering the prisoners to be +butchered in cold blood before their very eyes! No wonder, then, that +the New Mexicans are so generally warred upon by their savage +neighbors. + +About fifteen years ago, the Navajoes were subjected by the energy of +Col. Vizcarra, who succeeded in keeping them in submission for {288} +some time; but since that officer's departure from New Mexico, no man +has been [Pg073] found of sufficient capacity to inspire this daring +tribe either with respect or fear; so that for the last ten years they +have ravaged the country with impunity, murdering and destroying just +as the humor happened to prompt them. When the spring of the year +approaches, terms of peace are generally proposed to the government at +Santa Fe, which the latter never fails to accept. This amicable +arrangement enables the wily Indians to sow their crops at leisure, +and to dispose of the property stolen from the Mexicans during their +marauding incursions, to advantage; but the close of their +agricultural labors is generally followed by a renewal of hostilities, +and the game of rapine and destruction is played over again. + +Towards the close of 1835, a volunteer corps, which most of the +leading men in New Mexico joined, was raised for the purpose of +carrying war into the territory of the Navajoes. The latter hearing of +their approach, and anxious no doubt to save them the trouble of so +long a journey, mustered a select band of their warriors, who went +forth to intercept the invaders in a mountain pass, where they lay +concealed in an ambuscade. The valiant corps, utterly unconscious of +the reception that awaited them, soon came jogging along in scattered +groups, indulging in every kind of boisterous mirth; when the +war-whoop, loud and shrill, followed by several shots, threw them all +into a state of speechless consternation. {289} Some tumbled off their +horses with fright, others fired their muskets at random: a terrific +panic had seized everybody, and some minutes elapsed before they could +recover their senses sufficiently to betake themselves to their heels. +Two or three persons were killed in this ridiculous engagement, the +most conspicuous of whom was a Capt. Hinofos, who commanded the +regular troops.[43] [Pg074] + +A very curious but fully authentic anecdote may not be +inappropriately inserted here, in which this individual was concerned. +On one occasion, being about to start on a belligerent expedition, he +directed his orderly-sergeant to fill a powder-flask from an +unbroached keg of twenty-five pounds. The sergeant, having bored a +hole with a gimlet, and finding that the powder issued too slowly, +began to look about for something to enlarge the aperture, when his +eyes haply fell upon an iron poker which lay in a corner of the +fire-place. To heat the poker and apply it to the hole in the keg was +the work of but a few moments; when an explosion took place which blew +the upper part of the building into the street, tearing and shattering +everything else to atoms. Miraculous as their escape may appear, the +sergeant, as well as the captain who witnessed the whole operation, +remained more frightened than hurt, although they were both very +severely scorched and bruised. This ingenious sergeant was afterwards +Secretary of State to Gov. Gonzalez, of revolutionary {290} +memory,[44] and has nearly ever since held a clerkship in some of the +offices of state, but is now captain in the regular army. + +I come now to speak of the _Apaches_, the most extensive and powerful, +yet the most vagrant of all the savage nations that inhabit the +interior of Northern Mexico. They are supposed to number some fifteen +thousand souls, although they are subdivided into various petty bands, +and scattered over an immense tract of country. Those that are found +east of the Rio del Norte are generally known as _Mezcaleros_, on +account of an article of food much in use among them, called +_mezcal_,[45] but by far the greatest portion of the nation is located +in the west, and is mostly known by the sobriquet [Pg075] of +_Coyoteros_, in consequence, it is said, of their eating the _coyote_ +or prairie-wolf.[46] The Apaches are perhaps more given to itinerant +habits than any other tribe in Mexico. They never construct houses, +but live in the ordinary wigwam, or tent of skins and blankets. They +manufacture nothing--cultivate nothing: they seldom resort to the +chase, as their country is destitute of game--but depend almost +entirely upon pillage for the support of their immense population, +some two or three thousand of which are warriors. + +For their food, the Apaches rely chiefly upon the flesh of the cattle +and sheep they can steal from the Mexican ranchos and haciendas. They +are said, however, to be more fond of {291} the meat of the mule than +that of any other animal. I have seen about encampments which they had +recently left, the remains of mules that had been slaughtered for +their consumption. Yet on one occasion I saw their whole trail, for +many miles, literally strewed with the carcasses of these animals, +which, it was evident, had not been killed for this purpose. It is the +practice of the Apache chiefs, as I have understood, whenever a +dispute arises betwixt their warriors relative to the ownership of any +particular animal, to kill the brute at once, though it be the most +valuable of the drove; and so check all further cavil. It was to be +inferred from the number of dead mules they left behind them, that the +most harmonious relations could not have existed between the members +of the tribe, at least during this period of their journeyings. Like +most of the savage tribes of North America, the Apaches are +passionately fond of spirituous liquors, and may frequently be seen, +in times [Pg076] of peace, lounging about the Mexican villages, in a +state of helpless inebriety. + +The range of this marauding tribe extends over some portions of +California, most of Sonora, the frontiers of Durango, and at certain +seasons it even reaches Coahuila: Chihuahua, however, has been the +mournful theatre of their most constant depredations. Every nook and +corner of this once flourishing state has been subjected to their +inroads. Such is the imbecility of the local governments, that the +savages, in order to dispose of {292} their stolen property without +even a shadow of molestation, frequently enter into partial treaties +of peace with one department, while they continue to wage a war of +extermination against the neighboring states. This arrangement +supplies them with an ever-ready market, for the disposal of their +booty and the purchase of munitions wherewith to prosecute their work +of destruction. In 1840, I witnessed the departure from Santa Fe of a +large trading party freighted with engines of war and a great quantity +of whiskey, intended for the Apaches in exchange for mules and other +articles of plunder which they had stolen from the people of the +south. This traffic was not only tolerated but openly encouraged by +the civil authorities, as the highest public functionaries were +interested in its success--the governor himself not excepted. + +The Apaches, now and then, propose a truce to the government of +Chihuahua, which is generally accepted very nearly upon their own +terms. It has on some occasions been included that the marauders +should have a _bona fide_ right to all their stolen property. A +_venta_ or quit-claim brand, has actually been marked by the +government upon large numbers of mules and horses which the Indians +had robbed from the citizens. It is hardly necessary to add that these +truces have rarely been observed by the wily savages longer than +[Pg077] the time necessary for the disposal of their plunder. As soon +as more mules were needed for service or for traffic--more cattle for +beef--more {293} scalps for the war-dance--they would invariably +return to their deeds of ravage and murder. + +The depredations of the Apaches have been of such long duration, that, +beyond the immediate purlieus of the towns, the whole country from New +Mexico to the borders of Durango is almost entirely depopulated. The +haciendas and ranchos have been mostly abandoned, and the people +chiefly confined to towns and cities. To such a pitch has the temerity +of those savages reached, that small bands of three or four warriors +have been known to make their appearance within a mile of the city of +Chihuahua in open day, killing the laborers and driving off whole +herds of mules and horses without the slightest opposition. +Occasionally a detachment of troops is sent in pursuit of the +marauders, but for no other purpose, it would seem, than to illustrate +the imbecility of the former, as they are always sure to make a +precipitate retreat, generally without even obtaining a glimpse of the +enemy.[47] And yet the columns of a little weekly sheet published in +Chihuahua always teem with flaming accounts of prodigious feats of +valor performed by the 'army of operations' against _los barbaros_: +showing how "the enemy was pursued with all possible vigor"--how the +soldiers "displayed the greatest {294} bravery, and the most +unrestrainable desire to overhaul the dastards," and by what +extraordinary combinations of adverse circumstances they were +"compelled to relinquish the pursuit." Indeed, it would be difficult +to find a braver race of people than the [Pg078] _Chihuahuenos_[48] +contrive to make themselves appear upon paper. When intelligence was +received in Chihuahua of the famous skirmish with the French, at Vera +Cruz, in which Santa Anna acquired the glory of losing a leg,[49] the +event was celebrated with uproarious demonstrations of joy; and the +next number of the _Noticioso_[50] contained a valiant fanfaronade, +proclaiming to the world the astounding fact, that one Mexican was +worth four French soldiers in battle: winding up with a "_Cancion +Patriotica_," of which the following exquisite verse was the +_refrain_: + + "_Chihuahuenses, la Patria gloriosa_ + _Otro timbre a su lustre ha anadido;_ + _Pues la_, invicta la Galia indomable + AL VALOR MEXICANO _ha cedido_." + +Literally translated: + + Chihuahuenses! our glorious country + Another ray has added to her lustre; + For the _invincible, indomitable Gallia_ + Has succumbed to Mexican valor. + +By the inverted letters of "_invicta, la Galia indomable_," in the +third line, the poet gives {295} the world to understand that the +kingdom of the Gauls had at length been whirled topsy-turvy, by the +glorious achievements of _el valor Mexicano_! + +From what has been said of the ravages of the Apaches, one would be +apt to believe them an exceedingly brave people; but the Mexicans +themselves call them cowards when compared with the Comanches; and we +are wont to look upon the latter as perfect specimens of poltroonery +when brought [Pg079] in conflict with the Shawnees, Delawares, and +the rest of our border tribes.[51] + +There was once a celebrated chief called Juan Jose at the head of this +tribe, whose extreme cunning and audacity caused his name to be +dreaded throughout the country. What contributed more than anything +else to render him a dangerous enemy, was the fact of his having +received a liberal education at Chihuahua, which enabled him, when he +afterwards rejoined his tribe, to outwit his pursuers, and, by robbing +the mails, to acquire timely information of every expedition that was +set on foot against him. The following account of the massacre in +which he fell may not be altogether uninteresting to the reader. + +The government of Sonora, desirous to make some efforts to check the +depredations of the Apaches, issued a proclamation, giving a sort of +_carte blanche_ patent of 'marque and reprisal,' and declaring all the +booty that might be taken from the savages to be the rightful property +of the captors. Accordingly, in the {296} spring of 1837, a party of +some 20 men composed chiefly of foreigners, spurred on by the love of +gain, and never doubting but the Indians, after so many years of +successful robberies, must be possessed of a vast amount of property, +set out with an American as their commander, who had long resided in +the country.[52] In a few days they reached a _rancheria_ of about +fifty warriors with their families, among whom was the [Pg080] famous +Juan Jose himself, and three other principal chiefs. On seeing the +Americans advance, the former at once gave them to understand, that, +if they had come to fight, they were ready to accommodate them; but on +being assured by the leader, that they were merely bent on a trading +expedition, a friendly interview was immediately established between +the parties. The American captain having determined to put these +obnoxious chiefs to death under any circumstances, soon caused a +little field-piece which had been concealed from the Indians to be +loaded with chain and canister shot, and to be held in readiness for +use. The warriors were then invited to the camp to receive a present +of flour, which was placed within range of the cannon. While they were +occupied in dividing the contents of the bag, they were fired upon and +a considerable number of their party killed on the spot! The remainder +were then attacked with small arms, and about twenty slain, including +Juan Jose and the other chiefs. Those who escaped became afterwards +their own avengers in a {297} manner which proved terribly disastrous +to another party of Americans, who happened at the time to be trapping +on Rio Gila not far distant. The enraged savages resolved to take +summary vengeance upon these unfortunate trappers; and falling upon +them, massacred them every one![53] They were in all, including +several Mexicans, about fifteen in number.[54] [Pg081] + +The projector of this scheme had probably been under the +impression that treachery was justifiable against a treacherous enemy. +He also believed, no doubt, that the act would be highly commended by +the Mexicans who had suffered so much from the depredations of these +notorious chiefs. But in this he was sadly mistaken; for the affair +was received with general reprehension, although the Mexicans had been +guilty of similar deeds themselves, as the following brief episode +will sufficiently show. + +In the summer of 1839, a few Apache prisoners, among whom was the wife +of a distinguished {298} chief, were confined in the calabozo of Paso +del Norte. The bereaved chief, hearing of their captivity, collected a +band of about sixty warriors, and, boldly entering the town, demanded +the release of his consort and friends. The commandant of the place +wishing to gain time, desired them to return the next morning, when +their request would be granted. During the night the forces of the +country were concentrated; notwithstanding, when the Apaches +reappeared, the troops did not show their faces, but remained +concealed, while the Mexican commandant strove to beguile the Indians +into the prison, under pretence of delivering to them their friends. +The unsuspecting chief and twenty others were entrapped in this +manner, and treacherously dispatched in cold blood: not, however, +without some loss to the Mexicans, who had four or five of their men +killed in the fracas. Among these was the commandant himself, who had +no sooner given the word, "_iMaten a los carajos!_" (kill the +scoundrels!) than the chief retorted, [Pg082] "_iEntonces moriras tu +primero, carajo!_" (then you shall die first, carajo!) and immediately +stabbed him to the heart! + +But as New Mexico is more remote from the usual haunts of the Apaches, +and, in fact, as her scanty ranchos present a much less fruitful field +for their operations than the abundant haciendas of the South, the +depredations of this tribe have extended but little upon that +province. The only serious incursion that has come within my +knowledge, was some ten {299} years ago. A band of Apache warriors +boldly approached the town of Socorro[55] on the southern border, when +a battle ensued between them and the Mexican force, composed of a +company of regular troops and all the militia of the place. The +Mexicans were soon completely routed and chased into the very streets, +suffering a loss of thirty-three killed and several wounded. The +savages bore away their slain, yet their loss was supposed to be but +six or seven. I happened to be in the vicinity of the catastrophe the +following day, when the utmost consternation prevailed among the +inhabitants, who were in hourly expectation of another descent from +the savages. + +Many schemes have been devised from time to time, particularly by the +people of Chihuahua, to check the ravages of the Indians, but +generally without success. Among these the notorious _Proyecto de +Guerra_, adopted in 1837, stands most conspicuous. By this famous +'war-project' a scale of rewards was established, to be paid out of a +fund raised for that purpose. A hundred dollars reward were offered +for the scalp of a full grown man, fifty for that of a squaw, and +twenty-five for that of every papoose! To the credit of the republic, +however, this barbarous _proyecto_ was in operation but a few weeks, +and [Pg083] never received the sanction of the general government; +although it was strongly advocated by some of the most intelligent +citizens of Chihuahua. Yet, pending its existence, it was rigidly +complied with. I saw myself, on one {300} occasion, a detachment of +horsemen approach the Palacio in Chihuahua, preceded by their +commanding officer, who bore a fresh scalp upon the tip of his lance, +which he waved high in the air in exultation of his exploit! The next +number of our little newspaper contained the official report of the +affair. The soldiers were pursuing a band of Apaches, when they +discovered a squaw who had lagged far behind in her endeavors to bear +away her infant babe. They dispatched the mother without commiseration +and took her scalp, which was the one so 'gallantly' displayed as +already mentioned! The officer concluded his report by adding, that +the child had died not long after it was made prisoner. + +The _Yutas_ (or _Eutaws_, as they are generally styled by Americans) +are one of the most extensive nations of the West, being scattered +from the north of New Mexico to the borders of Snake river and Rio +Colorado, and numbering at least ten thousand souls. The habits of the +tribe are altogether itinerant. A band of about a thousand spend their +winters mostly in the mountain valleys northward of Taos, and the +summer season generally in the prairie plains to the east, hunting +buffalo. The vernacular language of the Yutas is said to be distantly +allied to that of the Navajoes, but it has appeared to me much more +guttural, having a deep sepulchral sound resembling ventriloquism. +Although these Indians are nominally at peace with the New Mexican +government, they do not hesitate to lay {301} the hunters and traders +who happen to fall in with their scouring parties under severe +contributions; and on some occasions they have been known to proceed +[Pg084] even to personal violence. A prominent Mexican officer[56] was +scourged not long ago by a party of Yutas, and yet the government has +never dared to resent the outrage. Their hostilities, however, have +not been confined to Mexican traders, as will be perceived by the +sequel. + +In the summer of 1837, a small party of but five or six Shawnees fell +in with a large band of Yutas near the eastern borders of the Rocky +Mountains, south of Arkansas river. At first they were received with +every demonstration of friendship; but the Yutas, emboldened no doubt +by the small number of their visitors, very soon concluded to relieve +them of whatever surplus property they might be possessed of. The +Shawnees, however, much to the astonishment of the marauders, instead +of quietly surrendering their goods and chattels, offered to defend +them; upon which a skirmish ensued that actually cost the Yutas +several of their men, including a favorite chief; while the Shawnees +made their escape unhurt toward their eastern homes. + +A few days after this event, and while the Yutas were still bewailing +the loss of their people, I happened to pass near their _rancherias_ +(temporary village) with a small caravan which mustered about +thirty-five men. We {302} had hardly pitched our camp, when they began +to flock about us--men, squaws, and papooses--in great numbers; but +the warriors were sullen and reserved, only now and then muttering a +curse upon the Americans on account of the treatment they had just +received from the Shawnees, whom they considered as half-castes, and +our allies. All of a sudden, a young warrior seized a splendid steed +which belonged to our party, and, leaping upon his back, galloped +[Pg085] off at full speed. Being fully convinced that, by acquiescing +in this outrage, we should only encourage them to commit others, we +resolved at once to make a peremptory demand for the stolen horse of +their principal chief. Our request being treated with contumely, we +sent in a warlike declaration, and forthwith commenced making +preparations for descending upon the _rancherias_. The war-whoop +resounded immediately in every direction; and as the Yutas bear a very +high character for bravery and skill, the readiness with which they +seemed to accept our challenge began to alarm our party considerably. +We had defied them to mortal combat merely by way of bravado, without +the least expectation that they would put themselves to so much +inconvenience on our account. It was too late, however, to back out of +the scrape. + +No sooner had the alarm been given than the _rancherias_ of the +Indians were converted into a martial encampment; and while the +mounted warriors were exhibiting their preliminary {303} feats of +horsemanship, the squaws and papooses flew like scattered partridges +to the rocks and clefts of a contiguous precipice. One-third of our +party being Mexicans, the first step of the Indians was to proclaim a +general _indulto_ to them, in hopes of reducing our force, scanty as +it was already. "My Mexican friends," exclaimed in good Spanish, a +young warrior who daringly rode up within a few rods of us, "we don't +wish to hurt _you_; so leave those Americans, for we intend to kill +every one of _them_." The Mexicans of our party to whom this language +was addressed, being rancheros of some mettle, only answered, "_Al +diablo_! we have not forgotten how you treat us when you catch us +alone: now that we are with Americans who will defend their rights, +expect ample [Pg086] retaliation for past insults." In truth, these +rancheros seemed the most anxious to begin the fight,--a remarkable +instance of the effects of confidence in companions. + +A crisis seemed now fast approaching: two swivels we had with us were +levelled and primed, and the matches lighted. Every man was at his +post, with his rifle ready for execution, each anxious to do his best, +whatever might be the result; when the Indians, seeing us determined +to embrace the chances of war, began to open negotiations. An aged +squaw, said to be the mother of the principal chief, rode up and +exclaimed, "My sons! the Americans and Yutas have been friends, and +our old men wish to continue so: it is only a {304} few impetuous and +strong-headed youths who want to fight." The stolen horse having been +restored soon after this harangue, peace was joyfully proclaimed +throughout both encampments, and the _capitanes_ exchanged +ratifications by a social smoke. + +The little tribe of Jicarillas also harbored an enmity for the +Americans, which, in 1834, broke out into a hostile _rencontre_. They +had stolen some animals of a gallant young backwoodsman from Missouri, +who, with a few comrades, pursued the marauders into the mountains and +regained his property; and a fracas ensuing, an Indian or two were +killed. A few days afterward all their warriors visited Santa Fe in a +body, and demanded of the authorities there, the delivery of the +American offenders to their vengeance. Though the former showed quite +a disposition to gratify the savages as far as practicable, they had +not helpless creatures to deal with, as in the case of the Indian +prisoners already related. The foreigners, seeing their protection +devolved upon themselves, prepared for defence, when the savages were +fain to depart in peace. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +Incidents of a Return Trip from Santa Fe -- Calibre of our Party -- + Return Caravans -- Remittances -- Death of Mr. Langham -- Burial in + the Desert -- A sudden Attack -- Confusion in the Camp -- A Wolfish + Escort -- Scarcity of Buffalo -- Unprofitable Delusion -- Arrival + -- Table of Camping Sites and Distances -- Condition of the Town + of Independence -- The Mormons -- Their Dishonesty and Immorality + -- Their high-handed Measures, and a Rising of the People -- A + fatal Skirmish -- A chivalrous Parade of the Citizens -- Expulsion + of the Mormons -- The Meteoric Shower, and Superstition, etc. -- + Wanderings and Improprieties of the 'Latter-day Saints' -- Gov. + Boggs' Recipe -- The City of Nauvoo -- Contemplated Retribution of + the Mormons. + + +I do not propose to detain the reader with an account of my +journeyings between Mexico and the United States, during the seven +years subsequent to my first arrival at Santa Fe. I will here merely +remark, that I crossed the plains to the United States in the falls of +1833 and 1836, and returned to Santa Fe with goods each succeeding +spring. It was only in 1838, however, that I eventually closed up my +affairs in Northern Mexico, and prepared to take my leave of the +country, as I then supposed, forever. But in this I was mistaken, as +will appear in the sequel. + +The most usual season for the return of the {306} caravans to the +United States is the autumn, and not one has elapsed since the +commencement of the trade which has not witnessed some departure from +Santa Fe with that destination. They have also crossed occasionally in +the spring, but without any regularity or frequency, and generally in +very small parties. Even the 'fall companies,' in fact, are small when +compared with the outward-bound caravans; for besides the numbers who +remain permanently in the country, many of those who trade southward +return to the United States _via_ Matamoros or some other Southern +port. The return parties of autumn are therefore comparatively small, +varying in number from fifty to a hundred [Pg088] men. They leave +Santa Fe some four or five weeks after their arrival--generally about +the first of September. In these companies there are rarely over +thirty or forty wagons; for a large portion of those taken out by the +annual caravans are disposed of in the country. + +Some of the traders who go out in the spring, return the ensuing fall, +because they have the good fortune to sell off their stock promptly +and to advantage: others are compelled to return in the fall to save +their credit; nay, to preserve their homes, which, especially in the +earlier periods, have sometimes been mortgaged to secure the payment +of the merchandise they carried out with them. In such cases, their +goods were not unfrequently sold at great sacrifice, to avoid the +penalties which the breaking of their engagements at home {307} would +involve. New adventurers, too, are apt to become discouraged with an +unanticipated dullness of times, and not unfrequently sell off at +wholesale for the best price they can get, though often at a serious +loss. But those who are regularly engaged in this trade usually +calculate upon employing a season--perhaps a year, in closing an +enterprise--in selling off their goods and making their returns. + +The wagons of the return caravans are generally but lightly laden: one +to two thousand pounds constitute the regular return cargo for a +single wagon; for not only are the teams unable to haul heavy loads, +on account of the decay of pasturage at this season, but the +approaching winter compels the traders to travel in greater haste; so +that this trip is usually made in about forty days. The amount of +freight, too, from that direction is comparatively small. The +remittances, as has already been mentioned, are chiefly in specie, or +gold and silver bullion. The gold is mostly _dust_, from the Placer or +gold mine near Santa Fe:[57] [Pg089] the silver bullion is all from +the mines of the South--chiefly from those of Chihuahua. To these +returns may be added a considerable number of mules and asses--some +buffalo rugs, furs, and wool,--which last barely pays a return freight +for the wagons that would otherwise be empty. Coarse Mexican blankets, +which may be obtained in exchange for merchandise, have been sold in +small quantities to advantage on our border. + +{308} On the 4th of April, 1838, we departed from Santa Fe. Our little +party was found to consist of twenty-three Americans, with twelve +Mexican servants. We had seven wagons, one dearborn, and two small +field-pieces, besides a large assortment of small-arms. The principal +proprietors carried between them about $150,000 in specie and bullion, +being for the most part the proceeds of the previous year's adventure. + +We moved on at a brisk and joyous pace until we reached Ocate creek, a +tributary of the Colorado,[58] a distance of a hundred and thirty +miles from Santa Fe, where we encountered a very sudden bereavement in +the death of Mr. Langham, one of our most respected proprietors. This +gentleman was known to be in weak health, but no fears were +entertained for his safety. We were all actively engaged in assisting +the more heavily laden wagons over the miry stream, when he was seized +with a fit of apoplexy and expired instantly. As we had not the means +of giving the deceased a decent burial, we were compelled to consign +him to the earth in a shroud of blankets. A grave was accordingly dug +on an elevated spot near the north bank of the creek, and on the +morning of the 13th, ere the sun had risen in the east, the mortal +remains of this most worthy [Pg090] man and valued friend were +deposited in their last abode,--without a tomb-stone to consecrate the +spot, or an epitaph to commemorate his virtues. The deceased was from +St. Louis, {309} though he had passed the last eleven years of his +life in Santa Fe, during the whole of which period he had seen neither +his home nor his relatives. + +The melancholy rites being concluded, we resumed our line of march. We +now continued for several days without the occurrence of any important +accident or adventure. On the 19th we encamped in the Cimarron valley, +about twelve miles below the Willow Bar. The very sight of this +desolate region, frequented as it is by the most savage tribes of +Indians, was sufficient to strike dismay into the hearts of our party; +but as we had not as yet encountered any of them, we felt +comparatively at ease. Our mules and horses were 'staked' as usual +around the wagons, and every man, except the watch, betook himself to +his blanket, in anticipation of a good night's rest. The hour of +midnight had passed away, and nothing had been heard except the +tramping of the men on guard, and the peculiar grating of the mules' +teeth, nibbling the short grass of the valley. Ere long, however, one +of our sentinels got a glimpse of some object moving stealthily along, +and as he was straining his eyes to ascertain what sort of apparition +it could be, a loud Indian yell suddenly revealed the mystery. This +was quickly followed by a discharge of fire-arms, and the shrill note +of the 'Pawnee whistle,' which at once made known the character of our +visitors. As usual, the utmost confusion prevailed in our camp: some, +who had been snatched {310} from the land of dreams, ran their heads +against the wagons--others called out for their guns while they had +them in their hands. During the height of the bustle and uproar, a +Mexican servant was observed leaning with his back against a wagon, +and his fusil elevated at an [Pg091] angle of forty-five degrees, +cocking and pulling the trigger without ceasing, and exclaiming at +every snap, "_Carajo, no sirve!_"--Curse it, it's good for nothing. + +The firing still continued--the yells grew fiercer and more frequent; +and everything betokened the approach of a terrible conflict. +Meanwhile a number of persons were engaged in securing the mules and +horses which were staked around the encampment; and in a few minutes +they were all shut up in the _corral_--a hundred head or more in a pen +formed by seven wagons. The enemy failing in their principal +object--to frighten off our stock, they soon began to retreat; and in +a few minutes nothing more was to be heard of them. All that we could +discover the next morning was, that none of our party had sustained +any injury, and that we had not lost a single animal. + +The Pawnees have been among the most formidable and treacherous +enemies of the Santa Fe traders. But the former have also suffered a +little in turn from the caravans. In 1832, a company of traders were +approached by a single Pawnee chief, who commenced a parley with them, +when he was shot down by a Pueblo Indian of New Mexico who happened +{311} to be with the caravan. Though this cruel act met with the +decided reprobation of the traders generally, yet they were of course +held responsible for it by the Indians. + +On our passage this time across the 'prairie ocean' which lay before +us, we ran no risk of getting bewildered or lost, for there was now a +plain wagon trail across the entire stretch of our route, from the +Cimarron to Arkansas river. + +This track, which has since remained permanent, was made in the year +1834. Owing to continuous rains during the passage of the caravan of +that year, a plain trail was then cut in the softened turf, on the +most direct route across [Pg092] this arid desert, leaving the +Arkansas about twenty miles above the 'Caches.' This has ever since +been the regular route of the caravans; and thus a recurrence of those +distressing sufferings from thirst, so frequently experienced by early +travellers in that inhospitable region, has been prevented. + +We forded the Arkansas without difficulty, and pursued our journey to +the Missouri border with comparative ease; being only now and then +disturbed at night by the hideous howling of wolves, a pack of which +had constituted themselves into a kind of 'guard of honor,' and +followed in our wake for several hundred miles--in fact to the very +border of the settlements. They were at first attracted no doubt by +the remains of buffalo which were killed by us upon the high plains, +and {312} afterwards enticed on by an occasional fagged animal, which +we were compelled to leave behind, as well as by the bones and scraps +of food, which they picked up about our camps. Not a few of them paid +the penalty of their lives for their temerity. + +Had we not fortunately been supplied with a sufficiency of meat and +other provisions, we might have suffered of hunger before reaching the +settlements; for we saw no buffalo after crossing the Arkansas river. +It is true that, owing to their disrelish for the long dry grass of +the eastern prairies, the buffalo are rarely found so far east in +autumn as during the spring; yet I never saw them so scarce in this +region before. In fact, at all seasons, they are usually very abundant +as far east as our point of leaving the Arkansas river. + +Upon reaching the settlements, I had an opportunity of experiencing a +delusion which had been the frequent subject of remark by travellers +on the Prairies before. Accustomed as we had been for some months to +our little mules, and the equally small-sized Mexican ponies, our +[Pg093] sight became so adjusted to their proportions, that when we +came to look upon the commonest hackney of our frontier horses, it +appeared to be almost a monster. I have frequently heard exclamations +of this kind from the new arrivals:--"How the Missourians have +improved their breed of horses!"--"What a huge gelding!"--"Did you +ever see such an animal!" This delusion is frequently availed of by +the frontiersmen {313} to put off their meanest horses to these +deluded travellers for the most enormous prices. + +On the 11th of May we arrived at Independence, after a propitious +journey of only thirty-eight days.[59] We found the town in a thriving +condition, although it had come very near being laid waste a few years +before by the [Pg094] Mormons, who had originally selected this +section of the country for the site of their New Jerusalem. In this +they certainly displayed far more taste and good sense than they are +generally supposed to be endowed {314} with: for the rich and +beautiful uplands in the vicinity of Independence might well be +denominated the 'garden spot' of the Far West. Their principal motive +for preferring the border country, however, was no doubt a desire to +be in the immediate vicinity of the Indians, as the reclamation of the +'Lost tribes of Israel' was a part of their pretended mission. + +Prior to 1833, the Mormons, who were then flocking in great swarms to +this favored region, had made considerable purchases of lots and +tracts of land both in the town of Independence and in the adjacent +country. A general depot, profanely styled the 'Lord's Store,' was +established, from which the faithful were supplied with merchandise at +moderate prices; while those who possessed any surplus of property +were expected to deposit it in the same, for the benefit of the mass. +The Mormons were at first kindly received by the good people of the +country, who looked upon them as a set of harmless fanatics, very +susceptible of being moulded into good and honest citizens. This +confidence, however, was not destined to remain long in the ascendant, +for they soon began to find that the corn in their cribs was sinking +like snow before the sun-rays, and that their hogs and their cattle +were by some mysterious agency rapidly disappearing. The new-comers +also drew upon themselves much animadversion in consequence of the +immorality of their lives, and in particular their disregard for the +sacred rites of marriage. + +{315} Still they continued to spread and multiply, not by conversion +but by immigration, to an alarming extent; and in proportion as they +grew strong in numbers, they [Pg095] also became more exacting and +bold in their pretensions. In a little paper printed at Independence +under their immediate auspices,[60] everything was said that could +provoke hostility between the 'saints' and their 'worldly' neighbors, +until at last they became so emboldened by impunity, as openly to +boast of their determination to be the sole proprietors of the 'Land +of Zion;' a revelation to that effect having been made to their +prophet. + +The people now began to perceive, that, at the rate the intruders were +increasing, they would soon be able to command a majority of the +country, and consequently the entire control of affairs would fall +into their hands. It was evident, then, that one of the two parties +would in the course of time have to abandon the country; for the old +settlers could not think of bringing up their families in the midst of +such a corrupt state of society as the Mormons were establishing. +Still the nuisance was endured very patiently, and without any attempt +at retaliation, until the 'saints' actually threatened to eject their +opponents by main force. This last stroke of impudence at once roused +the latent spirit of the honest backwoodsmen, some of whom were of the +pioneer settlers of Missouri, and had become familiar with danger in +their terrific wars with the savages. They were therefore by no {316} +means appropriate subjects for yielding what they believed to be their +rights. Meetings were held for the purpose of devising means of +redress, which only tended to increase the insolence of the Mormons. +Finally a mob was collected which proceeded at once to raze the +obnoxious printing establishment to the ground, and to destroy all the +materials they could lay hands upon. One or two of the Mormon leaders +who fell into the hands of the people, were treated [Pg096] to a +clean suit of 'tar and feathers,' and otherwise severely punished.[61] +The 'Prophet Joseph,' however, was not then in the neighborhood. +Having observed the storm-clouds gathering apace in the frontier +horizon, he very wisely remained in Ohio, whence he issued his flaming +mandates. + +These occurrences took place in the month of October, 1833, and I +reached Independence from Santa Fe while the excitement was raging at +its highest. The Mormons had rallied some ten miles west of the town, +where their strongest settlements were located. A hostile encounter +was hourly expected: nay, a skirmish actually took place shortly +after, in which a respectable lawyer of Independence, who had been an +active agent against the Mormons, was killed. In short, the whole +country was in a state of dreadful fermentation. + +Early on the morning after the skirmish just referred to, a report +reached Independence that the Mormons were marching in a {317} body +towards the town, with the intention of sacking and burning it. I had +often heard the cry of "Indians!" announcing the approach of hostile +savages, but I do not remember ever to have witnessed so much +consternation as prevailed at Independence on this memorable occasion. +The note of alarm was sounded far and near, and armed men, eager for +the fray, were rushing in from every quarter. Officers were summarily +selected without deference to rank or station: the 'spirit-stirring +drum' and the 'ear-piercing fife' made the air resound with music, and +a little army of as brave and resolute a set of fellows as ever trod a +field of battle, was, in a very short time, paraded through the +streets. After a few preliminary exercises, they started for a certain +point on the road where they intended to await the approach of the +Mormons. [Pg097] The latter very soon made their appearance, but +surprised at meeting with so formidable a reception, they never even +attempted to pull a trigger, but at once surrendered at discretion. +They were immediately disarmed, and subsequently released upon +condition of their leaving the country without delay. + +It was very soon after this affair that the much talked of phenomenon +of the meteoric shower (on the night of November 12th) occurred. This +extraordinary visitation did not fail to produce its effects upon the +superstitious minds of a few ignorant people, who began to wonder +whether, after all, the Mormons might not be in the right; and whether +this was not a sign sent from heaven as a remonstrance for the +injustice they had been guilty of towards that chosen sect.[62] +Sometime afterward, a terrible misfortune occurred which was in no way +calculated to allay the superstitious fears of the ignorant. As some +eight or ten citizens were returning with the ferry-boat which had +crossed the last Mormons over the Missouri river, into Clay county, +the district selected for their new home, the craft filled with water +and sunk in the middle of the current; by which accident three or four +men were drowned![63] It was owing perhaps to the craziness of the +boat, yet some persons suspected the Mormons of having scuttled it by +secretly boring auger-holes in the bottom just before they had left +it. + +After sojourning a few months in Clay county, to the serious annoyance +of the inhabitants (though, in fact, they [Pg098] had been kindly +received at first), the _persecuted_ 'Latter day Saints' were again +compelled to shift their quarters further off. They now sought to +establish themselves in the new country of Caldwell, and founded their +town of Far West, where they lingered in comparative peace for a few +years.[64] As the county began to fill up with settlers however, +quarrels repeatedly {319} broke out, until at last, in 1838, they +found themselves again at open war with their neighbors. They appear +to have set the laws of the state at defiance, and to have acted so +turbulently throughout, that Governor Boggs deemed it necessary to +order out a large force of state militia to subject them: which was +easily accomplished without bloodshed. From that time the Mormons have +harbored a mortal enmity towards the Governor: and the attempt which +was afterwards made to assassinate him at Independence, is generally +believed to have been instigated, if not absolutely perpetrated, by +that deluded sect.[65] + +Being once more forced to emigrate, they passed into Illinois, where +they founded the famous 'City of Nauvoo.' It would seem that their +reception from the people of this state was even more strongly marked +with kindness and indulgence than it had been elsewhere, being +generally looked upon as the victims of persecution on account of +[Pg099] their religious belief; yet it appears that the good people of +Illinois have since become about as tired of them as were any of their +former neighbors.[66] It seems very clear then, that fanatical +delusion is not the only sin which stamps the conduct of these people +with so much obliquity, or they would certainly have found permanent +friends somewhere; whereas it is well known that a general aversion +has prevailed against them wherever they have sojourned. + +Before concluding this chapter, it may be {320} proper to remark, that +the Mormons have invariably refused to sell any of the property they +had acquired in Missouri, but have on the contrary expressed a firm +determination to reconquer their lost purchases.[67] Of these, a large +lot, situated on an elevated point at Independence, known as the +'Temple Lot,' upon which the 'Temple of Zion' was to have been +raised,--has lately been 'profaned,' by cultivation, having been +converted into a corn-field! + +FOOTNOTES: + +[35] See our volume xix, p. 293, note 116 (Gregg).--ED. + +[36] The Casa Grande ruin in Pinal County, Arizona, just south of Gila +River, has been known to antiquarians since the first discovery of the +region. The earliest detailed description was written after the visit +of Father Kuehne (Kino) in 1694. American explorers noted it during +the passage of 1846; Bartlett's description of 1854 was the most +faithful. For recent accounts, see Cosmos Mindeleff, in U. S. Bureau +of Ethnology _Reports_, 1891-92, pp. 295-361; 1893-94, pp. 321-349. In +1889 congress appropriated funds for its preservation and repair, and +in 1892 set it apart as a public reservation. Modern archaeologists +discredit any connection of its builders with Mexican Aztecs. It is a +work of Pueblo Indians, probably of the ancestors of the modern +Pima--see our volume xviii, p. 200, note 96. This ruin should not be +confused with one of a like name in Northern Mexico, for which see +volume xviii of our series, p. 155, note 88.--ED. + +[37] It is uncertain to which ruin Gregg here refers. That of +Cebolitta, not far from Acoma, answers his description as built of +sandstone. There is a small ruin at Ojos Bonitos, not far from Zuni, +that may be intended; but the more probable is the former, on the +well-known trace between Acoma and Zuni, and of remarkably good +workmanship in stone.--ED. + +[38] For the Navaho, Apache, and Ute tribes, see our volume xviii, p. +69 (note 41), p. 109 (note 60), p. 140 (note 70); for the Kiowa, +volume xv, p. 157, note 48; for the Comanche, volume xvi, p. 233, note +109.--ED. + +[39] The Jicarrilla (Xicarrilla) are of _Athapascan_ stock, but from +the similarity of their language are classed as Apache, although they +are not known to have had any tribal connection with them. Their +alliance was more frequently with the Ute, with whom they +intermarried, and whose customs they assimilated. They were a +predatory race, and from their vantage ground on the upper waters of +the Rio Grande, Pecos, and Canadian, caused much annoyance. They are +now located on a reservation in Rio Arriba County, and number about +seven hundred and fifty.--ED. + +[40] For Humboldt, see our volume xviii, p. 345, note 136.--ED. + +[41] The Navaho were friendly with the Spaniards until about 1700, +when they began depredations and cattle lifting, and frequent +campaigns against them were undertaken. In 1744 a mission was +attempted among them, which was abandoned after six years' futile +efforts. Serious difficulties, however, did not recur until the +beginning of the nineteenth century. The period of Gregg's sojourn in +New Mexico was that of greatest hostility. For over twenty-five years +the United States government had much difficulty with the Navaho. +There are yet over twenty thousand of these tribesmen on the different +reservations, chiefly in Arizona.--ED. + +[42] Cochiti is one of the smaller Queres pueblos, situated on the +west side of the Rio Grande, almost directly west of Santa Fe. It was +near the same spot, at the time of the Spanish accession in 1598. The +Cochitianos took part in the rebellions of 1680 and 1696, and part of +the mutineers were, about 1699, removed to the pueblo of Laguna. There +are now less than two hundred and fifty inhabitants of this Indian +village.--ED. + +[43] The only other authority for this campaign is A. R. Thuemmel, +_Mexiko und die Mexikaner_ (Erlangen, 1848), pp. 350, 351.--ED. + +[44] For Governor Jose Gonzalez and his exploits during the +insurrection of 1837 see preceding volume, ch. vi (Gregg).--ED. + +[45] _Mezcal_ is the baked root of the _maguey_ (_agave Americana_) +and of another somewhat similar plant.--GREGG. + +[46] Like the Jicarrilla, the Mescallero were in reality a distinct +tribe, and related to the Apache only by linguistic affinities. Since +1865 they have been confined upon a reservation in southern New +Mexico, where about four hundred still exist. The Coyoteros is one of +some dozen tribes or bands among the Apache proper.--ED. + +[47] It has been credibly asserted, that, during one of these 'bold +pursuits,' a band of Comanches stopped in the suburbs of a village on +Rio Conchos, turned their horses into the wheat-fields, and took a +comfortable _siesta_--desirous, it seemed, to behold their pursuers +face to face; yet, after remaining most of the day, they departed +without enjoying that pleasure.--GREGG. + +[48] Or _Chihuahuenses_, citizens of Chihuahua.--GREGG. + +[49] During the so-called "Pastry War," for which see our volume xix, +p. 274, note 101 (Gregg).--ED. + +[50] _Noticioso de Chihuahua_ of December 28, 1838.--GREGG. + +[51] The experience of the United States army with the Apache has not +proved their cowardice. Since the running of the boundary line after +the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (1848) up to 1886, one outbreak after +another characterized our relations with the Apache. For fifteen years +(1871-86) General Crook watched the Apache, and after each raid forced +them back upon their reservations. Geronimo's band, which surrendered +in September, 1886, was transported to Florida and Alabama.--ED. + +[52] The leader's name was James Johnson, who afterwards removed to +California, where he died in poverty. See H. H. Bancroft, _History of +Arizona and New Mexico_, p. 407.--ED. + +[53] Bancroft (_op. cit._) relates the escape of Benjamin Wilson, who +afterwards narrated the event, and the death of the leader, Charles +Kemp.--ED. + +[54] The Apaches, previous to this date, had committed but few +depredations upon foreigners--restrained either by fear or respect. +Small parties of the latter were permitted to pass the highways of the +wilderness unmolested, while large caravans of Mexicans suffered +frequent attacks. This apparent partiality produced unfounded +jealousies, and the Americans were openly accused of holding secret +treaties with the enemy, and even of supplying them with arms and +ammunition. Although an occasional foreigner engaged in this +clandestine and culpable traffic, yet the natives themselves embarked +in it beyond comparison more extensively, as has been noted in another +place. This unjust impression against Americans was partially effaced +as well by the catastrophes mentioned in the text, as by the defeat +and robbery (in which, however, no American lives were lost), of a +small party of our people, about the same period, in _La Jornada del +Muerto_, on their way from Chihuahua to Santa Fe.--GREGG. + +[55] For Socorro, consult Pattie's _Narrative_, in our volume xviii, +p. 86, note 52.--ED. + +[56] Don Juan Andres Archuleta, who commanded at the capture of Gen. +McLeod's division of the Texans.--GREGG. + +[57] For the placer mines, see our volume xix, p. 304, note 128 +(Gregg).--ED. + +[58] Ocate Creek is in Mora County, New Mexico, a tributary of the +upper waters of the Canadian, one of the several streams called +Colorado by the Mexicans. Because of this name, it was thought (until +Long's expedition in 1820) to be the headwaters of Red River.--ED. + +[59] Having crossed the Prairies between Independence and Santa Fe six +times, I can now present a table of the most notable camping sites, +and their respective intermediate distances, with approximate +accuracy--which may prove acceptable to some future travellers. The +whole distance has been variously estimated at from 750 to 800 miles, +yet I feel confident that the aggregate here presented is very nearly +the true distance. + + From INDEPENDENCE to _M._ _Agg._ + Round Grove, 35 + Narrows, 30 65 + 110-mile Creek, 30 95 + Bridge Cr., 8 103 + Big John Spring, (crossing sv'l. Crs.) 40 143 + Council Grove, 2 145 + Diamond Spring, 15 160 + Lost Spring, 15 175 + Cottonwood Cr., 12 187 + Turkey Cr., 25 212 + Little Arkansas, 17 229 + Cow Creek, 20 249 + Arkansas River, 16 265 + Walnut Cr., (up Ark. r.) 8 273 + Ash Creek, 19 292 + Pawnee Fork, 6 298 + Coon Creek, 33 331 + Caches, 36 367 + Ford of Arkansas, 20 387 + Sand Cr. (leav. Ark. r.) 50 437 + Cimarron r. (Lower sp.) 8 445 + Middle spr. (up Cim. r.) 36 481 + Willow Bar, 26 507 + Upper Spring, 18 525 + Cold spr. (leav. Cim. r.) 5 530 + M'Nees's Cr., 25 555 + Rabbit-ear Cr., 20 575 + Round Mound, 8 583 + Rock Creek, 8 591 + Point of Rocks, 19 610 + Rio Colorado, 20 630 + Ocate, 6 636 + Santa Clara Spr., 21 657 + Rio Mora, 22 679 + Rio Gallinas (Vegas), 20 699 + Ojo de Bernal (spr.), 17 716 + San Miguel, 6 722 + Pecos village, 23 755 + SANTA FE, 25 770 + + --GREGG. + +[60] This paper, the first printed in Jackson County, was called The +Evening and Morning Star, the first issue being in June, 1832.--ED. + +[61] This occurred July 20, 1833. Bishop Partridge and Charles Allen +were the victims of the punishment.--ED. + +[62] In Northern Mexico, as I learned afterwards, the credulity of the +superstitious was still more severely tried by this celestial +phenomenon. Their Church had been deprived of some important +privileges by the Congress but a short time before, and the people +could not be persuaded but that the meteoric shower was intended as a +curse upon the nation in consequence of that sacrilegious act.--GREGG. + +[63] The following were drowned: James Campbell, George Bradbury, +David Linch, Thomas Harrington, William Everett, Smallwood Nolan.--ED. + +[64] Far West was begun in 1836; by 1838 there was a Mormon population +of twelve thousand in and around the city.--ED. + +[65] Lilburn W. Boggs was born in Kentucky in 1798. Early removed to +Missouri, he became prominent as a trader, pioneer, and political +leader. In 1832 he was elected lieutenant-governor, serving as the +acting-governor during part of his term. At its close (1836) he was +chosen governor, and served for four years. During this term he +incurred the animosity of the Mormons, by what was known as his +"extermination order," issued in October, 1838. The attempt to +assassinate him at the close of his term of office, at his home in +Independence (1841), was popularly ascribed to a Mormon fanatic, who +was, however, acquitted in the courts. In 1846 Governor Boggs led an +overland party to California, where he assisted in the American +occupation. Removed to Napa Valley in 1852, he died there nine years +later. His wife was a granddaughter of Daniel Boone.--ED. + +[66] The year in which Gregg's book was published (June, 1844), +Prophet Joseph Smith was killed by a mob in the jail of Carthage, +Illinois.--ED. + +[67] After the death of the founder there was dissension in the ranks, +one wing being headed by his eldest son, Joseph Smith III. The latter +founded what is known as the Reorganized Church of Latter Day Saints, +which repudiates polygamy. These were the sectarians who returned to +Jackson County, Missouri, where a large number now reside.--ED. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII {I}[68] + +A Return to Prairie Life -- Abandonment of the regular Route -- The + Start -- A Suicide -- Arrest of a Mulatto for Debt -- Cherokee + 'Bankrupt Law' -- Chuly, the Creek Indian -- The Muster and the + Introduction -- An '_Olla Podrida_' -- Adventure of a 'Down-Easter' + -- Arrival of U.S. Dragoons -- Camp Holmes, and the Road -- A Visit + from a Party of Comanches -- Tabba-quena, a noted Chief -- His + extraordinary Geographical Talent -- Indians set out for the + 'Capitan Grande,' and we through an Unexplored Region -- Rejoined by + Tabba-quena and his '_suite_' -- Spring Valley -- The Buffalo Fever + -- The Chase -- A Green-horn Scamper -- Prairie Fuel. + + +An unconquerable propensity to return to prairie life inclined me to +embark in a fresh enterprise. The blockade [Pg100] of the Mexican +ports by the French also offered strong inducements for undertaking +such an expedition in the spring of 1839; for as Chihuahua is supplied +principally through the sea-ports, it was now evident that the place +must be suffering from great scarcity of goods. Being anxious to reach +the market before the ports of the Gulf were reopened, we deemed it +expedient to abandon the regular route from {10} Missouri for one +wholly untried, from the borders of Arkansas, where the pasturage +springs up nearly a month earlier. It is true, that such an attempt to +convey heavily laden wagons through an unexplored region was attended +with considerable risk; but as I was familiar with the general +character of the plains contiguous to the north, I felt little or no +apprehension of serious difficulties, except from what might be +occasioned by regions of sandy soil. I have often been asked since, +why we did not steer directly for Chihuahua, as our trade was chiefly +destined for that place, instead of taking the circuitous route _via_ +Santa Fe. I answer, that we dreaded a journey across the southern +prairies on account of the reputed aridity of the country in that +direction, and I had no great desire to venture directly into a +southern port in the present state of uncertainty as to the conditions +of entry. + +Suitable arrangements having been made, and a choice stock of about +$25,000 worth of goods shipped to Van Buren[69] on the Arkansas river, +we started on the evening of the 21st of April, but made very little +progress for the first eight days. While we were yet but ten or +fifteen miles from Van Buren, [Pg101] an incident occurred which was +attended with very melancholy results. A young man named Hays, who had +driven a wagon for me for several months through the interior of +Mexico, and thence to the United States in 1838, having heard that +this expedition was projected, {11} was desirous of engaging again in +the same employ. I was equally desirous to secure his services, as he +was well-tried, and had proved himself an excellent fellow on those +perilous journeys. But soon after our outset, and without any apparent +reason, he expressed an inclination to abandon the trip. I earnestly +strove to dissuade him from his purpose, and supposed I had succeeded. +What was my surprise, then, upon my return after a few hours' absence +in advance of the company, to learn that he had secretly absconded! I +was now led to reflect upon some of his eccentricities, and bethought +me of several evident indications of slight mental derangement. We +were, however, but a few miles from the settlements of the whites, and +in the midst of the civilized Cherokees, where there was little or no +danger of his suffering; therefore, there seemed but little occasion +for serious uneasiness on his account. As it was believed he had +shaped his course back to Van Buren, I immediately wrote to our +friends there, to have search made for him. However, nothing could be +found of him till the next day, when his hat and coat were discovered +upon the bank of the Arkansas, near Van Buren, which were the last +traces ever had of the unfortunate Hays! Whether intentionally or +accidentally, he was evidently drowned. + +On the 28th of April we crossed the Arkansas river a few miles above +the mouth of the Canadian fork.[70] We had only proceeded {12} a short +distance beyond, when a Cherokee shop-keeper came up to us with an +attachment for debt [Pg102] against a free mulatto whom we had +engaged as teamster. The poor fellow had no alternative but to return +with the importunate creditor, who committed him at once to the care +of 'Judge Lynch' for trial. We ascertained afterwards that he had been +sentenced to 'take the benefit of the bankrupt law' after the manner +of the Cherokees of that neighborhood. This is done by stripping and +tying the victim to a tree; when each creditor, with a good cowhide or +hickory switch in his hand, scores the amount of the bill due upon his +bare back. One stripe for every dollar due is the usual process of +'whitewashing;' and as the application of the lash is accompanied by +all sorts of quaint remarks, the exhibition affords no small merriment +to those present, with the exception, no doubt, of the delinquent +himself. After the ordeal is over, the creditors declare themselves +perfectly satisfied: nor could they, as is said, ever be persuaded +thereafter to receive one red cent of the amount due, even if it were +offered to them. As the poor mulatto was also in our debt, and was +perhaps apprehensive that we might exact payment in the same currency, +he never showed himself again. + +On the 2d of May we crossed the North Fork of the Canadian about a +mile from its confluence with the main stream. A little westward of +this there is a small village of {13} Creek Indians, and a shop or two +kept by American traders.[71] An Indian who had quarrelled with his +wife, came out and proposed to join us, and, to our great surprise, +carried his proposal into execution. The next morning his repentant +consort came into our camp, and set up a most dismal weeping and +howling after her truant husband, who, notwithstanding, was neither to +be caught by tears nor [Pg103] softened by entreaties, but persisted +in his determination to see foreign countries. His name was +Echu-eleh-hadjo (or _Crazy-deer-foot_), but, for brevity's sake, we +always called him _Chuly_. He was industrious, and possessed many +clever qualities, though somewhat disposed to commit excesses whenever +he could procure liquor, which fortunately did not occur until our +arrival at Santa Fe. He proved to be a good and willing hand on the +way, but as he spoke no English, our communication with him was +somewhat troublesome. I may as well add here, that, while in Santa Fe, +he took another freak and joined a volunteer corps, chiefly of +Americans, organized under one James Kirker to fight the Navajo and +Apache Indians; the government of Chihuahua having guarantied to them +all the spoils they should take.[72] With these our Creek found a few +of his 'red brethren'--Shawnees and Delawares, who had wandered thus +far from the frontier of Missouri. After this little army was +disbanded, Chuly returned home, as I have been informed, with a small +{14} party who crossed the plains directly from Chihuahua. + +We had never considered ourselves as perfectly _en chemin_ till after +crossing the Arkansas river; and as our little party experienced no +further change, I may now be permitted to introduce them collectively +to the reader. It consisted of thirty-four men, including my brother +John Gregg and myself. These men had all been hired by us except +three, two of whom were Eastern-bred boys--a tailor and a +silversmith--good-natured, clever little fellows, who had thought +themselves at the 'jumping-off place' when they reached [Pg104] Van +Buren, but now seemed nothing loth to extend their peregrinations a +thousand miles or so further, in the hope of 'doing' the 'Spaniards,' +as the Mexicans are generally styled in the West, out of a little +surplus of specie. The other was a German peddler, who somewhat +resembled the Dutchman's horse, "put him as you vant, and he ish +alvays tere;" for he did nothing during the whole journey but descant +on the value of a chest of trumperies which he carried, and with which +he calculated, as he expressed it, to "py a plenty of te Shpanish +tollar." The trip across the Prairies cost these men absolutely +nothing, inasmuch as we furnished them with all the necessaries for +the journey, in consideration of the additional strength they brought +to our company. + +It is seldom that such a variety of ingredients are found mixed up in +so small a compass. {15} Here were the representatives of seven +distinct nations, each speaking his own native language, which +produced at times a very respectable jumble of discordant sounds. +There was one Frenchman whose volubility of tongue and curious +gesticulations, contrasted very strangely with the frigidity of two +phlegmatic wanderers from Germany; while the calm eccentricity of two +Polish exiles, the stoical look of two sons of the desert (the Creek +already spoken of, and a Chickasaw), and the pantomimic gestures of +sundry loquacious Mexicans, contributed in no small degree to heighten +the effects of the picture. The Americans were mostly backwoodsmen, +who could handle the rifle far better than the whip, but who +nevertheless officiated as wagoners. + +We had fourteen road-wagons, half drawn by mules, the others by oxen +(eight of each to the team); besides a carriage and a Jersey wagon. +Then we had two swivels mounted upon one pair of wheels; but one of +them was attached to a movable truckle, so that, upon stopping, it +could be transferred [Pg105] to the other side of the wagons. One of +these was a long brass piece made to order, with a calibre of but an +inch and a quarter, yet of sufficient metal to throw a leaden ball to +the distance of a mile with surprising accuracy. The other was of +iron, and a little larger. Besides these, our party was well supplied +with small arms. The Americans mostly had their rifles and a musket in +addition, which {16} they carried in their wagons, always well charged +with ball and buckshot. Then my brother and myself were each provided +with one of Colt's repeating rifles, and a pair of pistols of the +same, so that we could, if necessary, carry thirty-six ready-loaded +shots apiece; which alone constituted a capacity of defence rarely +matched even on the Prairies. + +Previous to our departure we had received a promise from the war +department of an escort of U.S. Dragoons, as far as the borders of the +Mexican territory; but, upon sending an express to Gen. Arbuckle at +Fort Gibson to that effect,[73] we were informed that in consequence +of some fresh troubles among the Cherokees, it was doubtful whether +the force could be spared in time. This was certainly no very +agreeable news, inasmuch as the escort would have been very +serviceable in assisting to search out a track over the unexplored +wilderness we had to pass. It was too late, however, to recede; and so +we resolved at all hazards to pursue our journey. [Pg106] + +We had advanced beyond the furthest settlements of the Creeks +and Seminoles, and pitched our camp on a bright balmy evening, in the +border of a delightful prairie, when some of the young men, attracted +by the prospect of game, shouldered their rifles and wended their +steps through the dense forest which lay contiguous to our encampment. +Among those that went forth, there was one of the 'down-easters' +already mentioned, who was much more familiar with the interior of +{17} a city than of a wilderness forest. As the shades of evening were +beginning to descend, and all the hunters had returned except him, +several muskets and even our little field-pieces were fired, but +without effect. The night passed away, and the morning dawned upon the +encampment, and still he was absent. The firing was then renewed; but +soon after he was seen approaching, very sullen and dejected. He came +with a tale of perilous adventures and 'hair-breadth 'scapes' upon his +lips, which somewhat abated the storm of ridicule by which he was at +first assailed. It seemed that he had heard our firing on the previous +evening, but believed it to proceed from a contrary direction--a very +common mistake with persons who have become bewildered and lost. Thus +deceived and stimulated by the fear of Indians (from a party of whom +he supposed the firing to proceed), he continued his pathless +wanderings till dark, when, to render his situation still more +critical, he was attacked by a 'painter'--_anglice_, panther--which he +actually succeeded in beating off with the breech of his gun, and then +betook himself to the topmost extremity of a tree, where, in order to +avoid a similar intrusion, he passed the remainder of the night. From +a peculiar odor with which the shattered gun was still redolent, +however, it was strongly suspected that the 'terrific painter' was not +many degrees removed, in affinity, from a----polecat. + +We had just reached the extreme edge of {18} the far [Pg107] famed +'Cross Timbers,'[74] when we were gratified by the arrival of forty +dragoons, under the command of Lieut. Bowman, who had orders to +accompany us to the supposed boundary of the United States.[75] On the +same evening we had the pleasure of encamping together at a place +known as Camp Holmes, a wild romantic spot in latitude 35 deg. 5', and but +a mile north of the Canadian river. Just at hand there was a beautiful +spring, where, in 1835, Colonel Mason with a force of U. S. troops, +had a 'big talk' and still bigger 'smoke' with a party of Comanche and +Witchita Indians.[76] Upon the same site Col. Chouteau had also caused +to be erected not long after, a little stockade fort, where a +considerable trade was subsequently carried on with the Comanches and +other tribes of the southwestern prairies. The place had now been +abandoned, however, since the preceding winter. + +From the Arkansas river to Chouteau's Fort, our route presented an +unbroken succession of grassy plains and fertile glades, intersected +here and there with woody belts and numerous rivulets, most of which, +however, are generally dry except during the rainy season. As far as +Camp Holmes, [Pg108] we had a passable wagon road, which was opened +upon the occasion of the Indian treaty before alluded to, and was +afterwards kept open by the Indian traders. Yet, notwithstanding the +road, this stretch gave us more trouble--presented more rugged passes, +miry ravines and steep {19} ascents--than all the rest of our journey +put together. + +We had not been long at the Fort, before we received a visit from a +party of Comanches, who having heard of our approach came to greet us +a welcome, on the supposition that it was their friend Chouteau +returning to the fort with fresh supplies of merchandise. Great was +their grief when we informed them that their favorite trader had died +at Fort Gibson, the previous winter.[77] On visiting their wigwams and +inquiring for their _capitan_,[78] we were introduced to a corpulent, +squint-eyed old fellow, who certainly had nothing in his personal +appearance indicative of rank or dignity. This was Tabba-quena (or the +Big Eagle), a name familiar to all the Comanche traders. As we had +frequently heard that he spoke Spanish fluently, we at once prepared +ourselves for a social chit-chat; but, on accosting him in that +tongue, and inquiring whether he could talk Spanish, he merely replied +'_Poquito_,' putting at the same time his forefinger to his ear, to +signify that he merely understood a little--which proved true to a +degree, for our communication was chiefly [Pg109] by signs. We were +now about to launch upon an unknown region--our route lay henceforth +across that unexplored wilderness, of which I have so frequently +spoken, without either pilot or trail to guide us for nearly 500 +miles. We had to depend entirely upon {20} our knowledge of the +geographical position of the country for which we were steering, and +the indications of a compass and sextant. This was emphatically a +pioneer trip; such a one also as had, perhaps, never before been +undertaken--to convey heavily laden wagons through a country almost +wholly untrod by civilized man, and of which _we_, at least, knew +nothing. We were therefore extremely anxious to acquire any +information our visitors might be able to give us; but Tabba-quena +being by no means experienced in wagon tactics, could only make us +understand, by gestures, mixed with a little wretched Spanish, that +the route up the Canadian presented no obstacles according to _his_ +mode of travelling. He appeared, however, very well acquainted with +the whole Mexican frontier, from Santa Fe to Chihuahua, and even to +the Gulf, as well as with all the Prairies. During the consultation he +seemed occasionally to ask the opinions of other chiefs who had +huddled around him. Finally, we handed him a sheet of paper and a +pencil, signifying at the same time a desire that he would draw us a +map of the Prairies. This he very promptly executed; and although the +draft was somewhat rough, it bore, much to our astonishment, quite a +map-like appearance, with a far more accurate delineation of all the +principal rivers of the plains--the road from Missouri to Santa Fe, +and the different Mexican settlements, than is to be found in many of +the engraved maps of those regions. + +{21}Tabba-quena's party consisted of about sixty persons, including +several squaws and papooses, with a few Kiawa chiefs and warriors, +who, although of a tribe so entirely distinct, are frequently found +domiciled among the Comanches. As we were about to break up the camp +they all started for [Pg110] Fort Gibson, for the purpose, as they +informed us, of paying a visit to the 'Capitan Grande'--a Spanish +phrase used by many prairie tribes, and applied, in their confused +notions of rank and power, not only to the President of the United +States himself, but to the seat of the federal government. These they +are again apt to confound with Fort Gibson and the commanding officer +of that station. + +On the 18th of May, we set out from Chouteau's fort. From this forward +our wagons were marched in two lines and regularly 'formed' at every +camp, so as to constitute a fortification and a _corral_ for the +stock. This is different from the 'forming' of the large caravans. The +two front wagons are driven up, side by side, with their 'tails' a +little inclined outward. About half of the rest are drawn up in the +same manner, but each stopped with the fore-wheel a little back of the +hind-wheel of the next ahead. The remainder are similarly brought up, +but inclined inward behind, so as nearly to close again at the rear of +the pen; leaving a gap through which to introduce the stock. Thus the +_corral_ remains of an ovate form. After the drivers become expert the +whole is performed in a very short time. + +{22}On the following day we were again joined by old Tabba-quena, and +another Comanche chief, with five or six warriors, and as many squaws, +including Tab's wife and infant son. As we were jogging along in the +afternoon, I held quite a long conversation in our semi-mute language +with the squinting old chief. He gave me to understand, as well as he +could, that his comrades[79] had proceeded on their journey to see the +Capitan Grande, but that he had concluded to return home for better +horses. He boasted in no measured terms of his friendship for the +Americans, and [Pg111] promised to exert his influence to prevent +turbulent and unruly spirits of his nation from molesting us. But he +could not disguise his fears in regard to the Pawnees and Osages, who, +he said, would be sure to run off with our stock while we were asleep +at night. When I informed him that we kept a strict night-watch, he +said, "_Esta bueno_" (that's good), and allowed that our chances for +safety were not so bad after all. + +These friendly Indians encamped with us that night, and on the +following morning the old chief informed us that some of his party had +a few "mulas para _swap_" (mules to trade; for having learned the word +_swap_ of some American traders, he very ingeniously tacked it at the +tail of his little stock of Spanish). A barter of five mules was +immediately concluded {23} upon, much to our advantage, as our teams +were rather in a weak condition. Old Tab and his party then left us to +join his band, which, he said, was located on the Faux Ouachitta +river, and we never saw aught of them more.[80] + +After leaving the Fort we generally kept on the ridge between the +Canadian and the North Fork, crossing sometimes the tributary brooks +of the one and sometimes those of the others. Having travelled in this +manner for about eighty miles, we entered one of the most charming +prairie vales that I have ever beheld, and which in the plenitude of +our enthusiasm, we named 'Spring Valley,' on account of the numerous +spring-fed rills and gurgling rivulets that greeted the sight in every +direction;[81] in whose limpid pools swarms of trout and perch were +carelessly playing. Much of the country, indeed, over which we had +passed was somewhat of a similar character--yet nowhere quite so +beautiful. I must premise, however, that westward of this, it [Pg112] +is only the valleys immediately bordering the streams that are at all +fit for cultivation: the high plains are too dry and sandy. But here +the soil was dark and mellow, and the rich vegetation with which it +was clothed plainly indicated its fertility. 'Spring Valley' gently +inclines towards the North Fork, which was at the distance of about +five miles from our present route. It was somewhere along the border +of this enchanting vale that a little picket fort was erected in {24} +1822, by an unfortunate trader named McKnight, who was afterwards +betrayed and murdered by the faithless Comanches.[82] The landscape is +beautifully variegated with stripes and fringes of timber: while the +little herds of buffalo that were scattered about in fantastic groups +imparted a degree of life and picturesqueness to the scene, which it +was truly delightful to contemplate. + +It was three days previous that we had first met with these 'prairie +cattle.' I have often heard backwoodsmen speak of the 'buck ague,' but +commend me to the 'buffalo fever' of the Prairies for novelty and +amusement. Very few of our party had ever seen a buffalo before in its +wild state; therefore at the first sight of these noble animals the +excitement surpassed anything I had ever witnessed before. Some of our +dragoons, in their eagerness for sport, had managed to frighten away a +small herd that were quietly feeding at some distance, before our +'still hunters,' who had crawled towards them, had been able to get +within rifle-shot of them. No sooner were the movements of our mounted +men perceived, than the whole extent of country, as far as the eye +could reach, became perfectly animate with living objects, fleeing and +scampering in every direction. From the surrounding valleys sprang up +numerous herds of these animals which had hitherto been unobserved, +many of which, in their indiscriminate flight, passed so near the +wagons, that the [Pg113] drivers, carried away by the contagious +excitement of {25} the moment, would leave the teams and keep up a +running fire after them. I had the good fortune to witness the +exploits of one of our Northern greenhorns, who, mounted upon a +sluggish mule, and without any kind of weapon, amused himself by +chasing every buffalo that came scudding along, as if he expected to +capture him by laying hold of his tail. Plying spur and whip, he would +gallop after one division till he was left far behind: and then turn +to another and another, with the same earnestness of purpose, until +they had all passed out of sight. He finally came back disheartened +and sullen, with his head hanging down like one conscious of having +done something supremely ridiculous; but still cursing his lazy mule, +which, he said, might have caught the buffalo, if it had had a mind +to. + +The next day the buffalo being still more numerous, the chase was +renewed with greater zest. In the midst of the general hurly-burly +which ensued, three persons on foot were perceived afar off, chasing +one herd of buffalo and then another, until they completely +disappeared. These were two of our cooks, the one armed with a pistol, +the other with a musket, accompanied by Chuly (the Creek), who was +happily provided with a rifle. We travelled several miles without +hearing or seeing anything of them. At last, when we had almost given +them up for lost, Frank, the French cook, came trudging in, and his +rueful countenance was no bad index of the {26} doleful tale he had to +relate. Although he had been chasing and shooting all day, he had, as +he expressed it, "no killet one," till eventually he happened to +stumble upon a wounded calf, which he boldly attacked; but as ill luck +would have it, the youngster took it into his head to give him battle. +"Foutre de varment! he butt me down," exclaimed the exasperated +Frenchman,--"Sacre! me plentee scart; but me kill him for all." Chuly +and the [Pg114] other cook came in soon after, in equally dejected +spirits; for, in addition to his ill luck in hunting, the latter had +been lost. The Indian had perhaps killed buffalo with his rifle, but +he was in no humor to be communicative in his language of signs; so +nothing was ever known of his adventures. One thing seemed pretty +certain, that they were all cured of the 'buffalo fever.' + +On the night after the first buffalo scamper, we encamped upon a +woodless ravine, and were obliged to resort to 'buffalo chips' (dry +ordure) for fuel. It is amusing to witness the bustle which generally +takes place in collecting this offal. In dry weather it is an +excellent substitute for wood, than which it even makes a hotter fire; +but when moistened by rain, the smouldering pile will smoke for hours +before it condescends to burn, if it does at all. The buffalo meat +which the hunter roasts or broils upon this fire, he accounts more +savory than the steaks dressed by the most delicate cooks in civilized +life. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[68] Chapter i of volume ii of the original edition.--ED. + +[69] It is said that Major Long first chose the site of Van Buren for +the fort afterwards erected at Bellepoint, five miles higher up the +river, and known as Fort Smith--see our volume xiii, p. 197, note 166. +The site was not occupied until after the removal of the Cherokee in +1828; the next year it was made a post-office, and in 1838 the seat +for Crawford County, Arkansas. For two decades Van Buren was a +prosperous frontier town, the home of a large Indian trade. Since the +War of Secession it has not regained its prestige.--ED. + +[70] The caravan crossed the Arkansas, between the embouchment of the +Illinois and Canadian rivers, in what is now the Cherokee Nation, +Indian Territory.--ED. + +[71] The North Fork of the Canadian unites with the main stream on the +boundary between the Creek and Cherokee nations. The Creek town of +Eufaula is near the site mentioned by Gregg.--ED. + +[72] James Kirker, known to the Mexicans as Santiago Querque, was an +American who led an adventurous life upon the plains. Like several +others he embarked in Apache warfare for the government of Chihuahua; +and was accused, probably unjustly, of cheating in the delivery of +scalps. He retired in bad humor to his hacienda in Sonora; later +removing to California, where he died about 1853. See Kendall, _Texan +Santa Fe Expedition_, ii, pp. 57-59.--ED. + +[73] Matthew Arbuckle was the son of a Virginia pioneer of the same +name, who participated in the Battle of Point Pleasant in 1774. The +son was born in 1776, and entered the regular army at the age of +twenty-three, passing through all of the grades until in 1830 he was, +for meritorious services, breveted brigadier-general. He died at Fort +Smith June 11, 1851. + +Fort Gibson was erected in 1824 on the left bank of Neosho River, near +its mouth. The western boundary of Arkansas was in 1825 removed forty +miles to the west, so that this military post fell within its border. +Later (1830), the boundary was again replaced at the original limits, +whereupon Fort Gibson fell into Cherokee territory. Several unavailing +efforts were made (1834-38) to have the garrison removed to Fort +Smith; and after numerous protests by the Cherokee against its +maintenance within their borders, Fort Gibson was finally abandoned in +1857.--ED. + +[74] For the description of the belt of woodland known as Cross +Timbers, see _post_, p. 253.--ED. + +[75] Lieutenant James Monroe Bowman entered the West Point military +academy from Pennsylvania, was made lieutenant in the mounted rangers +in 1832, and transferred to the dragoons in 1833. For his death (July +21, 1839), see _post_.--ED. + +[76] Camp Holmes was at the site later occupied by Fort Holmes, in the +Creek Nation, near its western boundary. In 1849 there was no +habitation at this place; see _Senate Doc._, 31 Cong., 1 sess., 12. + +Richard Barnes Mason was born in Fairfax County, Virginia, in 1797; at +the age of twenty he entered the army as lieutenant, two years later +(1819) became captain, and in 1833 major of the 1st dragoons. He was +lieutenant-colonel in 1836, colonel in 1846, and brigadier-general two +years later, dying at St. Louis in 1850. He served in the Black Hawk +War, and was first military and civil governor of California. + +For the Comanche, see our volume xvi, p. 233, note 109. For the +Wichita, also called Pawnee Picts, _ibid._, p. 95, note 55. + +The treaty here alluded to was signed at Camp Holmes, August 24, 1835. +If Colonel Mason was present it was in a subordinate capacity, as +General Arbuckle and Montford Stokes were the federal commissioners. +The treaty was one of peace and friendship between the Comanche, +Wichita, and associated bands on the one part, and the tribes recently +removed to the vicinity--Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, etc.--on the other, +the government commissioners acting as mediators.--ED. + +[77] Auguste Pierre Chouteau, eldest son of the senior Pierre (for +whom see our volume xvi, p. 275, note 127) and brother of Pierre +(cadet), so well known in connection with the Missouri Fur Company, +was born at St. Louis in 1786. After being educated at West Point, he +entered the army, where he was ensign of the 1st infantry. In 1809, he +resigned, married his cousin Sophie Labadie, and embarked in the fur +trade, in which he had charge of the Arkansas branch of the business +until his death at Fort Gibson.--ED. + +[78] Most of the prairie Indians seem to have learned this Spanish +word, by which, when talking with the whites, all their chiefs are +designated.--GREGG. + +[79] Some of these (principally Kiawas, as I afterwards learned), +reached Fort Gibson, and received a handsome reward of government +presents for their visit.--GREGG. + +[80] For this stream, see our volume xvi, p. 138, note 66.--ED. + +[81] In Oklahoma, probably not far from the present town of that +name.--ED. + +[82] See our volume xix, p. 176, note 13 (Gregg).--ED. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII {II} + +Travelling out of our Latitude -- The Buffalo-gnat -- A Kiawa and + Squaw -- Indian _crim. con._ Affair -- Extraordinary Mark of + Confidence in the White Man -- A Conflagration -- An Espy Shower -- + Region of Gypsum -- Our Latitude -- A Lilliputian Forest -- A Party + of Comanches -- A Visit to a 'Dog Town' -- Indian Archery -- Arrival + of Comanche Warriors -- A 'Big Talk,' and its Results -- Speech of + the _Capitan Mayor_ -- Project of bringing Comanche Chiefs to + Washington -- Return of Lieut. Bowman, and our March resumed -- + Melancholy Reflections -- Another Indian Visit -- Mexican Captives + -- Voluntary Captivity -- A sprightly Mexican Lad -- Purchase of a + Captive -- Comanche Trade and Etiquette -- Indians least dangerous + to such as trade with them. + + +As it now appeared that we had been forced at least two points north +of the course we had originally intended to steer, by the northern +bearing of the Canadian, we made an effort to cross a ridge of timber +to the south, which, after considerable labor, proved successful. Here +we found a [Pg115] multitude of gravelly, bright-flowing streams, +with rich bottoms, lined all along with stately white oak, +black-walnut, mulberry, and other similar growths, that yielded us +excellent materials for wagon repairs, of which the route from +Missouri, after passing Council Grove, is absolutely in want. + +{28} Although we found the buffalo extremely scarce westward of Spring +Valley, yet there was no lack of game; for every nook and glade +swarmed with deer and wild turkeys, partridges and grouse. We had also +occasion to become acquainted with another species of prairie-tenant +whose visits generally produced impressions that were anything but +agreeable. I allude to a small black insect generally known to prairie +travellers as the 'buffalo-gnat.' It not only attacks the face and +hands, but even contrives to insinuate itself under the clothing, upon +the breast and arms, and other covered parts. Here it fastens itself +and luxuriates, until completely satisfied. Its bite is so poisonous +as to give the face, neck, and hands, or any other part of the person +upon which its affectionate caresses have been bestowed, the +appearance of a pustulated varioloid. The buffalo-gnat is in fact a +much more annoying insect than the mosquito, and also much more +frequently met with on the prairie streams. + +We now continued our line of march between the Canadian and the +timbered ridge with very little difficulty. Having stopped to 'noon' +in a bordering valley, we were quite surprised by the appearance of an +Indian with no other protection than his squaw. From what we could +gather by their signs, they had been the victims of a 'love scrape.' +The fellow, whom I found to be a Kiawa, had, according to his own +account, stolen the wife of another, and then fled to the thickets, +{29} where he purposed to lead a lonely life, in hopes of escaping the +vengeance of his incensed predecessor. From this, it would appear that +affairs of gallantry are not [Pg116] evils exclusively confined to +civilization. Plausible, however, as the Indian's story seemed to be, +we had strong suspicions that others of his band were not far off; and +that he, with his 'better half,' had only been skulking about in hopes +of exercising their 'acquisitiveness' at our expense; when, on finding +themselves discovered, they deemed it the best policy fearlessly to +approach us. This singular visit afforded a specimen of that +confidence with which civilization inspires even the most untutored +savages. They remained with us, in the utmost nonchalance, till the +following morning. + +Shortly after the arrival of the visitors, we were terribly alarmed at +a sudden prairie conflagration. The old grass of the valley in which +we were encamped had not been burned off, and one of our cooks having +unwittingly kindled a fire in the midst of it, it spread at once with +wonderful rapidity; and a brisk wind springing up at the time, the +flames were carried over the valley, in spite of every effort we could +make to check them. Fortunately for us, the fire had broken out to the +leeward of our wagons, and therefore occasioned us no damage; but the +accident itself was a forcible illustration of the danger that might +be incurred by pitching a camp in the midst of dry grass, and the +advantages {30} that might be taken by hostile savages in such a +locality. + +After the fire had raged with great violence for a few hours, a cloud +suddenly obscured the horizon, which was almost immediately followed +by a refreshing shower of rain: a phenomenon often witnessed upon the +Prairies after an extensive conflagration; and affording a practical +exemplification of Professor Espy's celebrated theory of artificial +showers.[83] [Pg117] + +We now continued our journey without further trouble, except +that of being still forced out of our proper latitude by the northern +bearing of the Canadian. On the 30th of May, however, we succeeded in +'doubling' the spur of the Great North Bend.[84] Upon ascending the +dividing ridge again, which at this point was entirely destitute of +timber, a 'prairie expanse' once more greeted our view. This and the +following day, our route lay through a region that abounded in gypsum, +from the finest quality down to ordinary plaster. On the night of the +31st we encamped on a tributary of the North Fork, which we called +Gypsum creek, in consequence of its being surrounded with vast +quantities of that substance.[85] + +Being compelled to keep a reckoning of our latitude, by which our +travel was partly governed, and the sun being now too high at noon for +the use of the artificial horizon, we had to be guided entirely by +observations of the meridian altitude of the moon, planets, or {31} +fixed stars. At Gypsum creek our latitude was 36 deg. 10'--being the +utmost northing we had made. As we were now about thirty miles north +of the parallel of Santa Fe, we had to steer, henceforth, a few +degrees south of west in order to bring up on our direct course. + +The following night we encamped in a region covered with sandy +hillocks, where there was not a drop of water to be found: in fact, an +immense sand-plain was now opening before us, somewhat variegated in +appearance, [Pg118] being entirely barren of vegetation in some +places, while others were completely covered with an extraordinarily +diminutive growth which has been called _shin-oak_, and a curious +plum-bush of equally dwarfish stature. These singular-looking plants +(undistinguishable at a distance from the grass of the prairies) were +heavily laden with acorns and plums, which, when ripe, are of +considerable size although the trunks of either were seldom thicker +than oat-straws, and frequently not a foot high. We also met with the +same in many other places on the Prairies. + +Still the most indispensable requisite, water, was nowhere to be +found, and symptoms of alarm were beginning to spread far and wide +among us. When we had last seen the Canadian and the North Fork, they +appeared to separate in their course almost at right angles, therefore +it was impossible to tell at what distance we were from either. At +last {32} my brother and myself, who had been scouring the plains +during the morning without success, finally perceived a deep hollow +leading in the direction of the Canadian, where we found a fine pool +of water, and our wagons 'made port' again before mid-day; thus +quieting all alarm. + +Although we had encountered but very few buffalo since we left Spring +Valley, they now began to make their appearance again, though not in +very large droves; together with the deer and the fleet antelope, +which latter struck me as being much more tame in this wild section of +the Prairies than I had seen it elsewhere. The graceful and majestic +mustang would also now and then sweep across the naked country, or +come curvetting and capering in the vicinity of our little caravan, +just as the humor prompted him. But what attracted our attention most +were the little dog settlements, or, as they are more technically +called, 'dog towns,' so often alluded to by prairie travellers. As we +were passing through their 'streets,' multitudes of the diminutive +inhabitants [Pg119] were to be seen among the numerous little +hillocks which marked their dwellings, where they frisked about, or +sat perched at their doors, yelping defiance, to our great +amusement--heedless of the danger that often awaited them from the +rifles of our party; for they had perhaps never seen such deadly +weapons before. + +On the 5th of June, we found ourselves once more travelling on a firm +rolling prairie, {33} about the region, as we supposed,[86] of the +boundary between the United States and Mexico; when Lieut. Bowman, in +pursuance of his instructions, began to talk seriously of returning. +While the wagons were stopped at noon, a small party of us, including +a few dragoons, advanced some miles ahead to take a survey of the +route. We had just ascended the highest point of a ridge to get a +prospect of the country beyond, when we descried a herd of buffalo in +motion and two or three horsemen in hot pursuit. "Mexican Ciboleros!" +we all exclaimed at once; for we supposed we might now be within the +range of the buffalo hunters of New Mexico. Clapping spurs to our +horses, we set off towards them at full speed. As we might have +expected, our precipitate approach frightened them away and we soon +lost sight of them altogether. On reaching the spot where they had +last been seen, we found a horse and two mules saddled, all tied to +the carcass of a slain buffalo which was partly skinned. We made +diligent search in some copses of small growth, and among the adjacent +ravines, but could discover no further traces of the fugitives. The +Indian rigging of the animals, however, satisfied us that they were +not Mexicans. + +We were just about giving up the pursuit, when a solitary Indian +horseman was espied upon a ridge about a mile from [Pg120] us. My +{34} brother and myself set out towards him, but on seeing us +approach, he began to manifest some fear, and therefore my brother +advanced alone. As soon as he was near enough he cried out "_Amigo!_" +to which the Indian replied "_Comantz!_" and giving himself a thump +upon the breast, he made a graceful circuit, and came up at full +speed, presenting his hand in token of friendship. Nothing, however, +could induce him to return to his animals with us, where the rest of +our party had remained. He evidently feared treachery and foul play. +Therefore we retraced our steps to the wagons, leaving the Indian's +property just as we had found it, which, we subsequently discovered, +was taken away after our departure. + +In the afternoon of the same day, five more Indians (including a +squaw), made their appearance, and having been induced by friendly +tokens to approach us, they spent the night at our encampment. The +next morning, we expressed a desire, by signs, to be conducted to the +nearest point on our route where good pasturage and water might be +found. A sprightly young chief, armed only with his bow and arrows, at +once undertook the task, while his comrades still travelled along in +our company. We had not progressed far before we found ourselves in +the very midst of another large 'dog-town.' + +The task of describing the social and domestic habits of these +eccentric little brutes, has been so graphically and amusingly +executed {35} by the racy and popular pen of G. Wilkins Kendall, that +any attempt by me would be idle; and I feel that the most agreeable +service I can do my readers is to borrow a paragraph from his alluring +"Narrative," describing a scene presented by one of these prairie +commonwealths.[87] [Pg121] + +"In their habits they are clannish, social, and extremely +convivial, never living alone like other animals, but, on the +contrary, always found in villages or large settlements. They are a +wild, frolicsome, madcap set of fellows when undisturbed, uneasy and +ever on the move, and appear to take especial delight in chattering +away the time, and visiting from hole to hole to gossip and talk over +each other's affairs--at least so their actions would indicate.... On +several occasions I crept close to their villages, without being +observed, to watch their movements. Directly in the centre of one of +them I particularly noticed a very large dog, sitting in front of the +door or entrance to his burrow, and by his own actions and those of +his neighbors it really seemed as though he was the president, mayor, +or chief--at all events, he was the 'big dog' of the place. For at +least an hour I secretly watched the operations in this community. +During that time the large dog I have mentioned received at least a +dozen visits from his fellow-dogs, which would stop and chat with him +a few moments, and then run off to their domiciles. All this while he +never left his post for a moment, and I thought I could discover a +gravity in his deportment {36} not discernible in those by which he +was surrounded. Far is it from me to say that the visits he received +were upon business, or had anything to do with the local government of +the village; but it certainly appeared so. If any animal has a system +of laws regulating the body politic, it is certainly the prairie dog." + +As we sat on our horses, looking at these 'village transactions,' our +Comanche guide drew an arrow for the purpose of cutting short the +career of a little citizen that sat yelping most doggedly in the mouth +of his hole, forty or fifty paces distant. The animal was almost +entirely concealed behind the hillock which encompassed the entrance +of his apartment, so that the dart could not reach it in a [Pg122] +direct line; but the Indian had resort to a man[oe]uvre which caused the +arrow to descend with a curve, and in an instant it quivered in the +body of the poor little quadruped. The slayer only smiled at his feat, +while we were perfectly astounded. There is nothing strange in the +rifleman's being able to hit his mark with his fine-sighted barrel; +but the accuracy with which these savages learn to shoot their +feathered missiles, with such random aim, is almost incomprehensible. +I had at the same time drawn one of Colt's repeating pistols, with a +view of paying a similar compliment to another dog; when, finding that +it excited the curiosity of the chief, I fired a few shots in quick +succession, as an explanation of its virtues. He seemed to {37} +comprehend the secret instantly, and, drawing his bow once more, he +discharged a number of arrows with the same rapidity, as a palpable +intimation that he could shoot as fast with his instrument as we could +with our patent fire-arms. This was not merely a vain show: there was +more of reality than of romance in his demonstration. + +Shortly after this we reached a fresh brook, a tributary of the North +Fork, which wound its silent course in the midst of a picturesque +valley, surrounded by romantic hills and craggy knobs. Here we pitched +our camp: when three of our visitors left us for the purpose of going +to bring all the 'capitanes' of their tribe, who were said to be +encamped at no great distance from us. + +Our encampment, which we designated as 'Camp Comanche,' was only five +or six miles from the North Fork, while, to the southward, the main +Canadian was but a little more distant.[88] + +[Illustration: Camp Comanche] + +After waiting anxiously for the arrival of the Comanche chiefs, until +our patience was well nigh exhausted, I ascended [Pg125] a high +knoll just behind our camp, in company with the younger of the two +chiefs who had remained with us, to see if anything could be +discovered. By and by, the Comanche pointed anxiously towards the +northwest, where he espied a party of his people, though at such a +great distance, that it was some time before I could discern them. +With what acuteness of vision are these savages endowed! Accustomed +{38} to the open plains, and like the eagle to look out for their prey +at immense distances, their optical perception is scarcely excelled by +that of the king of birds. + +The party, having approached still nearer, assembled upon an eminence +as if for the purpose of reconnoitring; but our chief upon the knoll +hoisting his blanket, which seemed to say, 'come ahead,' they advanced +slowly and deliberately--very unlike the customary mode of approach +among all the prairie tribes. + +The party consisted of about sixty warriors, at the head of whom rode +an Indian of small stature and agreeable countenance, verging on the +age of fifty. He wore the usual Comanche dress, but instead of +moccasins, he had on a pair of long white cotton hose, while upon his +bare head waved a tall red plume,--a mark of distinction which +proclaimed him at once the _capitan mayor_, or principal chief. We +addressed them in Spanish, inquiring if they had brought an +interpreter, when a lank-jawed, grum-looking savage announced his +readiness to officiate in that capacity. "_Sabes hablar en Espanol, +amigo?_" (can you talk Spanish, friend?) I inquired. "_Si_" (yes), he +gruffly replied. "Where are your people?" "Encamped just above on +yonder creek." "How many of you are there?" "Oh, a great many--nearly +all the Comanche nation; for we are _en junta_ to go and fight the +Pawnees." "Well, can you tell us how far it is to Santa Fe?"--But the +surly savage cut short my inquiries by observing--{39} "_Ahi +platicaremos despues_"--"We will talk about that hereafter." [Pg126] + +We then showed them a spot a few rods from us, where they might encamp +so as not to intermix their animals with ours; after which all the +_capitanes_ were invited to our camp to hold a 'big talk.' In a very +short time we had ten chiefs seated in a circle within our tent, when +the pipe, the Indian token of peace, was produced: but, doubting +perhaps the sincerity of our professions, they at first refused to +smoke. The interpreter, however, remarked as an excuse for their +conduct, that it was not their custom to smoke until they had received +some presents: but a few Mexican _cigarritos_ being produced, most of +them took a whiff, as if under the impression that to smoke cigars was +no pledge of friendship. + +Lieut. Bowman now desired us to broach the subject of peace and amity +betwixt the Comanches and our people, and to invite them to visit the +'Capitan Grande' at Washington, and enter into a perpetual treaty to +that effect; but they would not then converse on the subject. In fact, +the interpreter inquired, "Are we not at war?--how can we go to see +the Capitan Grande?" We knew they held themselves at war with Mexico +and Texas, and probably had mistaken us for Texans, which had no doubt +caused the interpreter to speak so emphatically of their immense +numbers. Upon this we explained to them that the United States was a +distinct government {40} and at peace with the Comanches. As an +earnest of our friendly disposition, we then produced some scarlet +cloth, with a small quantity of vermilion, tobacco, beads, etc., which +being distributed among them, they very soon settled down into a state +of placidness and contentment. Indeed, it will be found, that, with +wild Indians, presents are always the corner-stone of friendship. "We +are rejoiced," at last said the elder chief with a ceremonious air, +"our hearts are glad that you have arrived among us: it makes our eyes +laugh to see Americans walk in our land. We will notify our old and +young men--our boys [Pg127] and our maidens--our women and +children,--that they may come to trade with you. We hope you will +speak well of us to your people, that more of them may hunt the way to +our country, for we like to trade with the white man." This was +delivered in Comanche, but translated into Spanish by the interpreter, +who, although a full Indian, had lived several years among the +Mexicans and spoke that language tolerably well. Our 'big talk' lasted +several hours, after which the Indians retired to sleep. The next +morning, after renewing their protestations of friendship, they took +their departure, the principal chief saying, "Tell the Capitan Grande +that when he pleases to call us we are all ready to go to see him." + +The project of bringing some of the chiefs of these wild prairie +tribes to Washington city, has been entertained, but never yet carried +{41} into effect. The few who have penetrated as far as Fort Gibson, +or perhaps to a frontier village, have probably left with more +unfavorable impressions than they had before. Believing the former to +be our great Capital, and the most insignificant among the latter, our +largest cities, they have naturally come to the conclusion that they +surpass us in numbers and power, if not in wealth and grandeur. I have +no doubt that the chiefs of the Comanches and other prairie tribes, if +rightly managed, might be induced to visit our veritable 'Capitan +Grande,' and our large cities, which would doubtless have a far better +effect than all the treaties of peace that could be concluded with +them for an age to come. They would then 'see with their own eyes and +hear with their own ears' the magnificence and power of the whites, +which would inspire them at once with respect and fear. + +This was on the 7th of June. About noon, Lieut. Bowman and his command +finally took leave of us, and at the same time we resumed our forward +march. This separation was [Pg128] truly painful: not so much on +account of the loss we were about to experience, in regard to the +protection afforded us by the troops (which, to say the truth, was +more needed now than it had ever been before), as for the necessity of +parting with a friend, who had endeared himself to us all by his +affable deportment, his social manners and accommodating disposition. +Ah! little did we think then that we should never see that gallant +officer more! {42} So young, so robust, and so healthy, little did we +suspect that the sound of that voice which shouted so vigorously in +responding to our parting salute in the desert, would never greet our +ears again! But such was Fate's decree! Although he arrived safely at +Fort Gibson, in a few short weeks he fell a victim to disease. + +There were perhaps a few timid hearts that longed to return with the +dragoons, and ever and anon a wistful glance would be cast back at the +receding figures in the distance. The idea of a handful of thirty-four +men having to travel without guide or protection through a dreary +wilderness, peopled by thousands of savages who were just as likely to +be hostile as friendly, was certainly very little calculated to +produce agreeable impressions. Much to the credit of our men, however, +the escort was no sooner out of sight than the timorous regained +confidence, and all seemed bound together by stronger ties than +before. All we feared were ambuscades or surprise; to guard against +which, it was only necessary to redouble our vigilance. + +On the following day, while we were enjoying our noon's rest upon a +ravine of the Canadian, several parties of Indians, amounting +altogether to about three hundred souls, including women and children, +made their appearance. They belonged to the same band of Comanches +with whom we had had so agreeable an intercourse, and had brought +several mules in the expectation of driving a trade with us. The +squaws and papooses {43} were so anxious to gratify their [Pg129] +curiosity, and so very soon began to give such striking manifestations +of their pilfering propensities, that, at the request of the chiefs, +we carried some goods at a little distance, where a trade was opened, +in hopes of attracting their attention. One woman, I observed, still +lingered among the wagons, who, from certain peculiarities of +features, struck me very forcibly as not being an Indian. In +accordance with this impression I addressed her in Spanish, and was +soon confirmed in all my suspicions. She was from the neighborhood of +Matamoros, and had been married to a Comanche since her captivity. She +did not entertain the least desire of returning to her own people. + +Similar instances of voluntary captivity have frequently occurred. Dr. +Sibley, in a communication to the War Department, in 1805, relates an +affecting case, which shows how a sensitive female will often prefer +remaining with her masters, rather than encounter the horrible ordeal +of ill-natured remarks to which she would inevitably be exposed on +being restored to civilized life.[89] The Comanches, some twenty years +previous, having kidnapped the daughter of the Governor-General of +Chihuahua, the latter transmitted $1000 to a trader to procure her +ransom. This was soon effected, but to the astonishment of all +concerned, the unfortunate girl refused to leave the Indians. She sent +word to her father, that they had disfigured her by tattooing; that +she was married and perhaps _enceinte_; {44} and that she would be +more unhappy by returning to her father under these circumstances than +by remaining where she was. + +My attention was next attracted by a sprightly lad, ten or twelve +years old, whose nationality could scarcely be detected under his +Indian guise. But, though quite 'Indianized,' he was exceedingly +polite. I inquired of him in Spanish, [Pg130] "Are you not a +Mexican?" "Yes, sir,--I once was." "What is your name?" "Bernardino +Saenz, sir, at your service." "When and where were you taken?" "About +four years ago, at the Hacienda de las Animas, near Parral." "Shan't +we buy you and take you to your people?--we are going thither." At +this he hesitated a little, and then answered in an affecting tone, +"_No, senor; ya soy demasiado bruto para vivir entre los Cristianos_" +(O, no, sir; I am now too much of a brute to live among Christians); +adding that his owner was not there, and that he knew the Indian in +whose charge he came would not sell him. + +The Hacienda de las Animas is in the department of Chihuahua, some +fifteen miles from the city of Parral, a much larger place than Santa +Fe. Notwithstanding this, about three hundred Comanches made a bold +inroad into the very heart of the settlements--laid waste the +unfortunate hacienda, killing and capturing a considerable number--and +remained several days in the neighborhood, committing all sorts of +outrages. This occurred in 1835. I happened to be in Chihuahua {45} at +the time, and very well remember the bustle and consternation that +prevailed. A thousand volunteers were raised, commanded by the +governor himself, who 'hotly pursued' the enemy during their tardy +retreat; but returned with the usual report--"_No les pudimos +alcanzar_,"--we could not overtake them. + +Out of half a dozen Mexican captives that happened to be with our new +visitors, we only met with one who manifested the slightest +inclination to abandon Indian life. This was a stupid boy about +fifteen years of age, who had probably been roughly treated on account +of his laziness. We very soon struck a bargain with his owner, paying +about the price of a mule for the little outcast, whom I sent to his +family as soon as we reached Chihuahua. Notwithstanding the [Pg131] +inherent stupidity of my _protege_, I found him abundantly +grateful--much to his credit be it spoken--for the little service I +had been able to render him. + +We succeeded in purchasing several mules which cost us between ten and +twenty dollars worth of goods apiece. In Comanche trade the main +trouble consists in fixing the price of the first animal. This being +settled by the chiefs, it often happens that mule after mule is led up +and the price received without further cavil. Each owner usually wants +a general assortment; therefore the price must consist of several +items, as a blanket, a looking-glass, an awl, a flint, a little +tobacco, vermillion, beads, etc. + +Our trade with the new batch of Comanches {46} being over, they now +began to depart as they had come, in small parties, without bidding us +adieu, or even informing us of their intention, it being the usual +mode of taking leave among Indians, to depart _sans ceremonie_, and as +silently as possible. + +The Santa Fe caravans have generally avoided every manner of trade +with the wild Indians, for fear of being treacherously dealt with +during the familiar intercourse which necessarily ensues. This I am +convinced is an erroneous impression; for I have always found, that +savages are much less hostile to those with whom they trade, than to +any other people. They are emphatically fond of traffic, and, being +anxious to encourage the whites to come among them, instead of +committing depredations upon those with whom they trade, they are +generally ready to defend them against every enemy. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX {III} + +Ponds and Buffalo Wallows -- Valley of the Canadian, and romantic + Freaks of Nature -- Melancholy Adventure of a Party of Traders in + 1832 -- Fears of being lost -- Arrival of a Party of _Comancheros_, + and their wonderful Stories -- Their Peculiarities and Traffic -- + Bitter Water, and the _Salitre_ of New Mexico -- Avant-couriers for + Santa Fe -- Patent Fire-arms and their Virtues -- Ranchero Ideas of + Distance, and their Mode of giving Directions -- The Angostura, and + erroneous Notions of the Texans -- A new Route revealed -- Solitary + Travel -- Supply of Provisions sent back -- Arrival at Santa Fe -- + Gov. Armijo, etc. -- A 'Flare-up' with His Excellency. + + +The Comanches having all disappeared, we resumed our march, and soon +emerged into an open plain or _mesa_ which was one of the most +monotonous I had ever seen, there being not a break, not a hill nor +valley, nor even a shrub to obstruct the view. The only thing which +served to turn us from a direct course pursued by the compass, was the +innumerable ponds which bespeckled the plain, and which kept us at +least well supplied with water. Many of these ponds seem to have grown +out of 'buffalo wallows,'--a term used on the Prairies to designate a +sink made by the buffalo's pawing the earth for the purpose of +obtaining a smooth dusty surface to roll upon. + +{48} After three or four days of weary travel over this level plain, +the picturesque valley of the Canadian burst once more upon our view, +presenting one of the most magnificent sights I had ever beheld. Here +rose a perpendicular cliff, in all the majesty and sublimity of its +desolation;--there another sprang forward as in the very act of losing +its balance and about to precipitate itself upon the vale below;--a +little further on, a pillar with crevices and cornices so curiously +formed as easily to be mistaken for the work of art; while a thousand +other objects grotesquely and fantastically arranged, and all shaded +in the sky-bound perspective by the blue ridge-like brow of the _mesa_ +far beyond the Canadian, [Pg133] constituted a kind of chaotic space +where nature seemed to have indulged in her wildest caprices. Such was +the confusion of ground-swells and eccentric cavities, that it was +altogether impossible to determine whereabouts the channel of the +Canadian wound its way among them. + +It would seem that these mesas might once have extended up to the +margin of the stream, leaving a _canon_ or chasm through which the +river flowed, as is still the case in some other places. But the basis +of the plain not having been sufficiently firm to resist the action of +the waters, these have washed and cut the bordering _cejas_ or brows +into all the shapes they now present. The buffalo and other animals +have no doubt assisted in these transmutations. Their deep-worn paths +over the {49} brows of the plains, form channels for the descending +rains; which are soon washed into the size of ravines--and even +considerable creeks. The beds of these continue to be worn down until +veins of lasting water are opened, and constant-flowing streams thus +established. Numerous were the embryo rivulets which might be observed +forming in this way along the borders of those streams. The frequent +isolated benches and mounds, whose tabular summits are on a level with +the adjacent plains, and appear entirely of a similar formation, +indicate that the intermediate earth has been washed away, or removed +by some other process of nature--all seeming to give plausibility to +our theory. + +It was somewhere in this vicinity that a small party of Americans +experienced a terrible calamity in the winter of 1832-3, on their way +home; and as the incident had the tendency to call into play the most +prominent features of the Indian character, I will digress so far here +as to relate the facts. + +The party consisted of twelve men, chiefly citizens of Missouri. Their +baggage and about ten thousand dollars in specie were packed upon +mules. They took the route of [Pg134] the Canadian river, fearing to +venture on the northern prairies at that season of the year. Having +left Santa Fe in December, they had proceeded without accident thus +far, when a large body of Comanches and Kiawas were seen advancing +towards them. Being well acquainted with the treacherous and +pusillanimous {50} disposition of those races, the traders prepared at +once for defence; but the savages having made a halt at some distance, +began to approach one by one, or in small parties, making a great show +of friendship all the while, until most of them had collected on the +spot. Finding themselves surrounded in every direction, the travellers +now began to move on, in hopes of getting rid of the intruders: but +the latter were equally ready for the start; and, mounting their +horses, kept jogging on in the same direction. The first act of +hostility perpetrated by the Indians proved fatal to one of the +American traders named Pratt, who was shot dead while attempting to +secure two mules which had become separated from the rest. Upon this, +the companions of the slain man immediately dismounted and commenced a +fire upon the Indians, which was warmly returned, whereby another man +of the name of Mitchell was killed. + +By this time the traders had taken off their packs and piled them +around for protection; and now falling to work with their hands, they +very soon scratched out a trench deep enough to protect them from the +shot of the enemy. The latter made several desperate charges, but they +seemed too careful of their own personal safety, notwithstanding the +enormous superiority of their numbers, to venture too near the rifles +of the Americans. In a few hours all the animals of the traders were +either killed or wounded, but no personal damage was done to the +remaining ten men, {51} with the exception of a wound in the thigh +received by one, which was not at the time considered dangerous. +[Pg135] + +During the siege, the Americans were in great danger of perishing from +thirst, as the Indians had complete command of all the water within +reach. Starvation was not so much to be dreaded; because, in case of +necessity, they could live on the flesh of their slain animals, some +of which lay stretched close around them. After being pent up for +thirty-six hours in this horrible hole, during which time they had +seldom ventured to raise their heads above the surface without being +shot at, they resolved to make a bold _sortie_ in the night, as any +death was preferable to the fate which awaited them there. As there +was not an animal left that was at all in a condition to travel, the +proprietors of the money gave permission to all to take and +appropriate to themselves whatever amount each man could safely +undertake to carry. In this way a few hundred dollars were started +with, of which, however, but little ever reached the United States. +The remainder was buried deep in the sand, in hopes that it might +escape the cupidity of the savages; but to very little purpose, for +they were afterwards seen by some Mexican traders making a great +display of specie, which was without doubt taken from this unfortunate +_cache_. + +With every prospect of being discovered, overtaken, and butchered, but +resolved to sell their lives as dearly as possible, they at last {52} +emerged from their hiding-place, and moved on silently and slowly +until they found themselves beyond the purlieus of the Indian camps. +Often did they look back in the direction where from three to five +hundred savages were supposed to watch their movements, but, much to +their astonishment, no one appeared to be in pursuit. The Indians, +believing no doubt that the property of the traders would come into +their hands, and having no amateur predilection for taking scalps at +the risk of losing their own, appeared willing enough to let the +spoliated adventurers depart without further molestation. [Pg136] + +The destitute travellers having run themselves short of provisions, +and being no longer able to kill game for want of materials to load +their rifles with, they were very soon reduced to the necessity of +sustaining life upon roots, and the tender bark of trees. After +travelling for several days in this desperate condition, with +lacerated feet, and utter prostration of mind and body, they began to +disagree among themselves about the route to be pursued, and +eventually separated into two distinct parties. Five of these unhappy +men steered a westward course, and after a succession of sufferings +and privations which almost surpassed belief, they reached the +settlements of the Creek Indians, near the Arkansas river, where they +were treated with great kindness and hospitality. The other five +wandered about in the greatest state of distress and bewilderment, and +only two {53} finally succeeded in getting out of the mazes of the +wilderness. Among those who were abandoned to their fate, and left to +perish thus miserably, was a Mr. Schenck, the same individual who had +been shot in the thigh; a gentleman of talent and excellent family +connections, who was a brother, as I am informed, of the Hon. Mr. +Schenck, at present a member of Congress from Ohio.[90] + +But let us resume our journey. We had for some days, while travelling +along the course of the Canadian, been in anxious expectation of +reaching a point from whence there was a cart-road to Santa Fe, made +by the Ciboleros; but being constantly baffled and disappointed in +this hope, serious apprehensions began to be entertained by some of +[Pg137] the party that we might after all be utterly lost. In this +emergency, one of our Mexicans who pretended to be a great deal wiser +than the rest, insisted that we were pursuing a wrong direction, and +that every day's march only took us further from Santa Fe. There +appeared to be so much plausibility in his assertion, as he professed +a perfect knowledge of all the country around, that many of our men +were almost ready to mutiny,--to take the command from the hands of my +brother and myself and lead us southward in search of the Colorado, +into the fearful _Llano Estacado_, where we would probably have +perished.[91] But our observations of the latitude, which we took very +frequently, as well as the course we were pursuing, completely +contradicted the {54} Mexican wiseacre. A few days afterwards we were +overtaken by a party of _Comancheros_, or Mexican Comanche traders, +when we had the satisfaction of learning that we were in the right +track. + +These men had been trading with the band of Comanches we had lately +met, and learning from them that we had passed on, they had hastened +to overtake us, so as to obtain our protection against the savages, +who, after selling their animals to the Mexicans, very frequently take +forcible possession of them again, before the purchasers have been +able to reach their homes. These parties of _Comancheros_ are usually +composed of the indigent and rude classes of the frontier villages, +who collect together, several times a year, and launch upon the plains +with a few trinkets and trumperies of all kinds, and perhaps a bag of +bread and may-be another of _pinole_, which they barter away to the +savages for horses and mules. The entire stock of an individual trader +very seldom exceeds the value of twenty dollars, with which he is +content to wander about for several months, [Pg138] and glad to +return home with a mule or two, as the proceeds of his traffic. + +These Mexican traders had much to tell us about the Comanches: saying, +that they were four or five thousand in number, with perhaps a +thousand warriors, and that the fiery young men had once determined to +follow and attack us; but that the chiefs and sages had deterred them, +by stating that our cannons {55} could kill to the distance of many +miles, and shoot through hills and rocks and destroy everything that +happened to be within their range. The main object of our visitors, +however, seemed to be to raise themselves into importance by +exaggerating the perils we had escaped from. That they had considered +themselves in great jeopardy, there could be no doubt whatever, for, +in their anxiety to overtake us, they came very near killing their +animals. + +It was a war-party of this band of Comanches that paid the 'flying +visit' to Bent's Fort on the Arkansas river, to which Mr. Farnham +alludes in his trip to Oregon.[92] A band of the same Indians also +fell in with the caravan from Missouri, with whom they were for a +while upon the verge of hostilities. + +The next day we passed the afternoon upon a ravine where we found +abundance of water, but to our great surprise our animals refused to +drink. Upon tasting the water, we found it exceedingly nauseous and +bitter; far more [Pg139] repugnant to some palates than a solution of +Epsom salts. It is true that the water had been a little impregnated +with the same loathsome substance for several days; but we had never +found it so bad before. The salinous compound which imparts this +savor, is found in great abundance in the vicinity of the table-plain +streams of New Mexico, and is known to the natives by the name of +_salitre_.[93] We {56} had the good fortune to find in the valley, a +few sinks filled by recent rains, so that actually we experienced no +great inconvenience from the want of fresh water. As far as our own +personal necessities were concerned, we were abundantly supplied; it +being an unfailing rule with us to carry in each wagon a five-gallon +keg always filled with water, in order to guard against those +frightful contingencies which so frequently occur on the Prairies. In +truth upon leaving one watering place, we never knew where we would +find the next. + +On the 20th of June we pitched our camp upon the north bank of the +Canadian or Colorado, in latitude 35 deg. 24' according to a meridian +altitude of Saturn. On the following day, I left the caravan, +accompanied by three Comancheros, and proceeded at a more rapid pace +towards Santa Fe. This was rather a hazardous journey, inasmuch as we +were still within the range of the Pawnee and Comanche war-parties, +and my companions were men in whom I could not repose the slightest +confidence, except for piloting; being fully convinced that in case of +meeting with an enemy, they would either forsake or deliver me up, +just as it might seem most conducive to their own interest and safety. +All I had to depend upon were my fire-arms, which could hardly fail to +produce an impression in my favor; for, thanks to Mr. Colt's +invention, I carried thirty-six charges ready-loaded, which I could +easily fire at the rate of {57} a dozen [Pg140] per minute. I do not +believe that any band of those timorous savages of the western +prairies would venture to approach even a single man, under such +circumstances. If, according to an old story of the frontier, an +Indian supposed that a white man fired both with his tomahawk and +scalping knife, to account for the execution done by a brace of +pistols, thirty-six shots discharged in quick succession would +certainly overawe them as being the effect of some great medicine. + +As we jogged merrily along, I often endeavored to while away the time +by catechising my three companions in relation to the topography of +the wild region we were traversing; but I soon found, that, like the +Indians, these ignorant rancheros have no ideas of distances, except +as compared with time or with some other distance. They will tell you +that you may arrive at a given place by the time the sun reaches a +certain point: otherwise, whether it be but half a mile or half a +day's ride to the place inquired for, they are as apt to apply _esta +cerquita_ (it is close by), or _esta lejos_ (it is far off), to the +one as to the other, just as the impression happens to strike them, +when compared with some other point more or less distant. This often +proves a source of great annoyance to foreign travellers, as I had an +opportunity of experiencing before my arrival. In giving directions, +these people--in fact, the lower classes of Mexicans generally--are +also in the habit of using very odd gesticulations, altogether {58} +peculiar to themselves. Instead of pointing with their hands and +fingers, they generally employ the mouth, which is done by thrusting +out the lips in the direction of the spot, or object, which the +inquirer wishes to find out--accompanied by _aqui_ or _alli esta_. +This habit of substituting labial gestures for the usual mode of +indicating, has grown from the use of the _sarape_, which keeps their +hands and arms perpetually confined. [Pg141] + +From the place where we left the wagons, till we reached the +_Angostura_, or narrows,[94] (a distance of 60 miles), we had followed +a plain cart-road, which seemed everywhere passable for wagons. Here, +however, we found the point of a table plain projecting abruptly +against the river, so as to render it impossible for wagons to pass +without great risk. The huge masses of solid rock, which occur in this +place, and the rugged cliffs or brows of the table lands which rise +above them, appear to have been mistaken by a detachment of the Texan +Santa Fe expedition, for spurs of the Rocky Mountains; an error which +was rational enough, as they not unfrequently tower to the height of +two thousand feet above the valley, and are often as rocky and rough +as the rudest heaps of trap-rock can make them. By ascending the main +summit of these craggy promontories, however, the eastern ridge of the +veritable Rocky Mountains may be seen, still very far off in the +western horizon, with a widespread and apparently level table plain, +intervening and extending in every direction, {59} as far as the eye +can reach; for even the deep-cut chasms of the intersecting rivers are +rarely visible except one be upon their very brink. + +Upon expressing my fears that our wagons would not be able to pass the +_Angostura_ in safety, my comrades informed me that there was an +excellent route, of which no previous mention had been made, passing +near the _Cerro de Tucumcari_, a round mound plainly visible to the +southward.[95] After several vain efforts to induce some of the party +to carry a [Pg142] note back to my brother, and to pilot the caravan +through the Tucumcari route, one of them, known as Tio Baca, finally +proposed to undertake the errand for a bounty of ten dollars, besides +high wages till they should reach the frontier. His conditions being +accepted, he set out after breakfast, not, however, without previously +recommending himself to the Virgin Guadalupe, and all the saints in +the calendar, and desiring us to remember him in our prayers. +Notwithstanding his fears, however, he arrived in perfect safety, and +I had the satisfaction of learning afterward that my brother found the +new route everything he could have desired. + +I continued my journey westward with my two remaining companions; but, +owing to their being provided with a relay of horses, they very soon +left me to make the balance of the travel alone--though yet in a +region haunted by hostile savages. On the following day, about the +hour of twelve, as I was pursuing a horse-path along the course of the +{60} Rio Pecos, near the frontier settlements, I met with a shepherd, +of whom I anxiously inquired the distance to San Miguel. "O, it is +just there," responded the man of sheep. "Don't you see that point of +mesa yonder? It is just beyond that." This welcome information cheered +me greatly; for, owing to the extraordinary transparency of the +atmosphere, it appeared to me that the distance could not exceed two +or three miles. "_Esta cerquita_," exclaimed the shepherd as I rode +off; "_ahora esta V. alla_"--"it is close by; you will soon be there." + +I set off at as lively a pace as my jaded steed could carry me, +confident of taking dinner in San Miguel.[96] Every ridge I turned I +thought must be the last, and thus I jogged on, hoping and +anticipating my future comforts till the shades of evening began to +appear; when I descended into [Pg143] the valley of the Pecos, which, +although narrow, is exceedingly fertile and beautifully lined with +verdant fields, among which stood a great variety of mud cabins. About +eight o'clock, I called at one of these cottages and again inquired +the distance to San Miguel; when a swarthy-looking ranchero once more +saluted mine ears with "_Esta cerquita; ahora esta V. alla_." Although +the distance was designated in precisely the same words used by the +shepherd eight hours before, I had the consolation at least of +believing that I was something nearer. After spurring on for a couple +of miles over a rugged road, I at last reached the long-sought +village. + +{61} The next day, I hired a Mexican to carry some flour back to meet +the wagons; for our party was by this time running short of +provisions. In fact, we should long before have been in danger of +starvation, had it not been for our oxen; for we had not seen a +buffalo since the day we first met with the Comanches. Some of our +cattle being in good plight, and able, as we were, to spare a few from +our teams, we made beef of them when urged by necessity: an extra +advantage in ox teams on these perilous expeditions. + +On the 25th of June I arrived safely at Santa Fe,--but again rode back +to meet the wagons, which did not reach the capital till the 4th of +July. We did not encounter a very favorable reception from 'his +majesty,' Gov. Armijo. He had just established his arbitrary impost of +$500 per wagon, which bore rather heavily upon us; for we had an +overstock of coarse articles which we had merely brought along for the +purpose of increasing the strength of our company, by adding to the +number of our wagons. + +But these little troubles in a business way, were entirely drowned in +the joyful sensations arising from our safe arrival, after so long and +so perilous an expedition. Considering the character and our ignorance +of the country over which we had travelled, we had been exceedingly +successful. [Pg144] Instances are certainly rare of heavily-laden +wagons' having been conducted, without a guide, through an unexplored +desert; and yet we {62} performed the trip without any important +accident--without encountering any very difficult passes--without +suffering for food or for water. + +We had hoped that at least a few days of rest and quiet recreation +might have been allowed us after our arrival; for relaxation was +sorely needed at the end of so long a journey and its concomitant +privations: but it was ordered otherwise. We had scarcely quartered +ourselves within the town before a grand 'flare-up' took place between +Gov. Armijo and the foreigners[97] in Santa Fe, which, for a little +while, bid fair to result in open hostilities. It originated in the +following circumstances. + +In the winter of 1837-8, a worthy young American, named Daley, was +murdered at the Gold Mines, by a couple of villains, solely for +plunder. The assassins were arrested, when they confessed their guilt; +but, in a short time, they were permitted to run at large again, in +violation of every principle of justice or humanity. About this time +they were once more apprehended, however, by the interposition of +foreigners: and, at the solicitation of the friends of the deceased, a +memorial from the Americans in Santa Fe was presented to Armijo, +representing the injustice of permitting the murderers of their +countrymen to go unpunished; and praying that the culprits might {63} +be dealt with according to law. But the governor affected to consider +the affair as a conspiracy; and, collecting his ragamuffin militia, +attempted to intimidate the petitioners. The foreigners were now +constrained to look to their defence, as they saw that [Pg145] no +justice was to be expected. Had Armijo persisted, serious consequences +might have ensued; but seeing the 'conspirators' firm, he sent an +apology, affecting to have misconstrued their motives, and promising +that the laws should be duly executed upon the murderers. + +Besides the incentives of justice and humanity, foreigners felt a deep +interest in the execution of this promise. But a few years previous, +another person had been assassinated and robbed at the same place; yet +the authorities having taken no interest in the matter, the felons +were never discovered; and now, should these assassins escape the +merited forfeit of their atrocious crime, it was evident there would +be no future security for our lives and property. But the governor's +_due execution of the laws_ consisted in retaining them a year or two +in nominal imprisonment, when they were again set at liberty. Besides +these, other foreigners have been murdered in New Mexico with equal +impunity:--all which contrasts very strikingly with the manner our +courts of justice have since dealt with those who killed Chavez, in +1843, on the Santa Fe road.[98] + +FOOTNOTES: + +[83] James Pollard Espy (1785-1860), a well-known meteorologist. His +collection of reports on the weather, while occupied in his +experiments, contributed towards the founding of the present United +States weather-bureau. His theory was, that storms could be produced +artificially by heating the atmosphere with long-continued fires. He +published _Philosophy of Storms_ (Boston and London, 1841).--ED. + +[84] About the ninety-ninth meridian, the Canadian extends above the +thirty-sixth parallel, forming the Great North Bend. The Oklahoma town +of Taloga is on the southern curve of the bow.--ED. + +[85] The Canadian and its North Fork approach very closely at this +point. The region between the North Bend and the one hundredth +meridian contains much gypsum. See James's _Long's Expedition_, in our +volume xvi, pp. 141-143.--ED. + +[86] From subsequent observations, this point appears to have been +some miles west of the 100th degree of longitude.--GREGG. + +_Comment by Ed._ See volume xix, p. 217, note 52 (Gregg). + +[87] Kendall, _Texan Santa Fe Expedition_, i, p. 192.--ED. + +[88] Camp Comanche would appear to have been in Lipscombe or Ochiltree +County, Texas.--ED. + +[89] For Dr. John Sibley, see our volume xvii, p. 68, note 60. This +anecdote is found in his report in _American State Papers_, "Indian +Affairs," i, p. 724.--ED. + +[90] Robert C. Schenck was born at Franklin, Ohio, in 1809, graduated +from Miami University, and practised law at Dayton. After one term in +the state legislature (1841-42), he was sent to Congress (1843-51), +which he left to become American minister to Brazil (1851-53). In the +War of Secession he attained a major-generalship, and resigned to +re-enter Congress (1863-70). For six years (1870-76) Schenck served as +minister to Great Britain, being one of the commissioners to adjust +the Alabama claims. He died in Washington in 1890. Another brother was +an admiral in the American navy.--ED. + +[91] Colorado is the usual Spanish term for Red River, which Gregg +here intends. For Llano Estacado, see his description _post_, p. +239.--ED. + +[92] Thomas J. Farnham, _Travels in the Great Western Prairie, the +Anahuac and Rocky Mountains, and in Oregon Territory_ (London, 1843), +reprinted in volume xxvii of our series. + +Bent's Fort, sometimes called Fort William for its founder Colonel +William Bent, was situated on the north bank of the Arkansas, between +the present towns of La Junta and Las Animas, Colorado. Founded in +1829, it was an important fur-trade post, and base of supplies for the +mountain trail to Santa Fe. The United States army of occupation +(1846) passed by this post. In 1852, the government attempted to +purchase the post; but not satisfied with the terms, its owner +destroyed the stockade.--ED. + +[93] Literally _saltpetre_; but the _salitre_ of New Mexico is a +compound of several other salts beside nitre.--GREGG. + +[94] On the eastern border of San Miguel County, New Mexico, are three +peaks known as Los Cuervos, or The Crows. The river winding through +this high land, forms the narrows of which Gregg speaks. Consult +Kendall, _Texan Santa Fe Expedition_, i, p. 174.--ED. + +[95] Tucumcari Mountain is in eastern Quay County, with a town of the +same name at its base--a junction on the Chicago, Rock Island, and +Pacific Railway. For an interesting description of this mound, which +he likens to the dome of the capitol at Washington, see report of +James H. Simpson (1849), in _Senate Doc._, 31 cong., 2 sess., vi, 12, +p. 14.--ED. + +[96] For San Miguel, see our volume xix, p. 253, note 76 (Gregg).--ED. + +[97] Among the New Mexicans, the terms _foreigner_ and _American_ are +synonymous: indeed, the few citizens of other nations to be found +there identify themselves with those of the United States. All +foreigners are known there as _Americanos_; but south of Chihuahua +they are indiscriminately called _Los Ingleses_, the English.--GREGG. + +[98] See post, pp. 227-232.--ED. + + + + +CHAPTER XX {IV} + +Preparations for a Start to Chihuahua -- Ineptness of Married Men for + the Santa Fe Trade -- The Chihuahua Trade -- Annoying Custom-house + Regulations -- Mails in New Mexico -- Insecurity of Correspondence + -- Outfit and Departure -- _Derecho de Consumo_ -- Ruins of Valverde + -- 'Towns without Houses' -- La Jornada del Muerto -- Laguna and Ojo + del Muerto -- A Tradition of the _Arrieros_ -- Laborious Ferrying + and Quagmires -- Arrival at Paso del Norte -- Amenity of the Valley + -- _Sierra Blanca_ and _Los Organos_ -- Face of the Country -- + Seagrass -- An accidental River -- Laguna de Encinillas -- Southern + Haciendas -- Arrival -- Character of the Route and Soil. + + +After passing the custom-house ordeal, and exchanging some of our +merchandise for 'Eagle Dollars'--an operation which occupied us +several weeks, I prepared to set out for [Pg146] the Chihuahua +market, whither a portion of our stock had been designed. Upon this +expedition I was obliged to depart without my brother, who was +laboring under the 'home fever,' and anxious to return to his family. +"He that hath wife and children," says Lord Bacon, "hath given +hostages to fortune; for they are impediments to great enterprises, +either of virtue or mischief." Men under such bonds are peculiarly +unfitted for the chequered life of a Santa Fe trader. The domestic +hearth, {65} with all its sacred and most endearing recollections, is +sure to haunt them in the hour of trial, and almost every step of +their journey is apt to be attended by melancholy reflections of home +and domestic dependencies. + +Before starting on this new journey I deem it proper to make a few +observations relative to the general character of the _Chihuahua +Trade_. I have already remarked, that much surprise has frequently +been expressed by those who are unacquainted with all the bearings of +the case, that the Missouri traders should take the circuitous route +to Santa Fe, instead of steering direct for Chihuahua, inasmuch as the +greatest portion of their goods is destined for the latter city. But +as Chihuahua never had any port of entry for foreign goods till the +last six or eight years, the market of that department had to be +supplied in a great measure from Santa Fe. By opening the ports of El +Paso and Presidio del Norte,[99] the commercial interest was so little +affected, that when Santa Anna's decree for closing them again was +issued, the loss was scarcely felt at all. + +The mode of transmitting merchandise from the ports to the interior, +is very different from what it is in the United States. It is not +enough to have to pass the tedious ordeal [Pg147] of custom-houses on +the frontier, and we have not only to submit to a supervision and +repayment of duty on arriving at our point of destination, but our +cargo is subject to scrutiny at every town we have to pass through on +our {66} journey. Nor would it be advisable to forsake the main route +in order to avoid this tyrannical system of taxation; because, +according to the laws of the country, every _cargamento_ which is +found out of the regular track (except in cases of unavoidable +necessity), is subject to confiscation, although accompanied by the +necessary custom-house documents. + +There are also other risks and contingencies very little dreamed of in +the philosophy of the inexperienced trader. Before setting out, the +entire bill of merchandise has to be translated into Spanish; when, +duplicates of the translation being presented to the custom-house, one +is retained, while the other, accompanied by the _guia_ (a sort of +clearance or mercantile passport), is carried along with the cargo by +the conductor. The trader can have three points of destination named +in his _guia_, to either of which he may direct his course, but to no +others: while in the drawing up of the _factura_, or invoice, the +greatest care is requisite, as the slightest mistake, even an +accidental slip of the pen, might, according to the terms of the law, +subject the goods to confiscation.[100] + +The _guia_ is not only required on leaving the ports for the interior, +but is indispensable to the safe conveyance of goods from one +department of the republic to another: nay, the {67} simple transfer +of property from town to town, and from village to village, in the +same department, is attended by precisely the same proportion of risk, +and requires the same punctilious accuracy in the accompanying +documents. [Pg148] Even the produce and manufactures of the country +are equally subject to these embarrassing regulations. New Mexico has +no internal custom-houses, and is therefore exempt from this rigorous +provision; but from Chihuahua south every village has its revenue +officers; so that the same stock of merchandise sometimes pays the +internal duty at least half-a-dozen times before the sale is +completed. + +Now, to procure this same _guia_, which is the cause of so much +difficulty and anxiety in the end, is no small affair. Before the +authorities condescend to draw a single line on paper, the merchant +must produce an endorser for the _tornaguia_, which is a certificate +from the custom-house to which the cargo goes directed, showing that +the goods have been legally entered there. A failure in the return of +this document within a prescribed limit of time, subjects the endorser +to a forfeiture equal to the amount of the impost. Much inconvenience +and not a little risk are also occasioned on this score by the +irregularity--I may say, insecurity of the mails. + +Speaking of mails, I beg leave to observe, that there are no +conveniences of this kind in New Mexico, except on the route from +Santa Fe to Chihuahua, and these are very {68} irregular and +uncertain. Before the Indians had obtained such complete possession of +the highways through the wilderness, the mails between these two +cities were carried semi-monthly; but now they are much less frequent, +being mere expresses, in fact, dispatched only when an occasion +offers. There are other causes, however, besides the dread of +marauding savages, which render the transportation of the mails in New +Mexico very insecure: I mean the dishonesty of those employed in +superintending them. Persons known to be inimical to the post-master, +or to the 'powers that be,' and wishing to forward any communication +to the South, most generally either wait for private conveyance, +[Pg149] or send their letters to a post-office (the only one besides +that of Santa Fe in all New Mexico) some eighty miles on the way; thus +avoiding an overhauling at the capital. Moreover, as the post-rider +often carries the key of the mail-bag (for want of a supply at the +different offices), he not unfrequently permits whomsoever will pay +him a trifling _douceur_, to examine the correspondence. I was once +witness to a case of this kind in the Jornada del Muerto, where the +entire mail was tumbled out upon the grass, that an individual might +search for letters, for which luxury he was charged by the +accommodating carrier the moderate price of one dollar. + +The _derecho de consumo_ (the internal or consumption duty) is an +impost averaging nearly twenty per cent. on the United States cost of +{69} the bill. It supplies the place of a direct tax for the support +of the departmental government, and is decidedly the most troublesome, +if not the most oppressive revenue system that ever was devised for +internal purposes. It operates at once as a drawback upon the +commercial prosperity of the country, and as a potent incentive to +fraudulent practices. The country people especially have resort to +every species of clandestine intercourse, to escape this galling +burden; for, every article of consumption they carry to market, +whether fish, flesh or fowl, as well as fruit and vegetables, is taxed +more or less; while another impost is levied upon the goods they +purchase with the proceeds of their sales. This system, so beautifully +entangled with corruptions, is supported on the ground that it +supersedes direct taxation, which, in itself, is an evil that the +'free and independent' people of Mexico would never submit to. Besides +the petty annoyances incidental upon the laxity of custom-house +regulations, no one can travel through the country without a passport, +which to free-born Americans, is a truly insupportable nuisance. +[Pg150] + +Having at last gone through with all the vexatious preparations +necessary for our journey, on the 22d of August we started for +Chihuahua. I fitted out myself but six wagons for this market, yet +joining in company with several other traders, our little caravan +again amounted to fourteen wagons, with about forty men. Though our +route lay through {70} the interior of Northern Mexico, yet, on +account of the hostile savages which infest most of the country +through which we had to pass, it was necessary to unite in caravans of +respectable strength, and to spare few of those precautions for safety +which are required on the Prairies. + +The road we travelled passes down through the settlements of New +Mexico for the first hundred and thirty miles, on the east side of the +Rio del Norte. Nevertheless, as there was not an inn of any kind to be +found upon the whole route, we were constrained to put up with very +primitive accommodations. Being furnished from the outset, therefore, +with blankets and buffalo rugs for bedding, we were prepared to +bivouac, even in the suburbs of the villages, in the open air; for in +this dry and salubrious atmosphere it is seldom that travellers go to +the trouble of pitching tents.[101] When travelling alone, however, or +with but a comrade or two, I have always experienced a great deal of +hospitality from the rancheros and villageois of the country. Whatever +sins these ignorant people may have to answer for, we must accord to +them at least two glowing virtues--gratitude and hospitality. I have +suffered like others, however, from one very disagreeable custom which +prevails {71} among them. Instead of fixing a price for the services +they bestow upon travellers, they are apt to answer, "_Lo que guste_," +or "_Lo_ [Pg151] _que le de la gana_" (whatever you please, or have a +mind to give), expecting, of course, that the liberal foreigner will +give more than their consciences would permit them to exact. + +In about ten days' drive we passed the southernmost settlements of New +Mexico, and twenty or thirty miles further down the river we came to +the ruins of Valverde. This village was founded about twenty years +ago, in one of the most fertile valleys of the Rio del Norte. It +increased rapidly in population, until it was invaded by the Navajoes, +when the inhabitants were obliged to abandon the place after +considerable loss, and it has never since been repeopled. The bottoms +of the valley, many of which are of rich alluvial loam, have lain +fallow ever since, and will perhaps continue to be neglected until the +genius of civilization shall have spread its beneficent influences +over the land. This soil is the more valuable for cultivation on +account of the facilities for irrigation which the river affords; as +it too frequently happens that the best lands of the settlements +remain unfruitful for want of water.[102] + +Our next camping place deserving of mention was _Fray Cristobal_, +which, like many others on the route, is neither town nor village, but +a simple isolated point on the river-bank--a mere _parage_, or +camping-ground. We had already passed San Pascual, El Contadero, {72} +and many others, and we could hear Aleman, Robledo, and a dozen such +spoken of on the way, leading the stranger to imagine that the route +was lined with flourishing villages. The arriero will tell one to +hasten--"we must reach San Diego before sleeping." We spur on perhaps +with redoubled [Pg152] vigor, in hopes to rest at a town; but lo! +upon arriving, we find only a mere watering-place, without open ground +enough to graze the _caballada_. Thus every point along these +wilderness highways used as a camping-site, has received a distinctive +name, well known to every muleteer who travels them. Many of these +_parages_, without the slightest vestige of human improvement, figure +upon most of the current maps of the day as towns and villages. Yet +there is not a single settlement (except of very recent establishment) +from those before mentioned to the vicinity of El Paso, a distance of +near two hundred miles. + +We arrived at Fray Cristobal[103] in the evening, but this being the +threshold of the famous _Jornada del Muerto_, we deemed it prudent to +let our animals rest here until the following afternoon. The road over +which we had hitherto been travelling, though it sometimes traverses +upland ridges and undulating sections, runs generally near the border +of the river, and for the most part in its immediate valley: but here +it leaves the river and passes for nearly eighty miles over a +table-plain to the eastward of a small ledge of mountains, whose +western base is hugged {73} by the circuitous channel of the Rio del +Norte. The craggy cliffs which project from these mountains render the +eastern bank of the river altogether impassable. As the direct route +over the plain is entirely destitute of water, we took the precaution +to fill all our kegs at Fray Cristobal, and late in the afternoon we +finally set out. We generally find a great advantage in travelling +through these arid tracts of land in the freshness of the evening, as +the mules suffer less from thirst, and move [Pg153] on in better +spirits--particularly in the season of warm weather. + +Early the next morning we found ourselves at the _Laguna del Muerto_, +or 'Dead Man's Lake,' where there was not even a vestige of water. +This _lake_ is but a sink in the plain of a few rods in diameter, and +only filled with water during the rainy season. The _marshes_, which +are said by some historians to be in this vicinity, are nowhere to be +found: nothing but the firmest and driest table land is to be seen in +every direction. To procure water for our thirsty animals it is often +necessary to make a halt here, and drive them to the _Ojo del Muerto_ +(Dead Man's Spring), five or six miles to the westward, in the very +heart of the mountain ridge that lay between us and the river. This +region is one of the favorite resorts of the Apaches, where many a +poor arriero has met with an untimely end. The route which leads to +the spring winds for two or three miles down a narrow canon or gorge, +overhung on either side by abrupt precipices, {74} while the various +clefts and crags, which project their gloomy brows over the abyss +below, seem to invite the murderous savage to deeds of horror and +blood. + +There is a tradition among the arrieros from which it would appear +that the only road known in ancient time about the region of the +_Jornada_, wound its circuitous course on the western side of the +river. To save distance, an intrepid traveller undertook to traverse +this desolate tract of land in one day, but having perished in the +attempt, it has ever after borne the name of _La Jornada del Muerto_, +'the Dead Man's Journey,' or, more strictly, 'the Day's Journey of the +Dead Man.' One thing appears very certain, that this dangerous pass +has cost the life of many travellers in days of yore; and when we at +last reached Robledo, a camping-site upon the river, where we found +abundance of wood and water, we felt truly grateful that the arid +_Jornada_ had not [Pg154] been productive of more serious +consequences to our party. We now found ourselves within the +department of Chihuahua, as the boundary betwixt it and New Mexico +passes not far north of Robledo.[104] + +We were still some sixty miles above Paso del Norte, but the balance +of the road now led down the river valley or over the low bordering +hills. During our journey between this and El Paso we passed the ruins +of several settlements, which had formerly been the seats of opulence +and prosperity, but which have since been abandoned in consequence +{75} of the marauding incursions of the Apaches. + +On the 12th of September we reached the usual ford of the Rio del +Norte, six miles above El Paso; but the river being somewhat flushed +we found it impossible to cross over with our wagons. The reader will +no doubt be surprised to learn that there is not a single ferry on +this 'Great River of the North' till we approach the mouth. But how do +people cross it? Why, during three-fourths of the year it is +everywhere fordable, and when the freshet season comes on, each has to +remain on his own side, or swim, for canoes even are very rare. But as +we could neither swim our wagons and merchandise, nor very comfortably +wait for the falling of the waters, our only alternative was to unload +the vehicles, and ferry the goods over in a little 'dug-out' about +thirty feet long and two feet wide, of which we were fortunate enough +to obtain possession. + +We succeeded in finding a place shallow enough to haul our empty +wagons across: but for this good fortune we should have been under the +necessity of taking them to pieces (as I had before done), and of +ferrying them on the 'small craft' [Pg155] before mentioned. Half of +a wagon may thus be crossed at a time, by carefully balancing it upon +the canoe, yet there is of course no little danger of capsizing during +the passage. + +This river even when fordable often occasions a great deal of trouble, +being, like the Arkansas, embarrassed with many quicksand {76} mires. +In some places, if a wagon is permitted to stop in the river but for a +moment, it sinks to the very body. Instances have occurred where it +became necessary, not only to drag out the mules by the ears and to +carry out the loading package by package, but to haul out the wagon +piece by piece--wheel by wheel. + +On the 14th we made our entrance into the town of _El Paso del +Norte_,[105] which is the northernmost settlement in the department of +Chihuahua. Here our cargo had to be examined by a stern, surly +officer, who, it was feared, would lay an embargo on our goods upon +the slightest appearance of irregularity in our papers; but +notwithstanding our gloomy forebodings, we passed the ordeal without +any difficulty. + +The valley of El Paso is supposed to contain a population of about +four thousand inhabitants, scattered over the western bottom of the +Rio del Norte to the length of ten or twelve miles. These settlements +are so thickly interspersed with vineyards, orchards, and corn-fields, +as to present more the appearance of a series of plantations than of a +town: in fact, only a small portion at the head of the valley, where +the _plaza publica_ and parochial church are located, would seem to +merit this title. {77} Two or three miles above the _plaza_ there is a +dam of stone and brush across the river, the purpose of which is to +turn the current into a dike or canal, which conveys nearly half the +water of the stream, during a [Pg156] low stage, through this well +cultivated valley, for the irrigation of the soil. Here we were +regaled with the finest fruits of the season: the grapes especially +were of the most exquisite flavor. From these the inhabitants +manufacture a very pleasant wine, somewhat resembling Malaga. A +species of _aguardiente_ (brandy) is also distilled from the same +fruit, which, although weak, is of very agreeable flavor. These +liquors are known among Americans as 'Pass wine' and 'Pass whiskey,' +and constitute a profitable article of trade, supplying the markets of +Chihuahua and New Mexico.[106] + +As I have said before, the road from Santa Fe to El Paso leads partly +along the margin of the Rio del Norte, or across the bordering hills +and plains; but the _sierra_ which separates the waters of this river +and those of the Rio Pecos was always visible on our left. In some +places it is cut up into detached ridges, one of which is known as +_Sierra Blanca_, in consequence of its summit's being covered with +snow till late in the spring, and having all {78} the appearance of a +glittering white cloud. There is another still more picturesque ridge +further south, called _Los Organos_, presenting an immense cliff of +basaltic pillars, which bear some resemblance to the pipes of an +_organ_, whence the mountain derived its name. Both these sierras are +famous as being the strongholds of the much-dreaded Apaches. + +The mountains from El Paso northward are mostly clothed with pine, +cedar, and a dwarfish species of oak. The valleys are timbered with +cottonwood, and occasionally with _mezquite_, which, however, is +rarely found higher up than the lower settlements of New Mexico. In +the immediate vicinity [Pg157] of El Paso there is another small +growth called _tornillo_ (or screw-wood), so denominated from a spiral +pericarp, which, though different in shape, resembles that of the +mezquite in flavor.[107] The plains and highlands generally are of a +prairie character, and do not differ materially from those of all +Northern Mexico, which are almost everywhere completely void of +timber. + +One of the most useful plants to the people of El Paso is the +_lechuguilla_, which abounds on the hills and mountain sides of that +vicinity, as well as in many other places from thence southward.[108] +Its blades, which resemble those of the palmilla, being mashed, +scraped, and washed, afford very strong fibres like the common Manilla +sea-grass, and equally serviceable for the manufacture of ropes, and +other purposes. + +{79} After leaving El Paso, our road branched off at an angle of about +two points to the westward of the river, the city of Chihuahua being +situated nearly a hundred miles to the west of it. At the distance of +about thirty miles we reached _Los Medanos_, a stupendous ledge of +sand-hills, across which the road passes for about six miles. As teams +are never able to haul the loaded wagons over this region of loose +sand, we engaged an _atajo_ of mules at El Paso, upon which to convey +our goods across. These Medanos consist of huge hillocks and ridges of +pure sand, in many places without a vestige of vegetation. Through the +lowest gaps between the hills, the road winds its way. + +What renders this portion of the route still more unpleasant and +fatiguing, is the great scarcity of water. All that is to [Pg158] be +found on the road for the distance of more than sixty miles after +leaving El Paso, consists in two fetid springs or pools, whose water +is only rendered tolerable by necessity. A little further on, however, +we very unexpectedly encountered, this time, quite a superabundance of +this necessary element. Just as we passed Lake Patos,[109] we were +struck with astonishment at finding the road ahead of us literally +overflowed by an immense body of water, with a brisk current, as if +some great river had suddenly been conjured into existence by the aid +of supernatural arts. A considerable time elapsed before we could +unravel the mystery. At last we discovered that a freshet had lately +occurred {80} in the streams that fed Lake Patos, and caused it to +overflow its banks, which accounted for this unwelcome visitation. We +had to flounder through the mud and water for several hours, before we +succeeded in getting across. + +The following day we reached the _acequia_ below Carrizal, a small +village with only three or four hundred inhabitants, but somewhat +remarkable as being the site of a _presidio_ (fort), at which is +stationed a company of troops to protect the country against the +ravages of the Apaches, who, notwithstanding, continue to lay waste +the ranchos in the vicinity, and to depredate at will within the very +sight of the fort.[110] + +About twelve miles south of Carrizal there is one of the most charming +warm springs called Ojo Caliente, where we arrived the next day. It +forms a basin some thirty feet long by about half that width, and just +deep and warm enough for a most delightful bath at all seasons of the +year. Were this spring (whose outlet forms a bold little rivulet) +anywhere [Pg159] within the United States, it would doubtless soon be +converted into a place of fashionable resort. There appears to be a +somewhat curious phenomenon connected with this spring. It proceeds, +no doubt, from the little river of Carmen, which passes within half a +mile, and finally discharges itself into the small lake of Patos +before mentioned. During the dry season, this stream disappears in the +sand some miles above the spring; and what medium it traverses in its +subterranean passage to impart {81} to it so high a temperature, +before breaking out in this fountain, would afford to the geologist an +interesting subject of inquiry.[111] + +After fording the Rio Carmen, which, though usually without a drop of +water in its channel, we now found a very turbulent stream, we did not +meet with any object particularly worthy of remark, until we reached +the _Laguna de Encinillas_.[112] This lake is ten or twelve miles long +by two or three in width, and seems to have no outlet even during the +greatest freshets, though fed by several small constantly-flowing +streams from the surrounding mountains. The water of this lake during +the dry season is so strongly impregnated with nauseous and bitter +salts, as to render it wholly unpalatable to man and beast. The most +predominant of these noxious substances is a species of alkali, known +there by the title of _tequesquite_. It is often seen oozing out from +the surface of marshy grounds, about the table plains of all Northern +Mexico, forming a grayish crust, and is extensively used in the +manufacture of soap, and sometimes by the bakers even for raising +bread. Here we had another evidence of the alarming effects of the +recent flood, the road for several miles along the margin of the lake +being [Pg160] completely inundated. It was, however, in the city of +Chihuahua itself that the disastrous consequences of the freshet were +most severely felt. Some inferior houses of _adobe_ were so much +soaked by the rains, that they tumbled to the ground, occasioning the +loss of several lives. + +{82} The valley of Encinillas is very extensive and fertile, and is +the locale of one of those princely estates which are so abundant +further south, and known by the name of _Haciendas_. It abounds in +excellent pasturage, and in cattle of all descriptions. In former +times, before the Apaches had so completely devastated the country, +the herds which grazed in this beautiful valley presented much the +appearance of the buffalo of the plains, being almost as wild and +generally of dark color. Many of the proprietors of these princely +haciendas pride themselves in maintaining a uniformity in the color of +their cattle: thus some are found stocked with black, others red, +others white--or whatsoever shade the owner may have taken a fancy to. + +As we drew near to Chihuahua, our party had more the appearance of a +funeral procession than of a band of adventurers, about to enter into +the full fruition of 'dancing hopes,' and the realization of 'golden +dreams.' Every one was uneasy as to what might be the treatment of the +revenue officers. For my own part, I had not quite forgotten sundry +annoyances and trials of temper I had been made to experience in the +season of 1837, on a similar occasion. Much to our surprise, however, +as well as delight, we were handled with a degree of leniency by the +custom-house deities, on our arrival, that was almost incomprehensible. +But the charm which operated in our favor, when understood, was very +simple. A caravan had left Chihuahua direct {83} for the United +States, the spring previous, and was daily expected back. The officers +of the custom-house were already compromised by certain cogent +arguments to receive the [Pg161] proprietors of this caravan with +striking marks of favor, and the _Senor Administrador de Rentas_, +Zuloaga himself, was expecting an _ancheta_ of goods. Therefore, had +they treated us with their wonted severity, the contrast would have +been altogether too glaring.[113] + +We arrived at Chihuahua on the first of October, after a trip of forty +days, with wagons much more heavily laden than when we started from +the United States. The whole distance from Santa Fe to Chihuahua is +about 550 miles,--being reckoned 320 to Paso del Norte, and 230 from +thence to Chihuahua. The road from El Paso south is mostly firm and +beautiful, with the exception of the sand-hills before spoken of; and +is only rendered disagreeable by the scarcity and occasional ill-savor +of the water. The route winds over an elevated plain among numerous +detached ridges of low mountains--spurs, as it were, of the main +Cordilleras, which lie at a considerable distance to the westward. +Most of these extensive intermediate plains, though in many places of +fertile looking soil, must remain wholly unavailable for agricultural +purposes, on account of their natural aridity and a total lack of +water for irrigation. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[99] For El Paso, see Pattie's _Narrative_, in our volume xviii, p. +155, note 89. + +Presidio del Norte is in the Mexican state of Chihuahua, at the mouth +of Los Conchos River; hence the town is sometimes called Presidio de +las Juntas (junction). It is one of the oldest posts in northern +Mexico.--ED. + +[100] In confirmation of this, it is only necessary to quote the +following from the _Pauta de Comisos_, Cap. II., Art. 22: "Ni las +guias, ni las facturas, ni los pases, en todos los casos de que trata +este decreto, han de contener enmendadura, raspadura, ni +entrerenglonadura alguna"--and this under penalty of confiscation. +--GREGG. + +[101] How scant soever our outfit of 'camp comforts' might appear, our +Mexican muleteers were much more sparely supplied. The exposure +endured by this hardy race is really surprising. Even in the coldest +winter weather, they rarely carry more than one blanket apiece--the +_sarape_, which serves as a cloak during the day, and at night is +their only 'bed and bedding.'--GREGG. + +[102] The precinct of Valverde, on the east bank of the Rio Grande, a +few miles below Socorro, has now a population of three hundred. +Although of considerable importance in the early nineteenth century, +the town has never been rebuilt since Gregg's time. The site was, +however, the rendezvous for Doniphan's troops (1846) preparatory to +his march into Chihuahua. It was also the field for a battle in the +War of Secession (1862), wherein the Texans won a victory over the +Federal troops.--ED. + +[103] Fray Cristobal was long an important station in New Mexico; but, +as Gregg says, never a town of any size, merely a camping place at the +beginning of the Jornada del Muerto. The latter is well described by +Gregg, and was the dreaded portion of the journey from north to south +until the building of the railway, which traverses the larger part of +the old caravan route, but leaves the river somewhat higher up and +returns to it at Rincon, some distance above Robledo.--ED. + +[104] Robledo was on the Rio Grande at the site where the Americans +later erected Fort Selden. + +El Paso and the district north had formerly been a part of New Mexico; +but the act of 1824, reconstituting the northern states, assigned El +Paso district to Chihuahua, hence the boundary here mentioned.--ED. + +[105] This place is often known among Americans as '_The Pass_.' It +has been suggested in another place, that it took its name from the +_passing_ thither of the refugees from the massacre of 1680; yet many +persons very rationally derive it from the _passing_ of the river (_el +paso del Rio del Norte_) between two points of mountains which project +against it from each side, just above the town.--GREGG. + +[106] There is very little wine or legitimate _aguardiente_ +manufactured in New Mexico. There was not a distillery, indeed, in all +the province until established by Americans some fifteen or twenty +years ago. Since that period, considerable quantities of whiskey have +been made there, particularly in the vicinity of Taos,--distilled +mainly from wheat, as this is the cheapest grain the country +affords.--GREGG. + +[107] For the ordinary mesquit, see Pattie's _Narrative_, in our +volume xviii, p. 94, note 56. The tornillo is _Prosopis pubescens_, +the fruit of which is often called the screw-bean, and used by the +Indians both for food and fodder.--ED. + +[108] A particular species of _agave_, called _A. lechuguilla_, +abounding in the El Paso region. See J. N. Rose, "Useful Plants of +Mexico," in U. S. Herbarium _Contributions_, volume v, no. 4, p. +209.--ED. + +[109] Lake Patos (Lake of Geese), in northern Chihuahua, is the outlet +for Rio Carmen.--ED. + +[110] Carrizal was founded about 1750, and at one time considered a +part of the province of New Mexico. It was later made a presidio, or +frontier fort, with a surrounding wall.--ED. + +[111] Wislizenus found the temperature of these springs 84 deg. +Fahrenheit. There is now a station called Ojo Calientes, on the +Mexican Central Railway, but it is some distance from the +springs.--ED. + +[112] The size of Laguna de Encinillas (Lake of Live-Oaks) varies +greatly with the season of drouth or rain.--ED. + +[113] For a brief sketch of Chihuahua, see Pattie's _Narrative_, in +our volume xviii, p. 153, note 85.--ED. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI {V} + +Trip from Chihuahua to Aguascalientes, in 1835 -- Southern Trade + and _Ferias_ -- Hacienda de la Zarca, and its innumerable Stock + -- Rio Nazas, and Lakes without outlet -- Perennial Cotton -- + Exactions for Water and Pasturage -- Village of Churches -- City + of Durango and its Peculiarities -- Persecution of Scorpions + -- Negro-ship in the ascendant -- Robbers and their _modus_ + _operandi_ -- City of Aguascalientes -- Bathing Scene -- Haste to + return to the North -- Mexican Mule-shoeing -- Difficulties and + Perplexities -- A Friend in time of need -- Reach Zacatecas -- City + Accommodations -- Hotels unfashionable -- _Locale_, Fortifications, + etc. of the City of Zacatecas -- Siege by Santa Anna and his + easy-won Victory -- At Durango again -- Civil Warfare among the + 'Sovereigns' -- Hairbreadth 'scapes -- Troubles of the Road -- Safe + Arrival at Chihuahua -- Character of the Southern Country. + + +The patient reader who may have accompanied me thus far, without +murmuring at the dryness of some of the details, will perhaps pardon +me for presenting here a brief account of a trip which I made to +_Aguascalientes_, in the interior of Northern Mexico, in the year +1835, and which the arrangement I have adopted has prevented me from +introducing before, in its chronological order. + +The trade of the South constitutes a very important branch of the +commerce of the country, in which foreigners, as well as natives, {85} +are constantly embarking. It is customary for most of those who +maintain mercantile establishments in Chihuahua, to procure +assortments of Mexican fabrics from the manufactories of Leon, +Aguascalientes, and other places of the same character in the more +southern districts of the republic. At certain seasons of the year, +here are held regular _ferias_, at which the people assemble in great +numbers, as well of sellers as of purchasers. There are some eight or +ten of these annual fairs held in the republic, each of which usually +lasts a week or more. It was about as much, however, from a desire to +behold the sunny districts of the South, as for commercial purposes, +that I undertook this expedition in 1835; and as my engagements have +not permitted me to revisit this section since, the few [Pg163] notes +of interest I was then able to collect, seem to come more +appropriately in this part of my work than in any other place that I +could readily select. + +I set out from Chihuahua on the 26th of February, 1835. My party +consisted of four men (including myself) and two empty wagons--not a +very formidable escort to protect our persons as well as specie and +bullion (the only transmissible currency of the country) against the +bands of robbers which at all times infest that portion of our route +that lay south of Durango. From Chihuahua to that city the road was +rendered still more perilous by the constant hostilities of the +Indians. On the 7th of March, however, we arrived, without {86} +accident, at the town of Cerro Gordo, the northernmost settlement in +the department of Durango; and the following day we reached La Zarca, +which is the principal village of one of the most extensive haciendas +in the North. So immense is the amount of cattle on this estate, that, +as it was rumored, the proprietor once offered to sell the whole +hacienda, stock, etc., for the consideration alone of fifty cents for +each head of cattle found on the estate; but that no person has ever +yet been able or willing to muster sufficient capital to take up the +offer. It is very likely, however, that if such a proposition was ever +made, the proprietor intended to include all his stock of rats and +mice, reptiles and insects--in short, every genus of 'small cattle' on +his premises. This estate covers a territory of perhaps a hundred +miles in length, which comprises several flourishing villages. + +In two days more, we reached Rio Nazas, a beautiful little river that +empties itself into Lake Cayman.[114] Rio [Pg164] Nazas has been +celebrated for the growth of cotton, which, owing to the mildness of +the climate, is sometimes planted fresh only every three or four +years. The light frosts of winter seldom destroy more than the upper +portion of the stalk, so that {87} the root is almost perennial. About +twenty-five miles further, we stopped at the mining village of La +Noria, where we were obliged to purchase water for our mules--a novel +expense to the American traveller, but scarcely to be complained of, +inasmuch as the water had to be drawn from wells with a great deal of +labor. It is not unusual, also, for the proprietors of haciendas to +demand remuneration for the pasturage on the open plains, consumed by +the animals of travellers--a species of exaction which one never hears +of further north. + +Our next stopping-place was Cuencame, which may well be called the +Village of Churches: for, although possessing a very small population, +there are five or six edifices of this description.[115] As I had +business to transact at Durango, which is situated forty or fifty +miles westward of the main Southern road, I now pursued a direct route +for that city, where I arrived on the 16th of March. + +Durango is one of the handsomest cities in the North, with a +population of about 20,000. It is situated in a level plain, +surrounded in every direction by low mountains. It presents two or +three handsome squares, with many fine edifices and some really +splendid churches. The town is supplied with water for irrigating the +gardens, and for many other ordinary purposes, by several open +aqueducts, which lead through the streets, from a large spring, a mile +or {88} two distant; but as these are kept filthy by the offal that is +thrown into them, the inhabitants who are able to buy it, procure most +of their [Pg165] water for drinking and culinary purposes, from the +_aguadores_, who pack it, on asses, usually in large jars, from the +spring. + +This is the first Northern city in which there is to be found any +evidence of that variety of tropical fruits, for which Southern Mexico +is so justly famed. Although it was rather out of season, yet the +market actually teemed with all that is most rich and exquisite in +this kind of produce. The _maguey_, from which is extracted the +popular beverage called _pulque_,[116] is not only cultivated +extensively in the fields, but grows wild everywhere upon the plains. +This being the height of the pulque season, a hundred shanties might +be seen loaded with jugs and goblets filled with this favorite liquor, +from its sweetest unfermented state to the grade of 'hard cider;' +while the incessant cries of "Pulque! pulque dulce! pulque bueno!" +added to the shrill and discordant notes of the fruit venders, created +a confusion of {89} sounds amidst which it was impossible to hear +oneself talk. + +Durango is also celebrated as being the head-quarters, as it were, of +the whole scorpion family. During the spring, especially, so much are +the houses infested by these poisonous insects, that many people are +obliged to have resort to a kind of mosquito-bar, in order to keep +them out of their beds at night. As an expedient to deliver the city +from this terrible pest, a society has actually been formed, which +pays a reward of a _cuartilla_ (three cents) for every _alacran_ (or +scorpion) that is brought to them. Stimulated by the [Pg166] desire +of gain, the idle boys of the city are always on the look-out: so +that, in the course of a year, immense numbers of this public enemy +are captured and slaughtered. The body of this insect is of the bulk +and cast of a medium spider, with a jointed tail one to two inches +long, at the end of which is a sting whose wounds are so poisonous as +often to prove fatal to children, and are very painful to adults. + +The most extraordinary peculiarity of these scorpions is, that they +are far less dangerous in the North than in the South, which in some +manner accounts for the story told Capt. Pike, that even those of +Durango lose most of their venom as soon as they are removed a few +miles from the city.[117] + +Although we were exceedingly well armed, yet so many fearful stories +of robberies said to be committed, almost daily, on the Southern +roads, reached my ears, that before {90} leaving Durango, I resolved +to add to my 'weapons of defence' one of those peculiarly terrible +dogs which are sometimes to be found in this country, and which are +very serviceable to travellers situated as I was. Having made my +wishes known to a free negro from the United States, named George, he +recommended me to a custom-house officer, and a very particular friend +of his, as being possessed of the very article I was in search of. I +accordingly called at the house of that functionary, in company with +my sable informant, and we were ushered into a handsome parlor, where +two or three well-dressed senoritas sat discussing some of the +fruitful topics of the day. One of them--the officer's wife, as it +appeared, and a very comely dame she was--rose immediately, and, with +a great deal of ceremonious deference, saluted _Senor Don Jorge_, +inviting him at the same time to a [Pg167] seat, while I was left to +remain perfectly unnoticed in my standing position. George appeared +considerably embarrassed, for he had not quite forgotten the customs +and manners of his native country, and was even yet in the habit of +treating Americans not only with respect but with humility. He +therefore declined the tendered distinction, and remarked that '_el +senor_' had only come to purchase their dog. Upon this, the lady +pointed to a kennel in a corner, when the very first glimpse of the +ferocious animal convinced me that he was precisely the sort of a +customer I wanted for a companion. Having therefore paid {91} down six +dollars, the stipulated sum of purchase, I bowed myself out of the +presence of the ladies, not a little impressed with my own +insignificance, in the eyes of these fair _donas_, contrasted with the +grandeur of my sable companion. But the popularity of negroes in +Northern Mexico has ceased to be a matter of surprise to the +traveller. + +With regard to _Don Jorge_, if I was surprised at the marks of +attention paid him by a white lady, I had cause to be much more +astonished shortly after. As the sooty don was lounging about my +wagons, a clever-visaged youth approached and placed in his hands a +satin stock, with the compliments of his sister (the officer's wife), +hoping that he would accept that trifle, wrought by her own hand, as a +token of her particular regard! But, notwithstanding these marks of +distinction (to apply no harsher epithet), George was exceedingly +anxious to engage in my employ, in whatsoever capacity I might choose +to take him; for he had discovered that such honors were far from +affording him a livelihood: yet I did not then need his services, and +have never heard of him since. + +On the 22d we left Durango, and after a few days' march found +ourselves once more in the _camino real_ that led from Chihuahua to +Zacatecas. All the frightful stories I had [Pg168] heard about +robbers now began to flash upon my memory, which made me regard every +man I encountered on the road with a very suspicious eye. As all +travellers go armed, it {92} is impossible to distinguish them from +banditti;[118] so that the unsuspecting traveller is very frequently +set upon by the very man he had been consorting with in apparent +good-fellowship, and either murdered on the spot, or dragged from his +horse with the lazo, and plundered of all that is valuable about him. + +I have heard it asserted that there is a regular bandit trade +organized throughout the country, in which some of the principal +officers of state (and particularly of the judicial corps) are not +unfrequently engaged. A capital is made up by shares, as for any other +enterprise, bandits are fitted out and instructed where to operate, +and at stated periods of the year a regular dividend is paid to the +stockholders. The impunity which these 'gentlemen of the order' almost +everywhere enjoy in the country, is therefore not to be marvelled at. +In Durango, during my sojourn there, a well dressed caballero was +frequently in the habit of entering our _meson_, whom mine host soon +pointed out to me as a notorious brigand. "Beware of him," said the +honest publican; "he is prying into your affairs"--and so it turned +out; for my muleteer informed me that the fellow had been trying to +pump from him all the particulars in regard to our condition and +destination. Yet this worthy was not only suffered to prowl about +unmolested {93} by the authorities, but appeared to be on familiar +terms with many of the principal dignitaries of the city. +Notwithstanding all our apprehensions, however, we arrived at our +place of destination without even the novelty of an incident to swell +our budget of gossip. [Pg169] + +The city of Aguascalientes is beautifully situated in a level +plain, and would appear to contain about twenty thousand inhabitants, +who are principally engaged in the manufacture of _rebozos_ and other +textures mostly of cotton.[119] As soon as I found myself sufficiently +at leisure, I visited the famous warm spring (_ojo caliente_) in the +suburbs, from which the city derives its euphonious name. I followed +up the _acequia_ that led from the spring--a ditch four or five feet +wide, through which flowed a stream three or four feet in depth. The +water was precisely of that agreeable temperature to afford the luxury +of a good bath, which I had hoped to enjoy; but every few paces I +found men, women, and children, submerged in the acequia; and when I +arrived at the basin, it was so choked up with girls and full-grown +women, who were paddling about with all the nonchalance of a gang of +ducks, that I was forced to relinquish my long-promised treat. + +It had been originally my intention to continue on to Leon, another +manufacturing town some seventy or eighty miles from Aguascalientes; +but, hearing that Santa Anna had just arrived there with a large army, +on his way to Zacatecas to quell an insurrection,[120] I {94} felt +very little curiosity to extend my rambles further. Having, therefore, +made all my purchases in the shortest possible time, in a few days I +was again in readiness to start for the North. + +That my mules might be in condition for the hard travel before me, it +was necessary to have them shod: a precaution, however, which is +seldom used in the north of Mexico, either [Pg170] with mules or +horses. Owing a little to the peculiar breed, but more still no doubt +to the dryness of the climate, Mexican animals have unusually hard +hoofs. Many will travel for weeks, and even months, over the firm[121] +and often rocky roads of the interior (the pack-mules carrying their +huge loads), without any protection whatever to the feet, save that +which nature has provided. But most of mine being a little +tender-footed, I engaged Mexican _herreros_ to fit them out in their +own peculiar style. Like almost everything else of their +manufacturing, their mule-shoes are of a rather primitive model--broad +thin plates, tacked on with large club-headed nails. But the +expertness of the shoers compensated in some degree for the defects of +the _herraduras_. It made but little odds how wild and vicious the +mule--an assistant would draw up his foot in an instant, and soon +place him _hors de combat_; and then fixing a nail, the shoer {95} +would drive it to the head at a single stroke, standing usually at +full arm's length, while the assistant held the foot. Thus in less +than half the time I had ever witnessed the execution of a similar job +before, they had completely shod more than twenty of the most unruly +brutes--without once resorting to the expedient so usual in such +cases, of throwing the animals upon the ground. + +Just as the process of shoeing my mules had been completed, a person +who proved to be a public officer entered the _corral_, and pointing +to the mules, very politely informed me that they were wanted by the +government to transport troops to Zacatecas. "They will be called for +to-morrow afternoon," he continued; "let them not be removed!" I had +of course to bow acquiescence to this imperative edict, well knowing +that all remonstrance would be vain; yet fully [Pg171] determined to +be a considerable distance on the road northward before that 'morrow' +should be very far advanced. + +But a new difficulty now presented itself. I must procure a _guia_ or +passport for my cargo of merchandise, with a _responsible +endorser_,--an additional imposition I was wholly unprepared for, as I +was then ignorant of any law to that effect being in force, and had +not a single acquaintance in the city. I was utterly at a loss what to +do: under any other circumstances I might have left the amount of the +_derecho de consumo_ in deposit, as others have been obliged to do on +similar occasions; but {96} unfortunately I had laid out the last +dollar of my available means. + +As I left the custom-house brooding over these perplexities, one of +the principal clerks of the establishment slipped a piece of paper +into my hand containing the following laconic notice:--"_Aguardeme +afuera_" (wait for me without);--an injunction I passively obeyed, +although I had not the least idea of its purport. The clerk was soon +with me, and remarked, "You are a stranger in the city, and ignorant +of our severe revenue laws: meet me in an hour from this at my +lodgings, and we will devise some remedy for your difficulties." It +may be well supposed that I did not fail to be punctual. I met the +obliging officer in his room with a handful of blank custom-house +_pases_. It should be understood that a _pase_ only differs from a +_guia_ in requiring no endorser, but the former can only be extended +for amounts of goods not exceeding fifty dollars. Taking my bill, he +very soon filled me up a _pase_ for every package, directing each to a +different point in the North. "Now," observed my amiable friend, "if +you are disposed to do a little smuggling, these will secure your +safety, if you avoid the principal cities, till you reach the borders +of Chihuahua: if not, you may have a friend on the way who will +endorse your _guia_." I preferred the latter alternative. I had formed +an acquaintance [Pg172] with a worthy German merchant in Durango, +who, I felt convinced, would generously lend his signature to the +required document. + +{97} As the revenue officers of Northern Mexico are not celebrated for +liberality and disinterestedness, I took it for granted that my friend +of the custom-house was actuated by selfish motives, and therefore +proffered him a remuneration for the trouble he had taken on my +account; but to my surprise, he positively refused accepting anything, +observing that he held it the duty of every honest man to assist his +fellow creatures in case of difficulty. It is truly a pleasant task to +bear record of such instances of disinterestedness, in the midst of so +many contaminating influences. + +While speaking of _guias_, I may as well remark that they are also +frequently required for specie and always for bullion. This is often +very annoying to the traveller, not only because it is sometimes +inconvenient to find an endorser, but because the robbers are thus +enabled to obtain precise and timely information of the funds and +route of every traveller; for they generally have their agents in all +the principal cities, who are apt to collude with some of the +custom-house clerks, and thus procure regular reports of the +departures, with the amounts of valuables conveyed. + +I was not long in taking leave of Aguascalientes, and heard nothing +more of the impressment of my mules. It was not my good fortune, +however, to remain for any length of time out of trouble. Being +anxious to take the city of Zacatecas in my route without jeopardizing +my goods, I took passage by the _diligencia_, while my wagons +continued on in {98} the _camino real_ or main road. On my arrival at +Zacatecas, I very soon discovered that by leaving 'my bed and board' +behind with the wagons, I had doomed myself to no small inconvenience +and privation. It was with the greatest difficulty I could obtain a +place to lie upon, and [Pg173] clean victuals with which to allay my +hunger. I could get a room, it is true, even for a _real_ per day, in +one of those great barn-like _mesones_ which are to be met with in all +these cities, but not one of them was at all furnished. There is +sometimes, in a corner, a raised platform of mud, much resembling a +common blacksmith's hearth, which is to supply the place of a +bedstead, upon which the traveller may spread his blankets, if he +happen to have any. On this occasion I succeeded in borrowing one or +two of the stage-driver who was a Yankee, and so made out 'pretty +comfortably' in the sleeping way. These _mesones_ are equally +ill-prepared to furnish food for the traveller, unless he is willing +to put up with a dish of _frijoles_ and _chile guisado_ with +_tortillas_, all served up in the most filthy manner. I therefore +sought out a public _fonda_ kept by an Italian, where I procured an +excellent supper. Fondas, however, are mere _restaurants_, and +consequently without accommodations for lodging. + +Strange as the fact may appear, one may travel fifteen hundred miles, +and perhaps more, on the main public highway through Northern Mexico, +without finding a single tavern with general accommodations. This, +however, may {99} be accounted for, by taking into consideration the +peculiar mode of travelling of the country, which renders resorts of +this kind almost unnecessary. _Arrieros_ with their _atajos_ of +pack-mules always camp out, being provided with their cooks and stock +of provisions, which they carry with them. Ordinary travellers +generally unite in little caravans, for security against robbers and +marauders; and no caballero ever stirs abroad without a train of +servants, and a pack-mule to carry his _cantinas_ (a pair of large +wallets or leathern boxes), filled with provisions, on the top of +which is lashed a huge machine containing a mattress and all the other +'fixings' for bed furniture. Thus equipped, the [Pg174] caballero +snaps his fingers at all the _hotels garnis_ of the universe, and is +perfectly independent in every movement. + +The city of Zacatecas, as my readers are doubtless aware, is +celebrated for its mining interests. Like all other Mexican towns of +the same class, it originated in small, insignificant settlements on +the hillsides, in the immediate vicinity of the mines, until it +gradually grew up to be a large and wealthy city, with a population of +some 30,000 inhabitants. Its locale is a deep ravine formed among +rugged mountain ridges; and as the houses are mostly built in rows, +overtopping one another, along the hillsides, some portions of the +city present all the appearance of a vast amphitheatre. Many of the +streets are handsomely paved, and two of the squares are finely +ornamented with curiously carved _jets-d'eau_, {100} which are +supplied with water raised by mule power, from wells among the +adjacent hills. From these the city is chiefly furnished with water. + +I have already mentioned, that General Santa Anna was at this time +marching against Zacatecas with a large force. It may be remembered +that after the General's accession to the supreme authority of Mexico +(upon the establishment of _Centralismo_), he deemed it expedient to +issue a decree abolishing the state militia, known as _Civicos_, as +being dangerous to the liberties of----the _dictador_. Zacatecas, so +far from obeying this despotic mandate, publicly called on the Civicos +to defend their rights, and Santa Anna was now descending upon them +with an army double that which the city could raise, to enforce their +obedience. The _Zacatecanos_, however, were not idle. The militia was +pouring in from the surrounding villages, and a degree of enthusiasm +prevailed throughout the city, which seemed to be the presage of a +successful defence. In fact, the city itself, besides being from its +location almost impregnable, was completely protected by artificial +fortifications. The only accessible point [Pg175] was by the main +road, which led from the south immediately up the narrow valley of the +ravine. Across this a strong wall had been erected some years before, +and the road passed through a large gate, commanded by a bastion upon +the hillside above, whence a hundred men well supplied with arms and +ammunition, might easily cut {101} off thousands upon thousands, as +fast as they advanced. The city was therefore deemed impregnable, and +being supplied with provisions for a lengthy siege, the patriots were +in high spirits. A foreign engineer or two had been engaged to +superintend the fortifications. + +Santa Anna reached Zacatecas a few days after my departure. As he had +no idea of testing the doubtful mettle of his army, by an attempt to +storm the place, which presented so formidable an appearance, he very +quietly squatted himself down at the village of Guadalupe, three miles +below. From this point he commenced his operations by throwing +'missiles' into the city--not of lead, or cast-iron, or any such cruel +agents of warfare, but _bombs of paper_, which fell among the +besieged, and burst with gentle overtures to their commanding +officers. This novel 'artillery' of the dictator produced a perfectly +electric effect; for the valor of the commandant of the Civicos rose +to such a pitch, that he at once marched his forces out of the +fortifications, to attack the besiegers in the open field--face to +face, as true bravery required. But on the very first onset, this +valiant officer, by some mysterious agency which could not be +accounted for, was suddenly seized with a strange panic, and, with all +his forces, made a precipitate retreat, fleeing helter-skelter, as if +all the engines of destruction that were ever invented, had been +brought to bear upon them; when the victorious army of Santa Anna +marched into the city without further opposition. + +{102} This affair is a pretty just sample of most of the [Pg176] +successful battles of this 'great general.' The treacherous collusion +of the principal Zacatecas officers was so apparent, that they deemed +it prudent to fly the city for safety, lest the wrath of their +incensed fellow-citizens should explode upon them. Meanwhile the +soldiery amused themselves by sacking the city, and by perpetrating +every species of outrage that their mercenary and licentious appetites +could devise. Their savage propensities were particularly exercised +against the few foreigners that were found in the place. + +Meanwhile I was journeying very leisurely towards Durango, where I +arrived on the 21st of April. As the main wagon road to the north does +not pass through that city, it was most convenient and still more +prudent for me to leave my wagons at a distance: their entrance would +have occasioned the confiscation of my goods, for the want of the +'necessary documents,' as already alluded to. But I now procured a +_guia_ without further difficulty; which was indeed a principal object +of my present visit to that city. + +Before leaving Durango I witnessed one of those civil broils which are +so common in Mexico. I was not even aware that any difficulty had been +brewing, till I was waked on the morning of the 25th by a report of +fire-arms. Stepping out to ascertain what was the matter, I perceived +the _azotea_ of the parochial church occupied by armed men, who seemed +to be employed in amusing themselves {103} by discharging their guns +at random upon the people in the streets. These _bravos_, as I was +afterwards informed, belonged to the bishop's party, or that of the +_Escoceses_, which was openly at war with the liberalists, +anti-hierarchists, or _Yorkinos_, and were resorting to this summary +mode of proceeding, in order to bring about a change of affairs; for +at this time the liberal party had the ascendency in the civil +government of Durango. [Pg177] + +Being somewhat curious to have a nearer view of what was going on, I +walked down past the church, towards a crowd which was assembled in a +_plaza_ beyond. This movement on my part was rather inconsiderate: for +foreigners were in extremely bad odor with the belligerents; nor had I +mingled with the multitude many minutes, before a sober-looking +citizen plucked me by the sleeve, and advised me, if I valued my two +ears, and did not wish to have my career of usefulness cut short +prematurely, to stay within doors. Of course I needed no further +persuasion, and returned at once to my lodgings, where I made +immediate preparations for a speedy departure. As I was proceeding +through the streets soon afterward, with a cargo of goods, I received, +just after leaving the custom-house, a very warm salutation from the +belligerents, which made the dust start from almost under my very +feet. The _cargadores_ who were carrying my packages were no doubt as +much frightened as myself. They supposed the reason of their shooting +at us to be because {104} they imagined we were carrying off the +_parque_ (ammunition) of the government, which was deposited in the +building we had just left. + +We were soon under way, and very little regret did I feel when I +fairly lost sight of the city of scorpions. But I was not yet wholly +beyond the pale of difficulties. Owing to the fame of the Indian +hostilities in the North, it was almost impossible to procure the +services of Mexican muleteers for the expedition. One I engaged, took +the first convenient opportunity to escape at night, carrying away a +gun with which I had armed him; yet I felt grateful that he did not +also take a mule, as he had the whole _caballada_ under his exclusive +charge: and soon after, a Mexican wagoner was frightened back by the +reports of savages. + +After a succession of such difficulties, and still greater [Pg178] +risks from the Indians that infested the route, I was of course +delighted when I reached Chihuahua, on the 14th of May, in perfect +safety.[122] + +FOOTNOTES: + +[114] The numerous little lakes throughout the interior of Mexico, +without outlets yet into which rivers are continually flowing, present +a phenomenon which seem, quite singular to the inhabitants of our +humid climates. But the wastage in the sand, and still greater by +evaporation in those elevated dry regions, is such that there are no +important rises in the lakes except during unusual freshets.--GREGG. + +[115] The road passed southeast through the state of Durango, where +all these small stations may be found on any good map. According to +Pike the owner of the vast estate near La Zarca was the Marquis de San +Miguel.--ED. + +[116] Also, from the _Pulque_ is distilled a spiritous liquor called +_mezcal_. The _maguey_ (_Agave Americana_) is besides much used for +hedging. It here performs the double purpose of a cheap and +substantial fence, and of being equally valuable for _pulque_. When no +longer serviceable in these capacities, the pulpy stalk is converted, +by roasting, into a pleasant item of food, while the fibrous blades, +being suitably dressed, are still more useful. They are manufactured +into ropes, bags, etc., which resemble those made of the common +sea-grass, though the fibres are finer. There is one species (which +does not produce pulque, however), whose fibres, known in that country +as _pita_, are nearly as fine as dressed hemp, and are generally used +for sewing shoes, saddlery, and similar purposes.--GREGG. + +[117] See Elliott Coues, _Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_ (New York, +1895), ii, p. 763, note 34. That editor identifies the scorpion as +_Androctomus biaculeatus_, and favorably comments on Gregg's sensible +explanation of Pike's story.--ED. + +[118] Travellers on these public highways not only go 'armed to the +teeth,' but always carry their weapons exposed. Even my wagoners +carried their guns and pistols swung upon the pommels of their +saddles. At night, as we generally camped out, they were laid under +our heads, or close by our sides.--GREGG. + +[119] Aguascalientes is the capital of a small interior Mexican state +of the same name, now on the line of the Mexican Central Railway. It +was founded in 1575, and at the close of the eighteenth century was a +place of considerable importance. During the negotiations for peace +between the United States and Mexico (1848), a revolution broke out at +this place, that was with difficulty subdued.--ED. + +[120] This was part of the centralist revolution, for which see our +volume xix, p. 271, note 96 (Gregg). Santa Ana himself subdued the +opposition in Zacatecas, where his soldiers were permitted to plunder +widely.--ED. + +[121] Some of these table-plain highways, though of but a dry sandy +and clayey soil, are as firm as a brick pavement. In some places, for +miles, I have remarked that the nail-heads of my shod animals would +hardly leave any visible impression.--GREGG. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII {VI} + +Visit to the Mining Town of Jesus-Maria -- Critical Roads -- Losing + Speculations -- Mine of Santa Juliana -- Curious mining Operations + -- Different Modes of working the Ore -- The Crushing-mill, etc. -- + _Barras de Plata_ -- Value of Bullion -- The Silver Trade -- Return + to Chihuahua -- Resumption of the regular Narrative -- Curious + Wholesales -- Money Table -- Redundancy of Copper Coin -- City of + Chihuahua and its Peculiarities -- Ecclesiastical Architecture -- + Hidalgo and His Monument -- Public Works, and their present + Declension -- _Fete_ in honor of Iturbide -- Illiberality towards + Americans -- Shopping Mania -- Anti-Masonic _Auto de Fe_. + + +Before resuming my regular narrative, I trust the reader will pardon +me for introducing here a brief account of an excursion which I made +in the fall of the year 1835, to the mining town of Jesus-Maria, one +of the most important mineral districts in the department of +Chihuahua, situated about a hundred and fifty miles west of the city, +in the very heart of the great Cordilleras.[123] + +I had long been desirous of visiting some of the mining establishments +of Mexico, and seeing a favorable opportunity of embarking in a +profitable enterprise, I set out from Chihuahua on the 15th of +October. My party consisted of but one American comrade, with {106} a +Mexican muleteer--and three or four mules freighted with specie to be +employed in the _silver trade_: a rather scanty convoy for a route +subject to the inroads both of savages and robbers. For +transportation, [Pg179] we generally pack our specie in sacks made of +raw beef hide, which shrinks upon drying, and thus presses the +contents so closely as to prevent friction. A pair of these packages, +usually containing between one and two thousand dollars each, +constitutes an ordinary mule-load on the mountain routes. + +The road in this direction leads through the roughest mountain passes; +and, in some places, it winds so close along the borders of +precipices, that by a single misstep an animal might be precipitated +several hundred feet. Mules, however, are very surefooted; and will +often clamber along the most craggy cliffs with nearly as much +security as the goat. I was shown the projecting edge of a rock over +which the road had formerly passed. This shelf was perhaps thirty feet +in length by only two or three in width. The road which leads into the +town of Jesus-Maria from the west side of the mountain is also +extremely perilous and steep, and seems almost to overhang the houses +below. Heavily laden mules have sometimes slipped off the track, and +tumbled headlong into the town. This place is even more pent up +between ridges than Zacatecas: the valley is narrower and the +mountains much higher; while, as is the case with that remarkable +city, the houses are {107} sometimes built in successive tiers, one +above another; the _azoteas_ of the lower ones forming the yard of +those above. + +The first mine I visited consisted of an immense horizontal shaft cut +several hundred feet into a hill-side, a short distance below the town +of Jesus-Maria, upon which the proprietors had already sunk, in the +brief space of one year, the enormous sum of one hundred and twenty +thousand dollars! Such is often the fate of the speculative miner, +whose vocation is closely allied to gaming, and equally precarious. +[Pg180] + +The most important mine of Jesus-Maria at this time was one called +Santa Juliana, which had been the means of alternately making and +sinking several splendid fortunes. This mine had then reached a depth +of between eight and nine hundred feet, and the operations were still +tending downwards. The materials were drawn up by mule power applied +to a windlass: but as the rope attached to it only extended half way +down, another windlass had been erected at the distance of about four +hundred feet from the mouth of the cavern, which was also worked by +mules, and drew the ores, etc., from the bottom. On one occasion, as I +was standing near the aperture of this great pit, watching the ascent +of the windlass-rope, expecting every moment the appearance of the +large leathern bucket which they employ for drawing up the minerals as +well as the rubbish and water[124] from the bottom, {108} what should +greet my vision but a mule, puffing and writhing, firmly bound to a +huge board constructed for the purpose, and looking about as demure +upon the whole as a sheep under the shears. On being untied, the +emancipated brute suddenly sprang to his feet, and looked around him +at the bright scenes of the upper world with as much astonishment as +Rip Van Winkle may be supposed to have felt after waking up from his +twenty years' sleep. + +The ore which is obtained from these mines, if sufficiently rich to +justify the operation, is transferred to the smelting furnaces, where +the pure metal is melted down and extracted from the virgin fossil. +If, on the contrary, the ore is deemed of inferior quality, it is then +submitted to the process of amalgamation. + +[Illustration: Mule emerging from a mine] + +[Illustration: Still Hunting] + +{109} The _moliendas_, or crushing-mills (_arrastres_, as called at +some mines), employed for the purpose of grinding the [Pg183] ores, +are somewhat singular machines. A circular (or rather annular) cistern +of some twenty or thirty feet in diameter is dug in the earth, and the +sides as well as the bottom are lined with hewn stone of the hardest +quality. Transversely through an upright post which turns upon its +axis in the centre of the plan, passes a shaft of wood, at each end of +which are attached by cords one or two grinding-stones with smooth +flat surfaces, which are dragged (by mules fastened to the extremities +of the shaft) slowly around upon the bottom of the cistern, into which +the ore is thrown after being pounded into small pieces. It is here +ground, with the addition of water, into an impalpable mortar, by the +constant friction of the dragging stones against the sides and bottom +of the cistern. A suitable quantity of quicksilver is perfectly mixed +with the mortar; to which are added some muriates, sulphates, and +other chemical substances, to facilitate the amalgamation. The +compound is then piled up in small heaps, and not disturbed again +until this process is supposed to be complete, when it is transferred +to the washing-machine. Those I have observed are very simple, +consisting of a kind of stone tub, into which a stream of water is +made to flow constantly, so as to carry off all the lighter matter, +which is kept stirred up by an upright studded with pegs, that +revolves in the centre, while the amalgamated metals sink {110} to the +bottom. Most of the quicksilver is then pressed out, and the silver +submitted to a burning process, by which the remaining portion of +mercury is expelled. + +The silver which is taken from the furnace, generally contains an +intermixture of gold, averaging from ten to thirty per cent.; but what +is extracted by amalgamation is mostly separated in the washing. While +in a liquid state, the gold, from its greater specific gravity, mostly +settles to the bottom: yet it usually retains a considerable alloy of +silver. The [Pg184] compound is distinguished by the name of +_oroche_. The main portion of the silver generally retains too little +gold to make it worth separating. + +Every species of silver is moulded into _barras_ or ingots, weighing +from fifty to eighty pounds each, and usually worth between one and +two thousand dollars. These are assayed by an authorized agent of the +government, and stamped with their weight and character, which enables +the holder to calculate their value by a very simple rule. When the +bullion is thus stamped, it constitutes a species of currency, which +is much safer for remittances than coin. In case of robbery, the +_barras_ are easily identified, provided the robbers have not had time +to mould them into some other form. For this reason, people of wealth +frequently lay up their funds in ingots; and the cellars of some of +the _ricos_ of the South, are often found teeming with large +quantities of them, presenting the appearance of a winter's supply of +firewood. + +{111} As the charge for parting the gold and silver at the Mexican +mints, is generally from one to two dollars, and coinage about fifty +cents, per pound, this assayed bullion yields a profit upon its +current value of nearly ten per cent. at the United States Mint; but, +if unassayed, it generally produces an advance of about double that +amount upon the usual cost at the mines. The exportation of bullion, +however, is prohibited, except by special license from the general +government. Still a large quantity is exported in this way, and +considerable amounts smuggled out through some of the ports. + +A constant and often profitable business in the 'silver trade' is +carried on at these mines. As the miners rarely fail being in need of +ready money, they are generally obliged to sell their bullion for +coin, and that often at a great sacrifice, so as to procure available +means to prosecute their mining [Pg185] operations. To profit by this +trade, as is already mentioned, was a principal object of my present +visit. Having concluded my business transactions, and partially +gratified my curiosity, I returned to Chihuahua, where I arrived, +November 24, 1835, without being molested either by robbers or +Indians, though the route is sometimes infested by both these classes +of independent gentry. + +But, as it is now high time I should put an end to this digression, I +will once more resume my narrative, where it was interrupted at my +arrival in Chihuahua, on the first of October, 1839. + +{112} It is usual for each trader, upon his arrival in that city, to +engage a store-room, and to open and exhibit his goods, as well for +the purpose of disposing of them at wholesale as retail. His most +profitable custom is that of the petty country merchants from the +surrounding villages. Some traders, it is true, continue in the retail +business for a season or more, yet the greater portion are transient +dealers, selling off at wholesale as soon as a fair bargain is +offered. + +The usual mode of selling by the lot in Chihuahua is somewhat +singular. All such cottons as calicoes and other prints, bleached, +brown and blue domestics both plain and twilled, stripes, checks, +etc., are rated at two or three _reales_[125] per _vara_, without the +least reference to quality or cost, and the 'general assortment' at 60 +to 100 per cent. upon the bills of cost, according to the demand. The +_varage_ is [Pg186] usually estimated by adding eight per cent. to +the yardage, but the _vara_ being thirty-three inches (nearly), the +actual difference is more than nine. In these sales, cloths--{113} +indeed all measurable goods, except ribands and the like, sometimes +enter at the _varage_ rate. I have heard of some still more curious +contracts in these measurement sales, particularly in Santa Fe, during +the early periods of the American trade. Everything was sometimes +rated by the vara--not only all textures, but even hats, cutlery, +trinkets, and so on! In such cases, very singular disputes would +frequently arise as to the mode of measuring some particular articles: +for instance, whether pieces of riband should be measured in bulk, or +unrolled, and yard by yard; looking-glasses, cross or lengthwise; +pocket-knives, shut or open; writing-paper, in the ream, in the quire, +or by the single sheet; and then, whether the longer or shorter way of +the paper; and so of many others. + +Before the end of October, 1839, I had an opportunity of selling out +my stock of goods to a couple of English merchants, which relieved me +from the delays, to say nothing of the inconveniences attending a +retail trade: such, for instance, as the accumulation of copper coin, +which forms almost the exclusive currency in petty dealings. Some +thousands of dollars' worth are frequently accumulated upon the hands +of the merchant in this way, and as the copper of one department is +worthless in another, except for its intrinsic value, which is seldom +more than ten per cent. of the nominal value, the holders are +subjected to a great deal of trouble and annoyance. + +With regard to the city, there is but little to {114} be said that is +either very new or unusually interesting. When compared with Santa Fe +and all the towns of the North, Chihuahua might indeed be pronounced a +magnificent place; but, compared with the nobler cities of _tierra +afuera_, it sinks [Pg187] into insignificance. According to Capt. +Pike, the city of Chihuahua was founded in 1691. The ground-plan is +much more regular than that of Santa Fe, while a much greater degree +of elegance and classic taste has been exhibited in the style of the +architecture of many buildings; for though the bodies be of _adobe_, +all the best houses are cornered with hewn stone, and the doors and +windows are framed in the same. The streets, however, remain nearly in +the same state as Nature formed them, with the exception of a few +roughly-paved side-walks. Although situated about a hundred miles east +of the main chain of the Mexican Cordilleras, Chihuahua is surrounded +on every side by detached ridges of mountains, but none of them of any +great magnitude. The elevation of the city above the ocean is between +four and five thousand feet; its latitude is 28 deg. 36'; and its entire +population numbers about ten thousand souls. + +The most splendid edifice in Chihuahua is the principal church, which +is said to equal in architectural grandeur anything of the sort in the +republic. The steeples, of which there is one at each front corner, +rise over a hundred feet above the azotea. They are composed of very +fancifully-carved columns; and {115} in appropriate niches of the +frontispiece, which is also an elaborate piece of sculpture, are to be +seen a number of statues, as large as life, the whole forming a +complete representation of Christ and the twelve Apostles. This church +was built about a century ago, by contributions levied upon the mines +(particularly those of Santa Eulalia, fifteen or twenty miles from the +city), which paid over a per centage on all the metal extracted +therefrom; a _medio_, I believe, being levied upon each _marco_ of +eight ounces. In this way, about a million of dollars was raised and +expended in some thirty years, the time employed in the construction +of the building. It is a curious fact, however, that, notwithstanding +the enormous sums of money expended [Pg188] in outward embellishments, +there is not a church from thence southward, perhaps, where the +interior arrangements bear such striking marks of poverty and neglect. +If, however, we are not dazzled by the sight of those costly +decorations for which the churches of Southern Mexico are so much +celebrated, we have the satisfaction of knowing that the turrets are +well provided with bells, a fact of which every person who visits +Chihuahua very soon obtains auricular demonstration. One, in +particular, is so large and sonorous that it has frequently been +heard, so I am informed, at the distance of twenty-five miles. + +A little below the _Plaza Mayor_ stands the ruins (as they may be +called) of San Francisco--the mere skeleton of another great church +{116} of hewn-stone, which was commenced by the Jesuits previous to +their expulsion in 1767, but never finished. By the outlines still +traceable amid the desolation which reigns around, it would appear +that the plan of this edifice was conceived in a spirit of still +greater magnificence than the Parroquia which I have been describing. +The abounding architectural treasures that are mouldering and ready to +tumble to the ground, bear sufficient evidence that the mind which had +directed its progress was at once bold, vigorous and comprehensive. + +This dilapidated building has since been converted into a sort of +state prison, particularly for the incarceration of distinguished +prisoners. It was here that the principals of the famous Texan Santa +Fe Expedition were confined, when they passed through the place, on +their way to the city of Mexico.[126] This edifice has also acquired +considerable celebrity as having received within its gloomy embraces +several of the most distinguished patriots, who were taken prisoners +during the first infant struggles for Mexican independence. [Pg189] +Among these was the illustrious ecclesiastic, Don Miguel Hidalgo y +Costilla, who made the first declaration at the village of Dolores, +September 16, 1810.[127] He was taken prisoner in March, 1811, some +time after his total defeat at Guadalaxara; and being brought to +Chihuahua, he was shot on the 30th of July following, in a little +square back of the prison, where a plain white monument of hewn stone +{117} has been erected to his memory. It consists of an octagon base +of about twenty-five feet in diameter, upon which rises a square, +unornamented pyramid to the height of about thirty feet. The monument +indeed is not an unapt emblem of the purity and simplicity of the +curate's character. + +Among the few remarkable objects which attract the attention of the +traveller is a row of columns supporting a large number of stupendous +arches which may be seen from the heights, long before approaching the +city from the north. This is an aqueduct of considerable magnitude +which conveys water from the little river of Chihuahua, to an eminence +above the town, whence it is passed through a succession of pipes to +the main public square, where it empties itself into a large stone +cistern; and by this method the city is supplied with water. This and +other public works to be met with in Chihuahua, and in the southern +cities, are glorious remnants of the prosperous times of the Spanish +empire. No improvements on so exalted a scale have ever been made +under the republican government. In fact, everything in this benighted +country now seems to be on the decline, and the plain honest citizen +of the old school is not unfrequently heard giving vent to his +feelings by ejaculating "_iOjala por los dias felices del Rey!_"--Oh, +for the happy days of the King! In short, there can be no doubt, that +the common people enjoyed more ease--more protection against the +[Pg190] savages--more {118} security in their rights and +property--more _liberty_, in truth, under the Spanish dynasty than at +present. + +No better evidence can be found of the extensive operations which have +been carried on in this the greatest mining district of Northern +Mexico, than in the little mountains of _scoria_ which are found in +the suburbs of the city. A great number of poor laborers make a +regular business of hammering to pieces these metallic excrescences, +from which they collect silver enough to buy their daily bread. An +opinion has often been expressed by persons well acquainted with the +subject, that a fair business might be done by working this same +scoria over again. There are still in operation several furnaces in +the city, where silver ores extracted from the mines of the +surrounding mountains are smelted. There is also a rough mint in +Chihuahua (as there is indeed in all the mining departments), yet most +of its silver and all of its gold have been coined in the cities +further south. + +When I arrived at Chihuahua, in 1839, a great fete had just come off +for the double purpose of celebrating the anniversary of the Emperor +Iturbide's birth day (Sept. 27, 1783), and that of his triumphal +entrance into the city of Mexico in 1821. It will be remembered, that, +after Mexico had been struggling for independence several years, +General Iturbide, who had remained a faithful officer of the crown, +and an active agent in persecuting the champions of Mexican liberty, +finding {119} himself, about the close of 1820, at the head of a large +division of the royal army sent against the patriot Guerrero, suddenly +turned over his whole force to the support of the republican cause, +and finally succeeded in destroying the last vestige of Spanish +authority in Mexico. How he was afterwards crowned emperor, and +subsequently [Pg191] dethroned, outlawed by a public decree and +eventually executed, is all matter of history.[128] But it is not +generally known, I believe, that this unfortunate soldier has since +received the honors of the Father of the Republic, a dignity to which +he was probably as much entitled as any one else--absurd though the +adoption of such a hero as the 'champion of liberty,' may appear to +'republicans of the Jefferson school.' A _grande fete d'hilarite_ +takes place annually, in honor of his political canonization, which +'comes off' at the date already mentioned. To this great ball, +however, no Americans were invited, with the exception of a +Mexicanized denizen or two, whose invitation tickets informed the +_honored party_ that the price of admission to this famous feast,--a +ball given by the governor and other magnates of the land, in honor of +the hero of independence,--was twenty-five dollars. + +Balls or reunions of this kind, however, seem not as frequent in +Chihuahua as in New Mexico: and to those we hear of, claiming the +title of 'fashionable,' Americans are very rarely invited. There is, +in fact, but little social intercourse between foreigners and the +natives, {120} except in a business way, or with a certain class of +the former, at the gambling-table. This want of hospitable feelings is +one of the worst traits in the character of the Chihuahuenos, and when +placed in contrast with the kind and courteous treatment those who +visit the United States invariably experience from the lawgivers of +fashion among us, their illiberality will appear a hundred fold more +ungracious. These exclusive laws are the more severely felt in +Chihuahua, because in that city there are no _cafes_, [Pg192] nor +reading rooms, nor in short any favorite public resorts, except of a +gambling character, at which gentlemen can meet to lounge or amuse +themselves. + +Besides the cock-pit, the gaming-table, and the _Alameda_, which is +the popular promenade for the wealthy and the indolent, one of the +most favorite pastimes of the females generally is shopping; and the +most fashionable time for this is by candle-light, after they have +partaken of their chocolate and their _cigarritos_. The streets and +shops are literally filled from dusk till nine or ten o'clock; and +many a time have I seen the counter of a store actually lined till a +late hour, with the fairest and most fashionable senoritas of the +city. On such occasions it is not a little painful as well as +troublesome to be compelled to keep a strict eye to the rights of +property, not that the dealers are all dishonest, but because there +never fail to be some present who are painfully afflicted with the +self-appropriating mania, {121} even among the fairest-looking +senoritas. This, with other purposes no less culpable, has no doubt +tended to establish the custom of night-shopping. + +It may already be generally known perhaps, that the predominant party, +in Mexico, (and particularly in the North), is decidedly anti-masonic. +During my stay in Chihuahua I had an opportunity to test their +antipathy for that mysterious brotherhood. This was evinced in the +seizure of a dozen or two cotton handkerchiefs, which, unknown to +myself, happened to bear the stamp of the 'masonic carpet.' These +obnoxious articles having attracted the attention of some lynx-eyed +friars, one day, much to my consternation, my store was suddenly +invaded by the alcalde and some ecclesiastics. The handkerchiefs were +seized without ceremony, and by an _auto de fe_, condemned to be +publicly burned. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII {VII} + +Departure for Santa Fe -- Straitened for Food -- Summary Effort to + procure Beef -- Seizure of one of our Party -- Altercation with + a _Rico_ -- His pusillanimous Procedure -- Great Preparations in + Chihuahua for our Arrest -- Arrival of Mexican Troops -- A polite + Officer -- Myself with three of my Men summoned back to Chihuahua + -- Amiable Conduct of Senor Artalejo -- _Junta Departmental_ and + Discussion of my Affair -- Writ of _Habeas Corpus_ not in vogue + -- The Matter adjusted and Passport granted -- The _Morale_ -- + Impunity of savage Depredators -- Final Start -- Company of + _Pasenos_ with their Fruits and Liquors -- Arrival at Santa Fe. + + +Having closed all my affairs in Chihuahua, and completed my +preparations for departing, I took my leave of that city for the +North, on the 31st of October, 1839. I was accompanied by a caravan +consisting of twenty-two wagons (all of which save one belonged to +me), and forty odd men, armed to the teeth, and prepared for any +emergency we might be destined to encounter: a precaution altogether +necessary, in view of the hordes of hostile savages which at all times +infested the route before us. + +We also set out provided with an ample stock of bread and other +necessaries; for, from the suburbs of Chihuahua to the village of +{123} Carrizal, a distance of nearly a hundred and fifty miles, there +are no settlements on the route, from whence to procure supplies. To +furnish the party with meat, I engaged twenty sheep, to be delivered a +few miles on the way, which were to be driven along for our daily +consumption. But the contractor having failed, we found ourselves +entering the wilderness without a morsel of meat. The second day our +men began to murmur--it was surely 'dry living' upon mere bread and +coffee: in fact, by the time we entered the 'territory' of the +Hacienda de Encinillas, spoken of in another chapter, they were +clearly suffering from hunger. I was therefore under the necessity of +sending three Mexican muleteers of our party [Pg194] to _lazo_ a beef +from a herd which was grazing at some distance from where we had +pitched our camp; being one of those buffalo-like droves which run so +nearly wild upon this extensive domain. It had been customary, from +time immemorial, for travellers when they happened to be distressed +for meat, to supply their wants out of the wild cattle which nominally +belonged to this hacienda, reserving to themselves the privilege of +paying a reasonable price afterwards to the proprietor for the damage +committed. I must say, however, that, although I had travelled over +the same road nine times, I had never before resorted to this summary +mode of procuring food; nor should I, on the present occasion, have +deviated from my regular practice, though thus partially authorized by +a custom of the {124} country, but for the strait in which we found +ourselves, and the fact that I was confident I should meet either with +a _mayordomo_ or some of the _vaqueros_, to whom I could pay the value +of the beef, before passing beyond the purlieus of the hacienda, upon +the lands of which we had yet to travel for sixty or eighty miles. + +The muleteers had just commenced giving chase to the cattle, when we +perceived several horsemen emerge from behind a contiguous eminence, +and pursue them at full speed. Believing the assailants to be Indians, +and seeing them shoot at one of the men, chase another, and seize the +third, bearing him off prisoner, several of us prepared to hasten to +the rescue, when the other two men came running in and informed us +that the aggressors were Mexican vaqueros. We followed them, +notwithstanding, to the village of Torreon, five or six miles to the +westward, where we found a crowd of people already collected around +our poor friend, who was trembling from head to foot, as though he had +really fallen into the hands of savages. I immediately inquired for +the mayordomo, when I was [Pg195] informed that the proprietor +himself, Don Angel Trias, was present. Accordingly I addressed myself +to _su senoria_, setting forth the innocence of my servant, and +declaring myself solely responsible for whatever crime had been +committed. Trias, however, was immovable in his determination to send +the boy back to Chihuahua to be tried for robbery, and all further +expostulation only drew down the {125} grossest and coarsest insults +upon myself, as well as my country, of which he professed no +inconsiderable knowledge.[129] + +The altercation was at first conducted solely in Spanish; but the +princely senor growing weary of hearing so many unpalatable truths +told of himself in the vernacular of his own humble and astounded +menials, he stepped out from among the crowd, and addressed me in +English,--a language in which he had acquired some proficiency in the +course of his travels. The change of language by no means altered his +views, nor abated his pertinacity. At last, finding there was nothing +to be gained by this war of words, I ordered the boy to mount his +horse and rejoin the wagons. "Beware of the consequences!" vociferated +the enraged Trias. "Well, let them come," I replied; "here we are." +But we were suffered to depart in peace with the prisoner. + +That the reader may be able to form some idea of the pusillanimity of +this lordly _haciendero_, it is only necessary to add, that when the +altercation took place we were inside of the fortifications, from +which our egress might easily have been prevented by simply closing +the outer gate. We [Pg196] were surrounded by the whole population of +the village, besides a {126} small detachment of regular troops, whose +commandant took a very active part in the controversy, and fought most +valiantly with his tongue. But the valor of the illustrious Senor Don +Angel knew a much safer course than to vent itself where there was +even a remote chance of personal risk. His influence could not fail to +enlist the public in his behalf, and he thought no doubt that his +battles might just as well be fought by the officers of justice as by +himself. + +Yet ignorant of his designs, and supposing the matter would end at +this, we continued our march the next day, and by the time night +approached we were full twenty miles from the seat of our late +troubles. While at breakfast on the following morning we were greatly +surprised by the appearance of two American gentlemen direct from +Chihuahua, who had ridden thus far purposely to apprise us of what was +brewing in the city to our detriment. It appeared that Trias had sent +an express to the governor accusing me of rescuing a culprit from the +hands of justice by force of arms, and that great preparations were +accordingly being made to overtake and carry me back. That the reader +may be able to understand the full extent and enormity of my offence, +he has only to be informed that the proprietor of an hacienda is at +once governor, justice of the peace, and everything besides which he +has a mind to fancy himself--a perfect despot within the limits of his +little dominion. It was, therefore, through contempt for _his_ +'excellency' {127} that I had insulted the majesty of the laws! + +Having expressed my sentiments of gratitude to my worthy countrymen +for the pains they had taken on my account, we again pursued our +journey, determined to abide the worst. This happened on the 3d of +November: on the [Pg197] 5th we encamped near the Ojo Caliente, a +hundred and thirty miles from Chihuahua. About eleven o'clock at +night, a large body of men were seen approaching. They very soon +passed us, and quietly encamped at a distance of several hundred +yards. They were over a hundred in number. + +Nothing further occurred till next morning, when, just as I had risen +from my pallet, a soldier approached and inquired if I was up. In a +few minutes he returned with a message from _El Senor Capitan_ to know +if he could see me. Having answered in the affirmative, a very +courteous and agreeable personage soon made his appearance, who, after +bowing and scraping until I began to be seriously afraid that his body +would break in two, finally opened his mission by handing me a packet +of letters, one of which contained an order from the Governor for my +immediate presence in Chihuahua, together with the three muleteers +whom I had sent after the cattle; warning me, at the same time, not to +give cause, by my resistance, for any other measure, which might be +unpleasant to my person. The next document was from Senor Trias +himself, in which he expressed his regret {128} at having carried the +matter to such an extreme, and ended with the usual offer of his +services to facilitate an adjustment. Those, however, which most +influenced my course, were from Don Jose Artalejo (_Juez de Hacienda_, +Judge of the Customs, of Chihuahua), who offered to become responsible +for a favorable issue if I would peaceably return; and another from a +Mr. Sutton, with whom I had formerly been connected in business. The +manly and upright deportment of this gentleman had inspired me with +the greatest confidence, and therefore caused me to respect his +opinions. But, besides my obligation to submit to a mandate from the +government, however arbitrary and oppressive, another [Pg198] strong +motive which induced me to return, in obedience to the Governor's +order, was a latent misgiving lest any hostile movement on my part, no +matter with what justice or necessity, might jeopardize the interests +if not the lives of many of my countrymen in Chihuahua. + +With regard to ourselves and our immediate safety, we would have found +but very little difficulty in fighting our way out of the country. We +were all well-armed, and many appeared even anxious to have a brush +with the besiegers. However, I informed the captain that I was willing +to return to Chihuahua, with the three 'criminals,' provided we were +permitted to go armed and free, as I was not aware of having committed +any crime to justify an arrest. He rejoined that {129} this was +precisely in accordance with his orders, and politely tendered me an +escort of five or six soldiers, who should be placed under my command, +to strengthen us against the Indians, that were known to infest our +route. Thanking him for his favor, I at once started for Chihuahua, +leaving the wagons to continue slowly on the journey, and the amiable +captain with his band of _valientes_ to retrace their steps at leisure +towards the capital. + +Late on the evening of the third day, I reached the city, and put up +at the American Fonda, where I was fortunate enough to meet with my +friend Artalejo, who at once proposed that we should proceed forthwith +to the Governor's house. When we found ourselves in the presence of +his excellency, my valued friend began by remarking that I had +returned according to orders, and that he would answer for me with his +person and property; and then, without even waiting for a reply, he +turned to me and expressed a hope that I would make his house my +residence while I remained in the city. I could not, of course, +decline so friendly an invitation, particularly as I thought it +probable [Pg199] that, being virtually my bail, he might prefer to +have me near his person. But, as soon as we reached the street, he +very promptly removed that suspicion from my mind. "I invite you to my +house," said he, "as a friend, and not as a prisoner. If you have any +business to transact, do not hold yourself under the least restraint. +To-morrow I will see the affair satisfactorily settled." + +{130} The _Junta Departamental_, or State Council, of which Senor +Artalejo was an influential member, was convened the following day. +Meanwhile, every American I met with expressed a great deal of +surprise to see me at liberty, as, from the excitement which had +existed in the city, they expected I would have been lodged in the +safest calabozo. I was advised not to venture much into the streets, +as the rabble were very much incensed against me; but, although I +afterwards wandered about pretty freely, no one offered to molest me; +in fact, I must do the 'sovereigns of the city' the justice to say, +that I was never more politely treated than during this occasion. +Others suggested that, as Trias was one of the most wealthy and +influential citizens of Chihuahua, I had better try to pave my way out +of the difficulty with _plata_, as I could stand no chance in law +against him. To this, however, I strenuously objected. I felt +convinced that I had been ordered back to Chihuahua mainly for +purposes of extortion, and I was determined that the _oficiales_ +should be disappointed. I had unbounded confidence in the friendship +and integrity of Don Jose Artalejo, who was quite an exception to the +general character of his countrymen. He was liberal, enlightened and +honorable, and I shall ever remember with gratitude the warm interest +he took in my affair, when he could have had no other motive for +befriending me except what might spring from the consciousness of +having performed a generous action. [Pg200] + +{131} At first, when the subject of my liberation was discussed in the +_Junta Departamental_, the symptoms were rather squally, as some +bigoted and unruly members of the Council seemed determined to have me +punished, right or wrong. After a long and tedious debate, however, my +friend brought me the draft of a petition which he desired me to copy +and sign, and upon the presentation of which to the Governor, it had +been agreed I should be released. This step, I was informed, had been +resolved upon, because, after mature deliberation, the Council came to +the conclusion that the proceedings against me had been extremely +arbitrary and illegal, and that, if I should hereafter prosecute the +Department, I might recover heavy damages. The wholesome lesson which +had so lately been taught the Mexicans by France, was perhaps the +cause of the fears of the Chihuahua authorities. A clause was +therefore inserted in the petition, wherein I was made to renounce all +intention on my part of ever troubling the Department on the subject, +and became myself a suppliant to have the affair considered as +concluded. + +This petition I would never have consented to sign, had I not been +aware of the arbitrary power which was exercised over me. +Imprisonment, in itself, was of but little consequence; but the total +destruction of my property, which might have been the result of +further detention, was an evil which I deemed it necessary to ward +off, even at a great sacrifice {132} of feeling. Moreover, being in +duress, no forced concession would, of course, be obligatory upon me +after I resumed my liberty. Again, I felt no very great inclination to +sue for redress where there was so little prospect of procuring +anything. I might certainly have represented the matter to the Mexican +government, and even have obtained perhaps the acknowledgment of my +claims against Chihuahua for damages; but the payment would [Pg201] +have been extremely doubtful. As to our own Government, I had too much +experience to rely for a moment upon her interposition. + +During the progress of these transactions, I strove to ascertain the +character of the charges made against me; but in vain. All I knew was, +that I had offended a _rico_, and had been summoned back to Chihuahua +at his instance; yet whether for 'high treason,' for an attempt at +robbery, or for contempt to his _senoria_, I knew not. It is not +unusual, however, in that 'land of liberty,' for a person to be +arrested and even confined for weeks without knowing the cause. The +writ of _Habeas Corpus_ appears unknown in the judicial tribunals of +Northern Mexico. + +Upon the receipt of my petition, the Governor immediately issued the +following decree, which I translate for the benefit of the reader, as +being not a bad specimen of Mexican grand eloquence: + +"In consideration of the memorial which you have this day directed to +the Superior Government, His Excellency, {133} the Governor, has been +pleased to issue the following decree: + +"'That, as Don Angel Trias has withdrawn his prosecution, so far as +relates to his personal interests, the Government, using the equity +with which it ought to look upon faults committed without a deliberate +intention to infringe the laws, which appears presumable in the +present case, owing to the memorialist's ignorance of them, the grace +which he solicits is granted to him; and, in consequence, he is at +liberty to retire when he chooses: to which end, and that he may not +be interrupted by the authorities, a copy of this decree will be +transmitted to him.' + +"In virtue of the above, I inclose the said decree to you, for the +purposes intended. + +"God and Liberty. Chihuahua, Nov. 9, 1839. + + "AMADO DE LA VEGA, Sec. + + "TO DON JOSIAH GREGG." + +Thus terminated this 'momentous' affair. The moral of it may be summed +up in a few words. A citizen [Pg202] of the United States who, under +the faith of treaties, is engaged in his business, may be seized and +harassed by the arbitrary authorities of Chihuahua with perfect +impunity, because experience has proved that the American Government +winks at almost every individual outrage, as utterly unworthy of its +serious consideration. At the same time, the Indians may enter, as +they frequently do, the suburbs of the city,--rob, plunder, and +destroy life, without a single soldier being raised, or an effort made +to bring the savage malefactors within the pale of justice. But a few +days before the occasion of my difficulty at Torreon, the Apaches had +killed a ranchero or two in the immediate neighborhood of the same +village; and afterwards, {134} at the very time such a bustle was +being made in Chihuahua to raise troops for my 'special benefit,' the +Indians entered the corn-fields in the suburbs of the city, and killed +several _labradores_ who were at work in them. In neither of these +cases, however, were there any troops at command to pursue and +chastise the depredators--though a whole army was in readiness to +persecute our party. The truth is, they felt much less reluctance to +pursue a band of civil traders, who, they were well aware, could not +assume a hostile attitude, than to be caught in the wake of a band of +savages, who would as little respect their lives as their laws and +their property. + +Early on the morning of the 10th, I once more, and for the last time, +and with anything but regret, took my leave of Chihuahua, with my +companions in trouble. Toward the afternoon we met my old friend the +captain, with his valiant followers, whom I found as full of urbanity +as ever--so much so, indeed, that he never even asked to see my +passport. + +On the evening of the next day, now in the heart of the savage haunts, +we were not a little alarmed by the appearance of a large body of +horsemen in the distance. [Pg203] They turned out, however, to be +_Pasenos_, or citizens of the Paso del Norte. They were on their way +to Chihuahua with a number of pack-mules laden with apples, pears, +grapes, wine, and _aguardiente_--proceeds of their productive orchards +and vineyards. It is from El Paso that Chihuahua is chiefly supplied +with fruits and {135} liquors, which are transported on mules or in +carretas. The fruits, as well fresh as in a dried state, are thus +carried to the distant markets. The grapes, carefully dried in the +shade, make excellent _pasas_ or raisins, of which large quantities +are annually prepared for market by the people of that delightful town +of vineyards and orchards, who, to take them altogether, are more +sober and industrious than those of any other part of Mexico I have +visited; and are happily less infested by the extremes of wealth and +poverty. + +On the 13th, I overtook my wagons a few miles south of El Paso, whence +our journey was continued, without any additional casualty, and on the +6th of December we reached Santa Fe, in fine health and spirits. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[122] The distance from Chihuahua to Durango is about five hundred +miles, and from thence to Aguascalientes it is nearly three +hundred--upon the route we travelled, which was very circuitous. All +the intermediate country resembles, in its physical features, that +lying immediately north of Chihuahua, which has already been +described.--GREGG. + +[123] Jesus-Maria is still a mining town in western Chihuahua, in the +heart of a sierra of the same name.--ED. + +[124] Water has sometimes accumulated so rapidly in this mine as to +stop operations for weeks together.--GREGG. + +[125] The Mexican money table is as follows: 12 _granos_ make 1 +_real_; 8 _reales_, 1 _peso_, or dollar. These are the divisions used +in computation, but instead of _granos_, the copper coins of Chihuahua +and many other places, are the _claco_ or _jola_ (1/8 real) and the +_cuartilla_ (1/4 real). The silver coins are the _medio_ (6-1/4 +cents), the _real_ (12-1/2 cents), the _peseta_ (2 reales), the +_toston_ or half dollar, and the _peso_ or dollar. The gold coins are +the _doblon_ or _onza_ (doubloon), with the same subdivisions as the +silver dollar, which are also of the same weight. The par value of the +doubloon is sixteen dollars; but, as there is no kind of paper +currency, gold, as the most convenient remittance, usually commands a +high premium--sometimes so high, indeed, that the doubloon is valued +in the North at from eighteen to twenty dollars.--GREGG. + +[126] See Kendall, _Texan Santa Fe Expedition_, ii, pp. 66-73.--ED. + +[127] For Hidalgo, see our volume xix, p. 176, note 11 (Gregg).--ED. + +[128] For Guerrero and Iturbide see Pattie's _Narrative_, in our +volume xviii, p. 314 (note 130), p. 362 (note 141).--ED. + +[129] Trias, while yet a youth, was dispatched by his adopted father +to take the tour of Europe and the United States. He was furnished for +'pocket money' (as I have been told) with nearly a hundred _barras de +plata_, each worth a thousand dollars or upwards. This money he easily +got rid of during his travels, but retained most of his innate bigotry +and self-importance: and, with his knowledge of the superiority of the +people among whom he journeyed, grew his hatred for foreigners. +--GREGG. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV [VIII] + +Preparations for returning Home -- Breaking out of the Small-pox -- + The Start -- Our Caravan -- Manuel the Comanche -- A New Route -- + The Prairie on Fire -- Danger to be apprehended from these + Conflagrations -- A Comanche Buffalo-chase -- A Skirmish with the + Pawnees -- An intrepid Mexican -- The Wounded -- Value of a thick + Skull -- Retreat of the Enemy and their Failure -- A bleak + Northwester -- Loss of our Sheep -- The Llano Estacado and Sources + of Red River -- The Canadian River -- Cruelties upon Buffalo -- + Feats at 'Still-hunting' -- Mr. Wethered's Adventure -- Once more on + our own Soil -- The False Washita -- Enter our former Trail -- + Character of the Country over which we had travelled -- Arrival at + Van Buren -- The two Routes to Santa Fe -- Some Advantages of that + from Arkansas -- Restlessness of Prairie Travellers in civilized + life, and Propensity for returning to the Wild Deserts. + + +About the beginning of February, 1840, and just as I was making +preparations to return to the United States, [Pg204] the small-pox +broke out among my men, in a manner which at first occasioned at least +as much astonishment as alarm. One of them, who had been vaccinated, +having travelled in a district where the small-pox prevailed, +complained of a little fever, which was followed by slight eruptions, +but so unlike true variolous pustules, that I treated the matter very +lightly; not even suspecting a varioloid. These slight symptoms {137} +having passed off, nothing more was thought of it until eight or ten +days after, when every unvaccinated member of our company was attacked +by that fell disease, which soon began to manifest very malignant +features. There were no fatal cases, however; yet much apprehension +was felt, lest the disease should break out again on the route; but, +to our great joy, we escaped this second scourge. + +A party that left Santa Fe for Missouri soon afterward, was much more +unfortunate. On the way, several of their men were attacked by the +small-pox: some of them died, and, others retaining the infection till +they approached the Missouri frontier, they were compelled to undergo +a 'quarantine' in the bordering prairie, before they were permitted to +enter the settlements. + +On the 25th of February we set out from Santa Fe; but owing to some +delays, we did not leave San Miguel till the 1st of March. As the +pasturage was yet insufficient for our animals, we here provided +ourselves with over six hundred bushels of corn, to feed them on the +way. This time our caravan consisted of twenty-eight wagons, two small +cannons, and forty-seven men, including sixteen Mexicans and a +Comanche Indian who acted in the capacity of guide.[130] Two gentlemen +of Baltimore, {138} Messrs. [Pg205] S. Wethered and J. R. Ware, had +joined our caravan with one wagon and three men, making up the +aggregate above-mentioned. We had also a caballada of more than two +hundred mules, with nearly three hundred sheep and goats. The sheep +were brought along partially to supply us with meat in case of +emergency: the surplusage, however, could not fail to command a fair +price in the United States. + +Instead of following the trail of the year before, I determined to +seek a nearer and better route down the south side of the Canadian +river, under the guidance of the Comanche; by which movement, we had +again to travel a distance of four hundred miles over an entirely new +country. We had just passed the Laguna Colorada, where, the following +year, a division of Texan volunteers, under General McLeod, +surrendered to Col. Archuleta,[131] when our fire was carelessly +permitted to communicate with the prairie grass. As there was a +head-wind blowing at the time, we very soon got out of reach of the +conflagration: but the next day, the wind having changed, the fire was +again perceived in our rear approaching us at a very brisk pace. The +terror [Pg206] which these prairie conflagrations are calculated to +inspire, when the grass is tall and dry, as was the case in the +present instance, has often {139} been described, and though the +perils of these disasters are not unfrequently exaggerated, they are +sometimes sufficient to daunt the stoutest heart. Mr. Kendall relates +a frightful incident of this kind which occurred to the Texan Santa Fe +Exposition; and all those who have crossed the Prairies have had more +or less experience as to the danger which occasionally threatens the +caravans from these sweeping visitations. The worst evil to be +apprehended with those bound for Santa Fe is from the explosion of +gunpowder, as a keg or two of twenty-five pounds each, is usually to +be found in every wagon. When we saw the fire gaining so rapidly upon +us, we had to use the whip very unsparingly; and it was only when the +lurid flames were actually rolling upon the heels of our teams, that +we succeeded in reaching a spot of short-grass prairie, where there +was no further danger to be apprehended. + +The headway of the conflagration was soon after checked by a small +stream which traversed our route; and we had only emerged fairly from +its smoke, on the following day (the 9th), when our Comanche guide +returned hastily from his accustomed post in advance, and informed us +that he had espied three buffaloes, not far off. They were the first +we had met with, and, being heartily anxious for a change from the +dried beef with which we were provided, I directed the Comanche, who +was by far our surest hunter, to prepare at once for the _chasse_. He +said he preferred to hunt on {140} horseback and with his bow and +arrow; and believing my riding-horse the fleetest in company (which, +by the by, was but a common pony, and thin in flesh withal), I +dismounted and gave him the bridle, with many charges to treat him +kindly, as we still had a long journey before [Pg207] us. "Don't +attempt to kill but one--that will serve us for the present!" I +exclaimed, as he galloped off. The Comanche was among the largest of +his tribe--bony and muscular--weighing about two hundred pounds: but +once at his favorite sport, he very quickly forgot my injunction, as +well as the weakness of my little pony. He soon brought down two of +his game,--and shyly remarked to those who followed in his wake, that, +had he not feared a scolding from me, he would not have permitted the +third to escape. + +On the evening of the 10th our camp was pitched in the neighborhood of +a ravine in the prairie, and as the night was dark and dreary, the +watch tried to comfort themselves by building a rousing fire, around +which they presently drew, and commenced 'spinning long yarns' about +Mexican fandangoes, and black-eyed damsels. All of a sudden the +stillness of the night was interrupted by a loud report of fire-arms, +and a shower of bullets came whizzing by the ears of the heedless +sentinels. Fortunately, however, no one was injured; which must be +looked upon as a very extraordinary circumstance, when we consider +what a fair mark our men, thus huddled {141} round a blazing fire, +presented to the rifles of the Indians. The savage yells, which +resounded from every part of the ravine, bore very satisfactory +testimony that this was no false alarm; and the 'Pawnee whistle' which +was heard in every quarter, at once impressed us with the idea of its +being a band of that famous prairie banditti. + +Every man sprang from his pallet with rifle in hand; for, upon the +Prairies, we always sleep with our arms by our sides or under our +heads. Our Comanche seemed at first very much at a loss what to do. At +last, thinking it might possibly be a band of his own nation, he began +a most boisterous harangue in his vernacular tongue, which he [Pg208] +continued for several minutes; when finding that the enemy took no +notice of him, and having become convinced also, from an occasional +Pawnee word which he was able to make out, that he had been wasting +breath with the mortal foes of his race, he suddenly ceased all +expostulations, and blazed away with his rifle, with a degree of +earnestness which was truly edifying, as if convinced that that was +the best he could do for us. + +It was now evident that the Indians had taken possession of the entire +ravine, the nearest points of which were not fifty yards from our +wagons: a warning to prairie travellers to encamp at a greater +distance from whatsoever might afford shelter for an enemy. The banks +of the gully were low, but still they formed a very good breastwork, +behind which {142} the enemy lay ensconced, discharging volleys of +balls upon our wagons, among which we were scattered. At one time we +thought of making an attempt to rout them from their fortified +position; but being ignorant of their number, and unable to +distinguish any object through the dismal darkness which hung all +around, we had to remain content with firing at random from behind our +wagons, aiming at the flash of their guns, or in the direction whence +any noise appeared to emanate. Indeed their yelling was almost +continuous, breaking out every now and then in the most hideous +screams and vociferous chattering, which were calculated to appal such +timorous persons as we may have had in our caravan. All their +screeching and whooping, however, had no effect--they could not make +our animals break from the enclosure of the wagons, in which they were +fortunately shut up; which was no doubt their principal object for +attacking us. + +I cannot forbear recording a most daring feat performed by a Mexican +muleteer, named Antonio Chavez, during the hottest of the first onset. +Seeing the danger of my [Pg209] two favorite riding horses, which +were tethered outside within a few paces of the savages, he rushed out +and brought safely in the most valuable of the two, though fusil-balls +were showering around him all the while. The other horse broke his +halter and made his escape. + +Although sundry scores of shots had been fired at our people, we had +only two men {143} wounded. One, a Mexican, was but slightly injured +in the hand, but the wound of the other, who was an Italian, bore a +more serious aspect, and deserves especial mention. He was a short, +corpulent fellow, and had been nicknamed 'Dutch'--a loquacious, +chicken-hearted _faineant_, and withal in the daily habit of gorging +himself to such an enormous extent, that every alternate night he was +on the sick list. On this memorable occasion, Dutch had 'foundered' +again, and the usual prescription of a double dose of Epsom salts had +been his supper potion. The skirmish had continued for about an hour, +and although a frightful groaning had been heard in Dutch's wagon for +some time, no one paid any attention to it, as it was generally +supposed to be from the effects of his dose. At length, however, some +one cried out, "Dutch is wounded!" I immediately went to see him, and +found him writhing and twisting himself as if in great pain, crying +all the time that he was shot. "Shot!--where?" I inquired. "Ah! in the +head, sir?" "Pshaw! Dutch, none of that; you've only bumped your head +in trying to hide yourself." Upon lighting a match, however, I found +that a ball had passed through the middle of his hat, and that, to my +consternation, the top of his head was bathed in blood. It turned out, +upon subsequent examination, that the ball had glanced upon the skull, +inflicting a serious-looking wound, and so deep that an inch of sound +skin separated the holes at which the {144} bullet had entered and +passed out. Notwithstanding I at first apprehended [Pg210] a fracture +of the scull, it very soon healed, and Dutch was 'up and about' again +in the course of a week. + +Although teachers not unfrequently have cause to deplore the thickness +of their pupils' skulls, Dutch had every reason to congratulate +himself upon possessing such a treasure, as it had evidently preserved +him from a more serious catastrophe. It appeared he had taken shelter +in his wagon at the commencement of the attack, without reflecting +that the boards and sheets were not ball-proof: and as Indians, +especially in the night, are apt to shoot too high, he was in a much +more dangerous situation than if upon the ground. + +The enemy continued the attack for nearly three hours, when they +finally retired, so as to make good their retreat before daylight. As +it rained and snowed from that time till nine in the morning, their +'sign' was almost entirely obliterated, and we were unable to discover +whether they had received any injury or not. It was evidently a foot +party, which we looked upon as another proof of their being Pawnees; +for these famous marauders are well known to go forth on their +expeditions of plunder without horses, although they seldom fail to +return well mounted. + +Their shot had riddled our wagons considerably: in one we counted no +less than eight bullet-holes. We had the gratification to believe, +however, that they did not get a single {145} one of our animals: the +horse which broke away at the first onset, doubtless made his escape; +and a mule which was too badly wounded to travel, was dispatched by +the muleteers, lest it should fall into the hands of the savages, or +into the mouths of the wolves; and they deemed it more humane to leave +it to be eaten dead than alive. We also experienced considerable +damage in our stock of sheep, a number of them having been devoured by +wolves. They had been scattered at the beginning of the attack; +[Pg211] and, in their anxiety to fly from the scene of action, had +jumped, as it were, into the very jaws of their ravenous enemies. + +On the 12th of March, we ascended upon the celebrated _Llano +Estacado_, and continued along its borders for a few days. The second +night upon this dreary plain, we experienced one of the strongest and +bleakest 'northwesters' that ever swept across those prairies; during +which, our flock of sheep and goats, being left unattended, fled over +the plain, in search of some shelter, it was supposed, from the +furious element. Their disappearance was not observed for some time, +and the night being too dark to discern anything, we were obliged to +defer going in pursuit of them till the following morning. After a +fruitless and laborious search, during which the effects of the mirage +proved a constant source of annoyance and disappointment, we were +finally obliged to relinquish the pursuit, and return to the caravan +without finding one of them. + +{146} These severe winds are very prevalent upon the great western +prairies, though they are seldom quite so inclement. At some seasons, +they are about as regular and unceasing as the 'trade winds' of the +ocean. It will often blow a gale for days, and even weeks together, +without slacking for a moment, except occasionally at night. It is for +this reason, as well as on account of the rains, that percussion guns +are preferable upon the Prairies, particularly for those who +understand their use. The winds are frequently so severe as to sweep +away both sparks and priming from a flint lock, and thus render it +wholly ineffective. + +The following day we continued our march down the border of the Llano +Estacado. Knowing that our Comanche guide was about as familiar with +all those great plains as a landlord with his premises, I began to +question him, [Pg212] as we travelled along, concerning the different +streams which pierced them to the southward. Pointing in that +direction, he said there passed a water-course, at the distance of a +hard day's ride, which he designated as a _canada_ or valley, in which +there was always water to be found at occasional places, but that none +flowed in its channel except during the rainy season. This canada he +described as having its origin in the Llano Estacado some fifty or +sixty miles east of Rio Pecos, and about the same distance south of +the route we came, and that its direction was a little south of east, +passing to the southward {147} of the northern portion of the Witchita +mountains, known to Mexican Ciboleros and Comancheros as _Sierra +Jumanes_. It was, therefore, evident that this was the principal +northern branch of Red River. The False Washita, or _Rio Negro_, as +the Mexicans call it, has its rise, as he assured me, between the +Canadian and this canada, at no great distance of the southeastward of +where we were then travelling. + +On the 15th, our Comanche guide, being fearful lest we should find no +water upon the plain, advised us to pursue a more northwardly course, +so that, after a hard day's ride, we again descended the _ceja_ or +brow of the Llano Estacado, into the undulating lands which border the +Canadian; and, on the following day, we found ourselves upon the +southern bank of that stream. + +Although, but a few days' travel above where we now were, the Canadian +runs pent up in a narrow channel, scarcely four rods across, we here +found it spread out to the width of from three to six hundred yards, +and so full of sand-bars (only interspersed with narrow rills) as to +present the appearance of a mere sandy valley instead of the bed of a +river. In fact, during the driest seasons, the water wholly disappears +in many places. Captain Boone, of the U. S. Dragoons, being upon an +exploring expedition [Pg213] in the summer of 1843, came to the +Canadian about the region of our western boundary, where he found the +channel perfectly dry.[132] Notwithstanding {148} it presents the face +of one of the greatest rivers of the west during freshets, yet even +then it would not be navigable on account of its rapidity and +shallowness. It would appear almost incredible to those unacquainted +with the prairie streams, that a river of about 1500 miles in length, +and whose head wears a cap of perennial snow (having its source in the +Rocky Mountains), should scarcely be navigable, for even the smallest +craft, over fifty miles above its mouth. + +We pursued our course down the same side of the river for several +days, during which time we crossed a multitude of little streams which +flowed into the Canadian from the adjoining plains, while others +presented nothing but dry beds of sand. One of these was so +remarkable, on account of its peculiarity and size, that we named it +'Dry River.' The bed was at least 200 yards wide, yet without a +vestige of water; notwithstanding, our guide assured us that it was a +brisk-flowing stream some leagues above: and from the drift-wood along +its borders, it was evident that, even here, it must be a considerable +river during freshets.[133] + +While traveling down the course of the Canadian, we sometimes found +the buffalo very abundant. On one [Pg214] occasion, two or three +hunters, who were a little in advance of the caravan, perceiving a +herd quietly grazing in an open glade, they 'crawled upon' them after +the manner of the 'still hunters.' Their first shot having brought +down a fine {149} fat cow, they slipped up behind her, and, resting +their guns over her body, shot two or three others, without +occasioning any serious disturbance or surprise to their companions; +for, extraordinary as it may appear, if the buffalo neither see nor +smell the hunter, they will pay but little attention to the crack of +guns, or to the mortality which is being dealt among them. + +The slaughter of these animals is frequently carried to an excess, +which shows the depravity of the human heart in very bold relief. Such +is the excitement that generally prevails at the sight of these fat +denizens of the prairies, that very few hunters appear able to refrain +from shooting as long as the game remains within reach of their +rifles; nor can they ever permit a fair shot to escape them. Whether +the mere pleasure of taking life is {150} the incentive of these +brutal excesses, I will not pretend to decide; but one thing is very +certain, that the buffalo killed yearly on these prairies far exceeds +the wants of the traveller, or what might be looked upon as the +exigencies of rational sport.[134] + +But in making these observations, I regret that I cannot give to my +precepts the force of my own example: I have not always been able +wholly to withstand the cruel temptation. Not long after the incident +above alluded to, as I was pioneering alone, according to my usual +practice, at a distance of a mile or two ahead of the wagons, in +search of the best route, I perceived in a glade, a few rods in front +[Pg215] of me, several protuberances, which at first occasioned me no +little fright, for I took them, as they loomed dimly through the tall +grass, for the tops of Indian lodges. But I soon discovered they were +the huge humps of a herd of buffalo, which were quietly grazing. + +I immediately alighted, and approached unobserved to within forty or +fifty yards of the unsuspecting animals. Being armed with one of +Cochran's nine-chambered rifles, I took aim at one that stood +broad-side, and 'blazed away.' The buffalo threw up their heads and +looked about, but seeing nothing (for I remained concealed in the +grass), they again {151} went on grazing as though nothing had +happened. The truth is, the one I had shot was perhaps but little +hurt; for, as generally happens with the inexperienced hunter--and +often with those who know better, the first excitement allowing no +time for reflection--I no doubt aimed too high, so as to lodge the +ball in the hump. A buffalo's heart lies exceedingly low, so that to +strike it the shot should enter not over one-fourth of the depth of +the body above the lower edge of the breast bone. + +The brutes were no sooner quiet, than I took another and more +deliberate aim at my former victim, which resulted as before. But +believing him now mortally wounded, I next fired in quick succession +at four others of the gang. It occurred to me, by this time, that I +had better save my remaining three shots; for it was possible enough +for my firing to attract the attention of strolling savages, who might +take advantage of my empty gun to make a sortie upon me--yet there +stood my buffalo, some of them still quietly feeding. + +As I walked out from my concealment, a party of our own men came +galloping up from the wagons, considerably alarmed. They had heard the +six shots, and, not recollecting my repeating rifle, supposed I had +been attacked [Pg216] by Indians, and therefore came to my relief. +Upon their approach the buffalo all fled, except three which appeared +badly wounded--one indeed soon fell and expired. The other two would +doubtless have followed {152} the example of the first, had not a +hunter, anxious to dispatch them more speedily, approached too near; +when, regaining strength from the excitement, they fled before him, +and entirely escaped, though he pursued them for a considerable +distance. + +A few days after this occurrence, Mr. Wethered returned to the camp +one evening with seven buffalo tongues (the hunter's usual trophy) +swung to his saddle. He said that, in the morning, one of the hunters +had ungenerously objected to sharing a buffalo with him; whereupon Mr. +W. set out, vowing he would kill buffalo for himself, and 'no thanks +to any one.' He had not been out long when he spied a herd of only +seven bulls, quietly feeding near a ravine; and slipping up behind the +banks, he shot down one and then another, until they all lay before +him; and their seven tongues he brought in to bear testimony of his +skill. + +Not long after crossing Dry River, we ascended the high grounds, and +soon found ourselves upon the high ridge which divides the waters of +the Canadian and False Washita, whose 'breaks' could be traced +descending from the Llano Estacado far to the southwest. + +By an observation of an eclipse of one of Jupiter's satellites, on the +night of the 25th of March, in latitude 35 deg. 51' 30'', I found that we +were very near the 100th degree of longitude west from Greenwich. On +the following day, therefore, we celebrated our entrance into the +United States territory. Those who {153} have never been beyond the +purlieus of the land of their nativity, can form but a poor conception +of the joy which the wanderer in distant climes [Pg217] experiences +on treading once more upon his own native soil! Although we were yet +far from the abodes of civilization, and further still from home, +nevertheless the heart within us thrilled with exhilarating +sensations; for we were again in our own territory, breathed our own +free atmosphere, and were fairly out of reach of the arbitrary power +which we had left behind us. + +As we continued our route upon this narrow dividing ridge, we could +not help remarking how nearly these streams approach each other: in +one place they seemed scarcely five miles apart. On this account our +Comanche guide, as well as several Mexicans of our party, who had some +acquaintance with these prairies, gave it as their opinion that the +Washita or _Rio Negro_ was in fact a branch of the Canadian; for its +confluence with Red River was beyond the bounds of their +peregrinations. + +As the forest of Cross Timbers was now beginning to be seen in the +distance, and fearing we might be troubled to find a passway through +this brushy region, south of the Canadian, we forded this river on the +29th, without the slightest trouble, and very soon entered our former +trail, a little west of Spring Valley. This gave a new and joyful +impulse to our spirits; for we had been travelling over twenty days +without even a trail, {154} and through a region of which we knew +absolutely nothing, except from what we could gather from our Comanche +pilot. This trail, which our wagons had made the previous summer, was +still visible, and henceforth there was an end to all misgivings. + +If we take a retrospective view of the country over which we +travelled, we shall find but little that can ever present attractions +to the agriculturist. Most of the low valleys of the Canadian, for a +distance of five hundred miles, are either too sandy or too marshy for +cultivation; and the upland prairies are, in many places, but little +else than [Pg218] sand-hills. In some parts, it is true, they are +firm and fertile, but wholly destitute of timber, with the exception +of a diminutive branch of the Cross Timbers, which occupies a portion +of the ridge betwixt the Canadian and the North Fork. The Canadian +river itself is still more bare of timber than the upper Arkansas. In +its whole course through the plains, there is but little except +cottonwood, and that very scantily scattered along its banks--in some +places, for leagues together, not a stick is to be seen. Except it be +near the Mountains, where the valleys are more fertile, it is only the +little narrow bottoms which skirt many of its tributary rivulets that +indicate any amenity. Some of these are rich and beautiful in the +extreme, timbered with walnut, mulberry, oak, elm, hackberry, and +occasionally cedar about the bluffs. + +We now continued our journey without encountering any further +casualty, except in {155} crossing the Arkansas river, where we lost +several mules by drowning; and on the 22d of April we made our +entrance into Van Buren. This trip was much more tedious and +protracted than I had contemplated--owing, in the first part of the +journey, to the inclemency of the season, and a want of pasturage for +our animals; and, towards the conclusion, to the frequent rains, which +kept the route in a miserable condition. + +Concerning this expedition, I have only one or two more remarks to +offer. As regards the two different routes to Santa Fe, although +Missouri, for various reasons which it is needless to explain here, +can doubtless retain the monopoly of the Santa Fe trade, the route +from Arkansas possesses many advantages. Besides its being some days' +travel shorter,[135] it is less intersected with large streams; there +are fewer sandy stretches, and a greater variety of [Pg219] +wood-skirted brooks, affording throughout the journey very agreeable +camping-places. Also, as the grass springs up nearly a month earlier +than in Upper Missouri, caravans could start much sooner, and the +proprietors would have double the time to conduct their mercantile +transactions. Moreover, the return companies would find better +pasturage on their way back, and reach their homes before the season +of frost had far advanced. Again, such as should desire to engage in +the 'stock {156} trade' would at once bring their mules and horses +into a more congenial climate--one more in accordance with that of +their nativity; for the rigorous winters of Missouri often prove fatal +to the unacclimated Mexican animals. + +This was my last trip across the Plains, though I made an excursion, +during the following summer, among the Comanche Indians, and other +wild tribes, living in the heart of the Prairies, but returned without +crossing to Mexico. The observations made during this trip will be +found incorporated in the notices, which are to follow, of the +Prairies and their inhabitants. + +Since that time I have striven in vain to reconcile myself to the even +tenor of civilized life in the United States; and have sought in its +amusements and its society a substitute for those high excitements +which have attached me so strongly to Prairie life. Yet I am almost +ashamed to confess that scarcely a day passes without my experiencing +a pang of regret that I am not now roving at large upon those western +plains. Nor do I find my taste peculiar; for I have hardly known a +man, who has ever become familiar with the kind of life which I have +led for so many years, that has not relinquished it with regret. + +There is more than one way of explaining this apparent incongruity. In +the first place--the wild, unsettled and independent life of the +Prairie trader, makes perfect freedom [Pg220] from nearly every kind +of social dependence an absolute necessity of his being. He is in +{157} daily, nay, hourly exposure of his life and property, and in the +habit of relying upon his own arm and his own gun both for protection +and support. Is he wronged? No court or jury is called to adjudicate +upon his disputes or his abuses, save his own conscience; and no +powers are invoked to redress them, save those with which the God of +Nature has endowed him. He knows no government--no laws, save those of +his own creation and adoption. He lives in no society which he must +look up to or propitiate. The exchange of this untrammelled +condition--this sovereign independence, for a life in civilization, +where both his physical and moral freedom are invaded at every turn, +by the complicated machinery of social institutions, is certainly +likely to commend itself to but few,--not even to all those who have +been educated to find their enjoyments in the arts and elegancies +peculiar to civilized society;--as is evinced by the frequent +instances of men of letters, of refinement and of wealth, voluntarily +abandoning society for a life upon the Prairies, or in the still more +savage mountain wilds. + +A 'tour on the Prairies' is certainly a _dangerous_ experiment for him +who would live a quiet contented life at home among his friends and +relatives: not so dangerous to life or health, as prejudicial to his +domestic habits. Those who have lived pent up in our large cities, +know but little of the broad, unembarrassed freedom of the Great +Western Prairies. {158} Viewing them from a snug fire-side, they seem +crowded with dangers, with labors and with sufferings; but once upon +them, and these appear to vanish--they are soon forgotten. + +There is another consideration, which, with most men of the Prairies, +operates seriously against their reconciliation to the habits of +civilized life. Though they be [Pg221] endowed naturally with the +organs of taste and refinement, and though once familiar with the ways +and practices of civilized communities, yet a long absence from such +society generally obliterates from their minds most of those common +laws of social intercourse, which are so necessary to the man of the +world. The awkwardness and the _gaucheries_ which ignorance of their +details so often involves, are very trying to all men of sensitive +temperaments. Consequently, multitudes rush back to the Prairies, +merely to escape those criticisms and that ridicule, which they know +not how to disarm. + +It will hardly be a matter of surprise then, when I add, that this +passion for Prairie life, how paradoxical soever it may seem, will be +very apt to lead me upon the Plains again, to spread my bed with the +mustang and the buffalo, under the broad canopy of heaven,--there to +seek to maintain undisturbed my confidence in men, by fraternizing +with the little prairie dogs and wild colts, and the still wilder +Indians--the _unconquered Sabaeans_ of the Great American Deserts. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[130] Manuel _el Comanche_ was a full Indian, born and bred upon the +great prairies. Long after having arrived at the state of manhood, he +accompanied some Mexican _Comancheros_ to the frontier village of San +Miguel, where he fell in love with a Mexican girl--married her--and +has lived in that place, a sober, 'civilized' citizen for the last ten +or twelve years--endowed with much more goodness of heart and +integrity of purpose than a majority of his Mexican neighbors. He had +learned to speak Spanish quite intelligibly, and was therefore an +excellent Comanche interpreter: and being familiar with every part of +the prairies, he was very serviceable as a guide.--GREGG. + +[131] Laguna Colorada is in the northeastern part of what is now Quay +County, New Mexico, about twelve miles west of Tucumcari Mount. + +General Hugh McLeod was born in New York in 1814. Graduated at West +Point, he resigned from the army to offer his services to the Texans +in their struggle for independence. He also commanded in a campaign +against the Cherokee in 1839. After the unfortunate Texan-Santa Fe +expedition, McLeod was imprisoned in Mexico for about a year, and +finally released at the request of the United States government. He +served throughout the Mexican War, and joining the Confederate army in +1861 died in Virginia the following year. + +Colonel Juan Andres Archuleta, to whom McLeod surrendered, was not the +Archuleta who conspired against the United States in 1846-47.--ED. + +[132] Nathan Boone was the youngest son of the noted pioneer Daniel. +Born in Kentucky in 1780, he emigrated to Missouri late in the +eighteenth century, and distinguished himself in frontier service +during the War of 1812-15. He made his home in St. Charles County, +Missouri, and built therein the first stone house, in which his father +died in 1820. The younger Boone entered the regular army in 1832, as +captain of rangers; the following year saw him in command of a company +of the 1st dragoons, with whom he saw much frontier service. In 1847 +he received his majoralty, and in 1850 became lieutenant-colonel. +Three years later, he resigned from the army, dying at his home in +Green County, Missouri, in 1857.--ED. + +[133] Dry River is not laid down on current modern maps. It is in +northwestern Texas, apparently near the line of the Atchison, Topeka +and Santa Fe Railway, in Roberts and Hemphill counties. See our volume +XVI, p. 130, note 61; also map 2 in _Senate Docs._, 31 cong., 1 sess., +12.--ED. + +[134] The same barbarous propensity is observable in regard to wild +horses. Most persons appear unable to restrain this wanton inclination +to take life, when a mustang approaches within rifle-shot. Many a +stately steed thus falls a victim to the cruelty of man.--GREGG. + +[135] The latitude of Independence, Mo., is 39 deg. 8', while that of Van +Buren is 35 deg. 26',--within a few miles of the parallel of Santa Fe: and +being on about the same meridian as Independence, the distance, of +course, is considerably shorter.--GREGG. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV {IX} CONCLUSION OF THE SANTA FE TRADE + +Decline of Prices -- Statistical Table -- Chihuahua Trade -- Its + Extent -- Different Ports through which Goods are introduced to that + Market -- Expedition between Chihuahua and Arkansas -- The more + recent Incidents of the Santa Fe Caravans -- Adventures of 1843 -- + Robbery and Murder of Chavez -- Expedition from Texas -- Defeat of + Gen. Armijo's Van-guard -- His precipitate Retreat -- Texan + Grievances -- Unfortunate Results of Indiscriminate Revenge -- Want + of Discipline among the Texans -- Disarmed by Capt. Cook -- Return + of the Escort of U.S. Dragoons, and of the Texans -- Demands of the + Mexican Government -- Closing of the Santa Fe Trade. + + +Before proceeding to the graver matters to be presented in the +succeeding chapters, a few words to those who are curious about the +history of the Santa Fe trade [Pg222] intervening between the +conclusion of my personal narrative and the closing of the trade by +the Mexican government, in 1843, may not be amiss. + +The Santa Fe trade, though more or less fluctuating from its origin, +continued to present an average increase and growth down to the year +1831. During the same period, the prices of goods continued to go down +in even a more rapid ratio. Since 1831, the rates of {160} sales have +continued steadily to fall, to the latest period of the trade, +although there has been no average increase in the number of +adventurers, or amount of merchandise.[136] + +{161} From 1831 to the present date, prices have scarcely averaged, +for medium calicoes, thirty-seven cents, and for plain domestic +cottons thirty-one cents per yard. Taking [Pg223] assortments round, +100 per cent, upon United States costs were generally considered +excellent sales: many stocks have been sold at a much lower rate. The +average prices of Chihuahua are equally low, yet a brisker demand has +rendered this the most agreeable and profitable branch of the trade. + +{162} The first attempt to introduce American goods into the more +southern markets of Mexico from Santa Fe, was made in the year 1824. +The amounts were very small, however, till towards the year 1831. For +a few of the first years, the traders were in the habit of conveying +small lots to Sonora and California; but this branch of the trade has, +I believe, latterly ceased altogether. Yet the amounts transferred to +Chihuahua have generally increased; so that for the last few years, +that trade has consumed very nearly half of the entire imports by the +Missouri Caravans. + +The entire consumption of foreign goods in the department of +Chihuahua, has been estimated by intelligent Mexican merchants, at +from two to three millions annually; [Pg224] the first cost of which +might be set down at nearly one half. Of this amount the Santa Fe +trade, as will be seen from the accompanying table, has not furnished +a tenth part; the balance being introduced through other ports, viz.: +_Matamoras_, whence Chihuahua has received nearly half its +supplies--_Vera Cruz_ via the city of Mexico, whence considerable +amounts have been brought to this department--_Tampico_ on the Gulf of +Mexico, and _Mazatlan_ on the Pacific, via Durango, whence the imports +have been of some importance--while nearly all the west of the +department, and especially the heavy consumption of the mining town of +Jesus-Maria, receives most of its supplies from the port of _Guaymas_ +on the Gulf of {163} California; whence, indeed, several stocks of +goods have been introduced as far as the city of Chihuahua itself. In +1840, a large amount of merchandise was transported directly from the +Red River frontier of Arkansas to Chihuahua; but no other expedition +has ever been made in that direction.[137] [Pg225] + +{164} By far the greatest portion of the introductions through +the sea-ports just alluded to, have been made by British merchants. It +is chiefly the preference given to American manufacturers, which has +enabled the merchandise of the Santa Fe adventurers to compete in the +Southern markets, with goods introduced through the sea-ports, which +have had the {165} benefit of the drawback. In this last respect our +traders have labored under a very unjust burden. + +It is difficult to conceive any equitable reason why merchants +conveying their goods across the Prairies in wagons, should not be as +much entitled to the protection of the Government, as those who +transport them in vessels across the ocean. This assistance (with the +reopening of the ports) might enable our merchants to monopolize the +rich trade of Chihuahua; and they would obtain a share of that of the +still richer departments of Durango and Zacatecas, as well as some +portion of the Sonora and California [Pg226] trade. Then rating that +of Chihuahua at two millions, half that of Durango at the same, and a +million from Zacatecas, Sonora, etc., it would ascend to the clever +amount of some five millions of dollars per annum. + +In point of revenue, the Santa Fe trade has been of but little +importance to the government of Mexico. Though the amount of duties +collected annually at this port has usually been fifty to eighty +thousand dollars, yet nearly one-half has been embezzled by the +officers of the customs, leaving an average net revenue of perhaps +less than forty thousand dollars per annum. + +It is not an unimportant fact to be known, that, since the year 1831, +few or none of the difficulties and dangers which once environed the +Santa Fe adventurer have been encountered. No traders have been killed +by the {166} savages on the regular route, and but few animals stolen +from the caravans. On the whole, the rates of insurance upon +adventures in this trade should hardly be as high as upon marine +adventures between New York and Liverpool. While I declare, however, +the serious dangers and troubles to have been in general so slight, I +ought not to suppress at least an outline of the difficulties that +occurred on the Prairies in 1843, which were attended with very +serious consequences. [Pg227] + +It had been reported in Santa Fe as early as November, 1842, that a +party of Texans were upon the Prairies, prepared to attack any Mexican +traders who should cross the plains the succeeding spring; and as some +Americans were accused of being spies, and in collusion with the +Texans, many were ordered to Santa Fe for examination, occasioning a +deal of trouble to several innocent persons. Than this, however, but +little further attention was paid to the report, many believing it but +another of those rumors of Texan invasion which had so often spread +useless consternation through the country. + +So little apprehension appeared to exist, that, in February, 1843, Don +Antonio Jose Chavez, of New Mexico, left Santa Fe for Independence, +with but five servants, two wagons, and fifty-five mules. He had with +him some ten or twelve thousand dollars in specie and gold bullion, +besides a small lot of furs. As the month of March was extremely +inclement, the little party suffered inconceivably {167} from cold and +privations. Most of them were frost-bitten, and all their animals, +except five, perished from the extreme severity of the season; on +which account Chavez was compelled to leave one of his wagons upon the +Prairies. He had worried along, however, with his remaining wagon and +valuables, till about the tenth of April, when he found himself near +the Little Arkansas; at least a hundred miles [Pg228] within the +territory of the United States. He was there met by fifteen men from +the border of Missouri, professing to be Texan troops, under the +command of one John M'Daniel. This party had been collected, for the +most part, on the frontier, by their leader, who was recently from +Texas, from which government he professed to hold a captain's +commission. They started no doubt with the intention of joining one +Col. Warfield (also said to hold a Texan commission), who had been +upon the Plains near the Mountains, with a small party, for several +months--with the avowed intention of attacking the Mexican traders. + +Upon meeting Chavez, however, the party of M'Daniel at once determined +to make sure of the prize he was possessed of, rather than take their +chances of a similar booty beyond the U. S. boundary. The unfortunate +Mexican was therefore taken a few miles south of the road, and his +baggage rifled. Seven of the party then left for the settlements with +their share of the booty, amounting to some four or five hundred +dollars apiece; making the journey on foot, as their horses had taken +{168} a stampede and escaped. The remaining eight, soon after the +departure of their comrades, determined to put Chavez to death,--for +what cause it would seem difficult to conjecture, as he had been, for +two days, their unresisting prisoner. Lots were accordingly cast to +determine which four of the party should be the cruel executioners; +and their wretched victim was taken off a few rods and shot down in +cold blood. After his murder a considerable amount of gold was found +about his person, and in his trunk. The body of the unfortunate man, +together with his wagon and baggage, was thrown into a neighboring +ravine; and a few of the lost animals of the marauders having been +found, their booty was packed upon them and borne away to the frontier +of Missouri. [Pg229] + +Great exertions had been made to intercept this lawless band at the +outset; but they escaped the vigilance even of a detachment of +dragoons that had followed them over a hundred miles. Yet the honest +citizens of the border were too much on the alert to permit them to +return to the interior with impunity. However, five of the whole +number (including three of the party that killed the man) effected +their escape, but the other ten were arrested, committed, and sent to +St. Louis for trial before the United States Court. It appears that +those who were engaged in the killing of Chavez have since been +convicted of murder; and the others, who were only concerned in the +robbery, were found guilty {169} of larceny, and sentenced to fine and +imprisonment.[138] + +About the first of May of the same year, a company of a hundred and +seventy-five men, under one Col. Snively, was organized in the north +of Texas, and set out from the settlements for the Santa Fe trace. It +was at first reported that they contemplated a descent upon Santa Fe; +but their force was evidently too weak to attempt an invasion at that +crisis. Their prime object, therefore, seems to have been to attack +and make reprisals upon the Mexicans engaged in the Santa Fe trade, +who were expected to cross the Prairies during the months of May and +June. + +After the arrival of the Texans upon the Arkansas, they were joined by +Col. Warfield with a few followers. This officer, with about twenty +men, had some time previously attacked the village of Mora, on the +Mexican frontier, killing five men (as was reported) and driving off a +number of horses.[139] They were afterwards followed by a party +[Pg230] of Mexicans, however, who _stampeded_ and carried away, not +only their own horses, but those of the Texans. Being left afoot the +latter burned their saddles, and walked to Bent's Fort, where they +were disbanded; whence Warfield passed to Snively's camp, as before +mentioned. + +The Texans now advanced along the Santa Fe road, beyond the sand hills +south of the Arkansas, when they discovered that a party of Mexicans +had passed towards the river. They soon came upon them, and a skirmish +{170} ensuing, eighteen Mexicans were killed, and as many wounded, +five of whom afterwards died. The Texans suffered no injury, though +the Mexicans were a hundred in number. The rest were all taken +prisoners except two, who escaped and bore the news to Gen. Armijo, +encamped with a large force at the Cold Spring, 140 miles beyond. As +soon as the General received notice of the defeat of his vanguard, he +broke up his camp most precipitately, and retreated to Santa Fe. A +gentleman of the caravan which passed shortly afterward, informed me +that spurs, lareats and other scraps of equipage, were found scattered +in every direction about Armijo's camp--left by his troops in the +hurly-burly of their precipitate retreat.[140] + +Keeping beyond the territory of the United States, the right of the +Texans to harass the commerce of Mexicans will hardly be denied, as +they were at open war: yet another consideration, it would seem, +should have restrained them from aggressions in that quarter. They +could not have been ignorant that but a portion of the traders were +Mexicans--that many American citizens were connected in [Pg231] the +same caravans. The Texans assert, it is true, that the lives and +property of Americans were to be respected, _provided_ they abandoned +the Mexicans. But did they reflect upon the baseness of the terms they +were imposing? What American, worthy of the name, to save his own +interests, or even his life, could deliver up his travelling +companions {171} to be sacrificed? Then, after having abandoned the +Mexicans, or betrayed them to their enemy--for such an act would have +been accounted treachery--where would they have gone? They could not +then have continued on into Mexico; and to have returned to the United +States with their merchandise, would have been the ruin of most of +them. + +The inhuman outrages suffered by those who were captured in New Mexico +in 1841, among whom were many of the present party, have been pleaded +in justification of this second Texan expedition. When we take their +grievances into consideration, we must admit that they palliate, and +indeed justify almost any species of revenge consistent with the laws +of Nature and of nations: yet whether, under the existing +circumstances, this invasion of the Prairies was proper or otherwise, +I will leave for others to determine, as there seems to be a +difference of opinion on the subject. The following considerations, +however, will go to demonstrate the unpropitious consequences which +are apt to result from a system of indiscriminate revenge. + +The unfortunate Chavez (whose murder, I suppose, was perpetrated under +pretext of the cruelties suffered by the Texans, in the name of whom +the party of M'Daniel was organized) was of the most wealthy and +influential family of New Mexico, and one that was anything but +friendly to the ruling governor, Gen. Armijo. Don Mariano Chavez, a +brother to the deceased, is a gentleman of very [Pg232] amiable {172} +character, such as is rarely to be met with in that unfortunate land. +It is asserted that he furnished a considerable quantity of +provisions, blankets, etc., to Col. Cooke's division of Texan +prisoners.[141] Senora Chavez (the wife of Don Mariano), as is told, +crossed the river from the village of Padillas, the place of their +residence, and administered comforts to the unfortunate band of +Texans.[142] Though the murder of young Chavez was evidently not +sanctioned by the Texans generally, it will, notwithstanding, have +greatly embittered this powerful family against them--a family whose +liberal principles could not otherwise have been very unfavorable to +Texas.[143] + +The attack upon the village of Mora, though of less important results, +was nevertheless an unpropitiatory movement. The inhabitants of that +place are generally very simple and innocent rancheros and hunters, +and, being separated by the snowy mountains from the principal +settlements of New Mexico, their hearts seem ever to have been +inclined to the Texans. In fact, the village having been founded by +some American denizens, the Mexican inhabitants appear in some degree +to have imitated their character. + +The defeat of Armijo's vanguard was attended by still more disastrous +consequences, both to the American and Texan interest. That division +was composed of the militia of {173} the North--from about Taos--many +of them Taos Pueblos. These people had not only remained [Pg233] +embittered against Gov. Armijo since the revolution of 1837, but had +always been notably in favor of Texas. So loth were they to fight the +Texans, that, as I have been assured, the governor found it necessary +to bind a number of them upon their horses, to prevent their escape, +till he got them fairly upon the Prairies. And yet the poor fellows +were compelled to suffer the vengeance which was due to their guilty +general! + +When the news of their defeat reached Taos, the friends and relatives +of the slain--the whole population indeed, were incensed beyond +measure; and two or three, naturalized foreigners who were supposed to +favor the cause of Texas, and who were in good standing before, were +now compelled to flee for their lives; leaving their houses and +property a prey to the incensed rabble. Such appears to have been the +reaction of public sentiment resulting from the catastrophe upon the +Prairies! + +Had the Texans proceeded differently--had they induced the Mexicans to +surrender without battle, which they might no doubt easily have +accomplished, they could have secured their services, without +question, as guides to Gen. Armijo's camp, and that unmitigated tyrant +might himself have fallen into their hands. The difficulty of +maintaining order among the Texans was perhaps the cause of many of +their unfortunate proceedings. {174} And no information of the caravan +having been obtained, a detachment of seventy or eighty men left, to +return to Texas. + +The traders arrived soon after, escorted by about two hundred U. S. +Dragoons under the command of Capt. Cook.[144] Col. Snively with a +hundred men being then encamped on the south side of the Arkansas +river, some ten to fifteen miles below the point called the 'Caches,' +[Pg234] he crossed the river and met Capt. Cook, who soon made known +his intention of disarming him and his companions,--an intention which +he at once proceeded to put into execution. A portion of the Texans, +however, deceived the American captain in this wise. Having concealed +their own rifles, which were mostly Colt's repeaters, they delivered +to Capt. Cook the worthless fusils they had taken from the Mexicans; +so that, when they were afterwards released, they still had their own +valuable arms; of which, however, so far as the caravan in question +was concerned, they appear to have had no opportunity of availing +themselves. + +These facts are mentioned merely as they are said to have occurred. +Capt. Cook has been much abused by the Texans, and accused of having +violated a friendly flag--of having taken Col. Snively prisoner while +on a friendly visit. This is denied by Capt. Cook, and by other +persons who were in company at the time. But apart from the means +employed by the American commander (the propriety or impropriety of +which I shall not attempt {175} to discuss), the act was evidently the +salvation of the Santa Fe caravan, of which a considerable portion +were Americans. Had he left the Texans with their arms, he would +doubtless have been accused by the traders of escorting them to the +threshold of danger, and then delivering them over to certain +destruction, when he had it in his power to secure their safety. + +Capt. Cook with his command soon after returned to the United +States,[145] and with him some forty of the [Pg235] disarmed Texans, +many of whom have been represented as gentlemen worthy of a better +destiny. A large portion of the Texans steered directly home from the +Arkansas river; while from sixty to seventy men, who elected Warfield +their commander, were organized for the pursuit and capture of the +caravan, which had already passed on some days in advance towards +Santa Fe. They pursued in the wake of the traders, it is said, as far +as the Point of Rocks (twenty miles east of the crossing of the +Colorado or Canadian), but made no attempt upon them[146]--whence they +returned direct to Texas. Thus terminated the 'Second Texan Santa Fe +Expedition,' as it has been styled; and {176} though not so disastrous +as the first, it turned out nearly as unprofitable. + +Although this expedition was composed wholly of Texans, or persons not +claiming to be citizens of the United States, and organized entirely +in Texas--and, notwithstanding the active measures adopted by the +United States government to defend the caravans, as well of Mexicans +as of Americans, against their enemy--Senor Bocanegra, Mexican +Minister of Foreign Relations, made a formal demand upon the United +States (as will be remembered), for damages resulting from this +invasion. In a rejoinder to Gen. Thompson (alluding to Snively's +company), he says, that "Independence, in Missouri, was the starting +point of these men." The preceding narrative will show the error under +which the honorable secretary labored.[147] [Pg236] + +A portion of the party who killed Chavez was from the +frontier of Missouri; but witness the active exertions on the border +to bring these depredators to justice--and then let the contrast be +noted betwixt this affair and the impunity with which robberies are +every day committed throughout Mexico, where well-known highwaymen +often run at large, unmolested either by the citizens or by the +authorities. What would Senor Bocanegra say if every other government +were to demand indemnity for all the robberies committed upon their +citizens in Mexico? + +But the most unfortunate circumstance attending this invasion of the +Prairies--unfortunate {177} at least to the United States and to New +Mexico--was the closing of the Northern ports to foreign commerce, +which was doubtless, to a great degree, a consequence of the +before-mentioned expedition, and which of course terminated the Santa +Fe Trade, at least for the present.[148] + +I am of the impression, however, that little apprehension need be +entertained, that this decree of Gen. Santa Anna will be permitted +much longer to continue,[149] unless our peaceful relations with +Mexico should be disturbed; an event, under any circumstances, +seriously to be deprecated. With the continuation of peace between us, +the Mexicans will certainly be compelled to open their northern +frontier [Pg237] ports, to avoid a revolution in New Mexico, with +which they are continually threatened while this embargo continues. +Should the obnoxious decree be repealed, the Santa Fe Trade will +doubtless be prosecuted again with renewed vigor and enterprise. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[136] Some general statistics of the Santa Fe Trade may prove not +wholly without interest to the mercantile reader. With this view, I +have prepared the following table of the probable amounts of +merchandise invested in the Santa Fe Trade, from 1822 to 1843 +inclusive, and about the portion of the same transferred to the +Southern markets (chiefly Chihuahua) during the same period; together +with the approximate number of wagons, men and proprietors engaged +each year. + + ------|--------|-----|-----|----|-------|----------------------------- + Years. Amt. W'gs. Men. Pro's. T'n to Remarks. + Mdse. Ch'a. + ------|--------|-----|-----|----|-------|----------------------------- + 1822 15,000 70 60 9,000 Pack-animals only used. + 1823 12,000 50 30 3,000 Pack-animals only used. + 1824 35,000 26 100 80 3,000 Pack-animals and wagons. + 1825 65,000 37 130 90 5,000 Pack-animals and wagons. + 1826 90,000 60 100 70 7,000 Wagons only henceforth. + 1827 85,000 55 90 50 8,000 + 1828 150,000 100 200 80 20,000 3 men killed, being the first. + 1829 60,000 30 50 20 5,000 1st U.S.Es.--1 trader killed. + 1830 120,000 70 140 60 20,000 First oxen used by traders. + 1831 250,000 130 320 80 80,000 Two men killed. + 1832 140,000 70 150 40 50,000 {Party defeated on Canadian + 1833 180,000 105 185 60 80,000 {2 men killed, 3 perished. + 1834 150,000 80 160 50 70,000 2d U.S. Escort + 1835 140,000 75 140 40 70,000 + 1836 130,000 70 135 35 50,000 + 1837 150,000 80 160 35 60,000 + 1838 90,000 50 100 20 80,000 + 1839 250,000 130 250 40 100,000 Arkansas Expedition. + 1840 50,000 30 60 5 10,000 Chihuahua Expedition. + 1841 150,000 60 100 12 80,000 Texan Santa Fe Expedition. + 1842 160,000 70 120 15 90,000 + 1843 450,000 230 350 30 300,000 3d U.S.Es.--Ports closed. + ------|--------|-----|-----|----|-------|----------------------------- + +The foregoing table is not given as perfectly accurate, yet it is +believed to be about as nearly so as any that could be made out at the +present day. The column marked "Pro's." (Proprietors), though even +less precise than the other statistics, presents, I think, about the +proportion of the whole number engaged each year who were owners. At +first, as will be seen, almost every individual of each caravan was a +proprietor, while of late the capital has been held by comparatively +few hands. In 1843, the greater portion of the traders were New +Mexicans, several of whom, during the three years previous, had +embarked in this trade, of which they bid fair to secure a monopoly. + +The amount of merchandise transported to Santa Fe each year, is set +down at its probable cost in the Eastern cities of the United States. +Besides freights and insurance to Independence, there has been an +annual investment, averaging nearly twenty-five per cent. upon the +cost of the stocks, in wagons, teams, provisions, hire of hands, &c., +for transportation across the Prairies. A large portion of this +remaining unconsumed, however, the ultimate loss on the outfit has not +been more than half of the above amount. Instead of purchasing outfit, +some traders prefer employing freighters, a number of whom are usually +to be found on the frontier of Missouri, ready to transport goods to +Santa Fe, at ten to twelve cents per pound. From thence to Chihuahua +the price of freights is six to eight cents--upon mules, or in wagons. + +The average gross returns of the traders has rarely exceeded fifty per +cent. upon the cost of their merchandise, leaving a net profit of +between twenty and forty per cent.; though their profits have not +unfrequently been under ten per cent.: in fact, as has before been +mentioned, their adventures have sometimes been losing speculations.[A] +--GREGG. + +[A] Those who are familiar with Mr. Mayer's very interesting work on +Mexico, will observe that a portion of the preceding table corresponds +substantially with one presented on page 318 of that work. In justice +to myself, I feel compelled to state, that, in 1841, I published, in +the Galveston "Daily Advertiser," a table of the Santa Fe trade from +1831 to 1840 inclusive, of which that of Mr. Mayer embraces an exact +copy. I have since made additions, and corrected it to some extent, +but still the correspondence is such as seemed to require of me this +explanation. + +[137] With a view to encourage adventurers, the government of +Chihuahua agreed to reduce the impost duties to a very low rate, in +favor of a pioneer enterprise; and to furnish an escort of dragoons +for the protection of the traders. + +The expedition was undertaken chiefly by Mexicans; but one American +merchant, Dr. H. Connelly, having invested capital in it. I obtained +from this intelligent gentleman a very interesting sketch of the +adventures of this pioneer party, which I regret that my plan will not +permit me to present in detail. + +The adventurers set out from Chihuahua on the 3d of April, 1839, +amidst the benisons of the citizens, and with the confident hope of +transferring the valuable trade of the North to their city. The +caravan (including fifty dragoons), consisted of over a hundred men, +yet only about half a dozen of the number were proprietors. Though +they had but seven wagons, they brought about seven hundred mules, and +two or three hundred thousand dollars in specie and bullion, for the +purposes of their adventure. + +They took the Presidio del Norte in their route, and then proceeding +northwestwardly, finally arrived at Fort Towson after a protracted +journey of three months; but without meeting with any hostile savages, +or encountering any serious casualty, except getting bewildered, after +crossing Red River, which they mistook for the Brazos. This caused +them to shape their course thence nearly north, in search of the +former stream, until they reached the Canadian river, where they met +with some Delaware Indians, of whom they obtained the first correct +information of their whereabouts; and by whom they were piloted safely +to Fort Towson. + +It had been the intention of these adventurers to return to Chihuahua +the ensuing fall; but from various accidents and delays, they were +unable to get ready until the season had too far advanced; which, with +an incessant series of rains that followed, prevented them from +travelling till the ensuing spring. Learning that the Texans were +friendly disposed towards them, they now turned their course through +the midst of the northern settlements of that republic. Of the kind +treatment they experienced during their transit, Dr. Connelly speaks +in the following terms: "I have never been more hospitably treated, or +had more efficient assistance, than was given by the citizens of Red +River. All seemed to vie with each other in rendering us every aid in +their power; and our Mexican friends, notwithstanding the hostile +attitude in which the two countries stood towards each other, were +treated with a kindness which they still recollect with the warmest +feelings of gratitude." This forms a very notable contrast with the +treatment which the Texan traders, who afterwards visited Santa Fe, +received at the hands of the Mexicans. + +The Caravan now consisted of sixty or seventy wagons laden with +merchandise, and about two hundred and twenty-five men, including +their escort of Mexican dragoons. They passed the Texan border early +in April, and expected to intersect their former track beyond the +Cross Timbers, but that trail having been partially obliterated, they +crossed it unobserved, and were several days lost on the waters of the +Brazos river. Having turned their course south for a few days, +however, they fortunately discovered their old route at a branch of +the Colorado. + +After this they continued their journey without further casualty; for +notwithstanding they met with a large body of Comanches, they passed +them amicably, and soon reached the Rio Pecos. Though very narrow, +this stream was too deep to be forded, and they were compelled to +resort to an expedient characteristic of the Prairies. There being not +a stick of timber anywhere to be found, of which to make even a raft, +they buoyed up a wagon-body by binding several empty water-kegs to the +bottom, which served them the purpose of a ferry-boat. + +When they reached Presidio del Norte again, they learned that Gov. +Irigoyen, with whom they had celebrated the contract for a diminution +of their duties, had died during their absence. A new corps of +officers being in power, they were now threatened with a charge of +full tariff duties. After a delay of forty-five days at the Presidio, +however, they made a compromise, and entered Chihuahua on the 27th of +August, 1840. + +The delays and accumulated expenses of this expedition caused it to +result so disastrously to the interests of all who were engaged in it, +that no other enterprise of the kind has since been undertaken. +--GREGG. + +[138] John McDaniel and his brother David were both executed. For the +names of other participators, consult _Niles' Register_, lxiv, pp. +195, 280. The Texas government disclaimed all responsibility for +McDaniel.--ED. + +[139] Mora is on a stream of the same name, for which see our volume +xix, p. 252, note 73 (Gregg), and is the seat of Mora County. The +first settlement was made in 1832, but repulsed by Indians; not until +1840, therefore, could the place be called permanent. In the +revolution of 1847, Mora was involved against the United States whose +troops burned the town in reprisal. The present population is about +seven hundred.--ED. + +[140] For a more detailed account of this expedition, see H. Yoakum, +_History of Texas_ (New York, 1856), ii, pp. 399-405.--ED. + +[141] Colonel William G. Cooke, of Texas, appointed one of the +commissioners to negotiate with the New Mexicans. He was treacherously +induced to surrender to a force under Dimasio Salezar, at Anton +Chico.--ED. + +[142] Padilla is a small village on the eastern side of Rio Grande, a +few miles below Albuquerque. The Chavez family owned a large ranch, +and its younger members had been engaged in the American trade for +some years.--ED. + +[143] This family is very distinct from one Manuel Chavez (who, though +Gov. Armijo's nephew, is a very low character), a principal agent in +the treacheries practised upon the Texan Santa Fe Expedition.--GREGG. + +[144] Philip St. George Cooke, for whom see volume xix, p. 187, note +32 (Gregg).-ED. + +[145] As U. S. troops cannot go beyond our boundary, which, on this +route is the Arkansas river, these escorts afford but little +protection to the caravans. Such an extensive, uninhabitable waste as +the great prairies are, ought certainly to be under maritime +regulations. Some international arrangements should be made between +the United States and Texas or Mexico (accordingly as the +proprietorship of the region beyond our boundary may be settled), +whereby the armies of either might indiscriminately range upon this +desert, as ships of war upon the ocean.--GREGG. + +[146] For Point of Rocks, see our volume xix, p. 249, note 70 +(Gregg).--ED. + +[147] Jose Maria Bocanegra was a member of the liberal party in +Mexico, who came into power under Guerrero in 1829. He was also +president ad interim, and for some years minister of foreign affairs. + +Waddy Thompson, of South Carolina, was born in 1798; and after serving +in the state legislature was member of Congress (1835-41). In 1842 he +was made minister to Mexico, which position he filled but two years. +Upon his return he published _Recollections_ (New York, 1846). Going +to Mexico as an advocate of Texas annexation, he returned its +opponent, convinced that slavery could not be maintained on soil +acquired from Mexico. The latter years of his life were devoted to +cotton-raising in Florida, where he died in 1868.--ED. + +[148] The following is the substance of Santa Anna's decree, dated at +his Palace of Tacubaya, August 7, 1843: + +"Article 1st. The frontier custom-houses of Taos, in the department of +New Mexico, Paso del Norte and Presidio del Norte in that of +Chihuahua, are entirely closed to all commerce. + +"Art. 2d. This decree shall take effect within forty-five days after +its publication in the capital of the Republic." + +It should be understood that the only port in New Mexico for the +introduction of foreign goods was nominally Taos, though the +custom-house was at Santa Fe, where all the entrances were +made.--GREGG. + +[149] These northern ports have since been reopened by decree of March +31, 1844; and about ninety wagons, with perhaps $200,000 cost of +goods, (and occupying 150 to 200 men), crossed the plains to Santa Fe, +during the following summer and fall.--GREGG. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI {X} + +GEOGRAPHY OF THE PRAIRIES + +Extent of Prairies -- Mountains -- _Mesas_ or Table-lands -- _El_ + _Llano Estacado_ -- _Canones_ -- Their Annoyance to the early + Caravans -- Immense Gullies -- Coal Mines and other geological + Products -- Gypsum -- Metallic Minerals -- Salines -- Capt. Boone's + Exploration -- 'Salt Plain' and 'Salt Rock' -- Mr. Sibley's Visit -- + Saline Exudations -- Unhabitableness of the high Prairies -- + Excellent Pasturage -- Rich border Country sufficient for two States + -- Northern Texas -- Rivers of the Prairies -- Their Unfitness for + Navigation -- Timber -- Cross Timbers -- Encroachments of the Timber + upon the Prairies -- Fruits and Flowers -- Salubrity of Climate. + + +While I have endeavored in the preceding pages to give the reader some +general idea of life upon the Prairies, I feel that I have wholly +failed thus far to convey any adequate notions of their natural +history. I propose in the following pages to repair this deficiency as +far as I am able, and to present a rapid sketch of the vastness of +those mighty territories; of their physical geography; and of the +life, as well vegetable as animal, which they sustain. It is to be +regretted that this ample field for observation should have received +so little of the consideration of scientific men; for there {179} is +scarcely a province in the whole wide range of Nature's unexplored +domains, which is so worthy of study, and yet has been so little +studied by the natural philosopher. + +If we look at the Great Western Prairies, independently of the +political powers to which portions of them respectively belong, we +shall find them occupying the whole of that [Pg238] extensive +territory lying between the spurs of the Rocky Mountains on the north, +and the rivers of Texas on the south--a distance of some seven or +eight hundred miles in one direction; and from the frontiers of +Missouri and Arkansas on the east to the eastern branches of the +southern Rocky Mountains on the west--about six hundred miles in the +transverse direction: the whole comprising an area of about 400,000 +square miles, some 30,000 of which are within the original limits of +Texas, and 70,000 in those of New Mexico (if we extend them east to +the United States boundary), leaving about 300,000 in the territory of +the United States. + +This vast territory is not interrupted by any important mountainous +elevations, except along the borders of the great western sierras, and +by some low, craggy ridges about the Arkansas frontier--skirts of the +Ozark mountains. There is, it is true, high on the dividing ridge +between Red River and the False Washita, a range of hills, the +southwestern portion of which extends about to the 100th degree of +longitude west from Greenwich; that is, to the United States {180} +boundary line. These are generally called the Witchita mountains, but +sometimes _Towyash_ by hunters, perhaps from _toyavist_, the Comanche +word for mountain. I inquired once of a Comanche Indian how his nation +designated this range of mountains, which was then in sight of us. He +answered, "_Toyavist_." "But this simply means a mountain," I replied. +"How do you distinguish this from any other mountain?" "There are no +other mountains in the Comanche territory," he rejoined--"none till we +go east to your country, or south to Texas, or west to the land of the +Mexican." + +With these exceptions, there are scarcely any elevations throughout +these immense plains which should be dignified by the title of +mountains. Those seen by the Texan Santa [Pg239] Fe Expedition about +the sources of Red River, were without doubt the _cejas_ or brows of +the elevated table plains with which the Prairies abound, and which, +when viewed from the plain below, often assume the appearance of +formidable mountains; but once upon their summit, the spectator sees +another vast plain before him. + +These _table lands_, or _mesas_, as the Mexicans term them, of which +there are many thousands of square miles lying between the frontier of +the United States and the Rocky Mountains, are level plains, elevated +a considerable distance above the surrounding country, and may be +likened to the famous steppes of Asia. They are cut up with numerous +{181} streams, the largest of which are generally bordered for several +miles back by hilly uplands, which are for the most part sandy, dry +and barren. + +The most notable of the great _plateaux_ of the Prairies is that known +to Mexicans as _El Llano Estacado_, which is bounded on the north by +the Canadian river--extends east about to the United States boundary, +including the heads of the False Washita and other branches of Red +River--and spreads southward to the sources of Trinity, Brazos and +Colorado rivers, and westward to Rio Pecos. It is quite an elevated +and generally a level plain, without important hills or ridges, unless +we distinguish as such the craggy breaks of the streams which border +and pierce it. It embraces an area of about 30,000 square miles, most +of which is without water during three-fourths of the year; while a +large proportion of its few perennial streams are too brackish to +drink of. + +I have been assured by Mexican hunters and Indians, that, from Santa +Fe southeastward, there is but one route upon which this plain can be +safely traversed during the dry season; and even some of the +watering-places on this are at intervals of fifty to eighty miles, and +hard to find. [Pg240] Hence the Mexican traders and hunters, that +they might not lose their way and perish from thirst, once staked out +this route across the plain, it is said; whence it has received the +name of _El Llano Estacado_, or the Staked Plain. + +{182} In some places the brows of these _mesas_ approach the very +borders of the streams. When this occurs on both sides, it leaves deep +chasms or ravines between, called by the Mexicans _canones_, and which +abound in the vicinity of the mountains. The Canadian river flows +through one of the most remarkable of these canones for a distance of +more than fifty miles--extending from the road of the Missouri +caravans downward--throughout the whole extent of which the gorge is +utterly impassable for wagons, and almost so for animals. + +Intersecting the direct route from Missouri, this canon was a source +of great annoyance to some of the pioneers in the Santa Fe trade. In +1825, a caravan with a number of wagons reached it about five miles +below the present ford. The party was carelessly moving along, without +suspecting even a ravine at hand, as the bordering plains were +exceedingly level, and the opposite margins of equal height, when +suddenly they found themselves upon the very brink of an immense +precipice, several hundred yards deep, and almost perpendicular on +both sides of the river. At the bottom of those cliffs, there was, as +is usually the case, a very narrow but fertile valley, through which +the river wound its way, sometimes touching the one bluff and +sometimes the other. + +Ignorant of a ford so near above, the caravan turned down towards the +crossing of the former traders. "We travelled fifty miles," {183} says +Mr. Stanley, who was of the caravan, "the whole of which distance the +river is bound in by cliffs several hundred feet high, in many places +nearly perpendicular. We at length came to the termination of the +table land; but what scene presented itself! [Pg241] The valley below +could only be reached by descending a frightful cliff of from 1200 to +1500 feet, and more or less precipitous. After a search of several +hours, a practicable way was found; and, with the greatest fatigue and +exertion, by locking wheels, holding on with ropes, and literally +lifting the wagons down in places, we finally succeeded in reaching +the bottom.... How did the Canadian and other streams in New Mexico +sink themselves to such immense depths in the solid rock? It seems +impossible that the water should have worn away the rock while as hard +as in its present state. What a field of speculation for the +geologist, in the propositions--Were the chasms made for the streams, +or did the streams make the chasms? Are they not of volcanic origin?" + +Nor are the flat prairies always free from this kind of annoyance to +travellers. They are not unfrequently intersected by diminutive chasms +or water-cuts, which, though sometimes hardly a rod in width, are +often from fifty to a hundred feet deep. These little canones are +washed out by the rains, in their descent to the bordering streams, +which is soon effected after an opening is once made through the +surface; for though the clayey {184} foundation is exceedingly firm +and hard while dry, it seems the most soluble of earths, and melts +almost as rapidly as snow under the action of water. The tenacious +turf of the 'buffalo grass,' however, retains the marginal surface, so +that the sides are usually perpendicular--indeed, often shelving +inward at the base, and therefore utterly impassable. I have come +unsuspectingly upon the verge of such a chasm; and though, to a +stranger, the appearance would indicate the very head of the ravine, I +would sometimes be compelled to follow its meandering course for miles +without being able to double its 'breaks.' These I have more +especially observed high on the borders of the Canadian. [Pg242] + +The geological constitution of the Prairies is exceedingly +diversified. Along the eastern border, especially towards the north, +there is an abundance of limestone, interspersed with sandstone, +slate, and many extensive beds of bituminous coal. The coal is +particularly abundant in some of the regions bordering the Neosho +river; where there are also said to be a few singular bituminous or +'tar springs,' as they are sometimes called by the hunters. There are +also many other mineral, and particularly sulphur springs, to be met +with. + +Further westward, the sandstone prevails; but some of the table plains +are based upon strata of a sort of friable calcareous rock, which has +been denominated 'rotten limestone:' yet along the borders of the +mountains the base of the plains seems generally {185} to be of trap +and greenstone. From the waters of Red River to the southwest corner +of Missouri, throughout the range of the Ozark mountains, granite, +limestone, flint and sandstone prevail. But much of the middle portion +of the Prairies is without any apparent rocky foundation--we sometimes +travel for days in succession without seeing even as much as a pebble. + +On passing towards Santa Fe in 1839, and returning in 1840, I observed +an immense range of plaster of Paris, both north and south of the +Canadian river, and between thirty and fifty miles east of the United +States western boundary. The whole country seemed based upon this +fossil, and cliffs and huge masses of it were seen in every direction. +It ranges from the coarsest compact sulphate of lime or ordinary +plaster, to the most transparent gypsum or selenite, of which last +there is a great abundance. By authentic accounts from other +travellers, this range of gypsum extends, in a direction nearly north, +almost to the Arkansas river. [Pg243] + +Of metallic minerals, iron, lead, and perhaps copper, are found on the +borders of the Prairies; and it is asserted that several specimens of +silver ores have been met with on our frontier, as well as about the +Witchita and the Rocky Mountains. Gold has also been found, no doubt, +in different places; yet it is questionable whether it has anywhere +been discovered in sufficient abundance to render it worth the +seeking. Some trappers have reported {186} an extensive gold region +about the sources of the Platte river; yet, although recent search has +been made, it has not been discovered.[150] + +The most valuable perhaps, and the most abundant mineral production of +the Prairies is _Salt_. In the Choctaw country, on the waters of Red +River, there are two salt-works in operation; and in the Cherokee +nation salt springs are numerous, three or four of which are now +worked on a small scale; yet a sufficient quantity of salt might +easily be produced to supply even the adjoining States. The _Grand +Saline_, about forty miles above Fort Gibson, near the Neosho river, +was considered a curiosity of its kind, before its natural beauties +were effaced by 'improvements.'[151] In the border of a little valley, +a number of small salt springs break out, around the orifice of each +of which was formed, in the shape of a pot, a kind of calcareous +saline concretion. None of the springs are very bold, but the water is +strong, and sufficiently abundant for extensive works. + +There have been several _Salines_, or mines (if we may so term them) +of pure salt, discovered in different parts of the Prairies. The most +northern I have heard of, is [Pg244] fifty or sixty miles west of the +Missouri river, and thirty or forty south of the Platte, near a +tributary called the Saline; where the Otoes and other Indians procure +salt. It is described as resembling the _salinas_ of New Mexico, and +the quantity of salt as inexhaustible. South of the Arkansas river and +a degree or two further {187} westward, there are several of these +salines, which are perhaps still more extensive. + +I have been favored with some extracts from the journal of Capt. +Nathan Boone[152] of the United States' Dragoons, who made an +exploring tour through those desolate regions during the summer of +1843. In his journey, between the Canadian and Upper Arkansas, he +found efflorescent salt in many places, as well as a superabundance of +strongly impregnated salt-water; but, besides these, he visited two +considerable salines. + +Of the first, which he calls the 'Salt Plain,' he remarks, that "the +approach was very gratifying, and from the appearance one might expect +to find salt in a solid mass, for the whole extent of the plain, of +several feet in thickness." This is situated in the forks of the Salt +Fork of the Arkansas. The plain is described as being level as a +floor, and evidently sometimes overflowed by the streams which border +it. Yet the extent of salt, it would seem, did not realize Capt. +Boone's anticipations, as he remarks that it was covered "with the +slightest possible film of crystallized salt on the surface, enough to +make it white." But he explored only a small portion of the plain, +which was very extensive. [Pg245] + +However, the most wonderful saline is the great _Salt Rock_, +which he found further to the {188} southwestward, on the main Red +Fork. "The whole cove on the right of the two forks of the river," +says Capt. Boone, "appears to be one immense salt spring of water so +much concentrated, that, as soon as it reaches the point of breaking +forth, it begins depositing its salt. In this way a large crust, or +rock is formed all over the bottom for perhaps 160 acres. Digging +through the sand for a few inches anywhere in this space, we could +find the solid salt, so hard that there was no means in our power of +getting up a block of it. We broke our mattock in the attempt. In many +places, through this rock-salt crust the water boiled up as clear as +crystal ... but so salt that our hands, after being immersed in it and +suffered to dry, became as white as snow. Thrusting the arm down into +these holes, they appeared to be walled with salt as far down as one +could reach. The cliffs which overhang this place are composed of red +clay and gypsum, and capped with a stratum of the latter.... We found +this salt a little bitter from the impurities it contained, probably +Epsom salts principally." As it is overhung with sulphate of lime, and +perhaps also based upon the same, might not this 'salt-rock' be +heavily impregnated with this mineral, occasioning its excessive +hardness? Capt. Boone also speaks of gypsum in various other places, +both north and south of this, during his travel. + +Mr. Sibley (then of Fort Osage), who was quite familiar with the +western prairies, visited {189} a saline, over thirty years ago, which +would seem to be the 'Salt Plain' first mentioned by Capt. Boone. The +former, it is true, found the salt much more abundant than as +described by the latter; but this may be owing to Capt. Boone's not +having [Pg246] penetrated as far as the point alluded to by Mr. +Sibley,--whose description is in the following language:[153] + +"The Grand Saline is situated about 280 miles southwest of Fort Osage, +between two forks of a small branch of the Arkansas, one of which +washes its southern extremity, and the other, the principal one, runs +nearly parallel, within a mile of its opposite side. It is a hard +level plain of reddish colored sand, and of an irregular or mixed +figure. Its greatest length is from northwest to southeast, and its +circumference about thirty miles. From the appearance of the driftwood +that is scattered over, it would seem the whole plain is at times +inundated by the overflowing of the streams that pass near it. This +plain is entirely covered in dry hot weather, from two to six inches +deep, with a crust of beautiful clean white salt, of a quality rather +superior to the imported blown salt. It bears a striking resemblance +to a field of brilliant snow after a rain, with a light crust on its +top." + +This is, in extent and appearance, nearly as described by several +hunters and Indian traders with whom I have conversed. Col. Logan, a +worthy former agent of the Creek Indians,[154] {190} visited no doubt +the same, not far from the same period; and he describes it in a +similar manner--only representing the depth of the salt as greater. +Everywhere that he dug through the stratum of earth about the margin, +at the depth of a few inches he came to a _rock of solid salt_, which +induced him to believe that the whole country thereabouts was based +upon a stratum of 'rock salt.' [Pg247] This was of a reddish cast, +partaking of the color of the surface of the surrounding country. Mr. +Sibley remarks that "the distance to a navigable branch of Arkansas is +about eighty miles"--referring perhaps to the Red Fork; though the +saline is no doubt at a still less distance from the main stream. + +With such inexhaustible mines of salt within two or three days' +journey of the Arkansas river, and again within the same distance of +the Missouri, which would cost no further labor than the digging it up +and the transporting of it to boats for freighting it down those +streams, it seems strange that they should lie idle, while we are +receiving much of our supplies of this indispensable commodity from +abroad. + +Besides the _salines_ already mentioned, there is one high on the +Canadian river, some two hundred miles east of Santa Fe. Also, it is +said, there are some to be found on the waters of Red River; and +numerous others are no doubt scattered throughout the same regions, +which have never been discovered. + +Many of the low valleys of all the western {191} streams (Red River as +well as Arkansas and its branches), are impregnated with salinous +qualities, and, during wet weather, ooze saltish exudations, which +effloresce in a thin scum. This is sometimes pure salt, but more +frequently compounded of different salts--not only of the muriate, but +of the sulphate of soda, and perhaps magnesia; often strongly +tinctured with nitre. Some of the waters of these sections +(particularly when stagnant) are so saturated with this compound +during dry weather, that they are insupportable even for brutes--much +to the consternation of a forlorn traveller. In these saline flats +nothing grows but hard wiry grass, which a famished beast will +scarcely eat. [Pg248] + +It is from these exudations, as well as from the salines or salt +plains before mentioned, that our western waters, especially from +Arkansas to Red River, acquire their brackishness during the low +seasons; and not from the mountains, as some have presumed. Such as +issue from thence are there as pure, fresh and crystalline as snow-fed +rills and icy fountains can make them. + +It will now readily be inferred that the Great Prairies from Red River +to the western sources of the Missouri, are, as has before been +intimated, chiefly uninhabitable--not so much for want of wood (though +the plains are altogether naked), as of soil and of water; for though +some of the plains appear of sufficiently fertile soil, they are +mostly of a sterile character, and all too dry to be cultivated. {192} +These great steppes seem only fitted for the haunts of the mustang, +the buffalo, the antelope, and their migratory lord, the prairie +Indian. Unless with the progressive influence of time, some favorable +mutation should be wrought in nature's operations, to revive the +plains and upland prairies, the occasional fertile valleys are too +isolated and remote to become the abodes of civilized man. + +Like the table plains of Northern Mexico, these high prairies could at +present only be made available for grazing purposes, and that in the +vicinity of the water-courses. The grass with which they are mostly +clothed, is of a superior quality. The celebrated 'buffalo grass' is +of two kinds, both of which are species of the _grama_ of New Mexico, +and equally nutritious at all seasons. It is the same, I believe, that +is called 'mezquite grass' in Texas, from the mezquite tree which +grows there in the same dry regions with it. Of this unequalled +pasturage the great western prairies afford a sufficiency to graze +cattle for the supply of all the United States. It is particularly +adapted to [Pg249] sheep-raising, as is shown by example of the same +species in New Mexico. + +But from the general sterility and unhabitableness of the Prairies is +excepted, as will be understood, that portion, already alluded to, +which borders our western frontier. The uplands from the Arkansas +boundary to the Cross Timbers, are everywhere beautifully interspersed +with isolated prairies and glades, many of which are fertile, though +some are {193} too flat, and consequently inclined to be marshy. The +valleys of the streams are principally of a rich loam, rather subject +to inundations, but mostly tillable. The timbered uplands are mostly +of fair quality, except on the broken ridges and mountainous sections +before referred to. Some of the uplands, however, known usually as +'post-oak flats,' like the marshy prairies, seem to be based upon +quick-sand. The soil is of a dead unproductive character, and covered +with small lumps or mounds of various sizes, and of irregular shapes. + +The country lying west of Missouri, which includes the sources of the +Neosho, the Verdigris, the Marais-des-Cygnes and other branches of the +Osage, and the lower sections of the Kansas river, vies with any +portion of the Far West in the amenity of its upland prairies--in the +richness of its alluvial bottoms--in the beauty and freshness of its +purling rills and rivulets--and in the salubrity of its atmosphere. + +We have here then, along the whole border, a strip of country, +averaging at least two hundred miles wide by five hundred long--and +even more if we extend it up the Missouri river--affording territory +for two States, respectable in size, and though more scant in timber, +yet more fertile, in general, than the two conterminous States of +Missouri and Arkansas. But most of this delightful region has been +ceded to the different tribes of the Frontier Indians. [Pg250] + +{194} Concerning that portion of the Prairies which lies south of Red +River, in Northern Texas, I learn from some interesting memoranda, +politely furnished me by Dr. Henry Connelly, one of the principals of +the pioneer expedition from Chihuahua to Arkansas, of which I have +already spoken, that, besides some beautiful lands among the Cross +Timbers, there is a great deal of delightful country still further +west, of a part of which that gentleman holds the following +language:--"Between the Brazos and Red River, there is surely the most +beautiful and picturesque region I have ever beheld. I saw some of the +finest timber, generally oak--not that scrubby oak which characterizes +so much of the Texan territory--but large black and bur-oak; such as +would answer all the purposes for which the largest timber is useful. +Between those two rivers, no doubt there is destined to be one of the +most dense and prosperous settlements. The fertility of the soil is +not exceeded by any I have seen; and, from the high and undulating +character of the country, there can be no doubt of its being very +healthy." + +To the westward of Rio Brazos, and south of some sandy and saline +regions which border the upper portions of this stream, the same +enterprising traveller represents many of the valleys as rich and +beautiful, and the uplands as being in many places sparsely timbered +with mezquite trees. This is particularly the case on the sources of +the Colorado, where the country is delightfully watered. But +immediately {195} north of this sets in that immense desert region of +the Llano Estacado. + +The chief natural disadvantage to which the Great Western Prairies are +exposed, consists in the absence of navigable streams. Throughout the +whole vast territory which I have been attempting to describe, there +is not a single river, except the Missouri, which is navigable during +[Pg251] the whole season. The remaining streams, in their course +through the plains, are and must continue to be, for all purposes of +commerce, comparatively useless. + +The chief of these rivers are the Missouri, the Arkansas, and Red +River, with their numerous tributaries. The principal western branches +of the Missouri are the Yellow Stone, the Platte and the Kansas. Small +'flats' and 'buffalo boats' have passed down the two former for a +considerable distance, during high water; but they are never navigable +to any extent by steamboats. + +The _Arkansas_ river penetrates far into the Rocky Mountains, its +ramifications, interlocking with some of the waters of the Missouri, +Columbia, San Buenaventura, Colorado of the West, and Rio del +Norte.[155] The channel of this stream, in its course through the +Prairies, is very wide and shallow, with banks in many places hardly +five feet above low water. It will probably measure nearly 2000 miles +in length, from its source to the frontier of Arkansas. It is called +_Rio Napeste_ by the Mexicans; but among the early French voyagers it +acquired the name of _Arkansas_, or rather {196} _Akansa_,[156] from a +tribe of the Dahcotah or Osage stock, who lived near its mouth. This +river has numerous tributaries, some of which are of great length, yet +there is not one that is at all navigable, except the [Pg252] Neosho +from the north, which has been descended by small boats for at least a +hundred miles. + +_Red River_ is much shorter and narrower from the frontier westward +than the Arkansas, bearing but little over half the volume of water. +Even in its serpentine course it can hardly exceed 1200 miles from the +Arkansas boundary to its source. This river rises in the table plains +of the Llano Estacado, and has not, as I have been assured by traders +and hunters, any mountainous elevations about its source of any +consequence;[157] although we are continually hearing the inhabitants +of its lower borders speak of the "_June freshets_ produced by the +melting of the snow in the mountains." + +The upper portions of this river, and emphatically from the mouth of +the False Washita (or Faux Ouachitta) upward, present little or no +facilities for navigation; being frequently spread out over sand-bars +to the width of several hundred yards. A very credible Indian trader, +who had been on Red River {197} some two hundred miles above the False +Washita, informed me, that, while in some places he found it not over +fifty yards wide, in others it was at least five hundred. This and +most other prairie streams have commonly very low banks with +remarkably shallow channels, which, during droughts, sometimes go dry +in their transit through the sandy plains.[158] [Pg253] + +It would be neither interesting nor profitable to present to +my readers a detailed account of all the tributaries of the three +principal rivers already mentioned. They may be {198} found for the +most part laid down, with their bearings and relative magnitudes, upon +the map which accompanies this work. It is only necessary to say in +addition, that none of them can ever be availed of to any considerable +extent for purposes of navigation. + +With regard to the productions of the soil of these regions, the +reader will probably have formed, in the main, a tolerably correct +idea already; nevertheless a few further specifications may not be +altogether unacceptable. + +The timber of that portion of the United States territory which is +included between the Arkansas frontier and the Cross Timbers, +throughout the highlands, is mostly oak of various kinds, of which +black-jack and post-oak predominate, as these, and especially the +former, seem only capable of withstanding the conflagrations to which +they are exposed, and therefore abound along the prairie borders. The +black-jack presents a blackened, scrubby appearance, with harsh rugged +branches--partly on account of being so often scorched and crisped by +the prairie fires. About the streams we find an intermixture of elm, +hackberry, [Pg254] peccan (or pecan), ash, walnut, mulberry, cherry, +persimmon, cottonwood, sycamore, birch, etc., with varieties of +hickory, gum, dogwood, and the like. All of the foregoing, except +paccan, gum and dogwood, are also found west of Missouri, where, +although the uplands are almost wholly prairie, the richest growths +predominate in the valleys. + +{199} In many of the rich bottoms from the Canadian to Red River, for +a distance of one or two hundred miles west of the frontier, is found +the celebrated _bois-d'arc_ (literally, _bow-wood_), usually corrupted +in pronunciation to _bowdark_. It was so named by the French on +account of its peculiar fitness for _bows_. This tree is sometimes +found with a trunk two or three feet in diameter, but, being much +branched, it is rarely over forty or fifty feet high. The leaves are +large, and it bears a fruit a little resembling the orange in general +appearance, though rougher and larger, being four or five inches in +diameter; but it is not used for food. The wood is of a beautiful +light orange color, and, though coarse, is susceptible of polish. It +is one of the hardest, firmest and most durable of timbers, and is +much used by wagon-makers and millwrights, as well as by the wild +Indians, who make bows of the younger growths.[159] + +On the Arkansas and especially its southern tributaries as far west as +the Verdigris, and up those of Red River nearly to the False Washita, +the bottoms are mostly covered with cane. And scattered over all the +south to about the same distance westward, the sassafras abounds, +which grows here in every kind of soil and locality. + +The celebrated _Cross Timbers_, of which frequent mention has been +made, extend from the Brazos, or perhaps from the Colorado of Texas, +across the sources of Trinity, traversing [Pg255] Red River above the +False Washita, and thence {200} west of north, to the Red Fork of +Arkansas, if not further. It is a rough hilly range of country, and, +though not mountainous, may perhaps be considered a prolongation of +that chain of low mountains which pass to the northward of Bexar and +Austin city in Texas.[160] + +The Cross Timbers vary in width from five to thirty miles, and +entirely cut off the communication betwixt the interior prairies and +those of the great plains. They may be considered as the 'fringe' of +the great prairies, being a continuous brushy strip, composed of +various kinds of undergrowth; such as black-jacks, post-oaks, and in +some places hickory, elm, etc., intermixed with a very diminutive +dwarf oak, called by the hunters 'shin-oak.' Most of the timber +appears to be kept small by the continual inroads of the 'burning +prairies;' for, being killed almost annually, it is constantly +replaced by scions of undergrowth; so that it becomes more and more +dense every reproduction. In some places, however, the oaks are of +considerable size, and able to withstand the conflagrations. The +underwood is so matted in many places with grape-vines, greenbriars, +etc., as to form almost impenetrable 'roughs,' which serve as +hiding-places for wild beasts, as well as wild Indians; and would, in +savage warfare, prove almost as formidable as the hammocks of Florida. + +South of the Canadian, a branch of these Cross Timbers projects off +westward, extending across this stream, and up its course for 100 +{201} miles or so, from whence, it inclines northwest beyond the North +Fork, and ultimately ceases, no doubt, in the great sandy plains in +that direction. [Pg256] + +The region of the Cross Timbers is generally well-watered; and +is interspersed with romantic and fertile tracts. The bottoms of the +tributaries of Red River, even for some distance west of the Cross +Timbers (perhaps almost to the U. S. boundary), are mostly very +fertile, and timbered with narrow stripes of elm, hackberry, walnut, +hickory, mulberry, bur-oak and other rich growths. + +But further north, and west of the Cross Timbers, even the streams are +nearly naked. The Cimarron river for more than a hundred miles is +absolutely without timber; and the Arkansas, for so large a stream, is +remarkably scant. The southern border, being protected from the +prairie fires by a chain of sand-hills, which extends for two hundred +miles along it, is not so bare as the northern bank; though even here +it is only skirted with occasional sparsely set groves of cottonwood +in the nooks and bends. It is upon the abundance of islands which +intersperse its channel, that the greatest quantity of timber (though +purely cottonwood) is to be found; yet withal, there are stretches of +miles without a tree in view. The banks of the Canadian are equally +naked; and, having fewer islands, the river appears still more barren. +In fact, there is scarce anything else but cottonwood, and that very +sparsely scattered {202} along the streams, throughout most of the +far-western prairies. + +It is unquestionably the prairie conflagrations that keep down the +woody growth upon most of the western uplands. The occasional skirts +and fringes which have escaped their rage, have been protected by the +streams they border. Yet may not the time come when these vast plains +will be covered with timber? It would seem that the prairie region, +long after the discovery of America, extended to the very banks of the +Mississippi. Father Marquette, in a voyage down this river, in 1673, +after passing below [Pg257] the mouth of the Ohio, remarks:--"The +banks of the river began to be covered with high trees, which hindered +us from observing the country as we had done all along; but we judged +from the bellowing of the oxen [buffalo] that the meadows are very +near."[161]--Indeed, there are parts of the southwest now thickly set +with trees of good size, that, within the remembrance of the oldest +inhabitants, were as naked as the prairie plains; and the appearance +of the timber in many other sections indicates that it has grown up +within less than a century. In fact, we are now witnessing the +encroachment of the timber upon the prairies, wherever the devastating +conflagrations have ceased their ravages. + +The high plains seem too dry and lifeless to produce timber; yet might +not the vicissitudes of nature operate a change likewise upon the +seasons? Why may we not suppose {203} that the genial influences of +civilization--that extensive cultivation of the earth--might +contribute to the multiplication of showers, as it certainly does of +fountains? Or that the shady groves, as they advance upon the +prairies, may have some effect upon the seasons? At least, many old +settlers maintain that the droughts are becoming less oppressive in +the West. The people of New Mexico also assure us that the rains have +much increased of latter years, a phenomenon which the vulgar +superstitiously attribute to the arrival of the Missouri traders. Then +may we not hope that these sterile regions might yet be thus revived +and fertilized, and their surface covered one day by flourishing +settlements to the Rocky Mountains? + +With regard to fruits, the Prairies are of course not very plentifully +supplied. West of the border, however, for nearly two hundred miles, +they are covered, in many places, [Pg258] with the wild strawberry; +and the groves lining the streams frequently abound in grapes, plums, +persimmons, mulberries, peccans, hackberries, and other 'sylvan +luxuries.' The high prairies beyond, however, are very bare of fruits. +The prickly pear may be found over most of the dry plains; but this is +neither very palatable nor wholesome, though often eaten by travellers +for want of other fruits. Upon the branches of the Canadian, North +Fork, and Cimarron, there are, in places, considerable quantities of +excellent plums, grapes, choke-cherries, gooseberries, and +currants--of the {204} latter there are three kinds, black, red, and +white. About the ravines and marshy grounds (particularly towards the +east) there are different kinds of small onions, with which the +traveller may season his fresh meats. On the plains, also, I have met +with a species resembling garlic in flavor. + +But the flowers are among the most interesting products of the +frontier prairies. These gay meadows wear their most fanciful piebald +robes from the earliest spring till divested of them by the hoary +frosts of autumn. When again winter has fled, but before the grassy +green appears, or other vegetation has ventured to peep above the +earth, they are bespeckled in many places with a species of +_erythronium_, a pretty lilaceous little flower, which springs from +the ground already developed, between a pair of lanceolate leaves, and +is soon after in full bloom.[162] But the floriferous region only +extends about two hundred miles beyond the border: the high plains are +nearly as destitute of flowers as they are of fruits. + +The _climate_ of most parts of the Prairies is no doubt healthy in the +extreme; for a purer atmosphere is hardly to be found. But the cold +rains of the 'wet season,' and the colder snows of winter, with the +annoying winds [Pg259] that prevail at nearly all times, often render +it very unpleasant. It can hardly be said, it is true, that the +Prairies have their regular 'dry and rainy seasons;' yet the summers +are often so droughty, that, unless some change should {205} be +effected in nature's functions, cultivators would generally find it +necessary, no doubt, to resort to irrigation. That portion, however, +which is conterminous with our western border, and to the distance of +nearly two hundred miles westward, in every respect resembles the +adjacent States of Missouri and Arkansas in climate. The south is a +little disposed to chills and fevers; but the northern portion is as +healthy as the most salubrious uplands of Missouri. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[150] This discovery was verified by the finding of gold near Denver +in 1858. A reader of Gregg's book, in the St. Louis Mercantile +Library, wrote upon the margin in 1858, opposite this paragraph: "The +truth of this report has been verified this year."--Chittenden, +_Fur-Trade_, ii, p. 486.--ED. + +[151] For an early description of the Grand Saline, see Bradbury's +_Travels_, in our volume v, pp. 192, 193.--ED. + +[152] Capt. Boone is a son of the late Col. Daniel Boone, the +celebrated pioneer of the West. Being of practical habits, and of +extensive experience upon those deserts, much weight is due to his +observations.--GREGG. + +[153] Brackenbridge's [Brackenridge's] Voyage up the Missouri River, +p. 205.--GREGG. + +_Comment by Ed._ See our volume vi, p. 153, note 54; also our volume +v, pp. 191-194. + +[154] James Logan was appointed agent among the Creeks shortly after +their final removal to Indian Territory (about 1838), and was replaced +about 1842.--ED. + +[155] Gregg probably takes this information from Pike's journals. In +his edition thereof, Elliott Coues claims (ii, p. 733, note 18) that +San Buenaventura River was a myth of this early period. Pike describes +it as emptying into the Pacific north of California; but upon his map +it runs into a nameless salt lake, and is probably to be identified +with Sevier River.--ED. + +[156] A stranger would be led to suppose we were without a system of +orthography, from the fact of our so generally adopting the French +spelling of Indian names, whereby all sight is soon lost of the +original. The French first corrupt them, and we, by adapting our +pronunciation to their orthography, at once transform them into new +names. Thus 'polite usage' has converted into _Arkan'sas_ the plural +of the primitive _Arkansa_ or _Arkonsah_; though an approximate, +_Ar'kansaw_, is still the current 'vulgar' pronunciation. _Osage_ and +a great many others have suffered similar metamorphoses.--GREGG. + +[157] For the exploration of the sources of Red River, see our volume +xvi, p. 85, note 52. Gregg would appear to be one of the first +correctly to locate the headwaters of this stream.--ED. + +[158] Of all the rivers of this character, the Cimarron, being on the +route from Missouri to Santa Fe, has become the most famous. Its water +disappears in the sand and reappears again, in so many places, that +some travellers have contended that it 'ebbs and flows' periodically. +This is doubtless owing to the fact, that the little current which may +flow above the sand in the night, or in cloudy weather, is kept dried +up, in an unshaded channel, during the hot sunny days. But in some +places the sand is so porous that the water never flows above it, +except during freshets. + +I was once greatly surprised upon encountering one of these sandy +sections of the river after a tremendous rain-storm. Our caravan was +encamped at the 'Lower Cimarron Spring:' and, a little after +night-fall, a dismal, murky cloud was seen gathering in the western +horizon, which very soon came lowering upon us, driven by a hurricane, +and bringing with it one of those tremendous bursts of thunder and +lightning, and rain, which render the storms of the Prairies, like +those of the tropics, so terrible. Hail-stones, as large as turkeys' +eggs, and torrents of rain soon drenched the whole country; and so +rapidly were the banks of the river overflowed, that the most active +exertions were requisite to prevent the mules that were 'staked' in +the valley from drowning. Next morning, after crossing the neck of a +bend, we were, at the distance of about three miles, upon the +river-bank again; when, to our astonishment, the wetted sand, and an +occasional pool, fast being absorbed, were the only vestiges of the +recent flood--no water was flowing there! + +In these sandy stretches of the Cimarron, and other similar 'dry +streams,' travellers procure water by excavating basins in the +channel, a few feet deep, into which the water is filtrated from the +saturated sand.--GREGG. + +[159] This is the shrub now known as Osage orange (_Maclura +aurantiaca_).--ED. + +[160] Bexar is the older name for San Antonio, Texas, which was +founded (1718) as a presidio and mission to the memory of San Antonio +de Bejar (Bexar). Austin was laid out (1839) as the capital of the +independent state of Texas. See George P. Garrison, _Texas_ (New York, +1902).--ED. + +[161] See Thwaites, _Jesuit Relations_, lix, for Marquette's journal. +This quotation is found on p. 149.--ED. + +[162] Commonly known as dog-toothed violet.--ED. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII {XI} + +ANIMALS OF THE PRAIRIES + +The Mustang or Wild Horse -- Capturing him by 'Creasing,' and with + the Lazo -- Horse-flesh -- The Buffalo -- Its Appearance -- + Excellence of its Meat -- General Utility to the Indian and + Traveller -- Prospect of its Extinction -- Hunting the Buffalo with + Bow and Arrows, the Lance, etc. -- 'Still-hunting' -- The Buffalo + ferocious only when wounded -- Butchering, etc. -- The Gray Wolf -- + Its Modes of killing Buffalo -- Their great Numbers -- A + 'Wolf-scrape' -- The Prairie Wolf, or 'Jackal of the Prairies' -- + Elk, Deer and Bear -- The Antelope -- The Bighorn -- The Prairie Dog + -- Owls and Rattlesnakes -- The Horned Frog -- Fowls -- Bees, etc. + + +The zoology of the Prairies has probably attracted more attention than +any other feature of their natural history. This has not arisen +altogether from the peculiar interest the animals of the Prairies +possess; but they constitute so considerable a portion of the society +of the traveller who journeys among them, that they get to hold +somewhat the same place in his estimation that his fellow-creatures +would occupy if he were in civilization. Indeed, the animals are _par +eminence_ the communities of the Prairies. + +By far the most noble of these, and therefore {207} the [Pg260] best +entitled to precedence in the brief notice I am able to present of the +animals of those regions, is the _mustang_[163] or wild horse of the +Prairies. As he is descended from the stock introduced into America by +the first Spanish colonists, he has no doubt a partial mixture of +Arabian blood. Being of domestic origin, he is found of various +colors, and sometimes of a beautiful piebald. + +It is a singular fact in the economy of nature, that all _wild_ +animals of the same species should have one uniform color (with only +occasional but uniform differences between males and females); while +that of the _domestic_ animals, whether quadruped or fowl, is more or +less diversified. + +The beauty of the mustang is proverbial. One in particular has been +celebrated by hunters, of which marvellous stories are told. He has +been represented as a medium-sized stallion of perfect symmetry, +milk-white, save a pair of black ears--a natural 'pacer,' and so +fleet, it has been said, as to leave far behind every horse that had +been tried in pursuit of him, without breaking his 'pace.' But I infer +that this story is somewhat mythical, from the difficulty which one +finds in fixing the abiding place of its equine hero. He is familiarly +known, by common report, all over the great Prairies. The trapper +celebrates him in the vicinity of the northern Rocky {208} Mountains; +the hunter, on the Arkansas, or in the midst of the Plains; while +others have him pacing at the rate of half a mile a minute on the +borders of Texas. It is hardly a matter of surprise, then, that a +creature of such an ubiquitary existence should never have been +caught. + +The wild horses are generally well-formed, with trim and clean limbs; +still their elegance has been much exaggerated by travellers, because +they have seen them at large, abandoned [Pg261] to their wild and +natural gaiety. Then, it is true, they appear superb indeed; but when +caught and tamed, they generally dwindle down to ordinary ponies. +Large droves are very frequently seen upon the Prairies, sometimes of +hundreds together, gambolling and curvetting within a short distance +of the caravans. It is sometimes difficult to keep them from dashing +among the loose stock of the traveller, which would be exceedingly +dangerous; for, once together, they are hard to separate again, +particularly if the number of mustangs is much the greatest. It is a +singular fact, that the gentlest wagon-horse (even though quite fagged +with travel), once among a drove of mustangs, will often acquire in a +few hours all the intractable wildness of his untamed companions. + +The mustang is sometimes taken by the cruel expedient of 'creasing,' +which consists in shooting him through the upper _crease_ of the neck, +above the cervical vertebrae; when, the ball cutting a principal nerve, +he falls as suddenly {209} as if shot in the brain, and remains +senseless for a few minutes, during which he is secured with a rope. +He soon recovers from the shock, however, and springs to his feet, but +finds himself deprived of his liberty. He is easily tamed after this, +and the wound heals without leaving any physical injury. But +'creasing' is so nice an operation that many are killed in the +attempt. If the ball pass a little too low, it fractures a vertebra +and kills the poor brute instantly. + +But the most usual mode, among the Mexicans and Indians, of taking the +_mestena_ (as the former call these animals), is with the lazo. They +pursue them on fleet horses, and great numbers are thus noosed and +tamed. The mustang has been taken in Texas in considerable numbers by +preparing a strong pen at some passway or crossing of a river, into +which they are frightened and caught. [Pg262] + +Upon the plains, I once succeeded in separating a gay-looking stallion +from his herd of _mestenas_, upon which he immediately joined our +_caballada_, and was directly lazoed by a Mexican. As he curvetted at +the end of the rope, or would stop and gaze majestically at his +subjecters, his symmetrical proportions attracted the attention of +all; and our best jockeys at once valued him at five hundred dollars. +But it appeared that he had before been tamed, for he soon submitted +to the saddle, and in a few days dwindled down to scarce a +twenty-dollar hackney. + +Prairie travellers have often been reduced {210} to the necessity of +eating the flesh of the mustang; and, when young and tender, it has +been accounted savory enough; but, when of full age, it is said to be +exceedingly rancid, particularly when fat. They are sometimes hunted +by Mexicans for their oil, which is used by the curriers. + +The _buffalo_, though making no pretensions to the elegance and +symmetry of the mustang, is by far the most important animal of the +Prairies to the traveller. It is sufficiently well known that these +animals bear but little resemblance to the buffalo of India; but that +they are a species of bison, or _bos Americanus_, according to +naturalists. They are called _Cibolos_ by the Mexicans; and it would +certainly have prevented ambiguity, had they been distinguished by +some other name than buffalo with us. + +Their dusky black color becomes much paler during the season of long +hair.[164] The phenomenon of a white buffalo has frequently been +remarked upon the Prairies; but as the white skin is said to have been +used in the mystic ceremonies of many of the northern tribes of +Indians, this probably created such a demand for them, that they have +become nearly extinct. Their unusual [Pg263] color has commonly been +considered a _lusus naturae_, yet it is probable that they stand in +about the same relation to the black or brown buffalo that black sheep +do to white ones. The horns of {211} the buffalo are short and black, +and almost concealed under the frightfully shaggy frontlets of long +woolly hair that crown the foreheads of the bulls; which, with the +goat-like beard, and ill-shapen hump, form the chief distinction +between them and the domestic cattle: in fact, they are so nearly of +the same species that they will breed together; though the offspring, +like the mule, is said to be unfruitful. Between the males and females +there is still a greater disproportion in size than among the domestic +cattle. A buffalo cow is about as heavy as a common ox, while a large +fat bull will weigh perhaps double as much. + +These are very gregarious animals. At some seasons, however, the cows +rather incline to keep to themselves; at other times they are mostly +seen in the centre of the gang, while the bulls are scattered around, +frequently to a considerable distance, evidently guarding the cows and +calves. And on the outskirts of the buffalo range, we are apt to meet +with small gangs of bulls alone, a day or two's travel distant, as +though performing the office of 'piquet guards' for the main herds. + +The flesh of the buffalo is, I think, as fine as any meat I ever +tasted: the old hunter will not admit that there is anything equal to +it. Much of its apparent savoriness, however, results perhaps from our +sharpened 'prairie appetites,' and our being usually upon salt +provisions awhile before obtaining it. The {212} flesh is of coarser +texture than beef, more juicy, and the fat and lean better +distributed. This meat is also very easy of digestion,[165] [Pg264] +possessing even aperient qualities. The circumstance that bulls of all +ages, if fat, make good beef, is a further proof of the superiority of +buffalo meat. These are generally selected for consumption in the +winter and early spring, when the cows, unless barren, are apt to be +poor; but during most of the year, the latter are the fattest and +tenderest meat. Of these, the udder is held as hardly second to the +tongue in delicacy. But what the tail of the beaver is to the trapper, +the tongue of the buffalo is to the hunter. Next to this are the +'marrow-bones,' the tender-loins, and the hump-ribs. Instead of a +gristly substance, as sometimes stated, the hump is produced by a +convex tier of vertical ribs, which project from the spine, forming a +gradual curve over the shoulders: those of the middle being sometimes +nearly two feet in length. The 'veal' is rarely good, being generally +poor, owing to the scanty supply of milk which their dams afford, and +to their running so much from hunters and wolves. + +This animal furnishes almost the exclusive food of the prairie +Indians, as well as covering for their wigwams and most of their +clothing; also their bedding, ropes, bags for their meat, &c.; sinews +for bow-strings, for sewing moccasins, leggins, and the like; besides +{213} sustenance for the numerous travellers and trappers who range +upon their grazing regions. Were they only killed for food, however, +their natural increase would perhaps replenish the loss: yet the +continual and wanton slaughter of them by travellers and hunters, and +the still greater havoc made among them by the Indians, not only for +meat, but often for the skins and tongues alone (for which they find a +ready market among their traders), are fast reducing their numbers, +and must ultimately effect their total annihilation from the +continent. It is believed that the annual [Pg265] 'export' of +_buffalo rugs_[166] from the Prairies and bordering 'buffalo range,' +is about a hundred thousand: and the number killed wantonly, or +exclusively for meat, is no doubt still greater, as the skins are fit +to dress scarcely half the year. The vast extent of the prairies upon +which they now pasture is no argument against the prospect of their +total extinction, when we take into consideration the extent of +country from which they have already disappeared; for it is well +known, that, within the recollection of our oldest pioneers, they were +nearly as abundant east of the Mississippi as they now are upon the +western prairies; and from history we learn, that they once ranged to +the Atlantic coast. Even within thirty years, they were abundant over +much of the present States of Missouri and Arkansas; yet they are now +rarely seen within two hundred miles of the frontier. Indeed, upon the +high {214} plains they have very sensibly decreased within the last +ten years. Nevertheless, the number of buffalo upon the Prairies is +still immense. But, as they incline to migrate _en masse_ from place +to place, it sometimes happens, that, for several days' travel +together, not a single one is to be met with; but, in other places, +many thousands are often seen at one view. + +The Indians, as well as Mexicans, hunt the buffalo mostly with the bow +and arrows. For this purpose they train their fleetest horses to run +close beside him; and, when near enough, with almost unerring aim, +they pierce him with their arrows, usually behind the short ribs, +ranging forward, which soon disables and brings him to the ground. +When an arrow has been ill-directed, or does not enter deep enough, +and even sometimes when it has penetrated a vital part, but is needed +to use again, the [Pg266] hunter sometimes rides up and draws it out +while the animal is yet running. An athletic Indian will not +unfrequently discharge his darts with such force, that I have seen +them (30 inches long) wholly buried in the body of a buffalo: and I +have been assured by hunters that the arrows, missing the bones, have +been known to pass entirely through the huge carcass and fall upon the +ground. + +The dexterity acquired by these wild hunters in shooting the buffalo, +is very surprising. On one occasion, upon the prairies, a party of +Witchita Indians were encamped near us; and {215} a drove of buffalo +passing in the vicinity, I requested a chief to take my horse and kill +one 'upon the shares.' He delighted in the sport: so, gathering his +arrows, he mounted the pony, which was slow, and withal very lean, and +giving chase, in a few minutes he had two buffaloes lying upon the +plain, and two others went off so badly wounded, that, with a little +exertion, they might have been secured. + +But the dexterity of the Comanches in the buffalo chase is perhaps +superior to that of any other tribe. The Mexican _Ciboleros_, however, +are scarcely if at all inferior to the Indians in this sport. I once +went on a hunting expedition with a Cibolero, who carried no arms +except his bow and arrows and a butcher's knife. Espying a herd of +buffalo, he put spurs to his horse, and, though I followed as fast as +a mule I rode could trudge, when I came up with him, after a chase of +two or three miles, he had the buffalo partly skinned! This was rather +unusual dispatch, to be sure, for the animal oftener lingers awhile +after receiving the fatal dart. + +In the chase, the experienced hunter singles out the fattest buffalo +as his victim, and having given him a mortal wound, he in like manner +selects another, and so on, till the plain is sometimes literally +strewed with carcasses. [Pg267] + +It seems that Capt. Bonneville[167] marvelled greatly that some +Indians, during his peregrinations in the Rocky Mountains, should have +{216} killed buffalo "without guns or arrows, and with only an old +spear;" and he was no doubt mistaken in supposing "that they had +chased the herds of buffalo at full speed, until they tired them down, +when they easily dispatched them with the spear:" for both Indians and +Mexicans often chase with a long-handled spear or lance, which, if the +horse be well trained, is still a more expeditious mode of killing +them than with the bow and arrow. An expert lancer will enter a drove, +and drawing up alongside, will pierce buffalo after buffalo until +several are brought down. + +In default of bow or lance, they chase with the fusil, but seldom so +successfully as with the former weapons. The Americans generally +prefer 'running' with the horseman's pistol; yet the Indian is apt to +kill double as many with his arrows or lance. + +In all these modes of hunting, the buffalo is sometimes dangerous; +for, becoming enraged from his wounds, he will often make desperate +lunges at his pursuer; and, if the horse be not well trained, he may +be himself disembowelled, leaving his rider at the mercy of the +buffalo, [Pg268] as has happened on some occasions. But if the steed +understand his business, he will dodge the animal with the expertness +of a fencer. + +Buffalo calves (but not full-grown buffalo) are often taken with the +lazo by Mexicans and Indians; yet, being separated from their dams and +the droves during chases, these simple little creatures not +unfrequently take up with {217} the riding animals of the hunters, and +follow them to the camp as tamely as though they were their dams. If +provided with domestic cows, they may be raised without much +difficulty. + +Some of the northern Indians, particularly the Assiniboins,[168] are +said to practise still a distinct mode of taking the buffalo. A +staunch pound is erected at some convenient point, and, after a course +of mystic rites by their medicine-men, they start upon the enterprise. +A gang of buffalo is frightened towards the pen, while an Indian, +covered with one of their woolly skins, runs at a distance ahead. +Being seen by the animals, they mistake him for one of their kind, and +follow him into the pen. Once secured in the enclosure, they leisurely +dispatch them with their arrows, as they are said to believe it would +offend the Great Spirit and render future hunts unpropitious to use +fire arms in killing their imprisoned game. + +However, of all other modes, our backwoodsmen prefer +'still-hunting'--that is, stealing upon their game afoot with the +rifle. Buffalo are much more easily approached than deer. When the +hunter perceives a herd at rest, or quietly feeding, he crawls upon +them behind a bank, a shrub, or a tuft of grass, with the greatest +facility, provided he 'has the wind of them,' as hunters say--that is, +if the wind blows from the buffalo; but if the reverse, he will +[Pg269] find it impossible to approach them, however securely he may +have {218} concealed himself from their sight. In fact, their scent +being acute, they seem to depend more upon it than their sight; for if +a gang of buffalo be frightened, from any quarter whatever, they are +apt to shape their course against the wind, that they may scent an +enemy in their way. + +If the hunter succeed in 'bringing down' his first shot, he may +frequently kill several out of the same herd; for, should the game +neither see nor smell him, they may hear the rifle-cracks, and witness +their companions fall one after another, without heeding, except to +raise their heads, and perhaps start a little at each report. They +would seem to fancy that the fallen are only lying down to rest, and +they are loth to leave them. On one occasion, upon the Cimarron river, +I saw some ten or a dozen buffaloes lying upon a few acres of ground, +all of which had been shot from the same herd by a couple of our +hunters. Had not the gang been frightened by the approaching caravan, +perhaps a dozen more of them might have fallen. + +A dexterous hunter will sometimes 'crawl upon' a gang of buffalo, on a +perfectly level plain. As their sight is at best not acute, and is +always more or less obscured by the shaggy hair of their foreheads, +they will hardly observe an approaching enemy when they are feeding, +unless the wind bears them the scent. The hunter is, therefore, +careful to 'have the wind' of them, and crawls slowly and closely upon +the ground, until within gun-shot. If {219} he bring down the first, +the others will perhaps retire a little, when he may sometimes +approach behind the fallen buffalo, and shoot several others. + +The tenacity of these animals for life is often very extraordinary. +When one receives even a mortal shot, he frequently appears not +hurt--he seems to disdain to [Pg270] flinch--but will curl his tail +and step about as though he neither felt nor feared anything! If left +undisturbed, however, he begins to stagger, and in a few moments +expires: but if provoked, he might run for miles before he would fall. +I have seen a party of hunters around a wounded and enraged bull, +fire, at a few paces distance, a dozen or two shots, aimed at his very +heart, without their seeming to have any effect till his anger cooled, +when in an instant he would lie lifeless upon the ground. In such +cases, the inexperienced hunter often aims to shoot them in the brain, +but without success. Owing not only to the thickness of the scull, but +to the matted wool upon it, I have never witnessed an instance of a +rifle-ball's penetrating to the brain of a buffalo bull. + +The 'still-hunter' must needs be upon his guard; for the wounded +buffalo is prone to make battle, upon the too near approach of his +enemy. With a little presence of mind, however, his attacks are easily +shunned. If he makes a lunge, the pedestrian hunter has only to wheel +abruptly to one side; for the animal is apt to pass on in a direct +line. I have never heard of a serious accident of the {220} kind; yet +some frightful though amusing incidents have occurred in such cases. + +The buffalo never attacks, however, except when wounded. Even the +largest droves (the opinion of some travellers to the contrary +notwithstanding), though in the wildest career, are easily turned from +their course by a single man who may intercept their way. I have +crouched in the tall grass in the direct route of a frighted gang, +when, firing at them on their near approach, they would spread in +consternation to either side. Still their advance is somewhat +frightful--their thundering rumble over the dry plain--their lion-like +fronts and dangling beards--their open mouths and hanging tongues--as +they come on, puffing [Pg271] like a locomotive engine at every +bound, does at first make the blood settle a little heavy about the +heart. + +The gait of these animals is a clumsy gallop, and any common pony can +overtake them in the chase; though, as the hunter would express it, +they 'lumber' over the ground rather deceivingly. The cows are usually +much faster than the bulls. It has been the remark of travellers that +the buffalo jumps up from the ground differently from any other +animal. The horse rises upon his fore feet first, and the cow upon her +hind feet, but the buffalo seems to spring up on them all at once. + +American hunters, as well as Indians, to butcher the buffalo, +generally turn it upon the belly, and commence on the back. The {221} +hump-ribs, tender-loins, and a few other choice bits being +appropriated, the remainder is commonly left for the wolves. The skin +is chiefly used for buffalo rugs, but for which it is only preserved +by the Indians during fall and winter (and then rarely but from the +cows and bullocks), when the hair is long and woolly. I have never +seen the buffalo hide tanned, but it seems too porous and spongy to +make substantial leather. Were it valuable, thousands of hides might +be saved that are annually left to the wolves upon the Prairies. + +Although the buffalo is the largest, he has by no means the control +among the prairie animals: the sceptre of authority has been lodged +with the large _gray wolf_. Though but little larger than the wolf of +the United States, he is much more ferocious. The same species abound +throughout the north of Mexico, where they often kill horses, mules +and cattle of all sizes; and on the Prairies they make considerable +havoc among the buffalo. + +Many curious tales are told of the wiles and expedients practised by +these animals to secure their prey. Some [Pg272] assert that they +collect in companies, and chase a buffalo by turns, till he is +fatigued, when they join and soon dispatch him: others, that, as the +buffalo runs with the tongue hanging out, they snap at it in the chase +till it is torn off, which preventing him from eating, he is reduced +by starvation, and soon overpowered: others, that, while running, they +gnaw and lacerate {222} the legs and ham-strings till they disable +him, and then he is killed by the gang. Be this as it may, certain it +is that they overcome many of the largest buffaloes, employing perhaps +different means of subduing them, and among these is doubtless the +last mentioned, for I have myself seen them with the muscles of the +thighs cruelly mangled--a consequence no doubt of some of these +attacks. Calves are constantly falling victims to the rapacity of +these wolves; yet, when herds of buffalo are together, they defend +their offspring with great bravery. + +Though the color of this wolf is generally a dirty gray, it is +sometimes met with nearly white. I am of opinion, however, that the +diversity of color originates chiefly from the different ages of the +hair, and the age and condition of the animal itself. The few white +wolves I have seen, have been lean, long-haired, and apparently very +old. There are immense numbers of them upon the Prairies. Droves are +frequently to be seen following in the wake of caravans, hunting +companies, and itinerant Indian bands, for weeks together--not, like +the jackal, so much to disinter the dead (though this they sometimes +do), as to feast upon the abandoned carcasses of the buffalo which are +so often wantonly killed and wasted. Unless in these cases, they are +rarely seen, except in the neighborhood of buffalo; therefore, when +the hungry traveller meets with wolves, he feels some assurance that +supplies of his favorite game are at hand. [Pg273] + +{223} I have never known these animals, rapacious as they are, [to] +extend their attacks to man, though they probably would, if very +hungry and a favorable opportunity presented itself. I shall not soon +forget an adventure with one of them, many years ago, on the frontier +of Missouri. Riding near the prairie border, I perceived one of the +largest and fiercest of the gray species, which had just descended +from the west, and seemed famished to desperation. I at once prepared +for a chase; and, being without arms, I caught up a cudgel, when I +betook me valiantly to the charge, much stronger, as I soon +discovered, in my cause than in my equipment. The wolf was in no humor +to flee, however, but boldly met me full half-way. I was soon +disarmed, for my club broke upon the animal's head. He then 'laid to' +my horse's legs, which, not relishing the conflict, gave a plunge and +sent me whirling over his head, and made his escape, leaving me and +the wolf at close quarters. I was no sooner upon my feet than my +antagonist renewed the charge; but, being without weapon, or any means +of awakening an emotion of terror, save through his imagination, I +took off my large black hat, and using it for a shield, began to +thrust it towards his gaping jaws. My _ruse_ had the desired effect; +for, after springing at me a few times, he wheeled about and trotted +off several paces, and stopped to gaze at me. Being apprehensive that +he might change his mind and return to the attack, and conscious that, +under the {224} compromise, I had the best of the bargain, I very +resolutely---- took to my heels, glad of the opportunity of making a +drawn game, though I had myself given the challenge. + +There is a small species called the _prairie wolf_ on the frontier, +and _coyote_[169] by the Mexicans, which is also found [Pg274] in +immense numbers on the Plains. It is rather smaller than an ordinary +dog, nearly the color of the common gray wolf, and though as rapacious +as the larger kind, it seems too cowardly to attack stout game. It +therefore lives upon the remains of buffalo killed by hunters and by +the large wolves, added to such small game as hares, prairie dogs, +etc., and even reptiles and insects. It will lie for hours beside a +'dog-hole,' watching for the appearance of the little animal, which no +sooner peeps out than the enemy pounces upon it. + +The coyote has been denominated the 'jackal of the Prairies;' indeed, +some have reckoned it really a species of that animal, yet it would +seem improperly, as this creature {225} partakes much less of the +nature of the jackal than of the common wolf. Still, however noisy the +former may be, he cannot exceed the prairie wolf. Like ventriloquists, +a pair of these will represent a dozen distinct voices in such quick +succession--will bark, chatter, yelp, whine, and howl in such variety +of note, that one would fancy a score of them at hand. This, added to +the long and doleful bugle-note of the large wolf, which often +accompanies it, sometimes makes a night upon the Prairies perfectly +hideous.--Some hunters assert that the coyote and the dog will breed +together. Be this as it may, certain it is that the Indian dogs have a +wonderfully wolfish appearance. + +The _elk_ as well as the _deer_ is found somewhat abundant [Pg275] +upon the Arkansas river, as high as the Santa Fe road, but from thence +westward they are both very scarce; for these animals do not resort to +the high prairie plains. Further south, however, in the prairies +bordering the brushy tributaries of the Canadian and Red River, deer +are exceedingly plenty--herds of hundreds are sometimes seen together; +but in these southern regions there are but few elks. + +About the thickety streams above-mentioned, as well as among the Cross +Timbers, the _black bear_ is very common, living chiefly upon acorns +and other fruits. The grape vines and the branches of the scrubby +oaks, and plum-bushes, are in some places so torn and broken by the +bear in pursuit of fruits, that a stranger {226} would conclude a +violent hurricane had passed among them. + +That species of gazelle known as the _antelope_ is very numerous upon +the high plains. This beautiful animal, though reckoned a link between +the deer and goat, is certainly much nearest the latter. It is about +the size and somewhat of the figure of a large goat. Its horns also +resemble those of the latter, being likewise persistent; but they are +more erect, and have a short prong projecting in front. The ground of +this animal's color a little resembles that of the common deer, but it +is variegated with a whitish section or two on each side. + +The antelope is most remarkable for its fleetness: not bounding like +the deer, but skimming over the ground as though upon skates. The +fastest horse will rarely overtake them. I once witnessed an effort to +catch one that had a hind-leg broken, but it far outstripped our +fleetest 'buffalo-horse.' It is, therefore, too swift to be hunted in +the chase. I have seen dogs run after this animal, but they would soon +stop and turn about, apparently much ashamed of being left so far +behind. [Pg276] + +The flesh of the antelope is, like that of the goat, rather coarse, +and but little esteemed: consequently, no great efforts are made to +take them. Being as wild as fleet, the hunting of them is very +difficult, except they be entrapped by their curiosity. Meeting a +stranger, they seem loth to leave him until they have fully found him +out. They will often {227} take a circuit around the object of their +curiosity, usually approaching nearer and nearer, until within +rifle-shot--frequently stopping to gaze. Also, they are often decoyed +with a scarlet coat, or a red handkerchief attached to the tip of a +ramrod, which will sometimes allure them within reach of the hunter's +aim. But this interesting animal, like the buffalo, is now very rarely +seen within less than 200 miles of the frontier: though early voyagers +tell us that it once frequented as far east as the Mississippi. + +The _bighorn_ (_carnero cimarron_, as called by the Mexicans, and +sometimes known to trappers as the mountain sheep), so abundant in +most of the Rocky Mountain chain, is found in the spurs and +table-plain cliffs about the sources of the Cimarron river (whence +this stream acquired its name), as well as in the highland gorges, and +other parts of those mountain borders. Its flesh is said to be +excellent, and is preferred by many hunters to venison. It is larger +than a common sheep, and covered with brownish hair instead of +wool--darker than the deer, but whitish on the belly. It is most +remarkable for its huge spiral horns, resembling in shape and +curvature those of the sheep, but sometimes over three feet long, and +four to six inches in diameter at the base.[170] [Pg277] + +{228} The bighorn is quite celebrated for its agility, and its +habit of secluding itself among the most inaccessible mountain crags. +It seems to delight in perching and capering upon the very verge of +the most frightful precipices and overhanging cliffs, and in skipping +from rock to rock, regardless of the yawning chasms, hundreds of feet +in depth, which intervene. In fact, when pursued, it does not +hesitate, as I have been assured, to leap from a cliff into a valley a +hundred or more feet below, where, lighting upon its huge horns, it +springs to its feet uninjured; for the neck is so thick and strong as +to support the greatest shock the animal's weight can bring upon it. +Being exceedingly timorous, it rarely descends to the valleys, but +feeds and sleeps about such craggy fastnesses as are inaccessible to +the wolves and other animals of prey. This animal seems greatly to +resemble the _moufflon_ of Buffon, in color, figure and horns, but the +_chamois_ in habits. + +But of all the prairie animals, by far the most curious, and by no +means the least celebrated, is the little _prairie dog_. This singular +quadruped is but little larger than a common squirrel, its body being +nearly a foot long, with a tail of three or four inches. The color +ranges from brown to a dirty yellow. The flesh, though often eaten by +travellers, is not esteemed savory. It was denominated the 'barking +squirrel,' the 'prairie ground-squirrel,' etc., by early explorers, +with much more apparent propriety than the present established {229} +name. Its yelp, which resembles that of the little toy-dog, seems its +only canine attribute. It rather appears to occupy a middle ground +betwixt the rabbit and squirrel--like the former in feeding and +burrowing--like the latter in frisking, flirting, sitting erect, and +somewhat so in its barking. + +The prairie dog has been reckoned by some naturalists a species of the +marmot (_arctomys ludoviciana_); yet it seems [Pg278] to possess +scarce any other quality in common with this animal except that of +burrowing. Some have supposed, it is true, that like the marmot, they +lie torpid during the cold season; and it is observed in 'Long's +Expedition,' that, "as they pass the winter in a lethargic state, they +lay up no provisions," &c.: but this is no doubt erroneous; for I have +the concurrent testimony of several persons, who have been upon the +Prairies in winter, that, like rabbits and squirrels, they issue from +their holes every soft day; and therefore lay up no doubt a hoard of +'hay' (as there is rarely anything else to be found in the vicinity of +their towns) for winter's use. + +A collection of their burrows has been termed by travellers a 'dog +town,' which comprises from a dozen or so, to some thousands in the +same vicinity; often covering an area of several square miles. They +generally locate upon firm dry plains, coated with fine short grass, +upon which they feed; for they are no doubt exclusively herbivorous. +But even when tall coarse grass surrounds, they seem commonly to +destroy this within their 'streets,' {230} which are nearly always +found 'paved' with a fine species suited to their palates. They must +need but little water, if any at all, as their 'towns' are often, +indeed generally, found in the midst of the most arid plains--unless +we suppose they dig down to subterranean fountains. At least they +evidently burrow remarkably deep. Attempts either to dig or drown them +out of their holes have generally proved unsuccessful. + +[Illustration: "Dog Town," or Settlement of Prairie Dogs] + +Approaching a 'village,' the little dogs may be observed frisking +about the 'streets'--passing from dwelling to dwelling apparently on +visits--sometimes a few clustered together as though in council--here +feeding upon the tender herbage--there cleansing their 'houses,' or +brushing the little hillock about the door--yet all quiet. Upon +[Pg281] seeing a stranger, however, each streaks it to its home, +but is apt to stop at the entrance, and spread the general alarm by a +succession of shrill yelps, usually sitting erect. Yet at the report +of a gun or the too near approach of the visitor, they dart down and +are seen no more till the cause of alarm seems to have disappeared. + +Two other animals appear to live in communion with the prairie +dogs--the _rattle-snake_ and a small _owl_;[171] but both are no doubt +intruders, resorting to these burrows for shelter, and to feed, it is +presumed, upon the 'pups' of the inmates. + +{231} Rattle-snakes are exceedingly abundant upon these plains: scores +of them are sometimes killed in the course of a day's travel; yet they +seem remarkably harmless, for I have never witnessed an instance of a +man's being bitten, though they have been known to crawl even into the +beds of travellers.[172] Mules are sometimes bitten by them, yet very +rarely, though they must daily walk over considerable numbers. + +The _horned frog_, as modern travellers have christened it, or horned +lizard,[173] as those of earlier times more rationally called it, is +the most famed and curious reptile of the plains. Like the prairie +dog, it is only found in the dry regions, often many miles from water. +It no doubt lives nearly, if not wholly, without drink. Its food +probably consists chiefly of ants and other insects; though many +Mexicans will have it, that the _camaleon_ (as they call it) _vive del +aire_--lives upon the air. It has been kept several [Pg282] months +without partaking of a particle of aliment. I once took a pair of them +upon the far-western plains, which I shut up in a box and carried to +one of the eastern cities, where they were kept for several months +before they died,--without having taken food or water, though +repeatedly offered them. + +{232} The whole length of the horned frog is from two to five +inches--body flatted horizontally, oval-shaped, and between one and +two inches wide in the middle. The back is beautifully variegated, +with white and brown, and sometimes a yellowish purple. The belly is +whitish and covered with brown specks. It acquired its name from a +pair of short horns projecting from the top of the head--with other +smaller horny protuberances upon the head and body. It has a short +tail, which gives it a lizard-like appearance. It is a very +inoffensive creature, and may be handled with perfect impunity, +notwithstanding its uncouth appearance, and sometimes vicious +demonstrations. + +As birds mostly incline to the timbered regions, there is but a scant +variety to be met with upon the plains. About the Cross Timbers and +indeed on all the brushy creeks, especially to the southward, are +quantities of wild _turkeys_, which are frequently seen ranging in +large flocks in the bordering prairies. That species of American +grouse, known west as the _prairie-hen_, is very abundant on the +frontier, and is quite destructive, in autumn, to the prairie +corn-fields. This fowl is rarely seen over two hundred miles beyond +the border. _Partridges_ are found about as far west; but their number +is quite limited anywhere beyond the precincts of the settlements. +About the streams there are different species of geese and ducks, as +well as both sand-hill and white cranes: also flocks of a species of +plover and {233} curlew. Add to these numbers of hawks and ravens, and +we have most of the fowls of the [Pg283] Prairies. Flocks of the +latter follow in the wake of caravans with even greater constancy than +wolves. + +The _bee_, among Western pioneers, is the proverbial precursor of the +Anglo-American population: in fact, the aborigines of the frontier +have generally corroborated the notion; for they used to say, they +knew the whites were not far behind, when bees appeared among them. +This partial coincidence, I suppose, is the result of their emigration +westward being at nearly an even pace with that of the settlers. As +yet no honey-bees seem to have been discovered as far westward as any +part of the Rocky Mountains. They are scattered, however, to the +distance of two or three hundred miles west of the Missouri and +Arkansas frontier, where there is timber affording them suitable +habitations. On the Santa Fe route but few have been found beyond the +Council Grove. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[163] _Mustang_ would most naturally seem a corruption of the Spanish +adjective _mostrenco_ (without owner), but the Mexicans call wild +horses _mestenas_, a synonyme in one of its senses with +_mostrenco_.--GREGG. + +[164] The bulls usually shed in the spring, from the shoulders back, +but not in front, which imparts to them quite a lion-like +appearance.--GREGG. + +[165] It has often been remarked by travellers, that however much +buffalo meat one may eat, no inconvenience is ever suffered from +it.--GREGG. + +[166] Often, but it would seem improperly, called 'buffalo +_robes_.'--GREGG. + +[167] Benjamin Louis Eulalie de Bonneville was born in France in 1796. +At an early age he came to America with his mother, where he was cared +for by Thomas Paine, who secured for him a cadetship in the United +States Military Academy, from which he was graduated in 1819, when he +entered the army. During Lafayette's visit of 1825, Bonneville was +detailed as his aide. He was later stationed on the Western frontier, +and obtaining leave of absence (1831) planned an extensive fur-trading +and exploring expedition. This is the journey graphically described by +Washington Irving, in _Rocky Mountains, or Scenes, Incidents and +Adventures in the far West, digested from the journal of B. L. E. +Bonneville of the army of the United States_ (Phila., 1837). +Bonneville was absent from civilization for three years (1832-35), and +wandered as far west as the Columbia. His trading venture was but +moderately successful, and he returned to army life, participating in +both the Seminole and Mexican wars, in the latter of which he was +severely wounded. During the War of Secession, he was stationed +chiefly at frontier posts, being breveted brigadier-general in 1865. +He died at Fort Smith in 1878.--ED. + +[168] For the Assiniboin consult our volume xiv, p. 275, note +197.--ED. + +[169] _Canis latrans_, a distinction to which its noisiness +emphatically entitles it. Clavigero says of this animal: "El _coyotl_, +_o coyote_, como dicen los Espanoles, es una fiera semejante al lobo en +la voracidad, a la zorra en la astucia, al perro en la forma, y en +otras propiedades al _adive_, o _chacal_; por lo que algunos +escritores Megicanos lo han numerado entre varias de aquellas +especias; pero es indudable que se diferencia de todas ellas," +etc.--_Hist. Ant. de Meg. Tom. I. p. 40._ + +A similar propensity is observable among us to refer nearly all +American animals to European species, whereas but very few that are +legitimately indigenous to this continent, agree in every particular +to those of the Old World. It would surely have contributed to the +copiousness and euphony of the language, as well as to perspicuity in +the distinction of species, had we, like the Mexicans, retained the +Indian names of our indigenous animals.--GREGG. + +[170] Mr. Irving furnishes the following dimensions of a male of this +species: "From the nose to the base of the tail, five feet; length of +the tail, four inches; girth of the body, four feet; height, three +feet eight inches," &c.--_Rocky Mts., Vol. I., p._ 48.--GREGG. + +[171] This has been called the _Coquimbo owl_. Its note, whether +natural or imitative, much resembles that of the prairie dog.--GREGG. + +[172] Though I never saw it tried, it has been said that snakes will +not crawl over a hair-rope stretched upon the ground, and that +consequently these form good barriers to keep these reptiles out of a +bed.--GREGG. + +[173] Orbicular lizard, as it has been technically denominated. It +would seem a species of chameleon, having apparently some, though very +little, variability of color.--GREGG. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII {XII} + +ABORIGINES OF AMERICA + +Indian Cosmogony -- Traditions of Origin -- Identity of Religious + Notions -- Adoration of the Sun -- Shawnee Faith -- Anecdote of + Tecumseh -- Legendary Traditions -- Missionaries, and Success of the + Catholics -- The Indian's Heaven -- Burial Customs -- Ancient + Accounts -- Depositing the Dead on Scaffolds -- Superstition and + Witchcraft -- Indian Philosophy -- Polygamy and other Matrimonial + Affairs -- Abhorrence of Incest -- Difference in Character -- Indian + Hospitality -- Traits of the Ancient Asiatics -- Names -- + Relationship of Different Tribes -- Dreadful Decrease of the + Indians. + + +It will hardly be expected from a work making so little pretension as +this to scientific accuracy and completeness, that the remarks which +my plan necessarily leads me to make, concerning the aborigines of +western America, should be either critical or comprehensive. Neither +can I feel that it is a topic which I am at liberty wholly to +disregard. The opportunities which I have enjoyed for [Pg284] +obtaining a knowledge of the character and habits of the western +Indians have been such, that I trust that a brief account of them may +prove in some measure new, and not altogether uninteresting to a +portion of my readers. Impressed with this belief, I propose, in the +few {235} following pages, to record such facts as shall seem to be +most novel, and to corroborate, in my humble measure, occasional +others which have before been related. With this view, I shall proceed +to notice, in the present chapter, such leading characteristics of the +aborigines generally, as shall seem most noteworthy; and then, in +those that follow, ask the reader's attention to many peculiarities +which make the most conspicuous differences between them. + +No aboriginal nation or people has ever yet been discovered, to my +knowledge, which has not professed to have a mysterious ancestry of a +mythical character. It is interesting to mark the analogies and the +differences between their various systems. Although among some tribes +who have lived much in communication with the whites, their cosmogony +has been confounded very much with the Mosaic or Scripture account, so +that it is now often difficult to distinguish clearly the aboriginal +from the imported, yet all the Americo-Indian tribes have more or less +preserved their traditions on this subject. The old full-blood +Choctaws, for instance, relate that the first of their tribe issued +from a cave in Nunnewaya or Bending Mountain, in the 'Old Nation,' +east of the Mississippi; yet this tradition has but little currency +among the young men and mixed-bloods of the tribe. The minute account +of this supposed origin cannot now be readily procured; yet some idea +may be formed of it from a kindred tradition among {236} the Mandans +which has been preserved to us by Lewis and Clark, and is thus +related: [Pg285] + +"The whole nation resided in one large village under ground near a +subterraneous lake: a grape vine extended its roots down to their +habitation and gave them a view of the light: some of the most +adventurous climbed up the vine, and were delighted with the sight of +the earth, which they found covered with buffalo, and rich with every +kind of fruits: returning with the grapes they had gathered, their +countrymen were so pleased with the taste of them that their whole +nation resolved to leave their dull residence for the charms of the +upper regions; men, women and children ascended by means of the vine; +but when about half the nation had reached the surface of the earth, a +corpulent woman who was clambering up the vine broke it with her +weight, and closed upon herself and the rest of the nation, the light +of the sun."[174] + +Besides the Mandans it seems that other neighboring tribes had +somewhat analogous notions of their origin. An early explorer relates +that the Osages believed that their fore-fathers grew from a snail, +which, having become a man, married the daughter of a beaver, whence +sprang the present race. + +The resemblance of the American Indians to each other, however, is not +more conspicuous in anything than in their religious opinions. They +seem to have no well-defined creeds: yet there are very few but +profess a faith in some sort of First Cause--a Great {237} Spirit, a +Master of Life, who rules the destinies of the world. Though the +different nations have not always typified their deity by the same +objects, yet by far the greater number seem to have fixed upon the sun +as the fit object of their adoration.[175] "Next to _Virachocha_, or +their supreme God," says Father [Pg286] Acosta,[176] speaking of the +Indians of Peru, "that which most commonly they have and do adore +amongst the Infidells is the Sunne." Many of the Mexican tribes[177] +profess the same faith, and particularly those of New Mexico, as has +already been mentioned. This seems also the most current among the +Comanches and other wild tribes of the Prairies: and the Choctaws and +several other nations of the frontier appear at least to have held the +sun in great veneration. + +But of all the Indian tribes, none appear to have ascribed to the +'fountain of light' more of the proper attributes of deity than the +Shawnees. They argue, with some plausibility, that the sun animates +everything--therefore, he is clearly the Master of Life, or the Great +Spirit; and that everything is produced originally from the bosom of +the earth--therefore, she is the mother of creation. The following +anecdote[178] (as told to me by a gentleman of integrity), which +transpired upon {238} the occasion of an interview of Tecumseh with +Gen. Harrison, is as illustrative of the religious opinions of the +Shawnees, as it is characteristic of the hauteur and independent +spirit of that celebrated [Pg287] Shawnee chief. The General, having +called Tecumseh for a 'talk,' desired him to take a seat, saying, +"Come here, Tecumseh, and sit by your father." "You my father?" +replied the chief, with a stern air--"No! yonder sun is my father +(pointing towards it), and the earth is my mother; so I will rest on +her bosom"--and immediately seated himself upon the ground, according +to Indian custom. + +But though the Shawnees consider the sun the type, if not the essence, +of the Great Spirit, many also believe in an evil genius, who makes +all sorts of bad things, to counterbalance those made by the Good +Spirit. For instance, when the latter made a sheep, a rose, wholesome +herbs, etc., the bad spirit matched them with a wolf, a thorn, +poisonous plants, and the like. They also appear to think there is a +kind of purgatory in which the spirits of the wicked may be cleansed +before entering into their elysium. + +The worship of all the aborigines seems to consist chiefly in feasting +and dancing. A worthy missionary among the Shawnees related to me the +following legendary tradition, as explanatory of their ideas of +another world, and the institution of their worship, which may serve +as a fair sample of the traditions of many other tribes. + +{239} In days of yore (say the Shawnees) there lived a pious brother +and an affectionate sister, who were inordinately attached to each +other. It came to pass that the sister sickened and died, and was +carried to the world of spirits. The good brother was inconsolable, +and for a while refused to eat or drink, or to partake of any kind of +nourishment: he wished to follow his beloved sister. At length he +resolved to set out in search of her; so he commenced his pilgrimage +toward the setting sun. Steadily pursuing the same course for days and +moons together, he at last came to where the sky and earth meet; and +finding [Pg288] an opening, he ascended into the upper regions. He +now turned his course towards the rising sun, which he continued, +above the sky, till he came to the abode of his grandfather--which +seems but another name for one of the good spirits. This sage, knowing +his errand, gave him 'medicine' to transform him into a spirit, that +he might pass through the celestial courts. He also gave him +instructions how to proceed, and where he would find his sister. He +said she would be at a dance; and when she rose to join in the +amusement, he must seize and ensconce her in the hollow of a reed with +which he was furnished, and cover the orifice with the end of his +finger. + +After an arduous peregrination through the land of spirits, the +brother found and secured his sister as directed. He returned with his +charge to the habitation of his grandfather, who gave another +'medicine' to transform {240} them both into material beings again, +that they might revisit their brothers on earth. The sage also +explained to them the mysteries of heaven and the sacred rites of +worship, that they might instruct their tribe therein. When about to +start back, the venerable spirit told them that the route by which the +brother had come was very circuitous--there was a much nearer way; and +opening a trap-door through the sky, they beheld their native town +just below them. So the good brother and sister descended; and +returning home, a great feast was celebrated, accompanied by a solemn +dance--in accordance with the grandfather's instructions. Thus +originated, as they say, the sacred dances and other religious +ceremonies now in practice. + +As they believe the Indian heaven separate, and essentially different +and distinct from that of the whites, and as they do not wish their +people divided, this has often occasioned a serious opposition to the +labors of the missionaries.[179] [Pg289] For the purpose of thwarting +the {241} measures of these, a noted anti-christian sage 'played off,' +a few years ago, the following 'vision.' Being very ill (as they +relate), this sage, to all appearance, died, and became stiff and +cold, except a spot upon his breast, which still retained the heat of +life. In this state he remained a day or more, when he again breathed +and returned among the living: and calling his friends about him, he +related the scenes he had witnessed. He had ascended to the Indian's +heaven, he said, which he described as usual: a fine country, +abounding in all sorts of game, and everything an Indian could desire. +There he met with his grandfather, who said to him, "It is meet, my +son, that thou return to the earth, and warn thy brothers against the +dangers that await them. Tell them to beware of the religion of the +white man: that every Indian who embraces it is obliged to take the +road to the white man's heaven; and yet no red man is permitted to +enter there, but will have to wander about forever without a +resting-place." + +The identity of the notions which the different tribes have conceived +of a future existence, and the character of the 'world of spirits,' +seems still more general. They [Pg290] fancy {242} heaven but another +material world, superior, it is true, yet resembling this--a kind of +elysian vale, or paradise--a 'happy hunting-ground,' abounding in game +and all their comforts of life, which may be procured without labor. +This elysium they generally seem to locate 'upon the sky,' which they +fancy a material solid vault. It appears impossible for them, in their +pristine barbarism, to conceive of a spiritual existence, or of a +world differing materially from that which they see around them. + +Father Hennepin (writing about 1680) relates, that the northern +Indians inquired about the manner of living in heaven, and remarks: +"When I made answer that they live there without eating or drinking, +'We will not go thither,' said they, 'because we must not eat;' and +when I have added that there would be no occasion for food there, they +clapt their hands to their mouths, as a sign of admiration, and said, +'_Thou art a great liar!--is there anything can live without +eating?_'"[180] + +Similar opinions, among many different tribes, I have heard declared +in direct terms; yet, did we want further testimony, some of their +burial customs and funeral rites would seem to indicate their ideas of +the future state. The Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Kansas, and kindred +tribes, besides many others, or perhaps most others of the frontier, +have been accustomed to inter the most valuable property of the +deceased and many necessaries with them. "Their whole property was +buried {243} with them,"[181] says an intelligent Cherokee, in some +manuscript notes concerning his ancestors, I have in my possession: +and I have been assured by creditable natives, that, within their +recollection [Pg291] they have seen, at these burials, provisions, +salt, and other necessaries, interred with the dead for their long +journey. + +There are very few of the prairie Indians but practise something of +this kind: many kill the favorite hunting-horses, and deposit the +arms, etc., of the deceased, for his use in the chase, when he arrives +at the 'happy hunting ground.' We are also informed by Capt. +Bonneville, and other travellers, that this is practised by some, if +not all, of the natives beyond the Rocky Mountains. The same is told +of the Navajoes, Apaches, and other uncatholicized tribes of the north +of Mexico. + +Peter Martyr, a learned and celebrated protestant divine, who wrote +his "Decades of the Newe Worlde"[182] towards the middle of the +sixteenth century, observes that, "in many places of the firme lande, +when any of the kynges dye, all his householde servauntes, as well +women as men which have continually served hym, kyl themselves, +beleavynge, as they are taught by the devyl _Tuyra_, that they which +kyll themselves when the kynge dyeth, go with hym to heaven and serve +hym in the same place and office as they dyd before on {244} the earth +whyle he lyved.[183] And that all that refuse so to doo, when after +they dye by theyr naturall death or otherwyse, theyr soules to dye +with theyr bodyes, and to bee dissolved into ayer and become nothynge +as do the soules of hogges, byrdes or fysshes, or other brute [Pg292] +beastes."[184] In corroboration of a similar custom among the natives +along the Mississippi, in 1542, Herrera relates,[185] that, after the +death of Fernando de Soto, and his party had set out westward, they +were joined by a youth, who stated that he had fled to escape being +buried with his lord who had died; which was the practice in that +country. Travellers from the upper lakes to the Mississippi speak of +similar customs, at an early day, among the tribes of that quarter. + +It would appear that they believe everything, both animate and +inanimate--beasts, arms, ornaments, etc.--to possess immortal +attributes, subject to resurrection in the world of spirits. However, +did not their motives seem so well defined by the direct allusions to +their notions of futurity, we might suppose, as is frequently urged, +that the burying of property, slaves, etc., with the deceased, was +only intended as a mark of respect; which, indeed, is hardly more +irrational than the custom {245} of interring costly garniture and +appendages with the dead among us. + +Some of the modes of burial adopted by the American aborigines are +different, I believe, from those of any other people. Though, as among +civilized nations, even the wildest tribes sometimes inter in ordinary +graves, yet they frequently deposit their dead, in a sitting and even +in a standing posture, in pits, caves, and hollow trees; and +occasionally, they lay the corpse out upon scaffolds suspended from +the branches of trees, or resting upon them where they will admit of +it, so as to be out of reach of the wolves and other beasts. + +I was once, with a little caravan, travelling up the course of the +Arkansas river, when, a thunder-storm coming up [Pg293] suddenly, and +night drawing near, we turned the wagons as soon as we could, to the +river-bank, to encamp. The bustle of ungearing and securing the teams +before they should be frightened by the tempest, was hardly over, when +we discovered a platform suspended above our heads, upon the branches +of a cottonwood, which, upon examination, was found to contain an +Indian corpse, from whose bones the putrid flesh had not yet +separated! + +This mode of disposing of the dead would seem once to have been quite +extensive; for, as well as upon the western prairies, it formerly +prevailed among the Potawatomies of the north, and the Choctaws of the +south, at least while on their expeditions. In this case, if +practicable, they would leave a band of {246} aged men, known as +bone-pickers,' to clean the bones, when the flesh decayed, and carry +them to their village for interment. + +Barbarians are generally superstitious to an extreme, believing in +hobgoblins, witchcraft, legerdemain and all sorts of mummeries.[186] +Like many grandmothers in backwoods life, they delight in recounting +the extraordinary apparitions, transmigrations, sorceries, etc., which +they pretend to have witnessed. Nothing seems too absurd for their +belief. Among many other cases of similar cast, an intelligent +Potawatomie once assured me that he had witnessed the death of one of +his nation, who had received [Pg294] a stab in his side with a knife +(probably in some illicit adventure); and it being unknown to his +friends how the wound had been inflicted, it was currently reported +and believed, that from their {247} present home on the frontier of +Missouri, he had visited the 'Old Nation' in Michigan,[187] poisoned +an enemy there, received the fatal stab, and returned and died, all in +one day. + +If you tell an Indian that such things are absurd and impossible, he +is apt to answer, "It may be so with the white man, but how do you +know it to be impossible with the Indian? You tell us many strange +things which happened to your fathers--we don't contradict them, +though we believe such things never could have happened to the red +man." Or, they will reply, perhaps, as they did to Father Hennepin in +a similar case: "Fie, thou knowest not what thou sayest; thou may'st +know what has passed in thy own Country, for thy Ancestors have told +thee of them; but thou canst not know what has passed in ours before +the Spirits (that is to say the Europeans) came hither." + +In their matrimonial customs there is also a similarity among most of +the American savages. Polygamy seems once to have been universal; and +I believe still is so among the uncivilized tribes. Every man takes as +many wives as he can obtain, or is able to support. The squaws, +however, the more willingly consent to this multiplicity, as it +affords additional helpmates in their labors. Polygamy among these +savages would appear, indeed, not altogether an unwise provision. At +least it seems palliated with such [Pg295] a belligerent people, who +lose so many males in their continual wars, leaving a great surplus of +females; and {248} where the duties of the latter are so numerous and +so severe. + +The custom of buying wives, or at least making large presents to their +parents, has always been very general; and still exists, not only +among the more savage, but even with many of the partially civilized +nations. Yet, notwithstanding their depravity in other respects, there +is one thing truly remarkable in their marriages. All modern observers +seem to agree with the ancient authors, that they universally abhor +incestuous connections. Among the Creeks, even the marrying of cousins +was punished by cutting off the ears. The Cherokees (according to some +manuscript notes which I have of an intelligent member of the tribe) +were prohibited from marrying in their own clans (i. e. kindred) under +penalty of death; and their clans themselves were their executioners. +But, although the Indians thus so strictly prohibit marriage within +the degree of consanguinity, it is not so with those of affinity among +many tribes. The Otoes, Kansas, and others of the same stock, will not +only marry several sisters, but their deceased brothers' wives; in +fact, this last seems considered a duty so that the orphan children of +the brother may not be without a protector.[188] + +While the aborigines of the New World {249} have been noted above +almost every other uncivilized nation in history, for their +vindictiveness and cruelty towards their enemies, there are, in these +attributes, wide differences apparent among them. The Indians along +the Pacific coast, as well as in most of Mexico, were always more mild +and peaceable than those of the United States. Hence it is, [Pg296] +in fact, that the Spaniards did not meet with that formidable +resistance to their conquests which they encountered among the fiery +tribes of Florida, or that relentless and desperate hostility which +the Anglo-Americans experienced in the first settlement of most parts +of the United States. + +But in the common trait of hospitality to strangers all the western +tribes are alike distinguished. The traveller who is thrown upon their +charity, is almost universally received and treated with the greatest +kindness; and, though they might pilfer him to the skin, and even +place his person in jeopardy, if he show want of confidence in them, +and endeavor to conceal his effects, yet his property is generally +secure when under their charge: they appear to consider a breach of +confidence one of the greatest crimes. + +Among the wild tribes, as well as among most of the unadulterated +border Indians, to set something to eat before a friend, and even a +stranger, immediately upon his arrival at a lodge or a cabin, is +deemed not only an act of hospitality but of necessary etiquette; and +a refusal to partake is looked upon as an unfriendly {250} token--an +insult, in fact, to the family. Travellers are often severely taxed to +preserve the good feeling of their hosts in this particular, +especially among the prairie Indians. One at all fastidious in matters +of diet, would find it hard to relish food from a greasy hornspoon +which every urchin had been using; and then to ladle it out of a pot +which had been common for all the papooses and pups of the premises: +or to partake from a slice rolled up in a musty skin, or a dirtier +blanket. And yet an apology even of having already dined half-a-dozen +times would scarcely palliate the insult of a refusal. Though one +visit fifty lodges in the course of a day, he must taste the food of +every one. + +The Indian system of chiefs, which still prevails, and is nearly the +same everywhere, except with the Cherokees, [Pg297] Choctaws, +Chickasaws, and the Creeks to a degree, seems to bear a strong +resemblance to that of the patriarchs of old; which, with their clans +so analogous to those of our forefathers, perhaps affords as strong a +proof as any other of their Asiatic origin.[189] To this might be +added their {251} mode of naming;[190] for the Indians universally +apply [Pg298] names significant of acts, qualities, beasts, birds, +etc., to their offspring,--a practice which seems to have prevailed +generally among the ancient Asiatics. Surnames have only been adopted +by educated families {252} and mixed-bloods of the border nations, and +are generally taken from their missionaries or some favorite friends; +except they inherit surnames from parents of white extraction. + +That the Indians of America are decreasing in numbers is very well +known, but many are dwindling away, perhaps, at a more rapid pace than +is generally suspected. The number of the Osages, it is confidently +believed, has diminished fifty per cent. within the last ten years: +the once powerful tribe of Missouries is now reduced to a mere +remnant; while the Mandans, as a nation, have become entirely extinct: +and others have shared or bid fair soon to share the same fate. This +has resulted partially from the ravages of the small-pox and other +diseases, yet as much no doubt from the baneful effects of +intoxicating liquors. On this account, their diminution has generally +been less in proportion as they are more remote from the whites. But +the 'red man' has suffered from his intercourse with the whites not in +this respect alone. The incentives to luxury and avarice continually +presented by them, have had a very pernicious influence. Formerly the +savages were contented with the indispensables of life--generally +sober, just and charitable; but now they will sacrifice their +comfort--risk their lives, and commit the most atrocious outrages to +gratify their vanity and lusts--to bedeck themselves with gewgaws and +finery. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX {XIII} + +THE FRONTIER INDIANS + +Causes of Removal West -- Annuities, etc. -- Dissatisfaction of + the Indians -- Their Melioration by the Change -- Superiority of + their present Location -- Lands granted to them -- Improvements, + Agriculture, etc. -- Their Slaves -- Manufactures -- Style of + Living, Dress, etc. -- Literary Opportunities and Improvements + -- Choctaw Academy -- Harpies and Frauds -- Games -- Systems of + Government -- Polygamy -- Ancient Laws and Customs -- Intemperance + -- Preventive Measures -- A Choctaw Enactment -- Marriage and + Funeral Customs of the Choctaws -- The Creeks -- Their Summary + Executions -- Mourning -- Indian Titles -- The Northern Tribes -- + Census of the Frontier Nations. + + +For the purpose of a somewhat more discriminating notice of the Indian +tribes beyond our western border--for it is to those I intend my +remarks, in these pages, to be strictly confined--I will distinguish +them, according to the prevailing classification of the West, as +'Frontier' or 'Border Indians,' which title includes those occupying +that district lying west of and immediately adjoining Arkansas and +Missouri, and known as the _Indian Territory_; and the 'Wild Tribes' +or 'Prairie Indians,' by which are meant those who are found west of +the others, and who range those immense {254} plains from the borders +of the Indian Territory to the Rocky Mountains. Of these I will speak +in their order. + +The most important of the frontier tribes, as is well known, are the +Cherokees, Choctaws and Chickasaws, Creeks and Seminoles, Shawnees, +Delawares, etc. It is equally well known that most of these tribes +were removed from within the States, not less because of the vicious +propensities which they contracted and the imposition to which they +were continually exposed, than on account of the difficulty of +maintaining peaceful relations between them and our own citizens, +while they remained in their midst. Their situation within the States +certainly presented quite [Pg300] an anomaly in government-- +independent powers within the limits of others claiming sovereign +jurisdiction.[191] + +A mistaken philanthropy--mistaken for want of a full knowledge of all +the bearings of the subject--among some people, has occasioned much +censure upon this branch of the policy of our government. But were we +to take into consideration the treatment of other nations towards the +aborigines of America, that of the United States, when placed in +contrast, would certainly present a very benevolent aspect. They have +always been removed by their own consent, obtained through their +chiefs and councils; and have not only been given equal amounts of +land, west of the border, but have generally been removed and +furnished a year's subsistence {255} at the expense of the government, +and received valuable equivalents beside, in utensils and other +necessaries, and in regular annuities. These are sums, generally in +money, annually paid, for a series of years, to the several tribes, +proportioned usually to the size of the tribe and the amount of +territory acquired from it. This institution of annuities, however, +though intended as the most charitable, has doubtless been the most +injurious branch of the policy of the United States towards the +Indians. Being thus afforded the means of living without much labor, +they have neglected manufactures, and even agriculture, to a +considerable degree, and many of them have acquired [Pg301] confirmed +habits of indolence and dissipation; and now that their annuities are +growing short, they are being left destitute, without the energy, the +industry, or the means wherewith to procure a livelihood. + +But, notwithstanding the constant efforts of the general government to +make them comfortable, and the immense sums of money which have been +paid them, and their being located in regions far better suited to +their wants and their habits of life than those they abandoned, many +of them appear greatly dissatisfied with the change and with the +government; which seems painfully demonstrative of that perverse, +restless disposition, which appears ever to have characterized the +conduct of half-civilized nations. + +One ostensible reason for their unwillingness {256} to remove, has +been a reluctance to abandon their native homes and the 'graves of +their fathers.' Many fabulous legends are told of the attachment of +the Indian to his native soil, yet but few who are acquainted with +their habitudes, will place much stress on this. Their own traditions, +as well as experience, have shown, that, when left to themselves, they +incline to migrate; of which the Azteques of Mexico, and the Osages, +with others of our border, afford striking examples: in fact, there is +scarcely a tribe on the frontier which has not its traditions of +migrations at some period. The Shawnees say their forefathers +emigrated from the south to the regions north of the Ohio--the Creeks, +as well as many of the Choctaws, that they were originally from west +of the Mississippi--besides many other cases. + +But, with regard to this passage of our country's history, I will +merely say, in addition, that, so far as I am able to judge, the +condition of the 'red man' has been very materially bettered by the +change. The lands they at present occupy are, for the most part, of a +more fertile character [Pg302] than those which they have left. The +climate is equally or perhaps more healthy, in general; +notwithstanding the dreadful mortality which afflicted many of them +shortly after their removal--a calamity which was attributable, +primarily, to the change of climate, as well as to the change of +habits which their new dwelling-places involved; and secondarily, to +the too abundant use of {257} spirituous liquors, with which they were +frequently provided by both native and white peddlers and traders, +before any measures, efficient enough to check the evil, were taken +either by themselves or by the general government. But, although the +latter cause still prevails to some degree, I have little doubt that +the average mortality among the frontier tribes, at present, is less +than it was before their removal. + +To each tribe has generally been granted a greater number of acres, +with definite metes and boundaries, than had been ceded by them east +of the Mississippi. It is deemed unnecessary, however, to swell this +brief notice with a statement of the several amounts of land given to +each tribe, and their localities, as these may be seen with sufficient +accuracy and definiteness by consulting the map which accompanies this +work. + +The lands of each tribe are the property of the Indian commonwealth; +and, therefore, even among the most civilized of them, the settler has +a title only in his improvement, which he holds by occupancy, and can +sell at pleasure. To prevent collisions in improvements, the first +occupant is entitled to a certain distance in every direction. Among +the Cherokees, no one can build within a quarter of a mile of the +house or field of another: so, to extend their possessions, the more +wealthy sometimes make several isolated improvements, scattered in +different directions, within half a mile of each other. [Pg303] + +{258} The game in the interspersed forests having now become scarce, +and that of the western prairies being too remote, the frontier +Indians have generally turned their attention to agriculture, and to +the raising of stock; and most of them have large numbers of horses, +cattle, and hogs. + +Some of these Indians, particularly of the southern nations, have very +extensive farms: but the mass of their population extend their culture +no further than they seem compelled by necessity. The traveller, +passing through the Cherokee Nation, is struck with the contrast +between an occasional stately dwelling, with an extensive farm +attached, and the miserable hovels of the indigent, sometimes not ten +feet square, with a little patch of corn, scarce large enough for a +family garden. In fact, among all the tribes who have no slaves, what +little there is of cultivation, is mostly the work of the women. +Scattered through the country, one continually encounters dilapidated +huts with trifling improvements, which have been abandoned by the +owners for some fancy they may have taken to some other location at a +distance, better adapted, as they think, to the promotion of their +comfort, and upon which they may live with less labor. + +Most of the labor among the wealthier classes of Cherokees, Choctaws, +Chickasaws, Creeks and Seminoles, is done by negro slaves; for they +have all adopted substantially the Southern system of slavery.[192] +Some individuals of these nations own over fifty slaves each: {259} +but they [Pg304] are the only slaveholders of the frontier tribes, +except very few among the Shawnees. + +With some tribes, and particularly among the lower classes of the +Creeks, they are inclined to settle in 'towns,' as they are +called,--making large fields, which are cultivated in common, and the +produce proportionally distributed. But these 'towns' are rather +settlements than villages, being but sparse clusters of huts without +any regularity. Indeed, there is not, I believe, a regularly laid out +town in all the Indian country, nor a place that could even merit the +name of a village; except Doaksville near Fort Towson, and perhaps +Park Hill in the Cherokee Nation.[193] + +Besides agriculture, most of the frontier tribes attend a little to +manufactures, though with no greater energy. The women have generally +learned to spin, weave and sew, at which they occupy themselves, +occasionally, during recess from the labors of the field. But very few +of the men acquire mechanical arts or follow trades of any kind: their +carpenter, wheelwright and smith work is done by a few mechanics +provided the several tribes in accordance with treaty stipulations. To +each tribe is furnished in particular one or more blacksmiths from the +United States. + +These frontier Indians for the most part live in cabins of logs, like +those of our backwoods settlers; and many of them are undistinguishable, +except in color, language, and to some degree in costume, from the +poorer {260} classes of their white neighbors. Even in dress and +language the more civilized are fast conforming to the latter. In many +families, especially of the Cherokees, the [Pg305] English tongue +only is spoken; and great numbers of these, as well as of the Choctaws +and Chickasaws, dress according to the American fashions: but the +ruder portions of even these, the most enlightened nations, as is also +the case with nearly all of the northern tribes, wear the +hunting-shirt, sometimes of buckskin, but now more commonly of calico, +cotton plaid or linsey. Instead of using hats, they wreathe about +their heads a fancy-colored shawl or handkerchief. Neither do the +women of these classes wear bonnets, but leave their heads exposed, or +protected only with a shawl, somewhat after the manner of the Mexican +females; to the lower classes of whom, indeed, the mixed-bloods of +these Indians bear a strong resemblance. Their most usual dress is a +short petticoat of cotton goods, or as frequently with the tribes of +the north, of coarse red or blue broad-cloth. + +The literary opportunities afforded to the border tribes are so +important in their consequences as to deserve some notice. To each +tribe has been granted, by the United States, a school fund, generally +somewhat proportioned to the extent of the tribe. The Cherokees and +Choctaws seem to have availed themselves of this provision to the +greatest advantage. These funds are for the most part invested in +American stocks, and the proceeds {261} appropriated to educational +uses, establishing schools, etc.[194] [Pg306] The tuition is, I +believe, in every case, free to the Indians; and yet it is painful to +know that comparatively few of the common classes will send their +children. + +The most extensive literary institution which has ever been in +operation, for the benefit of the 'red man,' was the 'Choctaw +Academy,' established in Kentucky, and supported by a common fund of +several different tribes. It was not as successful, however, as was +anticipated by its projectors; and is now being transferred and merged +into an academy near Fort Towson, in the Choctaw country, wholly +supported out of the Choctaw fund. This Academy proved very +unsatisfactory to many of the tribes concerned. They said, with +apparent justice, that their boys, educated there, forgot all their +customs, their language, their relatives, their national attachments; +and, in exchange, often acquired indolent and effeminate, if not +vicious habits; and were rendered {262} unfit to live among their +people, or to earn a maintenance by labor. There seems but little +doubt that the funds of each tribe might be employed to a much better +advantage in their own country. The influence of the institutions +would there be more likely to extend to all classes; and by gradual, +the only practicable means, a change might be wrought upon the +nation.[195] + +It is one of the calamities incident to the state of ignorance in +which most of these poor Indians remain, and their close, indeed +political connection with the more civilized people [Pg307] of the +United States, that they are continually preyed upon by the +unprincipled harpies who are ever prowling through their country, +ready to seize every opportunity of deceiving and defrauding them out +of their money or effects.[196] {263} The most depraving agencies +employed to this end are the ministration of intoxicating drinks, and +gaming, of both which the Indians are passionately fond, and by which +they are frequently robbed of their money as soon almost as received. + +Apart from the usual games at cards, dice, etc., the Indians of the +border have some peculiar games of their own, as well at cards as +otherwise. Among these the most celebrated is the 'Ball Play,' which +resembles, in some respects, the old-fashioned game of _bandy_. The +wagers are usually laid upon beating the majority of a given number, a +dozen or more of these games; and large amounts in horses, blankets, +and other goods, and even money, are frequently staked upon the +result. + +Besides the ball play, _dancing_ is a most favorite amusement of these +tribes, indeed of all the frontier as well as prairie Indians. They +formerly had many kinds of dances,--the green-corn dance, the +medicine, the eagle, the scalp and the war dances. But these are now +only practised by the ruder portions of the border nations and the +less improved tribes; among whom may still be witnessed frequently +their genuine aboriginal frolics. [Pg308] + +The green-corn dance generally lasts several {264} days, commencing +when the new crop begins to ripen. A large arbor of green branches is +usually prepared, and numerous parties of both sexes dance in a body +to their native songs and rude instrumental music, accompanied by +their monotonous "heh! heh! heh!" with a chorus of yells at intervals; +and their movements are attended with the most comical gesticulations. +Having passed through a course of 'purification' by drinking a +decoction of certain stimulant herbs, prepared by their medicine-men, +and put out all the fires, they strike fire anew by rubbing sticks +together; and a quantity of corn, pulse and other fruits of the +season, being cooked with the 'new fire,' the dance is closed with a +general feast. Each family, as it is said, then takes a supply from +the 'new breed' of fire. A more interesting and salutary influence of +this custom, which is said to prevail among some tribes at this +festival, is the cancelling or composing of all old difficulties and +disputes. + +The most advanced of these border nations, the _Cherokees_ and the +united tribes of the _Choctaws_ and _Chickasaws_, have adopted systems +of government, which are based upon [Pg309] the constitutions of our +States. The Cherokee being the most complete, some account of it may +not be out of place in this connection. + +A council or convention of the wise men of the nation was convened on +the first of July, 1839, who framed a constitution, of which the +following are the general features, it being somewhat similar to one +previously adopted in {265} the 'Old Nation.' The three powers, +legislative, executive and judicial, are distinguished and +established. The legislative consists of a National Committee and +Council. The former is composed of two and the latter of three members +from each of the eight or ten districts into which the nation was to +be divided--elected for two years by the people. They convene annually +on the first Monday in October, and each house elects a presiding +officer out of its own body. Bills are introduced, discussed and +passed according to parliamentary usage. + +The executive, called Principal Chief, and an assistant chief, are +elected for four years by the people. The executive has the usual veto +and pardoning power. He is assisted by an 'Executive Council' of five, +and the common cabinet of secretaries. The judiciary consists of a +Supreme and Circuit Court, and the ordinary justices of the peace. +Trial by jury is secured; and the common law of England appears to +have been generally adopted. Religious toleration is guarantied, but +no person can hold a civil office who denies the existence of a God, +and a future state of rewards and punishments.[197] + +According to laws subsequently enacted by the same council, the +punishment for murder is death; and for an attempt to kill, a fine +correspondent to the damage, for the benefit of the injured party: for +rape, a hundred lashes--but [Pg310] for infanticide, only twenty-five +to fifty![198] Whipping seems the punishment {266} for all inferior +crimes; which is the same with the Choctaws and Creeks, among whom the +executioners are called the 'light-horse,' a kind of police-guard, +also formerly in use by the Cherokees, but now their place is supplied +by a common sheriff and _posse_. + +As is to be inferred from their institutions, the Cherokees stand +first among the 'red men' in refinement, though in industry, morality, +and sobriety, they are no doubt excelled by the Choctaws and +Chickasaws, who are reckoned the most quiet and Christian-like Indians +of the border. + +No laws have yet been passed to enforce the payment of debts, except +by the Cherokees; and these found it necessary to suspend their +operation for two years. Even the most improved have not prohibited +polygamy by any law; though, from the example of the whites and of the +more civilized among them, as well as the exertions of the +missionaries, it is growing out of repute with most of the border +nations. It is still occasionally practised, however; and the ruder +classes among them all, I believe, sometimes still take any number of +wives, and divorce them at pleasure. But the more enlightened are +married by preachers, or authorized civil officers. + +With the united nation of Choctaws and Chickasaws, the executive power +is vested in four chiefs, called in Choctaw _mingoes_, who are +selected one from each of the districts into which the country is +divided, {267} and of which the Chickasaw tribe constitutes one.[199] +These chiefs are vested with the usual veto and pardoning powers, and +are elected [Pg311] for four years. Most of their other +constitutional provisions resemble those of the Cherokees. The +Choctaws, as well as the Creeks, punish the crime of murder with death +by shooting, which is generally executed immediately after trial, by +the 'light-horse.' + +It has become evident, however, that written laws and courts of +justice, judges and juries, are still rather in advance of the state +of civilization of the ruder classes, even among these most +enlightened tribes. It has been found very difficult to bring them +under their subordination. They have had, notwithstanding, a salutary +effect in many cases, and especially with regard to murder. Among most +of these nations (as well as the wild tribes), it was formerly the +custom to leave the punishment of homicide to the relatives of the +murdered. With the Choctaws and Cherokees, in particular, the entire +clan or family of the murderer were held responsible for the crime; +and though the real offender might escape, the bereaved family had a +right to kill any one of his nearest relatives that could be found, up +to the most remote kindred. There seemed no exceptions for accidental +homicide, or killing in self-defence: the Mosaic precept of 'life for +life' must be fulfilled, unless satisfactorily commuted. This savage +custom had at least one salutary effect, however: the relatives +themselves, instead of assisting {268} the escape, as so often occurs +in civilized life, were generally the first to apprehend and bring the +fugitive criminal to justice. + +But among the Choctaws, at least, any one might take the place of the +murderer, and in the death of the substitute the law was satisfied, +and the true criminal remained exempt. An intelligent and creditable +Choctaw related to me an affecting incident, for the truth of which he +vouched. An Indian had remained responsible for the appearance, on a +certain day, of his brother, who had killed a man. [Pg312] When the +day arrived, the murderer exhibited some reluctance to fulfil the +pledge, when the other said to him: "My brother, you are no brave--you +are afraid to die--stay here and take care of my family--I will die in +your place:" whereupon he immediately attended the appointed spot, and +was executed accordingly. + +The highest honor known among them, in fact, being that of a 'great +brave,' it reflected the greatest credit to meet death boldly. Instead +of being visited by his tribe with infamy for the crime he had +committed, it rather tended to make his name illustrious, if he met +the consequences without fear or flinching: whereas, any effort to +avoid death was attributed to cowardice. It would have been esteemed +quite as ignominious for the murderer to flee the established forfeit +of his life, as for a 'gentleman' under the 'civilized code of honor,' +to back out from a duel. + +But among most of the frontier, as also the {269} wild tribes, a +commutation, though not honorable to the perpetrator, was and still is +permitted, except by the Cherokees and Choctaws. Any recompense which +would satisfy the bereft family, released the murderer from further +penalty. + +There is scarcely any temptation which the Indian tribes have to +encounter so frequently, and so seriously fatal to their social +improvement, as intemperance. Of this they are conscious themselves, +and most of them have adopted measures for prohibiting the +introduction of ardent spirits among them, and for checking the +propensity to use them, with various degrees of success. Among the +Choctaws, a law was passed upon this subject, which, though not +entirely, was measurably successful; and the spirit which effected its +passage was worthy of the most exalted state of civilization. + +It seems that the tribe had generally become sensible [Pg313] of the +pernicious influences of strong drink upon their prosperity and +happiness, and had attempted various plans for its suppression, +without success. At last, it was determined by the chiefs, captains, +and head men, to strike a blow which should reach the very root of the +evil at once. A council was called, and many and long were the +speeches which were made, and much enthusiasm was created against the +monster 'Whiskey,' and all his brood of compound enormities. Still +every one seemed loth to move his arrest and execution. Finally, a +{270} captain of more than ordinary temerity arose, and offered a +resolution that each and every individual who should thenceforward +dare to introduce any of the liquid curses into their country, should +be punished with a hundred lashes on his bare back, and the liquor be +poured out. This was passed, after some slight changes, by +acclamation: but, with a due sense of the injustice of _ex-post-facto_ +restrictions, all those who had liquors on hand were permitted to sell +them. The council adjourned; but the members soon began to canvass +among each other the pernicious consequences which might result from +the protracted use of the whiskey already in the shops, and therefore +concluded the quicker it was drank up, the more promptly would the +evil be over: so, falling to, in less than two hours Bacchus never +mustered a drunker troop than were these same temperance legislators. +The consequences of their determination were of lasting importance to +them. The law, with some slight improvements, has ever since been +rigorously enforced. + +Among most of the Indian tribes the daughter has very little to do +with the selection of her husband. The parents usually require to be +satisfied first, and their permission being secured the daughter never +presumes to offer any important resistance. There is a post-nuptial +custom peculiar to the full-blood Indians of the Choctaws, which +[Pg314] deserves particular notice. For years, and perhaps for life, +{271} after the marriage of her daughter, the mother is forbidden to +look upon her son-in-law. Though they converse together, he must be +hidden from her by a wall, a tent, a curtain, or, when nothing else +offers, by covering the eyes. During their emigration, it is said +these poor superstitious matrons were put to infinite trouble so as +not to infract this custom. While travelling, or in camp often without +tents, the mother-in-law was afraid to raise her head or open her +eyes, lest they should meet the interdicted object. + +It is another peculiarity, which they have in common with some of the +more northern tribes, that the Choctaw wife, of the 'old school,' can +never call her husband by name. But if they have offspring--she calls +him "my son's father;" or, more commonly using the child's name, when, +if Ok-le-no-wa, for instance, she calls the husband "Ok-le-no-wa's +father." And yet another oddity regarding names: the ignorant Choctaw +seems to have a superstitious aversion to telling his own name: indeed +it appears impossible to get it from him, unless he have an +acquaintance present, whom he will request to tell it for him. + +In burials, the civilized Choctaws follow the customs of the whites, +but the ruder classes still preserve their aboriginal usages. +According to these, a painted pole with a flag is stuck up at the +grave, which usually remains three months. During this period they +have regular mourning exercises every morning and evening; and are +always prompt to avail themselves, {272} at any other hour of the day, +of the assistance of any friend who may visit them to help them to +weep. At the end of the prescribed term, the friends of the bereft +family attend a feast at their house, and, after dancing all night, +the next morning visit the grave and pull down the pole; which is +called 'the [Pg315] pole-pulling.' After this all mourning ceases, +and the family is permitted to join in the usual amusements and +festivities of the tribe, which was not allowable before. + +Though the _Creeks_[200] are generally a very industrious people, +raising an abundance of corn and vegetables, yet they are quite behind +their neighbors, of whom I have been speaking, as well politically as +in a social and literary view. Their executive consists of two +principal chiefs, and their legislature or council of about forty +minor chiefs or captains, who are also, _ex officio_, justices of the +peace.[201] They have no trial by jury, and their judicial proceedings +are exceedingly summary--frequently without witnesses; for the +warriors are generally too proud to deny a charge, lest it be +construed into cowardice. Executions sometimes take place within an +hour after the commencement of trial. Murder, rape and a third +conviction of stealing are punished with death, usually by shooting; +but, in case of homicide, if claimed by the relatives of the {273} +deceased, the criminal is executed with the same kind of weapon, or, +if possible, the very same, with which he committed the murder. + +Most inferior crimes, as has been mentioned, are punished by whipping: +for the first offence of stealing, fifty lashes; for the second, a +hundred and ears cropped. Adultery is punished by cutting off both the +nose and ears of the adulteress; but the husband has a right to say if +the law shall be executed: in fact, he is generally the executioner, +and that often without trial. Notwithstanding the severity of these +laws, they are for the most part rigorously enforced; though a +commutation satisfactory to the [Pg316] aggrieved is still permitted +to release the offender. Their laws, in cases of accidental homicide, +are still more barbarously rigid than those of the other nations. + +The obsequies of the Creeks are peculiar in this,--that at the moment +an Indian expires, a gun is discharged. Their graves are generally +under the floors of their dwellings, and a husband's is apt to be +under the bed of his widow. The fate of the unfortunate relict is +miserable enough in any country, but among the Creeks her doom is +barbarously rigorous. She remains in strict mourning for four +years,[202] with dishevelled hair and without {274} combing,--unless +the relatives of the deceased interfere; whereby it is sometimes put +an end to in a few months, provided the sincerity of her grief be +evident and her conduct meritorious. In their mourning, however, they +do not weep and cry with such clamorous vehemence as the Choctaws and +others. But the Shawnees and Delawares are still more celebrated for +quiet mourning.[203] As warlike nations, they appear to disdain to +mourn and wail aloud, as is the practice among the greater portion of +the savage tribes. + +Though these people have no family names, they generally take a kind +of honorary title or _sobriquet_, as is also the case with the wild +tribes, upon the occurrence of any important incident, or the +performance of a meritorious feat. A singular mode of inheritance +prevails among the Cherokees, the Creeks, and perhaps others. Though +the women in other respects are mostly held as very inferior beings, +the clans are all reckoned by them: the children pertain to [Pg317] +the mother, and the estates descend through the female branch of the +family. They say it is easy enough to verify the mothers of families, +but it is difficult to identify the fathers. + +The remaining tribes, inhabiting the more northern frontier, as well +as the Seminoles who are located among the Creeks, possess so few +distinct or striking characteristics, and, indeed, are mostly so few +in number, that a particular notice of them seems hardly to be +required. Suffice it to say, that all of them, {275} as I believe, +still retain their ancient systems of arbitrary chiefs and councils of +sages and braves, nearly in their primitive state; and that the +greater portion of them live in log huts, and cultivate the soil to a +considerable extent. Though the Shawnees, Delawares, and Kickapoos, +are among the most agricultural of the northern Indians, yet a few of +these spend the greater portion of their time on the Prairies in +hunting and in trading with the wild tribes.[204] + +FOOTNOTES: + +[174] Consult Thwaites, _Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark +Expedition_, (New York, 1904-05) v, p. 347.--ED. + +[175] The consensus of modern opinion is, that the Indians worshipped +the sun only as a symbol. They were in a stage neither monotheistic +nor pantheistic, but recognized all manifestations of the unseen, +without a sense of personal unity. Consult on this subject, J. W. +Powell, "Mythology of North American Indians," in U. S. Bureau of +Ethnology _Report_, 1879-80, pp. 17-56; D. G. Brinton, _Myths of the +New World_ (third edition, Philadelphia, 1896); R. M. Dorman, _Origin +of Primitive Superstitions among the Aborigines of America_ (Phila., +1881).--ED. + +[176] Jose de Acosta, a Jesuit historian (1539-1600), born in Spain, +was missionary to Peru for many years. Upon his return to Spain he +published _Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias_ (Seville, 1590), +both in Latin and Spanish. An English translation appeared in +1604.--ED. + +[177] Clavigero asserts of the Indians of Mexico, that their first +heaven (that of the warriors, &c.) they called "_la casa del sol_" +(the house of the sun), which luminary they worshipped every morning +at sunrise.--GREGG. + +[178] I have since met with the same, in substance, related by Mr. +Schoolcraft.--GREGG. + +_Comment by Ed._ Henry Rowe Schoolcraft (1793-1864), for many years +Indian agent at Mackinac, and a prolific writer on Indian subjects. + +[179] The Shawnees have four missionary establishments among them, +viz. a Methodist, Baptist, Moravian, and Quaker. There are also +missionaries of different sects among most of the tribes of the +border, the labors of whom have been attended with some degree of +success. There is, I believe, but one Catholic Mission upon the +frontier, which is among the Potawatomies, about a thousand of whom +have embraced this faith. The Catholics, however, appear to have +succeeded better than most other denominations, in their missionary +efforts. It is so in Mexico, so in Canada, and appears so everywhere +else that they have undertaken the Christianization of the heathen. I +would not be understood to attribute this to any intrinsic superiority +of their religion, but to the peculiarities of its forms and +ceremonies. The pageantry of their worship, the palpable +representation of the divine mysteries by the introduction of images, +better accords with their pristine idolatry, than a more spiritual +faith. Catholics, indeed, have had the sagacity to permit the Indians +(at least in some countries) to interweave many of their own heathen +ceremonies with the sacred Christian rites, forming a singular _melee_ +of Romish and pagan worship, which is especially the case in Mexico. +Also, the less rigid Catholic creed and customs do not debar them from +their wonted favorite amusements, not to say vices. It is therefore +that whole tribes sometimes simultaneously embrace this imposing +creed.--GREGG. + +[180] See Thwaites, _Hennepin's New Discovery_ (Chicago, 1903), ii, +pp. 537, 538.--ED. + +[181] Adair, who resided forty years with the southern Indians, +previous to 1775, speaks of the same among them all.--GREGG. + +_Comment by Ed._ Consult J. Long's _Voyages_ in our volume ii, p. 64, +note 31. + +[182] Peter Martyr de Anghiera (1457 (?)-1526) was the first historian +of the New World. Born in North Italy, he went to Rome in 1477, in the +train of Cardinal Ascanio Sforza. Ten years later he was invited to +Spain, where he became tutor to the royal children, and later +protonothary and royal historiographer. His _Decades_ (_De Rebus +Oceanicis et Novo Orbe Decades_) first appearing in 1530, are a prime +source for the early history of America, he having known and conversed +with the Spanish discoverers.--ED. + +[183] Also Clavigero speaks of similar beliefs and practices among the +Mexican Indians, particularly in the obsequies of the kings; and +adds--"El numero de victimas correspondia a la grandeza del funeral, +y, segun algunos autores, llegaban a veces a doscientas."--GREGG. + +[184] Edition of 1555, translated from the Latin, fol. 181.--In +another place, the same author also says they buried corn, etc., with +the dead, for their use in the world to come.--GREGG. + +[185] For Herrera, see our volume xix, p. 258, note 79 (Gregg).--ED. + +[186] The Indians often so imposed upon the credulous ancients as to +make them believe they had direct communication with Satan. The +learned divine, Peter Martyr, has a whole chapter "Of the familiaritie +which certeyne of the Indians have with the devyll, and howe they +receave answere of hym of thynges to coome:" and very seriously and +philosophically concludes, that, "the devyll beynge so auncient an +Astronomer, knowethe the tymes of thynges, and seeth howe they are +naturally directed:" to which he appends numerous instances of the +evil spirit's revelations of the "tymes of thynges to coome" to his +ministers, the magi. And even as late as 1721, Father Charlevoix +gravely says, an instance he relates, and many others that he "knows, +which are equally certain, prove that the Devil is sometimes concerned +in the magic of the Savages." The Choctaws, and perhaps some others, +used to punish witchcraft with all the rigor of our own ancestors, +putting poor creatures to death upon the slightest proof of their +tampering with the black art: but this barbarity is now prohibited by +their more civilized laws. Yet the more barbarous tribes still have +their conjurers and medicine-men, who deal in auguries and mystic +ceremonies; which, with their dances, constitute the greater part of +their worship.--GREGG. + +[187] For the early habitat of the Potawatomi, consult Croghan's +_Journals_, in our volume i, p. 115 note 84.--_Ed._ + +[188] Clavigero remarks of the Indians of Mexico, "Estaba severamante +prohibido . . . todo enlace matrimonial, entre parientes en primer +grado de consanguinidad, o de afinidad, excepto entre cunados." +--GREGG. + +[189] The origin of the American Indians has been discussed by too +many able writers for me to enter into it here: nor will I attempt to +show the general traits of similarity that are to be observed in their +various languages: yet it may interest an occasional reader, to be +informed of the relations of consanguinity which subsist between many +of the different Indian tribes. They may be arranged principally under +the following heads: 1. The Dahcotah stock, which is by far the most +extensive of those indigenous west of the Mississippi. It embraces the +Arkansas (of which the Quapaws are now the only remnant), the Osages, +Kansas or Kaws, Iowas, Winnebagoes, Otoes, Missouries, Omahas, Poncas, +and the various bands of the Sioux: all of whom speak a language still +traceable to the same origin, though some of them have been separated +for several centuries. I call these indigenous to the West, because +most of them have been so from the period of the earliest explorers on +the Mississippi; yet the tradition among them is that they came from +about the northern lakes; which appears corroborated by the fact, that +the language of the Naudowessies, Assiniboins, and perhaps others in +that quarter, shows them to be of the same family.--2. The different +bands of the Comanches and Shoshonies or Snakes, constitute another +extensive stock, speaking one language.--3. The Blackfeet, Gros +Ventres or Minnatarees, Crows and Arrapahoes, speak dialects of +another.--4. The Pawnees and Rickaras of the north, and the Wacoes, +Wichitas, Towockanoes, Towyash and Keechyes, of Red River, are of the +same origin. The Chayennes, originally from near Lake Winnipeg, and +the Kiawas (or Caiguas, according to Mexican orthography), appear +unallied to any of the foregoing nations.--5. Of those from the north +and east, the Algonquin stock appears most extensive,--embracing the +Potawatomies, Ottawas, Chippewas, Knisteneaux, Crees, Sacs and Foxes; +with whom the Delawares have also been classed, though their language +would now appear very distinct.--6. The Wyandots, Senecas, and others +of the Six Nations, are of the Huron or Iroquois.--7. The Shawnees and +Kickapoos are of one stock.--8. The Kaskaskias, Piorias, Piankeshaws +and Weaws, are descendants of the Miamies.--9. The Choctaws and +Chickasaws are nearly the same people.--10. The Creeks and +Seminoles--though old authors speak of the Creeks as being akin to the +Choctaws, yet there is now but little relationship to be traced in +their language; while that of the Cherokees appears entirely _sui +generis_.--GREGG. + +_Comment by Ed._ On this subject consult J. W. Powell, "Indian +Linguistic Families of America north of Mexico" in U. S. Bureau of +Ethnology _Report_, 1885-86. Gregg is unusually correct in his +classification, but nevertheless has fallen into a few errors. + +[190] The _tribes_ often take the names of the seceding chiefs who +originate them, or are called from some circumstance attending their +separation; but frequently they assume a name from an important word +in their languages: thus _Choctaw_ and _Chickasaw_ are said to have +been the names of chiefs; _Seminole_ (or _Seminoleh_) and _Pioria_ +imply runaways or seceders; while _Illinois_, in the language of that +ancient tribe, and _Lunnapae_, by which the Delawares distinguish +themselves, signify _man_. This last is perhaps most common; for, as +each nations holds itself superior to all others, its members call +themselves _men_, in contradistinction to _boys_ or _squaws_, as they +are wont to denominate their enemies.--GREGG. + +[191] Pressure of the white population upon the southern tribes, +induced them to migrate to the west of the Mississippi, a movement +which began with detached parties of Choctaw as early as 1805. In 1824 +President Monroe recommended their removal, and in 1830 Jackson +ordered it. Large bands of these Indians had already received lands in +Arkansas; wherefore, in 1832, Indian Territory was set apart for the +tribes and removals thither began. The Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Creek +made but little difficulty; the Cherokee and Seminole opposed the +removal. The former were forcibly ejected (1836-38), and by 1839 were +united on their present site in Indian Territory. The Seminole +resistance led to the war with that people (1835-42), in which a large +portion of the tribesmen perished. The remainder were finally united +in Indian Territory in 1846.--ED. + +[192] The civilized tribes had been slave-holders before their removal +to Indian Territory. At the outbreak of the War of Secession their +sympathies were with the Confederacy, with whom the Cherokee made a +treaty October 7, 1861. Early in 1863, however, they abolished slavery +by law, and the large majority of their regiments went over to the +Union side. A constitutional amendment in 1866, forever abolished +slavery or involuntary servitude, except for crime. See _Constitution +and Laws of Cherokee Nation_.--ED. + +[193] Neither of these places has developed into towns of importance, +although both are still on the map of Indian Territory. By an act of +1898, towns were to be incorporated, and town sites surveyed. In 1900, +the largest town was Ardmore, in the Chickasaw Nation. There were +seven towns of more than two thousand population, and twelve more +exceeding one thousand.--ED. + +[194] Their schools are mostly conducted in English, yet among some +tribes they are often taught in their native languages. As in other +respects, the Cherokees have made the greatest advancement in a +literary point. Their singular system of characters representing +syllables, invented by an illiterate native, is no doubt known to most +of my readers. In these characters, a considerable number of books +have been printed in their vernacular tongue. Many Cherokees, however, +as well as Choctaws, have received good English educations. In the +language of the latter also a great number of books have been +published, but in which the common letter is used. A few books have +also been printed in the languages of the Creeks, Wyandots, +Potawatomies, and Ottawas, Shawnees, Delawares, and some in the +different dialects of Osage, Kansas, Otoes, etc. There is now a +printing-office in operation at Park Hill, in the Cherokee Nation, and +another among the Shawnees at the Baptist Mission.--GREGG. + +[195] By the treaty of 1825 with the Choctaw, a fund of six thousand +dollars per year for twenty years was to be allotted for the use of +schools. The Indians requested that a portion of this fund might be +used to educate boys at a distance from home. This was a cherished +plan of Colonel Richard M. Johnson, who was chosen sponsor for the new +academy, and began the erection of buildings near his home at Great +Crossings, in Scott County, Kentucky, where the first boys were +received in the autumn of 1825. Baptist co-operation was enlisted, and +Rev. Thomas Henderson chosen first principal of Choctaw Academy. At +first the school flourished, and Indian boys from many other tribes +were sent to Kentucky, until at one time the academy had an enrollment +of more than one hundred and fifty lads. In consequence of the +dissatisfaction which Gregg here describes the Choctaw and other +Southern Indians began to withdraw their boys about 1842, and the +school's usefulness terminated. Consult _House Ex. Docs._, 26 Cong., 2 +sess., 109. The civilized tribes now maintain several higher boarding +schools and academies in the territory. The Choctaw and Chickasaw each +have five; the Cherokee two at Tallequah, in which the nation is much +interested.--ED. + +[196] By no means the least considerable of the frauds practised upon +the frontier Indians, have been by contractors and government agents. +The character of these impositions may be inferred from the following +instance, as it is told, and very generally believed, upon the +southwestern frontier. + +It had been pretty well known, that some of those who had been in the +habit of contracting to furnish with subsistence several of the +southern tribes, in the year 1838 _et seq._, had been imposing most +grossly upon the Indians as well as the Government, in the way of +'short rations' and other delinquencies, which resulted in the gain of +a very large sum to the parties concerned. About the close of their +operations, one of the _employes_, who was rather more cunning than +the principals, took it into his head, on account of some +ill-treatment he had suffered, to make an _expose_ of their +transactions. He happened to hold a letter of instructions (which were +of course of a confidential character), wherein were set forth the +processes by which these frauds were to be practised. And to turn the +affair to his particular profit, he threatened the parties with a +complete exposure, unless a satisfactory _gratification_ should +interpose. A compromise being indispensable to the welfare of 'all +whom it concerned,' a negotiation was soon set on foot: but the 'noisy +customer' was not silenced, until he was paid $13,500 in cash; +whereupon he delivered up the obnoxious 'papers,' and agreed to +abscond. Some notice of the facts of this case are said to have been +brought to the knowledge of the Government; and how it has escaped an +investigation--and, more especially, how it escaped the attention of +the Superintendent of that immediate district, have been matters of +great surprise to those who had a knowledge of the particulars. +--GREGG. + +[197] See _Constitution and Laws of Cherokee Nation_, published at +Tallequah. The constitution was signed at the latter place, September +6, 1839.--ED. + +[198] These laws have now been changed, and correspond to those of the +United States.--ED. + +[199] In 1837, the Chickasaw bought an interest in Choctaw lands; but +in 1855 they purchased from the latter tribe the right of +self-government, and established a Chickasaw Nation. Their +constitution, drawn in 1867, is liberal, being closely modelled on +that of the United States.--ED. + +[200] These Indians call themselves _Muscogee_ or _Muscohgeh_. They +acquired the name of _Creeks_, by the whites, from the great number of +small streams that intersect the country which they formerly +inhabited--being first called, "Indians of the country of +_creeks_."--GREGG. + +[201] The Creeks established a republican government in 1867, modelled +upon that of the neighboring tribes.--ED. + +[202] This custom seems to have descended from antiquity. Adair, prior +to 1775, writes, that "The Muscohge widows are obliged to live a +chaste single life for the space of four years; and the Chikkasah +women, for the term of three, at the risk of the law of adultery being +executed against the recusants." But I have not heard this custom +spoken of among the Chickasaws at the present day.--GREGG. + +[203] The Delaware and Shawnee removed from Kansas in 1866-67, and +1869 respectively, and became incorporated with the Cherokee Nation. +The Delaware, however, still maintain a form of tribal autonomy.--ED. + +[204] No complete census has been taken of the frontier Indians since +their removal; but the aggregate population of those settled west of +the border, exclusive of the Osages, Kansas, and others of the north +(who are more appropriately ranked among the Prairie Indians), is +76,664, according to the report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs +for the year 1844. Of these there are reckoned of Cherokees, 25,911; +Choctaws, 12,410; Chickasaws, 4,111; Creeks, 24,594; Seminoles, or +Florida Indians, 3,136; Senecas from Sandusky, 125; Senecas and +Shawnees, 211; Quapaws, 400; Wyandots, 585; Potawatomies, Chippewas +and Ottawas, located on the waters of the Osage, 2,028; Kaskaskias and +Piorias, 150; Piankeshaws, 98; Weaws, 176; Shawnees, 887; Delawares, +1,059; Stockbridges, Munsees, &c., 278; Kickapoos, 505; In addition to +these, there still remain east of the Mississippi, of Cherokees, +1,000; Choctaws, 7,000, (but which are now, January, 1845, in progress +of emigration); Chickasaws, 20; Creeks, 744; Potawatomies, &c., 92; +Weaws, 30; besides some entire remnant tribes. + +Many of the foregoing amounts, however, have been standing numbers in +the tables of the reports of the Indian Department, ever since the +removal of these tribes, and as it is known that most of them have +been on the decline, the above aggregate is no doubt excessive. For +instance, instead of 25,911, as given in the report for the Cherokees, +their very intelligent agent, Governor Butler, reckoned them, in 1842, +at only about 18,000: the Creeks in place of 24,594, have, in like +manner, been set down at about 20,000; and in the 'Choctaw Almanac' +for 1843, I find the population of that nation rated at 12,690, +instead of 15,177, as stated in the Commissioner's report for the same +year.--GREGG. + + + + +CHAPTER XXX {XIV} + +INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIES + +System of Chiefs -- Mode of Warfare -- War-Council -- The + Scalp-dance -- The Calumet or Pipe of Peace -- Treaties -- Public + News-criers -- Arms of the Indians -- Bow and Arrows, etc. -- + Hunting -- Dancing -- Language of Signs -- Telegraphs -- Wigwams + or Lodges -- Pack-dogs -- Costumes -- Painting, Tattooing, etc. + -- Indian Dandies -- Manufactures, and Dressing the Buffalo + Rug -- Indian Diet, Feasting, etc. -- Primitive Thomsonians -- + Their domestic Animals, the Dog and the Horse -- Wampum -- Their + Chronology. + + +Those savage hordes which may be considered as the Prairie Indians +proper, have made little or no perceptible progress in civilization. +They mostly live by plunder and the chase: a few eke out a subsistence +by agriculture. They consist of various distinct tribes, but among +whom there is a greater diversity of language than of habitudes. I +would not have it understood, however, that all the customs of every +band are entirely similar: it is this assumption, together with the +practice of setting down as standing customs what they have observed +on some particular occasions, that has frequently created such a +discrepancy between the accounts of transient travellers. + +{277} There is scarcely a prairie tribe, however limited in numbers, +but is subdivided into petty bands, each under the immediate control +of its own chief. Their systems of government are frequently +compounded of the patriarchal and military. The most influential heads +of families exercise a petty rule, which often extends beyond their +own household to a circle of adherents. Several of these clans, bound +by the ties of consanguinity or friendship, are apt to come under the +control, by common consent, of some more influential chief, who may +have gained celebrity in their wars; but a regular hereditary descent +seems rarely established. These petty bands seldom unite under one +general leader, except for the common defence, when [Pg319] +threatened with danger. Occasionally there springs up a master +spirit--a great brave and a great sage, who is able to unite his whole +tribe, in which he is generally aided by a sufficient knack at +sorcerous tricks to give him the character of a great 'medicine-man.' + +War seems to be the element of the prairie Indians, notwithstanding +but few possess much intrinsic bravery. They are, in fact, the most +cowardly savages east of the Rocky Mountains, bearing but little +similitude in this respect to the aborigines of the interior of the +United States. They rarely attack an enemy except with a decided +advantage; for the prospect of losing even a single warrior will often +deter them from undertaking the most flattering adventure. It is true +that, in addition {278} to their timidity, they are restrained by the +fact that the loss of a man often casts a gloom upon the most +brilliant victory, and throws a whole clan into mourning. On this +account they generally attack by surprise, and in the night, when all +are presumed to be asleep; having care, if against a formidable enemy, +that it be long enough before the morning dawn to allow them to retire +beyond reach of pursuit before daylight. When the moon rises at a late +hour, just before she appears, is a favorite time; for then they will +have a gleam of light by which to collect and drive off the prize of +stock which they may be able to frighten away. These prowling parties +around a camp sometimes employ a species of signals in imitation of +wolves, owls and other nocturnal animals, by which they communicate +with each other--mimicking so to the life as not to give alarm to +unsuspecting travellers. + +War is seldom concluded upon, or even a campaign undertaken, without a +general council, in which all the chiefs and most distinguished braves +and sages assemble. After all are seated in a circle, the pipe is +passed around until their brains are sufficiently soothed to enable +them [Pg320] to consult the Great Spirit, and take freely into +advisement the important matters under consideration. Therefore the +tobacco smoke is usually blown upwards, as a propitiatory incense to +the invoked spirits or genii who dwell 'upon the sky.' In this +operation the smoke is generally inhaled into {279} the lungs, and +discharged in murky streams from the olfactories. If a council be +preparatory to a campaign, the warriors sometimes catch the tobacco +smoke in the hand, anointing their bodies with it; which they fancy +renders them, if not invulnerable, at least far more secure from the +darts of their enemies. + +Although in their warfare they employ every wile and stratagem, and +faithless subterfuge, to deceive their enemies, and in battle are +relentless and cruel in the extreme, yet they seldom resort to those +horrid punishments and tortures upon their prisoners which were wont +to be inflicted by the savages of the interior of the United States, +during their early wars with the whites. The practice of burning their +captives alive, said to have prevailed many years ago among some +prairie tribes, seems now to have grown quite out of use. + +Upon returning from a campaign after a defeat, the village resounds +for many days with the lamentations, the shrieks and wailings of the +women and children; in which, not only the bereft families, but all +the relatives and most of the friends of the deceased join. If, on the +contrary, the warriors have been successful, and bring home scalps of +their enemies, all join in their most famous festival, the +scalp-dance. In this fete the savage trophies are usually elevated +upon a pole in the centre of the dance; or perhaps the brave captors +retain them in their hands, tossing and swinging them about their +heads; at the same time vehemently apostrophizing these ghastly +representatives {280} of their enemies, with the most taunting and +insulting [Pg321] bravadoes; branding the nation with cowardice and +effeminacy; daring them to come forward and revenge the blood of their +slain; then concluding with scoffs and exulting yells at the dastardly +silence of their enemies, whom they represent as afraid to whisper a +note of vengeance against their superiors and masters, the triumphing +conquerors. After the warriors have become fatigued, the squaws and +children generally continue the barbarous festivity; in the midst of +which some vainglorious brave will rise perhaps, and repeat the +apostrophic fanfaronades, representing that the very squaws and +papooses hold them in cowering submission, and that henceforth these +only will be sent to subdue them; their warriors being reserved for +more noble enemies. These brutal rites and rodomontades being +concluded, the scalps are handed to their owners, who cure and paint +them for future war-dances and other kindred ceremonies. + +When a tribe wishes to celebrate a treaty of peace with an enemy, a +number of their warriors, as ambassadors, or perhaps a whole band, +move to the neighborhood, and send the calumet or pipe of peace, which +supplies the place of the flag of truce among civilized nations:[205] +though, when the embassy {281} is to the whites, a flag usually +accompanies, as they have learned that this is our token of peace. The +overture being accepted, the chiefs and principals of each band meet +in council, sometimes in a wigwam, if there [Pg322] be a suitable +one, else in the open air, taking their seats, as usual, upon their +haunches in a circle proportioned to the number. If there be +presents--and these are an indispensable earnest of friendship from +the whites--the essence, the seal of the treaty, without which +negotiation is vain--these are laid in the centre. A personage in the +capacity of an orderly sergeant then lights the calumet, which he +hands to a principal chief, who, before smoking, usually points the +stem towards the four cardinal points, and towards the heavens and the +earth--then takes a certain number of whiffs (generally about three), +and passing it to the next, who draws an equal number of whiffs, it +thus continues around the circle, in the direction of the sun, each +sending fumid {282} currents upward from the nozzle. It seems looked +upon as sacrilege for a person to pass before the pipe while the +chiefs are smoking; and the heedless or impudent are sometimes +severely punished for the act. The 'big talk' follows, and the +presents are distributed by a chief who exercises the office of +commissary. But in the petty truces among each other, presents are +scarcely expected, except they be claimed by the more powerful party +as a matter of tribute. + +Travellers and hunters are generally obliged to hold a treaty or 'big +talk' with every band of prairie Indians they may encounter, if they +wish to maintain friendly relations with them. Treaties have also been +held, at different periods, with most of the wild tribes, by agents of +the U. S. [Pg323] Government, yet for the most part with but very +little effect--they generally forget or disregard them by the time the +presents they may have received are consumed. + +These treaties, as well as other council deliberations, are generally +promulgated by a sort of public crier, who proclaims the stipulations +and resolutions from lodge to lodge; and the event is preserved in the +memory of the sages to future generations. Among some of the tribes +their memory is assisted by the famous 'wampum belt,' which is a list +or belt made of wampum beads, so interwoven in hieroglyphic figures as +to form a record of important events. Others preserve the same by +hieroglyphic paintings on their buffalo rugs, and the like. + +{283} The _arms_ of the wild Indians are chiefly the bow and arrows, +with the use of which they become remarkably expert. A dexterous +savage will lay a wager, at short shots, against many riflemen. +Indeed, there is hardly any more effective weapon than the bow and +arrow in the hands of an expert archer. While the musketeer will load +and fire once, the bowman will discharge a dozen arrows, and that, at +distances under fifty yards, with an accuracy nearly equal to the +rifle. In a charge, they are eminently serviceable; for the Indian +seems to discharge his arrows with about as much certainty when +running at full speed as when standing. + +The usual length of the Indian bow is about three feet, though it is +sometimes as much as four. It is generally made of elastic wood, yet +elk's horn is occasionally used. Those of the latter are made of two +of the longest and straightest shafts, which, being shaved down to the +necessary proportions, are united by lapping their ends together and +binding them firmly with sinew. Bows have also been made, in the same +manner, of a pair of buffalo ribs; but as well these as those of +elk-horn, are rather items of [Pg324] curiosity than of service: at +least, they are not equal to bows of the bois-d'arc tree. Even the +backs of the _wooden_ bows are often lined the whole length with a +broad strip of sinew, and the whole wrapped with shreds of the same. +The arrows are generally about thirty inches long, and pointed with +iron, though the primitive {284} flint points are still met with among +some of the wildest tribes. + +Besides these, the lance or spear, the use of which they may have +learned from the Mexicans, is an effective weapon in the charge as +well as the chase. Many are also provided with the Northwestern fusil, +and some have rifles. Very few, however, have acquired the dexterity +of our frontier Indians with this deadly weapon. But no Indian deems +his equipage complete without a 'scalping-knife;' yet among the +western prairie Indians the tomahawk is but little known. These +employ, in its stead, the war-club or 'war-hawk,' which are bludgeons +with an encased stone for a head in the former, and with a transverse +blade or spike in its place in the latter. Many are provided with +shields of raw buffalo or elk skin, upon which are frequently painted +some rude hieroglyphical devices representing the enemies they have +slain, as well as any other notable exploits of which they can boast. +Such as are without these have their titles to renown recorded +commonly upon the handles of their hatchets, their war-clubs, or +perhaps tattooed upon their breasts or arms. + +Besides war, _hunting_ seems the only creditable employment in which a +warrior can engage. Every other labor is put upon the squaws; and even +when a party of hunters set out, they generally provide themselves +with enough of these 'menials' to take charge of the meat: the Indian +only deigns to shoot {285} down the game; the squaws not only have it +to cure and pack, but to skin and dress. [Pg325] + +Except such tribes as are expert with the rifle, very few of the +prairie Indians hunt other game than the buffalo: not, as some have +presumed, because they deem all small game too ignoble for them, but +because the former is at once easiest taken, and affords the most +bounteous supply of food. The antelope is too wild and fleet for their +mode of hunting, and is only occasionally taken by stratagem; while +the deer, as difficult to take in the chase, is less easily entrapped. +But, mounted upon their trained steeds, and with the arrow or lance, +they are not to be excelled in the chase. A few of them, let loose +among a herd of buffalo, will soon have the plain strewed with their +carcasses. + +Among the amusements of the Indians generally, _dancing_ is perhaps +the most favorite. Besides a war accompaniment, it is practised as a +recreation, and often connected with their worship. Their social +frolics, in which the squaws are commonly permitted to join, are +conducted with less ferocity of manner than their war dances; though +even these are accompanied with the wildest and most comical +gesticulations, and songs full at once of mirth and obscenity. In +these, as well as in the war and scalp dances, a sort of little drum +and a shrill squeaking pipe are their common instruments of music. + +As so many tongues, entirely different, are spoken by the prairie +Indians, a 'language of {286} signs' has become the general medium of +communication between the different nations. This system of signs has +been brought to such perfection among them, that the most intricate +correspondence seems to be intelligibly conducted by such as have +acquired a proficiency in this 'dumb language.' + +Their systems of telegraphs are very peculiar, and though they might +seem impracticable at first, yet so thoroughly are they understood by +the savages, that it is availed of [Pg326] frequently to immense +advantage. The most remarkable is by raising smokes, by which many +important facts are communicated to a considerable distance--and made +intelligible by the manner, size, number or repetition of the smokes, +which are commonly raised by firing spots of dry grass. When +travelling, they will also pile heaps of stones upon mounds or +conspicuous points, so arranged as to be understood by their passing +comrades; and sometimes they set up the bleached buffalo heads, which +are everywhere scattered over those plains, to indicate the direction +of their march, and many other facts which may be communicated by +those simple signs. + +Almost every tribe has some peculiarity in the construction of their +lodges or wigwams, in the manner of arranging their camps, and in the +different items of dress, by any or all which peculiarities the +experienced traveller is able to recognize the tribe of their owner. +If a moccasin, or other article of apparel be {287} found, he at once +designates the nation to which it belongs--even a track is often +sufficient to identify them.[206] Also by the 'sign,' and especially +the remains of fires, he determines the interval elapsed since their +departure, with remarkable accuracy. + +The lodges are composed of a frame of small poles or rods, covered +usually with buffalo skins, which receive but little further +preparation than the currying off of the hair. Some give their lodges +a round wagon-top shape, as those of the Osages, which commonly +consist of a frame of bent rods, resembling wagon-bows, and covered +with skins, the bark of trees, or, as is generally the case in their +villages, with grass and earth. Again, some dispose the poles in two +parallel lines, and incline them against a ridge-pole, [Pg327] which +gives the wigwam the shape of a house-roof: others, planting small +rods in a circle, to swine the points together as to resemble, in some +degree, when covered, a rounded hay-mow: but by far the most general +style, among the wild tribes, of constructing their wigwams, is by +planting the lodge-poles so as to enclose a circular area of from ten +to twenty feet in diameter (the size depending upon the number of the +family); and the tops being brought together, it forms a conical +frame, which is closely covered with skins, except an aperture in the +apex for the escape of the {288} smoke. This is the style of the +Comanches and most other tribes of the great plains. The doors of the +lodges being closed with a skin, they are kept very comfortable in +winter with but little fire. This is kindled in the centre, and a hole +is left in the vertex of the lodge, through which the smoke is +discharged so freely, that the interior is but seldom infected by it. + +These lodges are always pitched or set up by the squaws, and with such +expedition, that, upon the stopping of an itinerant band, a town +springs up in a desert valley in a few minutes, as if by enchantment. +The lodge-poles are often neatly prepared, and carried along from camp +to camp. In conveying them, one end frequently drags on the ground; +whereby the trail is known to be that of a band with families, as war +parties never carry lodge-poles. The Chayennes, Sioux and some other +northern tribes, often employ dogs for carrying and dragging their +lodge covers and poles; indeed for conveying most of their light +baggage: but, for ordinary travelling purposes and packing their more +weighty baggage, they use horses. So few navigable waters traverse the +Prairies, that none of the Indians of the high plains have learned the +use of canoes or water-craft of any kind. + +There is some variety in the dress in vogue among the [Pg328] +different tribes; though they all use moccasins, leggins, flap or +breech-clout, and, when not in active pursuits, they generally wrap +their bodies in buffalo rugs, blankets or {289} mantles of strouding, +according to their wealth or opportunities. Some of the northern +tribes display considerable ingenuity and taste in the manufacture of +moccasins. But this is the work of the women, who often embroider them +with beads and colored porcupine quills, in a most beautiful manner. +The _leggin_ is a buckskin or cloth covering for the leg and thigh, as +of the pantaloon. A superfluous list is usually left outside the seam, +which, if of skin, is slitted into long tassels, or if of cloth, the +wide border remains entire, to dangle and flap upon the exterior of +the legs. A strip of strouding (that is, coarse broad-cloth) about a +foot in width and a yard or more long, constitutes the most usual +flap; which being passed betwixt the legs, the ends are secured under +the belt around the waist, whence the leggins are suspended. As the +flap is sometimes near two yards long, a surplusage of half a yard or +more at each end is sometimes left dangling down before and behind. + +The Indians use no head-dress, but support the bleakest rains and +hottest suns of those bare plains with naked heads. Nevertheless, +their coarse black hair seems 'fertilized' by exposure; for they +rarely become gray till an exceeding old age; and I do not recollect +to have ever seen a bald Indian. Their eyesight also, they retain in +extraordinary vigor, notwithstanding the want of protection even of +the eye-lashes and brows (which are plucked out), and in spite of the +constant use of apparently deleterious paints around the edges {290} +of the lids. Though using no regular head-dress, they sometimes wear, +as a temporary ornament, a fantastic cap of skins; and it is not +unusual to see a brave with the entire shaggy frontlet of a buffalo, +[Pg329] horns and all, set upon his head--which, with his painted +face, imparts a diabolical ferocity to his aspect. + +The Indians of the Plains, almost without exception, wear long hair, +which dangles in clotted tresses over the shoulders--besmeared with +gum, grease and paints, and ornamented with feathers and trinkets. But +most of those intermediate tribes nearer our border, trim their hair +in a peculiar manner. + +Vermillion seems almost indispensable to the Indian's toilet; but in +default of this they paint with colored earths. When going to war, +they bedaub their bodies with something black--mud, charcoal or +gunpowder, which gives them a frightful appearance. But 'ornamental' +painting is much more gay and fanciful. The face, and sometimes arms +and breast are oddly striped and chequered, interspersed with shades +of yellow and white clay, as well as occasional black, though the +latter is chiefly appropriated to war. Especial pains are taken to tip +the eyelids most gaily with vermillion. + +Besides painting, most of the tribes tattoo--some sparingly, while +others make their faces, breasts, and particularly their arms, +perfectly piebald. This seems practised to some extent by all the +savages from the Atlantic {291} to the Pacific. Figures are pierced in +the skin with any sharp pointed instrument--often the keen prickles of +the cactus--and pulverized charcoal or gunpowder, or sometimes the +coloring juice of a plant, is rubbed into the fresh punctures, which +leaves a lasting stain. + +The most usual female dress is of the style worn by the Comanche +squaws, which is described in speaking of that nation. With respect to +dress and other ornaments, however, the order of the civilized world +is reversed among the Indians. The 'fair sex' paint less than the +men--use fewer ornaments generally, and particularly, wear [Pg330] no +pendants in the ears. While a savage beauty pays but little attention +to her person, a 'brave' will spend as much time at his toilet as a +French belle, in the adjustment of his ornaments--his paint, trinkets, +beads and other gewgaws. A mirror is his idol: no warrior is equipped +without this indispensable toilet companion, which he very frequently +consults. He usually takes it from its original case, and sets it in a +large fancifully carved frame of wood, which is always carried about +him. He is also rarely without his tweezers, whether of a fold of tin, +of hardened wood, or of spirally twisted wire, with which he carefully +eradicates, not only his beard, eye-lashes and brows, but every +villous particle from his body, as fast as it appears; for everything +of the kind is considered as extremely unbecoming a warrior. It is on +this account that Indians {292} have frequently been represented as +naturally beardless. + +All Indians are passionately fond of beads, trinkets and gewgaws of +every kind. The men often cut up the rim of the ears in a frightful +manner to admit their pendants of beads, plate, shells, etc.; and even +strips of lead are sometimes twined around the separated rim, by the +weight of which the detached portion of the ear is frequently swagged +down some inches. It is not unusual to see near half a pound even of +beads and 'jewelry' swung to each ear; and among some tribes, also a +large quantity to the nose. The hair is likewise garnished with the +same, and the neck with strings of beads, bear's claws, and the like; +while the arms are profusely ornamented with bracelets of wire or +plated metal. The 'braves' are those who commonly deck themselves with +the most gaudy trappings, and would usually be taken by a stranger for +the chiefs of the band, who, on the other hand, are often apparelled +in the most ordinary manner. [Pg331] + +The squaws are, in every sense of the word the slaves of the men. They +are called upon to perform every toilsome service--to carry wood and +make fires--to skin and dress the meat and prepare the food--to herd, +drive up, saddle and unsaddle their lords' horses--to pitch and strike +the lodges--to pack up the baggage, and often indeed to carry heavy +loads during travel--in short, everything else pretty much but fight +and hunt, which the {293} Indian boasts of, as being his peculiar, if +not his sole vocations. + +What little of manufacturing is done among the Indians is also the +work of the women. They prepare the different articles of apparel. In +embroidering moccasins and their leathern petticoats, etc., their +greatest skill, particularly among the northern tribes, is exhibited. +But the most extensive article of their manufacture is the _buffalo +rug_, which they not only prepare for their own use, but which +constitutes the largest item of their traffic with the Indian traders. +These are dressed and cured exclusively by the squaws. + +To dress a buffalo rug, the first step is to 'flesh' the skin, or +neatly scrape from the inner surface every carneous particle. This is +generally done with an instrument of bone, cut something in the shape +of a small adz, with a serrate edge. For this operation the skin is +sometimes suspended in a frame upon the branch of a tree, or a fork of +the lodge--though more commonly, perhaps, stretched with pegs upon the +smooth ground, with the flesh-side up. After it dries, the spongy +surface of the skin is neatly curried off with another adz-shaped bone +or handle of wood, with a flat bit of iron transversely set for the +blade, which is edged after the manner of a currier's instrument. The +surface is then besmeared with brains (which the Canadians call +_mettre a la cervelle_), and rolled up with the flesh-side in, in +which condition it is left for two or three days. The brains of the +same {294} animals are generally used; those [Pg332] of a buffalo +being more than sufficient to dress his own hide. The pores of the +skin being fully penetrated by the brains, it is again wetted, and +softened by continual working and rubbing till it dries. To facilitate +this last operation, it is sometimes stretched in a frame and +suspended before a fire, when the inner surface is scraped with the +serrated adz before mentioned, and finished off by assiduous rubbing +with a pumice-stone, if that article can be had; if not, by passing +the skin by small sections rapidly back and forth over a slack cord. + +Buffalo rugs are often observed with a seam in the middle. This is +caused by cutting them in two, partly for convenience in dressing +them, and partly to take out the hollow occasioned by the hump, +particularly of the bulls. The hump of the cow being less, their skins +generally bear dressing without being cut. The hide is frequently +split in two, however, in skinning the animal, the Indians preferring +to commence on the back. + +The buffalo skin is often dressed without the wool. To this end the +hide is soaked in water till the hair is loosened, when it is +'curried' and 'brained,' and softened as above. Of these dressed +buffalo skins (known among Mexicans as _anta blanca_) is made a +considerable portion of the Indian clothing for both sexes--even the +petticoats of the females; though these prefer buckskin when they can +procure it. + +The chief aliment of the Prairie Indians is {295} flesh, though in +default of this they often sustain themselves for weeks together upon +roots, herbs and fruits. The buffalo are the common herds of these +savages, affording them 'food, raiment and shelter.' It seems there +were anciently occasional cannibal tribes[207] in those regions, but +not a [Pg333] vestige of cannibalism, as I believe, now remains; +except such an inhuman appetite may be ascribed to some of the more +savage warriors, who, as I have heard, in the delirium of exultant +victory, have been known to devour the hearts of their bravest +victims, at once to satiate their blood-thirsty propensities, and to +appropriate to themselves, as they fancy, the valor of the slain +enemy. + +However, they make food of nearly every animal of their country, and +often of insects and even the filthiest vermin. By some tribes, +grasshoppers, locusts and the like are collected and dried for future +use. Among nearly all the northern tribes, the flesh of the dog[208] +is considered as the greatest delicacy; so much so, indeed, that when +a favorite visitor is expected to dine, they are sure to have served +up for him the choicest pieces from some one of the many fat whelps +which pertain to every lodge. In this way travellers have often been +{296} constrained to eat Indian dog-meat, and which, prejudice apart, +is by no means an unsavory viand; but the flesh of the wolf, and even +the American dog, is generally said to be ill-flavored and sometimes +insupportable. The polecat is also a favorite food among the Indians; +and though the celebrated Irving, during a "Tour on the Prairies," +seems to claim a deal of credit for having "plumped into the river" a +dressed polecat, whereby he prevented an Osage from "disgracing" their +fire by the cooking of it, yet all travellers who have tasted the +flesh of this animal have pronounced it fine, and of exquisite +relish.[209] "The flesh of the skunk," observes Dr. James, in his +account of Maj. Long's Expedition, "we [Pg334] sometimes had dressed +for dinner, and found it remarkably rich and delicate food." + +These wild tribes are without other kitchen utensils than an +occasional kettle. They sometimes broil their meats, but often eat +them raw. A savage will feast upon the warm carcass of the buffalo; +selecting bits of the tenderloin, liver, etc., and it is not uncommon +to see him use the gall as sauce! Feasting is one of their favorite +enjoyments; though their ability to endure hunger almost exceeds +belief. They will fast a week and yet retain their strength and vigor: +but then when they do procure food again, it seems as if they never +would be satiated. + +The Indians of the Prairies have become acquainted with the medical +virtues of many of their indigenous plants, which are often {297} used +in connection with the vapor sweat, and cold bath: wherefore we may +consider them as the primitive Thomsonians.[210] After a profuse +sweating, assisted by decoctions of sudorific herbs, in a tight lodge +filled with vapor by pouring water over heated stones, and while still +dripping, they will leap into a pool of cold water, and afterwards +wrap themselves in a buffalo rug. This course has proved successful in +some diseases, and extraordinary cures have thus been performed: but +in other cases, and especially in the small-pox, it has been attended +with horrible fatality. They frequently let blood for disease, which +is oftenest performed with the keen edge of a flint: and though they +sometimes open a vein, they more commonly make their incisions +indiscriminately. They have great faith in their 'medicine men,' who +pretend to cure the sick with conjurations and charms; and the +Comanches and many others often keep up an irksome, monotonous singing +over the diseased person, to frighten away [Pg335] the evil spirit +which is supposed to torment him: all of which, from its effect upon +the imagination, often tends, no doubt, to hasten recovery. + +These Indians keep no domestic animals, except horses, mules, and +dogs. With the latter every lodge is abundantly supplied; yet, as has +already been shown, they are more useful appendages than the annoying +packs which so often infest the country cabins, and frequently the +villages, in the United States. {298} Horses, however, constitute the +chief wealth of the prairie Indian. These are the incentives to most +of their predatory excursions. The tribes of the north in particular, +as well as the white trappers, frequently maintain their horses, +during winter, upon the tender bark of the sweet cottonwood, the +_populus angulata_ of the Mississippi valley. + +The western savages know nothing of the value of money. The wampum +bead, it is true, among a few tribes, somewhat resembles a currency: +for, being generally esteemed, it acquires a value in proportion to +size, and sometimes passes from hand to hand, in exchange for +necessaries. The legitimate wampum is only of shells, and was of +aboriginal manufacture; being small long tubes with an ovate surface, +or sometimes simply cylindrical; and handsomely polished: but +imitations of glass or porcelain seem now the most common. The color +is generally white, though sometimes blue or striped. + +These Indians have no knowledge of the divisions of time, except by +palpable distinctions; as days, moons and years; which last they +commonly represent as so many springs, or falls of the leaves, or as +often by winters, that is, frosts or snows. Distances are represented +by days' journey, which are oftener designated by camps or 'sleeps.' +When a day's journey is spoken of in general terms, it is meant that +of a band in regular travel, which rarely exceeds twenty miles. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI [XV] + +INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIES + +Intermediate Tribes -- Their Wigwams and their Hunting Excursions + -- Dress and Cut of their Hair -- The Pawnees -- The Osages -- + Their Roguery -- Matrimonial Customs -- Accomplished Mourners -- + Their Superstitions -- The Indian Stature -- The 'Pawnee Picts' + -- Wild Tribes -- Census -- The Comanches -- Their Range -- Their + Sobriety -- Their Chiefs, etc. -- Female Chastity -- Comanche + Marriage -- Costumes -- Horsemanship -- Comanche Warfare -- + Predatory Forays -- Martial Ceremonies -- Treatment of Captives -- + Burial and Religious Rites. + + +The tribes inhabiting near the borders of the frontier Indians differ +from those that range the far-western prairies in several traits of +general character. The former have their fixed villages, and, for the +most part, combine the pursuits of agriculture and the chase. They +form, indeed, a sort of intermediate class between the frontier and +the wild tribes, resembling the one or the other in all important +particulars. I will merely notice in this place a few of the +characteristics by which the more conspicuous of these tribes are +distinguished. + +Their village wigwams differ from the lodges of the wilder tribes, in +their being {300} much more substantial, and usually covered with +grass and earth instead of skins. The Indians commonly remain in their +villages during the inclement portion of the winter; yet most of them +spend the early spring upon the Prairies in buffalo-hunting; as well +as such portions of the summer and autumn as are not occupied in the +cultivation and gathering of their crops, which they secure in +_caches_ till their return. + +In dress they differ but little from the wilder tribes, except that, +having more communication with the whites, they make greater use of +our fabrics--blankets, coarse cloths, calicoes and the like. Their +most striking peculiarity consists in the cut of their hair. Most of +them, [Pg337] instead, like the Indians of the Plains, of wearing the +hair long, trim and arrange it in the most fantastic style. In the +care bestowed upon this part of their toilet, they cannot be excelled +by the most _soigneux_ of civilized dandies. They shave a large +portion of the head, but leave a fanciful lock upon the crown as a +scalp-crest (an indispensable trophy for the enemy), which is in +general gorgeously bedecked with painted feathers and gewgaws. + +The _Pawnees_, who now have their principal village on the Loup Fork +of the Platte river, are perhaps the most famous of these tribes. +Small bands of their war-parties roam on foot through every portion of +the Prairies, often to the Mexican frontier, though they generally +contrive to return well mounted. {301} When upon these expeditions, +they may properly enough be considered the Ishmaelites of the +Prairies--their hands are against every man, and every man's hand is +against them. They will skulk about in the vicinity of a prize of +mules or horses for several days unsuspected, till a favorable +opportunity offers to pounce upon them. + +This nation is divided into four principal bands, the Grand Pawnees +(or _Grand Pans_, as called by the Canadians), the Republics, the +Mahas or Loups, and the Tapage or Noisy Pawnees. Their relatives, the +Rickaras, are now considered a distinct tribe.[211] + +The _Osages_ are at present the most important western branch of the +Dahcotah stock, after the Sioux. There are two bands of them, the Big +and Little Osages.[212] Though the Pawnees stand most prominent as +prairie marauders, these are unsurpassed in simple rogueries. +Expertness at stealing appears indeed to constitute a part [Pg338] of +their faith, and an all-important branch of education, in which +degrees are conferred in true 'academic order;' for I have been +assured, that, in their councils, the claims of the candidates to the +honors of rogueship are duly considered, and to the most proficient is +awarded an honorary badge--the right to wear a fancy feather stuck +athwart his scalp-crest. + +The habitudes of the Osages do not appear to have undergone any +material change, notwithstanding the exertions of the government and +the missionaries to civilize and to christianize {302} them. Some of +their matrimonial customs are very curious and rather peculiar. The +eldest daughter seems not only 'heiress apparent,' but, when married, +becomes absolute owner of the entire property and household of her +parents--family and all. While single, however, she has no authority, +but is herself held as a piece of merchantable property, estimated +somewhat as in civilized life, in proportion to her 'charms,' and to +the value of her 'hereditaments.' She is therefore kept under the +strictest watch by her parents, that she may not diminish her worth by +any improper conduct. + +When some warrior 'beau' has taken a fancy to the heiress and wishes +to possess her and her estate of sisters, dogs, rugs and household, he +takes his finest horses, (and if she be a 'belle' he need not attempt +it unless he have some of the noblest), and tying them at her lodge +door departs without saying a word; leaving them, like a slow-match, +silently to effect his purpose. After the 'pretender' has disappeared, +the matron of the premises and her lord inspect the valuables, the +'demure damsel' barely venturing a sly peep through some crevice of +the wigwam. If the offer be found unworthy, the horses are sent back +to the owner as silently as they came, or maybe with some apology, +provided he be a warrior whom they are afraid of offending. [Pg339] +But if accepted, the father takes instead some of his own horses and +ties them at the door of the proposer, as a token of admission. If the +{303} parties be without horses, some other valuables are employed in +lieu. After this the marriage is solemnized with a joyous fete, and +their primitive ceremonies. + +But now the son-in-law is fully indemnified for his heavy +'disbursement' in the _purchase_ of his bride; for he at once becomes +possessor of the entire wealth of his father-in-law--master of the +family-lodge and all the household: if there be a dozen younger +daughters, they are all _de droit_--his wives or slaves as we may +choose to consider them: in fact, the 'heiress' herself seems in the +same predicament, and the wife among them all who may have the tact to +gain the husband's affections, generally becomes mistress of the +'harem.' From the refuse of this estate of 'fair ones' the indigent +warriors and inferior Indians who are not able to purchase an +'heiress' are apt to supply themselves with wives upon a cheaper +scale.[213] + +The Osages bury their dead according to the usual Indian mode; and, +though it seems always to have been the custom among most {304} savage +nations, to keep up a chorus of hideous cries and yells for a long +while after the death of a relative, yet the Osages are by far the +most accomplished mourners of them all. Being once encamped near a +party of them, I was awakened at the dawn of day [Pg340] by the most +doleful, piteous, heart-rending howls and lamentations. The apparently +distressed mourners would cry with a protracted expiration till +completely out of breath. For some instants he seemed to be in the +very last agonies: then he would recover breath with a smothered, +gurgling inspiration: and thus he continued for several minutes, +giving vent to every variety of hideous and terrific sounds. Looking +around, I perceived the weeper standing with his face towards the +faint gleam which flitted from the still obscured sun. This was +perhaps his idol; else he was standing thus because his deceased +relation lay in that direction. A full 'choir' of these mourners +(which is always joined by the howls and yelps of their myriads of +dogs), imparts the most frightful horror to a wilderness camp. + +It is considered among these as well as other 'crying' tribes, quite a +merit to be a graceful weeper: it becomes even a profitable vocation +to those whose eyes and lungs are most capacious of such things. If +you tell an Osage that you have lost a kinsman or friend for whom you +wish him to mourn, he will undertake the service for a trifling +reward--and acquit himself with more 'credit'--more to the spirit than +the best tragic {305} actor. He will mimic every exterior indication +of grief and the most heart-felt wailing, till the tears trickle in +torrents down his cheeks.[214] + +The Osages seem generally to worship a good and evil spirit, and to +believe in the most usual Indian paradise. No people can have more +implicit faith in witchcraft and all kinds of sorcery and +superstitions--such as holding converse with deceased friends or +relations--appointing a time to die, etc.: and instances are related +of their fancying [Pg341] themselves thus called to the world of +spirits, which would so powerfully affect the imagination as to cause +them to pine away, and sometimes die even to the appointed day. + +Owing partially, no doubt, to the burdensome life they lead, the +squaws of all the tribes are, for the most part, much more inclined to +corpulency than the men. They are generally chubby and ill-favored, +while the males are usually tall, erect, well-turned and active. For +their proverbial straightness, however, the Osages are perhaps more +famous than any of the other prairie Indians. + +The _Wacoes_, _Witchitas_ and their kindred tribes on Red River, are, +for the most part, a very indigent race. They are chiefly remarkable +for their profuse tatooing, whereby they have sometimes acquired the +title of 'Pawnee Picts:' the females particularly make a perfect +calico of the whole under-jaw, breast and arms, and the mammae are +fancifully ornamented with rings and rays. The tattoo, in fact, seems +to constitute the chief female ornament {306} of these tribes; for +their only gown consists of about a yard and a half of strouding, or +else a small dressed skin, suspended from the waist, and constituting +a sort of primitive petticoat. The upper portion of the body remains +uncovered, except by a blanket or small skin, thrown loosely over the +shoulders. The men are often without any other vesture than the flap, +and sometimes a buffalo rug or blanket. + +As the remaining tribes of this intermediate class present few or no +distinctive characteristics, we will pass at once to the consideration +of the _wild tribes_ proper[215] of the Great [Pg342] Western +Prairies. These neither cultivate the soil nor live in fixed villages, +but lead a roving life in pursuit of plunder and game, and without +ever submitting themselves to that repose--to those fixed habits, +which must always precede any progress in civilization. But as the +_Comanches_ are the only tribe of these 'wandering Arabs' of the +Plains which {307} present any distinguishing features of +interest--any prominent points of national character--the remarks that +follow will be devoted almost exclusively to them. + +The relationship of the Comanches to the Snakes or Shoshonies, shows +them to have descended from the north: in fact, it is but half a +century since their range was from the Arkansas river northward; but +at present this stream is their _ultima Thule_. Yet they even now +acknowledge no boundaries, but call themselves the lords of the entire +Prairies--all others are but 'tenants at will.' They lead a wandering +sort of life, betaking themselves whithersoever the seasons or the +habits of the buffalo, their chief object of pursuit, may lead them. +Although during summer they are not unfrequently found as far north as +the Arkansas river, their winters they usually pass about the head +branches of the Brazos and Colorado rivers of Texas. + +In their domestic habits, these Indians, for the most part, resemble +the other wild tribes; yet in some respects they differ materially. +One of the most interesting traits of difference is to be found in +their distaste for ardent [Pg343] spirits: but few of them can be +induced to taste a drop of intoxicating liquors; thus forming an +exception, I believe, to the entire race of the 'red man,' who appears +to have a constitutional appetite for strong drinks. The frontier as +well as the prairie tribes--the Mexican as well as the Mountain +Indians--all are equally slaves to their use. + +{308} The Comanches are divided into numerous petty bands, each under +the control of its own particular chief. When a chief becomes old and +care-worn, he exercises but the 'civil authority' of his clan; while +his son, if deemed worthy, otherwise some distinguished brave, +assumes, by 'common consent,' the functions of war-chief. As is the +case with all barbarous tribes, their chiefs assume every judicial and +executive authority. Complaints are made to them and sentence +summarily pronounced, and often as summarily executed. For most +offences, the chief, if he considers his authority sufficiently well +established, freely uses the rod upon his subjects. He rarely attempts +this, however, upon noted warriors or 'braves,' whose influence and +resentment he may have reason to fear. The punishment of murder among +these, as among most of the savage nations, devolves upon the bereaved +relatives, who are free to pursue and punish the perpetrators +according to their own liking, which is seldom short of death. But the +offended party, if disposed to compromise, has also the privilege of +accepting a commutation and releasing the murderer. + +The husband seems to have complete power over the destinies of his +wife and children. For adultery, his punishment is most usually to cut +off the nose or ears,[216] or {309} both; and he may even take the +life of his unfaithful wife [Pg344] with impunity. The squaw who has +been mutilated for such a cause, is _ipso facto_ divorced, and, it is +said, for ever precluded from marrying again. The consequence is, that +she becomes a confirmed harlot in the tribe. Owing in part, no doubt, +to such severity in their customs, the Comanche squaws have ever been +noted for their chastity. This may result also, in some degree, from +the circumstance, that the Comanche husbands, fathers and brothers, +seldom or never subject their wives, daughters and sisters, to that +debasing traffic practised among so many of the northern nations. + +Like other wild tribes, the Comanches tolerate polygamy, the chiefs +and braves sometimes taking as many as eight or ten wives at a time. +Three is considered the usual number, however, for 'subjects' or +common warriors, and nine for the chiefs. Their marriage ceremonies +vary in different bands; but the following has been represented as the +most usual. Unlike most other tribes, the consent of the maiden has to +be obtained. This done, the lover, from apparent delicacy, goes not to +the father of his intended, but, in accordance with a custom which +prevails among some other tribes, communicates his desire to an uncle +or other aged relative, who enters into the marriage contract. The +parties, however, are not yet fully betrothed; but, as a test of the +submission of the bride to the service of her proposed lord, the +latter ties his riding-horse {310} at her lodge door. If she turn him +loose, she has resolved finally to reject him; but if she lead him to +the _caballada_, it is an unequivocal agreement to take the charge of +his horses and other property; and the marriage is soon concluded. The +'uncle' now communicates the engagement to the chief, who causes the +'bans' to be published, that no other wooer may interfere. As the +horse is with them the type of every important interest, the +bridegroom next [Pg345] proceeds to kill the least valuable one he is +possessed of; and, taking out the heart, hangs it at the door of his +betrothed, who takes and roasts it, and then dividing it into two +parts, each eats a half, which perfects the bond of wedlock. The heart +of the buffalo or other animal may perhaps be substituted, if the +bridegroom has not a superabundance of horses. Should the +circumstances of the parties admit of it, the marriage is usually +celebrated with feasting and dances; though, in general, the Comanches +are less fond of dancing than most other Indians. + +The Comanche dress consists of the usual leggins, moccasins, flap and +blanket or robe. Many wear in addition a kind of leathern jerkin, or +tight jacket closed before. Their moccasins differ from those of other +tribes, by having a lengthy tassel of leathern fringes attached to the +heels, which trail the ground as they walk. Instead of this fringe, +the tassels sometimes consists of the tail of a polecat or some other +animal. When he can procure {311} it, the young warrior is wont to +wear a mantle and leggins of strouding. Both of these articles, +according to the 'latest fashions,' should be one-half red, the other +blue. The bi-colored mantle, as well as the blanket or buffalo rug, is +carelessly thrown over the shoulders, and must be long enough to drag +the ground; for they seem to have an instinct for the 'regal grandeur +of a sweeping gown.' + +Though all the far-western Indians wear their hair long, the Comanche +seems to take most pride in the voluminousness of his 'tresses,' and +the length of his _queue_, which is sometimes eked out with buffalo or +other hair, till its tip reaches the ground, and is bedaubed with gum, +grease and paint, and decorated with beads and other gewgaws. We are +not to think that foppery and coxcombry are generated exclusively in +civilized life. I am sure I never saw a vainer creature than a +Comanche brave in full costume, of dress, [Pg346] trinkets and paint. +He steps as if he disdained the very ground upon which he walks. + +The dress of the Comanche squaw is usually a kind of loose gown or +tunic of leather, or cotton if it can be procured, which hangs from +the shoulders and is bound around the waist with a girdle; thus +presenting a resemblance in its appearance to our ordinary female +costume. They wear moccasins, to which short leggins are attached, and +which constitute a sort of leathern hose. They are not permitted to +wear long hair: that 'manly' prerogative would be degraded by such an +{312} association. It is therefore kept docked so as scarcely to reach +the shoulders. + +A style of dress similar to that of the Comanche females, is worn by +those of most of the erratic tribes. The squaws of the north usually +embroider their leathern frocks in a fanciful manner with colored +porcupine quills and beads, and bedeck the borders with rattling +shells, tags, hawk-bells, and the like. Such as have the fortune to +marry Canadian or American trappers, are those who usually dress most +gaily. + +The prairie Indians generally are an equestrian race; yet in +horsemanship the Comanches stand decidedly preeminent; and can only be +equalled by the Northern Mexicans, and perhaps the Arabs. Like the +latter, they dote upon their steeds: one had as well undertake to +purchase a Comanche's child as his favorite riding-horse. They have a +peculiar mark for their animals: every one which has pertained to them +may always be recognized by a slit in the tip of each ear; a practice +apparently universal among all their tribe. + +In their warlike expeditions they avail themselves of their equestrian +skill with wonderful success. As they always fight on horseback, they +depend chiefly upon the charge, at which they use their arrows and +javelins with wonderful [Pg347] efficacy.[217] On such occasions a +Comanche will often throw himself upon {313} the opposite side of his +charger, so as to be protected from the darts of the enemy; and, while +clinging there, he will discharge his arrows with extraordinary +dexterity from underneath his horse's neck. Different from the +'prowling' tribes, they seldom attack at night, or in timbered or +rough regions; for they would then be unable to man[oe]uvre their +coursers to advantage. + +Although not meriting the title of brave Indians, they are held by the +Mexicans as the most valiant of their border: but when they come in +contact with Americans or any of our frontier tribes, they generally +appear timid and cowardly. Their predatory forays are therefore +directed mostly westward. They make continual inroads upon the whole +eastern frontier of Mexico, from Chihuahua to the coast; driving off +immense numbers of horses and mules, and killing the citizens they may +encounter, or making them prisoners--particularly the females and +boys. Of the latter they make slaves, to perform such menial service +as usually pertains to the squaws, particularly the herding of the +stock. It is perhaps this alleviation of their labor by slaves, that +has contributed to elevate the Comanche women above those of many of +the northern tribes. Of their female captives they often make wives; a +fate which has befallen some of those taken from Texas. + +Strange as it may appear, their captives frequently become attached to +their masters and to the savage life, and with difficulty are {314} +induced to leave them after a few years' captivity. In fact, these +prisoners, it is said, in time often turn out to be the most +formidable savages. Combining the subtlety of the Mexican with the +barbarity of the Indian, they sometimes pilot into their native +frontier [Pg348] and instigate horrid outrages. The department of +Chihuahua has been the greatest sufferer from their inroads. + +But, though at continual war with the south of the republic, for many +years the Comanches have cultivated peace with the New Mexicans--not +only because the poverty of the country offers fewer inducements for +their inroads, but because it is desirable, as with the interior +Mexican tribes, to retain some friendly point with which to keep an +amicable intercourse and traffic. Parties of them have therefore +sometimes entered the settlements of New Mexico for trading purposes; +while every season numerous bands of New Mexicans, known as +_Comancheros_, supplied with arms, ammunitions, trinkets, provisions +and other necessaries, launch upon the Prairies to barter for mules, +and the different fruits of their ravages upon the south. + +This powerful nation, combined with the petty southern tribes, has +also waged an almost unceasing warfare upon Texas, ever since her +independence. War-parties have frequently penetrated to the very heart +of the settlements, perpetrating murderous outrages, and bearing away +into captivity numerous women and children. They have entered {315} +the city of Austin, then the seat of government, in open day; and, at +other times, have been known to descend to the very seacoast, +committing many frightful depredations. "On the 8th of August, 1840," +writes a friend who resided at Linnville, on Matagorda Bay, "several +hundred Comanches came down from the mountains, and charged upon us +without the least notice. They burned and made a perfect destruction +of the village and everything pertaining to it."[218] [Pg349] + +Besides continual hostilities with Mexico and Texas, the +Comanches are at war with most of the Indians of the Mexican interior, +as also with the tribes of the more northern prairies--and +particularly the Arrapahoes and Chayennes, with whom they have many +bloody rencounters.[219] But they generally remain on friendly terms +with the petty tribes of the south, whom, indeed, they seem to hold as +their vassals. + +As these Indians always go to war on horseback, several days are often +spent previous to a campaign in equestrian exercises and ceremonies, +which seem partly to supply the place of the war-dance of other +tribes; though they sometimes join in preparatory dances also. It is +not an unusual custom, when a campaign is in agitation, for a band of +about twenty Comanche maidens to chant, for three nights in +succession, the victories of their ancestors, the valor of their +brothers and cotemporaries, and the individual prowess of all such +young warriors as they consider should engage in {316} the +contemplated enterprise: and all those designated by the serenading +band are held as drafted for the [Pg350] campaign. Fired by the +encomiums and excitations of the 'fair _cantatrices_,' they fly at +once to the standard of their favorite chief: and the ceremony is +concluded by a war-dance. + +Upon their return from a successful expedition, the 'war-worn corps' +halts on some elevation at a distance from the village, and a herald +is sent forward to announce their arrival. Thereupon, one of their +most respectable and aged matrons issues forth to receive them, +carrying with her a very long-handled lance kept for the purpose. On +the top of this the victorious Indians fasten all the scalps they may +have taken, so arranged that each shall be conspicuous. The matron +squaw then approaches the wigwams, holding her scalp-garnished lance +high in the air, and chanting some favorite war-legend. She is soon +joined by other squaws and Indian lasses, who dance around as the +procession moves through the entire circuit of the village. If the +victory has been brilliant, the dancing and feasting are apt to be +kept up for several days, all parties joining in the general jubilee. + +If the conquerors bring any prisoners with them, these have to +encounter the scourgings and insults of the squaws and children. Each +seems entitled to a blow, a kick, a pinch, a bite, or whatever simple +punishment they may choose to inflict upon the unfortunate captives. +This done, they are delivered {317} over to the captors as slaves, and +put to the service and drudgery of the camp. + +After their first entrance it seems rare for them to treat their +captives with much cruelty: though an instance was related to me by +some Mexican prisoners, of a very barbarous massacre which they +witnessed during their captivity. Two white men, supposed to be +Texans, were tied to a stake, and a number of their marksmen, retiring +to a distance and using the naked bodies of their victims [Pg351] as +targets, began wantonly to fire at them, and continued their horrid +sport, until some fatal balls put an end to their sufferings! The +capture of these had probably been attended with some aggravating +circumstances, which induced the savages to resort to this cruel +method of satiating their revenge. + +If a campaign has been unsuccessful, the warriors separate upon their +return, and drop into the village one by one. Nothing is now heard for +several days, but the wailings and howlings of the bereft relatives +and friends. They will also scarify their arms and legs, and subject +themselves to other carnal mortifications of the most powerful +character. On these occasions their previous captives, and +particularly such as may belong to the nation of their victorious +enemy, are sure to be roughly treated, and sometimes massacred by the +enraged relatives of the slain. + +When a Comanche dies, a similar course of mourning is practised; and +he is usually wrapped in his best blankets or robes, and interred +{318} with most of his 'jewelry' and other articles of esteem; +accompanying which, it is said, an awl and some moccasin leather is +generally added, as a provision, it would appear, for his use during +his long journey to the 'happy hunting ground' beyond the grave. They +also kill the favorite horses of the deceased, which are often buried +by his side, doubtless with the same object. + +The religious notions of the Comanches resemble, in most particulars, +those of the other prairie tribes; yet they appear to have an +occasional peculiarity. Some say the dry buffalo head or cranium is +their idol. True it is that they show it great reverence, and use it +in many of their mystic ceremonies. The Pawnees also hold these +buffalo heads, with which the plains are strewed, in great reverence; +and usually for many leagues around, these skulls are set up facing +towards their villages, in the belief that the herds [Pg352] of +buffalo will thus be conducted by them into their neighborhood.[220] +Of the Comanches the sun is no doubt the principal deity. When +preparing for a campaign, it is said they do not fail to place their +arms betimes every morning on the east side of their lodges, that they +may receive the blessing of the fountain of light at his first +appearance. This indeed seems the usual time for offering their +devotions to the sun, of many tribes of the American aborigines. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[205] This seems to have been of ancient and general use among the +savages of North America. "I must speak here of the _Calumet_," +remarks Father Marquette, "the most mysterious thing in the world. The +sceptres of our kings are not so much respected; for the savages have +such a deference for this pipe, that one may call it _the god of peace +and war, and the arbiter of life and death_. One, with this calumet, +may venture amongst his enemies, and in the hottest engagement they +lay down their arms before this sacred pipe." The deference is perhaps +not so great at the present day, though the 'pipe of peace' is still +very much respected. Even the ashes from the calumet seem to be held +sacred; for, usually after smoking, the pipe is emptied in some corner +of the lodge specially allotted for the purpose. But as they have +generally learned that smoking is not practised by the whites on these +occasions, it is now not commonly held important for us to smoke with +them; but presents are expected instead. Anciently, however, they were +more strict; for, in another place, the same author (in 1673) +relates:--"As soon as we sat down, they presented us, according to +custom, their _calumet_, which one must needs accept, for else he +should be lookt upon as an enemy, or a meer brute; however, it is not +necessary to smoak, and provided one puts it to his mouth, it is +enough."--GREGG. + +_Comment by Ed._ See Thwaites, _Jesuit Relations_, lix, pp. 117, 119, +131. + +[206] As many tribes make their moccasins of different shapes--some +with hooked toes, others broad--some with the seam on the bottom, +etc., there is always a palpable difference in the tracks.--GREGG. + +[207] A diminutive tribe on the Texas border, called Tonkewas, made +food of human flesh within the present century, and, it may be of late +years, though I have not heard it mentioned.--GREGG. + +[208] Dogs seem always to have been a favorite article of food among +the aborigines of different parts. Father Marquette, in his voyage +down the Mississippi in 1673, remarks of an Indian feast, "The third +service was a huge Dog, whom they killed on purpose," &c.--GREGG. + +[209] See Irving, _Tour on the Prairies_, pp. 83, 84.--ED. + +[210] Dr. Samuel Thomson (1769-1843), a New England physician, +advocated a method of treating fevers and similar diseases by means of +steaming.--ED. + +[211] For the Pawnee groups and habitat, see Pattie's _Narrative_, in +our volume xviii, p. 40, note 24. For the Arikara, consult Bradbury's +_Travels_, in our volume v, p. 127, note 83.--ED. + +[212] For the Osage see our volume v, p. 50, note 22.--ED. + +[213] The custom of taking all the sisters of a family is also said to +be common among the Kansas, Omahas and other kindred tribes; indeed it +appears to have prevailed from the earliest ages among all the +Dahcotah family as well as many Algonquins and most other tribes about +the great Lakes. Mons. La Salle, in his trip from these to the +Mississippi in 1673, remarks of the savages of those regions: "They +marry several Wives, and commonly all Sisters, if they can, thinking +they agree better in their Family." Hennepin, Charlevoix and others +speak of the same custom. Murray also mentions something of the kind +among the Pawnees. Forbes alludes to the same in California. But I am +uninformed, whether, in these several instances, the husband's right +was only _de facto_, or _de jure_ as among the Osages, to all the +younger sisters.--GREGG. + +[214] Note Bradbury's experience with the mourning Osage, in our +volume v, pp. 63, 64.--ED. + +[215] The population of the intermediate tribes, according to the +Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, for 1844 is as follows: +Pawnees, 12,500 souls (though some experienced traders rate them at +only about 5,000); Rickaras, 1,200; Chippewas, Potawatomies and +Ottawas of the North, 2,298; Sacs and Foxes, 2,762; Winnebagoes, +2,183; Iowas, 470; Poncas, 777; Omahas, 1,301; Otoes and Missouries, +931; Kansas, 1,700; Osages, 4,102;--besides of Caddoes and Inyes about +500; Wacoes, Witchitas, Towockanoes, Towyashes and Keechyes, 1,000; +who maintain themselves chiefly in Northern Texas. The wild tribes +proper of the Prairies, are, the Comanches, consisting of about 10,000 +souls; Kiawas, 2,000; Apaches, 100; Arrapahoes, 2,000; Chayennes, +2,000; besides many others to the north and westward, who rarely +descend within the regions to the notice of which these pages are +confined. As these tribes would doubtless average at least +three-fifths females, they could hardly turn out one-fifth of their +numbers in warriors, though this is the usual rule of estimating them +by men of Indian experience.--GREGG. + +[216] This custom was perhaps once quite extensive. It prevails among +the Creeks to the present day, and was anciently practised by other +southern nations; and "Among the Miamis," says Father Charlevoix, "the +Husband has a right to cut off his wife's nose if she runs away from +him."--GREGG. + +[217] The Comanches employ usually short-handled javelins or lances, +declaring, like the Spartan mother, that cowards only need long +weapons.--GREGG. + +[218] The Comanche had been hostile to the Spanish in Texas, +preventing its settlement, and about 1757 destroying the mission of +San Saba. In 1785 the troops were obliged to retire into the Alamo at +San Antonio, in order to be secured from their raids. The Texans were +at first friendly with the Comanche; but in 1832 a Mexican deputation +visited the border tribes, and incited them against the Texans. Open +war broke out in 1837, and several battles were fought. In February, +1840, twelve chiefs with a numerous retinue came to San Antonio to +make peace. Refusing to deliver up their white captives, troops were +set upon them, and in the ensuing melee all the chiefs and twenty +other Indians were killed. The Comanche retired to plan revenge. Early +in August, they advanced, avoiding Austin and San Antonio, and fell +upon the town of Victoria. The inhabitants resisting, about fifteen of +them were killed. When the Indians reached Linnville, a village of +only five houses, its inhabitants fled to a ship in the bay, whereupon +the hamlet was destroyed. A pursuing party under General Felix Houston +defeated the natives, and recovered the white prisoners. In September, +an expedition headed by Colonel John Moore attained the Comanche +village high up on the Colorado River, and severely chastised them, +killing one hundred and twenty-eight, and capturing thirty-two. After +this the Comanche avoided the Texans for some years.--ED. + +[219] For the Arapaho, consult James's _Long's Expedition_, our volume +xv, p. 157, note 48. A brief notice of the Cheyenne is in our volume +v, p. 140, note 88.--ED. + +[220] Most of the plains Indians had superstitions regarding the +buffalo. Consult on this subject, James O. Dorsey, "Study of Siouan +Cults," in U. S. Bureau of Ethnology _Reports_, 1889-90, pp. 361-544; +George A. Dorsey, _Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee_ (Boston and New +York, 1904).--ED. + + + + +GLOSSARY + + [Pg353] CONTAINING SUCH SPANISH OR HISPANO-MEXICAN WORDS + AS OCCUR UNDEFINED IN THIS WORK, OR RECUR WITHOUT + DEFINITION AFTER HAVING BEEN ONCE TRANSLATED. + + + _A_, _al_, to, to the. + + _Abajo_, down, under, below. + + _Acequia_, ditch, canal. + + _Adelantado_, governor of a province. + + _A dios_, adieu, farewell. + + _Administrador de Rentas_, a custom-house officer. + + _Adobe_, a sort of unburnt brick. + + _Afuera_, without, abroad. + + _Aguador_, water-carrier. + + _Aguardiente_, brandy. + + _Alacran_, scorpion. + + _Alameda_, public walk, with rows of trees, usually the + _alamo_. + + _Alamo_ (in Mexico), cotton-wood. + + _Alcalde_, justice of the peace. + + _Alegria_, mirth; a plant. + + _Alli_, there. + + _Amigo_, friend. + + _Ancheta_, adventure of goods. + + _Angelito_, little angel. + + _Angostura_, narrowness. + + _Aparejo_, sort of pack-saddle. + + _Aqui_, here. + + _Arancel_, tariff. + + _Armas_, arms. + + _Arriba_, up, above. + + _Arriero_, muleteer. + + _Asamblea_, assembly. + + _Astucia_, cunning, artifice. + + _Atajo_, drove of pack mules, &c. + + _Atole_, sort of thick gruel. + + _Auto_, act, edict. + + _Ayotea_, flat roof, terrace. + + + _Baile_, ball, dance. + + _Bandolin_, species of small guitar. + + _Barbaro_, barbarous; a savage. + + _Barra_, ingot, bar of silver, &c. + + _Baston_, staff, cane. + + _Blanco_, white. + + _Bolsa_, pocket, purse. + + _Bonanza_, prosperity. + + _Bonito_, pretty. + + _Bota_, boot, leggin. + + _Bravo_, brave, bold. + + _Bueno_, good. + + _Burro_, ass. + + + _Caballada_, drove of horses, &c. + + _Caballero_, gentleman, knight. + + _Caballo_, horse. + + _Cacique_, Indian chief or prince. + + _Cafe_, coffee; coffee-house. + + _Calabozo_, dungeon, jail. + + _Caliente_, warm, hot. + + _Camino_, road. + + _Campo_, field, camp. + + _Campo santo_, cemetery without a church. + + _Cancion_, song, poem. + + _Canada_, valley. + + _Canon_, deep gorge or ravine; cannon. + + _Capilla_, chapel. + + _Capitan_, captain. + + _Carajo_, an oath; scoundrel. + + _Caravana_, caravan. + + _Carcel_, prison, jail. + + _Carga_, load. + + _Cargador_, carrier. + + _Cargamento_, cargo. + + _Carnero_, male sheep. + + _Carreta_, cart. + + _Carro_, wagon, &c. + + _Casa_, house. + + _Cautivo_, captive. + + _Ceja_, brow. + + _Centralismo_, central government. + + _Cerro_, mound. + + _Chacal_, jackal. + + _Chico_, small; small person. [Pg354] _Chile_, red + pepper. + + _Cibolero_, buffalo-hunter. + + _Cibolo_, the American buffalo. + + _Cigarrito_, little cigar. + + _Cigarro_, cigar. + + _Cimarron_, wild. + + _Claco_, small copper coin. + + _Coche_, coach. + + _Cocina_, kitchen. + + _Cocinera_, female cook. + + _Cola_, tail; glue. + + _Colorado_, red. + + _Comanchero_, Comanche trader. + + _Comiso_, confiscation. + + _Consumo_, consumption. + + _Contra-revolucion_, counter-revolution. + + _Cordillera_, chain of mountains. + + _Corral_, yard, pen. + + _Correr_, to run. + + _Coyote_, prairie-wolf. + + _Crepusculo_, dawn, twilight. + + _Cristo_, Christ. + + _Cruz_, cross. + + _Cunado_, brother-in-law. + + + _De_, _del_, of, of the, &c. + + _Decreto_, decree. + + _Derecho_, tax; right. + + _Descubrimiento_, discovery. + + _Dia_, day. + + _Diablo_, devil. + + _Dictador_, dictator. + + _Diligencia_, diligence; stage-coach. + + _Dios_, God. + + _Doblon_, doubloon. + + _Domingingo_, Sunday; Dominic. + + _Dona_, Madam, Mrs., Miss. + + _Dorado_, gilt. + + _Dos_, two. + + _Dulce_, sweet. + + + _Eclesiastico_, ecclesiastical. + + _El_, the; he, him. + + _Enaguas_, sort of petticoat. + + _En junta_, in council. + + _Enmendadura_, enmendation. + + _Entrada_, entrance. + + _Entrerenglonadura_, interlineation. + + _Escritor_, writer. + + _Escuadron_, squadron. + + _Espanol_, Spanish; Spaniard. + + _Esta_, is, he is, it is, &c. + + _Estacado_, staked. + + _Estrangero_, stranger, foreigner. + + _Estufa_, cell; stove. + + + _Factura_, invoice. + + _Fandango_, dance; ball. + + _Fiera_, wild beast. + + _Fe_, faith. + + _Feria_, fair. + + _Fierro_, iron; branding-iron, &c. + + _Fiesta_, feast. + + _Fonda_, eating-house, inn. + + _Fraile_, _Fray_, friar. + + _Frijol_, bean. + + _Fueros_, chartered privileges. + + + _Gachupin_, Spaniard in America. + + _Gallina_, hen. + + _Gallo_, cock. + + _Ganado_, cattle. + + _Gefe_, chief. + + _Gobernador_, governor. + + _Gobernadorcillo_, petty governor, or chief. + + _Gobierno_, government. + + _Grama_, species of grass. + + _Gran_, _grande_, great, large. + + _Grandeza_, greatness, grandeur. + + _Grano_, grain. + + _Gauge_, gourd, flask. + + _Guardia_, guard, watch; watch-house. + + _Guerra_, war. + + _Guia_, sort of passport for goods. + + _Guisado_, cooked, stewed. + + _Guitarra_, guitar. + + + _Hacienda_, estate; lands; treasure. + + _Haciendero_, proprietor of an hacienda. + + _Herradura_, horse-shoe. + + _Herrero_, blacksmith. + + _Hidalgo_, nobleman. + + _Hoja_, leaf, husk, &c. + + _Hombre_, man. + + _Hombre bueno_, arbitrator. + + + _Ilustrisimo_, most illustrious. + + _Imprenta_, printing-office. + + _Inocente_, innocent. + + + _Jacal_, hut, wigwam. + + _Jola_, copper coin, penny. + + _Jornada_, day's travel; journey. + + _Juez_, judge. + + _Junta_, council; union. + + + _La_, _las_, the; her, it, them. + + _Labor_, labor; field; mining-pit. + + _Labrador_, laborer, farmer. + + _Ladron_, thief, robber. + + _Laguna_, lake. + + _Lanzada_, thrust with a lance. + + _Layador_, nooser. + + _Lazito_, little lazo. + + _Lazo_, noosing rope. + + _Legua_, league. + + _Lepero_, vagabond, _sans-culotte_. + + _Ley_, law. + + _Limosnero_, beggar. + + _Llano_, plain; prairie; smooth. + + _Lo_, _los_, the; it, them, &c. + + _Lobo_, wolf. + + + _Madre_, mother. + + _Manifiesto_, manifest; bill of goods presented to the + custom-house. + + _Manta_, covering; cotton-cloth. + + _Marco_, weight of eight ounces; mark. + + _Mayor_, great, superior. + + _Mayordomo_, overseer. + + _Medano_, sand-hill. + + _Medio_, half; picayune. + + _Menor_, less, inferior. + + _Mesa_, table; table-plain. + + _Meson_, inn, hotel. + + _Mestizo_, mongrel. + + _Mezquite_, a tree, acacia. + + _Mi_, _mis_, my. + + _Militar_, military. + + _Monte_, a game; grove; mount. + + _Mora_, mulberry. + + _Muerto_, dead; dead man. + + _Mula_, mule; unsalable item. + + + _Negro_, black; a black person. + + _Noria_, machine for drawing water; well. + + _Norte_, north. + + _Noticioso_, giving information. + + _Numero_, number. + + + _Oficial_, official; officer. + + _Ojo_, eye; spring of water. + + _Oro_, gold. + + + _Padre_, father; priest. + + _Padrino_, godfather, sponsor. + + _Paisano_, countryman. + + _Palacio_, palace. + + _Panza_, paunch. + + _Papa_, pope; potato. + + _Parage_, place; camping-site. + + _Pariente_, relative, kin. + + _Parroquia_, parish; parish church. + + _Pasa_, raisin. + + _Paseo_, pleasure walk or ride. + + _Paso_, pass, passage; step. + + _Pastor_, pastor; shepherd. + + _Patio_, court, enclosed yard. + + _Pato_, duck. + + _Patriotico_, patriotic. + + _Pauta_, rule, model. + + _Pelo_, hair. + + _Penitencia_, penance, penitence. + + _Perro_, dog. + + _Peso_, dollar; weight. + + _Piedra_, stone. + + _Pinole_, food of parched Indian meal stirred in water. + + _Placer_, pleasure; gold region. + + _Plata_, silver. + + _Plaza_, square; place; village. + + _Poquito_, very little. + + _Portal_, porch, corridor. + + _Perfecto_, perfect. + + _Presidio_, garrison, fort. + + _Presto_, quick, soon. + + _Profano_, profane. + + _Pronunciamento_, act of making a public declaration. + + _Proyecto_, project, plan. + + _Publico_, public. + + _Pueblo_, people; Catholic Indians, &c. + + _Puerta_, door. + + _Puro_, pure; pure tobacco cigar. + + + _Ranchera_, country woman. + + _Rancheria_, village of wild Indians. + + _Ranchero_, inhabitant of a rancho. + + _Rancho_, stock-farm. + + _Raspadura_, erasure; rasping. + + _Real_, a coin; royal, real, grand. + + _Rebozo_, muffler, species of scarf. + + _Remedio_, remedy, medicine. + + _Rey_, king. + + _Rico_, rich; rich man. + + _Rio_, river. + + + _Sala_, hall, parlor. + + _Salina_, salt pond or pit. + + _San_, _santo_, _santa_, saint, holy. + + _Sandia_, watermelon. + + _Sangre_, blood. + + _Santisimo_, most holy. + + _Saqueo_, sack, pillage. + + _Sarape_, sort of blanket. + + _Semana_, week. + + _Senor_, sir, Mr.; lord. + + _Senora_, Madam, Mrs.; lady. + + _Senoria_, lordship. + + _Senoria ilustrisima_, title of a bishop, &c. + + _Senorita_, madam, miss, Mrs., &c. + + _Sierra_, ridge of mountains; saw. + + _Siesta_, afternoon's sleep. + + _Silla_, chair; saddle. + + _Sistema_, system. + + _Sol_, sun. + + _Soldado_, soldier. + + _Sombrero_, hat. + + _Sonoreno_, citizen of Sonora. + + _Su_, _sus_, his, her, its, their. + + + _Tarde_, evening. + + _Tierra_, country, land. + + _Tierra Afuera_ (in Mexico), the exterior, or country near + the coast, &c. + + _Tilma_, Indian mantle. + + _Tio_, uncle. + + _Todo_, all, every, whole. + + _Tonillo_, screw. + + _Tortilla_, thin cake, diminutive of _torta_, cake, loaf. + + + _Vado_, ford. + + _Valiente_, valiant, brave. + + _Valle_, valley, dale. + + _Vaquero_, cowherd. + + _Vaquita_, diminutive of _vaca_, cow. + + _Vara_, Spanish yard of 33 inches. + + _Venta_, sale; sale-brand; inn. + + _Verdadero_, true. + + _Verde_, green. + + _Vicio_, vice. + + _Viernes_, Friday. + + + _Un_, _uno_, a, one. + + + _Y_, _e_, and. + + _Yeso_, gypsum. + + + _Zambo_, offspring of the Indian and negro. + + _Zaguan_, entry, porch. + + _Zarco_, light blue. + + _Zorra_, fox. + + + + +TRANSCRIBER NOTE: + + +Original spelling and grammar has mostly been retained. Figures were +moved from within paragraphs to between paragraphs. Footnotes were +moved to the ends of chapters. This 1905 edition is an annotated +reprint of "Part II of Gregg's Commerce of the Prairies, 1831-1839"; +the pagination of the latter document is shown herein as a number +enclosed in curly brackets, e.g. {226}. The pagination of the 1905 +publication is shown in square brackets, e.g. [Pg009]. In this +Latin-1 version, the "oe ligature" character is indicated by "[oe]". + +Page 78: the phrase "invicta la Galia indomable" was printed upside +down in the third line of the verse. This was not a mistake, as it +is explained in a following paragraph. However, no method exists +to reproduce this inversion as the Latin-1 text required for the +present version. Other versions, which use Unicode text, may show the +inverted characters as originally intended. + +Footnote 59: the original large table was broken into two pieces. + +Page 99: "ofthe regular Route" was changed to "of the regular Route". + +Page 144: "consipracy" was changed to "conspiracy". + +Page 145: "futurese curity" to "future security". + +Page 168: an initial quotation mark was added to "he is prying into +your affairs". + +Page 173: "mattrass" to "mattress". + +Footnote 123: "Jesus Maria" changed to "Jesus-Maria". + +Page 193: "invogue" to "in vogue". + +Page 208: "discharging valleys" to "discharging volleys". + +Footnote 136: Several instances of "do." (abbreviation for "ditto") +replaced by repeated text. Also, a Remark that applies to two years +1832 and 1833 is indicated herein + + "{Party defeated on Canadian + {2 men killed, 3 perished." + +The original replaced the two "{" by a single double-height "{". + +Page 268: "Assinaboins" to "Assiniboins", to match the footnote. The +more usual modern spelling seems to be "Assiniboine" ("Assiniboines", +plural). + +Page 274: "dolefu" to "doleful". + +Page 296: "resistence" to "resistance". + +Page 320: "tancy" to "fancy". + +In this simple .txt version, italics are _indicated by underscoring_. +Small caps are converted to uppercase. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Early Western Travels 1748-1846, +Volume XX, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EARLY WESTERN TRAVELS *** + +***** This file should be named 44205.txt or 44205.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/2/0/44205/ + +Produced by RichardW, Greg Bergquist and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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