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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Harper's Pictorial Library of the World War, Volume XII + The Great Results of the War + +Author: Various + +Contributor: Irving Fisher + +Editor: W. L. Bevan + Hugo C. M. Wendel + +Release Date: November 17, 2013 [EBook #44213] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HARPER'S PICTORIAL LIBRARY, VOL XII *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Martin Mayer and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="transcriber"> + <p><strong>Transcriber's Note:</strong></p> + <p>Words marked <ins title="Transcriber's note">with a dotted + underline</ins> are changes made by the transcriber. + <span class="noebook">To view the published words, mouse-over + the underlined words.</span> There is a table of all words + changed by the transcriber at the end of the book. + <span class="covernote">The cover image was created by the transcriber + and is placed in the public domain.</span></p> +</div> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</a></p> +<h1>HARPER'S PICTORIAL LIBRARY OF THE WORLD WAR</h1> +<div class="center"> + <p> + <em>In Twelve Volumes</em><br /> + <em>Profusely Illustrated</em> + </p> + <p class="big">VOLUME XII</p> + <p class="big"><strong>THE GREAT RESULTS OF THE WAR</strong></p> + <p class="big"> + Economics and Finance, The Peace Treaty, The League of Nations. + Index + </p> +</div> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</a></p> +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-front.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-frontthumb.jpg" width="400" height="548" + alt="Painting by Frank Stick A Soldier of the Soil" + title="A Soldier of the Soil" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Painting by Frank Stick</p> + <p class="caption">A Soldier of the Soil</p> + <p class="click"> + <a href="images/ill-front.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a> + </p> +</div> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></p> +<h1>HARPER'S PICTORIAL LIBRARY OF THE WORLD WAR</h1> +<div class="center"> + <p class="big"> + <em>In Twelve Volumes<br /> + Profusely Illustrated</em> + </p> + <p class="big"> + <strong>FOREWORD BY CHARLES W. ELIOT, PhD.</strong><br /> + <cite>President Emeritus, Harvard University</cite> + </p> + <p class="big">VOLUME XII</p> + <p class="double">The Great Results of the War</p> + <p class="big"><em>Economics and Finance, The Treaty of Versailles + and League of Nations——Index</em></p> + <p><strong>WITH INTRODUCTION BY PROFESSOR IRVING FISHER, YALE UNIVERSITY</strong></p> + <p><em>Edited by</em></p> + <p><strong>DR. W. L. BEVAN, KENYON COLLEGE</strong></p> + <p><em>and</em></p> + <p><strong>DR. HUGO C. M. WENDEL, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY</strong></p> + <p class="big"><strong>GENERAL EDITORIAL BOARD</strong></p> + <p><span class="smcap">Prof. Albert Bushnell Hart</span>,<br /> + Harvard University</p> + <p><span class="smcap">Gen. Douglas MacArthur, U.S.A.</span>,<br /> + Chief of Staff, 42nd Division</p> + <p><span class="smcap">Admiral Albert Gleaves</span>,<br /> + U.S. Navy</p> + <p><span class="smcap">Prof. W. O. Stevens</span>,<br /> + U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis</p> + <p><span class="smcap">Gen. Ulysses G. McAlexander</span>,<br /> + U.S. Army</p> + <p><span class="smcap">John Grier Hibben</span>,<br /> + President of Princeton University</p> + <p><span class="smcap">J. B. W. Gardiner</span>,<br /> + Military Expert, <cite>New York Times</cite></p> + <p><span class="smcap">Commander C. C. Gill, U.S.N.</span>,<br /> + Lecturer at Annapolis and aide to Admiral Gleaves</p> + <p><span class="smcap">Henry Noble MacCracken</span>,<br /> + President of Vassar College</p> + <p><span class="smcap">Prof. E. R. A. Seligman</span>,<br /> + Columbia University</p> + <p><span class="smcap">Dr. Theodore F. Jones</span>,<br /> + Professor of History, New York University</p> + <p><span class="smcap">Carl Snyder</span></p> + <p><span class="smcap">Prof. John Spencer Bassett</span>,<br /> + Professor of History, Smith College</p> + <p><span class="smcap">Major C. A. King, Jr.</span>,<br /> + History Department, West Point</p> + <p class="double"><span class="smcap"><strong>Harper & Brothers + Publishers</strong></span></p> + <p class="big"><strong>NEW YORK AND LONDON</strong></p> + <p class="big">Established 1817</p> +</div> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></p> + +<p class="copyright"> +<span class="smcap">Vol. 12—Harper's Pictorial Library of the World War</span></p> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<p class="copyright">Copyright, 1920, by Harper & Brothers<br /> +Printed in the United States of America<br /> +M-U</p> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></p> + +<table class="toc" summary="Table of Contents"> + <tr><th class="centerdouble" colspan="2">CONTENTS OF VOLUME XII</th></tr> + <tr><th></th><th class="numeric">PAGE</th></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_vii"><em>Introduction</em> Professor Irving Fisher</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="2">PART I</td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_1">I. Economic Results of the War</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_34">II. Wartime Food and Price Problems</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_65">III. Industry and Labor in Wartime</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_87">IV. Government Control</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_105">V. The Money Cost of the War, Edwin R. A. Seligman</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_115">VI. American Business in the War, Grosvenor B. Clarkson</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_126">VII. The Liberty Loan Army, Guy Emerson</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_135">VIII. Food and the War, Vernon Kellogg</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_142">IX. The High Cost of Living, Director of the Council of National Defense</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="2">PART II</td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_149">I. The Peace Conference at Work, Thomas W. Lamont</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_163">II. Wilson's Fourteen Points</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_165">III. How the Peace Treaty Was Signed</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_170">IV. The Peace Treaty—Its Meaning to America, George W. Wickersham</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td></tr> + <tr><th colspan="2"><p class="centerbig">THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES AND THE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS</p></th></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_179">Preamble</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_182">Part I. The Covenant of the League of Nations</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_186">Part II. Boundaries of Germany</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_188">Part III. Political Clauses for Europe</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_206">Part IV. German Rights and Interests Outside Germany</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_209">Part V. Military, Naval, and Aerial Clauses</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_216">Part VI. Prisoners of War and Graves</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_217">Part VII. Penalties</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_217">Part VIII. Reparation</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_226">Part IX. Financial Clauses</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_229">Part X. Economic Clauses</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_246">Part XI. Aerial Navigation</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_247">Part XII. Ports, Waterways, and Railways</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_255">Part XIII. Labor</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_261">Part XIV. Guarantees</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_262">Part XV. Miscellaneous Provisions</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_264">Rejection of the Peace Treaty</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_264">264</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_269">The Reservations Which Failed</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_269">269</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_271">Peace by Congressional Enactment Fails</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_271">271</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_279">The Map of Europe Remade</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_280">Our Part in Winning the War</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="2">Index</td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_291">Text</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_363">Illustrations</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_363">363</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_363">I. Portraits</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_363">363</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_368">II. General</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_368">368</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_383">Maps</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_383">383</a></td></tr> + <tr><th colspan="2"><p class="centerbig">ILLUSTRATIONS IN THIS VOLUME</p></th></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_ii">A Soldier of the Soil</a></td><td><cite><a href="#Page_ii">Frontispiece</a></cite></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_viii">Price Movements of the United States and England from the Earliest Index Numbers Through the First Years of the World War</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_viii">viii</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_ix">Trend of Prices Before and After the Great Wars of History</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_ix">ix</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_xi">William McAdoo</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_xi">xi</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_xii">Money and the Price Level</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_xii">xii</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_xiv">John Pierpont Morgan</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_xvii">President Wilson and Rear Admiral Grayson Passing the Palace of the King in Brussels</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_xvii">xvii</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_3">Women Munition Workers in the International Fuse and Arms Works</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_7">Poster for Boy Scouts Who Worked for the Victory Loan</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_10">Dropping the First Bomb</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_14">A Poster Used During the Fourth Liberty Loan Campaign</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_17">Detroit—City of Automobiles</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_20">A Woman Doing Road Construction Work</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_23">A Woman Operating a Multiple Spindle Drill in an English Shell Factory</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_26">Launching the Quistconck at Hog Island</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_30">Ship-building at Camden, N. J.</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_33">Diagram Showing the Effect of the War on the Prices of Stocks</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_36">Centres of Live Stock Production Throughout the World</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_41">Members of "The Women's Land Army" in England</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_43">A Map Issued by the Food Administration to Show Food Conditions in Europe After the Signing of the Armistice</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_46">A Food Riot in Sweden</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_49">Harry A. Garfield</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_52">Drying Fruit and Vegetables to Save Tin and Glass</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_54">"Back on the Farm"</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_59">The Nations and Their Wheat Supply</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_61">A Municipal Canning Station</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_67">In the Heart of the Bethlehem Steel Plant</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_70">Forging Armor Plate</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_73">Building Howitzers</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_74">Guns and Armaments for United States and Her Allies</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_76">Plowing by Night</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_81">A War Time Warning</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_84">Women Workers in America</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_87">Samuel P. Gompers</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_90">Walker D. Hines</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_93">Building a Steel Ship in Seattle, Washington</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_94">Hog Island Ship-building Yards</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_96">Launching the City of Portland on the Columbia River, near Portland, Oregon</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_99">Examining Cargoes for Contraband</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_102">An Antidote for the Submarine Pest</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_104">The Awkward Squad</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_106">The Economic Conference in Paris</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_110">Lord Reading</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_112">While the Men Fought, Those Left Behind Bought Bonds</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_114">French School Children Waiting to Welcome General Pétain</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_117">United States Council of National Defense and Its Advisory Commission</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_119">Bernard M. Baruch</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_122">Daniel Willard</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_125">John D. Ryan</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_128">A Poster Used During the Fourth Liberty Loan Campaign</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_131">A Poster for the Third Liberty Loan Campaign</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_133">Victory Way at Night</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_137">The Battle Scene at Home</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_140">A Community Conference on Food-Saving</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_144">Will There Be Enough to Go Around?</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_147">Women Doing Night Farming</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_148">The Ore Market—Cleveland</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_151">David Lloyd George</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_154">President Poincaré With the Swiss President, M. Gustave Ador, Driving to the Peace Conference in Paris</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_157">Where the Peace Treaty Was Signed</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_160">Awaiting the Decision of the German Peace Delegates.</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_162">The George Washington</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_164">Paris Crowds Greeting President Wilson</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_167">Henry White</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_169">Count von Brockdorff-Rantzau</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_172">Victoria Hall at Geneva</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_176">William Howard Taft</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_181">Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_187">President and Mrs. Wilson Waving Good Bye</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_193">President Wilson's Welcome in Paris</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_202">Sir Eric Drummond</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_207">Lord Robert Cecil</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_214">Berlin Demonstrations Against The Peace Treaty</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_220">German Press Representatives in Versailles</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_227">Dreadnoughts Welcoming President Wilson Home</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_233">M. Stephen Pichon</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_239">Henry Cabot Lodge</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_245">America's Peace Capitol in Paris</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_251">The White Flags That Meant Defeat for the German Cause and Marked the Beginning of the End of the War</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_258">Paris in War Time</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_274">Senator Philander C. Knox of Pennsylvania</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_274">274</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_281">Male Population Registered and Not Registered</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_281">281</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_282">Comparative Losses of Merchant Shipping During the War</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_286">Production of Training Planes and Engines to the End of Each Month</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_286">286</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_287">Number of Battle Aeroplanes in Each Army at the Date of the Armistice</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_287">287</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_288">Our Flag in Alsace</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr> + <tr><td><a href="#Page_289">Secretary of War Baker Drawing Registration Numbers</a></td><td class="numeric"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>INTRODUCTION<br /> +By PROFESSOR IRVING FISHER</h2> + +<p class="center">Department of Political Economy, Yale University</p> + +<p>In various ways, as this volume shows, the war has profoundly affected +our economic and political life. War has ever been a disturber and +innovator, always leaving after it a different world from that which +existed previous to it. On account of our tremendously complex economic +organization—the specialization of industry among nations, and the +network of commerce—war today causes more profound changes than +ever before. There can not be a human being in the world today whose +life is not altered by the war through which we have just passed.</p> + +<p>In trying, now that the war is over, to <em>stop drifting</em>, and to think +our way out of the bent (or broken) remains of the <span lang="la">ante bellum</span> life, +the world is confronted by a maze of problems and a still greater maze +of proffered solutions.</p> + +<p>Many of these proposals are, unfortunately, of the nature of treatment +directed not at fundamental conditions, but merely at <em>symptoms</em>. We +should be past the stage, in our social science, as we are in medicine, +where we treat symptoms without a thorough diagnosis of the fundamental +causes.</p> + +<p>And yet it is just this thorough diagnosis that we lack.</p> + +<p>What, then, are the changes brought about by the war which most deeply +affect "the body politic," and by meeting which the most far reaching +improvements can be made?</p> + +<h3>HIGH COST OF LIVING A VITAL QUESTION</h3> + +<p>I can not take up, or even touch on, all of them; but to one of them I +wish to call especial attention—the High Cost of Living or, more +generally, the high level of prices, which is the most striking economic +effect of the war throughout the world. It is, as I see it, hard to +over-emphasize the need for attacking this problem of the price level as +a preliminary to attacking the other economic problems which the war has +left us.</p> + +<p>We need only glance at a newspaper today, or step into a corner grocery, +or fall into conversation with our neighbor in the train to have this +topic come out as foremost in interest. It is, I believe, responsible +for much more of our present uncertainty and confusion than is usually +realized. In its ramifications it is chiefly this phase of the war's +effects which, as I suggested above, touches every one of us at every +point of our lives. A member of the Federal Reserve Board has called the +price level problem <em>the</em> central economic problem of reconstruction.</p> + +<p>Professor William Graham Sumner, who has inspired so many to the +scientific study of social conditions, used to say: "In taking up the +study of any social situation, divide your study into four +questions—(1) What is it? (2) Why is it? (3) What of it? (4) What +are you going to do about it?"</p> + +<p>Let us follow this outline, and look first at the facts of the case; +secondly at their causes; thirdly at the evils involved; and lastly at +the remedies.</p> + +<h3>MEASURING CHANGES IN PRICES</h3> + +<p>We now possess a device for measuring the average change in prices. This +is what is known as an "index number."</p> + +<p>Thus, if one commodity has risen 4 per cent. since last month and +another, 10 per cent., the average rise of the two is midway between the +sum of 4 per cent., and 10 per cent., or 7 per cent. It is</p> + +<p class="center">4 + 10 <br /> +———— = 7<br /> +2 <br /></p> + +<p>If we call the price level of the two articles last month 100 per cent., +then 107 per cent. is the "index number" for the prices of the two +articles this month. The same principle, of course, applies to any +number of commodities.</p> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></p> + +<p>The index number of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, the +best index number we have, shows an average price level +in 1918 of 196 for wholesale prices and 168 for retail prices of food on +the basis of 100 per cent. for 1913, the year before the war; showing +that wholesale prices, on the average, almost exactly doubled. The +latest index number for wholesale prices (May, 1919) is 206, and for +retail (July, 1919), 190.</p> + +<p>A look at the history of prices shows the interesting fact that, while +prices have sometimes fallen, they have generally risen. The high cost +of living has been for centuries a source of complaint. In the 16th +century, people objected to the price of wheat, which was three to ten +times what it cost during the preceding 300 years.</p> + +<h3>WORTHLESS PAPER MONEY</h3> + +<p>Where, through ignorance of monetary science, irredeemable paper money +was used, prices have sometimes gone up quite "out of sight." This was +the case with the famous assignats of the French Revolution, and the +"Continental" paper money of our own Revolution. After the Revolution a +barber in Philadelphia is said to have covered the walls of his shop +with continental paper money, calling it the cheapest wallpaper he could +get! Jokes were also heard of a housewife taking a market-basket full of +this "money" to the butcher's shop and bringing home the meat in her +purse! This money became a hissing and a byword; and, even to this day, +one of the favorite expressions for worthlessness is "not worth a +Continental." We see the same situation repeated again today with +Russian paper money.</p> + +<p>But our first scientific measurement of price movements began with 1782, +the beginning of Jevons' index number of wholesale prices in England.</p> + +<h3>COMMENTS ON FIGURE 1</h3> + +<p>Figure 1 shows the course of prices in England from that date, and also, +for comparison, that in the U.S.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> + <img src="images/ill-viii.png" width="800" height="318" + alt="Figure 1 - Price Movements of the United States and England" + title="Figure 1 - Price Movements of the United States and England" /> + <p class="caption">Figure 1 - Price Movements of the United States + and England from the Earliest Index Numbers Through the First + Years of the World War</p> + <p class="description">Showing, in general, a close similarity. + England was on a paper basis, 1801—1820; and the United States, + 1862—78. The dotted lines for these periods show the prices as + translated back into gold.</p> +</div> + +<p>The conspicuous feature of these curves is their great irregularity. +Practically never are they for any length of time at all horizontal. +Sometimes, even in time of peace, a variation of over 10 per cent. is +shown in one year. The curve for the U. S. shows, at the time of the +Civil War, a very considerable rise (especially as measured in terms of +paper), followed by a decline beginning in 1873 and continuing to 1896. +The fall in the first part of this period was accentuated by the return +from a paper to a gold standard. From an index number of 100 in 1873, +the index number dropped to 51 in 1896. This decline resulted +politically in the famous Bryan "Free Silver" campaign.</p> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/ill-ix.png" width="600" height="768" +alt="Figure 2 - Trend of Prices Before and After the Great Wars of History" title="Figure 2 " /> +<p class="caption">Figure 2 - Trend of Prices Before and After the Great Wars of History</p> +</div> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></p> + +<p>Since that time, however, the course of prices has been steadily upward. +Between 1896 and the outbreak of the war, the index number of the U. S. +rose about 50 per cent. Substantially the same increase took place in +Canada, while in the United Kingdom there was a rise of 35 per cent. +This rise before the war amounted, in the United States, to about +one-fifth of one per cent. per month. During the war, however, the rise +amounted in this country to 1½ per cent. per month, and abroad to +much more—in Germany and Austria to 3 per cent. per month, and in +Russia, apparently, to 4 or 5 per cent. per month. In the light of the +excitement caused up to 1914 by the comparatively moderate increase in +this country, we can better understand the Russian economic unrest when +a far steeper ascent of prices got under way.</p> + +<p>The total effect can be summed up as follows: between 1914, before the +war, and November, 1918, the price level in this country (as indicated +by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics retail food index +number) rose 79 per cent.; that in England (according to the <cite>Statist</cite> +index number), 133 per cent.; that in France, approximately 140 per +cent.; that in western Europe probably at least three-fold; and in +Russia perhaps ten or twenty-fold.</p> + +<p>The price level of the United States today is over three-fold that of +1896. Expressing the same fact in terms of the purchasing power of +money, our dollar of today is worth only 30 cents of the money in 1896, +so that as contrasted with the dollar of 1896 our dollar literally +"looks like thirty cents."</p> + +<h3>COMMENTS ON FIGURE 2</h3> + +<p>Now it is a common belief, and one which seems to be borne out by the +present situation, that war raises prices whereas peace lowers them. The +matter is, however, not so simple. Each case must be considered on its +own merits. Figure 2 shows price curves for the various wars.</p> + +<p>In general prices have risen during wars. But there has not been any +such uniformity of movement after wars. Moreover in most cases the price +disturbances both during and after the wars had scarcely anything to do +with the coming and going of the war. In only four of the cases on the +chart is the rise of prices during the war really and clearly due to the +war. In the Napoleonic Wars, the war of 1812, the Civil War, and the +World War the rise of prices during the war was largely due to war +inflation.</p> + +<p>As to the after effects on prices there are likewise only four clear +cases. The fall of paper prices relatively to gold after the Napoleonic +Wars, and the Civil War was, in each case, clearly due to resumption of +specie payments. The fall of prices in the United States after the War +of 1812 was doubtless due in large measure to the resumption of foreign +trade. In one case there was a rise of prices as an aftermath; the war +of 1871, which gave Germany a billion dollars of indemnity, created +inflation in Germany and prices rose there between 1871 and 1873 faster +than in any other country. This doubtless accentuated the crash in the +crisis of 1873.</p> + +<p>In the other cases in the diagram the many instances of rise of prices +after the wars were due primarily at least, to other causes, although +the cessation of war and the undue optimism and spirit of speculation +which often follow may, in several instances, have contributed to the +boom period and the crisis which so often came a few years later, viz., +that of 1857 after the Crimean War, that of 1866 after the Civil War, as +well as that of 1873 just mentioned.</p> + +<p>The only safe generalizations seem to be the following two: The first is +that in so far as a war has been costly, <span lang="la">i. e.</span>, has strained the +economic resources of the belligerents, there has been recourse to +inflation in some form and prices have risen. Besides the examples in +the chart are those of the French Revolution, the American Colonial +wars, the American Revolution and many others. The second generalization +is that after a costly war the price level is affected up or down by the +fiscal policy of the governments concerned.</p> + +<h3>HIGH PRICES NOT DUE TO SCARCITY</h3> + +<p>Most cherish the belief that high war prices today represent war +scarcity. In the case of some countries like Belgium and some +commodities like paper this is true and in such cases scarcity serves as +a partial explanation of high prices. But in the case of most +countries and most commodities there has been no general +scarcity. The almost universal rise of prices cannot be ascribed to +scarcity. Prices have risen of many goods not affected by the war or in +countries remotest from the war.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figleft"> +<img src="images/ill-xi.jpg" width="400" height="575" +alt="William McAdoo Secretary of the Treasury during the World War and +Director-General of the Railroads." title="William McAdoo" /> +<p class="credit">Copyright by Underwood & Underwood</p> +<p class="caption">William McAdoo</p> +<p class="description">Secretary of the Treasury during the World War and +Director-General of the Railroads.</p> +</div> + +<p>As Mr. O. P. Austin, statistician of the National City Bank, has said:</p> + +<p class="blockquot">"Raw silk, for example, for which the war made no special +demand and which was produced on the side of the globe opposite +that in which the hostilities were occurring, advanced from +$3.00 per pound in the country of production in 1913 to $4.50 +per pound in 1917, and over $6.00 per pound in the closing +months of the war. Manila hemp, also produced on the opposite +side of the globe and not a war requirement, advanced in the +country of production from $180 per ton in 1915 to $437 per ton +in 1918. Goat skins, from China, India, Mexico and South +America, advanced from 25 cents per pound in 1914 to over 50 +cents per pound in 1918; and yet goat skins were in no sense a +special requirement of the war. Sisal grass produced in Yucatan +advanced from $100 per ton in 1914 at the place of production +to nearly $400 per ton in 1918; and Egyptian cotton, a +high-priced product and thus not used for war purposes, jumped +from 14 cents per pound in Egypt in 1914 to 35 cents per pound +in 1918. Even the product of the diamond mines of South Africa +advanced from 60 to 100 per cent. in price per karat when +compared with prices existing in the opening months of the war.</p> + +<p class="blockquot">"The prices are in all cases those <em>in the markets of the +country in which the articles were produced</em> and in most cases +at points on the globe far distant from that in which the war +was being waged. They are the product of countries having +plentiful supply of cheap labor and upon which there has been no +demand for men for service in the war. The advance in the prices +quoted is in no sense due to the high cost of ocean +transportation since they are those demanded and obtained in the +markets of the country of production.</p> + +<p class="blockquot">"Why is it that the product of the labor of women and children +who care for silk worms in China and Japan, of the Filipino +laborer who produces the Manila hemp, the Egyptian fellah who +grows the high grade cotton, the native workman in the diamond +mines of South Africa, the Mexican peon in the sisal field of +Yucatan, the Chinese coolie in the tin mines of Malay, or the +goatherd on the plains of China, India, Mexico or South America +has doubled in price during the war period?"</p> + +<p>Mr. Austin goes on to show that the scarcity or "increased demand" for +war goods has been greatly exaggerated. It is true that some 40 million +men were at one time fighting in the war. But this is less than +2½ per cent. of the world's population and it must not be +forgotten that these 40 million were also consumers before the war. +Their withdrawal from industry did not really create a vacuum of even 1 +per cent. of the world's productive power; as women, boys and old men +took their places and others worked harder than in peace time.</p> + +<p>In addition to the 40 million soldiers, some 150 million people have +been required to work on "war work" at home but they have simply been +"switched" from other forms of production which have been +correspondingly reduced. War supplies were demanded but these also +largely "switched" the demand from former and industrial uses. Lord +D'Abernon found that in England those objects of luxury "which would +seem to be influenced not at all or only very remotely and to a very +small degree by increased cost of labor and materials," such as old +books, prints and coins, had, nevertheless, advanced, roughly speaking +50 per cent., during the war. Thus "scarcity" and especial "war demands" +do not go far toward explaining the high price level even in Europe and +not at all, I believe, in this country.</p> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></p> + +<p>In the United States while certain things have become scarce, including +certain foods, the general mass of goods has been actually increased as +a consequence of war.</p> + +<p>The raw materials used in the United States in 1918 were 16 per cent. +more than in 1913 and 2 per cent. more than in 1917. The physical volume +of trade is estimated variously to be in 1918 from 22 per cent. to 41 +per cent. above that in 1913 and 8 per cent. above that in 1917.</p> + +<p>President Wilson, in his address to Congress, August 8, 1919, on the +high cost of living, gave other impressive examples as to foods, +especially eggs, frozen fowls, creamery butter, salt beef, and canned +corn, showing that scarcity is not the cause of high prices.</p> + +<h3>HIGH PRICES DUE TO MONETARY CAUSES</h3> + +<p>The truth is that the chief causes of the rise of prices in war time are +monetary causes.</p> + +<p>It is almost invariably true that the great price movements of history +are chiefly monetary. This is shown, in the first place by the fact that +countries of like monetary standards have like price movements. +Thus—to consider gold-standard countries—there has usually +been a remarkable family resemblance between the curves representing the +rise and fall of the index numbers of the United States, Canada, +England, France, Belgium, Holland, Scandinavia, Germany, Austria and +Italy. Again, the price movements in silver countries show a strong +likeness, as in India and China between 1873 and 1893.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, we find a great contrast between gold and silver +countries or between any countries which have different monetary +standards. In the World War the data are still too meager to enable us +to express all the relations in exact figures, but we may arrange the +different countries in the approximate order in which their prices have +risen. The order of the nations corresponds, in general, with the order +in which the currency in those nations has been inflated by paper as +well as with the order in which their monetary units have depreciated +in the foreign exchange markets.</p> + +<p>This order—of ascending prices and of inflated currency—is +as follows, beginning with the least rise and inflation: India, +Australia, New Zealand, United States, Canada, Japan, Sweden, +Switzerland, Denmark, Italy, Holland, England, Norway, France, Germany, +Austria and Russia.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/ill-xii.png" width="400" height="600" + alt="Figure 3. - Money and the Price Level" + title="Figure 3. - Money and the Price Level" /> + <p class="caption">Figure 3. - Money and the Price Level</p> + <p class="description">Showing a correspondence between the quantity + of money and the level of prices. Since the middle of 1915, + when the quantity of money in the United States began to be + greatly affected by the war, the correspondence has been close, + changes in the price level seeming usually to follow changes + in the quantity of money one to three months later.</p> +</div> + +<p>The ups and downs of prices correspond with the ups and downs of the +money supply. Throughout all history this has been so. For this general +statement there is sufficient evidence even where we lack the index +numbers + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span> + +by which to make accurate measurements. Whenever there have been new +discoveries of gold and rapid outpourings from mines, prices have gone +up with corresponding rapidity. This was observed in the 16th century, +after great quantities of the precious metals had been brought to Europe +from the Americas; and again in the 19th century, after the Californian +and Australian gold finds of the fifties; and still again, in the same +century after the South African, Alaskan and Cripple Creek mining of the +nineties.</p> + +<p>Likewise when other causes than mining, such as paper money issues, +produce violent changes in the quantity or quality of money, violent +changes in the price level usually follow.</p> + +<h3>COMMENTS ON FIGURE 3</h3> + +<p>The World War furnishes important examples of this. In the United States +the curve for the quantity of money in circulation and the curve for the +index number of prices run continuously parallel, the price curve +following the money curve after a lag of one to three months. It was in +August, 1915, that the quantity of money in the United States began its +rapid increase. One month later prices began to shoot upward, keeping +almost exact pace with the quantity of money. In February, 1916, money +suddenly stopped increasing, and two or three months later prices +stopped likewise. As figure 3 shows, similar striking correspondences +have continued to occur with an average lag between the money cause and +the price effect of apparently about one and three-quarters months.</p> + +<p>On the whole, the money in circulation in the United States rose from +three and one-third billions in 1913 to five and a half billions in +1918, and bank deposits from thirteen to twenty-five billions, both +approximately corresponding to the rise in prices.</p> + +<p>Taking a world-wide view, the money in circulation in the world outside +of Russia has increased during the war from fifteen billions to +forty-five billions and the bank deposits in fifteen principal countries +from twenty-seven billions to seventy-five billions. That is both money +and deposits have trebled; and prices, on the average have perhaps +trebled also.</p> + +<p>The Bolsheviki are a law unto themselves. They have issued eighty +billion dollars of paper money, or more than in all the rest of the +world put together. Consequently prices in Russia have doubtless reached +the sky, though no exact measure of them, since the Bolshevist +régime, is at hand.</p> + +<p>The increase of over thirty billions in the money of the world (outside +of Russia) is as Austin says "more, <em>in its face value</em>, than all the +gold and all the silver turned out by all the mines of all the world in +427 years since the discovery of America."</p> + +<p>The conclusion toward which the foregoing and other arguments lead is +that, in this war as in general in the past, the great outstanding +disturber of the price level has always been money. If this is the case, +how fruitless, except as treatments of symptoms, are price-fixing, or +campaigns aimed at profiteers! The cry of profiteering may hinder a real +solution of the difficulty by diverting attention from the real issue +and fanning and giving up an object to the spirit of revolt. Money is so +much an accepted convenience in practice that it has become a great +stumbling block in theory. Since we talk always in terms of money and +live in a money atmosphere, as it were, we become as unconscious of it +as we do of the air we breathe.</p> + +<h3>ASSOCIATE EVILS OF HIGH PRICES</h3> + +<p>We have now considered the cost of living situation under the two +questions "What is it?" and "Why is it?"</p> + +<p>The third question, "What of it?"—<span lang="la">i. e.</span>, what are the evils +connected with it—is more easily answered today, when it comes +home to all of us, that it might have been 10 years ago.</p> + +<p>If, for each one of us, the rise of income were to keep up exactly with +the rise in cost of living, then the high cost of living would have no +terrors; it would be merely on paper. But no such perfect adjustment +ever occurs or can occur. Outstanding contracts and understandings in +terms of money make this out of the question. The salaried men and the +wage earners suffer—that is, the cost is borne by those with +relatively "fixed" incomes.</p> + +<p>The truth is, the war was largely paid for, not by taxes or loans but by +the High Cost of Living. The result is that the effort to avoid + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span> + +discontent of tax payers has created or rather aggravated the discontent +over high prices. Every rise in the cost of living brings new recruits +to the labor malcontents who feel victimized by society and have come to +hate society. They cite, in their indictment, the high price of +necessities and the high profits of certain great corporations both of +which they attribute, not to the aberrations of our monetary yardstick +but to deliberate plundering by "profiteers" or a social system of +"exploitation." They grow continually more suspicious and nurse an +imaginary grudge against the world. We are being threatened by more +quack remedies—revolutionary socialism, syndicalism, and +Bolshevism. Radicalism rides on the wave of high prices.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact, the real wages in 1918, that is, their purchasing +power, were only 80 per cent. of the real wages of 1913. That is, while +the retail prices of food advanced 68 per cent., wages in money advanced +only 30 per cent. The real wages of 1913 were in turn less than in +earlier years.</p> + +<p>Lord D'Abernon, in a recent speech in the House of Lords said: "I am +convinced and cannot state too strongly my belief that 80 per cent. of +our present industrial troubles and our Bolshevism which is so great a +menace to Europe are due to this enormous displacement in the value of +money." In fact, before the war, rising costs of living were +manufacturing socialists all over the world, including Germany, and the +German Government may have weighed, as one of the expected dynastic +advantages of war, the suppression of the growing internal class +struggle which this high cost of living was bringing on apace.</p> + +<h3>MANY SUGGESTED REMEDIES INADEQUATE</h3> + +<p>We are now ready for the question, "What can be done about it?" So far +as the past is concerned, comparatively little. Bygones must largely be +bygones. So far as wages and salaries are concerned, the remedy must be +to raise them rather than to lower the high cost of living. While some +kinds of work have had excessive wages during the war, this has not been +true in general, public opinion to the contrary notwithstanding. I quite +agree with Mr. Gompers that the wage level should not be lowered even +if it could be. On the contrary it should be raised to catch up with +prices, just as was done after the Civil War. But in regard to contracts +little relief for past injuries can be expected. We would best use the +past as a lesson for the future. That is what I understand by +"reconstruction."</p> + +<div class="figright"> +<img src="images/ill-xiv.jpg" width="400" height="682" +alt="John Pierpont Morgan" +title="John Pierpont Morgan" /> +<p class="caption">John Pierpont Morgan</p> +<p class="description">The banking house of Morgan was closely identified +with international finance throughout the World War.</p> +</div> + +<p>Many impracticable plans have been proposed. Secretary Redfield +undertook to stabilize prices by arbitrarily fixing them. He failed, +necessarily. We might as well try to fix the sea level by pressing on +the ocean. The same, as I stated above, is true of a campaign against +profiteers though proposed by so high an authority as President Wilson.</p> + +<h3>PROPOSED REMEDY</h3> + +<p>The plan I shall here outline has received the approval of a large +number of leading economists, business men, and organizations, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span> + +including President Hadley of Yale; a committee of economists appointed +to consider the purchasing power of money in relation to the war; Frank +A. Vanderlip, president of the National City Bank of New York; George +Foster Peabody, Federal Reserve banker of New York; John Perrin, Federal +Reserve Agent of San Francisco; Henry L. Higginson, the veteran banker +of Boston; Roger W. Babson, statistician; John Hays Hammond, mining +engineer; John V. Farwell, of Chicago; Leo S. Rowe, Assistant Secretary +of the Treasury: United States Senator, Robert L. Owen, one of the +authors of the Federal Reserve Act; Ex-Senator Shafroth; the late +Senator Newlands; Sir David Barbour, one of the originators of the +Indian gold exchange standard; the Society of Polish Engineers; the New +England Purchasing Agents' Association; and a few Chambers of Commerce.</p> + +<h3>WANTED—A STANDARDIZED DOLLAR</h3> + +<p>Our dollar is now simply a fixed weight of gold—a unit of weight, +masquerading as a unit of value. It is almost as absurd to define a unit +of value, or general purchasing power, in terms of weight as to define a +unit of length in terms of weight. What good does it do us to be assured +that our dollar weighs just as much as ever? We want a dollar which will +always buy the same aggregate quantity of bread, butter, beef, bacon, +beans, sugar, clothing, fuel, and the other essential things that we +spend it for. What is needed is to stabilize or standardize the dollar +just as we have already standardized the yardstick, the pound weight, +the bushel basket, the pint cup, the horsepower, the volt, and, indeed, +all the units of commerce except the dollar.</p> + +<p>Money today has two great functions. It is a medium of exchange and it +is a standard of value. Gold was chosen because it was a good medium, +not because it was a good standard. And so, because our ancestors found +a good medium of exchange, we now find ourselves saddled with a bad +standard of value!</p> + +<p>The problem before us is to retain gold as a good medium and yet to make +it into a good standard; not to abandon the gold standard but to rectify +it; not to rid ourselves of the gold dollar but to make it conform in +purchasing power to the composite or goods-dollar. The method of +rectifying the gold standard consists in suitably varying the weight of +the gold dollar. The gold dollar is now fixed in weight and therefore +variable in purchasing power. What we need is a gold dollar fixed in +purchasing power and therefore variable in weight. I do not think that +any sane man, whether or not he accepts the theory of money which I +accept, will deny that the weight of gold in a dollar has a great deal +to do with its purchasing power. More gold will buy more goods. +Therefore more gold than 25.8 grains will, barring counteracting causes, +buy more goods than 25.8 grains itself will buy. If today the dollar, +instead of being 25.8 grains or about one-twentieth of an ounce of gold, +were an ounce or a pound or a ton of gold it would surely buy more than +it does now, which is the same thing as saying that the price level +would be lower than it is now.</p> + +<p>A Mexican gold dollar weighs about half as much as ours and has less +purchasing power. If Mexico should adopt the same dollar that we have +and that Canada has, no one could doubt that its purchasing power would +rise—that is, the price level in Mexico would fall. Since, then, +the heavier or the lighter the gold dollar is the more or the less is +its purchasing power, it follows that, if we add new grains of gold to +the dollar just fast enough to compensate for the loss in the purchasing +power of each grain, or vice versa take away gold to compensate for a +gain, we shall have a fully "compensated dollar," a stationary instead +of fluctuating dollar, when judged by its purchasing power.</p> + +<p>But how, it will be asked, is it possible, in practice, to change the +weight of the gold dollar? The feat is certainly not impossible, for it +has often been accomplished. We ourselves have changed the weight of our +gold dollar twice—once in 1834, when the gold in the dollar was +reduced 7 per cent., and again in 1837, when it was increased one-tenth +of 1 per cent. If we can change it once or twice a century, we can +change it once or twice a month!</p> + +<h3>HOW GOLD CIRCULATES</h3> + +<p>In actual fact, gold now circulates almost entirely through +"yellowbacks," or gold certificates. The gold itself, often not + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span> + +in the form of coins at all but of "bar gold," lies in the government +vaults. The abolition of gold coin would make no material change in the +present situation.</p> + +<p>If gold thus circulated only in the form of paper representatives it +would evidently be possible to vary at will the weight of the gold +dollar without any such annoyance or complication as would arise from +the existence of coins. The government would simply vary the quantity of +gold bullion which it would exchange for a paper dollar—the +quantity it would give or take at a given time. As readily as a grocer +can vary the amount of sugar he will give for a dollar, the government +could vary the amount of gold it would give for a dollar.</p> + +<h3>CRITERION OF STANDARDIZATION</h3> + +<p>But, it will now be asked, what criterion is to guide the government in +making these changes in the dollar's weight? Am I proposing that some +government official should be authorized to mark the dollar up or down +according to his own caprice? Most certainly not. A definite and simple +criterion for the required adjustments is at hand—the now familiar +"index number" of prices.</p> + +<p>If, for instance, the index number is found to be 1 per cent. above the +ideal par, this fact will indicate that the purchasing power of the +dollar has gone down; and this fact will be the signal and authorization +for an increase of 1 per cent. in the weight of the gold dollar. What is +thereby added to the purchasing power of the gold dollar will be +automatically registered in the purchasing power of its circulating +certificate. If the correction is not enough, or if it is too much, the +index number next month will tell the story.</p> + +<p>Absolutely perfect correction is impossible, but any imperfection will +continue to reappear and so cannot escape ultimate correction. Suppose, +for instance, that next month the index number is found to remain +unchanged at 101. Then the dollar is at once loaded an additional 1 per +cent. And if, next month, the index number is, let us say, 100½ +(that is, one half of 1 per cent above par) this one-half of 1 per cent. +will call for a third addition to the dollar's weight, this time of +one-half of one per cent. And so, as long as the index number persists +in staying even a little above par, the dollar will continue to be +loaded each month, until, if necessary, it weighs an ounce—or a +ton, for that matter. But, of course, long before it can become so +heavy, the additional weight will become sufficient; so that the index +number will be pushed back to par—that is, the circulating +certificate will have its purchasing power restored. Or suppose the +index number falls below par, say 1 per cent. below. This fact will +indicate that the purchasing power of the dollar has gone up. +Accordingly, the gold dollar will be reduced in weight 1 per cent., and +each month that the index number remains below par the now too heavy +dollar will be unloaded and the purchasing power of the certificate +brought down to par.</p> + +<p>Thus by ballast thrown overboard or taken on, our dollar is kept from +drifting far from the proper level. The result is that the price level +would oscillate only slightly. Instead of there being any great price +convulsions, such as we find throughout history, the index number would +run, say 101, 100½, 101, 100, 102, 101½, 100, 98, 99, 99, +99½, 100, etc., seldom getting off the line more than 1 or 2 per +cent.</p> + +<h3>A PROBLEM CALLING FOR URGENT ACTION</h3> + +<p>With the question now before us, it is evident that the problem of our +monetary standards has much more than theoretical significance. It is a +practical problem, and, I submit, the most pressing which the war has +left us. I do not offer the solution described above as the only answer +to the problem. It is, however, a working basis, a starting point, from +which we may be able to work out a better plan. <em>Some</em> scientifically +sound plan is essential, or we shall be the victims of quack remedies.</p> + +<p>Finally, <em>now</em> is the time to take up the matter. Public interest is now +focused on the cost of living and is very largely educated to the fact +that the high prices have a monetary basis. Furthermore, the world is +looking to us, as never before, for leadership. It is our golden +opportunity to set <em>world</em> standards. If we adopt a stable standard of +value, it seems certain that other nations, as fast as they + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span> + +can straighten out their affairs, resume specie payments, and secure +again stable pars of exchange, will follow our example.</p> + +<p>Let us, then, who realize the situation, act upon our knowledge; and +secure a boon for all future generations, a true standard for contracts, +a stabilized dollar.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-xvii.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-xviithumb.jpg" width="400" height="561" + alt="President Wilson and Rear Admiral Grayson" + title="President Wilson and Rear Admiral Grayson" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Copyright by Underwood & Underwood</p> + <p class="caption">President Wilson and Rear Admiral Grayson Passing + the Palace of the King in Brussels</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-xvii.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</a></p> + +<h2>The Great Results of the War</h2> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>The Great Results of the War<br /> +<em>PART I</em><br /> +I—ECONOMIC RESULTS OF THE WAR</h2> + +<h3>Striking Changes Made by the European Conflict Upon the Economic Life of +the Great Nations</h3> + +<p>The paramount position of War Finance was brought vividly and +continuously before the whole people of the United States by the Liberty +Loan campaigns. This lesson was an old one though it was enforced by all +the improved methods of modern publicity. To Napoleon Bonaparte is +attributed the statement that three things are necessary to wage a +successful war: money, more money, and still more money.</p> + +<h3>FINDING THE MONEY FOR WAR</h3> + +<p>It has been well said that:</p> + +<p class="blockquot">"Perhaps the greatest surprise of the war to most people, even to those +who had studied political economy, has been the enormous expenditure of +money which a nation can incur, and the length of time which it can go +on fighting without complete exhaustion. This should not have been in +reality a surprise to anyone who had studied past history, for all +experience shows that lack of money itself has never prevented a nation +from continuing to fight, if it were determined to fight. The financial +condition of Revolutionary France at the commencement of Napoleon's +career was wretched in the extreme, yet France went on fighting for +nearly twenty years after that. The Balkan States can hardly be said +ever to have had great financial resources, and yet they fought, one +after the other, two severe wars, and are now fighting a third still +more severe and prolonged. The Boers in South Africa found no difficulty +in fighting the British Empire for three years with practically no +financial resources. The Mexicans recently managed to fight one another +for a good many years in the same way. Lastly, the Southern states in +our own Civil War fought for years a desperate and losing fight and were +ultimately beaten to the ground, not so much by a lack of money, as by +an actual lack of things to live on and fight with. In fact, all history +proves, and this war proves over again, that if what the Germans call +'the will to fight' exists lack of money will never stop a nation's +fighting, provided it possesses or can obtain its absolutely minimum +requirements of food, clothing, and munitions of war. It was Bismarck +who said: 'If you will give me a printing press, I will find you the +money.' In finding the money required for an exhausting war a nation is +driven to all sorts of desperate financial expedients which may very +seriously affect its economic life, but if a nation wants to continue +fighting and can produce, or be induced to produce, the things that are +absolutely necessary for life and warfare, the government will get hold +of those things somehow. If it cannot get them in any other way, +ultimately it will take them."</p> + +<h3>STRONG POSITION OF UNITED STATES</h3> + +<p>When the war opened England was in the strongest position of any of the +Allies. She was the greatest creditor nation in the world. That is, she +was able to purchase goods from foreign countries on easier terms than +her associates. Russia and Italy were debtor nations and had to borrow +even before the war in order to balance their foreign accounts. So these +members of the Entente had to be assisted in making purchases abroad. +England was able for a long time to keep up her exchange rate in New +York. This was done by the shipment of gold and by inducing the holders +of American securities in England to sell or lend such securities to +their government.</p> + +<p>England was forced to act as the agent of other Powers who were fighting +with her. Until the United States came in, it was the greatest +industrial arsenal among the Allies. Large imports were naturally a +feature of this policy. The United States soon began to feel the result +of the changes in international credit. Exports almost doubled between +1912 and 1917, the figures being in millions, $2,399,000,000 and +$6,231,000,000, respectively.</p> + +<p>Another side of the United States trade account to the world is +indicated by the following classified list of loans to January, +1917: + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p> + +<p class="blockquot">"Between August 1, 1914, and December 31, 1916, the loans raised in the +United States by foreign countries were estimated to reach +$2,325,900,000, of which $175,000,000 had been repaid. The net +indebtedness on January 1, 1917, was therefore $2,150,900,000. The loans +may be classified geographically as follows:</p> + +<div class="left"><br /> +<table class="nobrdr" summary="foreign loans"> +<tr><td>Europe</td><td class="numeric">$1,893,400,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Canada</td><td class="numeric">270,500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Latin America</td><td class="numeric">157,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>China</td><td class="numeric">5,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">———————</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total foreign loans</td><td class="numeric">$2,325,900,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Less amount paid,</td><td class="numeric">175,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">———————</td></tr> +<tr><td>Net foreign indebtedness</td><td class="numeric">$2,150,900,000</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The loans of the belligerent countries which +were floated in the United States up to the close +of 1916 are divided as follows:</p></div> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="loans of belligerents"> +<tr><td>Great Britain</td><td class="numeric">$908,400,000</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>France</td><td class="numeric">695,000,000</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Russia</td><td class="numeric">160,000,000</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Germany</td><td class="numeric">45,000,000</td> +<td><a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Canada</td><td class="numeric">270,500,000</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">————————</td></tr> +<tr><td> Total</td><td class="numeric">$2,078,900,000</td> +<td><a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>Estimated.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> +Nearly $1,900,000,000 of this constituted war loans.</p></div> + +<h3>NEW PACE IN WAR FINANCE</h3> + +<p>A new pace in war finance was set by the United States when it became a +belligerent. It had to provide for an increase of taxation ascending +from the point of $3,000,000,000 in 1917 to over $8,000,000,000 in 1918. +The largest source of estimated revenue was from taxes on excess +profits, including war profits of $3,100,000,000, and the next was from +taxes on incomes, $1,482,186,000 from individuals, and $828,000,000 from +corporations. The New York <cite>Journal of Commerce</cite> shows by the following +table the difference between the old and the new system of taxation. +Exemptions under the new law were the same as under the old: $1,000 for +single persons and $2,000 for married, $200 additional allowed for each +dependent child under eighteen years of age:</p> + +<div class="center"> + <table class="nobrdr" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Income tax comparison"> + <tr><th class="numeric">Incomes</th><th colspan="2">Tax Under</th></tr> + <tr><td></td><th>Old</th><th>New</th></tr> + <tr><td></td><th>Law</th><th>Law</th></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">$2,500</td><td class="numeric">$10</td><td class="numeric">$30</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">3,000</td><td class="numeric">20</td><td class="numeric">60</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">3,500</td><td class="numeric">30</td><td class="numeric">90</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">4,000</td><td class="numeric">40</td><td class="numeric">120</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">4,500</td><td class="numeric">60</td><td class="numeric">150</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">5,000</td><td class="numeric">80</td><td class="numeric">180</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">5,500</td><td class="numeric">105</td><td class="numeric">220</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">6,000</td><td class="numeric">130</td><td class="numeric">260</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">6,500</td><td class="numeric">155</td><td class="numeric">330</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">7,000</td><td class="numeric">180</td><td class="numeric">400</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">7,500</td><td class="numeric">205</td><td class="numeric">470</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">8,000</td><td class="numeric">235</td><td class="numeric">545</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">8,500</td><td class="numeric">265</td><td class="numeric">620</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">9,000</td><td class="numeric">295</td><td class="numeric">695</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">9,500</td><td class="numeric">325</td><td class="numeric">770</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">10,000</td><td class="numeric">355</td><td class="numeric">845</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">12,500</td><td class="numeric">530</td><td class="numeric">1,320</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">15,000</td><td class="numeric">730</td><td class="numeric">1,795</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">20,000</td><td class="numeric">1,180</td><td class="numeric">2,895</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">25,000</td><td class="numeric">1,780</td><td class="numeric">4,240</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">30,000</td><td class="numeric">2,380</td><td class="numeric">5,595</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">35,000</td><td class="numeric">2,980</td><td class="numeric">7,195</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">40,000</td><td class="numeric">3,580</td><td class="numeric">8,795</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">45,000</td><td class="numeric">4,380</td><td class="numeric">10,645</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">50,000</td><td class="numeric">5,180</td><td class="numeric">12,495</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">55,000</td><td class="numeric">5,980</td><td class="numeric">14,695</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">60,000</td><td class="numeric">6,780</td><td class="numeric">16,895</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">70,000</td><td class="numeric">8,880</td><td class="numeric">21,895</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">80,000</td><td class="numeric">10,980</td><td class="numeric">27,295</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">100,000</td><td class="numeric">16,180</td><td class="numeric">39,095</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">150,000</td><td class="numeric">31,680</td><td class="numeric">70,095</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">200,000</td><td class="numeric">49,180</td><td class="numeric">101,095</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">300,000</td><td class="numeric">92,680</td><td class="numeric">165,095</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">500,000</td><td class="numeric">192,680</td><td class="numeric">207,095</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">1,000,000</td><td class="numeric">475,180</td><td class="numeric">647,095</td></tr> + <tr><td class="numeric">5,000,000</td><td class="numeric">3,140,180</td><td class="numeric">3,527,095</td></tr> + </table> +</div> + +<p>The following estimated yield from other sources is given by the same +authority:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Transportation—Freight, $75,000,000; express, $20,000,000; +passenger fares, $60,000,000; seats and berths, $5,000,000; oil by pipe +lines, $4,550,000.</p> + +<p>"Beverages (liquors and soft drinks), $1,137,600,000; stamp taxes, +$32,000,000; tobacco cigars, $61,364,000; cigarettes, $165,240,000; +tobacco, 104,000,000; snuff, $9,100,000; papers and tubes, $1,500,000.</p> + +<p>"Special Taxes.—Capital stock, $70,000,000; brokers, $1,765,000; +theaters, etc., $2,143,000; mail order sales, $5,000,000; bowling +alleys, billiard and pool tables, $2,200,000; shooting galleries, +$400,000; riding academies, $50,000; business license tax, $10,000,000; +manufacturers of tobacco, $69,000; manufacturers of cigars, $850,000; +manufacturers of cigarettes, $240,000; use of automobiles and motor +cycles, $72,920,000.</p> + +<p>"Telegraph and telephone messages, $15,000,000; insurance, $12,000,000; +admissions (theaters, circuses, etc.), $100,000,000; club dues, +$9,000,000.</p> + +<p>"Excise Taxes.—Automobiles, etc., $123,750,000; jewelry, sporting +goods, etc., $80,000,000; other taxes on luxuries at 10 percent., +$88,760,000; other taxes on luxuries (apparel, etc., above certain +prescribed prices), at 20 percent., $181,095,000.</p> + +<p>"Gasoline, $40,000,000; yachts and pleasure boats, $1,000,000."</p> + +<p>"The income tax law levies on all citizens or residents of the United +States a normal tax of 12 percent. upon the amount of income in excess +of exemptions, except that on the first $4,000 of the taxable amount the +rate shall be 6 percent. The law also increases the surtaxes all along +the line. The advances by grades compared with the percentage under the +old law are: $5,000 to $7,500 incomes, increased from 1 to 2 percent.; +$7,500 to $10,000, from 2 to 3 percent.; $10,000 to $12,500, from 3 to 7 +percent.; $12,500 to $15,000, from 4 to 7 percent.; $15,000 to $20,000, +from 5 to 10 percent.; $20,000 to $30,000, from 8 to 15 percent.; +$30,000 to $40,000, from 8 to 20 percent.; $40,000 to $50,000, from 12 +to 25 percent.; $50,000 to $60,000, from 12 to 32 percent.; $60,000 to +$70,000, from 17 to 38 percent.; $70,000 to $80,000, from 17 to 42 +percent.; $80,000 to $90,000, from 22 to 46 percent.; $90,000 to +$100,000, from 22 to 46 percent.; $100,000 to $150,000, from 27 + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> + +to 50 percent.; $150,000 to $200,000, from 31 to 50 percent.; $200,000 +to $250,000, from 37 to 52 percent.; $250,000 to $300,000, from 42 to 55 +percent. The rate continues to increase, but on incomes of over +$5,000,000 the increase is only from 63 percent., under former law to 65 +percent."</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-003.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-003thumb.jpg" width="399" height="339" + alt="Women Munition Workers in the International Fuse and Arms Works." + title="Women Munition Workers in the International Fuse and Arms Works" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Copyright by International Film Service</p> + <p class="caption">Women Munition Workers in the International Fuse and Arms Works</p> + <p class="description">Before entering the war, the United States was the great + arsenal of the Allies. After our entry, production of munitions increased, while + the man power in the industry diminished through enlistments and the draft. + Women took up the work and showed surprising ability.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-003.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>MEANING OF NEW TAXATION</h3> + +<p>According to a calculation published in the New York <cite>World</cite> the war +revenue bill imposed a war tax of $80 on every man, woman and child in +the United States, or approximately $400 for each family. The amount +expected to be derived from each item is given in the following table:</p> + +<div class="left"> + <table class="nobrdr" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="New Taxation"> + <tr><td>Individual income tax</td><td class="numeric">$1,482,186,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Corporation income tax</td><td class="numeric">894,000,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Excess and war profits</td><td class="numeric">3,200,000,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Estate tax</td><td class="numeric">110,000,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Transportation</td><td class="numeric">164,550,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Telegraph and telephone</td><td class="numeric">16,000,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Insurance</td><td class="numeric">12,000,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Admissions</td><td class="numeric">100,000,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Club dues</td><td class="numeric">9,000,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Excise, luxury, and semi-luxury</td><td class="numeric">518,305,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Beverages</td><td class="numeric">1,137,600,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Stamp taxes—chiefly documentary</td><td class="numeric">32,000,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Tobacco and products</td><td class="numeric">341,204,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Special business and automobile-user's Taxes</td> + <td class="numeric">165,607,000</td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="numeric">———————</td></tr> + <tr><td>Total</td><td class="numeric">$8,182,452,000</td></tr> + </table> + </div> + +<p>With the operation of this tax the people of the United States found it +no longer possible to speak in terms of opprobrium of the tax-ridden +people of Europe. The American income tax has a higher rate on large +incomes than that provided for under the English system. A man in the +United States with an income of $5,000,000 is taxed nearly 50 + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> + +percent., more than in England. The New York <cite>Tribune</cite> published tables +printed below comparing the income tax rates of the United States with +those existing in France and in Great Britain.</p> + +<h3>INCOME TAX COMPARISON</h3> + +<p>A compilation made for the <cite>Wall Street Journal</cite> shows that the United +States income tax even with the increases made in 1918 was still far +lower than the English income tax:</p> + +<p class="blockquot">"The great bulk, numerically, of incomes taxed in 1917 was in the field +reached by the lowering of the exemption in the 1917 law.... It is a +fact, however, that no one of these new taxpayers was called on to +contribute more than $40 to the government, as the rate was only 2 +percent., while all other incomes paid a basic normal tax of 4 percent. +The lowest rate for normal tax in Great Britain is 2 shillings and 3 +pence on the pound, or 11¼ percent., and the exemption is only +$600. The basic normal tax under the new English law is 6 shillings on +the pound, or 30 percent., on all incomes over $25,000.</p> + +<div class="center"> + <table id="taxcomp" summary="Income Tax"> + <caption>"Actual rate, allowing for deductions, normal tax, and + surtaxes, based on taxes on incomes of heads of families. + Persons with no dependents pay more; those with more than one + pay less. $2,000 is exempted for heads of families, $1,000 for + bachelors. Below $4,000, 6 per cent. is the normal tax; above, + 12 per cent. Surtaxes begin at $5,000."</caption> + <tr> + <td></td><th colspan="4">————— United + States—————</th> + <th colspan="2">United Kingdom</th><th>France</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td></td><th colspan="2">Old Law</th><th colspan="2">New Law</th> + <th colspan="2">Rate (per cent.)</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <th>Income</th><th>Amount</th><th>Rate (per cent.)</th><th>Amount</th><th>Rate + (per cent.)</th><th>Unearned</th><th>Earned</th><th>Rate (per cent.)</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>$2,500</td><td>$10</td><td>.40</td><td>$30</td><td>1.20</td> + <td>11.25</td><td>8.44</td><td>1.25</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>3,000</td><td>20</td><td>.67</td><td>60</td><td>2.00</td> + <td>14.84</td><td>11.87</td><td>1.67</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>3,500</td><td>30</td><td>.86</td><td>90</td><td>2.57</td> + <td>16.24</td><td>12.96</td><td>2.07</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>4,000</td><td>46</td><td>1.00</td><td>120</td><td>3.00</td> + <td>18.16</td><td>14.53</td><td>2.44</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>4,500</td><td>60</td><td>1.33</td><td>150</td><td>3.33</td> + <td>18.75</td><td>15.00</td><td>2.86</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>5,000</td><td>80</td><td>1.60</td><td>180</td><td>3.60</td> + <td>18.75</td><td>15.00</td><td>3.20</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>5,500</td><td>105</td><td>1.91</td><td>220</td><td>4.00</td> + <td>22.50</td><td>18.75</td><td>3.48</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>6,000</td><td>130</td><td>2.16</td><td>260</td><td>4.33</td> + <td>22.50</td><td>18.75</td><td>3.71</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>6,500</td><td>155</td><td>2.38</td><td>330</td> + <td>5.08</td><td>22.50</td><td>18.75</td><td>3.90</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>7,000</td><td>180</td><td>2.57</td><td>400</td> + <td>5.71</td><td>22.50</td><td>18.75</td><td>4.07</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>7,500</td><td>205</td><td>2.73</td><td>470</td> + <td>6.27</td><td>22.50</td><td>18.75</td><td>4.21</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>8,000</td><td>235</td><td>2.93</td><td>545</td> + <td>6.81</td><td>26.25</td><td>22.50</td><td>4.34</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>8,500</td><td>265</td><td>3.12</td><td>620</td> + <td>7.29</td><td>26.25</td><td>22.50</td><td>4.53</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>9,000</td><td>295</td><td>3.28</td><td>695</td> + <td>7.72</td><td>26.25</td><td>22.50</td><td>4.69</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>9,500</td><td>325</td><td>3.42</td><td>770</td><td>8.11</td> + <td>26.25</td><td>22.50</td><td>4.84</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>10,000</td><td>355</td><td>3.55</td><td>845</td> + <td>8.45</td><td>26.25</td><td>22.50</td><td>4.98</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>12,500</td><td>530</td><td>4.24</td><td>1,320</td> + <td>10.56</td><td>30.00</td><td>26.25</td><td>5.53</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>15,000</td><td>730</td><td>4.87</td><td>1,795</td> + <td>11.97</td><td>32.08</td><td>32.08</td><td>6.07</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>20,000</td><td>1,180</td><td>5.90</td><td>2,895</td> + <td>14.48</td><td>34.06</td><td>34.06</td><td>6.99</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>25,000</td><td>1,780</td><td>7.12</td><td>4,245</td> + <td>16.98</td><td>35.75</td><td>35.75</td><td>7.84</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>30,000</td><td>2,380</td><td>7.93</td><td>5,595</td> + <td>18.65</td><td>37.29</td><td>37.29</td><td>8.41</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>35,000</td><td>2,980</td><td>8.51</td><td>7,195</td> + <td>20.56</td><td>38.75</td><td>38.75</td><td>8.99</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>40,000</td><td>3,580</td><td>8.95</td><td>8,795</td> + <td>21.99</td><td>39.84</td><td>39.84</td><td>9.43</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>45,000</td><td>4,380</td><td>9.73</td><td>10,645</td> + <td>23.66</td><td>40.97</td><td>40.97</td><td>9.77</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>50,000</td><td>5,180</td><td>10.36</td><td>12,495</td> + <td>24.99</td><td>41.88</td><td>41.88</td><td>10.05</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>55,000</td><td>5,980</td><td>10.87</td><td>14,695</td> + <td>26.72</td><td>42.84</td><td>42.84</td><td>10.27</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>60,000</td><td>6,780</td><td>11.30</td><td>16,895</td> + <td>28.16</td><td>43.65</td><td>43.65</td><td>10.45</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>70,000</td><td>8,880</td><td>12.69</td><td>21,895</td> + <td>31.26</td><td>44.91</td><td>44.91</td><td>10.75</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>80,000</td><td>10,980</td><td>13.72</td><td>27,295</td> + <td>34.12</td><td>45.86</td><td>45.86</td><td>10.96</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>100,000</td><td>16,180</td><td>16.18</td><td>39,095</td> + <td>39.10</td><td>47.19</td><td>47.19</td><td>11.27</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>150,000</td><td>31,680</td><td>21.12</td><td>70,095</td> + <td>46.73</td><td>48.96</td><td>48.96</td><td>11.68</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>200,000</td><td>49,180</td><td>24.59</td><td>101,095</td> + <td>50.55</td><td>49.84</td><td>49.84</td><td>11.89</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>300,000</td><td>92,680</td><td>30.89</td><td>165,095</td> + <td>55.03</td><td>50.73</td><td>50.73</td><td>12.09</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>500,000</td><td>192,680</td><td>38.54</td><td>297,095</td> + <td>59.42</td><td>51.44</td><td>51.44</td><td>12.25</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>1,000,000</td><td>475,180</td><td>47.52</td><td>647,095</td> + <td>64.71</td><td>51.97</td><td>51.97</td><td>12.38</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">5,000,000</td><td>3,140,000</td><td>62.80</td> + <td>3,527,095</td><td>70.54</td><td>52.39</td><td>52.39</td><td>12.48</td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + <p>"If the new normal tax in the United States were made uniformly 12 + percent.—wiping out the 2 percent. discrimination of the 1917 + law—a single man in this country with a salary of $1,500 a + year would be called on to pay $60 in income tax, as against an + English tax of $101.25. Assuming that the normal tax were raised to + 12 percent. and the surtax and excess tax were left as at present, + an unmarried American with a salary of $10,000 would pay $1,430.20, + while the unmarried Englishman would pay $2,250. If the Englishman + derived his $10,000 income from rentals, his tax would be increased + to $2,625, while the American tax would be reduced to + $1,165—an Irish dividend on effort.</p> + + <p>"According to a level where the British surtax becomes effective, + take a salary of $20,000. The English normal tax on this would be + $6,000 and the surtax $812.50 (figuring $5 to the pound), a total of + $6,812.50. At the suggested rate of 12 percent., the American's + normal tax would be $2,145.60 (rate applying to $20,000, less $1,000 + exemption and $1,120 excess tax); the surtax would be $444 and the + excess tax $1,120; a total of $3,709.60. If the American cut + non-tax-free coupons for his income instead of working for it, his + tax would be reduced to $2,780, making it more than $600, less than + one-half the English tax. This, be it remembered, is figuring the + American normal tax at the supposititious rate of 12 percent.</p> + + <p>"Going abruptly to an income of $1,000,000, the American normal tax + at 12 percent., would be $119,880, against an English normal tax of + $300,000. The increase in the American normal tax would be $79,960 + over present rates. The American surtax at present rates would be + $435,300, as against a British surtax of $217,915; total American, + $555,180, English, $519,687.50. No account is taken in this + computation of any excess tax on the American income. With an income + of $3,000,000. the American normal tax at 12 percent. would be + $359,880, an increase of $239,960 over present rates. The surtax at + present rates would be $1,680,300, a total of $2,040,180, or nearly + 70 percent., the rate on the last $1,000,000 being at 75 percent. + The corresponding British tax is, normal, $900,000, and surtax + $669,685; total, $1,569,685, or nearly 52 percent., the actual + maximum rate being 52½ percent. on all excess over $50,000.</p> + + <p>"Expressed in tabular form, comparative results from a normal tax of + 12 percent., combined with present surtax rates and assuming all + income up to $50,000 to be earned income for a single man, would be + as follows:</p> +<br /> +</div> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="Income tax rates"> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">Income</td><td class="numeric">U.S. Tax</td> + <td class="numeric">Per Cent.</td><td class="numeric">British Tax</td> + <td class="numeric">Per Cent.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">$1,500</td><td class="numeric">$60.00</td> + <td class="numeric">4.00</td><td class="numeric">$101.25</td> + <td class="numeric">6.75</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">3,000</td><td class="numeric">240.00</td> + <td class="numeric">8.00</td><td class="numeric">375.00</td> + <td class="numeric">12.50</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">5,000</td><td class="numeric">480.00</td> + <td class="numeric">9.60</td><td class="numeric">750.00</td> + <td class="numeric">15.00</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">7,500</td><td class="numeric">789.40</td> + <td class="numeric">10.52</td><td class="numeric">1,406.25</td> + <td class="numeric">18.75</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">10,000</td><td class="numeric">1,430.20</td> + <td class="numeric">14.30</td><td class="numeric">2,250.00</td> + <td class="numeric">22.50</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">15,000</td><td class="numeric">2,534.80</td> + <td class="numeric">16.90</td><td class="numeric">4,812.50</td> + <td class="numeric">32.08</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">20,000</td><td class="numeric">3,709.60</td> + <td class="numeric">18.55</td><td class="numeric">6,812.50</td> + <td class="numeric">34.06</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">30,000</td><td class="numeric">6,336.00</td> + <td class="numeric">21.12</td><td class="numeric">11,187.50</td> + <td class="numeric">37.29</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">40,000</td><td class="numeric">8,956.00</td> + <td class="numeric">22.39</td><td class="numeric">15,937.50</td> + <td class="numeric">39.84</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">50,000</td><td class="numeric">11,855.20</td> + <td class="numeric">23.71</td><td class="numeric">20,937.50</td> + <td class="numeric">40.18</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">75,000</td><td class="numeric">18,605.20</td> + <td class="numeric">24.81</td><td class="numeric">34,062.50</td> + <td class="numeric">45.42</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">100,000</td><td class="numeric">26,855.20</td> + <td class="numeric">26.80</td><td class="numeric">47,187.50</td> + <td class="numeric">47.19</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">150,000</td><td class="numeric">46,355.20</td> + <td class="numeric">30.90</td><td class="numeric">73,437.50</td> + <td class="numeric">48.96</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">250,000</td><td class="numeric">92,355.20</td> + <td class="numeric">36.94</td><td class="numeric">125,937.50</td> + <td class="numeric">50.37</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">500,000</td><td class="numeric">235,355.20</td> + <td class="numeric">47.07</td><td class="numeric">257,187.50</td> + <td class="numeric">51.44</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">700,000</td><td class="numeric">359,355.20</td> + <td class="numeric">51.33</td><td class="numeric">362,187.50</td> + <td class="numeric">51.74</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">750,000</td><td class="numeric">390,355.20</td> + <td class="numeric">52.05</td><td class="numeric">388,437.50</td> + <td class="numeric">51.79</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">1,000,000</td><td class="numeric">557,855.20</td> + <td class="numeric">55.78</td><td class="numeric">519,687.50</td> + <td class="numeric">51.97</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">3,000,000</td><td class="numeric">2,042,855.20</td> + <td class="numeric">68.09</td><td class="numeric">1,569,687.50</td> + <td class="numeric">52.32</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="numeric">10,000,000</td><td class="numeric">7,292,855.20</td> + <td class="numeric">72.93</td><td class="numeric">5,244,687.50</td> + <td class="numeric">52.45</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"With additional exemption of $1,000 for heads of families and $200 each +for dependent children, the United States figures in the table would be +reduced by $120 for the $1,000 exemption and $24 for each child. There +are similar deductions to be made in the English figures. Furthermore, +for incomes above $50,000, deduction for the excess tax has not been +figured exactly in order to avoid long computations. This would slightly +reduce the figure on the large incomes. But for demonstrative purposes, +the table gives a fairly accurate general comparison of the range of +taxes under the proposed English law and a tentative 12 percent. normal +rate under our law.</p> + +<p>"It will be noticed that the rates would come together just below +$750,000. It is in the range between $5,000 and $500,000 incomes that +greatest divergence in rates occurs. The British tax takes its largest +jump between $10,000 and $15,000, where the surtax begins to operate. +The United States gradations are erratic and irregular, showing the +haphazard manner in which the steps of the surtax were applied."</p></div> + +<h3>ATTITUDE TOWARD WAR TAX BILL</h3> + +<p>The passing of the war tax bill was not altogether easy sailing; there +was plenty of criticism from the press throughout the country. +Republican editors and congressmen wondered why the bill did not contain +a tax on cotton, and one Pennsylvania congressman thought that the tax +levy should be at the rate of three dollars a bale. Senator Smoot of +Utah attacked the bill as a bunglesome measure.</p> + +<p>The New York <cite><del>Jourial</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads Jourial">Journal</ins> of Commerce</cite> called attention to the +discrimination between those whose income is in the form of services or +property and those who get it in cash:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Take the case, for instance, of the salaried employee of a bank or +factory who receives $5,000 a year, out of which he pays his house rent +and his usual costs of living; contrast him with the case of a farmer +who owns his land and obtains the bulk of what he needs, both in +food, fuel, and other essentials, for himself and family in + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> + +produce or in goods obtained by trade at the neighboring village; the +situation becomes clear and shows why it is that the farming class pays +only a microscopic proportion of the income tax at the present time."</p></div> + +<p>And the Democratic New York <cite>World</cite> agreed that the farmer "is not +carrying his share of the load of war taxation," and observes:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"An analysis of income tax returns for the fiscal year 1916, recently +published, shows that, although farmers are the most numerous class of +Americans engaged in gainful occupations, they were at the foot of the +list proportionately among income tax payers. Outside of the notorious +war profiteers, no element of our population has advantaged so greatly +by war as agriculturists; yet in the year of which we speak only one +farmer in four hundred paid a farthing's tax upon income. In this +respect preachers and teachers showed a higher percentage."</p></div> + +<p>There was some demand for extending the income tax downwards to cover +smaller incomes, for example, we find the Council Bluffs' <em>Nonpareil</em> +contending:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The men of more moderate income should be required to pay at least a +nominal income tax. This is a common country. It belongs to common +people. And common people will esteem it a privilege to contribute their +mites. One dollar per hundred on a thousand-dollar income would be both +reasonable and just."</p></div> + +<h3>CRITICISM OF THE TAX</h3> + +<p>The attitude of the New York press is indicated by the <cite>Evening Sun</cite> and +the <cite>Times</cite>. The New York <cite>Evening Sun</cite> (Rep.) said the committee "left +so many rough edges upon their work." In the opinion of this newspaper, +Mr. Kitchin "has given us a measure of class-taxation highly +accentuated, and yet has failed to suit the McAdoo group, the most +clear-minded adherents of the conscription-of-wealth idea. He has +produced a confused series of taxes beyond the practical power of the +ordinary busy citizen to master or comprehend, but has not combined +these into a harmonious system." The morning <cite>Sun</cite> even went so far as +to remark that "nothing that the Senate could do could make the Kitchin +measure worse than it is." Yet it by no means criticized all the +features of the bill. It objected to the proposed taxes on oil producers +as discouraging the production of oil, and styled the plan to tax +distributed corporation earnings at twelve percent. and undistributed +earnings at eighteen percent. "simply a fool tax," which "will help to +lock the wheels of every great industry in this country."</p> + +<p>The foundation mistake of the bill, in the opinion of the New York +<cite>Times</cite> (Ind. Dem.) was the "attempt to assess taxes upon the smallest +possible number of persons and businesses, leaving a great majority of +the people free from a levy direct or indirect." The <cite>Times</cite> thought +that this policy was dictated by the desire "to leave the mass of voters +free from grounds of complaint against the party in power." It insisted +that there should be a consumption tax levying "upon the breakfast table +and upon the purchases of a great mass of people." Such necessities as +tea, coffee, cocoa, sugar, should bear a tax, in the opinion of this and +other newspapers. The number of those taxed was also kept comparatively +small by the retention of the old income exemption limits, namely, +$1,000 for bachelors and $2,000 for married men, with the normal tax +rate placed at only six percent. on incomes up to $5,000.</p> + +<h3>WILSON'S TAX PROGRAM</h3> + +<p>An outline of what was expected from the people of the country as a +financial contribution was given by Mr. Wilson in his May (1918) address +to Congress, when he decided to ask its members to remain in Washington +and prepare a new revenue bill. Mr. Wilson's call for immediate action +in behalf of both the public and the Treasury Department was a summons +to a universal duty in language which, it is remarked, "was never before +used in a tax speech." He said in part:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"We can not in fairness wait until the end of the fiscal year is at hand +to apprize our people of the taxes they must pay on their earnings of +the present calendar year, whose accountings and expenditures will then +be closed.</p> + +<p>"We can not get increased taxes unless the country knows what they are +to be and practices the necessary economy to make them available. +Definiteness, early definiteness, as to what its tasks are to be is +absolutely necessary for the successful administration of the +treasury....</p> + +<p>"The present tax laws are marred, moreover, by inequities which ought to +be remedied....</p> + +<p>"Only fair, equitably distributed taxation of the widest incidence, +drawing chiefly from the sources which would be likely to demoralize +credit by their very abundance, can prevent inflation and keep +our industrial system free of speculation and waste. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p></div> + +<div class="figleft"> +<img src="images/ill-007.png" width="400" height="675" +alt="Poster for Boy Scouts Who Worked for the Victory Loan" +title="Poster for Boy Scouts Who Worked for the Victory Loan" /> +<p class="caption">Poster for Boy Scouts Who Worked for the Victory Loan</p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"We shall naturally turn, therefore, I suppose, to war profits and +incomes and luxuries for the additional taxes. But the war profits and +incomes upon which the increased taxes will be levied will be the +profits and incomes of the calendar year 1918. It would be manifestly +unfair to wait until the early months of 1919 to say what they are to +be....</p> + +<p>"Moreover, taxes of that sort will not be paid until the June of next +year, and the treasury must anticipate them....</p> + +<p>"In the autumn a much larger sale of long-time bonds must be effected +than has yet been attempted....</p> + +<p>"And how are investors to approach the purchase of bonds with any sort +of confidence or knowledge of their own affairs if they do not know what +taxes they are to pay and what economies and adjustments of their +business they must effect? I can not assure the country of a successful +administration of the treasury in 1918 if the question of further +taxation is to be left undecided until 1919."</p></div> + +<p>Mr. Wilson's appeal for the practice of personal economy met with +widespread approval in England, as it did in the United States. The +<cite>Economist</cite> considered that his manifesto to the American people on this +subject was among the greatest documents that the war has produced. +National self-sacrifice had gone far, but not far enough. To attain Mr. +Wilson's standard of individual patriotism much was still needed, the +<cite>Economist</cite> says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"We still have a very long way to go before we can attain to President +Wilson's standard of individual patriotism. From the outbreak of war to +the end of last year the small investor in this country has lent +£118,179,000 to the government. Moreover, in the first two months +of 1917 as much as £40,000,000 was contributed to war loans in one +form or another in the shape of small savings. That result represents a +great deal of patriotic saving, and reflects the highest credit on the +committee, as well as upon the Montagu committee, which devised so +suitable a form of investment as the 15s 6d certificate. But far more is +required. During the war loan campaign, war savings certificates brought +in £3,000,000 in a single week. That effort was, perhaps, too +great to be kept up; but it is hardly satisfactory that, in spite of the +hard work of the committee, and an enormous growth in the number of +active war savings associations all over the country, the weekly +receipts from the 15s 6d certificates have fallen back to the +£800,000 to £900,000 level which was reached last December. +This relapse may be partially accounted for by the late increase in the +cost of living, but there can be no doubt that much more might yet be +done by the masses of people of moderate means to whom the small +certificates appeal. Nor is there any evidence that the wealthier +classes, generally speaking, have done nearly as much, in the matter of +war self denial, as they might have done."</p></div> + +<h3>LUXURY TAXES</h3> + +<p>When it came to a question of taxing luxuries, the difficulty was to +decide what was a luxury. The situation perplexed Congress, for we find +one congressman in Pennsylvania who held that collar buttons and cuff +buttons were a necessity, while a representative from Texas asserted +that Texas could get along without either collar buttons and cuff +buttons and still be patriotic. A congressman from Oklahoma thought that +all kinds of buttons could be done away with, adding, "Before I came to +Congress I could use nails for my suspenders." Congressman from + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> + +agricultural states considered that automobiles and gasoline were not +luxuries but were really necessities, especially for farmers.</p> + +<p>Many newspapers opposed anything like a luxury tax. We find the New York +<cite>Times</cite> advising the imposition of taxes on tea, sugar, coffee and +cocoa. These are good revenue producers but few politicians care to +interfere with the free breakfast table. The <cite>Wall Street Journal</cite> +approved of luxury taxes because they would be a means of enforcing +thrift. The Treasury's plan for imposing these taxes may be gathered +from the following condensed summary:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Fifty percent. on the retail price of jewelry, including watches and +clocks, except those sold to army officers.</p> + +<p>"Twenty percent. on automobiles, trailers and truck units, motor cycles, +bicycles automobile, motor cycle, and bicycle tires, and musical +instruments.</p> + +<p>"A tax on all men's suits selling for more than $30, hats over $4, +shirts over $2, pajamas over $2, hosiery over 35 cents, shoes over $5, +gloves over $2, underwear over $3, and all neckwear and canes.</p> + +<p>"On women's suits over $40, coats over $30, ready-made dresses over $35, +skirts over $15, hats over $10, shoes over $6, lingerie over $5, corsets +over $5. Dress goods—silk over $1.50 a square yard; cotton over 50 +cents a square yard, and wool over $2 per square yard. All furs, boas +and fans.</p> + +<p>"On children's clothing—on children's suits over $15, cotton +dresses over $3, linen dresses over $5, silk and wool dresses over $8, +hats $5, shoes $4, and gloves $2.</p> + +<p>"On house furnishings, all ornamental lamps and fixtures, all table +linen, cutlery and silverware, china and cut glass; all furniture in +sets for which $5 or more is paid for each piece; on curtains over $2 +per yard, and on tapestries, rugs, and carpets over $5 per square yard.</p> + +<p>"On all purses, pocketbooks, handbags, brushes, combs and toilet +articles, and all mirrors over $2.</p> + +<p>"Ten percent. on the collections from the sales of vending machines.</p> + +<p>"Ten percent. on all hotel bills amounting to more than $2.50 per person +per day. Also the present 10 percent. tax on cabaret bills is made to +apply to the entire restaurant or café bill.</p></div> + +<h3>TAXES OF MANUFACTURER OR PRODUCER</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Ten cents a gallon on all gasoline to be paid by the wholesale dealers.</p> + +<p>"Ten percent. tax on wire leases.</p> + +<p>"Graduated taxes on soft drinks. Mineral now taxed 1 cent a gallon to +pay 16 cents. Chewing gum now taxed 2 percent. of the selling price, to +pay 1 cent on each 5-cent package.</p> + +<p>"Motion-picture shows and films: abolish the foot tax of ¼ and +½-cent a foot and substitute a tax of 5 percent. on the rentals +received by the producer, and double the tax rate on admissions.</p> + +<p>"Double the present taxes on alcoholic beverages, tobacco and +cigarettes.</p> + +<p>"Automobiles—a license tax on passenger automobiles graduated +according to horsepower.</p> + +<p>"Double club membership dues.</p> + +<p>"Household servants, made 25 percent. of the wages of one servant up to +100 percent. of the combined wages of four or more. Female servants, +each family exempted from tax on one servant. All additional servants +(female) from 10 to 100 percent. on all over four."</p></div> + +<h3>LUXURIES IMPORTED</h3> + +<p>Heavy taxes on luxuries were anticipated but until these taxes were +considered it was hardly realized how much of the consumption in America +was concerned with articles that could be considered luxuries; for +example, the country imported $6,000,000 worth of foreign cigarette +papers. Pictures, statuary and other works of art were brought into the +country to the extent of $17,000,000. Over $2,000,000 worth of ivory was +imported every year; over $2,000,000 worth of mother-of-pearl and more +than $2,500,000 worth of bulbs and roots. Higher taxes were urged by the +financial experts, so we see a writer in <cite>Financial America</cite> emphasizing +the connection between the importation of luxuries and the need of +shipping:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"America can not spare ships to bring costly garments and furnishings +thousands of miles across the sea. For the war period these articles can +be replaced at home with materials that cost less labor and less money. +The money spent for domestic goods remains in America and maintains our +working population and our business and banking resources.</p> + +<p>"We lack a sufficient market for our cotton crop, owing to the lack of +ships. Americans should wear more cotton. The money spent upon it +maintains the Southern planter and his family. Modern processes give it +the appearance of silk. It serves very well as carpets, curtains, +hangings, and furniture coverings. It should answer present needs for +such fabrics. A heavier tax on imports of these goods is indicated as a +means of revenue and war economy.</p> + +<p>"Imported wearing apparel of silk pays 60 percent. duty and of wool 44 +cents a pound and 60 percent. <span lang="la">ad valorem</span>. There is a graduated rate on +dress goods of these materials. Despite the tax, America spent + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> + +more on imported manufactures of silk in 1917 than ever, the total being +nearly $40,000,000. The same was true of woolen goods, amounting to +$23,000,000.</p> + +<p>"Our imports of woolen carpets and rugs, most of them brought half way +round the world from oriental lands, were also larger. They cost us +$3,740,000, though America is a large producer of carpets and rugs, fine +as well as coarse. These imports paid ten cents a square foot and 40 +percent. <span lang="la">ad valorem.</span> Evidently, it was not enough.</p> + +<p>"We also spent $53,000,000 for imported cotton manufactures, including +cloth, laces, curtains, handkerchiefs, veils, and wearing apparel, +though America is the world's chief producer of cotton. A higher tariff +is indicated as a tax on those who insist on the foreign product.</p> + +<h3>TAXES ON TOBACCO</h3> + +<p>"America has a large tobacco industry at home. We import tobacco in vast +quantities from every producing land to satisfy the whimsical and +varying tastes of connoisseurs. Our own tobacco is discouraged by those +who smoke it under the name of Turkish, Egyptian, Cuban, Dutch, Spanish, +and other foreign products, and pay a heavy price for the critical taste +which their vanity causes them to imagine they possess. Last year these +imports of leaf tobacco alone were valued at $26,000,000, or $10,000,000 +more than in 1915. The war tax is five cents a pound added to eight +cents paid under the internal revenue act, or thirteen cents altogether. +There is also a duty of $1.85 to $2.50 a pound. To increase the tax +would encourage the industry in Kentucky, Virginia, Pennsylvania, +Connecticut, and other states, while saving our resources in ships and +keeping our money at home.</p> + +<p>"In addition, America spent $7,000,000 for foreign-made cigars and +cigarettes last year. These purchases support foreign factories, +although our own factories use the same raw material which they import. +They have jumped nearly $3,000,000 in two years. Until the war is ended, +Americans should be satisfied with cigars 'made in America.' The present +war tax ranges from one tenth of a cent to one cent on each cigar, +according to value, in addition to a duty of $4.50 a pound and 25 +percent. <span lang="la">ad valorem</span>. A higher tax would deprive the smoker of nothing +but a craving for the foreign label on his cigar box, unless he chose to +pay well for it. He can even get a Spanish name on his American-made +cigar.</p> + +<h3>DIAMONDS, LEATHER AND MILLINERY</h3> + +<p>"America spent $41,000,000 in 1917 to import diamonds, pearls, and other +precious stones and imitations, not set. They paid a war tax of only 3 +percent. when made into jewelry. America could be content with beauty +less adorned to keep this $40,000,000 at home, or those who insist on +sending their money to African mine owners and Dutch cutters should pay +a larger tax.</p> + +<p>"America last year had a tremendous bill for hides and skins of +$209,000,000, nearly two and a half times that of 1915. Much of it was +for the great necessities of the army. A good proportion of the rest was +unnecessary. These imports of raw material are free of duty and there is +no war tax on leather goods. Substitutes have been devised for many of +them. These should be encouraged by a tax on the unnecessary use of +leather in furnishings, decorations, toilet articles, hand bags, trunks, +high shoes, belts, hatbands, and many small articles. Substitutes for +these will be provided quickly enough if leather is lacking. A heavy tax +would help the movement. The tremendous military and other legitimate +demands for leather goods will keep the industry in thriving condition +without so much waste.</p> + +<p>"For imported millinery materials America spent nearly $13,000,000 last +year, and we also spent $3,000,000 for mere feathers, tributes to +feminine vanity that filled up many ships needed for war use. The +greater part of this stuff came 10,000 miles from China and Japan. There +are plenty of substitutes that a high war tax would encourage, including +those provided by the American hen.</p> + +<p>"Our imported glassware, on which there is no war tax, cost nearly +$2,000,000. It occupies large space aboard ship, owing to voluminous +packing that is necessary. Imported china, porcelain, earthenware, and +crockery cost America nearly $6,500,000."</p></div> + +<h3>BEARING THE BURDEN</h3> + +<p>In spite of the enormous cost of war operations, roseate views were +taken of the ability of the country to surmount the unusual +difficulties. Unprecedented taxes were being paid, heavy subscriptions +to the Liberty Loans were being collected and yet the business of the +country seemed to show a high degree of prosperity. This optimistic +outlook marks the following comment found in a circular published by the +First National Bank in Boston, after it had called attention to the +small number of failures reported throughout the country for August, +1918. No such low record had been reached since July, 1901:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The steps that have been taken to curtail credits have resulted in +greater conservatism, and have had a beneficent effect, which is likely +to continue for some time after the present necessity disappears. The +business foundation is extremely sound. Figures of resources of savings +banks show that the subscriptions to the Liberty Loans have + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> + +brought only a trifling decrease in savings deposits. Evidently +subscribers are buying bonds with their current income rather than with +their savings. In other words, the Liberty Loans represent additions to +the savings of the country, and not merely transfers of investments."</p></div> + +<p>It was prophesied that in spite of the enormous financial obligations +assumed by the United States normal conditions would soon be restored. +History shows, the circular goes on to say, that financial recovery from +devastation has been prompt and complete. Even the railway conditions at +this time were viewed optimistically. Such a competent authority as the +<cite>Wall Street Journal</cite> did not anticipate the financial troubles that +soon overtook railway administration under government control. It +thought that, by the end of the year, the existing debits on current +operations would probably be wiped out:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Aggregate railroad earnings and expenses for July of all the important +roads in the country are in line with the individual statements of the +different roads already published in showing large increases in both +gross and net revenues. They also indicate, so far as one month's +operating results may be used to generalize from, that the railroads are +now on a self-supporting basis, if they are not actually returning a +profit to the government on current operation.</p> + +<p>"Net operating income of these roads for the month of July (1918) was +$137,845,425 as compared with $92,599,620 in the same month of 1917. In +a recent statement from the Director-General's office the compensation +payable to the railroad companies for the use of their property by the +government was estimated at $650,000,000 for the first eight months of +the year, or at the rate of $81,250,000 a month. The net operating +income of the Class 1 roads as mentioned above exceeds this monthly +rental figure by $56,595,000."</p></div> + +<h3>THE FIRST GOVERNMENT LOAN, 1789</h3> + +<p>Although called by other names, the United States has had issues of +Liberty Bonds on several occasions during a period of one hundred and +twenty-nine years, notably in the first years of the Republic and in the +Civil War. The first was floated in 1789, the year when the Federal +Government was established. Alexander Hamilton was Secretary of the +Treasury and on him devolved the duty of raising funds for the +government.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Conditions being pressing, Hamilton, in +raising the necessary money, at first did not wait even for the +approval of Congress, but went to the Bank of New York, which he had +helped to found in 1784—the second bank in the United States +and the first in New York City—to raise the first necessary +money. At a meeting of the board of directors the new secretary of the +treasury asked for a loan of $200,000. It was promptly and unanimously +granted, the money to be advanced in five installments of $20,000 each +and ten of $10,000 each, at 6 percent. On the following day Hamilton +sent to the bank the first bond ever issued by the United States +Treasury—a bond of $20,000—on receipt of which the money +was paid over, so that the United States Treasury could show $20,000 +cash on hand. In <cite>The Investor's Magazine</cite>, where these +facts were recently brought to light, we are further told that the bond +then issued is still carefully preserved by the bank which bought it. +Quite unlike the now familiar Liberty Bonds of 1917 and 1918, it was +executed with an ordinary quill pen, such as was in use in those times, +and signed in ink by the secretary. With its seal somewhat yellow with +age, the bond is still in an excellent state of preservation."</p></div> + +<div class="figright"> +<img src="images/ill-010.png" width="400" height="598" +alt="Dropping the First Bomb" +title="Dropping the First Bomb" /> +<p class="credit">Richards in the Phila. North American</p> +<p class="caption">Dropping the First Bomb</p></div> + +<h3>POPULARITY OF THE LIBERTY LOANS</h3> + +<p>America's financial reputation stood at a fairly high level after the +close of the Civil War. An era of unexampled production ensued + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> + +for more than five decades, yet there were many timorous souls who were +frightened at the thought of the United States being called upon to bear +the burden of the colossal loans. The surprising feature of the Liberty +Loans was the elasticity of the subscriptions. The subscribers for the +first three loans numbered respectively 4,500,000, 10,020,000, +17,000,000; in every case the records show over subscription. A graphic +statement of the nation's riches was presented by S. L. Frazier in the +<cite>Northwestern Banker</cite>, Des Moines, October, 1918:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Our resources are well up toward +$300,000,000,000, or about equal to the combined resources of +France, England, and Germany. Our annual production is close to +$50,000,000,00, amounts that stagger the imagination. Why it would take +ten thousand years to count the dollars representing <del>out</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads out">our</ins> country's +resources counting one each second, and working day and night and +Sundays."</p></div> + +<p>The New York <cite>Tribune</cite> remarked, "If any learned professor of economics +had predicted that on top of ten billions of government loans in one +year a fourth Liberty Loan would reach nearly seven billions we know +what we all would have thought."</p> + +<h3>HOW EUROPE WILL PAY US BACK</h3> + +<p>An official in the National City Bank of New York, Mr. G. E. Roberts, is +quoted by the New York <cite>Times</cite> as saying that the wealth-producing +equipment of the country had become greater than ever during the war. He +did not believe either that there would be any difficulty of the United +States being paid back for the money it had loaned foreign governments.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"We are going to be peculiarly situated in our foreign relations after +the war. We have paid off the greater part of what we owe abroad, and we +have lent to foreign governments some $7,000,000,000 or $8,000,000,000. +Including all loans by the time the war is over, probably there will be +annual interest payments coming to us amounting to $400,000,000 or +$500,000,000. How are we going to receive our pay? I am not questioning +the ability of our debtors to raise this amount from their people. I +have no doubt they can do it, but in what manner are they going to make +payment to us? They can't pay it in gold; they haven't the gold to do +it, and the total production of gold in the world outside of the United +States wouldn't be enough to do it. We won't want them to pay it in +goods, for that would interfere seriously with our home industries....</p> + +<p>"There is only one way out, and that is by extending more credit to +them. We will have to capitalize the interest payments and reinvest them +abroad. And if we want to sell goods to them we will have to take their +bonds and stocks. In short, we will have to play the part that England +has played in the past, of steadily increasing our foreign investments."</p></div> + +<p>While the great sums subscribed for the Fourth Loan by banks, +corporations, and individuals had a spectacular interest, observed the +New York <cite>World</cite>, it was the plain people who made the loan a +conspicuous success, and the twenty-one million subscribers mean in +effect the purchase of a new Liberty Bond by "every American family."</p> + +<h3>THE LOAN PERIODS</h3> + +<p>There were very good reasons on the part of the government for selecting +the definite periods at which the Liberty Loans were to be issued. There +were also very good reasons derived from experience by which the +government was guided in preparing for the loans. Prior to the fourth +loan Secretary McAdoo believed that it could be made to reach fully +one-fourth of the population of the country. Preparation for it was made +through publicity on a scale hitherto unprecedented. The Washington +correspondent of the New York <cite>Journal of Commerce</cite>, writing on July 31, +1918, said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The country will be appealed to, with new and striking film arguments, +with a great variety of poster slogans, and with a use of the press and +the platform such as has never been witnessed before in this country.</p> + +<p>"There are to be nineteen days of actual campaign work. The great task +of organization and preparation is now going on. Artists have been +making posters, writers have been preparing arguments, and printing +presses in all parts of the country have been turning out many millions +of mottoes, cartoons, and slogans."</p></div> + +<p>He added interesting data as to outstanding treasury certificates and +war expenses. The time chosen for the loan was probably as good, it +thought, as could have been selected, inasmuch as it would fall just +after the bulk of the crops had been harvested and when much of them had +been sold at good figures.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"War expenses for July were somewhat less than for June and May, +amounting to about $1,482,000,000 as compared with + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> + +$1,512,000,000, the record for June, and $1,508,000,000 for May, the +Treasury Department announced. The outlay for July, however, was +approximately the amount estimated in advance by the treasury, and +expenses for August probably will be higher, it was said.</p> + +<p>"During July the government's daily outlay was about $48,000,000, an +average of $38,000,000 daily was for ordinary expenses of the army, +navy, shipping board, and other agencies, and $10,000,000 daily in loans +to the Allies. Total ordinary expenditures for the month were about +$1,157,000,000 and loans to the Allies $325,000,000.</p> + +<p>"Receipts from sale of War Savings Stamps July 3rd passed the +half-billion dollar mark, of which $200,000,000 came in this month as a +result of the campaign on Thrift Day, June 28th.</p> + +<p>"The government now is financing itself mainly through the sale of +certificates of indebtedness, in anticipation of the Fourth Liberty +Loan. More than $1,600,000,000 came in from this source in July. In +addition, the government received $491,000,000 from belated income and +excess profits taxes, and $97,000,000 from miscellaneous internal +revenue. Customs duties yielded only $14,000,000.</p> + +<p>"Payments on the Third Liberty Loan now amount to $3,652,000,000, +leaving $524,000,000 to come in from the next installment payment."</p></div> + +<table class="boxed" summary="Liberty Loans"> +<caption>Included in the Third Loan subscription total is $17,917,750 subscribed +by the United States Treasury. War Savings Stamps subscriptions totalled +$879,330,000 up to November 20, 1918.</caption> +<tr><th colspan="5"><br />THE LIBERTY LOANS—BY FEDERAL RESERVE DISTRICTS<br /> </th></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><td></td><th>FIRST LOAN<br />(June, 1917—<br />3½ Per Cent.)</th> +<th>SECOND LOAN<br />(Oct., 1917—<br />4 Per Cent.)</th><th>THIRD LOAN<br />(1918—<br />4¼ Per Cent.)</th> +<th>FOURTH LOAN<br />(1918—<br />4¼ Per Cent.)</th></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Boston</td><td class="numeric">$332,447,600</td><td class="numeric">$476,950,050</td><td class="numeric">$354,537,250</td><td class="numeric">$632,221,850</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">New York</td><td class="numeric">1,186,788,400</td><td class="numeric">1,550,453,450</td><td class="numeric">1,115,243,650</td><td class="numeric">2,044,778,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Philadelphia</td><td class="numeric">232,309,250</td><td class="numeric">380,350,250</td><td class="numeric">361,963,500</td><td class="numeric">598,763,650</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Cleveland</td><td class="numeric">286,148,700</td><td class="numeric">486,106,800</td><td class="numeric">405,051,150</td><td class="numeric">702,059,800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Richmond</td><td class="numeric">109,737,100</td><td class="numeric">201,212,500</td><td class="numeric">186,259,050</td><td class="numeric">352,688,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Atlanta</td><td class="numeric">57,878,550</td><td class="numeric">90,695,750</td><td class="numeric">137,649,450</td><td class="numeric">213,885,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Chicago</td><td class="numeric">357,195,950</td><td class="numeric">585,853,350</td><td class="numeric">608,878,600</td><td class="numeric">969,209,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">St. Louis</td><td class="numeric">86,134,700</td><td class="numeric">184,280,750</td><td class="numeric">199,835,900</td><td class="numeric">296,388,550</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Minneapolis</td><td class="numeric">70,255,500</td><td class="numeric">140,932,650</td><td class="numeric">180,892,100</td><td class="numeric">241,028,300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Kansas City</td><td class="numeric">91,758,850</td><td class="numeric">150,125,750</td><td class="numeric">204,092,800</td><td class="numeric">294,646,450</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Dallas</td><td class="numeric">48,948,350</td><td class="numeric">77,899,850</td><td class="numeric">116,220,650</td><td class="numeric">145,944,450</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">San Francisco</td><td class="numeric">175,623,900</td><td class="numeric">292,671,150</td><td class="numeric">287,975,000</td><td class="numeric">459,000,000</td></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><td class="left"> Total subscriptions</td><td class="numeric">$3,035,226,850</td><td class="numeric">$4,617,532,300</td><td class="numeric">$4,176,516,850</td><td class="numeric">$6,989,047,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Total quotas</td><td class="numeric">$2,000,000,000</td><td class="numeric">$3,000,000,000</td><td class="numeric">$3,000,000,000</td><td class="numeric">$6,000,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Total allotments</td><td class="numeric">2,000,000,000</td><td class="numeric">3,808,766,150</td><td class="numeric">4,176,516,850</td><td class="numeric">6,989,047,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Total number of subscribers</td><td class="numeric">4,500,000</td><td class="numeric">10,020,000</td><td class="numeric">17,000,000</td><td class="numeric">21,000,000</td></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><th colspan="5"><br />NEW YORK CITY SUBSCRIPTIONS<br /> </th></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Manhattan</td><td class="numeric">$960,417,050</td><td class="numeric">$1,095,189,000</td><td class="numeric">$702,577,750</td><td class="numeric">$1,353,449,550</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Bronx</td><td class="numeric">404,700</td><td class="numeric">1,015,500</td><td class="numeric">5,112,350</td><td class="numeric">5,751,800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Brooklyn</td><td class="numeric">30,312,000</td><td class="numeric">44,424,200</td><td class="numeric">52,427,600</td><td class="numeric">100,469,650</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Queens</td><td class="numeric">2,202,600</td><td class="numeric">4,136,150</td><td class="numeric">10,137,350</td><td class="numeric">17,331,900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="left">Richmond</td><td class="numeric">679,600</td><td class="numeric">1,373,700</td><td class="numeric">3,386,800</td><td class="numeric">5,075,750</td></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><td class="left"> Total city subscriptions</td><td class="numeric">$994,015,950</td><td class="numeric">$1,146,139,150</td><td class="numeric">$773,641,859</td><td class="numeric">$1,482,078,650</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></p> + +<h3>THE INDIVIDUAL INVESTOR</h3> + +<p>Some curious facts were brought out in the effort of the Liberty +Campaign propaganda to reach the individual investor. In the large +cities the organization was remarkably successful. In the smaller +communities it was a greater difficulty. In a suburb or a small town +everybody knows everybody else and the Liberty Loan Committee had hard +work in getting subscribers. Mr. A. W. Atwood of Princeton thinks that +the occupational and vocational classification of possible investors was +not tried. Widows and maiden ladies who had inherited $50,000 or $75,000 +were not reached. Some of them who were patriotic came forward of their +own accord. The little town of Kircunkson in New York State exceeded its +quota many times and there was an item in the papers about it. The +success of the Liberty Loan in that town was due to the fact that it +contained a large sanitarium patronized by millionaires. Yet there were +no banks in the town and if their banking resources were used as a basis +their quota would have been very small indeed.</p> + +<p>As to the assignment of quotas Mr. Atwood makes the point that it was +sometimes based on population, sometimes based on the amount of bank +resources. He thought that in small places it would be better to post up +a list of those who had subscribed and he even thought that if the +country made the effort it could ultimately raise a loan of +$100,000,000,000, his reason being the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"This country is approaching, as England has long ago, the position of +being a possessor of great accumulated wealth. One broker after another +is really nothing but a family investment agent. That is what it amounts +to. There are railroad magnates, bankers, steel kings, copper kings and +so on indefinitely. Hundreds of firms in the New York Stock Exchange are +nothing but channels for the investment of accumulated wealth and I do +not think we realize how much there is of that in this country."</p></div> + +<h3>LIBERTY LOANS AND THRIFT</h3> + +<p>One of the best methods of testing the influence of Liberty Loan +activities on the thrift of the country is used by <cite>Bradstreet's</cite> in its +examination of the annual report of the United States League of Building +and Loan Associations. These Associations, be it remembered, are not +patronized by capitalists but almost wholly by wage earners. During the +past fifteen years the membership of building and loan associations has +increased 150 percent. and since the war broke in 1914, the number of +members has extended 52 percent. The latest report shows a gain in +assets of 30 percent. over the amount indicated in 1914. The following +tables taken from <cite>Bradstreet's</cite> give detailed items of the financial +situation of these important organizations:</p> + +<p>The following table gives membership and total assets of building and +loan associations for a fifteen-year period:</p> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="building and loan associations"> +<tr><td></td><th>Membership</th><th>Assets</th></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">1902—03</td><td class="numeric">1,530,707</td><td class="numeric">$577,228,014</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">1903—04</td><td class="numeric">1,566,700</td><td class="numeric">579,556,112</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">1904—05</td><td class="numeric">1,631,046</td><td class="numeric">600,342,586</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">1905—06</td><td class="numeric">1,642,127</td><td class="numeric">629,344,257</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">1906—07</td><td class="numeric">1,699,714</td><td class="numeric">673,129,198</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">1907—08</td><td class="numeric">1,839,119</td><td class="numeric">731,508,446</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">1908—09</td><td class="numeric">1,920,257</td><td class="numeric">784,175,753</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">1909—10</td><td class="numeric">2,016,651</td><td class="numeric">856,332,719</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">1910—11</td><td class="numeric">2,169,893</td><td class="numeric">931,867,175</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">1911—12</td><td class="numeric">2,332,829</td><td class="numeric">1,030,687,031</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">1912—13</td><td class="numeric">2,518,442</td><td class="numeric">1,136,949,465</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">1914—15</td><td class="numeric">3,103,935</td><td class="numeric">1,357,707,900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">1915—16</td><td class="numeric">3,334,899</td><td class="numeric">1,484,205,875</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">1916—17</td><td class="numeric">3,568,342</td><td class="numeric">1,696,707,041</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">1917—18</td><td class="numeric">3,838,612</td><td class="numeric">1,769,142,175</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The following table shows total membership +and total assets for States in which accurate +statistics are compiled by state supervisors. +The data for other States are consolidated +under the heading, "Other States," +and the figures given are estimated:</p> + +<div class="left"> +<table class="nobrdr" cellspacing="0" summary="Savings and Loans"> +<tr><td></td><th colspan="3">1917—18</th></tr> +<tr><td></td><th>Members</th><th>Assets</th><th>Increase</th></tr> +<tr><td>Pennsylvania</td><td class="numeric">677,911</td><td class="numeric">$324,265,393</td><td class="numeric">$25,438,326</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ohio</td><td class="numeric">767,100</td><td class="numeric">321,741,529</td><td class="numeric">51,188,940</td></tr> +<tr><td>New Jersey</td><td class="numeric">329,063</td><td class="numeric">168,215,913</td><td class="numeric">13,088,951</td></tr> +<tr><td>Massachusetts</td><td class="numeric">247,725</td><td class="numeric">126,695,037</td><td class="numeric">13,389,130</td></tr> +<tr><td>Illinois</td><td class="numeric">246,800</td><td class="numeric">113,528,525</td><td class="numeric">8,050,122</td></tr> +<tr><td>New York</td><td class="numeric">199,571</td><td class="numeric">86,072,829</td><td class="numeric">6,442,948</td></tr> +<tr><td>Indiana</td><td class="numeric">202,409</td><td class="numeric">78,112,917</td><td class="numeric">5,818,661</td></tr> +<tr><td>Nebraska</td><td class="numeric">101,929</td><td class="numeric">54,545,630</td><td class="numeric">6,627,783</td></tr> +<tr><td>California</td><td class="numeric">42,227</td><td class="numeric">35,928,447</td><td class="numeric">3,134,429</td></tr> +<tr><td>Michigan</td><td class="numeric">69,041</td><td class="numeric">35,659,360</td><td class="numeric">4,279,888</td></tr> +<tr><td>Kentucky</td><td class="numeric">62,846</td><td class="numeric">27,085,282</td><td class="numeric">1,272,372</td></tr> +<tr><td>Missouri</td><td class="numeric">56,116</td><td class="numeric">26,770,144</td><td class="numeric">3,226,311</td></tr> +<tr><td>Kansas</td><td class="numeric">66,442</td><td class="numeric">26,000,167</td><td class="numeric">2,446,058</td></tr> +<tr><td>Louisiana</td><td class="numeric">47,793</td><td class="numeric">25,911,928</td><td class="numeric">1,362,683</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dist. Columbia</td><td class="numeric">37,075</td><td class="numeric">22,399,995</td><td class="numeric">255,115</td></tr> +<tr><td>Wisconsin</td><td class="numeric">50,612</td><td class="numeric">19,887,368</td><td class="numeric">3,013,526</td></tr> +<tr><td>North Carolina</td><td class="numeric">37,400</td><td class="numeric">17,608,000</td><td class="numeric">1,703,230</td></tr> +<tr><td>Washington</td><td class="numeric">46,318</td><td class="numeric">14,444,177</td><td class="numeric">2,366,450</td></tr> +<tr><td>Arkansas</td><td class="numeric">21,053</td><td class="numeric">10,583,447</td><td class="numeric">409,439</td></tr> +<tr><td>Iowa<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></td><td class="numeric">33,035</td><td class="numeric">9,638,852</td><td class="numeric">........</td></tr> +<tr><td>Minnesota</td><td class="numeric">22,020</td><td class="numeric">8,979,642</td><td class="numeric">626,537</td></tr> +<tr><td>West Virginia</td><td class="numeric">21,500</td><td class="numeric">8,119,131</td><td class="numeric">369,564</td></tr> +<tr><td>Colorado<a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></td><td class="numeric">10,200</td><td class="numeric">6,688,983</td><td class="numeric">........</td></tr> +<tr><td>Maine</td><td class="numeric">14,959</td><td class="numeric">6,671,239</td><td class="numeric">233,961</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oklahoma</td><td class="numeric">18,142</td><td class="numeric">6,554,175</td><td class="numeric">2,354,175</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rhode Island</td><td class="numeric">11,499</td><td class="numeric">5,938,436</td><td class="numeric">577,906</td></tr> +<tr><td>Connecticut</td><td class="numeric">14,900</td><td class="numeric">4,869,748</td><td class="numeric">610,423</td></tr> +<tr><td>South Dakota</td><td class="numeric">5,857</td><td class="numeric">3,603,836</td><td class="numeric">89,286</td></tr> +<tr><td>N. Hampshire</td><td class="numeric">8,554</td><td class="numeric">3,336,072</td><td class="numeric">322,812</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tennessee</td><td class="numeric">5,166</td><td class="numeric">3,207,754</td><td class="numeric"><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>112,865</td></tr> +<tr><td>North Dakota</td><td class="numeric">5,785</td><td class="numeric">2,837,118</td><td class="numeric">90,308</td></tr> +<tr><td>Texas</td><td class="numeric">7,156</td><td class="numeric">2,314,927</td><td class="numeric">372,489</td></tr> +<tr><td>Montana</td><td class="numeric">4,239</td><td class="numeric">1,849,935</td><td class="numeric">209,906</td></tr> +<tr><td>New Mexico</td><td class="numeric">3,545</td><td class="numeric">1,469,276</td><td class="numeric">72,660</td></tr> +<tr><td>Vermont</td><td class="numeric">749</td><td class="numeric">287,791</td><td class="numeric">52,079</td></tr> +<tr><td>Other States</td><td class="numeric">341,875</td><td class="numeric">157,319,172</td><td class="numeric">10,975,756</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">————</td><td class="numeric">—————</td><td class="numeric">—————</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total</td><td class="numeric">3,838,612</td><td class="numeric">$1,769,142,175</td><td class="numeric">$170,514,039</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>Reports issued biennially; figures of 1916 used.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>Decrease.</p></div> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-014.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-014thumb.jpg" width="400" height="562" +alt="A Poster Used During the Fourth Liberty Loan Campaign" +title="A Poster Used During the Fourth Liberty Loan Campaign" /> +</a> +<p class="caption">A Poster Used During the Fourth Liberty Loan Campaign</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-014.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></p> + +<h3>THE THRIFT HABIT</h3> + +<p>Such was the success of the Liberty Loan campaign in appealing to all +classes of private investors, that it became an interesting speculation +whether the popular thrift habit would survive war conditions. It was +the general belief in <del>finanical</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads finanical">financial</ins> +centers that the habit of saving had been promoted. Perhaps no better +illustration of the thrift habit could be presented than returns made by +the savings banks of Boston in October, 1918. At that date these banks +had $321,000,000 against $319,000,000 at the same date in 1917, the +previous banner total for the end of a banking year. It was estimated by +Mr. Ingalls Kimball, the New York <cite>Times</cite> annalist, that twenty million +separate individuals were saving by the method of subscribing to the +Liberty Loans, and, as more than $800,000,000 worth of War Saving stamps +had been sold, it was probable that nearly half the population of the +country was saving money in one of these new ways. As to the method of +continuing to encourage thrift, Mr. Kimball pointed out the value of the +experience derived from the Liberty Bond Campaign:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The thrift machine set up by the Treasury was as follows: 1. small unit +government bonds; 2. non-interest-bearing Thrift Stamps; 3. War Savings +Stamps—a short-term obligation paying interest at maturity.</p> + +<p>"This was the mechanism. What was the power that actuated the machine to +such wonderful effect? 1. salesmanship, including every modern device of +advertising; 2. distribution: (a) through retail stores; (b) through +employers, by partial payments (usually pay-roll deduction).</p> + +<p>"From these simple elements was built up a campaign that induced the +people to save in a new and unaccustomed way at least twenty times as +much as they had ever before saved in the same time. None of the +elements was unimportant, but salesmanship, probably, contributed most. +The selling campaigns of the Liberty Loans and War Savings Stamps were +carried on by the largest and most effective selling organization ever +put together, under the direction of the ablest men in the United +States, and with an energy and devotion that were unimaginable. This +selling force was irresistible. Everybody bought because everybody was +asked, or begged, or told, to buy. Under the same stimulus almost +anything would have sold.</p> + +<h3>"SAVING AT THE SOURCE"</h3> + +<p>"Next in importance to the direct selling effort came distribution. For +the first time in the history of finance it has been made easy to save; +for the first time the great retail channels of distribution have been +thrown open to saving; for the first time millions of wage-earners have +learned the value and ease of 'Saving at the Source' by pay-envelope +deduction of a dollar or so a week toward a Liberty Bond."</p></div> + +<p>Mr. Kimball questioned whether or not we are to lose the benefit of the +great lesson of thrift and whether some plan could be devised to make us +keep on saving. No problem of reconstruction seemed to him more +important than this, "yet in no one of the announced conferences on +reconstruction do I find mention of it." He then goes on to say:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The greatest thrift lesson in the world is thrift, no matter what its +motive. A great many hundred thousand persons in this country have found +themselves this year possessed of $100 or more in one piece for the +first time in their lives; often without realization of how they got it. +Will that lesson last? Will the wage-earner, now that loan drives are +over, keep on saving, going weekly to the bank to put in his dollar. The +answer to these questions is, unfortunately, 'no.'</p> + +<p>"It would be perfectly possible to continue the issue of War Savings +Stamps, and there are many advocates of this plan, but it is doubtful if +distribution could be permanently maintained on anything like its +present scale. Merchants and banks, with rare exceptions, would scarcely +continue to handle them, for the cost is not inconsiderable, and there +is no compensating commercial gain. In the postoffices alone their +continued sale would set up competition with the present postal savings +system, which would serve no good purpose and would be highly confusing.</p> + +<p>"Can the savings banks successfully undertake this great task? I believe +they could. I believe a national savings bank, operating through +commercial banks, stores, and employers all over the United States, +making its investments through a small compact, very highly paid and +very efficient and very stringently supervised board of executives in +one city, supporting a vigorous, numerous, and far-flung selling +organization, similar in many respects to the industrial life + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> + +insurance organizations, could undertake this work and, were it possible +to act quickly enough, could keep the thrift movement going without +losing the amazing momentum which it has now acquired."</p></div> + +<h3>SPENDING THE MONEY</h3> + +<p>For a period of twenty-five months, from April, 1917, through April, +1919, the United States spent for war purposes more than $1,000,000 an +hour. All sorts of comparisons are used to make this figure seizable by +the imagination. For example, the whole sum, nearly $22,000,000,000, was +twenty times the whole of the pre-war debt. Indeed, it was nearly large +enough to pay the entire cost of our Government from 1791 up to the +outbreak of the European War. In addition to the actual war cost of our +own Government Congress paid to various associated governments the sum +of $8,850,000,000. As to how this enormous sum of money was spent, +two-thirds of the amount practically was spent upon the Army, and the +rate of expenditure for the Army was constantly advancing period by +period. Even after the termination of hostilities there was a very high +daily average owing to the building of ships for the Emergency Fleet +Corporation, the construction and operation of naval vessels, food, +clothing, pay and transportation of the Army. The Quartermaster's +Department had the largest proportion of expenditure.</p> + +<p>The amount spent about equals the value of all the gold produced in the +whole world from the discovery of America up to the outbreak of the +European War. The pay for the Army during the period of warfare was +larger than the combined salaries of all of the public school principals +and teachers in the United States for five years, from 1912 to 1916. +Some of the money spent represents permanent assets. At the end of the +war there were large stocks of clothing on hand and large supplies of +standardized trucks. There were thousands of Liberty motors and service +planes that were available for other uses. Engineer, signal and medical +equipment still continued to have a value, but if the race for +militarism is maintained it is hard to see how the quantities of war +munitions can fail to escape the scrap heap in a few years' time.</p> + +<p>Comparing the individual estimates of war expenditure, it is noteworthy +that the Austro-Hungarian Empire spent almost as much as the United +States. Of all the powers Germany spent the largest sum, +$39,000,000,000—one billion more than England.</p> + +<h3>MONEY LOANED TO ASSOCIATE NATIONS</h3> + +<p>The following is quoted from the <cite>Annalist</cite> for December, 1918:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Money owed to a government by the nations of the world, with whom it is +in active commercial competition, is another line of fortifications in +defense of the frontier. Let us, then consider our debts and our +debtors, and how we both propose to pay. Our long-time loans may be +scheduled as follows:</p></div> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="Loans to Associate Nations"> +<tr><td>First Loan</td><td class="numeric">$2,000,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Second Loan</td><td class="numeric">3,808,766,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Third Loan</td><td class="numeric">4,170,019,650</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fourth Loan</td><td class="numeric">6,989,047,000</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">————————</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">$16,967,832,650</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="blockquot">"The totals of each of the above loans have changed substantially since +allotment, through conversions with a correspondingly increasing charge +on the service. However, the gross amount is substantially unchanged. Of +the old loans the Treasury statement of March 31 showed the following +totals:</p> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="Old Loans"> +<tr><td>Consol. 2's of 1930</td><td class="numeric">$599,724,050</td></tr> +<tr><td>4's of 1925</td><td class="numeric">118,489,900</td></tr> +<tr><td>Panama Canal 2's, 1906</td><td class="numeric">48,954,180</td></tr> +<tr><td>Panama Canal 2's, 1908</td><td class="numeric">5,947,400</td></tr> +<tr><td>Panama Canal 3's, 1911</td><td class="numeric">50,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Conversion 3's, 1946—7</td><td class="numeric">28,894,500</td></tr> +<tr><td>Postal Savings 2½'s, 1931—7</td><td class="numeric">10,758,560</td></tr> +<tr><td>Postal Savings 2½'s, 1938</td><td class="numeric">302,140,000</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">———————</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">$1,184,908,590</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="blockquot">"The short-term loans in the shape of certificates of indebtedness and +War Savings Stamps at the present writing are as follows:</p> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="short Term loans"> +<tr><td>4½% certificates, Series E</td><td class="numeric">$639,493,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>4½% certificates, Series 4F</td><td class="numeric">625,216,500</td></tr> +<tr><td>4½% certificates, Series 4G</td><td class="numeric">614,069,000</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">———————</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">$1,878,778,500</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In addition to the above a series of certificates of indebtedness, +designated as TA, bearing interest at four per cent. and maturing July +15, 1919, was issued to a small amount in anticipation of next year's +income taxes. The sale proved to be slow, and further issuance was +discontinued and a new issue for the same purpose and of a similar +maturity bearing interest at 4½% per cent. was substituted. The +sale of these securities through the agency of the Federal Reserve Banks +is in the nature of a continuous operation, and no totals so far have +been announced. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-017.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-017thumb.jpg" width="400" height="592" +alt="Detroit—City of Automobiles" +title="Detroit—City of Automobiles" /> +</a> +<p class="caption">Detroit—City of Automobiles</p> +<p class="description">Many thousands of standardized trucks were made +in Detroit during the war rush, the automobile having proved to <del>the</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads the">be</ins> indispensable +to <del>be</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads be">the</ins> fighting forces overseas.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-017.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The sale of War Savings Stamps and +certificates has increased the national debt by $1,257,000,000, or +within 400 million of the maximum under the first authorization. A +second series, however, amounting to two billion dollars, has been +authorized, so that the operation will probably continue into the coming +year. The Treasury for the fiscal year 1917—18 estimated receipts of +$663,200,000 from this source and about a billion for 1918—19. The first +estimate was out of line, owing to the difficulty in getting the plan +into smooth operation. Subsequent results have, however, justified the +average of expectations.</p> + +<p>"The pre-war debt, in the light of recent figures, is almost negligible, +and the outstanding certificates in anticipation of taxes and the Fourth +Liberty Loan will be redeemed in due course by the flow of funds owing +to the Government in taxes and subscription payments. The problem of how +to deal with the eighteen-billion-dollar war debt is the vital question. +How much of this sum represents a charge on the coming generation and +how much an invaluable national asset?</p></div> + +<h3>WHAT IS OWED THE AMERICAN PEOPLE.</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"We have loaned abroad the following items:</p></div> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="foreign loans"> +<tr><td>Great Britain</td><td class="numeric">$3,745,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>France</td><td class="numeric">2,445,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Italy</td><td class="numeric">1,160,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Russia</td><td class="numeric">325,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Belgium</td><td class="numeric">183,520,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Greece</td><td class="numeric">15,790,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cuba</td><td class="numeric">15,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Serbia</td><td class="numeric">12,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rumania</td><td class="numeric">6,666,666</td></tr> +<tr><td>Liberia</td><td class="numeric">5,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Czechoslovak Republic</td><td class="numeric">7,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">———————</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric"><a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>$7,919,976,666</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>Increased to +$9,646,419,494 by October, 1919.</p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Here, then, are figures totaling nearly half of our war debts that are +not only self-supporting but also a double-edged weapon in the +international market. In the first place, they represent money spent at +home on American goods, from which the American manufacturer has taken +his toll of profit; and in the second place, they have put the world in +our debt to an extent that will be difficult to pay in the exchange of +goods.</p> + +<p>"Imports of foreign commodities or even gold will take a decade to halve +the debt, for the gold can not be spared, nor do we wish it, and our +creditors will find it difficult to increase their exports to a point +capable of bringing about a balance in their favor. The imports from +Europe are bound to be offset by our own exports, some able economists +predicting a balance of a billion dollars in our favor for the next five +years. Regardless of the demands to be made upon us from this source, it +is probable that the peak-load of expenditure has been reached and the +period of readjustment and redemption set in.</p> + +<p>"Charging off, then, our loans to the Allies as an asset, let us then +consider how we may best meet the bill due the American people. Vague +discussions of the creation of a huge sinking fund have been heard, +although for some reason or other, in history these operations have not +been entirely successful. Fortunately the bulk of our debt has an early +callable date, and the Treasury has recently come in for much applause +by advocating no more loans unless they be in the nature of a one-to +five-year currency. Experience teaches that the full benefit and effect +of war taxes are rarely felt until after the war. England, after the +Napoleonic wars, came back with a rapidity that astonished the Exchequer +itself. Taxes rolled up in such a volume and expenses dropped with +demobilization to such an extent that the Government found itself +anticipating the callable date in national debts by market purchases, +and even then it was found convenient gradually to reduce the scale of +taxation.</p> + +<p>"Our experience after the Civil War was very similar to England's, and +the Treasury's surplus annually accumulated to a point that forced the +Government to buy back at high premiums the bonds it was not privileged +to call. This was true, though to a lesser degree, with the Spanish war +loan.</p> + +<p>"It seems as though the two operations of liquidating our own debts and +the debt of Europe to the United States dovetailed perfectly into one +gradual and stupendous task. While Europe is paying her indebtedness to +us without interfering with the development of international trade by +the sale of foreign securities in our home market our buyers here must +receive the tools to operate with through the redemption and repurchase +of their Liberty Bonds. In this half of the deal safety, as usual, lies +in the middle course. It is hoped that taxes will be maintained at a +level that will infallibly provide funds for fixed redemptions with a +sufficient surplus to get a flying start by purchase around the present +low levels."</p></div> + +<h3>FINANCIAL STATUS OF ENGLAND IN 1914</h3> + +<p>One year before the war England's position in regard to the balance of +trade was most favorable. Her imports were valued at $3,210,000,000 and +her exports at $2,560,000,000. But it was usually estimated that foreign +countries owed England about $1,610,000,000 annually for interest on +capital lent for shipping freights and for banking insurance and other +commissions. The total amount owed her, therefore was $4,170,000,000 as +against $3,210,000,000 which she owed for her imports. She had therefore +a favorable balance of about $960,000,000 which was lent abroad. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> + +The war brought an enormous decrease in tonnage, and the excess of +imports over exports attained the figure of $1,950,000,000 a year.</p> + +<p>Exceptional measures had to be taken to maintain the exchange rates with +the United States from whom the chief purchases were made. Large amounts +of gold were exported, but by June, 1915, there was a collapse in +American exchange. Drastic measures were used to induce the holders of +American securities in England to sell or lend those securities to the +Government. In this way exchange was kept up practically to the gold +point. This question of exchange and the position of England as the +director of the financial campaign of the Allies is illustrated from an +address given by Mr. R. H. Brand to the American Bankers Association, in +September, 1917:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Of course no nation could permanently tolerate such unfavorable trade +balances as those from which the Allies in Europe are now suffering. +They can only do so now and keep their exchanges with the United States +steady by borrowing immense sums here. But the war itself is not +permanent, and the question is merely whether the present state of +affairs can be continued long enough to enable all the enemies of the +Central Powers to exert their full strength and win a final victory.</p> + +<p>"You will no doubt all have noticed that the credits granted Great +Britain have been greater than those granted to any other Ally. The +reasons are simple, though they are not, I think, generally understood. +We have, in the first place, the largest war and munition program of any +Ally; in the second place, as I have shown above, we are, with the +exception of the United States, the greatest industrial arsenal among +the Allies; that necessarily involves large imports. We send a great +deal of steel from England to our Allies; we have to replace it by steel +from here. We make rifles for Russia; we have to import the steel to +make them. We send boots to Russia; we have to import the leather +needed. These examples might be multiplied many times. Thirdly, we +extend large credits in England to our Allies, some part of which they +may use anywhere in the world, and this part may ultimately come back on +the sterling exchange in New York. Lastly, it is well known that +neutrals who are owed money by England unfortunately find it convenient +to utilize the sterling exchange in New York in order to recoup +themselves in dollars. But so also do neutrals who are owed money by the +other Allies. So long as we maintain the sterling exchange this appears +to be inevitable, and the burden of financing both our own and our +Allies' trade tends to fall on that exchange. It is by our maintenance +of this sterling exchange that the continuance of our Allies' trade is +rendered possible. The maintenance of the sterling exchange means the +maintenance of the allied exchanges. All these factors together exert an +immense influence. If England had had only herself to finance since the +beginning of the war, and indeed even if she had only herself to finance +now, it is quite possible she would not have needed to borrow at all +abroad."</p></div> + +<h3>LOSS IN PRODUCTIVE POWER</h3> + +<p>The extent of the withdrawal of productive power can only be judged by +figures. Of the 7,500,000 men serving in the British Army, 4,530,000 +were contributed by Great Britain, 900,000 by the British dominions and +colonies; and the remaining 1,000,000 by India and the various British +African dependencies. Production went on to a remarkable degree, but +this production was largely for war purposes. It was secured by +recruiting female labor to an unheard of extent in the munition +factories. According to the London <cite>Economist</cite>, the financial side of +the British administration was anything but satisfactory. It speaks of +waste and faulty methods:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"On the financial side our record is by no means so satisfactory. We +have, it is true, poured out money like water, but much of it has been +raised by faulty methods, and the amount of it that has been wasted is +appalling to consider. In the matter of borrowing, our methods have +lately been greatly improved; and the recommendation of the Committee on +National Expenditure, that the system of raising money by bank credits +should be checked as far as possible, is being brought within the bounds +of practical politics by the great success of the War Savings +Committee's energetic and ingenious campaign for prompting the sale of +National War Bonds. Perhaps also we may claim some small share in that +success through the adoption of the principle so long advocated in these +columns of a lower rate for money at home combined with special terms +for money left here by foreigners. But successful borrowing, direct from +the investor, instead of in the shape of money manufactured by banks, is +a welcome, but not sufficient, improvement. We have to raise much more +money by taxation. We have also to do much more than has yet been done +to reduce the wicked waste of public money and support the efforts of +the Committee on National Expenditure to husband the resources of the +nation. A correspondent in a provincial town in which a Tank has + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> + +lately been busy asks: 'Is it not pathetic to see widows and children +scraping together their shillings and pennies to help the Government, +while we have tens of thousands of pounds being squandered by a +profligate Ministry of Munitions!'"</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-020.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-020thumb.jpg" width="400" height="282" + alt="A Woman Doing Road Construction Work" + title="A Woman Doing Road Construction Work" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> + <p class="caption">A Woman Doing Road Construction Work</p> + <p class="description">Of the 7,500,000 men serving in the British Army, 4,530,000 were + contributed by Great Britain. Yet production was speeded up by + recruiting and training the labor of women.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-020.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>EQUALIZING LOANS AND TAXATION</h3> + +<p>A thorny problem of all war finance is how to equalize as far as +possible the amount of money furnished by taxation with the amounts +borrowed. The proportion indicated in the last English war budget of +1918 was that between £842,000,000 raised by taxes and +2,000,000,000 sterling by fresh borrowing. Besides, war experience shows +that the parliamentary estimates in each year were always far below the +amount spent. In 1917 in Great Britain the shortage was upwards of +£400,000,000. According to the London <cite>Economist</cite>, no effective +steps were taken to stop the profligate extravagance by which public +money was poured out through the sieves of the war spending departments +into the pockets of innumerable manufacturers, middlemen and traders, +not to mention the ever growing sums allocated to the privy purses of +countless new bodies of officials. Each year, it says, there is a new +debt charge of some £120,000,000 and each year there is a constant +rise of prices in wages that enhances the cost of governmental goods and +services.</p> + +<p>The amount raised by taxation, £842,000,000, seems enormously +large, but as the London <cite>Nation</cite> states:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The enormous rise of prices only makes it represent half that amount in +actual purchasing power. Before the war our expenditure was 200 +millions. If money had kept the same value, the taxation and other +public income for this year would only have been 420 millions, a little +more than twice the pre-war level. Would that have seemed so heroic an +effort for a patriotic nation? No. It can never be repeated too often +that a really rigorous taxation, begun in 1914 and carried on till now, +would have left us in a far sounder condition both for conducting the +war and for facing the peace finance. The money and the goods are there. +We get them. But we get them by crooked and expensive methods of +borrowing which inflate prices, oppress the poorer purchasers, put huge +war loot into the pockets of contractors and financiers, and fail to +restrain expenditure in luxuries."</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p> + +<h3>GERMANY'S ECONOMIC PREPARATION FOR WAR</h3> + +<p>There is much evidence to show that long before the war began financial +preparations were made in Germany for the great struggle. For a +considerable period prior to 1914, Germany and Russia had been engaged +in a contest to accumulate a gold supply. Russia, it is known, had begun +to withdraw the large balances which she kept in German, French and +English banks. In Germany the story was circulated that in 1913 the +Kaiser inquired of the governor of the Imperial Bank if the German banks +were equipped for war. Being told that they were not ready he is said to +have replied: "When I ask that question again I want a different +answer." The Imperial Bank of Germany became an active bidder at the +London gold auctions for the gold which arrived weekly from South +Africa, and its activity along these lines was shown by the increasing +of the German gold reserve in the bank vaults from $184,000,000 on +December 31, 1912, to $336,000,000, the amount it stood at a month +before the war began. In addition, the Imperial Bank collected for the +Government a sum of about thirty million dollars to be added to the same +amount said to be stored in the vaults of the Julius Thurm at Spandau, +and to be used as a war chest. Other European countries were increasing +their gold supplies, so it was not surprising that the New York markets +were called upon to export eighty-four million dollars of gold for six +months before the outbreak of the war. The entire gold production of the +world during the eighteen months ending on June 30, 1914, was +approximately $705,000,000. Of this amount, about two million dollars +was required for the arts, and one hundred and fifty million dollars +went to British India. This left about $350,000,000 to be applied to +monetary uses and the whole of this amount was absorbed by the four +great central banks of Germany, France, Russia and Austria-Hungary.</p> + +<p>In order to resist raids on the German gold reserve a policy of note +issuing was adopted. The situation, as forecast by Mr. C. A. Conant in +September, 1914, in the New York <cite>Times</cite>, can be gathered from the +following extract:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"With the general suspension of gold payments at the central banks of +Europe, except at the Bank of England, the banks are in a position to +resist raids upon their gold and to lend their resources, as far as +sound banking policy permits, to the struggle of their Governments to +maintain national independence. In England, while the bank is still +paying gold for notes, the policy of keeping gold in circulation has +been abandoned, and the old limit of note issue, which was £5 +($24.40), has been lowered to 10 shillings ($2.44) and £1 ($4.88).</p> + +<p>"It is not the purpose of any of the European Powers, however, to carry +on the war by issues of paper money. The suspension of gold payments at +the banks and the issue of notes for small denominations, which are +legal tender in domestic transactions, is for the purpose of husbanding +the gold stock against needless runs and keeping it as a guaranty fund +of national solvency. It is the course which was adopted by France at +the time of the Franco-German War in 1870, but so prudently were the +affairs of the Bank of France conducted that the paper never fell more +than 2½ per cent. below its value in gold.</p> + +<p>"A similar policy of reserve will probably be pursued by the banks of +France, Germany, and Russia in the present contest. The Government of +France has raised the maximum limit of the note circulation of the bank +by nearly $1,000,000,000, but the increase will not be used except as +additional currency may be required, owing to the restriction in other +forms of credit and the special demand for notes in the districts where +the armies are gathered.</p> + +<p>"The suspension of specie payments does not convey to the banking +community quite the same doleful warning of the unlimited issue of paper +and its steady depreciation in gold which were conveyed by specie +suspension in the United States in 1861 or by Austria-Hungary and Russia +in the desperate contest of the Napoleonic wars. Monetary science is +better understood at the present time than in those days."</p></div> + +<h3>GERMAN WAR FINANCE</h3> + +<p>Among all the belligerent powers Germany occupied the unique position of +using the war as an excuse for not publishing national accounts. The +sole guide to her expenditure must be looked for in the credit votes +passed by the Reichstag. Using this method, it is estimated that Germany +spent about $30,000,000 a day. To cover this expenditure there was a +regular plan of national loan—in March and September. This was the +method followed in all the four years of the war. During the intervening +six months there was an issue of Treasury bills. The German people +were, apparently, schooled to these + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> + +regular demands with commendable promptness, but the Imperial Government +adopted a policy of inflation in the hope that a speedy victory would +bring fruits in the shape of an indemnity, and so the German people +would avoid being called upon to bear war burdens. Taxation was +introduced only reluctantly and at a later period, and merely for the +purpose of meeting so-called normal civil expenditure and interest on +war debt. The plan followed was to spare the middle classes as far as +possible from additional taxation charges.</p> + +<h3>THE LOAN BUREAU SCHEME</h3> + +<p>The war loans have been, on paper, most successful. For example, the +seventh loan of September, 1917, yielded $3,000,000,000; the eighth loan +nearly $4,000,000,000. There was a large amount of ready money in the +country and besides this all stocks of raw material have been realized. +Large as the loans have been they have not been able to keep pace with +the increase of expenditure. Out of the total amount of $30,000,000,000 +about $20,000,000,000 have been covered by long-term loans. Of course, +owing to the peculiar situation of Germany in relation to her allies, +which were dependent upon her financial support, these loans have been +raised by the German people themselves. The German Loan Bureaus were +criticized at the beginning of the war, and German figures show that +only about ten percent. of the national loans were involved in the Loan +Bureau scheme. These Loan Bureaus, it was announced, would continue +after the declaration of peace. According to the London <cite>Economist</cite>, +Germany followed an easy and sure policy of war finance, although the +same authority does not hesitate to use the terms "complete financial +ruin" in connection with German post-war finance.</p> + +<p>The whole subject of German inflation is difficult to analyze. The +<cite>Economist</cite> works out a post-war expenditure of $5,000,000,000 a year +against a revenue of a billion and a half. Its estimate of German +inflation is contained in the following passage:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"To take note circulation alone is obviously misleading, particularly in +view of the violent efforts that have been made, especially during the +last year, to extend the use of the check, and in other ways to limit +as far as possible the use of notes. For what these figures are worth, +it may be said that the total note circulation of the country at the end +of June (1918), including Reichsbank notes, State Bank notes, Treasury +notes, and loan notes, stood at £1,030,000,000, as compared with +£109,300,000 on July 23, 1914. <del>Reichbank</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads Reichbank">Reichsbank</ins> deposits, again, stood +on June 30, at £459,100,000, as compared with £47,600,000 on +July 23, 1914, while the deposits of the eight 'great' banks, even at +the end of 1917, stood at £800,000,000, as compared with +£250,000,000 at the end of 1914, £362,000,000 at the end of +1915, and £500,000,000 at the end of 1916."</p></div> + +<p>In this connection it is interesting to give a summary of Germany's war +expenses as reported in the London <cite>Economist</cite>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In his comparison of German war finance with ours, the Chancellor, in +his Budget speech, made the following points: First, that German war +expenditure is now £6,250,000—almost the same as +ours—though our expenditure includes items (such as separation +allowances) which are not included in the German figures. Second, that +the whole amount of the German Votes of Credit (£6,200 millions) +has been added to their war debt, 'because their taxation has not +covered their peace expenditure in addition to their debt charge.' +Third, the total amount of new taxation levied by them since the +beginning of the war comes to £365 millions, against our +£1,044 millions. Fourth, in a year's time they will have a +deficit, comparing the revenue with the expenditure, of £385 +millions at least. 'If that were our position,' the Chancellor added, 'I +should certainly think that bankruptcy was not far from the British +Government.' Fifth, with the exception of the war increment tax, +'scarcely any of the additional revenue has been obtained from the +wealthier classes in Germany'."</p></div> + +<h3>GERMAN WAR PROFITS</h3> + +<p>An extraordinary list of the gigantic war profits collected by Germany +was drawn up by A. Cheraband, the well known French critic. He estimated +that in three years Germany had spent $322.50 per head, France $444.00, +Great Britain $559.75. He presents a list of war profits made by +Germany. The "booty" he divided into movable and immovable property. In +the former category he includes the 212,000 square miles of territory +that had fallen into German clutches, and this he values at +$32,000,000,000, which, he says, is a conservative estimate. Turning to +the movable booty, he classifies it as follows:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li>"<em>Capture of 'Human Material.'</em>—This consists of the +46,000,000 Allied subjects from whom the Germans obtain free labor. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></li> + +<li>"<em>Capture of War Material.</em>—Guns, rifles, munitions, +vehicles, locomotives, railway trucks, and thousands of miles of +railway. The Belgian railway system alone is worth nearly $600,000,000.</li> + +<li>"<em>Capture of Foodstuffs.</em>—Everywhere the Germans have stolen +horses, cattle, corn, potatoes, sugar, alcohol, foodstuffs of every +kind, and crops grown by the forced labor drawn from the 46,000,000 +Allied subjects whom they have enslaved.</li> + +<li>"<em>Theft of Raw Materials.</em>—Throughout the occupied territories +the Germans have appropriated coal, petroleum, iron, copper, bronze, +zinc, lead, etc., either in the mines or from private individuals; +textile materials, such as woolen and cotton. In the towns of northern +France alone the Germans stole $110,000,000 worth of wool.</li> + +<li>"<em>Theft of Industrial Plant.</em>—On a methodical plan throughout +the occupied territories, the motors, engines, machine-tools, steam and +electric hammers, steel-rolling mills, looms, models, and industrial +plant of all kinds have been carried off to Germany.</li> + +<li>"<em>Thefts of Furniture.</em>—The way in which furniture and +household goods were stolen and carried off is confessed by implication +in the following advertisement published in the <cite>Kölnische Zeitung</cite> +at the beginning of April, 1917:<br /> + +"'Furniture moved from the zones of military operations in all directions +by Rettenmayer at Wiesbaden.'<br /> + +"It is impossible to estimate the money value of the goods thus removed.<br /> + +"<em>Seizure of Works of Art.</em>—The works of art collected for +centuries in museums, churches, and by private individuals in Poland, +Italy, Belgium, and France have been carried off by the Germans.</li> + +<li>"<em>War Levies.</em>—Scores of millions in money have been secured +by the Germans in the form of requisitions, fines, war levies, war +taxes, and forced loans.</li> + +<li>"<em>Thefts of Coin, Jewels, and Securities.</em>—In the occupied +regions, and especially wherever they have been obliged to evacuate +those regions, as, for instance, at Noyon, the Germans have emptied, by +order, the safes and strong boxes of private persons and of banks and +have carried off securities, jewels, and silver. In September and +October, 1917, they seized at one stroke the deposits of Allied subjects +in the Belgian banks amounting to $120,000,000.<br /> + +"In view of the high prices of foodstuffs, coal, metals, petroleum, war +materials and machines, it is clear that the booty thus secured by the +Germans during the last three years in the occupied territories is +certainly worth several billion dollars."</li> +</ol> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/ill-023.jpg" width="400" height="770" alt="A Woman + Operating a Multiple Spindle Drill in an English Shell Factory." + title="Operating a Multiple Spindle Drill in an English Shell Factory" /> + <p class="credit">Photo by James M. Beck</p> + <p class="caption">A Woman Operating a Multiple Spindle Drill in an English Shell + Factory</p> + <p class="description">"Since the war broke out," said M. Barriol, a + French celebrated actuary, "no less than 1,500,000 women have + been added to the ranks of wage earners in England, an increase of + fully 25 per cent."</p> +</div> + +<h3>GERMAN MONEY INDEMNITY</h3> + +<p>It became commonplace after Germany's defeat was evident that her war +cost must include the cost of the destruction she had caused her +enemies. To estimate this was no easy matter. The attitude of the +Germans on the subject was indicated by their constantly expressed hope +that trade would recommence as usual and that they would be able to +start economic relations in a favorable position. So we find the Cologne +Chamber of Commerce beginning to prepare for peace by adopting a +resolution expressing the hope that the destruction of French and +Belgian industries would allow the rapid recovery of German power.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p> + +<p>The <cite>Wall Street Journal</cite> used this statement as a guide to the +Allied Powers for measuring the kind of indemnity that would be imposed +upon Germany.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"One of the departments of the Government at Washington has in its files +a report of a German commission on industry after the war. Reading this, +one can understand the motive for what at one time looked like pure +vandalism. Vandalism it was, by descendants of the Vandals, but it was a +deliberate destruction of international competitors, killing the +workmen—and workwomen—and destroying plants and machinery +for the one purpose of removing competition. A physical injury to a +child helped to weaken future competition in the world's trade; and it +was upon the power gained thereby that Germany hoped to launch another +war for world domination....</p> + +<p>"A peace that gives the cold-blooded perpetrators of these crimes an +advantage over their victims would not be equitable. If any must suffer, +let it be those who are guilty, but don't give them a start ahead of +their victims.</p> + +<p>"In substance, that point should declare that Germany shall not profit +through the wrecking of any Allied industry. Except to admit necessary +foodstuffs, the blockade should not be lifted until every Allied country +from England to Serbia has been industrially rebuilt. One object of the +wholesale murder of civilians was to weaken industrially the enemy +countries. The greater proportionate loss of man-power in the Allied +countries should be met by restrictions on the entry of raw materials +into Germany. Every piece of stolen machinery should be returned before +her own industries are allowed to resume."</p> +</div> + +<p>The soft plan of dealing with Germany's war cost was championed by +Secretary Daniels. The Springfield <cite>Republican</cite> and the <cite>New Republic</cite> +seemed to agree with the Manchester <cite>Guardian</cite> that Germany ought <del>to to </del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads: to to">to</ins> +be helped rather than punished, that the main thing was to set her on +her feet again.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + <p>"Representative papers like the New York <cite>Times</cite>, Syracuse <cite>Post-Standard</cite>, + Buffalo <cite>Express</cite>, and Sacramento <cite>Bee</cite> all insist that while we + might or perhaps should claim no war-expenses from Germany, 'we must + exact payment,' in the words of the Syracuse daily, 'to the last + penny for losses suffered through illegal warfare.' Germany's + submarine campaign cost us, according to this paper's figures, + 375,000 tons of shipping and 775 civilian lives. If we take the + burden of payment for this property and these lives from the guilty + shoulders of Germany it would only be to 'pass it on to the innocent + shoulders of the American taxpayer,' which, the New York <cite>Times</cite> + declares, would be 'rank injustice'."</p> +</div> + +<h3>FORECASTING THE TOTAL COST OF WAR</h3> + +<p>It is interesting also to note an attempt made by one of the expert +<del>statiticians</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads statiticians">statisticians</ins> +attached to the Guaranty Trust Company of New +York to estimate the total cost of the war at the close of the four-year +period. The five main Allies possessed, before the war, $406,000,000,000 +for national work, a sum nearly four times as great as the national +wealth of the two Central Powers. In four years the seven leading +belligerents had spent $134,000,000,000. The only way to grasp the +meaning of this enormous sum is to contrast the cost of the World War +with all former wars. The total cost of wars that had taken place since +the American Revolution was $23,000,000,000; the World War costs +therefore, are six times greater. In these figures, staggering as they +are, it was comparatively easy to figure out the costs, debts and +interests of actual war expenditures. Much more complicated is the +problem of estimating the property value destroyed through military +operations on land and sea:</p> + +<h3>LOSS FROM DESTRUCTION OF PROPERTY</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The total area of the war zone is 174,000 square miles, of which the +Western theater of the war, in France and Belgium, stretches over an +area of 19,500 square miles, and it contains over 3,000 cities, +villages, and hamlets, great manufacturing and agricultural districts, +of which some have been totally annihilated and some heavily affected. +The estimate by the National Foreign Trade Council of the war losses, +which unfortunately does not go beyond 1916, is as follows:</p> + +<p>"'Destruction of buildings and industrial machinery in Belgium, +$1,000,000,000, and in France $700,000,000. The destruction of +agricultural buildings and implements, of raw materials, of crops and +live stock, has been estimated at a sum of $780,000,000 in Belgium and +$680,000,000 in France. Roads were destroyed frequently by the +retreating troops and have been seriously damaged by heavy gun fire and +excessive use. The losses from destruction of railway bridges, etc., +have been estimated in Belgium at $275,000,000 and in France at +$300,000,000.</p> + +<p>"'In the Eastern theater of the War Germany has been invaded only in +eastern Prussia, where the agricultural population has been seriously +impaired. Heavy damage was inflicted upon bridges, roads, and +governmental property, including railroads. The direct cost to Germany +through the loss of agricultural products, of manufacturing + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> + +products, as well as in interest on investments abroad, of earnings from +shipping and banking houses, and profits of insurance and mercantile +houses engaged in business abroad has been enormous'."</p></div> + +<h3>ECONOMIC LOSS OF MAN-POWER</h3> + +<p>The same expert goes on to figure out the economic value of the loss of +human life:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Mr. M. Barriol, the celebrated actuary, gives the following figures as +the capital value of man: in the United States, $4,100; in Great +Britain, $4,140; in Germany, $3,380; in France, $2,900; in Russia, +$2,020; in Austria-Hungary, $2,020 or an average capital value for the +five foreign nations of $2,892.</p> + +<p>"The number of men already lost is 8,509,000 killed and 7,175,000 +permanently wounded, or a total of 15,684,000. Thus society has been +impoverished through the death and permanent disability of a part of its +productive man-power to the extent of $45,000,000,000.</p> + +<p>"The loss of men, measured in terms of the capital value of the workers +withdrawn from industry, is offset in some degree by the enhancement of +the capital value of the remaining producers.... This loss of man-power +is also partly offset by the large contingents of women drawn into +industries. In England, out of a female population of 23,000,000, about +6,000,000 were engaged before the outbreak of the war in gainful +occupations. Since the war broke out no less than 1,500,000 women have +been added to the ranks of wage-earners, an increase of fully 25 per +cent. Moreover, about 400,000 women have shifted from non-essential +occupations to men's work. In the United States, approximately 1,266,000 +women are now engaged in industrial work, either directly or indirectly +necessary to carry on the war.</p></div> + +<h3>EFFECTS ON POPULATION</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The physical and moral effects of the war, the moral strain to which +the nations have been subjected, the 'shell-shock' which has reacted +upon the population at home as well as upon the <del>soliders</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads soliders">soldiers</ins> on the +battlefield, the undernourishment and starvation of children as well as +adults, all have resulted in a lowered vitality, the ill effects of +which, especially in the countries of the Central Powers, are already +seen in an increase of the death rate, in a spread of epidemics and +diseases that have taxed the medical resources of all countries.</p> + +<p>The lowered vitality of the race, which is still further aggravated by +the millions of incapacitated soldiers and the premature and excessive +employment of children and women in the industries, will eventually make +for a lower standard of efficiency in all human activities, or a +retardation of human progress. Authoritative statements are to the +effect that in Belgium in the earlier period of the war, the deaths of +women and children far outnumbered those of men. Annual deaths among the +German civilian population have increased by a million above the normal.</p> + +<p>"Besides the loss in actual population there is a loss of potential +population. Carefully compiled figures show that by 1919 the population +of Germany will be 7,500,000 less than it would have been under ordinary +circumstances. The people in Austria in 1919 will be 8 per cent. less in +numbers than in the year before the war. Hungary will be still worse +off; it will have a population of 9 per cent. lower than in pre-war +days."</p></div> + +<h3>CARNEGIE ENDOWMENT'S ESTIMATES</h3> + +<p>The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace made public in November, +1919, an elaborate report on the cost of the World War in human life and +in property and the consequent economic losses. The chief conclusions +derived from this intensive study of all the conditions may be +summarized as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>All the wars of the nineteenth century from the Napoleonic down to the +Balkan wars of 1912—1913, show a loss of life of 4,449,300, according to +the report, while the known and presumed dead of the World War reached +9,998,771. (See Vol. III, pp. 403-5.) The monetary value of the +individuals lost to each country is estimated, the highest value on +human life being given to the United States, where each individual's +economic worth is placed at $4,720, with England next at $4,140; Germany +third, at $3,380; France and Belgium, each $2,900; Austria-Hungary at +$2,720, and Russia, Italy, Serbia, Greece, and the other countries at +$2,020.</p> + +<p>With a loss of more than 4,000,000 the estimate puts Russia in the lead +in human economic loss, the total being more than $8,000,000,000; +Germany is next with $6,750,000,000; France, $4,800,000,000; England, +$3,500,000,000; Austria-Hungary, $3,000,000,000; Italy, $2,384,000,000; +Serbia, $1,500,000,000; Turkey, almost $1,000,000,000; Rumania, +$800,000,000; Belgium, almost $800,000,000; the United States slightly +more than $500,000,000; Bulgaria, a little more than $200,000,000; +Greece, $75,000,000; Portugal, $8,300,000, and Japan, $600,000. On this +basis the total in human life lost cost the world $33,551,276,280, and +the loss to the world in civilian population is placed at an equal +figure.</p> + +<p>The attempt to determine property losses is the least satisfactory, as +it is the most difficult. The destruction and devastation in the invaded +areas of Belgium, France, Russian Poland, Serbia, Italy and parts of +Austria are probably incapable of exact determination, and it may well +be doubted if the exact losses will ever be known.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p> + +<p>The total property loss on land is put at $29,960,000,000, one-third of +which was suffered by France alone, its loss being given as +$10,000,000,000, with Belgium next at $7,000,000,000, and the other +countries following as follows:</p> + +<p>Italy, $2,710,000,000; Serbia, Albania, and Montenegro, $2,000,000,000; +The British Empire and Germany, each, $1,750,000,000; Poland, +$1,500,000,000; Russia, $1,250,000,000; Rumania, $1,000,000,000, and +East Prussia, Austria, and Ukraine together, the same amount.</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-026.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-026thumb.jpg" width="400" height="342" +alt="Launching the Quistconck at Hog Island" +title="Launching the Quistconck at Hog Island" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright by Central News Service</p> +<p class="caption">Launching the Quistconck at Hog Island</p> +<p class="description">According to the report of the Carnegie Endowment the cargo loss at sea +was $3,800,000,000, the total tonnage and cargo loss being +$6,800,000,000. To offset the Allied loss in shipping, ship-building in +the United States was rushed at topmost speed.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-026.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>In the property losses on sea, that is, to shipping and cargo, the +report estimates that "the construction cost of the tonnage loss can +scarcely be estimated at less than $200 a ton, and the monetary loss +involved in the sinking of this 15,398,392 gross tons may, therefore, be +placed at about $3,000,000,000." To this is added loss of cargo, which +is estimated at $250 a ton, giving a cargo loss of $3,800,000,000, and a +total tonnage and cargo loss of $6,800,000,000.</p> + +<p>Among the indirect costs of the war, loss of production is placed at +$45,000,000,000. In arriving at this figure an average of 20,000,000 men +are counted as having been withdrawn from production during the whole +period of the war, and their average yearly productive capacity is +placed at $500. War relief is another indirect cost which totalled up to +$1,000,000,000; and the loss to the neutral nations is given as +$1,750,000,000.</p> + +<p>With the total direct costs of the war amounting to $186,336,637,097 and +the indirect costs to $151,612,542,560, the stupendous total of +$337,946,179,657 is reached. Finally, the report says:</p> + +<p>"The figures presented in this summary are both incomprehensible and +appalling, yet even these do not take into account the effect of +the war on life, human vitality, economic well-being, ethics, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> + +morality, or other phases of human relationships and activities which +have been disorganized and injured. It is evident from the present +disturbances in Europe that the real costs of the war cannot be measured +by the direct money outlays of the belligerents during the five years of +its duration, but that the very breakdown of modern economic society +might be the price exacted."</p></div> + +<h3>THE WAR AS A PRODUCT OF HIGH PRICES</h3> + +<p>All of the great wars in European history have been followed by periods +of increased production and economic expansion. Experts are convinced +that the World War will prove no exception to the world's previous +experience. Wars have been the principal influence that have determined +the course of commodities and prices. In the Napoleonic Wars the index +number rose seventy-two points in twenty years, but during the four +years between 1914 and 1918 there was a rise of one hundred and eight +points in four and a half years, a movement which Edgar Crammond, widely +known British expert in economic and financial affairs, declared to be a +movement to which there was no precedent in point of rapidity or +magnitude. In an address outlined in the New York <cite>Journal of Commerce</cite> +this authority estimated the direct cost of the war to the Allies as +being roughly $145,000,000,000. The Central Powers had spent about +$60,000,000,000. The total cost in dollars he estimated at +$260,000,000,000. The upheaval caused by the war was manifested, +according to the same authority, in the rise of the cost of living and +in the universal increase of wages. Other economic consequences will be +more gradually unfolded. Prospects of fall in the price of commodities +and wages as the result of peace, he thinks, will be arrested for two +reasons: First, the vast increase in the amount of paper money; second, +the huge amount of public debts to the belligerents. He saw an +additional psychological cause in the attitude of the laboring classes +to maintain wages at a higher level than before the war and to improve +the standard of living.</p> + +<p>Reduced production is sufficient to account for all the economic +disturbances that were produced during the war, according to the London +<cite>Statist</cite>, which says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is enough to say that production is reduced almost to a minimum, +while consumption is going on at a most extravagant rate. Those who wish +to pose as economists without competent knowledge are telling the public +that all the evil is due to this, that, and the other thing—such, +for example, as inflation, the rise in prices, the enormous loans +raised, and several other fads. It is pure moonshine. The world is +impoverished, firstly, because so much of the world's manhood is +withdrawn from production to consumption; and, secondly, because +reduction in production is so serious that very little has been saved +either by the belligerents or the neutral countries of Europe, at all +events. International trade is really carried on by barter. It is true +that money is frequently paid. At the present time money has in some +markets to be paid because credit has been injured, and those who +possess wealth are not as willing as they used to be to trust to mere +credit."</p></div> + +<h3>QUESTIONS OF INFLATION</h3> + +<p>The enormous advance of prices in England was synchronous with the issue +of currency notes to an excess of £700,000,000 beyond the gold +reserve. High officials in British administration ascribed this rise to +the increased consuming capacity. According to the British Board of +Trade a sovereign could purchase no more during the war time than eleven +shillings would just before the war started. A writer in the +<cite>Fortnightly Review</cite>, Mr. W. F. Ford, quotes Jevons' remark in his +classical book on money in explanation of the phenomenon. "A number of +bankers all trying to issue additional notes resemble a number of +merchants offering to sell corn for future delivery, and the value of +gold will be affected as the price of corn certainly is. We are too much +inclined to look upon the value of gold as a fixed datum line in +commerce, but in reality it is a very variable thing." Substitute today +the word Government for bankers and one can see the reason for the +upward rise in prices. This rise would take place apart from any +questions of war waste, profiteering, difficulties of transport by sea +or land or shortage of labor. All the countries involved have followed +the same policy of inflation. The operation is depicted in the following +passage:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The inevitable result of extensive note issues by a number of +Governments was that prices were irresistibly impelled upwards + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> + +in all belligerent countries—apart from any questions of war +waste, profiteering, difficulties of transport by sea or land, or +shortage of labor. Belligerent countries became extraordinarily good +markets in which to sell goods; and a golden harvest was temptingly +displayed to neutral nations, in whose favor enormous trade balances +rapidly grew up. In large part these balances were met by payment in +gold.... But just as gold substitutes in the shape of paper money +swelled the currencies and increased prices in the belligerent +countries, so also the large quantities of gold coin sent to neutral +States in payment for goods supplied to the warring nations swelled the +currencies and increased prices in the neutral states themselves. The +withdrawal of gold set up a natural tendency for prices to fall in the +countries from which it had been exported; but not only was this +tendency overcome, but the upward movement of prices was continued by +the action of the several Governments in placing still further issues of +inconvertible paper money on their respective markets. The net results +have been that currencies have been inflated and prices forced up all +over the world, that inconvertible paper money is tending more and more +to drive out gold from the currencies of the states that issue it, and +that the gold so driven out is being absorbed into the currencies of the +neutral nations. Between August, 1914, and the date of her own +declaration of war, America increased the amount of her gold currency by +approximately £200,000,000 sterling. No real benefit has accrued.</p> + +<p>"The currencies of the whole world have been artificially inflated to +the extent that, under the most favorable circumstances existing in any +part of the world, £5 are now needed to do the work in circulation +that before the war was accomplished by £3. The loss to people +with fixed incomes, the disturbance of trade, the potential labor +difficulties are stupendous. And as a result of purchasing war material +at excessively high prices, the dead weight of debt incurred by all the +countries at war is very much greater than it need have been had +currencies been kept within reasonable bounds."</p></div> + +<h3>CURRENCY EXPANSION IN GREAT BRITAIN</h3> + +<p>In Great Britain £200,000,000 worth of new paper currency was +placed in circulation and there was a considerable expansion in the use +of banknotes, silver and copper coinage. Proposals were made that the +famous English Bank Act should be repealed and that excess issues of +banknotes should be made legal on the payment of a tax. But apart from +these theories of involving the banking system there was a good deal of +adverse criticism.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Mr. Herbert Samuel made a masterly attack upon the vicious system of +War Finance, by which no less a sum than £196,170,000 is added to +the expenditure by bonuses and increases of wages, which, in their turn, +only force prices still higher and raise the cost of living. Lives have +been conscripted; incomes have been conscripted; the only thing which +has not been conscripted is labor. If the Government had at an early +stage of the war had the courage to fix wages, instead of prices, the +cost of living would then have been regulated by supply and demand. By +fixing prices of commodities, after they had risen to almost famine +figures, we have the maximum of loss and inconvenience, high wages, dear +food, and a war bill that increases day by day. Despite Mr. Bonar Law's +assurance that the bill of the year would not be so high as he expected, +we have the fact that we are spending over seven millions a day. The +satire of 'the cheap loaf' consists in its cost to the nation at large +of £45,000,000 a year. Bonuses to munition workers amount to +£40,000,000, bonuses to miners come to £20,000,000, to +railway workers £10,000,000, to potato growers £5,000,000. +Is this anything else but a system of gigantic corruption? In order that +artisans and agriculturists may be kept in good humor with the war, they +are bribed with <del>bonsuses</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads bonsuses">bonuses</ins> and allowed to buy food at prices which are +partially paid by the rest of the community. If ever there was a case of +robbing Peter to pay Paul it is here."</p></div> + +<h3>AMERICA'S EXPERIENCE WITH INFLATION</h3> + +<p>Protests against war inflation were not confined to British specialists +in finance. What is inflation? As used by the more careful writers on +the subject today, it is taken to signify the increase of bank credits +not represented by any immediate addition to current wealth. For +example, if the Government borrows by an issue of bonds, such bonds +taken by the banks, and payment for them made in the form of bank credit +which is at once transferred to individuals who have furnished labor or +supplies, it is evident that there has been a net addition to the +purchasing power of the community not represented by any corresponding +addition to wealth whether of a saleable or available form. Mr. Delano, +a member of the Federal Reserve Board, said that the war had produced a +world inflation the like of which had never occurred before—"The +usual symptoms of such methods of inflation are the disappearance of +metallic money and the general advance in the prices of commodities." He +gives the following illustration of what has taken place in this + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> + +process of inflation:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Prior to our entry into the war, when the European nations were buying +heavily in the United States, they paid largely in gold for what they +bought, and as a result about a billion dollars in gold coin came to +this country in the period of two and one-half years. The reason the +European nations were able to send us their gold was that they printed +paper money for their own use, releasing gold for us. But that gold +inflation in this country is one explanation of the general advance in +prices of all commodities, although undoubtedly it is not the only +explanation; for it must be freely admitted that prices have been +affected, first, by scarcity, occasioned by increased demand from Europe +for many articles produced by us; second, by reason of the fact that +increases in taxes and wages of labor have entered into the cost of +production and sale of all articles and account for a share of the +increased prices of commodities."</p></div> + +<h3>CIVIL WAR INFLATION.</h3> + +<p>The United States had large experience with inflation during the Civil +War. Some $500,000,000 were in this way added to the cost of the war +which might have been avoided. A plain statement of the real incidents +of inflation is given by Mr. A. C. Miller of the Federal Reserve Board +in his <cite>Financial Mobilization for War</cite>, in the following passage:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"For let it not for a moment be overlooked that inflation, in its +effects, amounts to conscriptive taxation of the masses. It is, indeed, +one of the worst and the most unequal forms of taxation, because it +taxes men, not upon what they have or earn, but upon what they need or +consume. The only difference for the masses between this kind of +disguised and concealed taxation and taxes which are levied and +collected openly is that in the case of the latter the government gets +the revenue, while in the former case it borrows it, and those to whom +it is eventually repaid are not those, for the most part, who have been +mulcted for it. Inflation therefore produces a situation akin to double +taxation in that the great mass of the consuming public is hard hit by +the rise of prices induced by the degenerated borrowing policy and later +has to be taxed in order to produce the revenue requisite to sustain the +interest charge on the debt contracted and to repay the principal. The +active business and speculative classes can usually take care of +themselves in the midst of the confusion produced by inflation and +recoup themselves for their increasing outlays. Indeed inflation +frequently makes for an artificial condition of business prosperity. +That is why war times are frequently spoken of in terms of enthusiasm +by the class of business adventurers. But it is a prosperity that is +dear-bought and at the expense of the great body of plain living people. +It would be a monstrous wrong if in financing our present war we should +pursue methods that would land us in a sea of inflation in which the +great body of the American people, who are called upon to contribute the +blood of their sons to the war, were made the victims of a careless or +iniquitous financial policy."</p></div> + +<h3>INFLATION ILLUSTRATED.</h3> + +<p>One of the ways in which inflation was caused in the United States +during the war period was the plan adopted by the banks of financing the +loan directly by means of bank credits to the buyers. According to Mr. +Carl Snyder the banking officials roughly agree that on the first +Liberty Loan for $2,000,000,000 the banks may have loaned somewhere near +half the total and on the second loan even more. Of course, this means a +heavy expansion of bank credit. Economists are generally agreed that the +flooding of the country with paper money brings about an enormous rise +in prices. They differ chiefly in regard to the degree of inflation. The +most accepted statement of inflation is that prices vary directly as the +volume of the actual currency employed and its rate of turn over or +velocity, and inversely with the volume of trade. The effect of bank +credits is exactly that of an excessive issue of notes; that is, if they +are expanded more rapidly than the actual volume of business there is a +rise in prices, that is to say there is inflation.</p> + +<p>The situation of the country during the war in regard to business was +put plainly by Mr. Snyder in the following words: "Railroads cannot haul +any more goods. The government is already stepping in to shut down on +shipments on certain lines of industry. We can not get any more coal +unless labor is drafted from other industries, and as a whole we cannot +get any more labor as is evident from the fantastic wages that are now +being paid. In a word, production and therefore the actual volume of +exchange is practically at the limit and has been for a year or more. No +expansion of bank credits can put this production any higher. It +follows, therefore, as a practical fact that <em>any expansion of bank +loans now means inflation</em>—to all practical intents dollar + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> + +for dollar." Because of the introduction of a billion dollars worth of +gold into the country, prices have risen nearly one hundred percent. The +expansion of bank credits increases the cost of living and the cost of +the war will be doubled.</p> + +<p>Some bankers estimated that if the war lasted the expansion of bank +loans might reach $50,000,000,000. The progress of these loans was +encouraged by the cutting of the required metallic reserve under the new +Federal Reserve system and the system of book credits with the Federal +Reserve banks allowed to the banks that are members of the system. The +following is Mr. Snyder's description of the way the inflation was +encouraged.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Every dollar of gold may become three dollars of Federal Bank credits +and each dollar of this may in turn become the basis of eight dollars of +credits for the Central Reserve cities, ten dollars for the smaller +cities and fifteen dollars for the country banks, which works out to a +practical average of ten dollars for all the banks in the Federal +Reserve system."</p></div> + +<p>He then went on to speak of the possibilities of this inflation and +uttered a warning of the danger, because the only obstacle in the way +was the good sense and conservatism of the American banks. Some +authorities hold that a war cannot be fought without inflation. Mr. +Snyder thought that the United States with large ante-war income could +and should have tried the experiment. People want easy money and flush +times. If credit were contracted there would be tight money and a high +interest rate. Mr. McAdoo and the Administration at Washington feel +highly elated when they roll up five billion of statistics, half of +which are merely bank rolls. It seems not to matter that all this may +add two or three billion to the already swollen credit currency and that +the millions of poor people, small investors and life insurance holders +who cannot expand their income in any adequate way must pay the piper. +These are the millions who rarely have any voice in national affairs, +and all the more so because they are for the most part ignorant. It +seems an idle consequence that we may spend perhaps ten long weary years +of hard times, of falling prices, declining business and sharp distress, +paying for the orgy of inflated prices, waste and extravagance in which +we are now indulging.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/ill-030.jpg" width="400" height="843" + alt="Ship-building at Camden, N. J." + title="Ship-building at Camden, N.J." /> + <p class="credit">Photo by Paul Thompson</p> + <p class="caption">Ship-building at Camden, N.J.</p> + <p class="description">One of the financial effects of the war + was the transformation of the United States from a debtor to + a creditor nation. Immense private fortunes were made. In no + industry was there a greater boom than in ship-building.</p> +</div> + +<h3>CREDIT EXPANSION</h3> + +<p>The wide expansion of credit can be studied by making a comparison of +the gold holdings of the leading nations. For example, in 1914 just +before the outbreak of the war, the amount of cash held by all the banks +of the United States was estimated at about $1,639,000,000. Of + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> + +this amount about $913,000,000 was in the form of gold or gold +certificates. Upon this basis there rested a structure of credit +amounting to $21,351,000,000. In other words the gold basis of the +country's deposit credits amounted to 4.27 percent.</p> + +<p>In 1916 the cash held was $1,911,000,000; about $1,140,000,000 was in +gold; and on this basis there rested a credit structure of +$28,250,000,000.</p> + +<h3>UNITED STATES A CREDITOR NATION</h3> + +<p>One of the financial effects of the war was the transformation of the +United States from a debtor to a creditor nation. The reconstruction +period in finance is certain to bring about a situation described by a +writer in the <cite>Wall Street Journal</cite> as one of the most interesting +developments known in financial history. Financial waste in emergency +measures was a superficial side of America's part in the World War. But +this writer considers that what happened during the war was not +altogether financial waste:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"A great upheaval took place in the world of finance. Credit resources +were brought to the fore and nations established on a financial basis of +far-reaching importance, but of a kind that had only a secondary place +before.</p> + +<p>"The war has turned the United States from a debtor to a creditor +nation. Formerly we owed abroad something like $4,000,000,000, about +three-quarters of which sum we have bought back. Moreover, Europe now +owes us about $9,000,000,000—on private account; about +$2,000,000,000 in securities; in United States Government obligations +over $7,000,000,000. The world is under obligations to us in interest +alone of between $400,000,000 and $500,000,000 a year."</p></div> + +<p>After the United States took an active part in the war large credits and +loans were made in behalf of other countries as the following excerpt +shows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"A total appropriation of $7,000,000,000 has been made, $3,000,000,000 +by the Act of April 24, 1917, and $4,000,000,000 by the Act of September +24, 1917. Under these authorizations credits have been established in +favor of the governments of Great Britain, France, Italy, Russia, +Belgium, and Serbia. These loans, up to January 17, 1918, are given in +the following table:<br /></p></div> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="Loans and Credit"> +<tr><th rowspan="2">Country</th><th>Loans and Credits</th><th>Loans</th><th>Balances Under</th></tr> +<tr><th>Agreed Upon</th><th>Made</th><th>Established Credits</th></tr> +<tr><td>Great Britain</td><td class="numeric">$2,045,000,000</td><td class="numeric">$1,985,000,000</td><td class="numeric">$<del>311,070,250</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 311,070,250">60,000,000</ins></td></tr> +<tr><td>France</td><td class="numeric">1,285,000,000</td><td class="numeric">1,225,000,000</td><td class="numeric"><del>50,000,000</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 50,000,000">60,000,000</ins></td></tr> +<tr><td>Italy</td><td class="numeric">500,000,000</td><td class="numeric">450,000,000</td><td class="numeric">50,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Russia</td><td class="numeric">325,000,000</td><td class="numeric">187,729,750</td><td class="numeric">137,270,250</td></tr> +<tr><td>Belgium</td><td class="numeric">77,400,000</td><td class="numeric">75,400,000</td><td class="numeric">2,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Serbia</td><td class="numeric">6,000,000</td><td class="numeric">4,200,000</td><td class="numeric">1,800,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Totals</td><td class="numeric">$4,238,400,000</td><td class="numeric">$3,927,329,750</td><td class="numeric">$311,070,250</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"On the basis of the requests being made on the Treasury, it is +estimated that credits aggregating approximately $500,000,000 per month +will be required to meet the urgent war needs of the foreign governments +receiving advances from the United States. At this rate approximately +the entire appropriation authorized by Congress will be accredited to +our Allies by the close of the present fiscal year (June 30, 1918).</p> + +<p>"A significant feature of the loans floated in this country in the last +three and a half years has been the fact that many states and +municipalities which formerly went to London to sell their securities +have recently been financed through the United States. About +$150,000,000 of the <del>Canadain</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads Canadain">Canadian</ins> loans went to provinces and municipalities, +and many of the South American obligations were contracted for municipal +improvements. The neutral nations of Europe have also sought +accommodation in the American money market. Loans have been made to the +city of Dublin, Ireland, the London Water Board, and the French cities +of Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, and Marseilles."</p></div> + +<h3>DISAPPEARANCE OF GOLD CURRENCY</h3> + +<p>During the war gold almost ceased to be currency in all the Allied +countries. The Central Powers at the end of the struggle had +comparatively little. Of the total gold production the United States +produced about twenty-five percent., while the British Empire produced +nearly sixty-four. A writer in the <cite>Edinburgh Review</cite> proposed to take +the opportunity of creating a standard price for gold. For example, if +the standard price of gold were reduced to half, the prices of all +commodities would come down in sympathy. We must take advantage of the +fact that we are working with a paper currency, and all authorities +agree that financial stability is only secured by the backing of as much +gold as possible against paper securities and emergencies.</p> + +<p>The plan involved an increase of the standard price. The success of the +scheme depends upon the concordant will of the United States and Great +Britain to adopt it as the following article suggests:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Obviously if Great Britain or any other country <em>alone</em> attempted to +alter the standard price of gold, and therefore the value of the present +sovereign (or its equivalent), the currency would be debased, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> + +instead of being enhanced. It would also in effect amount to a partial +repudiation of national debt. A standard ceases to be a standard if +<em>one</em> nation can arbitrarily alter it, but surely there can be no +argument against the creation of a new standard sanctioned by the whole +civilized world for their mutual advantage. If Great Britain and the +United States were to proclaim their desire to adopt my scheme it is +hardly likely that any country other than the Central Powers would fail +to welcome it. Spain, for instance, has increased her gold reserve to +about £80,000,000 and greatly enhanced the value of her currency +thereby. Would she fail to grasp the happy chance of making this +£120,000,000, and would any country continue to part with its gold +at £4 per ounce when it could get £6 or £8?"</p></div> + +<h3>WAR'S EFFECT ON SILVER</h3> + +<p>Along with all other commodities, that cinderella of +finance—silver—had a share in the general rise in prices. +One of the reasons is the enormous falling off of silver production in +Mexico, where one-third of the total world supply is produced; another +is the great demand for silver. Prior to the war, the use of silver +plate by the wealthy classes had largely fallen off; but the war, +because of the rise in wages, brought about a largely increased demand +for silver to be used in ornaments:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The war has brought into the market a vast number of new buyers for +ornaments, whose demand in the aggregate is estimated to more than +compensate for the falling off in the purchases by the wealthy classes +of silver plate. Wages everywhere, not merely in England, but +practically all over the world, have advanced, and particularly in +Western Europe; moreover, immense numbers of women, and even children, +are being employed who were not employed before, and those who were +employed before have a larger income, particularly amongst the wage +earning classes, than has been the case in this country for many years +past."</p></div> + +<p>The use of silver in coinage, too, was notably increased. Gold +disappeared in countries where gold coins were used; paper money and +silver token money took its place. Another reason for the advance in +silver is connected with the demand for the metal in eastern countries. +According to the <cite>London Statist</cite>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>" ... About half the annual production of silver throughout the world is +absorbed by the East, meaning principally India and China. It has to be +borne in mind that prices in the East have advanced as well as in Europe +and the two Americas, and, consequently, more token money is required +there as well as here. Silver is the standard of value, and not token +money at all, in China; and in India, while gold is nominally the +standard of value, the rupee is the actual coin in which the Indian +natives, as distinct from mere government officials, reckon their +wealth. Now, as one result of the war, nearly all the governments forbid +the export of gold; consequently, India requires a steadily increasing +supply of silver, not merely to do the work that silver did before the +war, but, in addition, to supply the void created by the prohibition of +the export of gold."</p></div> + +<h3>STOCK EXCHANGE WAR</h3> + +<p>The accompanying diagram showing how military operations in Europe +affected the average prices of fifty stocks, half industrial and half +railway, was published in the <cite>New York Times Annalist</cite>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The wider black area shows the high and low average prices of the +twenty-five industrials included in the fifty, and the white area the +corresponding figures for the twenty-five rails. The lines begin at a +time when Germany was suffering severely from her failure at Verdun and +from losses in men and territory from the great Allied Somme offensive. +The subsequent rapid decline (November to February) embraces the period +of Bethmann-Hollweg's sensational peace offensive, followed a few weeks +later by Germany's intensified submarine warfare. The lowest point of +all (December, 1917) was reached after Germany's successful +counter-thrust for Cambrai, her "peace offensive" with the Bolsheviki at +Brest-Litovsk, and the taking over of our railroads by the +government.—<cite>Literary Digest</cite>, October 19, 1918.</p></div> + +<p>A further indication of how military operations reacted on Stock +Exchange quotations was shown in the decided improvement that took place +since the end of July, 1918, after the Germans were pushed back in their +drive towards Paris. The most direct way of measuring this influence is +to take the quotations for the bonds and notes of the Allied Governments +dealt in at the New York Stock Exchange since 1915:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The lowest quotations for these bond and note issues were reached in +1917, when the cause of the Allies assumed a gloomy appearance. The +depression was aggravated by the general decline of the entire +securities market in the later part of that year. Some recovery occurred +by the end of last year, but the beginning of 1918 saw them still +depressed. Last March, April, May and June, when the great + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> + +German drives were in progress, they showed little disposition to break, +but after the active participation of the American Army in the fighting +began and news came that the counter-offensive had assumed a decided and +successful phase, an assertion of strength took place in foreign +government bonds, carrying quotations 'not only to the highest of the +year, but in some instances to the best figures attained since they +first made their appearance in the American market.' The following +tabulation is presented by <cite>Bradstreet's</cite> as giving the range of prices +for the most prominent bonds and short-term notes of foreign countries +during 1917 and 1918, with the quotations for them on August 22nd:</p></div> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="Foreign Goverment Bonds"> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2">/——1917——\</td><td colspan="2">/——1918——\</td><td>Aug.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>High</td><td>Low</td><td>High</td><td>Low</td><td>22</td></tr> +<tr><td>Am. For. Sec. 5s.</td><td>1919</td><td>97<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>90</td><td>98</td><td>94½</td><td>97½</td></tr> +<tr><td>Anglo-French 5s.</td><td>1920</td><td>95</td><td>81<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>95</td><td>88¼</td><td>94¾</td></tr> +<tr><td>Canada 5s.</td><td>1926</td><td>100</td><td>89</td><td>95</td><td>90<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>92</td></tr> +<tr><td>Canada 5s.</td><td>1931</td><td>100¼</td><td>87½</td><td>94</td><td>88<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>92<sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td></tr> +<tr><td>Fr. Republic 5½s.</td><td>1919</td><td>101</td><td>91½</td><td>99</td><td>94</td><td>98<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td></tr> +<tr><td>U. Kingdom 5s.</td><td>1918</td><td>98<sup>5</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>95½</td><td>100</td><td>97</td><td>99<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td></tr> +<tr><td>U. Kingdom 5½s.</td><td>1919</td><td>98<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>93¼</td><td>99¼</td><td>95¼</td><td>98¾</td></tr> +<tr><td>U. King. 5½s, new</td><td>1919</td><td>101<sup>9</sup>/<sub>16</sub></td><td>95¼</td><td>100</td><td>9¾</td><td>99<sup>5</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td></tr> +<tr><td>U. Kingdom 5½s.</td><td>1921</td><td>98½</td><td>84½</td><td>95¾</td><td>91<sup>5</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>95<sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td></tr> +<tr><td> <em>French Cities</em></td></tr> +<tr><td>Paris 6s.</td><td>1921</td><td>96<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>73½</td><td>92<sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>81<sup>5</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>91<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td></tr> +<tr><td>Bordeaux 6s.</td><td>1919</td><td>96<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>74</td><td>95½</td><td>84</td><td>94<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td></tr> +<tr><td>Lyons 6s.</td><td>1919</td><td>96<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>74</td><td>95½</td><td>84</td><td>94¾</td></tr> +<tr><td>Marseilles 6s.</td><td>1919</td><td>96<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>74</td><td>95½</td><td>84</td><td>94¾</td></tr> +<tr><td> <em>Russian Govern.</em><a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>External 6½%</td><td></td><td>98¾</td><td>45</td><td>64½</td><td>33</td><td>61</td></tr> +<tr><td>External 5½%</td><td>1921</td><td>98<sup>5</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td>36</td><td>60½</td><td>34½</td><td>57</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>Curb market quotations.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/ill-033.png" width="800" height="530" +alt="Diagram Showing the Effect of the War on the Prices of Stocks" +title="Diagram Showing the Effect of the War on the Prices of Stocks" /> +<p class="caption">Diagram Showing the Effect of the War on the Prices of Stocks</p> +<p class="description"><a href="#Page_32">(See explanation on page 32)</a></p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"British issues, as shown above, declined least of all, 'and +consequently had less ground to regain in the rise,' <cite>Bradstreet's</cite> +adds:</p> + +<p>"The feeling of confidence in England's credit has all along been a +factor in connection with its American obligations. This will doubtless +be strengthened by the announcement made this week that the United +Kingdom secured 5 per cent. notes, due September 1, 1918, will be paid +at their maturity on that date. There were originally $250,000,000 of +these notes, which were sold in our market in 1916; but the outstanding +issue has been reduced to about $180,000,000 by purchases in the market +for redemption. French obligations have been one of the chief features +of the advance. As will be seen from the above table, the French +Republic 5½ per cents., due 1919, have risen 6 points from the +low figures of the year. The 6 per cent. notes of the French cities, +Paris, Lyons, Bordeaux, and Marseilles, with rises of about 10 points +each, are conspicuous examples of the good effects following the +checking of the German advance and the counter-offensive launched by the +Allies and the American Army. No division of this part of the bond +market has, however, shown such a marked improvement as the Russian +external or dollar bonds, which though not listed at the Stock Exchange, +are dealt in extensively on the New York Curb market'."</p></div> + +<h3>GERMAN PROPERTY IN AMERICA</h3> + +<p>Until the United States entered the war with Germany it had never been +realized that an enormous share of the economic wealth of the country was under German + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> + +control. Attorney-General Palmer, in an address at Detroit, estimated +this share to be about two billion dollars in money value, with an +economic and political value far greater:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Furthermore, this structure was 'designed so to hold American industry +as to frustrate the organization of our resources in case of war.' With +two hundred American corporations controlled by the financial and +military power in Germany, we had a situation that 'might easily have +been fatal in America had it not been discovered in time.' When the war +began in 1914 the structure 'had become so large and powerful and was so +firmly entrenched in the industrial life of our country that its real +commanders in Germany cherished the hope that it would prove the +make-weight which would keep America out of the war, or, failing in +that, constitute a powerful ally of the German cause in our very +midst.'" Mr. Palmer added:</p> + +<p>"'During the last twenty-five or thirty years Germany had built up upon +American soil a structure reaching into every part of the country and +stretching its arms across the seas to fasten upon Porto Rico, the +Virgin Islands, Hawaii, and the Philippines. Congress has declared that +all these enemy properties shall be managed and administered by the +Alien Property Custodian with all the powers of a common law trustee, +the proceeds to be distributed after the war in such manner as the +Congress may determine. This means that the final disposition of the +properties or the funds realized from their sale will be a topic for +discussion and a subject for settlement at the council table of the +nations at which permanent peace shall be restored to the world.</p> + +<p>"'This being so, it seems to me to be an important part of our work to +capture the army which Germany skilfully and craftily planted midst the +busy wheels of American industry, and to break, never to be again +repaired, the industrial and commercial chain which Germany has +stretched across the American continent and our insular possessions. I +would let Germany understand now that her plan has dismally failed. I +would let her understand now that no matter how long she fights, or what +sacrifice she makes, or what price she pays, however much territory she +may occupy, or whatever worlds she may conquer, there is one place which +she will never soil again with the tramp of the marching legions of her +industrial army. That is the United States of America. I would divorce +utterly and forever all German capital from American industry'."</p></div> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>II—WARTIME FOOD AND PRICE PROBLEMS<br /> +Intricacies of a Perplexing and Critical Situation Which Taxed the +Ingenuity of Statesmen of All the Belligerents</h2> + +<p>Europe was financially plunged into anarchy in August, 1914. All the +exchanges were demoralized, checks were not cashed, the five-pound note +became a worthless scrap of paper. The only thing that counted was gold +and goods. Prices advanced to prohibited levels. England, in danger of a +food famine, set up a Food Control Committee. Then the discovery was +made that the country was short of sugar. This shortage was due to the +fact that the war broke out when supplies from Cuba and elsewhere were +stopping and when the German imports had not begun. Sugar was bought to +the value of $86,000,000 from every country which had it to sell. When +the sugar merchants began to put the price up, purchasing was stopped +for the time. Later the Government managed to secure the quantity +required, because it became the only sugar importer. It also supplied +the French Government with sugar at cost price. Any further difficulties +with the sugar supply were due to freight shortage. By this system sugar +was cheaper in England than in any other belligerent country and the +Exchequer took in $34,000,000 in the way of taxes, after raising the +rate from 45¢ per hundred weight to $3.36 per hundred weight.</p> + +<p>In its control of the meat situation, the Government put itself in a +dominating position by seizing all steamers that had refrigerating +space. Enormous quantities of canned meats were imported from the United +States from the American packing firms, but the Government practically +created a state monopoly in frozen meat. This product was distributed by +it to all the other belligerents, except Russia. The purchase of wheat +was entrusted to a large importing house, which acted as an agent of the +Government. For supplying the fish market, a service of fishing boats +was maintained and a deal with Norway was made by which the +whole Norwegian fish supply was secured:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The British Government went into the beef business in order to supply +the troops at home and overseas with chilled meat. It did so at an +average cost of 12 cents per pound. It also supplied all meat of this +kind required by the French Army, the Italian Army, the Belgians, and +the Serbians. The amount of meat required for the British and French +armies was over 50,000 tons per month; for the Italian Army about 10,000 +tons per month. These quantities increased proportionately with the +additions to the forces. Having created a state monopoly in the +importation and control of chilled meat, the Government had to make +provisions for domestic supplies outside the Army. The Board of Trade +arranged to sell to British firms the surplus meat at market prices. +They obtained a small commission, lower than it hitherto received from +traders. Sales to speculators were prohibited.</p> + +<p>"Wheat was quite as important as sugar and beef, although there was less +risk of a world-corner. Wheat was purchased for Government account on +somewhat similar lines as beef. One of the largest importing houses was +commissioned to do all the purchasing, while the other houses held off, +and it was four months before the corn trade, on the selling side, +discovered that purchases were made for the state. Naturally the +commission which the state paid on such transactions was nominal. The +British Government organization bought and shipped wheat, oats, fodder, +etc., for Italy. The French Government bought their civil +<span lang="fr">ravitaillement</span> wheat through the Hudson Bay Company. Large purchases +were made in Canada on behalf of the Italian Government."</p> + +<h3>UNITED STATES AS FOOD PRODUCER</h3> + +<p>"It is hard to realize that the United States was in 1917 much less +favorably situated for producing a huge food surplus than it was thirty +years before. In the interim industrialism had made huge strides in the +land, and a great urban population has risen to eat up a large part of +the surplus of food produced by the farms. This change is indicated by a +growth of the urban population in the twenty years from 1890 to 1910 +from 22,720,223 to 42,625,383, or more than 80 per cent., while rural +population during the same period increased from 40,227,491 to +49,348,883, or less than 25 per cent. If the same ratios have been +maintained since 1910 urban population has now become one-half of the +whole. In terms of food production decidedly more than one-half of our +population now produces a very insignificant part of the food which it +consumes, for the rural population includes all who live in towns of +less than 2,500. The significance of the change is indicated by the +following figures of the production, export, and consumption of typical +food products. The comparison is between the average of the five-year +period ending in 1895 and that ending in 1914. The average production of +wheat per year for the former period was 476,678,000 bushels; for the +latter 697,459,000 bushels, an increase of 46 per cent. Between these +periods domestic consumption increased from 310,107,000 to 588,592,000 +bushels, or about 90 per cent., while exports decreased from 166,571,000 +to 104,945,000 bushels, or 37 per cent. The average production of corn +for the former period was 1,602,171,000 bushels; for the latter +2,752,372,000 bushels, or an increase of 72 per cent. Consumption +increased from 1,552,003,000 to 2,790,962,000 bushels, or 79 per cent., +while exports decreased from 50,168,000 to 41,509,000 bushels, or 17 per +cent. The figures upon sugar, beef, pork, and other staples lead to +similar conclusions. The growth of industrial centers has given us an +increasingly urban population which has been consuming a larger and +larger part of the food surplus."</p></div> + +<h3>THE FOOD CONTROLLER</h3> + +<p>No policy of <span lang="fr">laissez-faire</span> for handling the food situation was +possible. The need of direction was paramount and required +administrative talent of a high order. Fortunately the United States met +this demand.</p> + +<p>The work of Herbert M. Hoover was one of the main factors in securing +the Allied victory. This was recognized by as conservative an organ of +public opinion as the London <cite>Economist</cite>, which speaks of him as an +unimpeachable authority and as the organizer of the Allied victory. His +experience is a tribute to the wonderful readiness and self-sacrifice +shown by the Americans in the matter of food consumption and to the +untiring and increasing success of our fleet in combating the submarine.</p> + +<p>How much success in the war depended upon food supplies may be gauged +from the panicky feeling prevailing in Government quarters in England +when it was reported in the winter of 1917—18, that the American wheat +surplus had been used up. Lord Rhonda, the British Food Controller, +cabled to Mr. Hoover—"We are beaten, the war is over." Then began +the era in the United States of wheatless days and war bread. The result +of this period of national abstinence enabled the exportation to Europe +of about 150,000,000 bushels of wheat. A British member of the Allied +Food Commission said it was very remarkable to see a whole + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> + +nation denying itself of all wheat products, "not because it was short +but because it wanted to assist." This rationing was accomplished with +very little exercise of authority, and the peril of the defeat of the +Allies by famine was averted.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/ill-036.png" width="800" height="459" +alt="Centres of Live Stock Production Throughout the World" +title="Centres of Live Stock Production Throughout the World" /> +<p class="caption">Centres of Live Stock Production Throughout the World</p></div> + +<h3>AMERICA'S CONTRIBUTION IN FOOD TO THE ALLIES</h3> + +<p>Mr. Hoover in a letter to President Wilson stated that the total value +of American food shipments to Allied countries for their armies, for the +civilian population, Belgium relief and Red Cross, amounted to about +$1,400,000,000 for the fiscal year, 1918:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Shipments of meats, fats, and dairy products were as follows,</p></div> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="Belgium relief shipments"> +<tr><td></td><th>Pounds.</th></tr> +<tr><td>Fiscal year, 1916—17</td><td class="numeric">2,166,500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fiscal year, 1917—18</td><td class="numeric">3,011,100,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Increase</td><td class="numeric">844,600,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"'Our slaughterable animals at the beginning of the last fiscal year +were not appreciably larger in number than the year before, and +particularly + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> + +in hogs; they were probably less'; so, as Mr. Hoover points out, 'the +increase in shipments is due to conservation and the extra weight of +animals added by our farmers.' Our shipments of cereal and cereal +products have been,</p></div> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="Cereal shipments"> +<tr><td></td><th>Bushels.</th></tr> +<tr><td>Fiscal year, 1916—17</td><td class="numeric">259,900,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fiscal year, 1917—18</td><td class="numeric">340,800,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Increase</td><td class="numeric">80,900,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The total shipment of wheat from our last harvest was about 141,000,000 +bushels, with 13,900,000 of rye, a total of 154,900,000 bushels, of +prime breadstuffs. Mr. Hoover notes a remarkable achievement in +connection with the wheat shipments:</p> + +<p>"'Since the urgent request of the Allied Food Controllers early in the +year for a further shipment of 75,000,000 bushels from our 1917 wheat +than originally planned, we shall have shipped to Europe, or have <i>en +route</i>, nearly 85,000,000 bushels. At the time of this request our +surplus was already more than exhausted.</p> + +<p>"'This accomplishment of our people in this matter stands out even more +clearly if we bear in mind that we had available in the fiscal year +1916—17 from net carry over and a surplus over our normal consumption +about 200,000,000 bushels of wheat, which we were able to export that +year without trenching on our home loaf. This last year, however, owing +to the large failure of the 1917 wheat crop we had available from net +carry over and production and imports only just about our normal +consumption. Therefore, our wheat shipments to Allied destinations +represent approximately savings from our own wheat bread.'</p> + +<p>"The effort and sacrifice made by our people to do this are more fully +appreciated when we consider that last year's wheat crop was a small one +and that the corn failed to mature properly. Mr. Hoover concludes his +letter with these words of warm appreciation of the people who have made +up the army of which he has been the commanding general:</p> + +<p>"'I am sure that all the millions of our people, agricultural as well as +urban, who have contributed to these results should feel a very definite +satisfaction that, in a year of universal food shortages in the northern +hemisphere, all of these people, joined together against Germany, have +come through into sight of the coming harvest, not only with health and +strength fully maintained, but with only temporary periods of hardship. +The European Allies have been compelled to sacrifice more than our own +people, but we have not failed to load every steamer since the delays of +the storm months of last winter.</p> + +<p>"'Our contributions to this end could not have been accomplished without +effort and sacrifice, and it is a matter for further satisfaction that +it has been accomplished voluntarily and individually. It is difficult +to distinguish between various sections of our people—the homes, +public eating places, food trades, urban or agricultural +populations—in assessing credit for these results, but no one will +deny the dominant part of the American women'."</p></div> + +<h3>AGRICULTURE AND THE WAR</h3> + +<p>The significance of the strides made in agricultural productivity by +which Mr. Hoover's food campaign was made possible and successful is +brought out in the report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1918:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The efforts put forth by the farmers and the agricultural organizations +to secure increased production can perhaps best be concretely indicated +in terms of planting operations. The size of the harvest may not be the +measure of the labors of the farmers. Adverse weather conditions and +unusual ravages of insects or plant diseases may partly overcome and +neutralize the most exceptional exertions."</p></div> + +<h3>ACREAGE UNDER CULTIVATION</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The first year of our participation in the war, 1917, witnessed the +Nation's record for acreage planted—283,000,000 of the leading +cereals, potatoes, tobacco, and cotton, as against 261,000,000 for the +preceding year, 251,000,000 for the year prior to the outbreak of the +European war, and 248,000,000 for the five-year average, 1910—14. This +is a gain of 22,000,000 over the year preceding our entry into the war +and of 35,000,000 over the five-year average indicated. Even this record +was exceeded the second year of the war. There was planted in 1918 for +the same crops 289,000,000 acres, an increase over the preceding record +year of 5,600,000. It is especially noteworthy that, while the acreage +planted in wheat in 1917 was slightly less than that for the record year +of 1915, it exceeded the five-year average (1910—14) by 7,000,000; that +the acreage planted in 1918 exceeded the previous record by 3,500,000; +and that the indications are that the acreage planted during the current +fall season will considerably exceed that of any preceding fall +planting."</p></div> + +<h3>YIELDS OF PRINCIPLE CEREALS</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In each of the last two years climatic conditions over considerable +sections of the Union were adverse—in 1917 especially for wheat +and in 1918 for corn. Notwithstanding this fact, the aggregate yield of +the leading cereals in each of these years exceeded that of any +preceding year in the Nation's history except 1915. The estimated total +for 1917 was 5,796,000,000 bushels and for 1918, 5,638,000,000 bushels, +a decrease of approximately 160,000,000 bushels. But the conclusion +would be unwarranted that the available supplies for human food or the +aggregate nutritive value will be less in 1918 than in 1917. Fortunately, the wheat production + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> + +for the current year—918,920,000 bushels—is greatly in +excess of that for each of the preceding two years, 650,828,000 in 1917 +and 636,318,000 in 1916, and is next to the record wheat crop of the +Nation. The estimated corn crop, 2,749,000,000 bushels, exceeds the +five-year pre-war average by 17,000,000 bushels, is 3.4 per cent. above +the average in quality, and greatly superior to that of 1917. It has +been estimated that of the large crop of last year, approximately +900,000,000 bushels were soft. This, of course, was valuable as feed for +animals, but less so than corn of normal quality. It should be +remembered, in thinking in terms of food nutritional value, that, on the +average, only about 12 per cent. of the corn crop is annually consumed +by human beings and that not more than 26 per cent. ever leaves the +farm. It should be borne in mind also that the stocks of corn on the +farms November 1, 1918, were 118,400,000 bushels, as against less than +35,000,000 bushels last year, and 93,340,000 bushels, the average for +the preceding five years. It is noteworthy that the quality of each of +the four great cereals—barley, wheat, corn, and oats—ranges +from 3 to 5.4 per cent., above the average.</p> + +<p>"The tables printed below may facilitate the examination of these +essential facts:</p></div> + +<table class="boxed" summary="Crop Acreage"> +<caption> </caption> +<tr><th colspan="6"><p class="big">ACREAGE OF CROPS IN THE UNITED STATES.</p></th></tr> +<tr><th colspan="6">[Figures refer to planted acreage.]</th></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><th>Crop</th><th>1918,<br />subject to revision</th> + <th>1917,<br />subject to revision</th><th>1916</th><th>1914</th> + <th>Annual average 1910—1914.</th></tr> +<tr><th colspan="6">CEREALS</th></tr> +<tr><td>Corn</td><td class="numeric">113,835,000</td><td class="numeric">119,755,000</td> + <td class="numeric">105,296,000</td><td class="numeric">103,435,000</td> + <td class="numeric">105,240,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Wheat</td><td class="numeric">64,659,000</td><td class="numeric">59,045,000</td> + <td class="numeric">56,810,000</td><td class="numeric">54,661,000</td> + <td class="numeric">52,452,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oats</td><td class="numeric">44,475,000</td><td class="numeric">43,572,000</td> + <td class="numeric">41,527,000</td><td class="numeric">38,442,000</td> + <td class="numeric">38,014,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Barley</td><td class="numeric">9,108,000</td><td class="numeric">8,835,000</td> + <td class="numeric">7,757,000</td><td class="numeric">7,565,000</td> + <td class="numeric">7,593,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rye</td><td class="numeric">6,119,000</td><td class="numeric">4,480,000</td> + <td class="numeric">3,474,000</td><td class="numeric">2,733,000</td> + <td class="numeric">2,562,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Buckwheat</td><td class="numeric">1,045,000</td><td class="numeric">1,006,000</td> + <td class="numeric">828,000</td><td class="numeric">792,000</td> + <td class="numeric">826,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rice</td><td class="numeric">1,120,400</td><td class="numeric">964,000</td> + <td class="numeric">869,000</td><td class="numeric">694,000</td> + <td class="numeric">733,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Kafirs</td><td class="numeric">5,114,000</td><td class="numeric">5,153,000</td> + <td class="numeric">3,944,000</td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><td> Total</td><td class="numeric">245,475,400</td> + <td class="numeric">242,810,000</td><td class="numeric">220,505,000</td> + <td class="numeric"><a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a> + <a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>208,322,000</td> + <td class="numeric"><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>207,420,000</td> +</tr> +<tr><th colspan="6">VEGETABLES</th></tr> +<tr><td>Potatoes</td><td class="numeric">4,113,000</td><td class="numeric">4,390,000</td> + <td class="numeric">3,565,000</td><td class="numeric">3,711,000</td> + <td class="numeric">3,686,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sweet Potatoes</td><td class="numeric">959,000</td><td class="numeric">953,000</td> + <td class="numeric">774,000</td><td class="numeric">603,000</td> + <td class="numeric">611,000</td></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><td> Total</td><td class="numeric">5,072,000</td> + <td class="numeric">5,343,000</td><td class="numeric">4,339,000</td> + <td class="numeric">4,314,000</td><td class="numeric">4,297,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tobacco</td><td class="numeric">1,452,900</td><td class="numeric">1,447,000</td> + <td class="numeric">1,413,000</td><td class="numeric">1,224,000</td> + <td class="numeric">1,209,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cotton</td><td class="numeric">37,073,000</td><td class="numeric">33,841,000</td> + <td class="numeric">34,985,000</td><td class="numeric">36,832,000</td> + <td class="numeric">35,330,000</td></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><td> Grand Total.</td><td class="numeric">289,073,300</td> + <td class="numeric">283,441,000</td><td class="numeric">261,242,000</td> + <td class="numeric"><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>250,692,000</td> + <td class="numeric"><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>248,256,000</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="6"><div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a> + <a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>Excluding kafirs.</p></div> + </td></tr> +</table> + +<h3>NEED OF FOOD CONSERVATION</h3> + +<p>Statistics have not yet been published as to the comparative food +production before the war and during the war years. Statistics of this +kind would go a long way towards settling the question whether high +prices were due to currency inflation or due to a scarcity of food. It +must be remembered that the arguments on both sides are expressed very +dogmatically. Take, for example, the following passage from an address +by Mr. Moulton: "The food problem," he says, "goes much deeper than +conserving the use of an existing stock of foodstuffs. The real food +problem is how to secure a supply of food large enough to meet the +continuous requirements of this nation and our Allies. This is more a +question of production than of consumption. That is to say, conservation +in consumption is less important than large production. There is no +possible escape from a substantial shortage of the necessities of life." +</p> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></p> + +<table class="boxed" summary="Food production in USA"> + <caption> </caption> + <tr><th colspan="7"><p class="big">PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES</p></th></tr> + <tr><th colspan="7">[Figures are in round thousands; i. e., 000 omitted.]</th></tr> + <tr class="btopbot"><th colspan="2">Crops</th> + <th class="numeric">1918<br />(unrevised estimate November 1918).</th> + <th class="numeric">1917,<br />Subject to revision.</th><th class="numeric">1916</th> + <th class="numeric">1914</th><th class="numeric">Annual average 1910—1914</th></tr> + <tr><th colspan="7">CEREALS</th></tr> + <tr><td>Corn</td><td>bush</td><td class="numeric">2,749,198</td> + <td class="numeric">3,159,494</td><td class="numeric">2,566,927</td> + <td class="numeric">2,672,804</td><td class="numeric">2,732,457</td></tr> + <tr><td>Wheat</td><td>do</td><td class="numeric">918,920</td> + <td class="numeric">650,828</td><td class="numeric">636,318</td> + <td class="numeric">891,017</td><td class="numeric">728,225</td></tr> + <tr><td>Oats</td><td>do</td><td class="numeric">1,535,297</td> + <td class="numeric">1,587,286</td><td class="numeric">1,251,837</td> + <td class="numeric">1,141,060</td><td class="numeric">1,157,961</td></tr> + <tr><td>Barley</td><td>do</td><td class="numeric">236,505</td><td class="numeric">208,975</td> + <td class="numeric">182,309</td><td class="numeric">194,953</td> + <td class="numeric">186,208</td></tr> + <tr><td>Rye</td><td>do</td><td class="numeric">76,687</td><td class="numeric">60,145</td> + <td class="numeric">8,862</td><td class="numeric">42,779</td><td class="numeric">37,568</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Buckwheat</td><td>do</td><td class="numeric">18,370</td><td class="numeric">17,460</td> + <td class="numeric">11,662</td><td class="numeric">16,881</td><td class="numeric">17,022</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Rice</td><td>do</td><td class="numeric">41,918</td><td class="numeric">36,278</td> + <td class="numeric">40,861</td><td class="numeric">23,649</td><td class="numeric">24,378</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Kafirs</td><td>do</td><td class="numeric">61,182</td><td class="numeric">75,866</td> + <td class="numeric">53,858</td></tr> + <tr class="btopbot"><td>Total</td><td>do</td><td class="numeric">5,638,077</td> + <td class="numeric">5,796,332</td><td class="numeric">4,792,634</td> + <td class="numeric">4,983,143</td><td class="numeric">4,883,819</td></tr> + <tr><th colspan="7">VEGETABLES</th></tr> + <tr><td>Potatoes</td><td>bush</td><td class="numeric">390,101</td> + <td class="numeric">442,536</td><td class="numeric">286,953</td> + <td class="numeric">409,921</td><td class="numeric">360,772</td></tr> + <tr><td>Sweet potatoes</td><td>do</td><td class="numeric">88,114</td> + <td class="numeric">87,141</td><td class="numeric">70,955</td> + <td class="numeric">56,574</td><td class="numeric">57,117</td></tr> + <tr><td>Beans(commercial)</td><td>do</td><td class="numeric">17,802</td> + <td class="numeric">14,967</td><td class="numeric">10,715</td> + <td class="numeric">11,585</td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>Onions, fall commercial crop</td><td>do</td><td class="numeric">13,438</td> + <td class="numeric">12,309</td><td class="numeric">7,833</td> + <td class="numeric"><a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a> + <a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>Cabbage (commercial)</td><td>tons</td><td class="numeric">565</td> + <td class="numeric">475</td><td class="numeric">252</td><td class="numeric"> + <a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></td><td></td></tr> + <tr><th colspan="7">FRUITS</th></tr> + <tr><td>Peaches</td><td>bush</td><td class="numeric">40,185</td><td class="numeric">45,066</td> + <td class="numeric">37,505</td><td class="numeric">54,109</td><td class="numeric">43,752</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Pears</td><td>do</td><td class="numeric">10,342</td><td class="numeric">13,281</td> + <td class="numeric">11,874</td><td class="numeric">12,086</td><td class="numeric">11,184</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Apples</td><td>do</td><td class="numeric">197,360</td><td class="numeric">174,608</td> + <td class="numeric">204,582</td><td class="numeric">253,200</td> + <td class="numeric">197,898</td></tr> + <tr><td>Cranberries, 3 States</td><td>bbls</td><td class="numeric">374</td> + <td class="numeric">255</td><td class="numeric">471</td><td class="numeric">644</td> + <td></td></tr> + <tr><th colspan="7">MISCELLANEOUS</th></tr> + <tr><td>Flaxseed</td><td>bush</td><td class="numeric">14,646</td><td class="numeric">8,473</td> + <td class="numeric">14,296</td><td class="numeric">13,749</td><td class="numeric">18,353</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Sugar beets</td><td>tons</td><td class="numeric">6,549</td><td class="numeric">5,980</td> + <td class="numeric">6,228</td><td class="numeric">5,585</td><td class="numeric">5,391</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Tobacco</td><td>lbs</td><td class="numeric">1,266,686</td> + <td class="numeric">1,196,451</td><td class="numeric">1,153,278</td> + <td class="numeric">1,034,679</td><td class="numeric">991,958</td></tr> + <tr><td>All hay</td><td>tons</td><td class="numeric">86,254</td><td class="numeric">94,930</td> + <td class="numeric">110,992</td><td class="numeric">88,686</td><td class="numeric">81,640</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Cotton</td><td>bales</td><td class="numeric">11,818</td><td class="numeric">11,302</td> + <td class="numeric">11,450</td><td class="numeric">16,135</td><td class="numeric">14,259</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Sorghum sirup</td><td>galls.</td><td class="numeric">29,757</td> + <td class="numeric">34,175</td><td class="numeric">13,668</td><td></td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>Peanuts</td><td>bush</td><td class="numeric">52,617</td><td class="numeric">56,104</td> + <td class="numeric">35,324</td><td></td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>Broom corn, 5 States</td><td>tons</td><td class="numeric">52</td> + <td class="numeric">52</td><td class="numeric">39</td><td></td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td>Clover seed</td><td>bush</td><td class="numeric">1,248</td><td class="numeric">1,439</td> + <td class="numeric">1,706</td><td></td><td></td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="7"><div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a> + <a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>no estimate</div></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The same point of view is expressed in the following extract:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is not usually understood that the chief cause of the enormously +high prices of the necessities of life at the present time is their +relative scarcity. The supply of necessities in this country has not +materially increased, but the demand for them, owing to the requirements +of our Allies, has enormously increased. We can prevent a still further +soaring of prices only by increased production of +necessities—increased production to be accomplished, let it be +repeated through a diversion of productive power from the non-essential +lines.</p> + +<p>"The wealthy have often been urged since the war started to spend +lavishly on luxuries and to economize on necessities in order that the +necessities will remain for consumption by the poor. This is sheer +shortsightedness; for the energy devoted to the production of luxuries +for consumption by the wealthy would, if diverted to the production of +essentials, give us a + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> + +sufficient supply of the necessities of life that all might have them in +relative abundance. The result of a policy of spending lavishly on +luxuries is an inadequate production of necessities and hence prices so +high as to cause real privation among the masses. Those engaged in +producing luxuries obviously cannot at the same time be engaged in +producing necessities."</p></div> + +<p>In a war of attrition, physical deterioration of the masses of society +in consequence of inadequate nourishment was certain to result in a +serious decline in national morale, and this was a decided factor in the +final outcome of the struggle. Food and other physical necessities would +win the war. Mr. F. A. Vanderlip used the same argument for economies:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Thus the diversion of productive resources to public ends requires of +each of us a voluntary or compulsory rearrangement of individual and +household budgets and radical changes in the habits of our lives. We +must encourage direct diversion by reducing to a minimum our consumption +of articles which can be used by our soldiers. But it is even more +important that we give up the consumption of non-essential things in +order that the productive energy which they embody be devoted to the +accomplishment of the purpose in hand. The amount which we are forced to +give up or voluntarily surrender constitutes a surplus over private +consumption that measures the extent of our ability to wage war. We are +fighting a nation which continues to be willing to reduce private +consumption to the barest subsistence minimum. Unless a large surplus is +produced we can gain no active participation in war and cannot hope for +a victorious peace. The larger the surplus the shorter the war will be, +and the nearer we are to victory."</p></div> + +<h3>GREAT BRITAIN'S FOOD DANGER</h3> + +<p>Under the long régime of free trade Great Britain depended upon +other countries for its food supply. To offset the submarine campaign +earnest appeals were made to make England self-supporting in this +respect. The appeals were answered and were given enthusiastic popular +support. What strides were made in England's agriculture since the war +began can be seen from a paragraph in the London <cite>New Statesman</cite>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In 1918, as against 1916, the acreage (England and Wales) under oats is +up by 35 per cent.; that under wheat by 38 per cent.; that under barley +by 11 per cent.; that under other grain by 69 per cent.; that under +potatoes by 50 per cent. The number of allotments (1,300,000) has +increased by 140 per cent. The Report of the Food-Production Department +... is as satisfactory as we could wish; the number of acres under +cultivation in the United Kingdom has gone up by over four millions in +two years, all records being broken.</p> + +<p>"This figure ignores the great increase in gardens and allotments, and +it is estimated that, on the present scale of consumption, this year's +home harvest will be sufficient to feed the population for forty weeks. +The supply before the war was only enough to meet a ten weeks' +consumption. Breadstuffs are not everything; and even of them one-fifth +still has to be provided. But granted that we can keep this rate of +production up, and—in spite of the drains of the Army upon our +labor—can, with the help of women and prisoners, save what we +produce, the wolf has now been driven a considerable distance from the +door. With sinkings diminishing and ship-building on the increase, we +can, we think, congratulate ourselves on the final failure of the German +attempt to starve us out."</p></div> + +<h3>ACREAGE INCREASE DUE TO WOMEN'S LABOR</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Much of the increased cultivation has been done by women, we are told, +and Mr. Prothero, the British Minister of Agriculture, had a cheerful +picture to paint when appealing for recruits for 'the Women's Land +Army.' As reported by the London <cite>Morning Post</cite> his speech ran:</p> + +<p>"'Today (1918) the acreage under wheat, barley, and oats is the highest +ever recorded in the history of our agriculture. That is one of the +finest achievements of the war. In the same period the number of +allotments has been increased by 800,000, which means something like +800,000 tons of produce raised additionally, a big saving in transport, +and an improvement socially and morally. This advance has been effected +in spite of the fact that there are 500,000 fewer laborers on the land. +It is because of that decrease of labor that the appeal is being made +for more women. I do not believe that any assembly of British farmers +will hold back men who can possibly be spared when the alternative is +our troops being driven back by overwhelming numbers and butchered on +the beach by German guns. The promise of the harvest is not yet +fulfilled, and there is much to be done. Women's work on the land is a +vital necessity. I know the work they are asked to do is hard, bringing +with it discomforts, and, comparatively speaking, is poorly paid. Life +on the land is not luxurious, but it brings health with it, and the +women have the conviction that they are doing something in one of the +most important fields to make victory sure.'"</p></div> + +<h3>EVIDENCES OF FOOD SHORTAGE</h3> + +<p>One of the by-products of the food situation in England was the +suffering occasioned by the scanty food supply on the canine +population of the island. The London <cite>Times</cite> of June, 1918, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> + +contained the following pathetic paragraph:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Considerable alarm has been caused among dog owners by the intimation +that stocks of biscuits are practically exhausted. Not only is this the +case, but the prospects of more flour being released for their +manufacture are also remote unless some action is taken by the +government to insure further importations of low-grade flours suitable +for the purpose.</p> + +<p>"The state of things is undoubtedly acute. Until the food economy +campaign set in early last year most households provided enough waste to +feed a dog, and where more than one was kept butchers' offals could be +had for a few pence. These sources of supply having now vanished, much +ingenuity will have to be exercised in order to preserve the family +friend and guard from extinction. Blood, steamed until it is of a solid +consistency, fish heads, and the heads of poultry offer some +alternatives. Rice, oatmeal, and other cereal products may not be used.</p> + +<p>"The whole question of dogs is engaging the closest attention of the +authorities. Admittedly the problem of reducing the numbers is beset +with difficulties, and, whatever is done, it is extremely unlikely the +one-dog owner will be disturbed, the government recognizing the +sentimental forces involved, to say nothing of the utility value of many +breeds."</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-041.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-041thumb.jpg" width="400" height="277" +alt="Members of "The Women's Land Army" in England" +title="Members of "The Women's Land Army" in England" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright by Underwood & Underwood</p> +<p class="caption">Members of "The Women's Land Army" in England</p> +<p class="description">Girls weeding frames in which cauliflower plants were set out to be +ready for market in the early spring.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-041.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p>But while English dogs were threatened with starvation, dogs of Germany +were having a still worse time. Numerous cable paragraphs were published +giving the price of dog flesh in various German cities.</p> + +<p>Indeed, from all over Germany, at the closing period of the war, the +hope of drawing upon Russian food supplies was seen to be illusory. +There was much talk of getting food from the Ukraine, but this was +probably used to keep up popular morale. The situation in the Ukraine +did not encourage German hopes. This was frankly admitted by the +<cite>Frankfort Zeitung</cite>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The stores and warehouses in the Ukraine are almost emptied. The +peasants' stocks are depleted, while the best seed corn has been used to +feed cattle or to supply a secret still, which nearly every household +possesses.</p> + +<p>"The outlook for next harvest is most unpromising. The peasants have +plundered the estates, destroyed farm buildings and machinery, and have +stolen or slaughtered most of the cattle. No labor is available for +cultivation, and there are no facilities for harvesting the next +crop, while the sugar industry is confronted with ruin, owing to + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> + +the decrease of beet cultivation."</p></div> + +<h3>FOOD CONTROL FOR NEUTRALS</h3> + +<p>It is interesting to study the effect of the war on the food situation +of the neutral powers. In Scandinavia, there was at first a panicky +feeling of a world-wide catastrophe; then there came the realization of +an unparalleled chance for making profit. The international shortage of +tonnage made freight rates soar. Shipping shares became attractive. Then +came the submarine sinkings, and the refusal of the Allies to allow +goods to be imported into Scandinavia for the sole purpose of selling +them to the Central Powers. Imports fell off rapidly. Everything which +could be sold had been sold in the beginning of the war. The next step +was the placing of an embargo on exports by the Scandinavian +governments:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The index of the Swedish official list of laws, dated October 31, 1916, +forbidding exports, mentioned more than 1,100 articles, and even that +was expressly called only a help to find the commodity looked for and +did not pretend to be a complete index. The result was, of course, that +trade, compared to former volumes, decreased very considerably, and the +energy as well as the wealth actually earned was turned towards +speculation on the local exchange.</p> + +<p>"To supply all the people of Scandinavia with the necessities of life +was a problem. Law upon law, one governmental decree after the other, +tried to regulate the distribution of commodities as well as their +prices. The majority of the people were in actual need. Prices soared, +and it really did not matter to the ordinary man whether the cause of +this rise in the cost of living was a too big circulation of paper +currency or a limited supply of goods. What confronted him was the fact +itself, not theories, and he realized all too well that he could not +make 'both ends meet.' There was, generally speaking, no doubt that +under normal circumstances the laws of supply and demand will work +satisfactorily to the community and that artificial interference was +only harmful. The supply being short, consequently the demand and the +consumption must be controlled to secure a fair distribution. Sugar +cards, which had been used in Sweden for months, and which were decreed +in Denmark to go into force January 1, 1917, were an example of the +means employed to control the distribution and to prevent waste to +supplies.</p> + +<p>"While on the one hand one saw new millionaires permit themselves to +indulge in the most senseless luxuries, which incidentally added +considerably to the high cost of living under circumstances like these, +the less well-to-do actually were without many things formerly +considered necessities. Collections of money and foodstuffs were made +all over Scandinavia to help the less fortunate through the winter. The +poorer population of the cities was especially considered. It was even +difficult to get a roof over one's head. Proposals and counter proposals +to remedy the evil were forthcoming, but no real remedy seemed to be in +sight."</p></div> + +<h3>FEEDING EUROPE'S STARVING MILLIONS</h3> + +<p>A preliminary accounting was rendered on December 1, 1919, by Herbert C. +Hoover, covering the $100,000,000 fund appropriated by Congress for the +relief of starving Europeans. From Mr. Hoover's report it appears that +in payment for relief supplied to eight European countries Mr. Hoover +decided to accept their notes bearing 5% interest. Mr. Hoover's report +stated:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"About 88 per cent. of the relief supplies furnished were sold under +contract to the various Governments in the relief areas. For all such +sales these Governments gave their special treasury notes in a form +approved by the United States Treasury, bearing 5 per cent. interest, +due June 30, 1921, to June 30, 1924. It was impossible to obtain +reimbursement in cash because the currency in the countries to which +these supplies were sent was impossible to convert into foreign +exchange, except in comparatively insignificant amounts.</p></div> + +<h3>POLAND THE BIGGEST DEBTOR</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"I give herewith approximate list of the notes of each Government, which +we expect to turn over to the United States Treasury.</p></div> + +<div class="left"> + <table class="nobrdr" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="foreign debt"> + <tr><td>Poland</td><td class="numeric">$57,000,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Czechoslovakia</td><td class="numeric">6,750,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Armenia</td><td class="numeric">10,000,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Russia.</td><td class="numeric">5,000,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Esthonia</td><td class="numeric">2,300,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Latvia</td><td class="numeric">3,000,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Lithuania</td><td class="numeric">700,000</td></tr> + <tr><td>Finland</td><td class="numeric">4,000,000</td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="numeric">——————</td></tr> + <tr><td>Total</td><td class="numeric">$88,750,000</td></tr> + </table> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The remaining 12 per cent. of the supplies was donated in assistance to +private organizations set up in each country under direction of the +American Relief Administration for the purpose of furnishing food on a +charitable basis to undernourished children. For such supplies it was, +of course, impossible to obtain reimbursement. This service has +contributed greatly to stabilizing the situation in those countries, +aside from the physical benefits to more than 3,000,000 undernourished +children, to whom the war threatened serious and permanent injury. +Certainly this service is one for which the name of America will always +be held in deepest gratitude."</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p> + +<h3>FOOD CONDITIONS AFTER THE ARMISTICE</h3> + +<p>It is impossible in words to show what the food conditions were in +Europe after the armistice was signed. The United States Food +Administration issued a statement that there were 420,000,000 people in +Europe with food supplies sufficient to last only until next harvest for +a small proportion of them. Some countries had to be supplied at once; +others, it was believed, could help themselves temporarily, provided +they could be given guarantees of food for the future. Many countries +were devastated, undernourished and stripped bare of food and +agricultural equipment because of enemy occupation. A graphic picture of +the situation was presented by the Food Administration in the Hunger Map +of Europe.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/ill-043.png" width="800" height="693" +alt="A Map Issued by the Food Administration to Show Food +Conditions in Europe After the Signing of the Armistice." +title="Food Conditions in Europe" /> +<p class="caption">A Map Issued by the Food Administration to Show Food +Conditions in Europe After the Signing of the Armistice.</p> +</div> + +<h3>NEW FACTORS AFTER NOVEMBER, 1918</h3> + +<p>An official survey of how cessation of active fighting introduced new +factors in the food situation is presented in a publication of the +Agricultural Department, July, 1919.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"With the signing of the armistice and the cessation of active fighting, +new factors were introduced which affect the food situation. One of +these was the step taken to release shipping as rapidly as possible, +with the <del>prorable</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads prorable">probable</ins> result that the agricultural products of the more +distant producing countries will again largely appear on the markets of +Europe. The channels of trade are being reëstablished and food +supplies will be sought wherever they can be secured most cheaply.</p> + +<p>"A provision of the armistice required the immediate evacuation by the +Germans of a large area in Belgium, France, Alsace-Lorraine, Luxemburg, +and other territory. As a result many millions of people have been added +to those that must be aided and fed by the Allies, and a + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> + +material increase in the amount of foodstuffs to be imported has been +made necessary. It may be found, too, that Turkey, Austria, and even +Germany will have to draw on outside supplies to meet their needs.</p> + +<p>"The demobilization of the European armies will permit men to return to +the farms, and it may be expected that under the stimulus of an urgent +demand for food an attempt will be made this year to increase food +production in all the affected European countries. The devastated +regions will be slow in recovering. Much time and labor will be required +to construct necessary homes and farm buildings, level the ground, +remove obstructions, and in other ways prepare for a resumption of +regular agricultural activities. But it must be remembered that as +compared with the whole of the countries concerned these areas are small +and should not affect the results in any large way.</p> + +<p>"In many sections of Europe there is a shortage of horses and other work +stock, farm machinery, seeds, and fertilizers. In these localities a +normal production should not be expected, but it is evident that under +favorable conditions a material increase over the past year will be +secured.</p> + +<h3>CEREAL REQUIREMENTS FOR 1919</h3> + +<p>"The following table presents estimates of the cereal requirements for +1919 and shows the world balance as deficit or surplus. Figures for the +cereals, except rice, represent millions of bushels.</p></div> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="Cereal Requirements"> +<caption><span class="smcap">Note</span>.—Estimates of European +crop and live-stock production, consumption, and stocks on hand, surplus +or deficiency, are based on incomplete data, which are subject to change +as more complete data become available.</caption> +<tr class="btopbot"><th>Import Requirements</th><th>Wheat</th><th>Rye</th><th>Barley</th><th>Oats</th><th>Corn</th><th>Rice, Hulled</th></tr> +<tr><th colspan="6" class="left">EUROPE</th><th class="numeric"><em>Million pounds</em></th></tr> +<tr><td>Allies</td><td class="numeric">525</td><td class="numeric">25</td><td class="numeric">50</td><td class="numeric">150</td><td class="numeric">220</td><td class="numeric">1,945</td></tr> +<tr class="bbot"><td>Neutrals</td><td class="numeric">124</td><td class="numeric">40</td><td class="numeric">30</td><td class="numeric">38</td><td class="numeric">78</td><td class="numeric">302</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">649</td><td class="numeric">65</td><td class="numeric">80</td><td class="numeric">188</td><td class="numeric">298</td><td class="numeric">2,247</td></tr> +<tr><td>Germany</td><td class="numeric">68</td><td></td><td class="numeric">149</td><td class="numeric">3</td><td class="numeric">32</td><td class="numeric">438</td></tr> +<tr><td>Austria-Hungary</td><td class="numeric">11</td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">2</td><td class="numeric">15</td><td class="numeric">183</td></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><td>Total Europe</td><td class="numeric">728</td><td class="numeric">65</td><td class="numeric">22</td><td class="numeric">193</td><td class="numeric">345</td><td class="numeric">2,868</td></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><td>Other countries</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">7,411</td></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><td>Grand total</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">10,279</td></tr> +<tr><th colspan="7" class="left">Surplus (estimated):</th></tr> +<tr><td>Canada</td><td class="numeric">100</td><td></td><td class="numeric">50</td><td class="numeric">75</td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Argentina</td><td class="numeric">185</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">90</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Australia</td><td class="numeric">210</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>India</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">18,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Other countries (pre-war)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">7,400</td></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><td>Total, except United States</td><td class="numeric">495</td><td></td><td class="numeric">50</td><td class="numeric">75</td><td class="numeric">90</td><td class="numeric">25,400</td></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><td>Net deficit</td><td class="numeric">233</td><td class="numeric">65</td><td class="numeric">179</td><td class="numeric">118</td><td class="numeric">255</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><th colspan="7" class="left">UNITED STATES, 1918</th></tr> +<tr><td>Production</td><td class="numeric">917</td><td class="numeric">89</td><td class="numeric">250</td><td class="numeric">1,538</td><td class="numeric">2,583</td><td class="numeric">1,123</td></tr> +<tr class="bbot"><td>Consumption</td><td class="numeric">640</td><td class="numeric">32</td><td class="numeric">130</td><td class="numeric">1,254</td><td class="numeric">2,730</td><td class="numeric">816</td></tr> +<tr><td>Surplus</td><td class="numeric">277</td><td class="numeric">57</td><td class="numeric">120</td><td class="numeric">284</td><td></td><td class="numeric">307</td></tr> +<tr class="bbot"><td>Deficit</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">147</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><th colspan="7" class="left">WORLD</th></tr> +<tr><td>Surplus</td><td class="numeric">44</td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">166</td><td></td><td class="numeric">14,428</td></tr> +<tr class="bbot"><td>Deficit</td><td></td><td class="numeric">8</td><td class="numeric">59</td><td></td><td class="numeric">402</td><td></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The figures on import requirements of the +Allies and neutrals are those estimated for 1917—18, +while the estimated requirements of Germany +and Austria are pre-war net imports.</p> + +<p>"The rice surplus might be required in the +Orient for countries whose crops may have failed.</p></div> + +<table class="nobrdr" width="50%" summary="Miscellaneous crop requirements"> +<caption><span class="smcap">Note</span>.—The figures are based +on pre-war averages, 1909—1913, which may be considerably changed by post-war +conditions.</caption> +<tr><th colspan="4">MISCELLANEOUS CROP REQUIREMENTS,<br />1919.</th></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><th>Import requirements of—</th><th>Cotton<br />(50 pounds bales).</th> +<th>Tobacco<br />(million pounds).</th><th>Flaxseed<br />(million bushels).</th></tr> +<tr><th colspan="4" class="left">EUROPE</th></tr> +<tr><td>Allies, including Japan</td><td class="numeric">8,058,000</td><td class="numeric">340</td><td class="numeric">21.6</td></tr> +<tr><td>Neutrals</td><td class="numeric">720,000</td><td class="numeric">150</td><td class="numeric">7.9</td></tr> +<tr><td>Germany and Austria-Hungary (pre-war boundaries)</td><td class="numeric">2,932,000</td><td class="numeric">355</td><td class="numeric">15.7</td></tr> +<tr><td>Other countries</td><td class="numeric">1,200,00</td><td class="numeric">17</td><td></td></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><td>Total requirements</td><td class="numeric">13,010,000</td><td class="numeric">1,022</td><td class="numeric">45.2</td></tr> +<tr><th colspan="4" class="left">SURPLUS (ESTIMATED)</th></tr> +<tr><td>Countries, except United States, recently reported (1918)</td><td class="numeric">2,680,000</td><td></td><td class="numeric">40</td></tr> +<tr><td>Average, 1900—1913, for other surplus countries</td><td class="numeric">500,00</td><td class="numeric">650</td><td class="numeric"><a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>5.7</td></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><td>Total, except United States</td><td class="numeric">3,180,000</td><td class="numeric">650</td><td class="numeric">40</td></tr> +<tr><th colspan="4" class="left">UNITED STATES</th></tr> +<tr><td>Production, 1918</td><td class="numeric">11,700,00</td><td class="numeric">1,340</td><td class="numeric">14.7</td></tr> +<tr><td>Consumption</td><td class="numeric">6,600,000</td><td class="numeric">720</td><td class="numeric">26.7</td></tr> +<tr><td>Surplus</td><td class="numeric">5,100,000</td><td class="numeric">620</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Deficit</td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">12</td></tr> +<tr><th colspan="4" class="left">WORLD</th></tr> +<tr><td>Surplus</td><td></td><td class="numeric">148</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Deficit</td><td class="numeric">4,730,000</td><td></td><td class="numeric">17.2</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"><div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>Russia</div></td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The cotton table is based upon normal industrial conditions in all the +consuming countries and upon the restoration of the spinning industry in +the devastated regions. If conditions do not reach normal, and if the +industry is not restored, the consumption of cotton will be +substantially less. With practically complete restoration, cotton +consumption may well be expected to equal the normal or pre-war times on +account of the present shortage of cotton goods in various countries. +The economies which the peoples of Europe must practice for some years +to come must be considered."</p></div> + +<h3>CENTRAL EUROPE IN DIRE WANT</h3> + +<p>News from Europe showed everywhere acute suffering from lack of food; +even in France the country districts were badly off. A member of the +Federal Food Administration reported that bread was practically the only +food that anyone could afford. President Wilson referred to this subject +in the address with which he accompanied his announcement of the terms +signed by Germany. He definitely took a stand in favor of provisioning +the country, explaining that by use of the idle tonnage of the Central +Empires it ought presently to be possible to lift the fear of utter +misery,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"'from their oppressed populations and set their minds and energies free +for the great and hazardous tasks of political reconstruction which now +face them on every hand. Hunger does not breed reform; it breeds madness +and all the ugly distempers that make an ordered life impossible.</p> + +<p>"'For with the fall of the ancient governments which rested like an +incubus on the peoples of the Central Empires has come political change +not merely, but revolution.'</p> + +<p>"Putting this danger into a nutshell, the <cite>Wall Street Journal</cite> asks +whether Central Europe shall have 'bread or Bolshevism?' This strong +exponent of a firm social order is of the opinion that 'we must +recognize the fact that hunger breeds anarchy, and that the most +effective weapon against Bolshevism is a loaf of bread.' Victory has +made the Allied peoples, 'through their governments, responsible for +world conditions,' in the opinion of this paper as well as of the +Montreal <cite>Star</cite> quoted above, and Food Administrator Hoover declares +that 'the specter of famine abroad now haunts the abundance of our +tables at home.'"</p></div> + +<h3>TO PREVENT FAMINE IN GERMANY</h3> + +<p>Both in England and in France there was official recognition of the need +of preventing famine conditions in Germany. It was believed that large +imports of wheat could be brought from Australia and India. The <cite>Times</cite> +(London) said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Mr. Hoover expects that enough wheat will be brought from those +countries to permit reduction of the percentage of substitutes now +required in bread, and thus release fodder grain for dairy use. The +change, it is said, may take place within three months. But it will not +reduce the total of foodstuffs which we must supply. He predicts that +'our load will be increased,' and that there will be a greater demand +for economy.</p> + +<p>"The available quantities of grain are sufficient. From our great crop +of wheat we can spare more than 300,000,000 bushels. Canada, with a +yield almost equal to last year's, has a surplus. While our crop of corn +shows a decline of 441,000,000 bushels from that of a year ago, it is +very near to recent averages and of very good quality. The output of +home gardens, increased by one half, is not included in official +reports, although its value exceeds $500,000,000. Australia has on hand +the surplus of three wheat crops, India is said to have 120,000,000 +bushels for shipment, and much can be taken from Argentina. As a + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> + +rule, our war partners in Europe increased their crops this year. +England gains 30,000,000 bushels of wheat, Italy 24,000,000, and France +35,000,000. But other crops in France are short, and the nutritive value +of the entire yield is less than that of last year's harvest. It is well +known that the Central Powers have very little food; and no help can +come to them from the East. Before the war Russia exported a large +surplus of wheat. Many of her people are now starving. So far as can be +learned, she has no grain to sell. Bulgaria and Rumania have the +smallest crops in fifty years. Germany and Austria can get no grain from +the northern neutrals; we are sending wheat to them. There is food +enough to supply the wants of our European friends and foes until the +next harvest if it can be carefully distributed. But if the plans for +helping those who have fought against us, as well as our partners in the +war, are carried out, the American people must practice economy and +submit to restrictions for some time to come."</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-046.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-046thumb.jpg" width="400" height="238" + alt="A Food Riot in Sweden" title="A Food Riot in Sweden" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> + <p class="caption">A Food Riot in Sweden</p> + <p class="description">News from Europe immediately following the + armistice showed everywhere acute suffering from lack of food. + A member of the Federal Food Administration reported that bread + was practically the only food that anyone could afford.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-046.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>SUGAR DISTRIBUTION</h3> + +<p>Among the multiform activities of the American Food Administration, the +distribution of sugar was most difficult. America had to supply sugar to +the Allies and retain enough for the use of its own people. The matter +of the feeling of personal self-sacrifice was difficult enough but there +was the further question of how to organize and allocate distribution. +The government had to decide the amount to be distributed to sugar-using +industries. These industries had to be classified. For the manufacture +of soft drinks it was decided to allow only one-half of the sugar used +in normal times. Bakers were given a 70 percent. allotment and hotels +were permitted three pounds of sugar to every ninety meals served, +including cooking.</p> + +<p>The sugar resources of the country, both cane and beet-root, were +regulated by the so-called Sugar Equalization Board. The operation of +this body was explained officially in the <cite>Literary Digest</cite>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"This board is a part of the Food Administration and approved by the +President. Its purpose + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> + +is to equalize the cost of various sugars and to secure better +distribution. It can also coöperate with the Allies in the +procurement of sugar for them and in the adjustment of overseas freight +rates. Through capital supplied by the President through his special +funds, it is enabled, when desirable, to buy up all available sugars at +different prices and resell them at one fixed and even rate.</p> + +<p>"In other words, it provides a sort of vast storehouse of sugar, which +may be doled out where it is most needed, at a price secure from the +fluctuations otherwise inevitable in war time."</p></div> + +<h3>KEEPING DOWN THE PRICE</h3> + +<p>What might happen without this Sugar Equalization Board is illustrated +by the Civil War, when sugar, because of speculation, went as high as +thirty-five cents a pound. And at <em>that</em> time there was no world +shortage of sugar. If there were no sort of sugar control today, it may +readily be believed that the consumer might have to pay sugar prices +soaring far above those Civil War levels.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"It costs more to produce and market some sugars (such as domestic beet +sugar and Louisiana cane) than it does others, such as Cuban cane sugar. +But that is no reason why the sugar manufacturer, whose production costs +are high, should suffer, even to the extent of being forced out of the +market. Nor can the country afford to have this happen under present war +time shortage of nearby supplies. Consequently, when it becomes +necessary, the Sugar Equalization Board through its purchasing powers +can insure fair profits to the manufacturers. Then the Board may resell +this sugar, so that it reaches the public at a price lower than what the +maximum would otherwise be."</p></div> + +<h3>POTATO ECONOMY</h3> + +<p>In order to remedy the generally inadequate food supply, it became +necessary to treat such a standard food as the potato according to newly +devised methods by which it could be stored for permanent use and widely +distributed. In a lecture in Economics given to a class of the National +City Bank, it was stated that, since the war began, it was found +practicable so to preserve the potato by grinding and drying as to +transform it from a local and perishable commodity to one which could be +produced in almost unlimited quantities and distributed to any part of +the world:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The potato can be grown in almost any temperate zone area, but +theretofore nine-tenths of the world's crop of 6,000,000,000 bushels is +grown in a half-dozen countries, and almost exclusively in Europe and +North America. Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, Great Britain, +and the United States have produced in favorable years about +5,000,000,000 bushels, while the remainder of the world produced only +1,000,000,000. These six countries that produced five-tenths of the +world's potato crop have only 450,000,000 peoples, while the potatoless +world has a population of over 1,200,000,000, from which it appears that +'fully two-thirds of the population of the world live outside of the +area.'</p> + +<p>"Germany is by far the largest potato grower of the world, producing +about 2,000,000,000 out of a world crop of 6,000,000,000 bushels, using +them as a food for man and animals and the production of alcohol for use +in her industries, and for the production of heat and power when +necessary. Next in line is European Russia, with an annual crop of about +1,000,000,000 bushels; Austria-Hungary, 600,000,000; France, +500,000,000; United States, 450,000,000, and Great Britain, 300,000,000 +bushels.</p> + +<p>"This new system of turning the potato into a condition in which it can +be readily distributed has, quite naturally, developed in the country +which has the largest potato production of the world, Germany. Factories +for the crushing and drying of the potato and turning the product into +flour for man, flakes and cubes for animals, or alcohol for the chemical +industry and also as a substitute for petrol, have grown from about a +dozen a few years ago to over 400 in 1914 and 840 in 1916, with a +capacity to turn into this condensed form more than 1,000,000,000 +bushels of potatoes a year. The reduction in weight is about 60 per +cent., while the product can be preserved almost indefinitely.</p> + +<p>"The value of our own potato crop in the United States last year was +approximately $540,000,000 at the place of production, and yet the +amount entering international trade was only $4,000,000. Our potato crop +averages about 90 bushels per acre, that of European Russia 100 bushels; +France 135 bushels; Austria 150 bushels; United Kingdom 124 bushels, and +Germany 200 bushels and upward per acre, her large flavorless potato, +grown chiefly for alcohol, having reached and sometimes exceeded 500 +bushels per acre."</p></div> + +<h3>FUEL CONTROL</h3> + +<p>The coal industry was the one basic war industry. Food and munitions +were dependent upon the coal supply. It is not necessary to elaborate +this argument; it is patent to every one. The following table gives a +view of the coal production of the most important countries: + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="coal production"> +<tr><th colspan="6">COAL PRODUCTION IN THE LEADING COAL-PRODUCING COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD</th></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><th>Country</th><th>1913</th><th>1914</th><th>1915</th><th>1916</th><th>1917</th></tr> +<tr><td>United States</td><td class="numeric">570,048,125</td><td class="numeric">513,525,477</td><td class="numeric">531,619,487</td><td class="numeric">585,372,568</td><td class="numeric">621,409,629</td></tr> +<tr><td>Great Britain</td><td class="numeric">287,698,617</td><td class="numeric">265,664,393</td><td class="numeric">253,206,081</td><td class="numeric">256,348,351</td><td class="numeric">248,473,119</td></tr> +<tr><td>Germany</td><td class="numeric">278,627,497</td><td class="numeric">245,482,135</td><td class="numeric">235,082,000</td><td class="numeric"></td></tr> +<tr><td>Austria-Hungary</td><td class="numeric">59,647,957</td><td class="numeric"></td><td class="numeric">30,896,388</td><td class="numeric">28,558,719</td></tr> +<tr><td>France</td><td class="numeric">40,843,618</td><td class="numeric">29,786,505</td><td class="numeric">19,908,000</td><td class="numeric">21,477,000</td><td class="numeric">28,960,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Russia</td><td class="numeric">35,500,674</td><td class="numeric"></td><td class="numeric">27,820,632</td><td class="numeric">13,622,400</td><td class="numeric">13,266,760</td></tr> +<tr><td>Belgium</td><td class="numeric">22,847,000</td><td class="numeric"></td><td class="numeric">15,930,000</td><td class="numeric"></td></tr> +<tr><td>Japan</td><td class="numeric">21,315,962</td><td class="numeric">21,293,419</td><td class="numeric">20,490,747</td><td class="numeric">22,901,580</td></tr> +<tr><td>India</td><td class="numeric">18,163,856</td><td class="numeric"></td><td class="numeric">17,103,932</td><td class="numeric">17,254,309</td></tr> +<tr><td>China</td><td class="numeric">15,432,200</td><td class="numeric"></td><td class="numeric">18,000,000</td><td class="numeric"></td></tr> +<tr><td>Canada</td><td class="numeric">15,012,178</td><td class="numeric">13,637,529</td><td class="numeric">13,267,023</td><td class="numeric">14,483,395</td><td class="numeric">14,015,588</td></tr> +<tr><td>Spain</td><td class="numeric">4,731,647</td><td class="numeric">4,424,439</td><td class="numeric">4,686,753</td><td class="numeric">5,588,594</td></tr> +<tr class="bbot"><td>Holland</td><td class="numeric">2,064,608</td><td class="numeric"></td><td class="numeric">2,333,000</td><td class="numeric">2,656,000</td><td></td></tr> +</table> + +<h3>THE COAL SHORTAGE</h3> + +<p>A rapid advance in coal prices was inevitable under war conditions of +unceasing demand and diminishing supply. Says Mr. William Notz in an +article in the <cite>Journal of Political Economy</cite>, June, 1918:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The question of war-time coal prices offers many angles of interest. +Everywhere prices have increased far above pre-war levels. Voluntary +agreements on the part of producers and dealers to limit prices and +profits have failed without exception. In all the leading coal-consuming +countries of the world maximum prices had to be fixed sooner or later by +government action. In every case the maximum mine prices are +considerably above the average scale of prices obtaining in the years +immediately prior to the war. In every country where maximum sales +prices at the mines were fixed, liberal allowances were made for wage +increases to mine workers. In Great Britain present maximum mine prices +approximate 6s. 6d. above the average mine price which obtained during +the year ending June 30, 1914. In the United States special mine prices +have been fixed for each state, and in many cases also for certain coal +fields within a state. The f.o.b. price for bituminous coal in +Pennsylvania was in 1913 $1.11 and in 1918, $2.60. Anthracite increased +to $4.00 ($4.55 for white ash broken).</p> + +<p>"In Germany the total increase in mine prices of the Rhenish-Westphalian +Coal Syndicate from the beginning of the war to January, 1917, +approximated $1.25 per ton.</p> + +<p>"While a certain degree of uniformity is noticeable in the rise in price +levels for coal at the mines in the countries where maximum prices have +been fixed, an entirely different picture presents itself if we compare +the maximum retail coal prices obtaining under government regulations in +different sections of the same country. In most countries the national +coal controller has established a uniform maximum margin of profit for +all retail coal dealers, while local authorities have fixed maximum +retail coal prices for their communities. By reason of the fact that in +establishing maximum retail consumers' prices allowances had to be made +for increased handling expenses, freight rates, middlemen's profits, war +taxes, etc., retail coal prices at the present time universally show a +very heavy increase over pre-war prices."</p></div> + +<h3>FUEL CONSERVATION MEASURES</h3> + +<p>American Fuel Control had to grapple drastically with a situation of +shortage so dangerous that a catastrophe might have been precipitated at +any moment. Fuel Administrator Garfield issued orders for coal +conservation of a most startling and unusual character. Factories east +of the Mississippi were ordered shut down for five days beginning +January 18, 1918. Monday, furthermore,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"was decreed a holiday for ten weeks on which offices, factories, and +stores, except drug and food stores, must use only such fuel as is +necessary to prevent damage. The order under which these restrictions +were made, according to the Fuel Administration's statement to the +press, was 'designed to distribute with absolute impartiality the +burden,' and it added that the Fuel Administration 'counts upon the +complete patriotic coöperation of every individual, firm, and +corporation affected by the order in its enforcement.' We read further +that the government aims to carry out its plan without 'undue +interference with the ordinary course of business' and earnestly desires +to 'prevent entirely any dislocation of industry or labor.'</p></div> + +<h3>SHUT-DOWN OF INDUSTRY TO SAVE COAL</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Fuel Administrator Garfield hoped to save 30,000,000 tons of coal and +to give the railroads a chance to straighten out the transportation +tangle in the eastern states, according to a Washington correspondent of the New York + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> + +<cite>Tribune</cite>, who notes that the measures were taken by the President and +the government heads 'as a desperate remedy.' The closing down of the +greater part of the nation's industries, trades, and business, says the +New York <cite>Sun</cite>, is the 'fruit of the insane, criminal starvation of the +railroads by the government for a generation'; yet regardless of what it +may cost any individual or group of individuals, the order is to be +'greeted without protest.' A surgeon was more welcome than an +undertaker, in the view of this daily, and a disaster of the second +degree and a temporary one is better than a disaster of the first degree +and a permanent one. If the five-day term clears the railroads and the +Monday holidays set the trains running with their former clocklike +regularity, the <cite>Sun</cite> added, we can resume being the 'busiest nation on +earth, instead of being an industrial paralytic.' While recognizing that +the order struck Utica and all cities in the designated territory 'a +staggering blow,' the <cite>Utica Press</cite> holds that there is really nothing a +patriotic city could do about it save to accept the situation with as +good grace as possible, and if the result hasten the end all will agree +that it was a good investment. The Chicago <cite>Herald</cite> considered the order +'a tremendous decision' carrying with it a 'tremendous responsibility,' +and while the chief industries of the principal part of a nation can not +be stopped even for a day without disorganization and loss, still the +country is willing to pay the price 'if it is the necessary cost of +preventing the suffering of hundreds and thousands, perhaps millions, of +individuals and of keeping certain indispensable war and public +functions going at their accustomed speed.'"</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-049.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-049thumb.jpg" alt="Harry A. Garfield" + title="Harry A. Garfield" height="292" width="400" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Copyright by Underwood & Underwood</p> + <p class="caption">Harry A. Garfield</p> + <p class="description">As Fuel Administrator during the war he + issued orders for coal conservation of a most startling + character. Factories east of the Mississippi were ordered + shut down for five days beginning January 18, 1918. Monday + was decreed a holiday for ten weeks "on which offices, + factories and stores must use only such fuel as is necessary to + prevent damage."</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-049.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>THE GOVERNMENT'S EXPLANATION</h3> + +<p>From Fuel Administrator Garfield's explanation of the necessity of the +order the following passage is taken:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The most urgent thing to be done is to send to the American forces +abroad and to the Allies the food and war supplies which they + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> + +vitally need. War munitions, food, manufactured articles of every +description, lie at our Atlantic ports in tens of thousands of tons, +while literally hundreds of ships, waiting, loaded with war goods for +our men and the Allies, can not take the seas because their bunkers are +empty of coal. The coal to send them on their way is waiting behind the +congested freight that has jammed all the terminals.</p> + +<p>"It is worse than useless to bend our energies to more manufacturing +when what we have already manufactured lies at tidewater, congesting +terminal facilities, jamming the railroad yards and side tracks for a +long distance back into the country. No power on earth can move this +freight into the war zone, where it is needed, until we supply the ships +with fuel.</p> + +<p>"Once the docks are cleared of the valuable freight for which our men +and associates in the war now wait in vain, then again our energies and +power may be turned to manufacturing, more efficient than ever; so that +a steady and uninterrupted stream of vital supplies may be this nation's +answer to the Allies' cry for help....</p> + +<p>"This is war. Whatever the cost, we must pay it, so that in the face of +the enemy there can never be the reproach that we held back from doing +our full share. Those ships, laden with our supplies of food for men and +food for guns, must have coal and put to sea."</p></div> + +<h3>GARFIELD'S PLAN FOR FUEL ECONOMY, 1918—19</h3> + +<p>After the trying experiences of the winter of 1918, the Fuel +Administration began to prepare in the following summer for another +prospective shortage in coal supply. Fortunately the following winter +was remarkably mild throughout the country. But the plans outlined by +the Fuel Administration are more than useful as a matter of record. They +may be used as a model under other conditions of fuel shortage. The +following passage from the Fuel Administration <cite>Bulletin</cite> illustrates +the plan of campaign:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + <p>"Fuel economy is being given intensive study in connection with steam + plants and industrial uses. An organization is already in existence, + provided with engineers and inspectors who will visit every one of the + two hundred and fifty thousand steam-producing plants in the country + with a view to the improvement both of equipment and firing practice. + This is expected to save twenty million tons of coal.</p> + + <p>"The economical use of power in factories will be in the hands of + organized shop committees. The power loads of the public utilities + throughout the country are being studied with a view to readjustments + which will result in large saving.</p> + + <p>"In many cities the isolated power plants which use an extravagant + amount of coal in proportion to the power produced will be urged to + obtain more economical power from large producing stations.</p> + + <p>"The introduction of 'skip-stop' schedules on all the street railways is + expected to save a million tons of coal. The consolidation of ice plants + will yield a still larger tonnage. Unnecessary outdoor lighting, + including advertising signs and display illumination, will be reduced. + Hotels, office buildings, apartment houses, and public buildings are + being asked to join in rigid economy of light and heat.</p> + + <p>"Every American citizen will be asked to clean his furnace, keep it in + repair, and study economical firing. Instructions prepared by the + highest authority will be furnished by the Fuel Administration.</p> + + <p>"If every one joins in this movement, from the owner of an industrial + plant to the householder with his furnace and cook stove, if indoor and + outdoor lighting is reduced to the amount absolutely needed, if houses + are not overheated, the furnace dampers properly adjusted, and the ashes + sifted, it will be possible to save from fifty to seventy-five million + tons of coal without serious inconvenience to the American people."</p> +</div> + +<h3>DIFFICULTIES OF FUEL CONTROL</h3> + +<p>Some conception of the difficulties involved in the work of fuel control +was set forth officially in a paper published by the Fuel Administration +called <cite>Fuel Problems in War Time</cite>. The production of coal, it pointed +out, stands on a different basis from that of any other major industry +of the country. The differences are illustrated in the following +paragraphs:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"As an illustration, consider the cotton crop with its millions of +bales. Every bale of cotton raised in the country last year amounted to +no more than the coal moved in one and one-third days. Or take the wheat +crop for comparison. We hear of the immense preparations made during the +fall months for moving the wheat crop; yet the weight of America's +enormous wheat crop of 1917 is equaled by the coal mined and transported +every eight days.</p> + +<p>"Every year the miners go into the ground and dig out coal and the +railroads ship it for hundreds of miles, dragging back the empty cars, +until the amount mined equals two and one-fourth times the earth and +rock removed in digging the Panama Canal. <em>It took sixteen years to dig +the Panama Canal. Our miners will dig two and one-half Panama Canals +this year.</em></p> + +<p>"In the mining of coal we are dealing with a task so gigantic that the +wonder is not why we have not increased production to meet the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> + +demand, whatever that might be, but +how, with the men and equipment overtaxed by the multiplicity of the +demands of the war, we were able to increase the output fifty million +tons in 1917, and will be able to add a probable fifty million tons to +that high record the present year.</p> + +<p>"The wonder is increased when we note that every other coal-producing +country now in the war found it impossible to maintain the pre-war +production of coal. In every case the output is less now than before the +war. In England seven and one-half per cent. less coal was produced the +first year of the war than in the previous year and five per cent. less +than this reduced output in the following year. America alone has been +able to increase its production of coal in addition to meeting the +thousands of other increases demanded by war preparation.</p></div> + +<h3>COAL AND THE STEEL SUPPLY</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"As every one knows, coal mining is very largely a matter of coal +transportation. The most difficult task involved in an increase must +fall upon the railroads. The wonderful work these railroads are doing is +brought into bold relief when we remember that in 1914, when the great +war started, the output of bituminous coal in the United States was +423,000,000 tons, and that in 1918 it promises to be nearly 200,000,000 +tons greater.</p> + +<p>"Apparently, this country today can furnish the steel required if only +it can get the necessary coal. The work of the Fuel Administration +during many months has been directed toward increasing coal production. +These efforts have borne much fruit, miners are approaching one hundred +per cent. service, while the railroads are outdoing themselves +expediting the movement of coal cars from the mine to the consumer and +back again.</p> + +<p>"But war's demands mount so rapidly that even with full speed ahead +production can not make the pace. <em>A fuel deficit can be averted only by +the most intensive conservation.</em> Conservation, economy, savings, +sacrifice must fill the gap between the possible increase of production +and the greater increase of demand. If every user of coal will join the +army of fuel conservationists, realizing that the need for steel to +carry on this war is practically unlimited and that every ton saved +means an additional five hundred pounds of steel, there is +prospect—the figures show it—that the work of the miners +will not be in vain. Our increased production, plus conservation, the +Fuel Administration believes, can furnish the coal, and hence the steel +needed for the war, and still leave none of our people cold."</p></div> + +<h3>SIDE ISSUES OF FUEL CONTROL</h3> + +<p>Economizing coal involved all kinds of unexpected side issues. As an +illustration of the far extended reach of the Fuel Administration there +was the example of the skip-stop plan in street railway traffic enforced +by the Federal administration. A writer in the Chicago <cite>Engineering and +Contracting Journal</cite> suggested, September 4, 1918, that the Government +should adopt and extend the policy of compelling individuals and +corporations to use economic methods and machines:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Conceive, if you can, what could be accomplished in America in the way +of increased productivity and economy if our Federal Government had the +authority to make every individual and every company adopt any method or +device that had been proved to be economic. No engineer acquainted with +the application of the principles of the science of management can doubt +that if the universal adoption of those principles could be forced upon +producers in general, this nation could increase its productivity fully +25 per cent. That would alone add more than twelve million dollars +annually to the national income. But that is not all. The application of +the principles of the science of management is only a fraction of the +total enginery at our disposal. We have literally countless labor and +material-saving machines and appliances that are scarcely used, although +many of them are generations old. Does this sound incredible? Certainly +not to any engineer who has a wide acquaintance with the literature of +engineering.</p> + +<p>"Take so simple a thing as the heat insulator for steam pipes and +boilers. It has been known to engineers for nearly a century that by +encasing boilers and pipes with magnesia or other suitable insulators, +practically all heat radiation and conduction losses could be stopped. +Furthermore, it has been known to engineers that the saving in fuel thus +effected would pay an annual interest of 20 per cent. on the cost of the +heat insulator. But go into the basements of steam-heated residences if +you want to get a conception of how rarely this knowledge is applied. +The landlord may know that heat insulators would earn a big return on +their cost, but since they would earn it for the tenant and not for +himself, he does not cover the boiler and pipes adequately, if at all. +The tenant, even if he knows the economics of heat insulating, will not +spend the money for insulators whose use he may not enjoy for more than +a year or two before he moves out. For similar reasons very few houses +have double windows, although double windows will save fully 15 per +cent. of the fuel required to heat the average house. On these matters +the Fuel Administration has power to act, and it should act."</p></div> + +<h3>FUEL CONTROL IN GREAT BRITAIN</h3> + +<p>Coal mining was always one of the most significant elements in British +trade. Before the war 270,000,000 tons of coal were produced in + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> + +the mines of Great Britain. Parliamentary legislation of a most radical +character dealing with the ownership and operation of coal mines was +passed. The main provision of this legislation was described in the +following passage from the London <cite>Morning Post</cite>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Briefly, the main provisions of the bill are the following: Under the +present Finance Act the state takes 80 per cent. of the profits in +excess of those made in the two best of the last three pre-war years, or +above 9 per cent. of the capital employed. The new scheme deprives +owners of these statutory rights. It does away altogether with the +percentage standard. Output is made the chief determining factor in the +regulation of the profits to be retained by the coal owner. The +production of a colliery working under normal conditions during the two +pre-war years, which has already been adopted under the Finance Act for +the purposes of the Excess Profits Duty, is adopted as the standard +output. If that output is maintained in any accounting period under the +new bill, the colliery owner will be guaranteed a profit equal to the +average profit made in the standard period, whether he makes it or not. +If his trading profits in the accounting period are greater than those +in the standard period, the treasury will take its 80 per cent. of the +difference under the authority of the Finance Act, the Controller will +retain 15 per cent. of it in order to create a fund for the compensation +of the less fortunate collieries and the administration of his +department, and the coal owner will be allowed to retain 5 per cent. of +the excess. Thus a colliery company with a profits standard of +£50,000 will, if it maintain its standard output, continue to +receive £50,000; if such company make, say, £70,000, it will +be permitted, generally speaking, to retain only 5 per cent. of the +extra £20,000, that is to say, £1,000, plus the statutory +£200, or £51,200 in all; but in no case shall the retainable +profits exceed five-sixths of the profits standard. In that illustration +the scheme is to be seen at its best, and, under the conditions, it is +not unreasonable."</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-052.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-052thumb.jpg" alt="Drying Fruit and Vegetables" + title="Drying Fruit and Vegetables to Save Tin and Glass" + width="400" height="276" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Photo by P. Thompso</p> + <p class="caption">Drying Fruit and Vegetables to Save Tin and Glass</p> + <p class="description">Conservation became a great watchword + during the World War. Mr. F. P. Lund of the U. S. Department + of Agriculture showed women how tin and glass could be saved + by drying fruit instead of canning it.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-052.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> + +<h3>OTHER FORMS OF CONSERVATION</h3> + +<p>The War Industries Board worked out a program for clothing conservation +that showed a positive genius for detail. The most technical directions +were issued regarding clothing. Double breasted coats, for example, were +eliminated and the Board urged the wearing of sack suits only. Even the +complicated subject of handling women's attire had no terrors for the +experts employed by the Board. The characteristic features of its order +can be judged by the following extract from the directions published on +this subject:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"All shoes, both leather and fabric, shall be restricted to black, +white, and two colors of tan (the two colors of tan to be dark brown or +tan and a medium brown or tan).</p> + +<p>"Patent leather shall be black only. These color regulations do not +apply to baby shoes made of fabrics.</p> + +<p>"Shoe-manufacturers shall not, for the next six months, introduce, +purchase, or use any new style lasts. They may replenish to cover +wastage or to meet requirements on present lasts now in use in the +manufacture of shoes. This is to be effective at once. By new style +lasts is meant any lasts which have not actually been used for the +manufacture of shoes in the past season.</p> + +<p>"The use of leather as a quarter lining in oxfords and low shoes is +permitted only when used in skeleton form with fabric. Leather linings +will be permitted in evening slippers where uppers are made of fabrics. +We advocate the use of full fabric linings for low shoes wherever +possible.</p> + +<p>"The maximum height of women's shoes, both leather and fabric, shall not +exceed eight inches (measured from breast of heel at side to center of +top at side of finished shoes), size 4B to be the base measure.</p> + +<p>"The maximum height of misses' shoes, size 1½, shall not exceed +6½ inches (measured as above).</p> + +<p>"The maximum height of children's shoes, sizes 8½-11, shall not +exceed six inches.</p> + +<p>"The maximum height of boys' and youths' shoes shall not exceed +5½ inches.</p> + +<p>"The maximum height of infants' shoes, sizes 4-8, shall not exceed +5½ inches.</p> + +<p>"The maximum height of button shoes for women shall not exceed 6½ +inches.</p> + +<p>"The maximum height of all women's overgaiters shall not exceed eight +inches, measured from breast of heel at side to center of top at side.</p> + +<p>"The maximum height of misses' overgaiters shall not exceed 6½ +inches (measured as above)."</p></div> + +<h3>LEATHER CONSERVATION</h3> + +<p>Germany was not the only country prepared to employ substitutes. When +the National Army in the United States was organized the <cite>Wall Street +Journal</cite> predicted that on account of the large consumption of leather +for military purposes, the civilian population would be obliged to have +thinner soles and probably to use leather substitutes:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Price fixing on leather is still 'in the air.' It is not an easy +proposition, in view of the complexity of grades and the variations in +quality. The most practicable arrangement would be a series of general +price standards, with allowance for deviations. Unlike other +commodities, leather trading is a very flexible affair. The trade is +confident of fair price maxima in relation to recently fixed hide +quotations; possibly, in view of higher labor and other costs, of +somewhat more liberal rates than hide prices, which have just been +modified upward somewhat.</p> + +<p>"Leather prices have been tending upward all round. Heavy sole leather, +which did not recede nearly as much as lighter grades in the slump of +last winter, are now nearly back to the high point of early last fall. +Union sole has advanced four cents since May 1, and for some varieties +of leather above No. 9 iron the market is around eighty cents, against +sixty-five cents earlier this spring.</p> + +<p>"In leather it is a case of all-round conservation, plus intensive +effort for maximum output with government aid. Export +license-restrictions have just been tightened, and most of what is +shipped now goes to England. Neutrals must wait. In nine months to April +1st we exported but 20,342,101 pounds of sole leather, against +84,267,573 a year before. In March we shipped only 490,000 pounds to +other countries than England, against 1,945,000 a year earlier. Hardly +any is now moving save on British government order.</p> + +<p>"<del>Men't</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads Men't">Men's</ins> shoes of higher quality and price will be affected chiefly by the +requirement to carry soles as light as women's wear. This will involve +either more frequent buying or more resort to tapping. Cheapest grades +of shoes will be least affected, being almost wholly outside the +military scope. In fact, some manufacturers of low-priced shoes have +lately been enabled to use better material than usual, thanks to army +'leavings.' It is the urgent advice of the Government and tanners that +shoe manufacturers promptly conform to the new program and that +consumers cheerfully accept it. Meanwhile, experiments are continuing +under government direction as to further extension of the use of +composition or even of wooden soles to help meet the increased demand +and short supply equation in leather."</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p> + +<h3>FAIR PRICE LISTS</h3> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-054.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-054thumb.jpg" alt=""Back on the Farm"" + title=""Back on the Farm"" width="400" height="272" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Photo by P. Thompson</p> + <p class="caption">"Back on the Farm"</p> + <p class="description">The number of slaughterable animals + decreased in the United States and in Europe during the war. + The shortage of fats was helped by the production of more + animals, increasing the weight of those slaughtered, and by + changed methods of cooking, including the substitution of + vegetable oils for butter.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-054.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p>One of the plans to prevent the discontent arising from food speculation +promoted by retailers and profiteers, was the preparation of fair price +lists to protect the consumer. Every week new price lists were prepared +so as to cover new fluctuation of cost to the retailer. These lists were +given to the newspapers so that the consumer might be steadily informed +and advised as to what he ought to pay the retailers in his city or +town. It was shown how the patriotic retailer gained by the protection +that this list <del>offorded</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads offorded">afforded</ins> him against the danger of unpatriotic +profiteering. The United States Food Administration explained in a +public statement the significance of the fair price lists. "They were +nothing more," it said, "than bulletins to inform the public of the +prices the retailer has to pay for certain foods, and the price he has +to sell them to the consumer.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Such a bulletin at one stroke does away with all the obscurity which +too often veils the price increase which takes place at the hands of the +retailer.</p> + +<p>"To give an example, it shows at just what price a retailer is able to +buy oatmeal and at just what price he is entitled to sell it. If any +retailer decides to set upon the food he has for sale a higher price +than that which brings him a fair profit, he is labeling himself +'Profiteer.' And thereafter it depends upon the public's own choice +whether they shall trade with him or not.</p> + +<p>"In accordance with the plans of the Food Administration such a system +of fair price lists is now in operation throughout the country. Every +week new price lists are prepared so as to cover new fluctuations of +cost to the retailer. And these up-to-the-minute fair price lists are +given to the newspapers to print so that the consumer may be steadily +informed and advised as to what he ought to pay the retailers in his +city or town."</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p> + +<h3>HOW FAIR PRICE LISTS ARE MADE UP</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In theory the plan is the simplest imaginable. But it is complicated by +the size of this country and by the variety of local food conditions +which are bound to affect the price at which the retailer can buy and +sell his foodstuffs. It would be utterly impossible to set forth one +fair price list which would <em>be</em> fair for every spot in this country at +any one time. A grocer in Calais, Maine, may be able to buy potatoes at +a lower rate than a grocer in Snohomish, Washington. And the grocers of +Red Oak, Iowa, may have to pay a different price from either. Obviously, +each locality must determine its own fair price list.</p> + +<p>"This is done by establishing in every community or county where fair +price lists are to be put out a Price Interpreting Board, consisting of +representatives of wholesale grocers, retailers, and consumers. The +County Food Administration or his representative should act as chairman +of this board. Such boards include representatives of both 'Cash and +Carry' stores and 'Credit and Delivery' stores. These boards secure from +wholesale representatives the prices charged to the retailer for various +staple foods. With this as a basis, plus their knowledge of local +conditions, and guided by a schedule of maximum margins submitted to +them by the Food Administration at Washington, they determine what is a +reasonable profit at which the retailer may sell to the consumer. Thus +the retailer does not have a scale of selling prices arbitrarily thrust +upon him; he helps determine them himself."</p></div> + +<h3>PROFITEERING</h3> + +<p>The natural and inevitable results of war on living conditions with food +shortage and high prices were an unfamiliar factor in American +experience for two generations. The artificial product of war time +industry, "profiteering," was hard to be evoluted and caused resentment +against those responsible for the practice. To deal with profiteers was +no easy matter. How can profiteering be discriminated from legitimate +profit-taking? How, too, can its existence be proved, for high fixed +prices are not always an evidence of profiteering methods. The +complexities of the various trade practices lumped together under the +term profiteering are illustrated in the pamphlet on <em>Profiteering</em>, +issued by W. B. Colver, Chairman of the Federal Trade Commission, in the +form of a letter submitted on request to the U.S. Senate:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Survey of the petroleum field shows that the market, when under the +control of dominating factors, such as Standard Oil, can be one of huge +profits without the device of the high fixed price. No price for the +public has been fixed upon petroleum and its products by the government. +Unlike the situation in steel, flour, and coal, there has been as yet no +government interference with the law of supply and demand except in the +instances of government purchases. Under that law large profits may +eventuate through the bidding up of prices by anxious buyers. And, +moreover, even in the absence of this element, prices may be forced up +by spreading false and misleading information concerning the condition +of supply and demand. Reports, for instance, have been circulated that +the supply of gasoline was endangered for the purpose of maintaining the +high price of that product and the heavy profits from it. At different +stages of the oil industry different products of petroleum have yielded +the heavy profits. Kerosene was once the chief profit producer. Gasoline +followed and superseded it as the chief producer of profits. Enormous +profits are now being made in fuel oil, with the advantage to the +refiner that the high price of that product meets no popular challenge. +Gasoline is maintained at its present high price and produces heavy +profits for the low cost refiners."</p></div> + +<h3>PROFITEERING IN THE MEAT INDUSTRY</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Similarly, the power of dominant factors in a given industry in +maintaining high prices and harvesting unprecedented profits is shown in +a survey of the meat packing situation. Five meat packers, Armour, +Swift, Morris, Wilson, and Cudahy, and their subsidiary and affiliated +companies, have monopolistic control of the meat industry and are +reaching for like domination in other products. Their manipulations of +the market embrace every device that is useful to them, without regard +to law. Their reward, expressed in terms of profit, reveals that four of +these concerns have pocketed in 1915, 1916, and 1917, $140,000,000. +Comparisons between their present profits and those of the pre-war +period are given below. However delicate a definition is framed for +'profiteering,' these packers have preyed upon the people +unconscionably. They are soon to come under further governmental +regulation approved by Executive order."</p></div> + +<h3>PROFITEERING IN THE MEAT INDUSTRY</h3> + +<p>Some further details on the methods of securing huge profits in the meat +packing industry are given in the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"An exposition of the excess profits of four of the big meat packers +(Armour, Swift, Morris, Cudahy, omitting Wilson as not comparable) is +given in the fact that their aggregate average pre-war profit (1912, +1913, and 1914) was $19,000,000; that in 1915 they earned $17,000,000 +excess profits over the pre-war period; in 1916, $36,000,000 more profit +than in the pre-war period; and in 1917, $68,000,000 more profit +than in the pre-war period. In the three war years from 1915 to + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> + +1917 <del>there</del> <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads there">their</ins> +total profits have reached the astounding figure of $140,000,000, of +which $121,000,000 represents excess over their pre-war profits.</p> + +<p>"These great increases in profits are not due solely to increased volume +of business. The sales of these companies in this period increased 150 +per cent., much of this increase being due to higher prices rather than +to increased volume by weight, but the return of profit increased 400 +per cent., or two and one-half times as much as the sales.</p> + +<p>"The profit taken by Morris & Co. for the fiscal year ended November +1, 1917, is equal to a rate of 18.6 per cent. on the net worth of the +company (capital and surplus) and 263.7 per cent. on the three millions +of capital stock outstanding. In the case of the other four companies +the earned rate on common capital stock is much lower—from 27 per +cent. to 47 per cent.—but the reason for this is that these +companies have from time to time declared stock dividends and in other +ways capitalized their growing surpluses. Thus Armour in 1916 raised its +capital stock from twenty millions to one hundred millions without +receiving a dollar more of cash. If Swift, Wilson, Cudahy, and Armour +had followed the practice of Morris in not capitalizing their surpluses +(accumulated from excessive profits), they too would now show an +enormous rate of profit on their original capital."</p></div> + +<h3>JUGGLING OF ACCOUNTS—HUGE SALARIES</h3> + +<p>Mr. Colver gives information supported by trustworthy data on other +devious and subtle types of profiteering practices:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In cases where the government fixes a definite margin on profit above +costs, as in the case of flour, there is a considerable incentive to a +fictitious enhancement of costs through account juggling. This has added +to the volume of unusual profits. Increase of cost showing on the +producers' books can be accomplished in various ways. The item of +depreciation can be padded. Officers' salaries can be increased. +Interest on investment can be included in cost. New construction can be +recorded as repairs. Fictitious valuations on raw material can be added, +and inventories can be manipulated.</p> + +<p>"The Federal Trade Commission has been vigilant and untiring in its +exclusion of these practices. An instance of this practice was afforded +by the Ismert-Hincke Milling Co., of Kansas City, Mo. This company +padded its costs by heavily increasing all its officers' salaries and by +manipulating the inventory value of flour bags on hand. As evidence of +the length to which padding can be carried, it may be added that this +company even included in its costs the gift of an automobile which it +charged to advertising expenses. This case was heard of by the +commission for the Food Administration. The commission recommended +revocation of license and the recommendation was followed.</p> + +<p>"Payment of extraordinary salaries and in some instances bonuses to +executives of corporations have been found by the commission during its +investigations."</p></div> + +<h3>WAR COST OF LIVING</h3> + +<p>A complete synopsis of the cost of living situation in the United +States, during the four <del>pears'</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads pears'">years'</ins> +period July, 1914, to June, 1918, was issued by the National Industrial +Conference Board after a country-wide survey. The basis taken was that +of family budgets divided under five heads: food, shelter, clothing, +fuel and light, and sundries. The average increase for the period was +shown to be between 50 and 55 per cent. The most marked advance was in +clothing, 77 per cent. But the food advance of 62 per cent. was really +more important because food represented 43 per cent. of the average +expenditure, while clothing represented only 13 per cent. Wholesale +prices, the report pointed out, are not to be relied upon in estimating +the cost of living, because many articles enter only indirectly into the +family budget. Often, too, wholesale prices are not reflected in retail +prices until months later. The estimates given by the Board were based +upon the expenditures of eleven thousand families:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In reaching 52.3 per cent. as the amount of increase in the cost of +living for the four years' period, the expenditures of 11,000 families +were considered. Following is a table in which besides the 52.3 per +cent. for all items entering into the family budget, the percentage for +rent, clothing, fuel, and light, and sundries are given:</p></div> + +<table class="nobrdrsm" summary="cost of living increase"> +<tr><th>Budget Item</th><th>Per Cent. Distribution of Family Expenditure</th><th>Per Cent. Inc. in Cost Dur'g War Period to June, 1918</th><th>Per Cent. Increase as Related to Total Budget</th></tr> +<tr><td>All items.</td><td class="numeric">100.0</td><td class="numeric">..</td><td class="numeric">52.3</td></tr> +<tr><td>Food</td><td class="numeric">43.1</td><td class="numeric">62</td><td class="numeric">26.7</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rent</td><td class="numeric">17.7</td><td class="numeric">15</td><td class="numeric">2.7</td></tr> +<tr><td>Clothing</td><td class="numeric">13.2</td><td class="numeric">77</td><td class="numeric">10.2</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fuel and light</td><td class="numeric">5.6</td><td class="numeric">45</td><td class="numeric">2.5</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sundries</td><td class="numeric">20.4</td><td class="numeric">50</td><td class="numeric">10.2</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The figures examined prove that there was a fair similarity of increase +in the different sections of the country. The advance in rent in the +dwelling places of the average wage earner was put down at 15 per cent.</p> + +<p>"A general summary is given of changes in the cost of living among +industrial workers as presented by the Railroad Wage Commission +for the period between December, 1915, and the end of April, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> + +1918, as follows:</p></div> + +<table class="nobrdrsm" summary="cost of living by income"> +<tr><td></td><th class="numeric">Per Cent.</th></tr> +<tr><td>For families with incomes up to $600</td><td class="numeric">43</td></tr> +<tr><td>For families with incomes from $600 to $1,000</td><td class="numeric">41</td></tr> +<tr><td>For families with incomes from $1,000 to $2,000</td><td class="numeric">40</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"By the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen the advance in +living costs between 1914 and 1917 was placed at 43 per cent. Conditions +among ship-building workers on the Pacific coast, as arrived at by the +United States Shipping Board, indicated that between June, 1916, and +February, 1918, living costs had gone up 46 per cent. A table is given +which shows relative increase in the cost of food as measured by +wholesale and retail prices for the past six years."</p></div> + +<table class="nobrdrsm" summary="Relative wholesale prices"> +<col width="40%" /> +<col width="20%" /> +<col width="20%" /> +<col width="20%" /> +<tr><th rowspan="2">Year and Month</th><th colspan="2">Relative Wholesale Price of</th><th rowspan="2">Relative Retail Price of Food</th></tr> +<tr><th>Farm Products</th><th>Food, Etc.</th></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">1913</td></tr> +<tr><td>Average for year</td><td class="numeric">100</td><td class="numeric">100</td><td class="numeric">100</td></tr> +<tr><td>January</td><td class="numeric">97</td><td class="numeric">99</td><td class="numeric">98</td></tr> +<tr><td>April</td><td class="numeric">97</td><td class="numeric">96</td><td class="numeric">98</td></tr> +<tr><td>July</td><td class="numeric">101</td><td class="numeric">101</td><td class="numeric">100</td></tr> +<tr><td>October</td><td class="numeric">103</td><td class="numeric">102</td><td class="numeric">104</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">1914</td></tr> +<tr><td>Average for year</td><td class="numeric">103</td><td class="numeric">103</td><td class="numeric">102</td></tr> +<tr><td>January</td><td class="numeric">101</td><td class="numeric">102</td><td class="numeric">104</td></tr> +<tr><td>April</td><td class="numeric">103</td><td class="numeric">95</td><td class="numeric">97</td></tr> +<tr><td>July</td><td class="numeric">104</td><td class="numeric">103</td><td class="numeric">102</td></tr> +<tr><td>October</td><td class="numeric">103</td><td class="numeric">107</td><td class="numeric">105</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">1915</td></tr> +<tr><td>Average for year</td><td class="numeric">105</td><td class="numeric">104</td><td class="numeric">101</td></tr> +<tr><td>January</td><td class="numeric">102</td><td class="numeric">106</td><td class="numeric">103</td></tr> +<tr><td>April</td><td class="numeric">107</td><td class="numeric">105</td><td class="numeric">99</td></tr> +<tr><td>July</td><td class="numeric">108</td><td class="numeric">104</td><td class="numeric">100</td></tr> +<tr><td>October</td><td class="numeric">105</td><td class="numeric">104</td><td class="numeric">103</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">1916</td></tr> +<tr><td>Average for year</td><td class="numeric">122</td><td class="numeric">126</td><td class="numeric">114</td></tr> +<tr><td>January</td><td class="numeric">108</td><td class="numeric">114</td><td class="numeric">107</td></tr> +<tr><td>April</td><td class="numeric">114</td><td class="numeric">117</td><td class="numeric">109</td></tr> +<tr><td>July</td><td class="numeric">118</td><td class="numeric">121</td><td class="numeric">111</td></tr> +<tr><td>October</td><td class="numeric">136</td><td class="numeric">140</td><td class="numeric">121</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">1917</td></tr> +<tr><td>Average for year</td><td class="numeric">188</td><td class="numeric">177</td><td class="numeric">146</td></tr> +<tr><td>January</td><td class="numeric">147</td><td class="numeric">150</td><td class="numeric">128</td></tr> +<tr><td>April</td><td class="numeric">180</td><td class="numeric">182</td><td class="numeric">145</td></tr> +<tr><td>July</td><td class="numeric">198</td><td class="numeric">180</td><td class="numeric">146</td></tr> +<tr><td>October</td><td class="numeric">207</td><td class="numeric">183</td><td class="numeric">157</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">1918</td></tr> +<tr><td>January</td><td class="numeric">208</td><td class="numeric">188</td><td class="numeric">160</td></tr> +<tr><td>April</td><td class="numeric">217</td><td class="numeric">179</td><td class="numeric">154</td></tr> +</table> + +<h3>CIVIL WAR COST OF LIVING</h3> + +<p>The Civil War years of the United States were always remembered as the +era of high prices. Yet it is interesting to know that the increase in +living cost after the United States had been in war one year was greater +than the increases in the fourth year of the Civil War. During the Civil +War prices rose from 100 to 117 per cent., but necessities were +relatively cheaper than at present because the currency was depreciated. +In January, 1864, gold was at a premium of 52 per cent.</p> + +<p>Emerson David Fite, assistant professor of history in Yale University, +describes "Social and Industrial Conditions During the Civil War" as +follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The situation in New York City at the end of the year 1863 is typical +of the period. Eggs had then reached 25 cents per dozen, from 15 cents +in 1861; cheese, 18 cents from 8 cents; potatoes, $2.25 from $1.50 per +bushel, and for all the necessities of life there was an advance ranging +from 60 to 75 and in some cases even 100 per cent. Wages, on the other +hand, lagged behind; the blacksmith's increase was only from $1.75 to $2 +per day, that of common laborers from $1 to $1.25, that of bricklayers +from $1.25 to $2, and the average increase in all the trades was about +25 per cent., or less than one-half the increase of prices. The winter +of 1863—64 and the ensuing months were accordingly a time of unusual +industrial unrest, which increased in severity as the discrepancy +between wages and prices continued. The dollar was slowly but surely +diminishing in value, and labor engaged in a determined struggle to +force wages up, capital to keep them down. The advantage lay with the +employing classes, but labor in 1864 recovered much of the ground that +had been lost in the two previous years, and the war closed with wages +much nearer prices than a year earlier. It was generally agreed at the +time that prices during the entire war period advanced approximately 100 +per cent. and wages from 50 to 60 per cent."</p></div> + +<h3>WHERE THE COST OF LIVES WEIGHED THE MOST</h3> + +<p>The rapid rise in the cost of living was much more severely felt by the +classes of the population dependent upon small or less rigid incomes. In +many industries wages increased faster than <del>everage</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads everage">average</ins> living expenses. +Figures published by the New York Labor Bureau show that the sum +distributed in wages to industrial workers was substantially doubled in +the four years of warfare. Investigation conducted by the National +Industrial Board of Boston showed that there had been an increase of 50 +to 55 per cent. in the budget of the average wage earner from July, +1914, to June, 1918.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The increases for the different items are given +as follows:</p></div> + +<table class="nobrdrsm" summary="Increased cost for different items"> +<col width="70%" /> +<col width="30%" /> +<tr><td>Food</td><td class="numeric">62%</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rent</td><td class="numeric">15%</td></tr> +<tr><td>Clothing</td><td class="numeric">77%</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fuel and light</td><td class="numeric">45%</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sundries</td><td class="numeric">50%</td></tr> +<tr><td>Average increase (depending on apportionment of these respective +items in the family budget)</td><td class="numeric">50% to 55%</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In explanation of these figures the report goes on to say:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"'In combining the percentages of increase for the respective items, in +order to determine the average increase for the budget as a + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> + +whole, food was taken as constituting 43 per cent. of the total family +expenditure, rent 18 per cent., clothing 13 per cent., fuel and light 6 +per cent., and sundries 20 per cent. Applying the Board's percentages of +increase for the respective items to this distribution of the budget, +the average increase is 52 per cent. The distribution of budget items +just given is an average based on cost of living studies made by several +United States Government bureaus and other agencies, covering in all +12,000 families.</p> + +<p>"The proportions of these major items of expenditure can be varied +within narrow limits, but no reasonable arrangement would cause a wide +change in the increase in the total cost of living as given above. For +instance, if, instead of this average distribution of the budget, food +be allocated as much as 45 per cent., rent and clothing 15 per cent. +each, fuel and light 5 per cent., and sundries 20 per cent., the +indicated increase in the total cost of living, using the Board's +percentages of increase for the respective items, would be 54 per cent."</p> +</div> + +<p>All articles of food, we are told, show a considerable increase in price +since 1914, exceptional advances being recorded in the case of flour, +lard, and cornmeal. The item of rent, says the report, "showed such wide +variation that no general average applicable to all sections of the +country could be reached," but the 15 per cent. estimate "is apparently +ample to cover the increase in wage-earners' rents in New York, Chicago, +Philadelphia, Boston, and St. Louis, which alone include several +millions of the country's industrial population." Of the increase in +clothing prices we read:</p> + +<h3>INCREASED COST FOR WEARING APPAREL</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Information secured from retail stores in cities well distributed +throughout the country indicates increases in prices of the most common +articles of wearing apparel, ranging from 50.5 per cent. for women's +dollar blouses up to 161 per cent. for men's overalls. Striking +increases occurred in the prices of certain yard goods, where advances +in cost over 1914 prices amounted, in a number of cases, to more than +100 per cent.</p> + +<p>"Men's hosiery, selling for 15 cents in 1914, cost in June, 1918, +usually not less than 25 cents, and women's hosiery, selling for 25 +cents four years ago, brought 45 cents in June of this year. Knit +underwear, the report finds, had increased nearly 100 per cent. Women's +shoes of a standard grade increased 88.5 per cent.; men's 69 per cent. +Women's kid gloves which in 1914 cost $1 averaged more than $2 in June, +1918.</p> + +<p>"The report places the average rise in the total clothing budget since +1914 at 77 per cent. This increase compares with an increase of 51.33 +per cent. between 1914 and 1917 for families in the ship building +districts of Philadelphia and an increase of 54.21 per cent. among +similar families in the ship building district of New York, as reported +by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. The difference between +these increases and the Board's figure of 77 per cent. is largely +explained by the difference in the period of time covered; clothing +prices have continued to advance since 1917. Further increases in the +fall of 1918 were, moreover, clearly indicated by the statements of +retail dealers."</p></div> + +<h3>WAR PRICES AND LUXURY IMPORTS</h3> + +<p>In spite of the contention that war-time conditions led to an increased +standard of luxurious living, statistics of imports indicated a rapid +fall in articles of luxury brought into the country. In the fiscal year, +1918, there was a material decline compared with the preceding year and +a marked decline when compared with the year before the war:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"A recent compilation by the National City Bank shows this in +practically all imports usually classed as luxuries. That the imports +should be less than before the war was quite natural by reason of the +fact that many articles of this character originated in European +countries, some in countries with which we are now at war, and some with +our Allies who are otherwise too busily employed.</p> + +<p>"In art works, for example, the value of the imports of 1918 was only +about $11,000,000 against $23,000,000 in 1917, and $35,000,000 in the +fiscal year 1914. In automobiles the value in 1918 was about $50,000 +against nearly $2,000,000 in 1913, and more than $2,000,000 in 1912, +while the average value per machine imported in 1918 was less than +one-half what it was before the war. Decorated china imported in 1918 +was about $3,500,000 in value against practically $8,000,000 in 1914. Of +cotton laces imported in 1918 the value was about $10,000,000 against +$16,500,000 in 1917, and nearly $34,000,000 in 1914. Of silk laces the +1918 imports were valued at little more than one-half those of 1914. Of +cotton plushes and velvets the quantity in 1918 was less than 1,000,000 +yards against more than 3,000,000 in 1917, and practically 5,000,000 in +1914. Of ostrich feathers, in 1918 the imports were valued at nearly +$1,000,000 against nearly $4,000,000 in 1914 and over $6,000,000 in +1913. In precious stones the total for 1918 was only about $32,000,000 +against $47,000,000 in 1917 and $50,000,000 in 1913; while of pearls +alone the value in 1918 was less than $2,000,000 against over $8,000,000 +in 1917, and more than $10,000,000 in 1916.</p> + +<p>"In articles of food usually classed as luxuries there was also a marked +fall. Cheese imported in 1918 amounted to about 9,000,000 pounds against +15,000,000 in 1917, and 64,000,000 in 1914. Of currants the imports of +1918 were over 5,000,000 pounds against 25,000,000 in 1916 and +32,000,000 in 1914, and of dates only 6,000,000 pounds in 1918 + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> + +against 34,000,000 in 1914; while olives and olive oil showed totals in +1918 of about one-half those of the year before the war."</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 900px;"> + <img src="images/ill-059.png" width="900" height="338" + alt="The Nations and Their Wheat Supply" + title="The Nations and Their Wheat Supply" /> + <p class="caption">The Nations and Their Wheat Supply</p> + <p class="description">Under the Lever Bill, which became the Food + Control Law after the United States declared war, the President + was authorized to fix a reasonable guaranteed price for wheat.</p> +</div> + +<h3>GOOD EFFECTS OF PRICE CONTROL</h3> + +<p>It became accepted on all sides that price control was the one method to +correct the inequalities of war conditions. It was necessary to prevent +the poorer classes in the population from having an inadequate +consumption of wealth. There was the political side, too. Price control +had an effect on the morale of large strata of the population. It acted +as a bulwark against the rising tide of discontent and internal +dissension incident to warfare on a democratic scale. Mr. Sydney Webb, a +well known English student of labor problems, conceded that the British +government had by its system of price control been fairly successful in +staving off any general fall in the standard of life in its people. How +the system worked is summarized by him in the following passage:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"What has been successful in Great Britain in economizing supplies has +been a widespread appeal to the whole nation to limit its consumption of +wheaten bread (4 pounds per week), meat (2½ pounds per week), and +sugar (¾ of a pound per week) to a prescribed maximum per person +in the household; and to make up the necessary subsistence by the use of +substitutes, such as fish, other cereals than wheat, and other +vegetables than potatoes, of which the crop throughout all Europe has +largely failed. More efficacious still has been the absolute government +monopoly of sugar, secured at the very beginning of the war, and the +drastic restriction of the total quantity allowed to be issued from +store, the aggregate reduction being thus infallibly secured, and the +retailers being left to share what sugar they obtained among their +customers. It has been found useful, too, to make the wheaten flour go +farther by compelling all the millers to include both an increased +proportion of bran and a certain proportion of other cereals. More +drastic measures are near at hand."</p></div> + +<h3>STAY-AT-HOMES WHO MADE MONEY</h3> + +<p>The important effort, as seen by the <cite>Economist</cite>, was to back up the +armies at the front by a policy of self-<del>sacrifce</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads sacrifce">sacrifice</ins> at home, and it spoke +in <del>drastice</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads drastice">drastic</ins> terms of the constant evidence of profiteering among certain +classes in England. The contrast in the attitudes of those at the front +and those active in business life is set forth in the following words:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"One of the most curious and interesting psychological facts of the war +is the manner in which one man goes to the front and becomes a hero and +a <span lang="fr">preux chevalier</span>, while another, just like him in training and blood +and outlook, stays at home and works for spoils, whether in wages or +profits, resenting taxation, grumbling about his food, and seeming to +think that this war for justice was invented to increase his wealth and +comfort."</p></div> + +<h3>PRICE CONTROL IN UNITED STATES</h3> + +<p>Although price control is a measure disapproved of by economists, +experience has shown that for certain products, such as wheat + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> + +and flour, it produced good results. In the case of bituminous coal, +Professor Anderson of Harvard said that it had probably done much harm +and little good, because the cut in price was too drastic. One good +feature of the price control system was the ability to apply it to draft +labor from non-essential industries to the production of munitions and +necessities of life. It was possible to do this by refusing coal, +copper, steel and freight cars to the non-essential industries. How the +Food Administration came to be a general price fixing body is explained +in the following article by a member of the Food Administration:</p> + +<h3>WHEAT AT $2.20 A BUSHEL</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"There are many evidences that price fixing has come to lodge itself as +an unwelcome factor in the program of the Food Administration. Price +fixing came to be a fact even while avoided as a theory, and eventually +it has become necessary to face it, if not to accept it, even as a +theory. What are the evidences that price fixing is essentially involved +in the program of the Food Administration? One piece of evidence lies in +the fact that when once you have fixed the price of one commodity the +condition is bound to be reflected in other commodities. In fixing the +price of wheat Congress fixed as well, though not so explicitly, the +price of corn, and hogs, and sugar beets. The determining and +administering of these prices it left to the Food Administration.</p> + +<p>"A further evidence that the Food Administration could not avoid the +onus of price fixing lies in the reasons for which the Administration +was brought into existence and the services it was created to perform. +The Food Administration is a war agency. Its chief purpose is the +feeding of warring nations, our own nation and the Allies. All its other +activities, its conservation, its stabilization of trade processes, its +encouragement of production, are tributary to the one purpose of +segregating stocks of food for the effective prosecution of the war. +This latter purpose, in fact, takes the Food Administration directly or +indirectly into the market.... By Section 14 of the Lever Bill, which +became the Food Control Law, the President is authorized from time to +time to determine and fix a reasonable guaranteed price for wheat and +this section itself fixed the price for the crop of 1918 at not less +than $2 per bushel at the principal interior primary markets. Pursuant +to this section the President has, by two separate decrees, set the +price of 1917 wheat and of the 1918 crop at $2.20 per bushel. Section 11 +of the law authorizes the President to purchase and store and sell +wheat and flour, meal, beans, and potatoes. Manifestly any purchase so +made by the government would in effect fix the price. Aside from these +delegations of power no authority is given by the Food Control Law to +fix prices. And yet a study of the operations of these provisions as +well as a regard for the implications of other functions of the Food +Administration carry the conviction that price fixing is a necessary and +inescapable corollary of the effective prosecution of the Food +Administration program."</p></div> + +<h3>PRICE LEVEL, NOVEMBER, 1918</h3> + +<p>With the close of military operations there was noted a slight decline +in commodity prices; how far the downward tendency would reach was +considered a moot point. The apparent zenith point in prices was +attained in July, 1918, but <cite>Bradstreet's</cite> prudently thought it unwise +to indulge in any prophecies regarding low prices. The increased demand +for food products among the stricken peoples of Europe would, it was +believed, prevent any considerable fall in prices. There was not much to +encourage consumers in the study of the index numbers of food +commodities. The writer in <cite>Bradstreet's</cite> shows a wide range of price +movements in the following table, in which are given the index numbers +based on the prices per pound of ninety-six articles:</p> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="price movement"> +<col class="left" /><col class="numeric" /><col class="numeric" /><col class="numeric" /> +<col class="numeric" /><col class="numeric" /><col class="numeric" /><col class="numeric" /> +<tr><td></td><th>1912</th><th>1913</th><th>1914</th><th>1915</th><th>1916</th><th>1917</th><th>1918</th></tr> +<tr><td>January</td><td>8.9493</td><td>9.4935</td><td>8.8857</td><td>9.1431</td><td>10.9163</td><td>13.7277</td><td>17.9636</td></tr> +<tr><td>February</td><td>8.9578</td><td>9.4592</td><td>8.8619</td><td>9.6621</td><td>11.1415</td><td>13.9427</td><td>18.0776</td></tr> +<tr><td>March</td><td>8.9019</td><td>9.4052</td><td>8.8320</td><td>9.6197</td><td>11.3760</td><td>14.1360</td><td>18.0732</td></tr> +<tr><td>April</td><td>9.0978</td><td>9.2976</td><td>8.7562</td><td>9.7753</td><td>11.7598</td><td>14.5769</td><td>18.4656</td></tr> +<tr><td>May</td><td>9.2696</td><td>9.1394</td><td>8.6224</td><td>9.7978</td><td>11.7485</td><td>15.1208</td><td>18.9133</td></tr> +<tr><td>June</td><td>9.1017</td><td>9.0721</td><td>8.6220</td><td>9.7428</td><td>11.6887</td><td>15.4680</td><td>19.0091</td></tr> +<tr><td>July</td><td>9.1119</td><td>8.9522</td><td>8.6566</td><td>9.8698</td><td>11.5294</td><td>16.0680</td><td>19.1849</td></tr> +<tr><td>August</td><td>9.1595</td><td>9.0115</td><td>8.7087</td><td>9.8213</td><td>11.4414</td><td>16.3985</td><td>19.1162</td></tr> +<tr><td>August 15</td><td></td><td></td><td>9.8495</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>September</td><td>9.2157</td><td>9.1006</td><td>9.7572</td><td>9.8034</td><td>11.7803</td><td>16.6441</td><td>19.0485</td></tr> +<tr><td>October</td><td>9.4515</td><td>9.1526</td><td>9.2416</td><td>9.9774</td><td>12.0699</td><td>16.9135</td><td>19.0167</td></tr> +<tr><td>November</td><td>9.4781</td><td>9.2252</td><td>8.8620</td><td>10.3768</td><td>12.7992</td><td>17.0701</td><td>18.9110</td></tr> +<tr><td>December</td><td>9.5462</td><td>9.2290</td><td>9.0354</td><td>10.6473</td><td>13.6628</td><td>17.5966</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p> + +<p>The groups that make up the index number +are as follows:</p> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="groups that make up the index"> +<tr><td></td><th>Nov. 1, 1917</th><th>Sept. 1, 1918</th><th>Oct. 1, 1918</th><th>Nov. 1, 1918</th></tr> +<tr><td>Breadstuffs</td><td class="numeric">$0.2105</td><td class="numeric">$0.2077</td><td class="numeric">$0.2026</td><td class="numeric">$0.1999</td></tr> +<tr><td>Live stock</td><td class="numeric">.6785</td><td class="numeric">.7400</td><td class="numeric">.7100</td><td class="numeric">.6960</td></tr> +<tr><td>Provisions</td><td class="numeric">4.0285</td><td class="numeric">4.3264</td><td class="numeric">4.5359</td><td class="numeric">4.5889</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fruits</td><td class="numeric">.4288</td><td class="numeric">.3725</td><td class="numeric">.3725</td><td class="numeric">.3725</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hides and leather</td><td class="numeric">2.3900</td><td class="numeric">2.2150</td><td class="numeric">2.2150</td><td class="numeric">2.2050</td></tr> +<tr><td>Textiles</td><td class="numeric">5.1179</td><td class="numeric">5.8742</td><td class="numeric">5.7554</td><td class="numeric">5.7029</td></tr> +<tr><td>Metals</td><td class="numeric">1.1477</td><td class="numeric">1.4233</td><td class="numeric">1.3662</td><td class="numeric">1.3062</td></tr> +<tr><td>Coal and coke</td><td class="numeric">.0101</td><td class="numeric">.0119</td><td class="numeric">.0120</td><td class="numeric">.0120</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oils</td><td class="numeric">.9084</td><td class="numeric">1.3185</td><td class="numeric">1.3121</td><td class="numeric">1.2734</td></tr> +<tr><td>Naval stores</td><td class="numeric">.0956</td><td class="numeric">.1295</td><td class="numeric">.1255</td><td class="numeric">.1348</td></tr> +<tr><td>Building materials</td><td class="numeric">.1448</td><td class="numeric">.2047</td><td class="numeric">.2047</td><td class="numeric">.2046</td></tr> +<tr><td>Chemicals and drugs</td><td class="numeric">1.4261</td><td class="numeric">1.5153</td><td class="numeric">1.5253</td><td class="numeric">1.5278</td></tr> +<tr><td>Miscellaneous</td><td class="numeric">.4832</td><td class="numeric">.7095</td><td class="numeric">.6795</td><td class="numeric">.6870</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total</td><td class="numeric">$17.0701</td><td class="numeric">$19.0485</td><td class="numeric">$19.0167</td><td class="numeric">$18.9110</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-061.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-061thumb.jpg" alt="A Municipal Canning Station" + title="A Municipal Canning Station" width="400" height="272" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Photo by P. Thompson</p> + <p class="caption">A Municipal Canning Station</p> + <p class="description">In city establishments like the one shown + above, food that would otherwise go to waste in the markets was + saved, and women were instructed in the best methods of putting + up fruits and vegetables for winter use.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-061.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>FOOD CONDITIONS AND PRICE LEVEL, 1919</h3> + +<p>A clear summary of the food situation and price conditions in the +half-year succeeding the armistice is to be found in the Federal +Commission's Memorandum on food stocks and wholesale prices, June, 1919:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The comparative amounts of food stocks on hand June 1, 1919, as against +June 1, 1918, in the case of many important foods, show that the stocks +are considerably larger.</p> + +<p>"On June 1, 1918, the United States stocks were in demand for feeding +the armies of the Allies as well as the civilian population. The fact +that stocks of many important foods were much larger on June 1, 1919, +while prices were as high or higher, apparently, means that they are +being withheld speculatively for a world demand which is not now here +but which is expected when hunger-impelled strikes secure higher wages +with which higher food prices can be paid.</p> + +<p>"The statistics of stocks are from the latest and last issue of the +Bureau of Markets 'Food Surveys,' June 27, 1919. We use the quantities +reported by identical firms for 1918 and 1919. (Stocks held June 1, +1919, by other firms not reporting for June 1, 1918, increase the actual +stocks from 5 or 10 per cent. up to 20 or 25 per cent. over the +comparable stocks). The stocks are those in warehouses and cold storage +houses and in hands of wholesale dealers. Retail stocks are not +reported. The prices are wholesale prices, furnished by the Bureau of +Labor Statistics, for the first Tuesday in June.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p> + +<table class="standard" summary="Commodities increasing in stocks and in price"> +<col width="20%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="20%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<tr><th colspan="8">COMMODITIES INCREASING IN STOCKS AND IN PRICE<br />(Wholesale Prices)</th></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">Commodity</td><td rowspan="2">Unit of quantity</td> + <td colspan="3">Quantity</td><td rowspan="2">Unit of Price</td><td colspan="2">Price</td> +</tr> +<tr><td>June, 1919</td><td>June, 1918</td><td>Per cent increase 1919 over 1918</td> + <td>June 1919</td><td>June 1918</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">Wheat</td><td class="center">Bushel</td><td class="numeric">41,955,167</td> + <td class="numeric">15,286,331</td><td class="numeric">174.5</td> + <td class="center" rowspan="2">Dollars per bu.</td><td class="numeric">2.51</td> + <td class="numeric">2.20</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"></td><td class="numeric">2.46</td><td class="numeric">2.17</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">Wheat flour</td><td class="center">Barrel</td> + <td class="numeric">3,942,205</td><td class="numeric">3,236,671</td> + <td class="numeric">21.8</td><td rowspan="2" class="center">Dollars per bbl.</td> + <td class="numeric">12 - 12.20</td><td class="numeric">9.80</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"></td><td class="numeric">11.50 - 11.80</td><td class="numeric">9.95</td></tr> +<tr><td>Canned salmon</td><td class="center">Pound</td><td class="numeric">99,203,544</td> + <td class="numeric">82,616,582</td><td class="numeric">20.1</td> + <td class="center">Dollars per doz. No. 2 cans</td><td class="numeric">2.70 - 2.75</td> + <td class="numeric">2.70</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">Canned corn</td><td class="center">Pound</td> + <td class="numeric">81,233,023</td><td class="numeric">42,352,994</td> + <td class="numeric">91.8</td><td rowspan="2" class="center">Dollars per doz. No. 2 cans</td> + <td></td><td class="numeric">1.70</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"></td><td>1.75-(Mch)</td><td class="numeric">1.75</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">Fresh eggs</td><td class="center">Case</td> + <td class="numeric">5,975,817</td><td class="numeric">5,441,560</td> + <td class="numeric">9.8</td><td rowspan="2" class="center">Cents per doz.</td> + <td class="numeric">40 - 40½</td><td class="numeric">29</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"></td><td></td><td class="numeric">30¾</td></tr> +<tr><td>Butter (creamery)</td><td class="center">Pound</td><td class="numeric">29,190,222</td> + <td class="numeric">12,749,055</td><td class="numeric">129.0</td> + <td class="center">Cents per lb.</td><td class="numeric">53</td> + <td class="numeric">41</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">Salt Beef</td><td class="center">Pound</td> + <td class="numeric">25,701,138</td><td class="numeric">24,962,881</td> + <td class="numeric">3.0</td><td rowspan="2" class="center">Dollars per bbl.</td> + <td class="numeric">35.00</td><td class="numeric">32.00</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"></td><td class="numeric">36.00</td><td class="numeric">34.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Frozen fowls</td><td class="center">Pound</td><td class="numeric">10,962,670</td> + <td class="numeric">2,749,077</td><td class="numeric">298.8</td> + <td class="center">Cents per lb.</td><td class="numeric">37½</td> + <td class="numeric">34½</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="standard" summary="Commodities increasing in stocks and decreasing in price"> +<col width="20%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="20%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<tr><th colspan="8">COMMODITIES INCREASING IN STOCKS AND DECREASING IN PRICE.<br />(Wholesale Prices.)</th></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">Commodity</td><td rowspan="2">Unit of quantity</td> + <td colspan="3">Quantity</td><td rowspan="2">Unit of Price</td><td colspan="2">Price</td></tr> +<tr><td>June, 1919</td><td>June, 1918</td><td>Percent increase</td><td>June 1919</td> + <td>June 1918</td></tr> +<tr><td>Barley</td><td class="center">Bushel</td><td class="numeric">16,399,396</td> + <td class="numeric">7,916,073</td><td class="numeric">107.2</td> + <td class="center">Dollars per bu.</td><td class="numeric">1.19 - 1.27</td> + <td class="numeric">1.21 - 1.26</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rye</td><td class="center">Bushel</td><td class="numeric">11,613,127</td> + <td class="numeric">3,355,349</td><td class="numeric">246.1</td> + <td class="center">Dollars per bu.</td><td class="numeric">1.53½</td> + <td class="numeric">1.73</td></tr> +<tr><td>Buckwheat Flour</td><td class="center">Pound</td><td class="numeric">18,053,230</td> + <td class="numeric">5,523,850</td><td class="numeric">226.8</td> + <td class="center">Dollars per cwt</td><td class="numeric">5.00(Apr)</td> + <td class="numeric">5.75 6.25(Apr)</td></tr> +<tr><td>Canned Tomatoes</td><td class="center">Pound</td><td class="numeric">179,101,286</td> + <td class="numeric">88,531,024</td><td class="numeric">102.3</td> + <td class="center">Dollars per doz. No. 3 cans</td><td class="numeric">2.05 (Dec'18)</td> + <td class="numeric">2.30</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p> + +<table class="standard" summary="Commodities decreasing in stocks and in price"> +<col width="20%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="20%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<tr><th colspan="8">COMMODITIES DECREASING IN STOCKS AND IN PRICE.<br />(Wholesale Prices)</th></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">Commodity</td><td rowspan="2">Unit of quantity</td> + <td colspan="3">Quantity</td><td rowspan="2">Unit of Price</td><td colspan="2">Price</td></tr> +<tr><td>June, 1919</td><td>June, 1918</td><td class="numeric">Percent increase</td> + <td class="numeric">June 1919</td><td class="numeric">June 1918</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oats</td><td class="center">Bushel</td><td class="numeric">37,827,343</td> + <td class="numeric">41,763,555</td><td class="numeric">9.4</td> + <td class="center">Cents per bu.</td><td class="numeric">69</td> + <td class="numeric">73½</td></tr> +<tr><td>Corn Meal</td><td class="center">Pound</td><td class="numeric">34,231,066</td> + <td class="numeric">117,674,918</td><td class="numeric">70.9</td> + <td class="center">Dollars per cwt</td><td class="numeric">3.90</td> + <td class="numeric">4.25</td></tr> +<tr><td>Beans</td><td class="center">Bushel</td><td class="numeric">4,252,451</td> + <td class="numeric">4,408,686</td><td class="numeric">3.5</td> + <td class="center">Dollars per cwt</td><td class="numeric">7.75 - 8.00</td> + <td class="numeric">12.25 - 12.50</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">Rice (Blue Rose) (Honduras)</td><td class="center">Pound</td> + <td class="numeric">75,134,920</td><td class="numeric">80,727,516</td> + <td class="numeric">6.9</td><td rowspan="2" class="center">Cents per lb.</td> + <td class="numeric">6 - 7<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td><td class="numeric">8.5 - 8.9</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"></td><td class="numeric">9<sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub><a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a> + <a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"> + </a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></td> + <td class="numeric">8½ - 9<sup>5</sup>/<sub>8</sub></td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>First week JUNE.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>Increase in price.</p></div> + +<table class="standard" summary="Commodities decreasing in stocks and increasing in price"> +<col width="20%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="20%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<tr><th colspan="8">COMMODITIES DECREASING IN STOCKS AND INCREASING IN PRICE.<br />(Wholesale Prices)</th></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">Commodity</td><td rowspan="2">Unit of quantity</td> + <td colspan="3">Quantity</td><td rowspan="2">Unit of Price</td><td colspan="2">Price</td></tr> +<tr><td>June, 1919</td><td>June, 1918</td><td class="numeric">Percent increase</td> + <td class="numeric">June 1919</td><td class="numeric">June 1918</td></tr> +<tr><td>Corn</td><td class="center">Bushel</td><td class="numeric">13,260,910</td> + <td class="numeric">27,883,361</td><td class="numeric">52.4</td> + <td class="center">Dollars per bu.</td><td class="numeric">1.76 - 1.77</td> + <td class="numeric">1.50 - 1.55</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sugar</td><td class="center">Pound</td><td class="numeric">207,622,237</td> + <td class="numeric">217,632,365</td><td class="numeric">4.6</td> + <td class="center">Cents per lb.</td><td class="numeric">8.82</td> + <td class="numeric">7.30</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cheese (American)</td><td class="center">Pound</td><td class="numeric">10,174,502</td> + <td class="numeric">15,875,236</td><td class="numeric">35.9</td> + <td class="center">Cents per lb.</td><td class="numeric">31</td> + <td class="numeric">21½</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dry Salt Pork</td><td class="center">Pound</td><td class="numeric">395,940,437</td> + <td class="numeric">488,344,838</td><td class="numeric">18.9</td> + <td class="center">Dollars per bbl.</td><td class="numeric">58.00 - 58.50</td> + <td class="numeric">48-50</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lard</td><td class="center">Pound</td><td class="numeric">81,275,392</td> + <td class="numeric">106,649,588</td><td class="numeric">23.8</td> + <td class="center">Cents per lb.</td><td class="numeric">33.80 - 34.30</td> + <td class="numeric">24.15 - 24.25</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p> + +<p>The following data, taken from the <cite>Monthly Labor Review</cite> of July 1919, +give a survey of the retail prices of food in the United States:</p> + +<table class="standard" summary="Retail food prices"> +<tr><th colspan="15">AVERAGE RETAIL PRICES AND PER CENT OF INCREASE OR DECREASE IN THE UNITED STATES<br /> MAY 15 OF EACH SPECIFIED YEAR COMPARED WITH MAY 15, 1913</th></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">Article</td><td rowspan="2">Unit</td> + <td colspan="7">Average retail prices, May 15—</td> + <td colspan="6">Per cent of increase (+) or decrease (-) May 15 of each specified year compared with May 15, 1913.</td></tr> +<tr><td>1913</td><td>1914</td><td>1915</td><td>1916</td><td>1917</td> + <td>1918</td><td>1919</td><td>1914</td><td>1915</td><td>1916</td><td>1917</td> + <td>1918</td><td>1919</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td class="numeric"><em>Cts.</em></td><td class="numeric"><em>Cts.</em></td> + <td class="numeric"><em>Cts.</em></td><td class="numeric"><em>Cts.</em></td> + <td class="numeric"><em>Cts.</em></td><td class="numeric"><em>Cts.</em></td> + <td class="numeric"><em>Cts.</em></td><td colspan="7"></td></tr> +<tr><td>Sirloin steak</td><td class="center">Pound</td><td class="numeric">25.7</td> + <td class="numeric">25.9</td><td class="numeric">25.7</td><td class="numeric">27.8</td> + <td class="numeric">32.2</td><td class="numeric">40.0</td><td class="numeric">44.4</td> + <td class="numeric">+1</td><td class="numeric"><a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a> + <a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></td><td class="numeric">+8</td> + <td class="numeric">+25</td><td class="numeric">+56</td><td class="numeric">+73</td></tr> +<tr><td>Round steak</td><td class="center">do</td><td class="numeric">22.3</td> + <td class="numeric">23.3</td><td class="numeric">23.0</td><td class="numeric">25.0</td> + <td class="numeric">29.6</td><td class="numeric">38.0</td><td class="numeric">41.6</td> + <td class="numeric">+4</td><td class="numeric">+3</td><td class="numeric">+12</td> + <td class="numeric">+33</td><td class="numeric">+70</td><td class="numeric">+87</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rib roast</td><td class="center">do</td><td class="numeric">19.9</td> + <td class="numeric">20.1</td><td class="numeric">19.9</td><td class="numeric">21.6</td> + <td class="numeric">25.7</td><td class="numeric">31.8</td><td class="numeric">35.2</td> + <td class="numeric">+1</td><td class="numeric"> + <a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></td><td class="numeric">+9</td> + <td class="numeric">+29</td><td class="numeric">+60</td><td class="numeric">+77</td></tr> +<tr><td>Chuck roast</td><td class="center">do</td><td class="numeric">16.1</td> + <td class="numeric">17.0</td><td class="numeric">16.3</td><td class="numeric">17.5</td> + <td class="numeric">21.8</td><td class="numeric">27.8</td><td class="numeric">29.7</td> + <td class="numeric">+6</td><td class="numeric">+1</td><td class="numeric">+9</td> + <td class="numeric">+35</td><td class="numeric">+73</td><td class="numeric">+84</td></tr> +<tr><td>Plate beef</td><td class="center">do</td><td class="numeric">12.1</td> + <td class="numeric">12.5</td><td class="numeric">12.3</td><td class="numeric">13.1</td> + <td class="numeric">16.6</td><td class="numeric">21.9</td><td class="numeric">22.5</td> + <td class="numeric">+3</td><td class="numeric">+2</td><td class="numeric">+8</td> + <td class="numeric">+37</td><td class="numeric">+81</td><td class="numeric">+86</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pork chops</td><td class="center">do</td><td class="numeric">20.9</td> + <td class="numeric">22.2</td><td class="numeric">20.9</td><td class="numeric">22.9</td> + <td class="numeric">30.6</td><td class="numeric">36.7</td><td class="numeric">43.0</td> + <td class="numeric">+6</td><td class="numeric"> + <a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></td><td class="numeric">+10</td> + <td class="numeric">+46</td><td class="numeric">+76</td><td class="numeric">+106</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bacon</td><td class="center">do</td><td class="numeric">27.0</td> + <td class="numeric">26.7</td><td class="numeric">26.4</td><td class="numeric">28.4</td> + <td class="numeric">41.6</td><td class="numeric">50.5</td><td class="numeric">56.7</td> + <td class="numeric">-1</td><td class="numeric">-2</td><td class="numeric">+5</td> + <td class="numeric">+54</td><td class="numeric">+ 87</td><td class="numeric">+110</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ham</td><td class="center">do</td><td class="numeric">26.8</td> + <td class="numeric">26.8</td><td class="numeric">25.6</td><td class="numeric">31.8</td> + <td class="numeric">38.8</td><td class="numeric">45.6</td><td class="numeric">54.6</td> + <td class="numeric"><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></td> + <td class="numeric">-5</td><td class="numeric">+19</td><td class="numeric">+45</td> + <td class="numeric">+ 70</td><td class="numeric">+104</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lamb</td><td class="center">do</td><td class="numeric">19.4</td> + <td class="numeric">19.8</td><td class="numeric">21.7</td><td class="numeric">23.2</td> + <td class="numeric">29.7</td><td class="numeric">36.8</td><td class="numeric">39.6</td> + <td class="numeric">+2</td><td class="numeric">+12</td><td class="numeric">+20</td> + <td class="numeric">+53</td><td class="numeric">+ 90</td><td class="numeric">+104</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hens</td><td class="center">do</td><td class="numeric">22.2</td> + <td class="numeric">22.7</td><td class="numeric">21.5</td><td class="numeric">24.1</td> + <td class="numeric">29.3</td><td class="numeric">37.9</td><td class="numeric">43.5</td> + <td class="numeric">+2</td><td class="numeric">-3</td><td class="numeric">+9</td> + <td class="numeric">+32</td><td class="numeric">+71</td><td class="numeric">+96</td></tr> +<tr><td>Salmon, canned</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td> + <td class="numeric">19.8</td><td class="numeric">20.0</td><td class="numeric">25.7</td> + <td class="numeric">29.6</td><td class="numeric">31.9</td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Milk, fresh</td><td class="center">quart</td><td class="numeric">8.8</td> + <td class="numeric">8.9</td><td class="numeric">8.7</td><td class="numeric">8.8</td> + <td class="numeric">10.5</td><td class="numeric">13.2</td><td class="numeric">14.9</td> + <td class="numeric">+1</td><td class="numeric">-1</td> + <td class="numeric"><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></td> + <td class="numeric">+19</td><td class="numeric">50</td><td class="numeric">+69</td></tr> +<tr><td>Milk, evaporated (unsweetened)</td> + <td class="center"><a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a> + <a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">15.1</td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Butter</td><td class="center">Pound</td><td class="numeric">35.9</td> + <td class="numeric">32.7</td><td class="numeric">34.7</td><td class="numeric">37.0</td> + <td class="numeric">46.5</td><td class="numeric">51.0</td><td class="numeric">67.9</td> + <td class="numeric">9</td><td class="numeric">3</td><td class="numeric">+3</td> + <td class="numeric">+30</td><td class="numeric">+42</td><td class="numeric">+89</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oleomargarine</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">40.4</td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Nut margarine</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">35.3</td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Cheese</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">23.5</td> + <td class="numeric">24.8</td><td class="numeric">33.8</td><td class="numeric">33.4</td> + <td class="numeric">42.2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Lard</td><td class="center">do</td><td class="numeric">15.8</td> + <td class="numeric">15.6</td><td class="numeric">15.1</td><td class="numeric">20.1</td> + <td class="numeric">27.8</td><td class="numeric">32.9</td><td class="numeric">38.8</td> + <td class="numeric">-1</td><td class="numeric">4</td><td class="numeric">+27</td> + <td class="numeric">+76</td><td class="numeric">+108</td><td class="numeric">+146</td></tr> +<tr><td>Crisco</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">33.9</td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Eggs, strictly fresh</td><td class="center">Dozen</td><td class="numeric">26.3</td> + <td class="numeric">26.6</td><td class="numeric">26.3</td><td class="numeric">28.1</td> + <td class="numeric">39.8</td><td class="numeric">42.4</td><td class="numeric">53.1</td> + <td class="numeric">+1</td> + <td class="numeric"><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></td> + <td class="numeric">+7</td><td class="numeric">+51</td><td class="numeric">+61</td> + <td class="numeric">+102</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bread</td><td class="center">Pound<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a> + <a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></td><td class="numeric">5.6</td> + <td class="numeric">6.2</td><td class="numeric">7.2</td><td class="numeric">7.0</td> + <td class="numeric">9.6</td><td class="numeric">9.8</td><td class="numeric">9.8</td> + <td class="numeric">+11</td><td class="numeric">+29</td><td class="numeric">+25</td> + <td class="numeric">+71</td><td class="numeric">+75</td><td class="numeric">+75</td></tr> +<tr><td>Flour</td><td class="center">Pound</td><td class="numeric">3.3</td> + <td class="numeric">3.3</td><td class="numeric">4.5</td><td class="numeric">3.9</td> + <td class="numeric">8.7</td><td class="numeric">6.6</td><td class="numeric">7.5</td> + <td class="numeric"><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></td> + <td class="numeric">+36</td><td class="numeric">+18</td><td class="numeric">+164</td> + <td class="numeric">+100</td><td class="numeric">+127</td></tr> +<tr><td>Corn meal</td><td class="center">do</td><td class="numeric">3.0</td> + <td class="numeric">3.1</td><td class="numeric">3.3</td><td class="numeric">3.3</td> + <td class="numeric">5.4</td><td class="numeric">7.0</td><td class="numeric">6.2</td> + <td class="numeric">+3</td><td class="numeric">+10</td><td class="numeric">+10</td> + <td class="numeric">+ 80</td><td class="numeric">+133</td><td class="numeric">+107</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rolled oats</td><td class="center">Pound</td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">8.4</td><td> + </td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Corn flakes</td><td class="center"><a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a> + <a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></td><td>-</td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">14.1</td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Cream of wheat</td><td class="center"><a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a> + <a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">25.1</td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Rice</td><td class="center">Pound</td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">9.1</td> + <td class="numeric">9.1</td><td class="numeric">10.5</td><td class="numeric">12.3</td> + <td class="numeric">13.4</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Macaroni</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">19.0</td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Beans, navy</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td> + <td class="numeric">7.6</td><td class="numeric">9.4</td><td class="numeric">19.1</td> + <td class="numeric">17.8</td><td class="numeric">12.0</td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Potatoes</td><td class="center">do</td><td class="numeric">1.6</td> + <td class="numeric">1.9</td><td class="numeric">1.6</td><td class="numeric">2.5</td> + <td class="numeric">6.1</td><td class="numeric">2.2</td><td class="numeric">3.3</td> + <td class="numeric">+19</td> + <td class="numeric"><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></td> + <td class="numeric">+56</td><td class="numeric">+281</td><td class="numeric">+38</td> + <td class="numeric">+106</td></tr> +<tr><td>Onions</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">4.3</td> + <td class="numeric">5.1</td><td class="numeric">8.6</td><td class="numeric">5.6</td> + <td class="numeric">10.7</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Cabbage</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">9.6</td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Beans, baked</td><td class="center">No. 2 can.</td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">17.5</td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Corn, canned</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">19.1</td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Peas, canned</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">19.0</td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Tomatoes, canned</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">15.8</td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Sugar, granulated</td><td class="center">Pound</td><td class="numeric">5.4</td> + <td class="numeric">5.0</td><td class="numeric">6.8</td><td class="numeric">8.5</td> + <td class="numeric">10.0</td><td class="numeric">9.1</td><td class="numeric">10.6</td> + <td class="numeric">-7</td><td class="numeric">+26</td><td class="numeric">+57</td> + <td class="numeric">+85</td><td class="numeric">+69</td><td class="numeric">+96</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tea</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">54.6</td> + <td class="numeric">54.6</td><td class="numeric">55.7</td><td class="numeric">63.8</td> + <td class="numeric">69.8</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Coffee</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">27.9</td> + <td class="numeric">29.9</td><td class="numeric">30.2</td><td class="numeric">30.1</td> + <td class="numeric">40.5</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Prunes</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">13.7</td> + <td class="numeric">13.3</td><td class="numeric">15.3</td><td class="numeric">16.5</td> + <td class="numeric">23.2</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Raisins</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">12.5</td> + <td class="numeric">12.6</td><td class="numeric">14.4</td><td class="numeric">15.1</td> + <td class="numeric">16.3</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Bananas</td><td class="center">Dozen</td><td></td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">38.8</td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Oranges</td><td class="center">do</td><td></td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">54.1</td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>All articles combined</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td> + <td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td class="numeric">+1</td><td class="numeric">+3</td> + <td class="numeric">+13</td><td class="numeric">+56</td><td class="numeric">+64</td> + <td class="numeric">+91</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a>15-16 ounce can.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a>Baked weight.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a>8-ounce package.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a>28-ounce package.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a>No change in price.</p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The total of dry storage stocks, including those that increased and +those that decreased is as follows, all items being reduced to pounds:</p></div> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="dry stocks"> +<tr><td>June 1, 1919</td><td class="numeric">7,875,280,040</td></tr> +<tr><td>June 1, 1918</td><td class="numeric">6,336,763,505</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"That is the total dry storage stocks reported on June 1, 1919, were 124 +per cent. of those on June 1, 1918.</p> + +<p>"The total of cold storage items reported in pounds in June, 1919, and +June, 1918 (omitting apples in barrels but covering eggs; frozen eggs; +butter; cheese, frozen and cured beef; frozen lamb and mutton; + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> + +frozen, dry salt and pickled pork; lard; and frozen poultry), was as +follows:</p></div> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="cold stocks"> +<tr><td>June 1, 1919</td><td class="numeric">1,671,777,990</td></tr> +<tr><td>June 1, 1918</td><td class="numeric">1,669,826,166</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"That is, cold storage stocks this June are 100.1 per cent. of those +last June.</p> + +<p>"None of the above figures include army stores nor the army excess +supply which is to be distributed by the War Department under resolution +of the House of Representatives.</p> + +<p>"The sum of dry storage and cold storage (except apples) for the two +periods (combining the figures already given) was as follows:</p></div> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="total food stores"> +<tr><td>June 1, 1919</td><td class="numeric">9,547,058,030 pounds</td></tr> +<tr><td>June 1, 1918</td><td class="numeric">8,006,589,671 pounds</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"That is the total stocks reported on June 1, 1919, were 119 per cent. +of those on June 1, 1918.</p> + +<p>"This as noted does not include Army supplies.</p> + +<p>"Grouping the commodities in four classes:</p> + +<p>"(1) Those increasing in stocks and increasing in price.</p> + +<p>"(2) Those increasing in stocks and decreasing in price.</p> + +<p>"(3) Those decreasing in stocks and increasing in price.</p> + +<p>"(4) Those decreasing in stocks and decreasing in price; we have the +accompanying significant tables, which indicate that the 'law of supply +and demand' is not working.</p></div> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>III—INDUSTRY AND LABOR IN WARTIME<br /> +Unprecedented Conditions and Developments Due to the World War and How +They Were Met</h2> + +<p>The issue of the great world conflict between autocracy and democracy +rested largely in the hands of the laboring classes behind the lines. +Mr. William B. Wilson, Secretary of Labor, placed vividly before the +public in one of his official statements the views of American labor at +the outbreak of the war:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"During the past decade the sentiment of American labor has crystallized +against resort to arms as a means of settlement of disputes between +nations. War had come to be considered wasteful economically, socially, +and morally. Labor felt that no national advantage gained through force +of arms could offset the human life sacrificed, the burden of taxation +levied upon successive generations to pay the cost of war, the standards +of life set back or destroyed, which had to be rebuilt slowly and with +infinite sacrifice. In short, war had come to be looked upon as morally +wrong, entirely unnecessary, a calamity that could be avoided and must +be avoided if the race was to progress. This feeling was shared to a +greater or lesser extent by the workers of all civilized nations, and +there was a universal feeling in world labor ranks prior to the outbreak +of the European war that this sentiment, shared by many thoughtful +people outside the ranks of the wage workers in all civilized nations, +was strong enough to prevent any armed conflict which would involve any +number of peoples. This sentiment was undoubtedly responsible for the +lack of military preparedness, in the sense that Germany prepared, among +the other major powers now engaged in the world conflict.</p> + +<p>"When the war clouds broke in Europe, American labor was stunned. All +its preconceived notions as to the inability of any great nation to wage +war upon another nation because the working people would refuse either +to fight or produce munitions and supplies of war were shattered when +nation after nation quickly mobilized its armies and the organized labor +movements of each country, without exception, quickly pledged their men +and their resources to the support of their respective governments. But +the fact that America itself might be drawn into the world conflict was +still foreign to the mind of the American workman. While American labor +grieved over the fate which had befallen its kind in Europe no sense of +danger to this country was apparent. From the beginning of this Republic +it had been our national policy to hold aloof from the quarrels of the +Old World. The splendid isolation of thousands of miles of ocean +protected us. We had no quarrel with Europe and we asked but to be let +alone. We stood upon our rights to protect the people of continental +America from invasion or aggression as enunciated by the Monroe +Doctrine, and further than that we could not see that the European +conflict embroiled us as a nation. Let Europe settle her own family +quarrel. We were to remain the one great neutral nation of the earth. +When the time came America, untrammeled by participation in the +conflict, with no desire for American aggrandizement or + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> + +territorial expansion, would be the natural messenger of peace to +war-worried Europe."</p></div> + +<h3>SAFEGUARDS FOR WORKINGMEN</h3> + +<p>From the moment of the declaration of war the general loyalty of the +laboring classes throughout the United States was apparent. This +attitude of loyalty found a ready response in the immediately declared +intention of the Government to safeguard the interests of the +workingmen. Congress announced its attitude toward standards of legal +protection for workers. It was printed verbatim in <cite>Labor Laws in War +Time</cite>, 201, p. 1, as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"<span class="smcap">Whereas</span>, The entrance of the United States into the World War appears +imminent; and</p> + +<p>"<span class="smcap">Whereas</span>, Other countries upon engaging in the conflict permitted a +serious breakdown of protective labor regulations with the result, as +shown by recent official investigations, of early and unmistakable loss +of health, output, and national effectiveness; and</p> + +<p>"<span class="smcap">Whereas</span>, Our own experience has already demonstrated that accidents +increase with speeding up and the employment of new workers unaccustomed +to their tasks, that over fatigue defeats the object aimed at in +lengthening working hours, and that new occupational poisoning has +accompanied the recent development of munition manufacture; and</p> + +<p>"<span class="smcap">Whereas</span>, The full strength of our nation is needed as never before and +we cannot afford to suffer loss of labor power through accidents, +disease, industrial poisoning, and overfatigue; now, therefore, be it.</p> + +<p>"<em>Resolved</em>, That the American Association for Labor Legislation, at +this critical time, in order to promote the success of our country in +war as well as in peace, would sound a warning against the +shortsightedness and laxness at first exemplified abroad in these +matters, and would urge all public-spirited citizens to coöperate +in maintaining, for the protection of those who serve in this time of +stress the industries of the nation (who as experience abroad has shown +are quite as important to military success as the fighting forces), the +following essential minimum requirements:</p> + +<h3>I. SAFETY</h3> + +<p>"1. Maintenance of all existing standards of safeguarding machinery and +industrial processes for the prevention of accidents.</p> + +<h3>II. SANITATION</h3> + +<p>"1. Maintenance of all existing measures for the prevention of +occupational diseases.</p> + +<p>"2. Immediate agreement upon practicable methods for the prevention of +special occupational poisonings incident to making and handling +explosives.</p> + +<h3>III. HOURS</h3> + +<p>"1. Three-shift system in continuous industries.</p> + +<p>"2. In non-continuous industries, maintenance of existing standard +working day as basic.</p> + +<p>"3. One day's rest in seven for all workers.</p> + +<h3>IV. WAGES</h3> + +<p>"1. Equal pay for equal work, without discrimination as to sex.</p> + +<p>"2. Maintenance of existing wage rates for basic working day.</p> + +<p>"3. Time and one-half for all hours beyond basic working day.</p> + +<p>"4. Wage rates to be periodically revised to correspond with variations +in the cost of living.</p> + +<h3>V. CHILD LABOR</h3> + +<p>"1. Maintenance of all existing special regulations regarding child +labor, including minimum wages, maximum hours, prohibition of night +work, prohibited employment, and employment certificates.</p> + +<p>"2. Determination of specially hazardous employments to be forbidden to +children under sixteen.</p> + +<h3>VI. WOMAN'S WORK</h3> + +<p>"1. Maintenance of existing special regulations regarding woman's work, +including maximum hours, prohibition of night work, prohibited hazardous +employments, and prohibited employment immediately before and after +childbirth.</p> + +<h3>VII. SOCIAL INSURANCE</h3> + +<p>"1. Maintenance of existing standards of workmen's compensation for +industrial accidents and diseases.</p> + +<p>"2. Extension of workmen's compensation laws to embrace occupational +diseases, especially those particularly incident to the manufacture and +handling of explosives.</p> + +<p>"3. Immediate investigation of the sickness problem among the workers to +ascertain the advisability of establishing universal workmen's health +insurance.</p> + +<h3>VIII. LABOR MARKET</h3> + +<p>"1. Extension of existing systems of public employment bureaus to aid in +the intelligent distribution of labor throughout the country.</p> + +<h3>IX. ADMINISTRATION OF LABOR LAWS</h3> + +<p>"1. Increased appropriations for enlarged staffs of inspectors to +enforce labor legislation.</p> + +<p>"2. Representation of employees, employers, and the public on joint +councils for coöperating elsewhere with the labor departments in +drafting and enforcing necessary regulations to put the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> + +foregoing principles into full effect."</p></div> + +<h3>ORGANIZING LABOR FOR WAR WORK</h3> + +<p>Supplying the man power for industrial action during the war was a +really more complicated task than drafting men for military service. In +the earlier period of American participation labor was distributed more +or less according to the law of supply and demand. The unequal +distribution of workers became a grave problem. To meet this the United +States Employment Service of the Department of Labor took over the +supply of war industries with common labor, and all independent +recruiting of labor by manufacturers having a pay roll of more than a +hundred men was discontinued.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-067.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-067thumb.jpg" alt="In the Heart of the Bethlehem Steel Plant" + title="In the Heart of the Bethlehem Steel Plant" + width="400" height="450" /> + </a> + <p class="caption">In the Heart of the Bethlehem Steel Plant</p> + <p class="description">H. E. Coffin, Chairman on Industrial + Preparedness of the Council of National Defence, described the + conflict as a war of munitions, of factories, of producing + powers, of sweating men and women workers. In the plant sketched + above, 26,000 men toiled and sweated during the war to make + munitions for our troops overseas.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-067.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"On this Board were representatives of the War, Navy, and Agriculture +Departments, the Shipping Board and the Emergency Fleet Corporation, the +War Industries Board, and the Food, Fuel, and Railroad Administrations. +Assistant Director Nathan A. Smyth, of the United States Employment +Service, was quoted in the New York <cite>Globe</cite> as saying in part:</p> + +<p>"'Today the war industries of the country are short about 500,000 +unskilled workers, and the coming requirements of war production +necessitate finding between 2,000,000 and 3,000,000 more.</p> + +<p>"'Similarly the demand for skilled workers in war industries is greater +than the immediately available supply. Before long we will have to take +every tool maker and die-sinker in non-war work and put him in war +production.'</p> + +<p>"The country was divided into thirteen Federal districts, by the +regulation of labor for war industries, and each was in charge of a +superintendent of the United States Employment Service, while the States +within the several districts were in charge of a State director. The +labor problem this measure was designed to remedy and control was +pictured by Secretary of Labor Wilson, who was quoted in the New York +<cite>Sun</cite> as saying in part:</p> + +<p>"'The Government found itself in need of men, and on going out to get +them found itself in competition with private industry, which was +equally hard pressed. Men who had never drawn more than a common +laborer's wages found themselves at a premium in the market, and began +to ask and receive extortionate prices, and to rove from place to place +seeking still higher prices.</p> + +<p>"'Everywhere industry was hampered by what is known as the turnover, or +the constant shifting of itinerant labor, in some cases the loss in +efficiency running as high as 100 per cent. This is what is perhaps best +described as the evil of the individualistic strike—the strike by +the man, thousands of him, in different yards and factories all over the +country, who is forever throwing down his tools and wandering away on +the slightest rumor of higher wages elsewhere, who by his habit of +roving never masters the details of any trade, and who in the mass +accounts for a greater loss than all the organized strikes and walkouts +in the land.'"</p></div> + +<h3>INFLUENCE OF WAR CONDITIONS</h3> + +<p>In the United States under war conditions labor unrest did not reach the +intense form manifested in England. Nevertheless a great many strikes +were reported. Surprise was expressed that the labor adjustment +machinery of the War Department and of the Navy Department was not +appealed to. Besides there was the National War Labor Board to take up +mediation. Investigations in Bridgeport, Connecticut, showed an increase +of earnings of 81 per cent. against an increase of living prices of 61 +per cent. Yet at one time the Press reported strikes in over 350 machine +shops in New Jersey—nearly all engaged in necessary war +work—as well as trouble in many shipyards. Of course there was the +explanation of foreign propaganda or a tendency toward industrial +Bolshevism. Such explanations failed to account for the fact that +American workmen as a whole were patriotic.</p> + +<p>Attention was called, on the other hand, to the warm tribute given by +the Federal Fuel Administrator to the bituminous coal miners who had +brought production past the 13 million ton mark in the second week in +July, 1917, and the exceptional efforts of diligent and patriotic +workers in the shipyard. A portion of the press emphasized the +unreasonableness of striking while the laboring people enjoyed, during +war time, immunity from service and immunity from the pressure of +competition for wages. The Springfield <cite>Republican</cite> protested against +applying to the workingmen exaggerated standards of economic rectitude.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is easy to be harsh in one's judgment even in the case of the +strikes that occur. Why do they strike at all while the war continues? +Have they no capacity for self-sacrifice for the country? These +questions will be asked by many people whenever war work anywhere is +checked in the least degree by workmen dropping their tools.</p> + +<p>"On the other hand, let us not be unjust to labor, for in the American +Army in France labor is represented by multitudes of youth upon whose +gallantry and steadiness all our hopes of victory depend. No class here +at home gives 100 per cent. efficiency or commits itself to 100 per +cent. of sacrifice in the winning of the war. Why demand it of the wage +earners or the labor unions?</p> + +<p>"Simply because of its organization and its machinery of leadership, +however, labor enjoys an exceptional opportunity to contribute to the +winning of the war. This is the first great war in history in which +labor has been organized into an economic unit, and that is the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> + +reason for some special war problems today which were never encountered +by governments in previous wars. But there can be gains even more than +losses to the national strength by reason of this organization, if the +opportunity be accepted to promote labor's contribution. This is a task +especially for the leadership of organized labor. It is certainly no +exaggeration to say that in no way can labor be advantaged after the war +so much as by the wholehearted acceptance of its opportunity for loyal +service to the nation during the war. Let labor splendidly do its part +in bringing victory and its future influence will expand beyond the +dreams of its prophets....</p> + +<p>"Labor and victory are inseparable; nay more, the one may command the +other, and thus it may control the fate of the world."</p></div> + +<h3>INDUSTRIAL MEANING OF WAR</h3> + +<p>Mr. H. E. Coffin, Chairman of the Committee on Industrial Preparedness, +described the European War in its last analysis as a war of munitions, a +war of factories, of producing powers, of sweating men and women +workers. When the United States entered the war there were four main +things required of its government and its people, viz., ships, munitions +and materials of war, food and soldiers. It can be seen that three out +of these four factors are matters that belong to the economic history of +the war. Fortunately for our Government, it had the experience of +foreign countries to learn from, and learning was an essential part of +war preparation in spite of the resources in hand in the United States; +as Mr. Coffin said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"A close observation of the experience in foreign countries has shown us +the vital necessity for a peace time prearrangement for conversion in +all industries. Wars, as now waged, involve every human and material +resource of a belligerent nation. Every factory and every man, woman, +and child are affected. Every sinew of industry, of transportation, and +of finance must be harnessed in the country's service. In England two +years and a half ago there were three government arsenals. Today +thousands of England's industrial plants are being operated as +government factories for the production of war materials, and many other +thousands of plants, still under private control, are centering their +energies in this same direction.</p> + +<p>"We have here in the United States vast resources in manufacturing and +producing equipment, but they are unorganized and uneducated for the +national service. Our observations of the European War have taught us +that it is upon organized industry that we must base every plan of +military defense. In the event of trouble with any one of the several +first-class powers, between 80 and 90 per cent. of our industrial +activity would of necessity be centered upon the making of supplies for +the government. We have learned also that from one to two years of time +and of conscientious effort are needed to permit any large manufacturing +establishment to change over from its usual peace-time commercial line +to the quantity production of war materials for which it has had no +previous training."</p></div> + +<p>In certain respects the position of the United States was unique, not +only because of its resources but because it was to a certain extent +self-dependent as a belligerent. England was able for some time to +import large quantities of munitions and supplies from other countries. +In the case of the United States when it entered the war, munition and +food supplies had to come from its own resources. Practically all of the +war materials had to be ultimately produced in the United States. Many +observers were optimistic because they had a sanguine opinion of the +efficiency presented by American industrial democracy. But efficiency +alone could not win the war. There were certain limitations to the +sphere of efficiency. This was pointed out by Mr. H. G. Moulton in an +address on "Industrial Conscription," delivered before the Western +Economic Society, at Chicago, in 1917:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"At this point it should be emphasized that the position of the United +States is unique, so far as the allied nations are concerned. England, +for instance, at the outbreak of the conflict could import vast +quantities of munitions and supplies from other countries. England, +therefore, had a fourth alternative, one denied to us because the +struggle is now world-wide. All of the materials of war that we furnish +must come from the current energy of our own people. We must ourselves +produce these ships, munitions, food supplies, and stocks in the coming +months. There is no one else to do it for us. In this connection I +should like to emphasize with all the power at my command the argument +that we cannot by bond issues shift the burdens of this war to future +generations. The mere fact that all of us—as represented by the +government—borrow from some of us—as represented by bond +purchasers—does not change the other essential fact that we, the +people within this country, must actually produce practically + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> + +practically all the war materials we are to have for use in the war.</p> + +<p>"There is also much current discussion of the wonderful gains that may +be made through increasing efficiency. It is argued that we should make +our patriotic impulses the occasion for the universal introduction of +scientific management. It of course goes without saying that we should +do all that we possibly can to further the improvement of industrial +methods; and doubtless something may be accomplished."</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-070.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-070thumb.jpg" alt="Forging Armor Plate" + title="Forging Armor Plate" width="400" height="526" /> + </a> + <p class="caption">Forging Armor Plate</p> + <p class="description">"Every man, in the draft + age at least, must work or fight," said General Crowder. + And the workers were just as important a factor in winning the + war as the fighters. In the gigantic machine sketched above, + ingots of sixty and seventy tons were pressed into plates of + any size and thickness for use on our super dreadnoughts.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-070.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> + +<h3>LABOR DISLOCATION</h3> + +<p>It is estimated that about 35,000,000 men, women and children in the +United States do the country's work: dig its coal, raise its crops, run +its trains, build its roads, make its powder, turn out its munitions. +There was an increase each year of a million man-power through +immigration. The result of the war was that this source of supply was +cut off. What was the economic significance of this cutting off of +immigration? The immigrant was almost the only source of what we call +day labor—the men who do the building and repairing of railroads, +the mending of streets and roads, mining, and the rough work of steel +mills and other factories. Along with the cessation of immigration came +the withdrawal from labor power of two million men who were drawn into +the Army. These men, incidentally, became large consumers of goods +rather than normal producers of wealth. Some estimates were made that +the United States Government was using for war purposes about one-half +of the entire productive capacity of the country. These figures enable +one to gauge the industrial dislocation caused by the war. In matters +affecting the members of what might be called the labor army, which +still kept up the work of production, the Government laid great emphasis +on the need of securing industrial peace.</p> + +<p>A Mediation Commission was appointed by the President to deal with +conditions of labor unrest. This Commission made a report early in 1918, +in which it spoke of the lack of knowledge on the part of Capital as to +Labor's feelings and needs and on the part of Labor as to problems of +management. The program outlined by the Commission was as follows:</p> + +<ol> +<li>"Modern large scale industry has effectually destroyed the personal +relation between employer and employee—the knowledge and +coöperation that come from personal contact. It is therefore no +longer possible to conduct industry by dealing with employees as +individuals. Some form of collective relationship between management and +men is indispensable. The recognition of this principle by the +government should form an accepted part of the labor policy of the +nation.</li> + +<li>"Law, in business as elsewhere, depends for its vitality upon steady +employment. Instead of waiting for adjustment after grievances come to +the surface there is needed the establishment of continuous +administrative machinery for the orderly disposition of industrial +issues and the avoidance of an atmosphere of contention and the waste of +disturbances.</li> + +<li>"The eight-hour day is an established policy of the country; +experience has proved justification of the principle also in war times. +Provision must of course be made for longer hours in case of +emergencies. Labor will readily meet this requirement if its misuse is +guarded against by appropriate overtime payments.</li> + +<li>"Unified direction of the labor administration of the United States +for the period of the war should be established. At present there is an +unrelated number of separate committees, boards, agencies, and +departments having fragmentary and conflicting jurisdiction over the +labor problems raised by the war. A single-headed administration is +needed, with full power to determine and establish the necessary +administrative structure.</li> + +<li>"When assured of sound labor conditions and effective means for the +just redress of grievances that may arise, Labor in its turn should +surrender all practices which tend to restrict maximum efficiency.</li> + +<li>"Uncorrected evils are the great provocative to extremist propaganda, +and their correction would be in itself the best counter-propaganda. But +there is need for more affirmative education. There has been too little +publicity of an educative sort in regard to Labor's relation to the war. +The purposes of the government and the methods by which it is pursuing +them should be brought home to the fuller understanding of Labor. Labor +has most at stake in this war, and it will eagerly devote its all if +only it be treated with confidence and understanding, subject neither to +indulgence nor neglect, but dealt with as a part of the citizenship of +the state."</li> +</ol> + +<h3>ADVISORY LABOR COUNCIL</h3> + +<p>In order to prevent lack of coördination in the government's +handling of the labor situation an advisory council was created to help +the Secretary of Labor to organize the new war work. The field of this +advisory council is indicated in a series of memoranda presented to him +in January, 1917.</p> + +<ol> +<li>"An Adjustment Service which will have to do with the adjustment of +industrial disputes according to policies and principles arrived at +through the deliberations of the War Labor Conference Board.</li> + +<li>"A Condition of Labor Service which will have charge of the +administration of conditions of labor within business plants. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></li> + +<li>"An Information and Education Service which will devote itself to the +establishment of sound sentiment among both employers and employees and +to the establishment in individual plants of the local machinery (<span lang="la">e.g.</span>, +employment management) and policies necessary for the successful +operation of a National Labor Program.</li> + +<li>"A Woman in Industry Service which will meet the problems connected +with the more rapid introduction of women into industry as a result of +war conditions.</li> + +<li>"A Training and Dilution Service which will administer such training +and dilution policies as may be agreed upon.</li> + +<li>"A Housing and Transportation of Workers Service whose duty it will +be to provide the housing facilities to meet the nation's needs.</li> + +<li>"A Personnel Service whose duties it shall be to assemble and +classify information concerning appropriate candidates for positions in +the war-labor administration and make recommendations for appointment.</li> + +<li>"A Division for the Investigation of Special Problems which would be +a part of the Secretary's office force and would conduct investigations +in the placing of contracts, in priority of labor demand, in powers of +the Department, in problems of reconstruction, and would assist in +formulating the national labor policy.</li> + +<li>"An Investigation and Inspection Service to provide the field force +of examiners and inspectors required by the other services."</li> +</ol> + +<p>After various stages of experience the War Industries Board secured +something more than an advisory position. This was done only after a +year of warfare. The final situation was explained by Mr. C. M. +Hitchcock in the <cite>Journal of Political Economy</cite>, June, 1918:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"When on March 4th of the present year the President appointed Bernard +M. Baruch Chairman of the War Industries Board and defined his duties he +did not, as certain press reports have implied, create an industrial +dictator. His action did clear the way for Mr. Baruch's assumption of +the duties of a director of industrial war strategy, of an industrial +Chief of Staff—for the present position of the War Industries +Board in the American Government is comparable in its relation to +national industrial policy to nothing so much as the functions of the +General Staff of the Army in its jurisdiction over military strategy. +After a year of war the direction of industrial policy is placed in +single hands, and a central planning board is established for dealing +not only with the problems of production and purchase but with the whole +attitude of the government toward the mobilization of business resources +for the prosecution of the war. Leadership has been focused and an +administrative channel opened for the inauguration of a studied and +inferentially constructive industrial policy.</p> + +<p>"From the present trend of events the War Industries Board promises to +become the sole directing agency between the government and industry. +Backed by the power of the President to commandeer, to withhold fuel, +and in other ways to force the halting into line, it can mold the +country's industrial system almost as it will—whether in +organizing the nation for war or in directing the lines along which it +shall return to normal conditions when peace comes. In a system of +government such as ours, where the responsibility for directing the war +rests almost exclusively in the hands of the President, and where his +power ultimately becomes almost absolute, the Board has been shaped into +a very potent instrument.</p> + +<p>"Yet powerful as it may become, subject only to the jurisdiction of the +President, it is well to remember that in a comprehensive national war +plan it cannot stand alone. Its policies must be subject to the +administration's general strategy in the war—for instance, to the +amount of munitions in comparison with the number of men or the amount +of food that it wishes to send abroad at any given time. The munitions +program and the conversion of industry to war purposes must be governed +by the ultimate end in view. In addition, one of the great factors in +production—the labor factor—is being administered by another +government agency, and it is obvious that priority in the labor supply +must go hand in hand with priority in materials."</p></div> + +<h3>WORK OR FIGHT</h3> + +<p>Military men were as keen as business men in realizing the industrial +factor as a powerful contributory cause in winning the war. General +Crowder's famous "work or fight" alternative was a sufficient witness of +this fact. He said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Every man, in the draft age at least, must work or fight.</p> + +<p>"This is not alone a war of military maneuvers. It is a deadly contest +of industries and mechanics. Germany must not be thought of as merely +possessing an army; we must think of her as <em>being</em> an army—an +army in which every factory and loom in the Empire is a recognized part +in a complete machine running night and day at terrific speed. We must +make ourselves the same sort of effective machine.</p> + +<p>"We must make vast withdrawals for the Army and immediately close up the +ranks of industry behind the gap with an accelerating production of +every useful thing in necessary measure. How is this to be done? The +answer is plain. The first step toward the solution of the difficulty is +to prohibit engagement by able-bodied men in the field of + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> + +hurtful employment, idleness, or ineffectual employment, and thus induce +and persuade the vast wasted excess into useful fields.</p> + +<p>"One of the unanswerable criticisms of the draft has been that it takes +men from the farms and from all useful employments and marches them past +crowds of idlers and loafers away to the Army. The remedy is +simple—to couple the industrial basis with other grounds for +exemption and to require that any man pleading exemption on any ground +shall show that he is contributing effectively to the industrial welfare +of the nation."</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-073.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-073thumb.jpg" alt="Building Howitzers" + title="Building Howitzers" width="400" height="511" /> + </a> + <p class="caption">Building Howitzers</p> + <p class="description">A nine-mile howitzer nearly ready for + transportation. Beyond are seen heavy armorplate turrets in + the making. The small and large manufacturers were given equal + opportunity to obtain war business.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-073.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p>Industrial preparation for war was guided by the principle of priority. +This is an old principle, but it began to be applied in unheard-of ways. +When an army is to be moved all means of transport in sight are + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> + +commandeered. When an army is to be fed, civilians protest in vain +against the seizure of stores. These practices were always features in +the history of warfare.</p> + +<p>A novel factor in priority as applied during the present war was the +breadth of its scope.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"When the whole industry of a nation is mobilized behind the fighting +line, it is not merely finished munitions that must be given priority in +transportation, but also the materials and fuel for further munitions +production. The food supply of the industrial population, as well as +that of the army, has a claim to priority. So also have clothing +supplies, lumber for housing, and whatever else is essential to working +efficiency. In production it would be impossible to fix definite limits +upon the application of the priority principle. We can not much longer +permit the free flotation of the securities of foreign enterprises, nor +even of the less essential domestic enterprises, so long as national +loans or issues designed to finance railways or industrial enterprises +of prime necessity are to be floated. Modern warfare, in involving the +whole national life, has made inevitable a control of business +practically coextensive with the economic system.</p> + +<p>"The application of the priority principle to transportation and +production is quite in accord with plain common sense. It is none the +less revolutionary in its social economic implications. What it means is +that necessities shall have right of way. If we have excess productive +capacity, the unessentials and luxuries may be provided, but not +otherwise. And necessities are definable in terms that take account only +of physical requirements. There is no room in the definition for class +distinction. A new country house may seem a matter of necessity to the +man of fortune, but he will persuade no priority board to permit +shipment of building materials while cars are needed for coal or wheat. +Nor will he persuade them to let him have lumber that could be used for +ships or workingmen's camps, or labor that could be employed to +advantage in production for more clearly national and democratic needs."</p></div> + +<h3>WAR SUPPLIES</h3> + +<p>The United States, following the experience of other belligerents, +adopted the policy of decentralization in the production of war +supplies. A plan was worked out under which the small and large +manufacturer were given equal opportunity to obtain war business:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Under the plan that has been worked out for bringing the manufacturing +resources of the country into more effective coöperation with the +government, the country is to be divided into twenty industrial regions, +with the following cities as centers: Boston, Bridgeport, New York, +Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Rochester, Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, +Cincinnati, Baltimore, Atlanta, Birmingham, Kansas City, St. Louis, +Dallas, Milwaukee, St. Paul, Seattle, San Francisco. The following plan +for effecting the organization is suggested by the officials in charge:</p> + +<ol> +<li>"Organize through Chambers of Commerce and other business +associations Industrial Committees with the principal industrial center +as headquarters and such subdivisions as are recommended by the business +association of each district.</li> + +<li>"Develop such organization in various classes of industry as well as +in area for greatest convenience, to get information of all classes of +products in and between regions.</li> + +<li>"Having established such region and sub-region, through the +coöperation of the best business men in each district have a survey +of the industries recorded in the hands of the section in Washington of +the War Industries Board for information to the various procurement +sections of the government.</li> + +<li>"Each region may have in Washington a representative who through the +Resources and Conversion Section of the War Industries Board may keep in +direct contact with his region and be available to the governmental +procurement divisions or the War Industries Board for prompt action in +giving data from his region.</li> +</ol> + +<p>"The detailed form of organization suggested for each region (subject, +of course, to modifications as desired to meet the needs of any region) +is known as the Cleveland Plan, which has been for some time in +operation. Under this plan each region is divided into eight +sub-regions, an important industrial city in each sub-region being +designated as a center. Each sub-region has a local War Industries +Commission which coördinates all industry within its territory. +Within each sub-region manufacturing is divided into the following +classes: castings, forgings and stampings; machinery and machine +products; rubber products; clay products, chemicals, oils, and paints; +textiles and clothing, wood and leather; engineering; automotive. Other +classifications may of course be added in important lines of industry."</p></div> + +<p>Such regional divisions were but one factor in industrial +administration. Government needs and labor shortage made imperative the +regulation of manufactures by the priority system.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-074.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-074thumb.jpg" width="400" height="226" + alt="Guns and Armaments for United States and Her Allies" + title="Guns and Armaments for United States and Her Allies" /> + </a> + <p class="caption">Guns and Armaments for United States and Her Allies</p> + <p class="description">Interior of one of the Bethlehem Steel + Company's mills—among the largest plants in the world + for the production of munitions during the War.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-074.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p> + +<h3>THE PRIORITY SYSTEM</h3> + +<p>The actual working of the priority system is shown in the following +general classification of industry for the purpose of priority treatment:</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li>Ships—Including destroyers and submarine chasers.</li> +<li>Aircraft.</li> +<li>Munitions, Military and Naval Supplies and Operations—Including +building construction for government needs and equipment for same.</li> +<li>Fuel—For domestic consumption, and for manufacturing necessities +named herein.</li> +<li>Food and Collateral Industries— + <ol class="alpha"> + <li>Foodstuffs for human consumption, and plants handling same.</li> + <li>Feeding stuffs for domestic fowls and animals, and plants handling same.</li> + <li>All tools, utensils, implements, machinery, and equipment required + for production, harvesting and distribution, milling, preparing, canning + and refining foods and feeds such as seeds of foods, and feeds, binder + twine, etc.</li> + <li>Products of collateral industries, such as fertilizer, fertilizer + ingredients, insecticides and fungicides, containers for foods and + feeds, collateral products.</li> + <li>Materials and equipment for preservation of foods, and feeds, such + as ammonia and other refrigeration supplies, including ice.</li> + </ol> +</li> +<li>Clothing—For civilian population.</li> +<li>Railroad—Or other necessary transportation equipment, including +water transportation.</li> +<li>Public Utilities—Serving war industries, Army, Navy, and civilian +population."</li> +</ul> + +<p>But the perplexity of applying this system to such a question as fuel +administration is shown in the following list taken from one of the +trade publications of the Administration for April, 1918:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The Fuel Administration has therefore arranged the following +list of preferred industries:</p></div> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li>Aircraft—Plants engaged <del>exclusivevly</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads exclusivevly">exclusively</ins> in manufacturing aircraft or +supplies and equipment therefor.</li> + +<li>Ammunition—Plants engaged in the manufacture of ammunition for +the United States Government and the Allies.</li> + +<li>Arms (small)—Plants engaged in manufacturing small arms for the +United States Government and the Allies.</li> + +<li>Army and Navy cantonments and camps.</li> + +<li>Chemicals—Plants engaged exclusively in manufacturing chemicals.</li> + +<li>Coke plants.</li> + +<li>Domestic consumers.</li> + +<li>Electrical equipment—Plants manufacturing same.</li> + +<li>Electrodes—Plants producing electrodes.</li> + +<li>Explosives—Plants manufacturing explosives.</li> + +<li>Farm implements—Manufacturers exclusively of agricultural +implements and farm-operating Equipment.</li> + +<li>Feed—Plants producing feed.</li> + +<li>Ferro-alloys—Plants producing same.</li> + +<li>Fertilizers—Manufacturers of fertilizers.</li> + +<li>Fire brick—Plants producing same exclusively.</li> + +<li>Food—Plants manufacturing, milling, preparing, refining, +preserving, and wholesaling food for human consumption.</li> + +<li>Food containers—Manufacturers of tin and glass containers and +manufacturers exclusively of other food containers.</li> + +<li>Gas—Gas-producing plants.</li> + +<li>Guns (large)—Plants manufacturing same.</li> + +<li>Hemp, jute, and cotton bags—Plants manufacturing exclusively +hemp, jute, and cotton bags.</li> + +<li>Insecticides—Manufacturers exclusively of insecticides and +fungicides.</li> + +<li>Iron and steel—Blast furnaces and foundries.</li> + +<li>Laundries.</li> + +<li>Machine tools—Plants manufacturing machine tools.</li> + +<li>Mines.</li> + +<li>Mines—Plants engaged exclusively in manufacturing mining tools +and equipment.</li> + +<li>Newspapers and periodicals—Plants printing and publishing +exclusively newspapers and periodicals.</li> + +<li>Oil—Refineries of both mineral and vegetable oils.</li> + +<li>Oil production—Plants manufacturing exclusively oil-well +equipment.</li> + +<li>Public institutions and buildings.</li> + +<li>Public utilities.</li> + +<li>Railways—Plants manufacturing locomotives, freight cars and +rails, and other plants engaged exclusively in manufacture of railway +supplies.</li> + +<li>Refrigeration—Refrigeration for food and exclusive ice-producing +plants.</li> + +<li>Seeds—Producers or wholesalers of seeds (except flower seeds).</li> + +<li>Ships (bunker coal)—Not including pleasure craft.</li> + +<li>Ships—Plants engaged exclusively in building ships (not including +pleasure craft) or in manufacturing exclusively supplies and equipment +therefor.</li> + +<li>Soap—Manufacturers of soap.</li> + +<li>Steel—Steel plants and rolling mills.</li> + +<li>Tanners—Tanning plants, save for patent leather.</li> + +<li>Tanning extracts—Plants manufacturing tanning extracts.</li> + +<li>Tin plate—Manufacturers of tin plate.</li> + +<li>Twine (binder) and rope—Plants producing exclusively binder twine +and rope.</li> +</ul> + +<h3>CIVIL WAR CONDITIONS</h3> + +<p>During the war period labor was much better off than during the Civil +War epoch. The New York <cite>World</cite> presented the following + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> + +table from the <cite>Merchants' Magazine</cite> of December, 1864, showing the rise +of prices during the Civil War era:</p> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="Civil War price rise"> +<tr><td></td><th><em>1862</em></th><th><em>1864</em></th></tr> +<tr><td>Copper, 100 lbs</td><td class="center">$22.00 @ $25.00</td><td class="center">$41.00 @ $42.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Coal, ton</td><td class="center">4.50 @ 5.00</td><td class="center">9.00 @ 10.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Iron, pig</td><td class="center">21.00 @ 25.00</td><td class="center">48.00 @ 49.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lead, 100 lbs</td><td class="center">6.50 @ 6.75</td><td class="center">11.75 @ 12.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Nails, 100 lbs</td><td class="center">3.25 @ 3.75</td><td class="center">6.00 @ 6.25</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ashes, pot bbl</td><td class="center">5.50 @ 5.75</td><td class="center">8.75 @ 8.87</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dry cod, cwt</td><td class="center">3.37 @ 4.25</td><td class="center">6.50 @ 7.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Flour, bbl</td><td class="center">4.50 @ 5.60</td><td class="center">7.30 @ 7.35</td></tr> +<tr><td>Corn, 100 bush</td><td class="center">58.50 @ 60.00</td><td class="center">131.00 @ 134.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hay, 100 lbs</td><td class="center">.80 @ .85</td><td class="center">1.35 @ 1.40</td></tr> +<tr><td>Wheat, bush</td><td class="center">1.30 @ 1.45</td><td class="center">1.63 @ 1.65</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hemp, cwt</td><td class="center">10.00 @ 11.25</td><td class="center">14.00 @ 16.12</td></tr> +<tr><td>Barley, bush</td><td class="center">.85 @ 1.00</td><td class="center">1.35 @ 1.50</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oats, bush</td><td class="center">.37 @ .39</td><td class="center">.90 @ .91</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hops, 100 lbs</td><td class="center">14.00 @ 20.00</td><td class="center">26.00 @ 33.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Clover seed, 100 lbs</td><td class="center">7.50 @ 7.75</td><td class="center">12.50 @ 13.50</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lime, bbl</td><td class="center">.60 @ .65</td><td class="center">1.25 @ 1.35</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oil, whale, gal</td><td class="center">.25 @ .35</td><td class="center">.58 @ .60</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oil, coal, gal</td><td class="center">.48 @ .57</td><td class="center">1.10 @ 1.12</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pork, bbl</td><td class="center">13.25 @ 13.75</td><td class="center">21.75 @ 23.50</td></tr> +<tr><td>Beef, bbl</td><td class="center">5.50 @ 8.00</td><td class="center">10.00 @ 15.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lard, 100 lbs</td><td class="center">7.50 @ 8.25</td><td class="center">13.59 @ 14.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Whisky, 100 gals</td><td class="center">25.00 @ 25.50</td><td class="center">89.00 @ 91.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tallow, 100 lbs</td><td class="center">8.75 @ 9.00</td><td class="center">12.62 @ 12.75</td></tr> +<tr><td>Whalebone, 100 lbs</td><td class="center">68.00 @ 70.00</td><td class="center">150.00 @ 155.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Wool, fleece, 100 lbs</td><td class="center">52.00 @ 53.00</td><td class="center">78.00 @ 82.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Wool, pl'd, 100 lbs</td><td class="center">44.00 @ 45.00</td><td class="center">70.00 @ 75.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Butter, 100 lbs</td><td class="center">16.00 @ 21.00</td><td class="center">36.00 @ 37.00</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cheese, 100 lbs</td><td class="center">5.00 @ 7.00</td><td class="center">15.00 @ 18.00</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Wheat flour, one of the prime necessities, 'was at no time during the +Civil War above $7.35 per barrel, which is somewhat less than four cents +per pound,' while at the present time it is seven cents per pound, 'or +close to 100 per cent. higher than the top notch of the '60s.' Lard has +already advanced about 100 per cent., while its greatest advance during +the Civil War was 75 per cent.</p> + +<p>"'The present-day advance in the price of clothing in general has not +been proportionate with the advance of foodstuffs, though it has been +considerable, especially as to the cheaper grades. Cotton shirts that +sold for 48 cents in 1913 are now bringing 90 cents to $1. Cheap hosiery +has also about doubled in value. Suits that formerly sold for $15 are +now bringing $17, which is about 10 per cent. advance. Cotton goods +during the Civil War were exceptionally high, owing to the difficulty of +procuring the staple. After the stocks on hand at the beginning of the +war were exhausted, New England mills shut down because of inability to +get supplies. In 1864 raw cotton ruled at 72 cents per pound, while at +one time it touched $1.90. Cotton goods of all kinds were therefore +extraordinarily high.'</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-076.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-076thumb.jpg" width="400" height="258" + alt="Plowing by Night" + title="Plowing by Night" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> + <p class="caption">Plowing by Night</p> + <p class="description">The number of men drawn from Great Britain + into the army and navy during the war was about 5,000,000. This + meant extraordinary efforts of production were necessary on the + part of those who were left behind. By means of a motor tractor + and an acetylene gas generator, the owner of the farm shown above + was able to run day and night shifts.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-076.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The public spirit +manifested at present is much more admirable than that displayed in the +'60s, as shown by the following first-hand description of life in those +days, as compared with what we see on every hand today. Said the New +York <cite>Independent</cite> of June 25, 1864:</p> + +<p>"'Who at the North would ever think of war if he had not a friend in the +army or did not read the newspapers? Go into Broadway and we will show +you what is meant by the word "extravagance." Ask Stewart about the +demand for camel's-hair shawls and he will say "monstrous." Ask Tiffany +what kind of diamonds and pearls are called for. He will answer "the +prodigious, as near hen's-egg size as possible, price no object." What +kind of carpetings are now wanted? None but "extra." Brussels and +velvets are now used from basement to garret. Ingrains and three-plys +won't do at all.</p> + +<p>"'Call a moment at a carriage repository. In reply to your first +question you will be told, "Never such a demand before, sir." And as for +horses, the medium-priced $500 kind are all out of the market. A good +pair of fast ones, "all right," will go for $1,000 sooner than a basket +of strawberries will sell for four cents. Those a "little extra" will +bring $1,500 to $2,000, while the "superb" 2.40 sort will bring any +price among the high numbers.'"</p></div> + +<h3>GREAT BRITAIN'S PRODUCTIVE POWER</h3> + +<p>To appreciate what industrial mobilization meant in England the best +method is to start with the figures on national production taken from +the British census of 1907, the last <del>accesible</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads accesible">accessible</ins> for the peace period:</p> + +<table class="nobrdrsm" summary="British consumption" > +<tr><td>In 1907 the British people are estimated to have produced goods to the total amount of, roughly</td><td class="numeric">$10,000,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>The nation consumed during that year in personal consumption</td><td class="numeric">7,050,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>It spent on capital purposes at home:</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>(<em>a</em>) On betterment of its national plant</td><td class="numeric">950,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>(<em>b</em>) On maintenance of its national plant</td><td class="numeric">900,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>It used up goods to the value of (in keeping up and probably increasing its stocks of material on hand)</td><td class="numeric">325,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>It exported goods in the form of loans to foreign countries of about</td><td class="numeric">500,000,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>By 1914 the British Empire had probably advanced its income to at least +$12,500,000,000; and the surplus of goods which it had to export as +loans to foreign countries seems to have increased from about +$500,000,000 to $1,000,000,000. What happened in war-time? First of all +there was an unprecedented manufacture of munitions and war supplies. +This production was needed not only for Great Britain, but also for her +Allies. Seven-tenths of what was produced in Great Britain in the year +1907 was immediately used up in the form of personal consumption by its +population; accordingly war industrial activities meant either that +British production must be increased or British <del>comsumpton</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads comsumpton">consumption</ins> reduced, or +that more goods must be bought from foreign countries through the sale +of British liquid capital assets.</p> + +<p>First of all, consumption was cut down; in detail, this was accomplished +in the following ways: 1. By cutting down all normal additions to +England's national plant, <span lang="la">i. e.</span>, by building no more houses, +factories, railways, roads, etc., except for purely war purposes. This +expenditure in 1907 amounted to about $950,000,000. 2. By cutting down +and ceasing as far as possible to spend money on the maintenance of this +national plant, except the minimum required to keep it running. This +expenditure in 1907 amounted to $900,000,000. 3. Most important of all, +by cutting down civil personal expenditure. This was so far the largest +item of consumption that it was here that the most important savings +were made.</p> + +<h3>A WHOLE POPULATION AT WORK</h3> + +<p>In England the total number of "occupied males" between the ages of 18 +and 44, <span lang="la">i. e.</span>, roughly, the conscription age was, in 1911, 7,200,000. +The number of men from the United Kingdom in the Army and Navy amounted +to over 5,000,000; therefore, out of every seven of these men, on the +average five were soldiers or sailors. These men were lost from the +productive capacity of the nation. It is obvious that if English +production remained the same, or increased, it must have been the result +of extraordinary efforts on the part of the small percentage of occupied +males of fighting age left, on the part of all the other males occupied +or formerly occupied, and on the part of all females.</p> + +<p>Mr. R. H. Brand, in discussing the situation in 1918, said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Notwithstanding the great difficulties, I think it is probable that our +production is quite as great as before. Measured in money, and + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> + +owing to the rise of prices, it would probably be much greater. This is +due to the fact that the whole population, practically speaking, has +been working, and working intensely. Millions of women who have not +worked before are working now. No one is idle. Every acre of land or +garden that can be used is being used. Methods of production have been +speeded up, labor-saving machinery in industry and agriculture +multiplied. In every direction the wheels have been turning faster.</p> + +<p>"But, perhaps more important still, the <em>character</em> of our production +has entirely changed—almost our entire industry is producing for +war purposes. Ordinary civil needs are no longer considered. We have of +course to produce what is essential for life, but beyond that all our +energies are directed to war production. The government has of necessity +compelled the whole of British industry to produce for war and to +produce what it is told to produce, because in no other way could our +own armies and our Allies have been supplied. No man is free to do what +he likes with his labor and capital, with his ships, or with his steel. +He has to do what he is told to do. By this means production for war +purposes has enormously increased, and civil consumption has enormously +decreased, because the goods for the civil population were no longer +produced and one cannot buy what isn't there. Instead of gramophones, +the gramophone company makes fuses; instead of cloth for ordinary +clothes, the woolen factory makes khaki; instead of motor cars, the +motor-car maker makes shells.</p> + +<h3>BRITISH INDUSTRY ON WAR BASIS.</h3> + +<p>"Apart from selling our liquid capital assets in return for foreign +goods, and apart from borrowing from foreign countries for the same +purpose, our power to provide our own army and navy with all they want +and have any surplus over for our Allies has indeed depended entirely on +our extraordinary efforts in production—not in normal production, +but in war production—and also on the extent to which we have been +able to reduce our civil consumption of all kinds. I put production +first because, while economy in consumption is exceedingly important, +increased productive capacity devoted to war material, in my opinion, is +still more important. Our increased productivity has, as I say, been +devoted entirely to war requirements. We have had to turn over our whole +industry from a peace to a war basis. We have both voluntarily and +compulsorily cut off the production of goods which are unnecessary for +war purposes. Many trades have been actually shut down and the labor +taken from them and handed over to war industries. Labor itself has been +subjected to restrictions which would have been wholly impossible before +the war. Labor may not leave its employment without government leave; +salaries and wages may not be increased without government approval. +Measures for the control of industry which were unheard of and, in fact, +absolutely impossible before the war have been imposed upon all +industry.</p> + +<p>"Fixed prices had been placed on the most important materials; the +government now has the absolute control of the use of steel, copper, +lead, wool, leather, and other materials for which the war demand is +insatiable, and also of all materials manufactured therefrom. No use may +be made of most of these materials for any purpose whatever without a +certificate being first obtained, no buildings of any kind may be +erected without leave of the Ministry of Munitions. The whole of +industry may now be said to be directed according to the requirements of +the government, its regulation is an enormous task. In the head office +of the Ministry of Munitions alone there are more than 10,000 people.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. R. H. Brand, who is responsible for these statements and used them +in an address to the American Bankers' Association, showed how these +regulations had resulted in a decline of British imports from peace +conditions of 55,000,000 tons annually to war conditions of 20,000,000 +tons. The imports were nearly all foodstuffs. England exported large +amounts of munitions and supplies to her Allies. In the year 1916 alone +we supplied them with 9,000,000 pairs of boots, 100,000,000 sand bags, +40,000,000 yards of jute, millions of socks and blankets, and in +addition several thousand tons of leather; also cloth, foodstuffs of +every kind, portable houses, tools, hospital equipment and so on.</p> + +<h3>LABOR POWER IN ENGLAND</h3> + +<p>Mr. Lloyd George became the man naturally selected to be Prime Minister +because of his success in directing one of the chief war +industries—the work of munitions. In May, 1915, when he was made +head of the newly created Department of Munitions, the problem before +him was no easy one. The Central Empires were able to turn out 250,000 +shells a day, while the British rate of production was 2,500 +high-explosive shells a day, and 13,000 shrapnel shells. Lloyd George +selected a large technical staff; the work was decentralized as much as +possible, and special committees were formed for the purpose of +organizing the work in each district. The question of raw + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> + +materials had to be handled and this was not always easy because there +were unscrupulous suppliers trying to make a corner in their goods. New +machinery had to be made for the manufacture of large shells; all the +big machine works were taken under direct control by the Government. Old +factories had to be equipped and altered and twenty-six large plants had +to be created. To provide the labor power, workmen were recruited by +voluntary methods. A hundred thousand were in this way got together by +July, 1915, most of whom were experts in machinery and ship-building. +The result is pictured in the following extract by a French expert, +Jules Destrée:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"On the 20th of December, 1915, Mr. Lloyd George, in a speech delivered +in the House of Commons, summarized the results of the first six months +of his tenure of office. We will take a few points.</p> + +<p>"Orders placed before the formation of the department were delivered +with an increase of 16 per cent. on previous deliveries. The number of +new orders placed increased by 80 per cent.</p> + +<p>"The state regulation of the metal market resulted in a saving of from +15 to 20 million pounds sterling.</p> + +<p>"The present output of shells for a single week is three times as great +as the entire output for May, 1915, which means that the rate of +production is twelve times as great.</p> + +<p>"The enormous quantity of shells consumed during the offensive of +September, 1915, was made good in a month. The time will soon come when +a week will suffice.</p> + +<p>"The output of machine guns is five times as great; that of hand +grenades is increased forty fold.</p> + +<p>"The production of heavy artillery has been accelerated, and the +heaviest guns of the early days of the war are now among the lightest.</p> + +<p>"An explosive factory in the south of England, which on October 15, +1915, started to fill bombs at the rate of 500 a week with a staff of +60, was in March, 1916, turning out 15,000 a week with a staff of 250.</p> + +<p>"An entirely new factory which started work at the end of October, 1915, +with one filling shed and six girl fillers and an output of 270 a week, +was in March, 1916, employing 175 girls and handling 15,000 bombs a +week.</p> + +<p>"The Ministry of Munitions has built, or is building, housing +accommodation for 60,000 workers, and canteens and mess rooms in +munition works now give accommodation for 500,000 workers a day.</p> + +<p>"All the workmen were assigned either to the works already in +existence—which in many cases were short of hands and unable for +this reason to fulfill their contracts—or else they were allotted +to the new factories.</p> + +<p>"But in view of influence wielded by the labor unions, various +provisions were inserted in the Munitions Act. They related to the +settlement of labor disputes and to the prohibition of strikes and +lockouts the grounds for which had not been submitted to the Board of +Trade.</p> + +<p>"To obviate such disputes, which were generally called forth by the +excessive profits accruing to the employers and the demands of the +wage-earners, the system of 'controlled establishments' was instituted. +Every establishment engaged on munition work was placed, so far as the +regulation of profits and salaries was concerned, under direct +government control. Any modification in the rate of wages had to be +submitted to the Ministry of Munitions, which had power to refer the +question to an arbitration board specially set up by the act.</p> + +<p>"To complete this rapid survey it must be added that a department was +created by the Ministry of Munitions, under the control of an +undersecretary, whose special business it was to examine war +inventions."</p></div> + +<h3>INDUSTRIAL DISLOCATION IN FRANCE</h3> + +<p>When war was declared in 1914, the result in France was a complete +disorganization. It must be remembered that workingmen from the age of +19 to 45 were called to the colors. This meant that the labor supply was +reduced by about three-fourths. The revival of trade was very slow until +the beginning of 1915. When it began to be realized that the war would +be a long one, and when the consumption of ammunition and war materials +was beyond all previous records, the Government was forced to prepare a +program for industrial warfare. It was a hard task because much of +industrial France was under enemy occupation. Munition work had to be +undertaken in neighborhoods largely agricultural. Everything was +lacking: labor, coal, raw material and transportation. As it became +evident that the stoppage of industrial work was a serious mistake, an +attempt was made to revive industries not connected with munitions, such +as paper manufacture, glove and silk making. The operations undertaken +by the Government are described in the following passage from M. R. +Blanchard's article in the <cite>North American Review</cite> (1917):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The first was to take men out of the army and send them to industrial +work. This was done with great caution during the winter of + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> + +1914—15. The proportion of the men thus taken increased more and more +during the year 1915 and reached its fullest extent in 1916. The +specialists in steel work were the first to be taken out of the +trenches; these were far from being sufficient, and common workmen were +added to them. Then chemists and workmen trained in the manufacture of +explosives were recalled; electric engineers were sent back to the +hydro-electric plants; miners above thirty-five years of age who +belonged to the territorial regiments were sent to the mines; +paper-makers and cardboard-makers who could be employed in the +preparation of explosives were put to work; cabinet-makers were put to +manufacturing rifle stocks; wood-cutters were brought back from the +front in order to see that there was no waste in providing the enormous +amount of wood needed in the army. All this recalling of mobilized men +was effected at first according to the need, and without method. By +degrees it became clear that the output would be greater if these +soldier-workmen were assigned to the plants or factories where they were +working before the war. As it would have been unwise to take too large a +number of men out of the fighting units, hundreds of thousands were +taken from the auxiliary troops of the interior, men who through lack of +physical ability to fight were employed in sedentary tasks. Thus in 1915 +and 1916 auxiliaries were swept away to become workmen, foremen, +secretaries, bookkeepers, accountants, etc. Finally the administration +decided to draw from the oldest classes of men still under the military +law. These were called in 1915 and sent to the factories—men born +in 1868, either bachelors or married men without children.</p> + +<p>"Another draft was made on the civil population. To make up for the +absence of male help, women were called upon for a great number of +occupations. Along with the women the refugees were to do their part. +After a rather long period of unsettled life these refugees took again +to regular occupations, some working in the fields as agricultural +hands, others in factories. Today it is difficult to find unemployed +people among them.</p> + +<p>"The alien population for France is also large, considerable numbers of +Italians, Spaniards, and Portuguese being employed in the southeastern +region. A newer element was provided by natives from French colonies, +namely, Morocco and Algeria. Since the war started large numbers of +Greeks and Armenians had been imported into France; and during the last +two years <del>somethink</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads somethink">something</ins> like 200,000 Chinamen had been brought to France for +unskilled work. The last resource was the enemy itself. There were in +France more than 250,000 German prisoners engaged in various work and +receiving a salary for it."</p></div> + +<p>Germany's industrial mobilization was picturesquely described by the +head of the General Electric Co., Dr. Walter Rathenau, who was appointed +at the beginning of the war to superintend the supplying of the German +War Office with raw materials. He told the officials at the War Office +that Germany was provided with more war materials only for a limited +number of months. Accurate statistics were prepared in a short time on +the power of production in various German industries. Then all the raw +material was put where it could be commandeered. The flow of products +was restricted, so that the raw material and also half manufactured +products could be automatically diverted to articles needed by the Army. +New methods were discovered and developed. Where former technical means +were insufficient substitutes had to be found. Where it was prescribed +that this or that article was to be made out of copper or aluminum, it +was permitted to make it out of something else. All the laboring power +of the country, including men from 16 to 60, were enrolled and +controlled from the central organization called the War Office, +described by General Gröner as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The new War Office represents Germany as a colossal firm which includes +all production of every kind and is indifferent to the kind of coat, +civil or military, which its employes wear. The new measures are +intended to mobilize all effective labor, whereas up to the present we +have only mobilized the army and industry. The whole war is becoming +more and more a question of labor, and in order to give the army a firm +basis for its operations the domestic army must also be mobilized. All +the labor, women's as well as men's, must be extracted from the +population, so far as possible voluntarily. But if voluntary enlistment +does not suffice we shall not be able to avoid the introduction of +compulsion."</p></div> + +<h3>THE GERMAN NATION IN ARMS</h3> + +<p>Sixteen months after this war organization was effected, General +Ludendorff said that when the great spring offensive of 1918 opened the +Germans were superior to the Allies in every form of war supplies. There +was a speeding up all round; the output of shells and cannon was double. +This meant the doubling of the coal and iron production, and could be +done only by increasing the workers necessary to double the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> + +output of basic war materials. Adequate food had to be supplied to the +workers; there was what is known as the Hindenburg "Fat Fund" to which +contributions were sent in from German peasantry and agriculturists. +General Gröner, the head of the German War Office, outlined +optimistically the future of German war industrial production as quoted +in the New York <cite>Times</cite> of December 14, 1916:</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-081.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-081thumb.jpg" width="400" height="219" +alt="A War Time Warning" +title="A War Time Warning " /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Photo by P. Thompson</p> +<p class="caption">A War Time Warning</p> +<p class="description">Dairy production among the Allies decreased 30 per cent. during the war. +The lard supply was also decreased. Kitchen economy in fats was never +more important. Fats were so scarce in Germany during the latter part of +1917 that a "Hindenburg Fat Fund" was organized to which contributions +were sent in from German peasantry and agriculturists.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-081.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"German locomotives are running to the Taurus in Asia Minor; we are +operating practically all the Serbian railways with German rolling +stock; we have thousands of cars in Transylvania and Rumania, to say +nothing of other occupied territories. After the transportation problem, +we are taking measures to double the production of the auxiliary raw +materials and semi-finished products. As one example, we are doubling +our efforts for the manufacture of nitres from the nitrogen of the air. +Not only of the basic raw materials, coal and iron, but of auxiliary raw +materials we have no lack.</p> + +<p>"The brains of our chemists and technicians are supplying the missing +imports, and will continue to do so. Only when we have accomplished all +this will we proceed to the last step of doubling the production of +shells and cannon. Such a war is not to be won by looking ahead from +month to month, but only by thinking of the distant future. After we +have doubled the pyramid, we shall proceed to treble it.</p> + +<p>"By spring we shall be going full steam ahead. After that our production +will increase from month to month; and we have the labor and raw +materials for keeping up the pace indefinitely.</p> + +<p>"The male working forces available between the ages of seventeen and +sixty, as provided by the Auxiliary Service Law, will cover our +requirements into the distant future, but ultimately, aside from the +children, aged and sick, every man and woman will be enlisted for home +defense, if necessary. The home army will be the whole nation.</p> + +<p>"What we are engaging on is not alone the progressive mobilization of +all the nation's physical strength and material <del>rsesources</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads rsesources">resources</ins>, but the +mobilization of the nation's brains. An army corps of professors, +scientists, chemists, engineers, technicians, and other specialists is +already working with the Kriegstaat. Our idea is to be eminently +scientific and practical—no theorizing. We are working to show +results.</p> + +<p>"We are coöperating closely with the war industries of Turkey, +Bulgaria, and Austria. It means doubling and trebling their + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> + +ammunition supply, too.</p> + +<p>"The military successes achieved in Rumania, which synchronize with the +birth of patriotic auxiliary service, are an advantage that cannot be +overestimated. The Danube means everything to us. Last year we had to +beg Rumania for her oil and grain and pay our good money for it too. Now +we don't need to beg costly favors of Rumania.</p> + +<p>"Lloyd George does not scare us. We have, however, not time for busying +ourselves with politics; we have more important things to +do—supplying Hindenburg with the means of victory."</p></div> + +<h3>RUSSIA'S INDUSTRIAL MOBILIZATION</h3> + +<p>In Russia industrial mobilization was badly managed. Cattle were taken +to the front in herds. Often driven on foot, they were slaughtered on +the spot where the meat was needed for the soldiers. The hides were +thrown aside to rot. As a result of this wasting of hides, the supply of +leather for military uses and for shoes for both the Army and the +civilian population was soon utterly inadequate. Horses were +requisitioned in the most unintelligent way, the result being that +agricultural production decreased and with the lack of transportation +facilities the Army horses could not be supplied with food. They died by +the tens of thousands.</p> + +<p>Gross mismanagement marked the war handling of the Russian railway +system. The rolling stock was allowed to deteriorate. Locomotives and +cars were put aside permanently when they needed slight repairs. They +could not be repaired because the railway machine shops had been +converted into munition factories. There was an appalling shortage of +manufactured goods for the civilian population, because the entire +output of many manufacturing concerns was taken over for the Army. It +was almost impossible to get clothing, boots and articles of wearing +apparel. So great was the dearth of cloth at the end of the third year +of the war that one was struck by the contrast <del>beween</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads beween">between</ins> the lines in +front of the bakeries formed in the early morning hours and the groups +of women gathered at eight in the evening before the shops which sold +cloth to stand all through the night in line for the opening of the shop +in the morning.</p> + +<p>A bright spot in Russian war administration was the work of the +Municipal and Provincial Councils. The members of these bodies did +valiant service in preventing the growing disorganization of the +economic life of their country. Their activities are described by Prof. +Harper of Chicago University, an actual eye witness of Russian +conditions during the war, in the following passage:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"So these organizations entered upon a campaign of 'saving' and +'production.' They saved the hides that were being thrown away, +collected the discarded boots at the front and repaired them, and took +over the task of supplying the underwear for the whole +army—mobilizing the village coöperative societies to fill the +large orders. And they did much to organize the refugees from the +invaded districts for productive work. In a word, these men saw that the +war was going to extend into years, and they realized that only +foresight and organization of productive resources would make it +possible for Russia to withstand economically the burdens of a +protracted struggle.</p> + +<p>"The attitude of the governmental authorities (the bureaucratic +departments) toward the work of these non-bureaucratic, but public, +institutions (the Unions of the Municipal and Provincial Councils) was +one of suspicion and antagonism, and difficulties were put in their way +with the deliberate intent to block their activities. The institutions +were suspected of pursuing political aims. Only when it became clear +that the ruling group in the bureaucracy was consciously allowing the +country to drift into a state of anarchy in order to bring Russia out of +the war did these leaders venture to risk revolutionary methods of +action.</p> + +<p>"The president of the All-Russian Union of Provincial Councils, the +Zemstvo, was Prince Lvoff, the first Prime Minister of the new Russia +after the revolution of March, 1917. In the monthly reports of the work +of the All-Russian Union of Zemstva, Prince Lvoff, repeatedly issued +warnings of the impending economic collapse of the country. But neither +he nor Kerensky was able to liquidate the heritage received from the old +régime in time to stave off the series of economic and financial +crises of which the Bolsheviki availed themselves."</p></div> + +<h3>FOREBODINGS OF RUSSIA'S COLLAPSE</h3> + +<p>But it was not only foreign observers who were able to detect the +prevailing rottenness in Russia's economic status. The following passage +from an address made by A. I. Konovalov, a member of the Moscow Stock +Exchange, shows that Russian business men were keenly alive to + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> + +the dangers of the situation as early as April, 1917:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The old régime has seemingly done everything deliberately to +destroy and demoralize the trade-industrial apparatus it took years to +build up. As a result the usual course of the country's economic life +was stopped, and at the same time, through the peculiarly enforced +system of regulations, a wide field for all sorts of abuses and +speculations was opened. We must frankly acknowledge that from these +abuses and speculations a system of oppression grew up which has called +forth fully merited reproach, distrust, and hostile feelings towards the +representatives of the trade-industrial class.</p> + +<p>"At the same time there can be no doubt but that under present +circumstances, lacking most of the necessaries of existence, with the +factories and mills forced to cut down their production due to lack of +raw material and fuel, with the demoralization of the transportation +system, and being compelled, despite all these obstacles, to meet the +numerous requirements at the front—there is no other way out but +government control of private industrial and mercantile enterprises, and +the coöperation of the democratic masses of the population in the +matter of regulating the trade-industrial life of the country. In +addition to fair distribution it should be the task of all the +committees, which are to become parts of the Ministry, also to regulate +the prices.</p> + +<p>"Closely connected with this question there is another one which I +personally consider of tremendous importance. I have in mind the +question of limiting the profits of all mercantile and industrial +establishments. Undoubtedly a properly worked-out solution of this +question would have the tendency to check the unwarranted growth of +prices that would appease the masses. The normal effect of a decree +limiting profits is of tremendous importance, not only in that it would +soften the feeling of ill-will towards the trade-industrial class, but +also because it would afford the government a new, convincing proof that +the commercial and industrial class is ready to make all possible +sacrifices for the common good, a proof which would paralyze the voicing +of any new demands on the part of the masses.</p> + +<p>"Now, these are the main ideas, the fundamental points of view which the +trade-industrial class should consider as a starting point in its +efforts to win the confidence of the population and to safeguard that +important position which it ought to occupy in the life of the country.</p> + +<p>"The situation is becoming all the more difficult because of the +ever-increasing famine due to the shortage of means of production as +well as of all the necessaries of life; this famine will be felt very +acutely, not only on account of the lack of these goods, but also +because of the overabundance of paper money."</p></div> + +<h3>LABOR TRADITIONS UPSET</h3> + +<p>All kinds of economic theories and all varieties of economic experiences +have been overturned by the abnormal industrialism of the war. The world +really passed into a <span lang="la">terra incognita</span>. Even the firmest foundations of +trade unionism have been shaken. There was no more firmly established +fact before the war than the inability of women to secure a level of +wages equal to that of the male wage earner. Such theories have passed +to the limbo of forgotten things. Prejudice and tradition have given +away before the actual test of facts. Women have taken the place of men +called away to war service in practically all the fields of industrial +activity. Apart from theory, biological and otherwise, it is now seen +that the old exclusion of women from skilled industry was largely the +result of trade union regulation. But the woman war-worker was found in +fields untouched by trade unionism. There was the woman bank clerk as +well as the woman engineer.</p> + +<p>There was much discussion, mostly pessimistic, as to what would happen +if the woman labor supply should permanently take the place of man labor +after the war was over. The best solution was thought to be the placing +of the woman worker under a régime of trade unionism. How far +such prognostications went is illustrated in the following quotation +from Miss Mary Stocks in the London <cite>Athenaeum</cite>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"It has been presupposed that the war will end decisively before the +armies engaged are reduced to inappreciable numbers of able-bodied men. +It has been presupposed that the return of peace will find British +industry based upon the old system of private ownership of capital and +haphazard production in response to the effective demand of individuals. +It presupposes no change of heart on the part of employers, government +or trade unions. But, in view of possible, if not probable dangers, the +most urgent stress should be laid upon what is an undoubted palliative, +if not a fundamental cure for such prospective economic ills; that is, +the strenuous promotion and public encouragement of trade unionism among +women. What women, by reason of underlying social and economic causes, +are not able to do for themselves, the moral and financial support of +the public must do for them, and such support should be regarded not +merely as an interference in the old struggle between capital + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> + +and labor, but as an attempt to ward off a national danger.</p> + +<p>"The root of the evil is the old incompatibility between male and female +labor in the skilled and semi-skilled grades of industry. That +incompatibility has arisen partly from fallacious theorizing of the +'wages-fund' type, but largely from the fact that the industrial woman, +in spite of the uphill and often successful trade union work which has +been accomplished, mainly from above, during the past forty years, is +regarded by her male colleague as nature's blackleg. And in spite of the +short-sighted policy of hostility to women members displayed by a few +trade unions, it is fairly clear that it is not the woman trade unionist +that the man is afraid of, but the woman blackleg; not the well-paid +woman, but the sweated woman. Now there are three ways of dealing with a +blackleg: he may be elbowed out of the industrial world altogether; he +may be penned up, as women have been penned up, in the lowest and most +undesirable grades; or he may be turned into a trade unionist. As far as +women are concerned, the first two are closed by national expediency, +humanity and justice. The third lies open; and in view of the peculiar +economic rocks which loom vaguely ahead of us, it may be said without +exaggeration that one woman trade-union leader is worth a hundred +welfare workers."</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-084.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-084thumb.jpg" width="400" height="277" + alt="Women Workers in America" + title="Women Workers in America" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> +<p class="caption">Women Workers in America</p> +<p class="description">A field of winter lettuce, with the cloches, or glass bells, which made +it possible during the war to raise plants in cold weather.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-084.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>WOMEN WORKERS IN AMERICA</h3> + +<p>As a result of the labor dislocation due to the operation of the +American Draft Law, a large number of women were employed in railway +work. The experience of the United States Railroad Administration in the +matter of women employes was summarized in a paper read by Miss Pauline +Goldmark, manager of the women's service section of the Railroad +Administration, at a conference at the Academy of Political Science, in +1918:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The number of women employed on the railroads of the United States had +been 60,000 at the beginning of the year, and reached approximately +100,000 by October 1st. The greatest number are in the clerical and +semi-clerical occupations. Of the 81,000 employed July 1st, 61,000 were +working as clerks of all kinds, stenographers, accountants, comptometer +operators, etc. In this class appear women ticket sellers and bureau of +information clerks, who served the public for the first time; they were +found well fitted for this type of work, and special instruction agencies were opened by the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> + +government in various states to train them in the intricacies of tariffs +and routes.</p> + +<p>"The next largest group of 4,000, it is not surprising to learn, appears +in women's time-honored occupation of cleaning. Women have long been +cleaning stations, offices, etc., but now they are employed in the yards +to clean coaches and Pullmans, both inside and outside; and in the +roundhouses, doing the heavier work of wiping locomotives; 800 were so +employed. In personal service, including work in dining rooms and +kitchens, as matrons and janitresses, 2,000 were found. In the railroad +shops, women entered the greatest variety of new occupations. Three +thousand were employed, ranging at one end of the scale from common +laborers, at the other end of the scale of skilled mechanics earning the +machinists' or carmen's rate of pay.</p> + +<p>"Many women were employed a year and a half ago, before the railroads +were put under Federal control, because they could be obtained for less +pay than men. They were, for instance, engaged as common laborers at +20¢. to 22¢. an hour, at a time when men were receiving +28¢. to 30¢. for the same class of labor. With rare exceptions +where adjustments are still necessary, the wage orders have absolutely +stopped this undercutting of men's wages by women.</p></div> + +<h3>WORK UNSUITABLE FOR WOMEN</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Soon after women began to be largely employed it became apparent that +some of their work was neither profitable nor appropriate. The use of +women as section laborers, for instance, in a gang of men working along +the tracks at a distance from any house or station was judged to be +unsuitable. This was also found to be the case where women were employed +as truckers in depots and warehouses on account of the extraordinary +physical exertion required of them. In view of the wages now paid it was +believed possible to secure men and to transfer the women to some class +of work suitable to their strength and with proper regard to their +health. The railroads were accordingly asked to discontinue their +employment in both these positions.</p> + +<p>"Comparisons with other industries can probably best be made in respect +to the women employed in the shops. They are operating a number of +machines such as bolt-threaders, nut-tappers, drill presses, for which +no great skill or experience is needed, and which is classed as +'helpers' work,' and rated at the specified pay of 45¢. an hour. +They are also employed for highly skilled work. A number have succeeded +as electric welders and oxy-acetylene-burners. They have been found well +adapted for work on the air-brake equipment and are cleaning, testing, +and making minor repairs on triple valves. In some places they are now +working in a separate group on the lighter-weight valves, weighing not +more than forty pounds. After a period of training they are giving +satisfaction without the help of any man operator.</p> + +<p>"A remarkably fine type of woman is now to be seen in many of the shops, +who enjoys the greater freedom of her work as compared with factory +routine, although in many cases the discomfort, the dirt, and exposure +are far greater. It remains to be seen whether the women will remain in +these jobs to any great extent. The railroads will, of course, recognize +the seniority rights of all their employees returning from military +service, but as far as the new employees are concerned, women will have +the same privileges as other new employees in retaining their positions +or being assigned to other jobs. There can be no doubt that in the +clerical and semi-clerical positions they have proved their worth, and +will to a great extent be retained."</p></div> + +<h3>ALIEN LABOR FOR WAR PURPOSES</h3> + +<p>The man in the fighting line was only one factor in the prosecution of +warlike operations. The success of strategy and tactics was dependent +upon the organization of the man in the labor line not only at home but +also in the territory behind the miles of trenches in France. For this +purpose Chinese labor was drafted by both the British and the French +Government. Large numbers of British ships sailed with crews practically +consisting of Chinese sailors. The sentiment in favor of Chinese +exclusion had to give way before imperative needs for labor power. There +were tens of thousands of Chinamen in the service of the Allies. In the +<cite>Sunset Magazine</cite>, Mr. G. C. Hodges calls attention to the fact that the +break between the Chinese Republic and Germany was precipitated largely +by the Allied drafting of China's manpower. Even in its beginnings he +says, the French and British mobilization of Chinese labor caused a +diplomatic battle royal. The significance of Chinese labor behind the +battle front is described in the following words:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"They are a war factor. His Britannic Majesty's Chinese Labor Corps now +behind the battle line in France is almost as large as the total Chinese +population in the United States. The French Republic has recruited a +force of similar dimensions, bringing Chinese manpower overseas for +non-combatant and industrial work. Even teeming Russia, before its +tragic collapse, had drawn upon thousands of Chinese for work as far +west as the Ural mines. In 1914 there were but 7,000 in this rich +country, but a fourfold increase brought the total to 30,000. All told, +200,000 Chinese are 'carrying on' in the war zone, laboring + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> + +behind the lines, in munition works and factories, manning ships.</p> + +<p>"Though the pages of no White Book say it, the break between the Chinese +Republic and Germany was precipitated largely by the Allied drafting of +China's manpower. Even in its beginnings, the French and British +mobilization of Chinese labor caused a diplomatic battle royal."</p></div> + +<h3>ECONOMIC VALUE OF AMERICAN ARMY TO FRENCH INDUSTRY</h3> + +<p>Permanent economic improvements were one result of the presence in +France of the American Expeditionary Force. An industrial movement was +created that will probably continue long after the war is over. In +various French seaports, docks had to be constructed to handle the +enormous tonnage of supplies needed for the American troops. A letter in +the New York <cite>Journal of Commerce</cite> gives a picture of the transformation +in the transport system in France made in order to handle with speed and +certainty the various supplies on which the American Army depended:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + <p>"Our project comprises nearly 1,000 miles of railroad construction, + but not continuous. France already controls on her lines such + facilities that she has been able to support her great military + burden and not break. Their local development in the way of sidings + and so forth is chiefly in the big towns, and small engines and cars + are used. To meet our larger needs, it is necessary to establish + terminals outside the towns for the change of engines and for our + great storage warehouses. Our great railway construction in France, + apart from a few cut-off lines, is in the way of storage yards. We + have practically the use of two trunk-line tracks. The French run + over them, too, for there is a tremendous civil population to be + supported. The French are necessarily supreme, and we simply have + the right to run over their railroads subject to their rules. + </p> + + <p>"The French have an arrangement with their railroads by which a + piece of track that is put in for military purposes is paid for by + the French Government. If the civil requirements of the railroad + grow up to the use of that particular piece of track, then the + government is reimbursed by the railroad. We are in the same + position toward these railroads as the French Government. At the end + of the war the improvements which we make will be surveyed. If they + are useful to the railroads our expenditures will be reimbursed. If + not, we are at liberty to take up the stuff and clear the ground. + Two days ago a semi-official statement was made to the Paris press, + reading: + </p> + <p>"'Americans, in full agreement with the French authorities, are + making every effort to carry out, by their own means, the + debarkation of their troops in ports, their provisioning as well as + their transportation over our railroads. Sidings, large stations, + and establishments of every kind are being constructed by the most + modern and expeditious processes. One of the warehouses has an area + of about 4,000 acres, and it has a cold-storage plant capable of + holding several thousand tons of meat. Aviation training camps and + repair shops, considerable in size and with the most improved + machinery, are being erected on every side.'"</p> +</div> + +<h3>FRENCH INDUSTRIAL EXHAUSTION</h3> + +<p>A realistic picture of the industrial exhaustion of France at the close +of the war was given by M. Tardieu, General Commissioner for +Franco-American war affairs. The war expenses of 120,000,000,000 francs +was only a fractional part of the whole loss. Another 50,000,000,000 +would have to be raised to secure raw material destroyed during the war. +M. Tardieu presented in detail the various items indicating to what +extent France had suffered economic disability and paralysis:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The territories which have been under German occupation for four years +were the wealthiest part of France. Their area did not exceed six per +cent. of the whole country. They paid, however, 25 per cent. of the sum +total of our taxes. These territories are now in a state of ruin even +worse than we had anticipated. Of cities and villages nothing remains +but ruins; 350,000 homes have been destroyed. To build them up +again—I am referring to the building proper, without the +furnishings—600 million days of work will be necessary, involving, +together with building material, an outlay of 10,000,000,000 francs. As +regards personal property of every description either destroyed by +battle or stolen by the Germans, there stands an additional loss of at +least 4,000,000,000 francs. This valuation of lost personal property +does not include—as definite figures are lacking as yet—the +countless war contributions and fines by the enemy, amounting also to +billions. I need hardly say that, in those wealthy lands, no +agricultural resources are left. The losses in horses and in cattle, +bovine and ovine species, hogs, goats, amount to 1,510,000 head—in +agricultural equipment to 454,000 machines or carts—the two items +worth together 6,000,000,000 francs.</p> + +<p>"As regards industries, the disaster is even more complete. Those +districts occupied by the Germans, and whose machinery has been +methodically destroyed or taken away by the enemy, were, industrially +speaking, the very heart of France, the very backbone of our + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> + +production, as shown in the following startling figures: In 1913 the +wool output of our invaded regions amounted to 94 per cent. of the +total. French production and corresponding figures were: For flax from +the spinning mills, 90 per cent.; iron ore, 90 per cent.; pig iron, 83 +per cent.; steel, 70 per cent.; sugar, 70 per cent.; cotton, 60 per +cent.; coal, 55 per cent.; electric power, 45 per cent. Of all +that—plants, machinery, mines—nothing is left. Everything +has been carried away or destroyed by the enemy. So complete is the +destruction that, in the case of our great coal mines in the north, two +years of work will be needed before a single ton of coal can be +extracted and ten years before the output is brought back to the figures +of 1913.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/ill-087.jpg" width="400" height="521" + alt="Samuel P. Gompers" title="Samuel P. Gompers" /> + <p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> + <p class="caption">Samuel P. Gompers</p> + <p class="description">President of the American Federation of Labor.</p> +</div> + +<h3>THE WORK OF REBUILDING</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"All that must be rebuilt, and to carry out that kind of reconstruction +only, there will be a need of over 2,000,000 tons of pig iron, nearly +4,000,000 tons of steel—not to mention the replenishing of stocks +and of raw materials which must of necessity be supplied to the plants +during the first year of resumed activity. If we take into account these +different items, we reach as regards industrial needs a total of +25,000,000,000 francs. To resurrect these regions, to reconstruct these +factories, raw materials are not now sufficient; we need means of +transportation. The enemy has destroyed our railroad tracks, our +railroad equipment, and our rolling stock, which, in the first month of +the war, in 1914, reduced by 50,000 cars, has undergone the wear and +tear of fifty months of war.</p> + +<p>"Our merchant fleet, on the other hand, has lost more than a million +tons through submarine warfare. Our shipyards during the last four years +have not built any ships. For they have produced for us and for our +Allies cannon, ammunition, and tanks. Here, again, for this item alone +of means of transportation we must figure on an expense of 2,500,000,000 +francs. This makes, if I sum up these different items, a need of raw +material which represents in cost, at the present rate of prices in +France, not less than 50,000,000,000 francs."</p></div> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>IV—GOVERNMENT CONTROL<br /> +Wartime Nationalization of Railways and Shipping—Ship-building at +High Speed—Trade Licensing, Etc.</h2> + +<p>On April 5, 1917, the day before war was declared, Franklin K. Lane, +Secretary of the Interior, introduced and had passed by the Council of +National Defense the following resolution:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><em>Resolved</em>, That Commissioner Willard be requested to call upon the +railroads to organize their business so as to lead to the greatest +expedition in the movement of freight.</p></div> + +<p>Acting in accordance with this resolution, the principal railroad +executives of the country met in Washington on April 11, 1917, and +resolved that during the war they would coördinate their operations +in a continental railway system, merging during such period all their +merely individual and competitive activities in the effort to produce a +maximum of national transportation efficiency. The direction of the continental railway system + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> + +thus organized was placed by the railroads in the hands of the executive +committee of the Special Committee on National Defense of the American +Railway Association. This executive committee was also known as the +Railroads' War Board.</p> + +<p>Under this resolution the railroads of the United States continued to be +operated under private ownership and private management until December +28, 1917.</p> + +<p>On that date President Wilson, exercising his war-time prerogative, took +control of the railways of the country and appointed W. G. McAdoo +Director General.</p> + +<p>2. Congress in January passed a railroad-control bill.</p> + +<p>3. On April 11, 1918, President Wilson issued a proclamation taking over +for the Government the property of coastwise shipping lines.</p> + +<p>4. On May 24th, Director General McAdoo placed in charge of each +railroad property a federal manager whose duty it was to report to the +regional director.</p> + +<p>5. On June 29th, the Railroad Administration relinquished from federal +control nearly 2,000 short-line railroads whose control by the +Administration was regarded as not "needful or desirable."</p> + +<p>During the first six months after the United States entered the war +statistics showed that the railways not only handled far more traffic +than in any earlier six months of their history but also as much as in +any entire year prior to 1907. It will be remembered that the years 1906 +and 1907 marked the climax of a long period of rapid increase of +railroad business which resulted in the longest and most acute +congestion of traffic and shortage that had ever been known prior to the +war period. The grounds offered by the Government for taking over the +railway systems during the war might be explained as the resultant of +the findings of the Interstate Commerce Commission on December 5th, in +which it was stated that the claim of the roads for higher rates could +not be granted.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"From the standpoint of the Government three principal reasons are seen +for the taking over of the lines:</p></div> + +<ol> +<li>"The avoidance of obstructions to transportation due to the routing +and division of freight, intended to give a fair share to each line in a +given territory.</li> + +<li>"The abolition of preferences to given shippers and kinds of freight, +and the centralization of control over priority in shipment.</li> + +<li>"The practical termination of rate controversies and labor +discussions as between private individuals and the placing of the roads +on a semi-military basis.</li> +</ol> + +<p>"The railroads themselves have received the announcement of the +President's action with much greater equanimity than could have been +expected. They undoubtedly see in the step the following advantages:</p> + +<ol> +<li>"Assurance of a moderate if not generous income in a period of great +uncertainty and difficulty, during which they have been caught between +the upper and nether millstones of fixed rates and advancing costs and +wages.</li> + +<li>"Termination of the danger that threatened them from the continually +maturing obligations which ordinarily they would have little trouble in +refinancing, but which, under existing conditions, can scarcely be +provided for on any basis.</li> + +<li>"Provision of means for betterment and improvement at a time when such +provision can be had practically only through government orders designed +to place such requirements ahead of those of private concerns."</li> +</ol> + +<h3>OBJECTS OF GOVERNMENT CONTROL</h3> + +<p>This experiment in government control was discussed and explained by the +Director General after six months' experience in the following statement +issued by him on June 15, 1918:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The policy of the United States Railroad Administration has been +informed and shaped by a desire to accomplish the following purposes, +which are named in what I conceive to be the order of their importance:</p> + +<p>"<em>First</em>, the winning of the war, which includes the prompt movement of +the men and the material that the Government requires. To this +everything else must be subordinated.</p> + +<p>"<em>Second</em>, the service of the public, which is the purpose for which the +railways were built and given the privileges accorded them. This implies +the maintenance and improvement of the railroad properties so that +adequate transportation facilities will be provided at the lowest cost, +the object of the Government being to furnish service rather than to +make money.</p> + +<p>"<em>Third</em>, the promotion of a spirit of sympathy and a better +understanding between the administration of the railways and their two +million employees, as well as their one hundred million patrons, which +latter class includes every individual in the nation, since +transportation has become a prime and universal necessity of + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> + +civilized existence.</p> + +<p>"<em>Fourth</em>, the application of sound economies, including:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li>The elimination of superfluous expenditures.</li> + +<li>The payment of a fair and living wage for services rendered and a just +and prompt compensation for injuries received.</li> + +<li>The purchase of material and equipment at the lowest prices consistent +with a reasonable, but not an excessive, profit to the producer.</li> + +<li>The adoption of standardized equipment and the introduction of approved +devices that will save life and labor.</li> + +<li>The routing of freight and passenger traffic with due regard to the fact +that a straight line is the shortest distance between two points.</li> + +<li>The intensive employment of all equipment and a careful record and +scientific study of the results obtained, with a view to determining the +comparative efficiency secured.</li> +</ol> + +<p>"The development of this policy will, of course, require time. The task +to which the Railroad Administration has addressed itself is an immense +one. It is as yet too early to judge of the results obtained, but I +believe that great progress has been made toward the goal of our +ideals."</p> +</div> + +<h3>GOVERNMENT CONTROL CRITICISED</h3> + +<p>The defects of the Government administration of the railways have been +the subject of both criticism and apology. A diagnosis published by the +<cite>Engineering News Record</cite> of New York states that the whole difficulty +is ascribed to the employment of bankers in high places of railway +management. Railroads, it was asserted, cannot be run by men of the +banking type of mind. The article continues:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Here was, and is, an agency with daily influence on the life of every +member of the community, performing a service essential to the nation's +life. Yet it has few friends among the people at large; more now than +formerly, however, due to the number of those whose pity has been +excited at the railroads' plight. The first of the railroads' plagues +was the type of management—manipulation, it would better be +called—which regarded the properties not as carriers but as media +for stock-jobbing operations. Consolidations with the addition of water, +and reconsolidations, with still more water, were the order of the day; +while those operating the properties danced riotously over their +territories waving insolently the flag of 'The Public Be Damned.' +Rebates, car-withholding tyrannies, all manner of schemes were worked to +aid the favored few, while the purchasing methods honeycombed the +organization with rottenness.</p> + +<p>"Then came the day for the people to have their say, and one national +and forty-eight State commissions began to bedevil the carriers. What +the stock-jobbers and the grafters had failed to do the people in their +vengeance helped to complete. The public at large, which under +intelligent management of the properties would have been the railroads' +best friend, had been alienated. As a result we have had the drift into +bankruptcy which has been railroad history during the past decade. +Instances need not be cited. Each one can supply them from his own +neighborhood. Probably the mention of the New Haven will furnish +sufficient nausea to carry the right impression.</p> + +<p>"And that <em>débâcle</em> we attribute to the banking type of +mind, that type of mind that places personal profit ahead of all other +considerations. The engineering type of mind, we hold, would have +analyzed the purpose of the railroads—would have seen that service +to the public at large, and not to any private interest, was the prime +object, would have erected that as the railroads' ideal and builded a +machine for its attainment."</p></div> + +<h3>BRITISH RAILWAY MANAGEMENT</h3> + +<p>Like American railways the railway system of Great Britain was under +private control prior to the war, but the experiment of Government +direction began to be applied as soon as the war was declared. +Government control did not mean Government ownership. The lines remained +the property of the companies. They retained the management of their own +concerns subject to the instructions of an executive committee appointed +by the Government and the whole machinery of administration went on as +before. At the beginning the sole purpose was to facilitate the movement +of troops, but as the war developed the scope of the railway executive +committee became greatly extended. Working in coöperation with the +acting chairman were twelve general managers of leading British lines. +Under the central body were groups of committees, each made up of +railway experts. The War Office and the Director General of Transport +were in touch with the Central Committee. A writer in the <cite>Railway Age +Gazette</cite> for December, 1917, explains the arrangements as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Under the terms on which the railways were taken over for the period of +the war the Government + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> + +guaranteed to the proprietors of the railways that their net revenue +should be the same as in 1913, except when the net receipts for the +first half of 1914 were less than the first half of 1913; in that case +the sum payable was to be reduced in the same proportion. The entire +Government traffic—men and freight—was to be carried without +any direct charge being made for it or any accounts rendered. This plan +was considered satisfactory by both sides. In the majority of cases +there had been a reduction of earnings in the first half of 1914 over +the previous half-year, and companies were contemplating a still further +reduction. The interests of their shareholders being assured, they were +able to devote themselves to the work of economical and efficient +distribution, quite apart from the usual financial problems. The one +weak side of this agreement was that it made no allowance to cover +increased interest payments on account of new investments and new +capital expenditure since the war began. This point was afterward met by +an arrangement that the government should pay interest at 4 per cent. on +all new capital invested by the railways since August 4, 1914, on new +lines, branches, terminals, equipment, or other facilities put into use +since January 1, 1913.</p> + +<p>"The conclusion of the financial agreement between the Government and +the companies automatically brought about a great economy in the system +of railway accounts. The reports of the companies were cut down to a +bare minimum, and in many cases even these reduced reports were not sent +to the shareholders unless they specially asked for them."</p></div> + +<h3>RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION IN CANADA</h3> + +<p>A definite proposal to nationalize the railway systems of the Dominion +of Canada was made during the war. Canada has nearly one-sixth of the +railway mileage of the United States, although it has less than +one-fourteenth of the population. Canada has three trans-continental +systems. There is sufficient trade in the Dominion for two good systems. +A royal commission appointed to inquire into the subject reported that +the net returns of the railways were so low as to prove that more +railways had been built than could be justified on commercial grounds. +Large subsidies had been granted by the Government. In the case of the +Grand Trunk Pacific this public subsidy amounted to nearly two-thirds of +the total investment; in the case of the Canadian Northern to nearly +three-quarters. The Canadian Pacific was reported as the strongest +railway in Canada, economically built and well managed. The other +companies, such as the Canadian Northern and the Grand Trunk Pacific, +were facing heavy annual deficits.</p> + +<div class="figright"> +<img src="images/ill-090.jpg" width="400" height="524" +alt="Walker D. Hines" +title="Walker D. Hines" /> +<p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> +<p class="caption">Walker D. Hines</p> +<p class="description">He succeeded William McAdoo as Director-General of Railroads after the +signing of the armistice.</p></div> + +<p>The commissioners recommended heroic measures. They did not consider +that operation by a Minister directly responsible to Parliament would be +in the public interest. It would not secure better service nor lower +rates. What the commissioners did recommend was to transfer the three +companies to a new body, a board of trustees to be incorporated as the +Dominion Railway Company and that the Canadian Northern, the Canadian +Pacific and the Grand Trunk Pacific be transferred to this body. The +Government-owned Intercolonial and Transcontinental Railways stretching +from Halifax to Winnipeg were to be transferred to the Dominion Company. +Under the scheme worked out by the commission, the Government would +assume responsibility to the Dominion Railway Company for the interest +on existing securities of the transferred companies. As to the composition of the board of + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> + +trustees, the commissioner recommended that they be five; three railway +members, one member selected on the ground of business and financial +experience and one as especially possessing the confidence of the +railway employees. The commissioners laid stress on the importance of +the board being non-political, permanent and self-perpetuating, and in +this connection pointed to the experience of the Australian state +railways.</p> + +<h3>FRENCH RAILWAYS IN WARTIME</h3> + +<p>The great strain on a country's railway system caused by war was +illustrated by the French mobilization. Four thousand seven hundred and +fifty trains were required. After mobilization was over the Army still +had a permanent need of railways for two purposes: for its +communications in the rear, and for its movements from place to place. +To bring supplies to one Army corps trainloads aggregating 200 tons a +day were required.</p> + +<p>Mr. G. Blanchon in <cite>New Warfare</cite> explained the situation as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The preparation of railways for war uses is not confined to the +planning of the system itself. It extends to the provision and +adaptation of stations, to the duplication of the lines, to the defence +of bridges and other structures, to the provision of rolling-stock. +Considerable extension may be looked for in all these directions. +However important the motor-car and the aeroplane may be in military +transport, it is probable that the railways will always be the most +satisfactory means of conveying heavy material.</p> + +<p>"The railway carriage itself can be adapted for military uses. We have +tank cars, cold-storage cars, hospital trains; above all, we have +armored trains and truck gun-carriages.</p> + +<p>"Railways will perhaps render more effective service than ever in the +matter of bringing to the required spot huge guns too heavy to be +transported in any other way. These will be fired without leaving the +rails. The truck gun-carriage is so arranged as to withstand the recoil; +this result is obtained by placing on the ground, once the carriage is +stationary, supports which take the load off the wheels. The recoil is +transferred to the ground so that the rails do not suffer.</p> + +<p>"Whether the object is to organize a supply line, to transfer +reinforcements, or to carry heavy material to its destination, it may be +of service to provide for the absence of normal lines by laying down +rails along the road. Both the Germans and ourselves have done this +very frequently. A narrow gauge of sixty centimeters is generally used. +A team of skilled sappers takes about three hours to lay down about one +kilometer of railway."</p></div> + +<h3>AMERICA'S SHIPPING PREPARATION</h3> + +<p>The two great means of transport—railways and +ships—furnished in this war the greatest examples of modified +state socialism which America had yet seen. As to the general way in +which they were controlled these two services show a fairly close family +resemblance, though the forms of organization were technically quite +different. The larger railroads and the larger ships were taken +possession of by the Government and were operated by the same people, in +general, who operated them before, but under orders of the Railroad +Administration and the Shipping Board respectively. New ships and new +railroad equipment were built on plans made under federal direction, and +in both cases the output was being largely standardized. The heads of +the Shipping Board and the Emergency Fleet Corporation were men drawn +from private business, while the regional directors of the railroad +regions and the federal managers of the separate roads were railroad +men, usually managing their own roads, under the government's direction. +Thus in both cases private enterprise furnished the traditions and +training of the personnel that made this experiment in socialism.</p> + +<p>Besides the points of likeness there were differences between the two +services. In the case of ship-building, the industry was virtually +re-created, so great was the expansion and the revolution in methods. In +the case of railroads the emphasis was, as has been seen, on the task of +utilizing an existing and limited plant to its utmost capacity for war +purposes.</p> + +<h3>WAR'S EFFECT ON SHIPPING</h3> + +<p>The following table, taken from a pamphlet distributed by the Emergency +Fleet Corporation six months before the conclusion of the war, gives a +perspicuous view of the shipping situation at the opening of military +operations in the United States:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p> + +<h3>THE WAR AND WORLD SHIPPING</h3> + +<table class="nobrdrsm" summary="world shipping"> +<tr><td colspan="4"></td><th>Gross Tons</th></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">World's shipping (except German and Austrian) August 1, 1914</td><td class="numeric">42,574,537</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Additional ships built, August, 1914—December 31, 1917</td><td class="numeric">6,621,003</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">German and Austrian interned ships available for use of Allies</td><td class="numeric">875,000</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5" class="numeric">————</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Total</td><td class="numeric">50,070,540</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5">Losses since 1914.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3">Due to ordinary causes.</td><td class="numeric">1,600,000</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td colspan="2">Due to mines, raiders and submarines:</td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Allies</td><td class="numeric">8,900,119</td><td><a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Norway</td><td class="numeric">1,031,778</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Other neutrals</td><td class="numeric">400,000</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2">Total</td><td class="numeric">11,931,897</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5" class="numeric">————</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Balance actual tonnage available</td><td class="numeric">38,138,643</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Net decrease since 1914</td><td class="numeric">4,435,894</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Add 2 tons constantly required to maintain each man in France (1,500,000 men × 2)</td><td class="numeric">3,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Shortage for merchant traffic, at least</td><td class="numeric">7,435,894</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a>To October, 1917.</p></div> + +<p>Another table gives a view of the rates between the building and sinking +of ships among the Allied, neutral, and British nations from the +beginning of the war to April, 1918:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The world's shipping suffered a net loss of 2,632,279 tons from the +beginning of the war to April 1, 1918, the greater part of this having +occurred since the beginning of the unrestricted submarine warfare which +brought America into the war. This loss is partly due to England's +having increased her naval building at the expense of merchant tonnage. +While naval construction must not be neglected, some building capacity +can be turned back to merchant ship-building in case of extreme need. +However, in April, 1918, Great Britain and the United States built +40,000 tons more shipping than was lost, and American construction is +still rapidly increasing."</p></div> + +<h3>AMERICA'S SHIP-BUILDING PROGRAM</h3> + +<p>American ship-building was planned on grandiose lines, partly to make +good the losses by submarine, partly to provide transportation for +American troops to Europe, and partly for propaganda purposes in +friendly and in enemy countries. The American program was an ambitious +one. Inflated figures were offered for popular consumption and +undoubtedly they were consumed and had their influence in securing a +successful close to the struggle. While reports were coming from Great +Britain telling of constant labor troubles on the Clyde and other +ship-building localities, every item of news from Washington spoke of +the marvelous achievements of American ship-building. One message read +after eight months of the war had passed: "For the first time in history +America has outdistanced England in her ship-building output."</p> + +<p>Foreign critics called attention to the fact that American figures of +ship-building (1918) had a different basis of valuation from those of +other countries. In one case there were vessels completed and entered +for service, and in another there were vessels launched. The situation +is presented by the London <cite>Economist</cite>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"British shipping, still in magnitude far beyond that of any of the +Allies, is declining; it is still being sunk faster than it is being +replaced. American shipping, on the other hand, is rapidly expanding, +and has already turned the scale against the U-boats. The American Army +in France as it is reinforced must become more and more dependent upon +American ships for transport and supply. Up to the end of July the net +loss in British shipping due to enemy action and marine risks since +August, 1914, had been 3,851,537 gross tons. During the current year to +July 31 we have lost 583,600 gross tons more than we have built. British +sea power, the power to use the sea as measured in merchant shipping, is +wasting. On the other hand, the net gain since August, 1914, in Allied +and neutral shipping—to which the United States have largely +contributed—was nearly 1,100,000 tons at the end of June this +year, and was showing a very remarkable rate of expansion. Thanks +chiefly to the United States, the Allied and neutral monthly gain now +more than offsets the British loss. The critical corner has been turned. +To those whose eyes look beyond the war, and who already anticipate a +great American mercantile marine in competition with depleted British +lines, we would point out that after all its losses British merchant +shipping still amounts to over 14,000,000 tons gross, and that America's +ocean-going tonnage built and completing—exclusive of +captures—is as yet little more than 4,000,000. What the relative +positions will be a year hence—or two years hence, should the war +last so long—we do not venture to predict."</p></div> + +<h3>THE FOURTH OF JULY SPLASH</h3> + +<p>Reports of the Shipping Board's activity led to expectations of an +unprecedented number of ships to be launched, fitted and ready for transport and trade purposes + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> + +within a very short interval. Much enthusiasm was created by the Fourth +of July splash, 1918, when, according to the New York <cite>Tribune</cite>, in +twelve hours steel and wooden ships hit the water in clouds of smoke and +spray, at the rate of one every seven minutes. The era of Mr. Jefferson +Brick had undoubtedly returned, for the <cite>Tribune</cite> went on to expatiate +in poetical exuberance that the shores of "Puget Sound, San Francisco +Bay, Columbia river, the Gulf of Mexico, the Delaware, Chesapeake Bay, +New York Bay, and all the coast of New England and the Great Lakes were +laved by the backwash of the great ships of the Liberty Fleet rushing to +their proper element." The Bureau of Navigation estimated that by the +end of June, 1918, 1,622 ships of 1,430,793 gross tons would be +launched—more than double the output of German yards in times of +peace. One article refers to the actual event as follows:</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-093.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-093thumb.jpg" width="400" height="336" +alt="Building a Steel Ship in Seattle, Washington" +title="Building a Steel Ship in Seattle, Washington" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright by Charles Phillip Norton</p> +<p class="caption">Building a Steel Ship in Seattle, Washington</p> +<p class="description">American ship-building during the war was planned on a gigantic scale to +make good the losses by submarines and to provide transportation for +American troops to Europe. The West Lianga, shown above, an 8,800-ton +cargo carrier was launched within 55 working days and delivered, ready +for cargo, in 67 days.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-093.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>AMERICAN LOSSES—NEW TONNAGE BUILT</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"At San Francisco on July 4th, Mr. Charles M. Schwab, Director-General +of the Emergency Fleet Corporation, said to the shipworkers: 'If you +stand up to your job, we'll make the Kaiser take his medicine lying +down.' Mr. Schwab also ventured the statement that this Fourth of July +shows the greatest record of launchings for a single day in the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> + +world's history, and added:</p> + +<p>"'Every time we launch a cargo or troopship or tanker we add to the +certainty that German submarines can not win this war. Already we have +the U-boats on the run, and if we keep up the pace we will have them +beaten by next year. And when we achieve this victory it will be you who +will deserve the credit.</p> + +<p>"'In 1915 all the shipyards in America turned out 215,602 dead-weight +tons of shipping. The next year our output jumped to 520,847 tons. In +1917 the hot pace continued until we very nearly doubled the output of +the previous year, completing a total of 901,223. I am confident now +that if we pull together and every man stays on the job, we will produce +more than 3,000,000 dead-weight tons in 1918—the greatest output +of any nation in the world in a single year.'</p> + +<p>"Premier Lloyd George sent a cable to President Wilson on the launching +of the ships, in which he extended 'heartfelt congratulations on this +magnificent performance,' and in an Independence-day speech Secretary of +the Navy Josephus Daniels said in part:</p> + +<p>"'We are launching this day far more tonnage than that of all the +American vessels sunk by submarines since the war began. We are +launching today more than the Germans sank of the ships of all nations +in the last month for which we have the official figures. The recent +enemy submarine activities off our coast resulted in the loss of 25,411 +dead-weight tons of American shipping. During this same time 130,000 +gross tons of shipping were built.</p> + +<p>"'To give some idea of the tonnage situation with reference to American +shipping, it may be of interest to know that the total tonnage of +American vessels lost prior to the entry of the United States into the +war was 67,815. The total American tonnage sunk since the entry of the +United States into the war is 284,408, or a total of 352,223 tons sunk +during the whole period of the European War. As against this loss, the +gross tonnage of merchant ships built in the United States since the +commencement of the European War is 2,722,563 tons, 1,736,664 gross tons +of which have been built since the entry of the United States into the +war. In addition to the tonnage thus built 650,000 tons of German +shipping have been taken over. This does not include the tonnage +acquired of Dutch, Japanese, and other vessels. It will be of further +interest to know that today there will be launched in the great +shipyards of this country over 400,000 dead-weight tons. These figures +are in addition to those previously given.'"</p></div> + +<h3>A SHIP-BUILDING CAPACITY OF OVER 1,500,000 TONS A YEAR</h3> + +<p>The war program of the Shipping Board implied a multiplication by three +of existing outputs. This increased output signified the possibility of +labor difficulties, and in order to prevent these an agreement was +reached between representatives of the labor unions, the Navy +Department, the Shipping Board and the Emergency Fleet Corporation, to +the effect that all disputes concerning wages, hours or conditions in +shipyards in ship-building plants should be determined by a committee of +three, one representing the corporation, one nominated by the President +and the third selected by Mr. Samuel Gompers. When this agreement was +entered into the United States reported a ship-building capacity of over +one and one-half million gross tons a year. Two years previously the +ship-building capacity was only five hundred thousand tons, but +according to the London <cite>Economist</cite>, a rate of four million gross tons a +year would have to be supplied if the American Army was to have +sufficient means of transport.</p> + +<p>When this forecast was made on both sides of the Atlantic, it was +realized that so far as the marine situation was concerned the war had +become simply a question of ship-building against the submarine. +Military operations intervened to prevent a full test of our +ship-building strength, but there was full confidence in the United +States that American ship-building would by increased production make +the German submarine program an inconsiderable factor in the question of +terminating the war.</p> + +<h3>TRANSPORTING THE AMERICAN ARMY</h3> + +<p>When there came a demand for an increase of man-power to be sent to the +battle front few appreciated what this effort meant in its effect on +increased shipping activities. Half a million American soldiers crossed +the Atlantic in the first thirteen months of the war, after our entrance +into the war, and a million and a half in the last six months of the +war. The shipment across the Atlantic was at first anything but rapid. +There were only a few American and British troop ships chartered +directly from their owners. Then the former German liners were brought +into service and with this addition embarkations greatly increased.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-94.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-94thumb.jpg" width="400" height="238" + alt="Hog Island Ship-building Yards" + title="Hog Island Ship-building Yards" /> + </a> + <p class="caption">Hog Island Ship-building Yards</p> + <p class="description">The expenditure of millions of dollars and + the labor of thousands of workmen transformed in a short time + a tract of marsh lands near Philadelphia into one of the greatest + ship yards in the world.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-94.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p> + +<p>Early in 1918 increased shipping facilities were arranged for with the +British Government. The results of this arrangement became visible in +the growth of troop movements for March, 1918. Then there came the great +German drive; after this every ship that could be secured was pressed +into service. More British troop ships were used. Accordingly, in May, +1918, more than twice as many men were carried as in April. The June +record was greater than that of May and before the first of July one +million had been embarked. During the summer the number carried was more +than 10,000 men per day. This record has only been excelled by the +achievement in bringing back the same men to the shores of the United +States.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> +For complete official figures of the troop movement overseas, see Volume IV.</p></div> + +<p>In addition to the transatlantic fleet there was an American +cross-channel fleet carrying men and cargo from England to France. This +fleet consisted of more than a third of a million tons by the end of +1918. One-fourth of these vessels were Swedish or Norwegian, while the +rest were American. This fleet comprised large numbers of small wood and +steel vessels built by the Emergency Fleet Corporation at the yards of +the Great Lakes and along the coast.</p> + +<h3>ACCELERATED SHIPPING</h3> + +<p>The Emergency Fleet Corporation turned over nearly a million tons of new +ships for military purposes, and besides Scandinavian and Japanese +tonnage was chartered. By doing this and by taking over lake steamers +the large tonnage figures were secured, but it must be remembered that +the Allies were largely concerned in the American troop movement. Of +every 100 men who went over, 49 went in British ships, 45 in American, +three in Italian, two in French and one in Russian shipping under +British control. Moreover, a way was found to increase the loading of +transports by as much as 50 per cent.</p> + +<p>The duration of the voyage round trip was considerably decreased. In the +spring of 1917 the average turn around for troop ships was 52 days. Some +of the fast ships averaged under 30. The <cite>Leviathan</cite>, for example, +landed the equivalent of a German division in France each month. Most of +the cargo ships were American and these ships carried thousands of +articles of the most varied sort. Nearly one-half of all the cargoes +consisted of food and clothing. Then came the engineering and ordnance +supplies. A large number of locomotives were shipped, set up on their +own wheels so that they could be unloaded on the tracks in France and +run off in a few hours under their own steam. These locomotives were of +the hundred-ton type. Shipments of this type had never been made before. +When the armistice was signed the Army was prepared to ship these set-up +locomotives at the rate of 200 a month. The actual record shows that +1,791 were sent to France on transports.</p> + +<p>Nearly 27,000 standard-gauge freight cars were shipped abroad, and motor +trucks to the number of 47,000; rails and fittings were sent to France +aggregating in all 423,000 tons. Moreover, the Army shipped nearly +70,000 horses and mules. The increase in the shipping of cargo from the +United States was consistently maintained from the start of the war, and +at its cessation it was undergoing marked acceleration.</p> + +<h3>BRITISH SHIP-BUILDING</h3> + +<p>Ship-building in England was taken over by the government early in the +war. This plan was described by many as an example of a blundering +surrender to Socialism and a concession to bureaucratic tendencies. +These critics pointed to the fact that in 1914 British shipping tonnage +had reached the figure of 19 million tons, an increase of over 10 +millions in 15 years; and this was done in spite of subsidized +competition from abroad and lack of reasonable encouragement at home. +The policy of government interference was regarded as simply a method of +discouraging English initiative in this industry. A writer in the London +<cite>Outlook</cite>, Mr. E. T. Good, described the project in a most unfavorable +light:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"On top of foreign subsidized competition our people are to be subjected +to Government competition at home, and their whole position and +prospects rendered uncertain, if not impossible. This new government +undertaking can have nothing but a chilling, blighting effect + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> + +upon our splendid ship-building and engineering trades, and it will not +give us one additional ton of shipping. The government policy—or +lack of policy—is such that no one knows what to expect next. +There is no certainty. There is no continuity of policy. There is no +encouragement. There is no common justice for British enterprise. Whilst +Germany, France, Italy and other nations are preparing large +subsidization schemes for their shipping and ship-building trades, our +government excessively penalizes our industries and enterprises, and +gives no hint of any fair dealing in the future. Before the war German +subsidized liners were permitted to come into our harbors and take on +board British passengers at 'blackleg' rates, and without paying even a +due share for the upkeep of our ports and lights. Now our government, +whilst paying neutral shipowners—our future rivals—freights +up to as much as 500 per cent. above the Bluebook rates paid to our own +vessels, is taxing our shipping people up to the eyes—doing all +that it can to render it difficult, if not impossible, for our companies +to increase their fleets and maintain British supremacy after the war."</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-096.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-096thumb.jpg" width="400" height="367" +alt="Launching the City of Portland on the Columbia River" +title="Launching the City of Portland on the Columbia River, near Portland, Oregon" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright by Underwood & Underwood</p> +<p class="caption">Launching the City of Portland on the Columbia River, near Portland, Oregon</p> +<p class="description">Most of the cargo ships that carried supplies to our troops after we +entered the war were American owned, and carried thousands of articles +of the most varied sort. The City of Portland, shown above, was a +three hundred foot wooden motor vessel.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-096.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p>It must be remembered that Great Britain's shipping problem was a matter +of extreme complexity. There were first of all the submarine sinkings. +There was the lack of labour for ship-building. There was, besides, the +fact that the tonnage available for ordinary imports was considerably +lessened by the commandeering of merchant ships for the carriage of +government material. The following statement of the problem was +presented by the British Premier himself in August, 1917:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In addition to this, the Shipping Controller has taken steps for the +quickening of ship-building. The tonnage built in this country +during peace times is, I think, on an average something a little + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> + +under 2,000,000. In 1915 the ship-building came to 688,000 tons. In 1916 +it was 538,000 tons. In this year a little over a million tons, nearly +1,100,000 tons, will be built in this country and 330,000 tons will be +acquired abroad, so that this year the tonnage which we shall acquire +will be 1,900,000. This is purely mercantile marine. Bear in mind the +condition under which the tonnage is built. It is the fourth year of the +war. There is a difficulty in labor and great difficulty in material. +You require steel for guns and shells for the Navy, because the +ship-building program of the Navy has gone up considerably in the course +of the present year. In spite of that fact the ship-building of the +country in this year will not be very far from what it was in the days +of peace.</p> + +<p>"Even now we have not got enough tonnage for all essential purposes. We +have got to provide tonnage for France, Italy and Russia, as well as for +ourselves, and we need more ships instead of fewer ships. And I am not +going to pretend that there will not be at best a rate of diminution of +our shipping which will embarrass us in the struggle, and therefore it +is essential, not merely that this country should build, but that the +only other countries which have a great ship-building capacity should +also build. If the United States of America puts forth the whole of her +capacity, and I have no doubt, from what I hear, that she is preparing +to do it in her own thorough and enterprising way, I have no doubt at +all that we shall have sufficient tonnage not merely for this year but +for the whole of 1918 and, if necessary, for 1919 as well, because +America can expand very considerably her ship-building capacity if the +real need ever arises for her to do so."</p></div> + +<h3>BRITISH BUREAUCRATIC METHODS</h3> + +<p>On the whole it must be allowed that after the results were published +there was a great disappointment, particularly as the government had put +forth roseate plans for ship-building on a large scale. At the beginning +of the war there were 16 million tons gross of steamers of more than 600 +tons each. A large part of this total was used in the service of the +Navy; and the balance, available for the carriage of food, materials and +exports, was lost during the submarine campaign. The government seemed +to show no ability to replace it. Sometimes it is contended that the +responsibility was to be charged up to the labor organizations. +According to the <cite>Economist</cite> the situation was due to bureaucratic +methods of control.</p> + +<p>In a debate in Parliament the whole subject was ventilated:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"From every quarter members with first-hand knowledge of ship-building +got up to tell the same story of over-centralization, fussy control, +conflicting orders, leading all to the same result—discouragement +of masters and men. Mr. Mackinder, speaking for a Glasgow constituency, +and Sir Walter Runciman, speaking as a ship-owner—two men whose +views on economics are the poles apart—were in agreement here. The +fault, they declared, lay, not in the want of patriotism or the inherent +vice of the British workman, or even in the lethargy of the British +employer, but in the third and predominant member of the ship-building +partnership, the British Government. Keeping the direction in its own +hands, the Government started with a preconceived theory of the standard +ship—a theory that might be of great value to a builder of +revolutionary ideas laying the foundations of a prosperity to be enjoyed +twenty years hence, but is of considerably less value to a nation that +is losing steamers at the rate of fifteen or twenty a week, and wants +new steamers now. When the standard ship was first proposed, builders +pointed out that in practice each had a standard ship of his own, and +they could build most quickly by confining themselves to their own +familiar types. Mr. Macnamara told them that they were Solomons, wise +after the event, but that is less than fair. They were wise from the +beginning, and their predictions have come true."</p></div> + +<h3>TRADE POLICY AS A WAR WEAPON</h3> + +<p>The building of ships under Government supervision and control was only +one side of Allied war shipping administration. Seaborne trade was +rigidly directed as a potent arm in bringing Germany's war power to +ruin. The industrial and economic effect of the marine blockade was +fully conceded by a number of German and Austrian newspapers.</p> + +<p><cite>The Frankfurter Zeitung</cite> said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"If the final peace does not return to us what our enemies have taken +and destroyed in the outside world, if it does not restore to us freedom +in our work and our spirit of enterprise in the world, then the German +people is crippled for an immeasurable period. We demand restoration for +all violation of the law and for all acts of destruction. We demand +indemnification for all damages done, and we meet the plan of +differentiation with the demand for the most-favored-nation treatment +and equal rights; the plan of exclusion with the demand for the open +door and free seas; and the threat of a blockade of raw materials with +the demand for the delivery of raw materials."</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p> + +<p>A true picture of the situation is given in the following passage from +the Vienna <cite>Arbeiter Zeitung</cite>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Even if Hindenburg's genius and German bravery won a complete victory +on land, even if the English Army fell into our hands to the last man, +and France was disarmed and had to submit to Germany's terms, even then +England and America could not be compelled to the capitulation that the +Pan-German word-heroes prophesy daily. Even then they would blockade our +coasts and the war would continue at sea. And even if they could not or +would not do that, even if peace was concluded and all the battles +ended, they would still have a terrible weapon to use against us. Our +domestic economy can not exist permanently without the wheat, the +copper, and the cotton from America, the nickel from Canada, the cotton +from Egypt and India, the phosphates from the North African coasts, the +rubber from the English tropical colonies, Indian jute, and the +oilplants of the South Sea Islands.</p> + +<p>"There will be a scarcity of all these things after the war and there +will be great competition for them. If England and America do not +deliver to us these raw materials after the war, then we as conquerors +are conquered."</p></div> + +<h3>GERMANY'S POTASH BOYCOTT</h3> + +<p>Before we entered the war Germany viewed with great concern the effect +of the economic weight of the United States if added to the side of her +antagonists. She felt that if this country remained neutral she could +depend on us for raw materials. To be sure, German ingenuity had +produced ten thousand substitutes, due to the skill of German chemists, +ranging from bacteria fats to synthetic rubber. But even the War Office +in Berlin was under no illusion on this point. "We need copper and no +stripping of palace roofs, no raiding of door knockers or kitchen pans +can make up for the deficiency." Even the vision of economic +self-sufficiency in Central Europe had rifts in it. Raw material was so +important that, in the boot and shoe industry 1,400 factories in the +German Empire were amalgamated into 300. In the silk industry the spools +were reduced from 45,000 to 2,500. Out of 1,700 spinning and weaving +mills, only 70 were running at high pressure.</p> + +<p>The plan, as outlined by German experts, to force the United States to +supply raw material was to cut off potash exports and certain +manufactured goods. "If America will sell us no cotton," was the threat +of the Berlin <cite>Deutsche-Zeitung</cite>, "she shall get no potash—the +indispensable fertilizer in which we have a world monopoly. If she +withholds her oil and grain, then she shall get no <em>dyes</em>, no drugs, no +glassware or optical instruments." But as a writer in the London +<cite>Outlook</cite> stated, this threat could not be made an effective instrument +of trade control:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"There is potash in plenty in the great Republic, especially in the +alkali lakes of Nebraska and Southern California. Potash is now obtained +from the Great Salt Lake in Utah, and from the vast kelp beds of the +Pacific coast. American chemists are also extracting potash (by the +Cottrell process) from the dust of cement-kilns and blast-furnaces. So +the German monopoly will pass, and many others with it. America will +produce her own dyes and optical instruments, though I may not linger on +the details of this supplanting.</p> + +<p>"American genius has long been busy with these things; another year or +two will see her wholly independent of German supplies. The potash +monopoly—from the mines of Stassfurt in Saxony—was +undeniably a problem; there are still richer sources in Alsace, as we +all <del>known</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads known">know</ins> Germany's resolve to hold that province through thick and thin. +America needs 500,000 tons of potash every year, for the sandy soils of +the Atlantic seaboard, and also for the citrus fruits of Florida, the +tobacco of Georgia and the Carolinas, the potatoes and garden produce of +Maryland."</p></div> + +<h3>SHUTTING OFF GERMAN TRADE</h3> + +<p>Pessimistic anticipations of German statesmen regarding the curtailing +of German trade were realized when the War Trade Board in the United +States began to deal with the question of American exports to neutrals. +The report of the Board, published in 1918, contains the following +passage:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Neutral exports of foodstuffs to the Central Powers have declined from +last year's corresponding exports in amounts estimated at from 65 to 85 +per cent., depending on the neutral, and there has been a decrease in +the export of many other important commodities.</p> + +<p>"In November, 1917, we became party to Great Britain's tentative +agreement with Norway, as a result of which action on our part 1,400,000 +tons dead-weight of Norwegian shipping were chartered into the service +of the United States and Great Britain for the period of the war. +Shortly following, temporary agreements were concluded with Holland and +with Sweden. That with Holland gives us the use, for periods up to 90 +days, of 450,000 tons dead-weight of her shipping which had + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> + +heretofore, for a long period, lain idle. The agreement with Sweden +gives us the use for three months of tonnage estimated at 250,000 tons +dead-weight which had not theretofore been employed in services useful +to us.</p> + +<p>"Specific accomplishments of this character are, however, far from +constituting a full measure of the results achieved by the War Trade +Board. The elimination of enemy advantage from our trade and, to a +considerable extent, from that of the world, the securing and conserving +of commodities essential to ourselves and those associated with us in +the war, the bringing of shipping generally into the services most +useful to us—these results can not be accurately stated or +appraised at the present time, nor have they been accomplished by any +single act or agreement."</p></div> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/ill-099.jpg" width="400" height="494" + alt="Examining Cargoes for Contraband" + title="Examining Cargoes for Contraband" /> + <p class="caption">Examining Cargoes for Contraband</p> + <p class="description">An inspector is using the X-ray on a bale + of cotton, it having been found that smuggling of every conceivable + sort was being carried by German agents.</p> +</div> + +<h3>THE TRADE LICENSE SYSTEM</h3> + +<p>The United States trade license system was extremely effective in +cutting off the business of firms whose controlling motive was the +advancement of German commercial interests. It was largely directed +against preventing pro-German firms in neutral countries from engaging +in the re-exportation process, a familiar practice in the earlier part +of the war. The policy of the War Trade Board is indicated in the March +(1918) issue of the <cite>War Trade Journal</cite>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"To accomplish these results the War Trade Board, through its Bureau of +Imports, has adopted certain regulations in connection with the +importation of many of these raw materials, to which it is the duty of +every patriotic American citizen to give complete and wholehearted +support.</p> + +<p>"Organizations have been voluntarily created in many of the trades, such +as rubber, wool, jute, tin, etc., to act as consignees when required and +to perform other duties in connection with importations, under and by +direction of the War Trade Board.</p> + +<p>"Every effort will be made to administer these regulations with the +slightest possible detriment to legitimate business interests, but when +it is considered that the transmittal of a few pounds of rubber or +copper to Germany may cost the lives of scores of our men at the front, +and that each day's supply of wool, or food, or money to the enemy means +another day's war, with its accompanying toll of lives, the very thought +of hesitancy or weakness is inconceivable. The policy will be 'safety +first' for our soldiers, regardless of every other consideration. +Persons and firms in this country, as well as abroad, who before our +entrance into the war had little sympathy with the war-time commercial +safeguards of the Allies must be taught that these are now matters of +the first importance to this country, and violators of present +restrictions need expect no favors, regardless of how important such +individuals or firms may be in the business world. The time has come +when all must realize that the war is not limited to combating the enemy +on the battle fields of France, but must be carried into our every-day +transactions of life, and that our business practices must be remolded, +where necessary, to meet existing conditions.</p> + +<p>"It is unnecessary to mention other desirable results which may be +obtained by this import control, such as the gathering of trade +information or the conservation of tonnage by elimination of +non-essentials.</p> + +<p>"No anxiety need be felt by importers that there will be any serious +restrictions of the importation of necessary articles if the transaction +does not involve dealing with an enemy or ally of an enemy, or otherwise +giving him aid or comfort."</p></div> + +<h3>THE ANTI-GERMAN TOY EPISODE</h3> + +<p>An example of the intense popular indignation against encouraging trade +with Germany was furnished when a Dutch boat arrived in New York in +1918, laden with 400 cases of toys made in Germany. The ship that +carried them had been guaranteed against submarines by the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> + +German Government. Its arrival in America brought about a storm of +indignation strong enough to remind many editors of the famous Boston +Tea-Party. One of the consignees of the cargo refused to accept delivery +of his share; the <cite>Manufacturers Record</cite> of Baltimore offered him its +congratulations:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is none too soon to begin the campaign against the importation of +German-made goods. Imagine for one moment any American mother giving to +her baby toys made by Germany while she thinks of tens of thousands of +babies murdered by Germany in this war. Every toy made in Germany and +every other piece of goods of every kind will for generations bear a +bloody stain which all the waters of all the oceans can never wash out."</p></div> + +<p>Patriotic organizations passed resolutions on the subject. American +feeling as to German merchandise was well shown through the publication +of an editorial in the <cite>Hardware Age</cite> against American use of German +toys. The paper received 4,000 letters on the subject and over 250,000 +reprints of the editorial were sent out, all on request. On the subject +of German toys, it said, among other things:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"America has fed starving Belgium. We fed and clothed and cared for her +suffering people long before we became her proud ally on the +battlefields. Thousands of orphaned Belgian and French children have +been adopted into American homes. In the days to come are we going to +force these children to play with German-made toys? God forbid! American +toy manufacturers have stripped us of the last vestige of an excuse for +the purchase of toys from the Huns. Our factories are making more toys +than we ever imported, and they are not the flimsy jim-cracks we +formerly bought from abroad. They are largely exercise toys which +develop a child's body, or mechanical or structural toys which train the +mind. Before the war we imported eight million dollars' worth of toys +from the Central Powers. Who will make our kiddies' toys in the days to +come? Once more, Mr. Buyer, it's up to you."</p></div> + +<h3>SMUGGLING FROM NEUTRAL COUNTRIES</h3> + +<p>Considerable aid was afforded to Germany by her trade with neutral +countries. First, there was a good deal of direct re-exportation of +materials imported from abroad. Then there was an exportation of +domestic products, and the filling up of this deficit by importation +from abroad, mainly from the United States. Mr. J. L. Moore of Harvard +University, thought that smuggling deserved to be added to the source of +German supply from the outside, and he mentioned the fact that a member +of the Commerce Department of the Swiss Government was convicted of this +offense and served a prison sentence. His exposition of how neutrals +aided Germany is given in the following passage from the New York +<cite>Times</cite>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"To direct and indirect re-exportation must be added, finally, +smuggling, which has always been a factor in the evasion of blockades. +In Switzerland a member of the Commerce Department of the government was +recently convicted of this offense and is serving a prison sentence.</p> + +<p>"That this aid was precious to the Central Powers and enabled them to +stave off starvation and consequent submission can be corroborated in +various ways. First, in spite of the enormous volume of imports from the +neutrals Germany was on the verge of starvation during the last winter, +the economic crisis reaching its critical stage coincidentally with the +political crisis in the Reichstag at the beginning of July. The most +potent cause of this political upheaval was the economic destitution +which cast its melancholy shadow over the whole nation and increased the +desperation of people and Reichstag till it exploded in a violent +outburst of wrath against the government. Secondly, the general +impression of press and people in Germany and Switzerland is that the +most sensational part of the speech of Erzberger, which brought the +crisis into being, consisted of an exposé proving the futility of +the submarine policy and impugning the judgment of the officials +responsible for its inauguration, inasmuch as the entrance of the United +States into the list of Germany's enemies, which resulted therefrom, was +likely to result in a curtailment of the imports obtained through the +neutrals, and without a continuance of these imports Germany could not +hold out long."</p></div> + +<h3>SURPRISING INCREASE OF NEUTRAL SHIPPING</h3> + +<p>The shutting off of the German commercial fleet from trade and the +employment of Allied shipping under government contract offered an +exceptional opportunity to small neutral countries to advance their +shipping business. This opportunity was eagerly seized. Norway reported +the establishment in 1915 of no fewer than 488 shipping firms. This was +followed in 1916 by an increase of 459. Some of these Norwegian firms +paid dividends as high as 400 per cent. Statistics from Sweden also show +a significant expansion. Swedish firms of inconsiderable + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> + +capitalization before the war became important companies, able to +undertake transatlantic trade on a large scale. It seems likely that +these Swedish transatlantic lines will constitute a formidable +competitor to the old established German companies—now that the +war is over.</p> + +<p>Corroborative evidence on the shipping situation in neutral powers is +found in the following passage taken from the New York <cite>Journal of +Commerce</cite>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Of great importance for an estimate of the future of our shipping +combines is the progress which the two largest Danish lines—the +Forenede, which sails to North America; and the Estasiatisk Kompagni, +which, as the name suggests, runs lines to East Asia—have made +during the war. The Forenede, for instance, made in 1916, with a stock +capital of 30,000,000 crowns, a net profit of no less than 40,000,000 +crowns, of which a good 10,500,000 crowns was allotted to the reserve +and emergency funds. The collective reserves of this company amounted to +more than 26,000,000 crowns at the end of 1916: and its bank credits +totaled 44,000,000 crowns.</p> + +<p>"The large Dutch shipping firms have likewise made enormous profits. The +following table presents their results for 1916 (the Dutch florin, or +guilder, is worth $0.402 United States currency at normal exchange):<br /></p></div> + +<table class="nobrdrsm" summary="Dutch shipping profits"> +<col width="60%" /> +<col width="14%" /> +<col width="13%" /> +<col width="13%" /> +<tr><th>Shipping Firm</th><th>Stock Capital, Florins</th><th>Net Profits, Florins</th><th>Reserve and Emergency Funds, Florins</th></tr> +<tr><td>Holland-Amer. Line</td><td class="numeric">12,000,000</td><td class="numeric">26,500,000</td><td class="numeric">10,200,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Stoomvaart Mij. Nederland</td><td class="numeric">19,000,000</td><td class="numeric">18,600,000</td><td class="numeric">8,800,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Kon. Nederl. Stoomboot Mij</td><td class="numeric">15,050,000</td><td class="numeric">19,000,000</td><td class="numeric">7,800,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rotterdamsche Lloyd</td><td class="numeric">15,000,000</td><td class="numeric">15,100,000</td><td class="numeric">12,600,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Kon. Holland Lloyd</td><td class="numeric">10,000,000</td><td class="numeric">10,900,000</td><td class="numeric">2,000,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The example of the Holland-America Line shows best what enormous +progress took place in the inner consolidation of the Dutch firms. The +reserve of this company, which in 1913 amounted to 6,600,000 florins, +grew to 24,800,000 by the end of 1916—in other words, <del>urpassed</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads urpassed">surpassed</ins> the previous +stock capital (which in the meantime had been increased by 15,000,000 +florins) by more than double. In addition, the company has available +funds amounting in all to 21,700,000 florins. The reserves in the +Nederland Company, which have increased in the same period from +6,700,000 to 23,000,000 florins, exceed the capital by 4,000,000 +florins. The available funds of the Rotterdamsche Lloyd amounted at the +end of 1916 to about 25,000,000 florins, with a share capital of +15,000,000 florins and a ready reserve of 16,000,000 florins.</p> + +<p>"But the business successes of the neutral European shipping firms are +far surpassed by the earnings of the Japanese overseas lines. Thus the +largest Japanese shipping firm, Nippon Yusen Kaisha, that sails from +East Asia to all the important shipping markets, had a net profit in the +summer half-year 1916 of 19,780,000 yen (the Japanese yen is equivalent +to $0.498 United States currency); in the winter half-year 1916—17 +actually 22,150,000; in a single fiscal year it earned, therefore, about +42,000,000 yen. The company's capital stock amounted at the end of the +fiscal year 1916—17, after a previous increase through the distribution +of free shares, to 27,500,000 yen, the net profits of this single +company being thus about 15,000,000 yen more than the amount of the +capital.</p> + +<p>"The company's fleet has grown considerably. The total available +reserves amount to nearly 63,000,000 yen. Of ready money the company had +at its disposal at the end of March, 1917, 55,300,000 yen."</p></div> + +<h3>GERMANS AT WORK IN SPAIN</h3> + +<p>Germany's astuteness in dealing with neutral countries was especially +marked in Spain. The country was filled with German propaganda and there +were skeleton German trade organizations ready to begin functioning at a +moment's notice. The extent to which this propaganda was carried on was +described by a correspondent of the <cite>Saturday Evening Post</cite>, Mr. I. F. +Marcosson, in an address to the National Machine Tool Builders' +Association at Atlantic City:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + <p>"The German propagandists have carried on a campaign on the + proposition of the Kaiser. It has been the finest selling campaign + that I have ever seen. They have organized it. Each man had his + territory, his selling territory; each man has his line of samples, + and that line of samples was the finest lot of German gold and + German 'hot air' that any propaganda has ever produced. + </p> + + <p>"The Germans have sold Spain on the proposition of German trade and + German good-will, because they are giving the Spaniard, as they did + in business before the war, what the Spaniard had in mind. + </p> + + <p>"Germany went into Spain to fill the Spaniard with 'hot air' and to + tell him he was the finest aristocrat in the world. And he got it + over. And if you had gone, as I have, from one end of Spain to the + other and looked into these great warehouses you would have found + hundreds of them jammed and packed with copper and oil and cotton, + and all the material with which to re-establish a great industry. + And today, whenever there is a water-right for sale, whenever there + is stock for sale, or whenever anything can be leased, or a factory + can be bought, who buys it? <strong>The Germans.</strong> + </p> + + <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p> + + <p>"They have got the finest industrial secret service in Spain that I + have seen in my life. And to what end? All to the great end that + when the war is over, in Spain as in Holland and in Switzerland, the + wheels of German output will be going.... Germany will put on the + goods, as I have seen with my own eyes, 'Made in Spain,' 'Made in + Switzerland,' and 'Made in Holland.' Your own goods, machine tools, + are going out in the markets of the world now and forevermore in + competition with German-made stuff, made by German hands, made by + German capital, part with stuff that is marked offensive, in + competition with stuff that is marked as I have said it would be + marked." + </p> +</div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-102.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-102thumb.jpg" width="400" height="291" +alt="An Antidote for the Submarine Pest" +title="An Antidote for the Submarine Pest" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Photo by Paul Thompson</p> +<p class="caption">An Antidote for the Submarine Pest</p> +<p class="description">Quantity production of eighty-foot motor boats in a shipyard at Bayonne, +N. J., for use as scouts and submarine hunters.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-102.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>NO ECONOMIC BOYCOTT AFTER THE WAR</h3> + +<p>The official leaders of the Allied Governments soon found that the +scheme to start an economic war after peace had been <del>negotiatd</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads negotiatd">negotiated</ins> had no +very strong support. President Wilson took a hand in subjecting the +Paris resolutions advocating this economic war to unfavorable criticism. +The British Trades Union by a large majority showed their disapproval of +them. The London <cite>Economist</cite> also disapproved of the program of a +vindictive trade policy after the war, though it thought that an +economic boycott might be used as a threat to force Germany to make +peace. Lord Robert Cecil took the ground that it would not be wise to +attempt an economic war. The labor point of view was that an economic +war was bound to produce another outbreak of militarism. The Speaker of +the British House of Commons, who always occupies a non-partisan +position, in an address at Carlisle on war aims, showed no sympathy with +the proposal:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"We had heard of war after the war, and it had been suggested that +whatever the terms of peace might be we in England should have no +dealings with Germany, that we should boycott them commercially, allow +none of our raw materials to go to Germany, that we should form a +combination with our Allies, and that together we should cut her off +altogether and treat her as though she were a leper. He did not believe +in this idea. He was out for peace, and when he said he wanted + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> + +peace he meant a lasting peace. He wanted peace founded on sound +conditions, which would stand wear and tear and last forever, if +possible—at all events, for many, many years, it might be +centuries; but a boycott of Germany would not be the way to attain a +peace of that kind. That would be a way of carrying on the war, and +although it would not be with the weapons we were now using, there would +be the same hatred and struggle between one combination of nations and +another, and it would leave the world divided and engender seeds of +hatred and dissent. In many respects it would be almost as bad as the +war at the present time. He did not, therefore, accept that condition of +things."</p></div> + +<p>In explaining England's position as to war aims the Premier, Lloyd +George, made the following observations:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Germany has occupied a great position in the world. It is not our wish +or intention to question or destroy that position for the future, but +rather to turn her aside from hopes and schemes of military domination +and to see her devote all her strength to the great beneficent tasks of +the world.... The economic conditions at the end of the war will be in +the highest degree difficult. Owing to the diversion of human effort to +warlike pursuits, there must follow a world shortage of raw materials, +which will increase the longer the war lasts; and it is inevitable that +those countries which have control of the raw materials will desire to +help themselves and their friends first."</p></div> + +<h3>AN IMPOSSIBLE PROGRAM</h3> + +<p>In the emotional atmosphere of the war period some astonishing economic +propositions were accepted as if they were axiomatic truths. Notably was +this the case in the discussion of Germany's program of peaceful +penetration in the economic sphere. It was undoubtedly linked up with +schemes of military aggression. There was wide discussion of the methods +to be used to guard against Germany's commercial policy. Sometimes these +proposals indicated the desire that those who opposed Germany should +take a leaf from her dog-in-the-manger policy. Strange conceptions of +international trade that suggest the mercantilism of the seventeenth and +eighteenth centuries were revived in order to guard against any attempt +on the part of Germany to secure a privileged industrial position after +the war. As early as 1916 there was the famous proposal of an +anti-German economic league contemplated in the Paris resolutions of +that date. In Great Britain the supporters of this policy also actively +advocated a system of imperial preference by which special advantages +would be given to countries within the bounds of the British Empire. The +result of upholding any double-barreled policy of this type is described +by the Edinburgh <cite>Review</cite> as impossible of realization.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Even if Belgium, France, and Italy alone took that course, the whole +policy of an economic boycott, or partial boycott, to prevent German +expansion or to punish German crimes would fall to the ground. We cannot +imprison Germany in an economic strait jacket if her territorial +neighbors are willing to trade with her. As a matter of fact before the +war the most important and the most expansive portion of German export +trade was with the continent of Europe."</p></div> + +<h3>COMMERCIAL AVIATION</h3> + +<p>A great advance in aeroplane development was one of the most spectacular +results of war activity. The military side of this development must be +discussed in another place, but the fact that aeroplanes had to be +constructed substantial enough to carry a large amount of explosives +naturally brought up the whole question of the commercial side of +aeroplane employment. Although the aeroplane has been developed to a +remarkable extent for war purposes, it must not be taken for granted +that every type of aeroplane has its use for peace. In the military +machine regard has been paid rather to gun positions, bomb carrying +capacity and performance than to economy in operation and large cargo +space, which are the essential peace requirements. This aspect of the +problem was discussed by F. Handley-Page in an article in the +<cite>Fortnightly Review</cite>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The type of aeroplane for commercial work requires careful +consideration and design. In estimating the value of a transport vehicle +account must be taken of the respective proportions of the load that are +and are not remunerative. A steam motor wagon that was only just able to +transport the coke for its own consumption would be useless for +transport work. The large quantity of fuel the aeroplane must carry +makes this point an important one regarding it. It affects very largely +the <em>type</em> of aeroplane that must be chosen for each duty.</p> + +<p>"The total lift of a large bombing aeroplane of medium speed is about 20 +lbs., while that of a small high-speed scout may not be more than about +8 to 10 lbs. per horse-power. From these lifts have to be deducted the +weight per horse-power of the aeroplane structure and engines. These leave a margin of about 11 + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> + +pounds per horse-power in the case of the large machine and of only +about two to four pounds per horse-power in the case of the smaller and +higher speed machine. From these margins have to be deducted the weight +<em>per horse-power</em> of the pilot and of the fuel to be carried."</p></div> + +<p>According to this expert's opinion there is little probability of using +for commercial purposes the small high-powered aeroplane. But if large +machines are used with a speed limit of 100 miles an hour and fitted +with twin engines, Mr. Page thinks that such machines will have economic +possibilities. Countries now far distant from one another can be brought +close together. For example Australia will be within a week of London, +and he thinks that passengers can be carried at the rate of about six +cents a mile. If air transport is to be systematized he is in favor of +strict state regulation:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"There must be no possible chance of the wildcat schemes of the early +railway days recurring, nor must aircraft or their pilots be below a +specified standard. The State must see that projects doomed to failure +owing to lack of financial or technical backing are prevented from being +placed before the public.</p> + +<p>"Regulations must be drawn up which will insure that the machines cannot +be used for the public service until they have received a certificate +similar to that now issued by Lloyd's for ships. Pilots must not be +allowed to fly machines conveying the public or mails, unless they have +received a certificate equivalent to that issued to the master of a ship +by the Board of Trade before he can take charge.</p> + +<p>"The aeroplane will not compete with the telegraph system, cable, or +wireless, but will be a useful adjunct conveying written signed +statements, important documents, long reports, and descriptive letters +in the time of a week-end cable and at a fraction of the cost.</p> + +<p>"It will enable the business man to visit his overseas agencies and +friends, to discuss matters with them on the spot and examine the +requirements of their districts, at the cost of a few <em>days</em> instead of +months of travel."</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-104.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-104thumb.jpg" alt="The Awkward Squad" + width="400" height="273" title="The Awkward Squad" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Copyright International Film Service</p> + <p class="caption">The Awkward Squad</p> + <p class="description">"Left, right—one, two, three, + four," was the slogan heard throughout the National Army + cantonments, such as this at Camp Dodge, Des Moines, Ia., + during the first days in teaching the recruits one of the + first lessons of the soldier; how to keep step.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-104.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>V—THE MONEY COST OF THE WAR<br /> +Over $210,000,000,000 Spent by the Belligerents—How This +Stupendous Sum Was Raised—What the War Cost Uncle Sam</h2> + +<p class="centerdouble">By EDWIN R. A. SELIGMAN</p> + +<p class="center">Professor of Political Economy and Finance in Columbia University</p> + +<p>The cost of a war may mean several different things. It may mean, in the +first place, the actual money cost, or expenditure in dollars and cents, +directly involved in prosecuting the war. Or, secondly, it may mean the +war cost, both direct and indirect, from the economic point of view. The +real cost of a war from this latter point of view may mean either actual +loss of lives and property or the diminution of the annual social +production. The wealth of a country measured in its social income may be +reduced either by the actual loss of territory, as in Germany; by the +impairment of its natural resources like the coal mines and forests, as +in France; by the reduction of labor power, due to the wounded workmen +or the results of starvation or privation, as in many countries of +Europe; or by the loss of economic efficiency due to a reduction of the +standard of life or to a changed attitude toward habits of work. The +real costs of war, although often incalculable, are none the less of +profound significance.</p> + +<p>The actual money costs or expenditures of government for war include not +only the actual outlays for military and naval purposes, but also the +whole range of expenditures incurred in industrial life to prepare the +wherewithal for the Army and Navy; and they also comprise the sums +devoted to the maintenance of the families of the soldiers. All these +items are far greater in modern times than they used to be. It is a far +cry from the meeting of two savage tribes armed only with bows and +arrows or javelins, to the modern 16-inch guns, the dreadnoughts, the +airplanes, the submarines, the poison gas and the innumerable technical +adjuncts of modern warfare. The consequence is that the money costs of +the World War have far transcended those of all previous conflicts.</p> + +<p>The attempt to present in figures the costs of the war meets with +several difficulties. In the first place the question arises as to the +period at which we ought to stop. In one sense the war ceased when the +armistice was declared. In another sense the war did not actually stop +until the peace was declared—in this case a matter of many months +additional. But even when peace was declared the war expenses were by no +means over. The process of demobilization is a slow one: moreover it is +necessary to continue for some time the policing of the conquered +countries; and finally comes the question of the pensions to the wounded +soldiers or to the families of the dead. It will be seen, therefore, how +impossible it is to state with any accuracy at the present time the +costs of the war, when those are still being incurred. Furthermore, the +figures ordinarily given contain additional inaccuracies. The richer +countries make loans to the poorer countries and these expenditures are +consequently counted twice in the total,—a procedure legitimate +only on the assumption that the loans will not be repaid. Again, in a +country like the United States, which has substituted an insurance +system for the pension system, the nominal expenditures appear smaller +than is really the case, because of the receipt of vast insurance +premiums which will ultimately all be expended again. Finally the +figures make no allowances for the change in the price level or the +alteration in the value of money. In a great war like the present, +prices have risen: in some countries they have doubled, in some +countries they have more than tripled, for reasons which it is needless +to discuss here. What appears, therefore, to be a great and increasing +outlay from year to year may be in reality due in part, at least, to +this cause.</p> + +<p>After making all allowances for these difficulties we may proceed to +state some of the facts as to the actual outlays of various countries.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p> + +<h3>THE COST OF THE WAR DAY BY DAY</h3> + +<p>In all the belligerent countries it naturally took some time for them to +get into their stride. This is especially true of Great Britain. The +figures of the average daily expenditures, as given by the Chancellor of +the Exchequer, amounted to almost $10,000,000 in the opening months of +the war and reached a maximum of almost $36,000,000 by 1918. These +figures, however, are not exact because they include all of the +expenditures. The real war expenditures may be arrived at by deducting +in each case the amount of the expenditures in the last year of peace, +ending March 31, 1914. Making these corrections, it appears that the +average daily war expenditures in England rose from about $9,500,000 +during the first eight months of the war to about $33,500,000 in 1918, +then slowly receding in 1919. In France the average daily expenditures +were naturally somewhat less, rising from about $8,500,000 during the +first three months of the war to over $21,000,000 during 1917, the last +full year of the war. In Germany the daily expenses were approximately +the same as in Great Britain, rising from about $13,000,000 in the first +nine months of the war to $34,500,000 during the last six months of +1918. In the case of both Germany and France, it is not known whether +the figures comprise the total expenditures or only the pure war +expenditures. In the former event the daily expenditures of Germany +would be a little less than those of Great Britain; in the latter, they +would be a little more. In Italy and Austria-Hungary the daily +expenditures were naturally smaller, amounting at the maximum to about +$10,500,000 and $20,000,000 respectively. In Russia the daily +expenditures rose in 1916 to about $20,000,000 and in 1917, just prior +to the October revolution, nominally to $47,000,000. But, owing to the +great depreciation of the ruble, the actual expenditures were much less.</p> + +<h3>OUR WAR EXPENSES MONTH BY MONTH</h3> + +<p>When the United States entered the war the scale of its operations +became so stupendous that its daily war expenditures soon far exceeded +those of any other belligerent. In the second month of the war the +average daily expenditures for pure war purposes were $15,000,000 and +little over a year later they had risen to almost $50,000,000. By the +end of 1918, the daily average war expenditures reached the staggering +figure of $64,500,000.</p> + +<div class="figright"> +<img src="images/ill-106.jpg" width="400" height="739" +alt="The Economic Conference in Paris" +title="The Economic Conference in Paris" /> +<p class="caption">The Economic Conference in Paris</p> +<p class="description">Mr. Bonar Law talking with M. Clementel (Minister of Commerce) and M. +Doumergue (Colonies) in the garden of the foreign ministry.</p></div> + +<p>If, now, we attempt to present the statistics of the total cost of the +war we must be mindful of the difficulties mentioned above. The figures +are not entirely accurate, and cannot be made entirely accurate for the +following reasons: In the first place, the last date in the official +return differs from country to country. They are, however, all +subsequent to the armistice, with the exception of Russia, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> + +where we have no trustworthy figures after the advent of Bolshevism. In +the second place, we do not know, except in the case of the United +States and Great Britain, whether the figures comprise the total +expenditures or only the purely war expenditures. Even making allowance +for these differences it will be seen that the total war expenditures +amount to over $232,000,000,000. In Japan and some of the minor +belligerents, there were virtually no war expenses. Inasmuch, however, +as most of the countries will continue to have expenses attributable to +the war for some little time in the future, it is probable that the +total war expenditures will amount, by the end of 1920, to almost +$236,000,000,000. From this must, however, be deducted the sums counted +twice, because advanced to their allies by the United States, Great +Britain, France and Germany. Making allowance for this, it is safe to +say that the total net war expenditures will be about $210,000,000,000.</p> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="War expenditures of all belligerents"> +<tr><th colspan="5">WAR EXPENDITURES OF ALL BELLIGERENTS</th></tr> +<tr><th colspan="5">In Millions</th></tr> +<tr><td></td><th>From entrance into war</th><th>To</th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Great Britain</td><td>August 4, 1914</td><td>March 31, 1919</td><td class="numeric">£ 8,601</td><td class="numeric">$41,887</td></tr> +<tr><td>Australia</td><td>August 4, 1914</td><td>March 31, 1919</td><td class="numeric">£ 291</td><td class="numeric">1,461</td></tr> +<tr><td>Canada (inc. Newfoundland)</td><td>August 4, 1914</td><td>August 31, 1919</td><td></td><td class="numeric">1,545</td></tr> +<tr><td>New Zealand</td><td>August 4, 1914</td><td>March 31, 1919</td><td class="numeric">£ 76</td><td class="numeric">365</td></tr> +<tr><td>South Africa</td><td>August 4, 1914</td><td>March 31, 1919</td><td class="numeric">£ 33</td><td class="numeric">243</td></tr> +<tr><td>India</td><td>August 4, 1914</td><td>March 31, 1919</td><td class="numeric">£ 119</td><td class="numeric">584</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"></td><td class="numeric">———</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">British Empire</td><td class="numeric">$46,083</td></tr> +<tr><td>France</td><td>August 3, 1914</td><td>March 31, 1919</td><td class="numeric">fr 169,000</td><td class="numeric">$32,617</td></tr> +<tr><td>Russia</td><td>August 1, 1914</td><td>October 31, 1917</td><td class="numeric">ru 51,500</td><td class="numeric">26,522</td></tr> +<tr><td>Italy</td><td>May 23, 1915</td><td>October 31, 1918</td><td class="numeric">li 81,016</td><td class="numeric">15,636</td></tr> +<tr><td>Belgium</td><td>August 2, 1914</td><td>October 31, 1918</td><td class="numeric">fr 5,900</td><td class="numeric">1,387</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rumania</td><td>August 27, 1916</td><td>October 31, 1918</td><td></td><td class="numeric">907</td></tr> +<tr><td>Serbia</td><td>July 28, 1914</td><td>October 31, 1918</td><td></td><td class="numeric">635</td></tr> +<tr><td>United States</td><td>April 15, 1917</td><td>June 30, 1919</td><td></td><td class="numeric">32,261</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"></td><td class="numeric">————</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Entente Powers</td><td class="numeric">$156,050</td></tr> +<tr><td>Germany</td><td>August 1, 1914</td><td>October 31, 1919</td><td class="numeric">mk 204,268</td><td class="numeric">48,616</td></tr> +<tr><td>Austria-Hungary</td><td>July 28, 1914</td><td>October 31, 1919</td><td class="numeric">kr 119,504</td><td class="numeric">24,858</td></tr> +<tr><td>Turkey</td><td>November 3, 1914</td><td>October .., 1919</td><td></td><td class="numeric">1,802</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bulgaria</td><td>October 4, 1915</td><td>October .., 1919</td><td></td><td class="numeric">732</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"></td><td class="numeric">———</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Central Powers</td><td class="numeric">$76,008</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3">Total</td><td class="numeric">(In Millions)</td><td class="numeric">$232,058</td></tr> +</table> + +<h3>HOW MONEY FOR WAR WAS RAISED</h3> + +<p>The question now arises as to the steps taken by the various countries +to meet these stupendous outlays. Of the older expedients, such as war +treasures, or the sale of public property there was naturally no +question. In only one country, viz., Germany, was there a war treasure; +but this was so small as to be well-nigh negligible. The only two +available resources were accordingly taxation and borrowing.</p> + +<p>When we compare these two expedients, we are struck not only by the +great difference in the theories of war finance followed by the various +countries, but also by the diversity in the economic conditions which +largely influenced the choice. In a general way, it may be said that all +countries were compelled to rely to an overwhelming extent on public +loans, but that Great Britain and the United States raised a far greater +share by taxation than did other countries. Italy was able to raise by +new taxation only just about enough to pay the interest on the new +loans; Germany accomplished this only in part; while France was not in a +position to defray any of her war expenditures from additional taxation. +The same is true of the other belligerents, with the exception of the +British colonies.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p> + +<p>Proceeding now to take up this matter in detail, we shall first attempt +to set forth the facts as to war taxation.</p> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="War spending"> +<col width="70%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<tr><th colspan="4">UNITED STATES</th></tr> +<tr class="btopbot"><td></td><th>Monthly Expenditures exclusive of the + principal of the public debt and of postal expenditures</th> + <th>Monthly War Expenditures<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a> + <a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></th> + <th>Average Daily War Expenditures</th></tr> +<tr><td></td><th>Million $</th><th>Million $</th><th>Million $</th></tr> +<tr><td>April 6—30, 1917</td><td class="numeric">279</td><td class="numeric">219</td> + <td class="numeric">8.0</td></tr> +<tr><td>May, 1917</td><td class="numeric">527</td><td class="numeric">467</td> + <td class="numeric">15.0</td></tr> +<tr><td>June, 1917</td><td class="numeric">410</td><td class="numeric">350</td> + <td class="numeric">11.7</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">——</td><td class="numeric">——</td> + <td class="numeric">——</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total April 6—June 30, 1917</td><td class="numeric">1,216</td> + <td class="numeric">1,156</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>July 1917</td><td class="numeric">662</td><td class="numeric">602</td> + <td class="numeric">19.4</td></tr> +<tr><td>August 1917</td><td class="numeric">757</td><td class="numeric">697</td> + <td class="numeric">22.5</td></tr> +<tr><td>September 1917</td><td class="numeric">746</td><td class="numeric">686</td> + <td class="numeric">22.9</td></tr> +<tr><td>October 1917</td><td class="numeric">944</td><td class="numeric">884</td> + <td class="numeric">29.5</td></tr> +<tr><td>November 1917</td><td class="numeric">986</td><td class="numeric">926</td> + <td class="numeric">30.9</td></tr> +<tr><td>December 1917</td><td class="numeric">1,105</td><td class="numeric">1,045</td> + <td class="numeric">33.7</td></tr> +<tr><td>January 1918</td><td class="numeric">1,090</td><td class="numeric">1,030</td> + <td class="numeric">33.2</td></tr> +<tr><td>February 1918</td><td class="numeric">1,012</td><td class="numeric">952</td> + <td class="numeric">34.</td></tr> +<tr><td>March 1918</td><td class="numeric">1,156</td><td class="numeric">1,096</td> + <td class="numeric">35.9</td></tr> +<tr><td>April 1918</td><td class="numeric">1,215</td><td class="numeric">1,155</td> + <td class="numeric">38.5</td></tr> +<tr><td>May 1918</td><td class="numeric">1,508</td><td class="numeric">1,448</td> + <td class="numeric">46.7</td></tr> +<tr><td>June 1918</td><td class="numeric">1,512</td><td class="numeric">1,452</td> + <td class="numeric">48.4</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">——</td><td class="numeric">——</td> + <td class="numeric">——</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total for fiscal year, 1918</td><td class="numeric">12,697</td> + <td class="numeric">11,977</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>July 1918</td><td class="numeric">1,608</td><td class="numeric">1,548</td> + <td class="numeric">49.9</td></tr> +<tr><td>August 1918</td><td class="numeric">1,805</td><td class="numeric">1,745</td> + <td class="numeric">56.8</td></tr> +<tr><td>September 1918</td><td class="numeric">1,557</td><td class="numeric">1,497</td> + <td class="numeric">49.9</td></tr> +<tr><td>October 1918</td><td class="numeric">1,665</td><td class="numeric">1,605</td> + <td class="numeric">51.8</td></tr> +<tr><td>November 1918</td><td class="numeric">1,935</td><td class="numeric">1,875</td> + <td class="numeric">62.5</td></tr> +<tr><td>December 1918</td><td class="numeric">2,061</td><td class="numeric">2,001</td> + <td class="numeric">64.5</td></tr> +<tr><td>January 1919</td><td class="numeric">1,962</td><td class="numeric">1,902</td> + <td class="numeric">61.4</td></tr> +<tr><td>February 1919</td><td class="numeric">1,189</td><td class="numeric">1,129</td> + <td class="numeric">40.</td></tr> +<tr><td>March 1919</td><td class="numeric">1,379</td><td class="numeric">1,319</td> + <td class="numeric">42.5</td></tr> +<tr><td>April 1919</td><td class="numeric">1,429</td><td class="numeric">1,369</td> + <td class="numeric">45.6</td></tr> +<tr><td>May 1919</td><td class="numeric">1,112</td><td class="numeric">1,052</td> + <td class="numeric">33.9</td></tr> +<tr><td>June 1919</td><td class="numeric">809</td><td class="numeric">749</td> + <td class="numeric">24.9</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">——</td><td class="numeric">——</td> + <td class="numeric">——</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total for fiscal year, 1919</td><td class="numeric">18,505</td> + <td class="numeric">17,785</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr class="bbot"><td>Total April 6, 1914 to June 30, 1919</td><td class="numeric">32,428</td> + <td class="numeric">30,918</td><td></td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> +Obtained by deducting 11/12 of the annual (peace) expenditures for +1915—1916 exclusive of postal expenditures, i. e. 11/12 of +$1,008—287 millions—60 millions. Secretary Glass in his +letter of July 9, 1919 to the Chairman of the Committee of Ways and +Means excludes postal expenditures in the first column, but fails to +exclude them when making the deduction for peace expenditures. He +consequently arrives at the figure of 30,177 billions as the cost of the +war; making allowance for this fact, and using the final corrected +figures, we reach the figure of $32,261,000,000 as the cost of the war +to June 30, 1919.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p> + +<h3>WAR TAXATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES</h3> + +<p>Great Britain, as the wealthiest country at the outbreak of the war, +endeavored to raise as much as possible from taxation. From year to +year, as the expenses mounted up, more and more demands were made upon +the taxpayer. But the expenditures for the war were so enormous that it +soon turned out to be impracticable, even with the best of will, to +secure more than a comparatively small proportion of the total cost from +taxation. The figures usually advanced by the various Chancellors of the +Exchequer and repeated parrot-like by most commentators take the +proportion that total taxes bear to total expenditures. This method of +calculation, as will be seen from the table, shows that almost a quarter +of the total expenditures, or to be more exact, 24.9 per cent., was +derived from taxes. These figures, however, err doubly. In the first +place the significant problem is to ascertain the war expenditures, not +simply the total expenditures. These can naturally be obtained only by +deducting from the annual total expenditures the sums equal to the peace +expenditures, <span lang="la">i. e.</span>, the expenditures for the last full year of peace. +In the second place, what is significant is not the total taxes, but the +war taxes; that is, the proceeds of the additional taxes raised during +the war. These again can be obtained only by deducting from the total +tax revenue the proceeds of the taxes during the last full year of +peace. If then we endeavor to ascertain how much of the war expenditures +were met by war taxes—and this is really the important +problem—we find that, immense as were the burdens resting upon the +British taxpayer, the percentage of war expenditures raised by war taxes +is much smaller than is usually stated. As a matter of fact, in the +first year of war only a little over 7 per cent. of the total war +expenditures were raised from taxes. With every succeeding year the +percentage increased until the last year of war, 1918—19, a little over +one-quarter of the war expenditures were met from war taxes. For the +entire five years the proportion of war taxes to war expenditures was +slightly over 17 per cent.</p> + +<p>In the other belligerent countries the showing was by no means so good. +France struggled under a double difficulty. In the first place France +was invaded at the very outset of the war, and the territory occupied, +although relatively small in extent, represented the richest and the +most industrially developed part of the country. This operated largely +to reduce the ordinary revenues. In the second place the resultant +economic confusion, as well as the general political situation, made it +very difficult to impose any new taxes at all. The consequence was that +for the first three years of the war, the tax revenues of France did not +even suffice to defray the ordinary peace expenditures.</p> + +<p>After a little while, indeed, France found it possible to levy some war +taxes; but these were exceedingly slight compared with what had been +accomplished in Great Britain. The result is that the new war taxes of +France were only just about sufficient to make up the deficit on the +ordinary peace budget—a deficit caused chiefly by the devastation +of the occupied territory. In France, therefore, we may say that as a +result no part of the expenditures was met by war taxes.</p> + +<p>In Italy the situation was a little better. Italy had not been invaded +and its financial situation was not so desperate as that of France. +Moreover, Italy entered the war somewhat later and did not have to +endure a strain for so long a time. Italy consequently proceeded as soon +as possible to levy new war taxes; but as Italy had always been +relatively overtaxed, as compared with Great Britain, it was not +feasible to do as much. As a result, the war taxes levied by Italy were +just about sufficient to pay the interest on the war loans. While Italy, +therefore, did better than France, she also was not able to defray any +of the war expenditures proper out of war taxation.</p> + +<p>The condition of Russia soon became worse than that of France and Italy, +and even before the October revolution, Russia was able to put very +little reliance upon revenues from war taxation.</p> + +<p>Among the Central Powers the situation was much the same, but for a +different reason. Germany at the outset of the war had so confidently +counted upon victory and upon huge indemnities that it resolved to +defray its war expenses entirely from loans. It must, however, be +observed that in Germany a not insignificant part of the war expenses +were met by the separate states; and in these various states a +considerable increase of taxation was provided for at once. As the war +proceeded and the hopes of a speedy and complete victory gradually faded +away, Germany began to change her policy and decided, especially from +1916 on, to impose more and more taxes. The result was that by the end +of the war Germany had done a little better than France.</p> + +<h3>OUR WAR TAXES COMPARED WITH WAR EXPENDITURES</h3> + +<p>We come finally to the experience of the United States. When the United +States entered the war it was confronted by two rival theories + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> + +of public finances. One was to the effect that the war expenses should +be defrayed entirely by war loans, as had been the case in the early +years of the Civil War and as was true of many of the belligerents +during this war. The other theory was that the war expenditures ought to +be defrayed entirely out of war taxes. This was equally extreme and +perilous as the former theory, and labored under the additional +disadvantage of being impossible of achievement. The President went so +far as to adopt the fifty-fifty theory, namely, that half of the war +expenditures ought to be defrayed from taxation.</p> + +<p>The prodigious profits made during the beginning years of the European +war and the resulting prosperity throughout the country enabled Congress +to levy taxes far higher than had before been attempted in our history. +Even with an immense addition to taxation, however, the proportion of +war expenses derived from war taxes was relatively small. Here, again, +we must observe the same caution as in the case of the British figures. +We must not compare total expenditures with total taxes, but war +expenditures with war taxes. War expenditures are easily ascertained by +deducting for each year the amount of the expenditures for the last year +of peace, the year ending June 30, 1916. In the case of war taxes, +however, it is more exact to deduct from the total revenues the tax +revenues for the year ending June 30, 1915. For during the year 1915—16 +a number of taxes were already levied in preparation for our possible +entrance into the war.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact, during the first quarter of war ending June 30, +1917, the proportion of war expenditures derived from war taxes was less +than one-third or 30 per cent. If we exclude loans to Allies on the +assumption that they will all be repaid some day, the showing is +somewhat better—as two-thirds of the expenditures of that period +consisted of such loans.</p> + +<p>As soon, however, as we struck our full gait the situation was less +satisfactory. The proportion of war expenditures derived from war taxes +during the year 1917—18 was less than one-quarter or more exactly only +24.8 per cent. and if we again exclude loans to Allies, only 30 per +cent. In the last year of the war the showing was still less favorable. +If we take the expenditures for the entire period of our participation +in the war the figures are respectively 21.7 per cent. and 27 per cent. +For the entire period of our participation in the war, less than +one-fourth (or exactly 23.3 per cent.) of the war expenditures were paid +out of war taxes. And if the loans to Allies are again excluded the +proportion is still under one third, or more exactly 32.5 per cent.</p> + +<div class="figright"> +<img src="images/ill-110.jpg" width="400" height="565" +alt="Lord Reading" +title="Lord Reading" /> +<p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> +<p class="caption">Lord Reading</p> +<p class="description">President of the Anglo-French loan mission to the United States in 1915, +and special envoy of the British Government to the United States in +1917.</p></div> + +<p>This compares favorably even with the British figures. But it +conclusively shows how impossible it is even with the best of will, to +raise more than a relatively small part of war expenses from war taxes; +especially during the early period of a war.</p> + +<h3>CHARACTER OF WAR TAXATION</h3> + +<p>The next point of interest is that of the character of the war taxes +imposed by the various countries. Here again we notice a very + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> + +great difference. In all of the European belligerents on the continent, +at least as much additional revenue was raised from direct, as from +indirect, taxation. In France about as much new revenue came from +indirect taxation or taxes on consumption as from direct taxation or +taxes on wealth.</p> + +<p>The situation is still less satisfactory in the other continental +countries.</p> + +<p>In England, on the other hand, a different path was pursued from the +beginning. While it is true that a considerable increase of revenue was +derived from indirect taxes like customs and excise, the chief reliance +was placed on the increase of the income tax, on a new war profits tax +and finally, although to a minor degree, on an increase in the +inheritance tax.</p> + +<p>When we come, however, to the situation in the United States we find the +democratic movement so strong that the overwhelming proportion of the +new tax revenue was derived from direct taxation on wealth rather than +from indirect taxation on consumption. In the great Revenue Act of 1917 +over 79 per cent. of the new tax revenue came from direct taxation, +principally the income tax and the excess profits tax. In the second +great Revenue Act of 1918, the proportions were still more favorable, +the amount ascribable to direct taxation in 1919 being almost 81 per +cent.</p> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="Internal Revenue receipts"> +<tr><th colspan="5">UNITED STATES</th></tr> +<tr><th colspan="5">Internal Revenue Receipts</th></tr> +<tr><th colspan="5">In millions of dollars</th></tr> +<tr><th>Year ending June 30</th><th class="numeric">1918</th><th class="numeric">Per Cent.</th><th class="numeric">1919</th><th class="numeric">Per Cent.</th></tr> +<tr><td>Income and profits taxes</td><td class="numeric">2,839</td><td></td><td class="numeric">2,596</td><td><a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Munition manufacturers tax</td><td class="numeric">13</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Estate tax</td><td class="numeric">47</td><td></td><td class="numeric">82</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Corporate capital stock tax</td><td class="numeric">25</td><td></td><td class="numeric">29</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">——</td><td></td><td class="numeric">——</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Total taxes on wealth</td><td class="numeric">2,924</td><td class="numeric">79.1</td><td class="numeric">2,707</td><td class="numeric">70.5</td></tr> +<tr><td>Distilled spirits</td><td class="numeric">318</td><td></td><td class="numeric">365</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Fermented liquors</td><td class="numeric">126</td><td></td><td class="numeric">118</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Tobacco</td><td class="numeric">158</td><td></td><td class="numeric">206</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Stamp taxes</td><td class="numeric">19</td><td></td><td class="numeric">37</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Transportation</td><td class="numeric">71</td><td></td><td class="numeric">234</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Insurance</td><td class="numeric">6</td><td></td><td class="numeric">15</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Excise taxes</td><td class="numeric">37</td><td></td><td class="numeric">78</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Soft drinks</td><td class="numeric">2</td><td></td><td class="numeric">7</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Admissions</td><td class="numeric">26</td><td></td><td class="numeric">51</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Miscellaneous</td><td class="numeric">8</td><td></td><td class="numeric">22</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">——</td><td></td><td class="numeric">——</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Total taxes on consumption, transactions and commodities</td><td class="numeric">771</td><td class="numeric">20.9</td><td class="numeric">1,133</td><td class="numeric">29.5</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total</td><td class="numeric">3,695</td><td class="numeric">....</td><td class="numeric">3,840</td><td class="numeric">....</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> +As the new taxes are payable in instalments, about 2 millions +of the 1919 tax will not be received until the fiscal year 1920. +Making allowance for this the proportion of taxes on wealth +really ascribable to the year 1919 rises to 80.6 per cent.</p></div> + +<p>With the impossibility of securing more than a comparatively small +proportion of the war expenditures from taxation, it accordingly became +necessary to resort to borrowing. This was consequently done by every +country on a gigantic scale; although here again the fiscal and economic +conditions in the various countries were so different that they employed +quite diverse expedients.</p> + +<p>Great Britain provided at the outset of the war for immediate needs by +the selling of short time securities, principally Treasury Bills. Before +long these had amounted to such a sum that it became necessary to issue +long time bonds. Accordingly, subscriptions were invited to the first +war loan, which was issued on March 1, 1915, followed by the second war +loan on June 1, 1915. These bore interest at the rate of 3½ and +4½ per cent. and the amount issued was $1,703,000,000 and +$2,883,000,000 respectively. On February, 1916, a continuous issue of +War Savings Certificates was inaugurated. On April 15, 1917, the third +war loan was issued at 4 per cent., followed on June 1, by the issue of +5 per cent. bonds. Of these $4,811,000,000 were issued.</p> + +<p>Beginning on October 2, 1917, a continuous issue of 4 and 5 per cent. +National War Bonds was made, the difference in the rate of interest +being due to the tax exemption. The temporary and short time paper was +gradually funded into these bonds. In the meantime the Anglo-French loan +of $500,000,000, of which England had one-half, had been contracted in +the United States; and with the entrance of the United States into the +war on April 6, 1917, continually larger sums were borrowed from the +American Government. During the period of the war the British debt rose +from £650,000,000 to £7,643,000,000 or from $3,115,000,000 +to $37,221,000,000. It is expected that $250,000,000 will be borrowed +during the year 1919—20, so that in all probability the debt of Great +Britain at the end of 1920 will amount to almost £8,000,000,000, +or $38,500,000,000, meaning that the war debt probably will amount to +about £7,500,000,000, or $35,000,000,000.</p> + +<p>France was in a far less favorable situation than England at the outset +of the war. The total debt of France at the close of 1913 amounted to +fr. 32,594,000,000, or $6,291,000,000, and the ordinary budget had +closed with a large deficit. So that it had been necessary to issue a loan during the spring + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> + +and summer of 1914. When the war suddenly broke out, precipitating an +economical and financial crash, it became practically impossible to +issue another loan. The government was therefore compelled to rely upon +advances from the Banque de France, which was permitted correspondingly +to increase its notes issue. It was not until November, 1915, that +France saw her way to issue her first war loan of 5 per cent. bonds. +This was followed on August 6, 1916, by the second war loan, also of 5 +per cent. bonds, on December 15, 1917, by the third war loan of 4 per +cent. bonds, and on Dec. 15, 1918, by the fourth war loan, also at 4 per +cent. The first war loan issued at 88 yielded $1,894,000,000; the +second, at 83.75, yielded $1,981,000,000; the third at 68.60 yielded +$2,914,000,000 and the fourth at 70.8 yielded $5,382,000,000. Meanwhile +National Defense Bonds were issued continuously from February 25, 1915, +and foreign loans had been contracted in England, in the United States +and in Japan. The result was that at the close of the year 1918 the +French debt amounted to fr. 167,469,000,000 or $32,322,000,000. This +meant that the debt due to the war amounted to fr. 134,875,000,000 or +$26,031,000,000. It is expected, however, that a considerable sum will +still have to be borrowed during the year 1919, thus bringing the total +French debt to 27 or 28 billions of dollars.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-112.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-112thumb.jpg" width="400" height="357" + alt="While the Men Fought, Those Left Behind Bought Bonds" + title="While the Men Fought, Those Left Behind Bought Bonds" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Courtesy McClure's Magazine</p> + <p class="caption">While the Men Fought, Those Left Behind Bought Bonds</p> + <p class="description">Not all brave hearts beat under khaki during the war. More than + $20,000,000,000 was raised by the four Liberty Loans and the Fifth + Victory Loan. Among those who bought bonds were hundreds of thousands of + wives and children of the men at the front.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-112.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p> + +<p>Russia was the first of the Entente Powers to issue public loans. On +September 14, 1914, it issued a 5 per cent. loan at 94, yielding +$259,000,000. This was followed at regular intervals by six more loans +prior to the revolution of 1917. After the revolution there was +considerable confusion which, of course, was much accentuated by the +advent of Bolshevism. The consequence was that the public debt of +Russia, which amounted for July, 1914, to $4,623,000,000, increased by +the time of the October revolution in 1917 to 49,288 millions of rubles +or 25,383 millions of dollars. This would mean a war debt of almost +twenty-one billions of dollars. As a matter of fact of course it is very +uncertain whether the debt will ever be redeemed at these figures.</p> + +<p>The debt of Italy before it entered the war amounted to lire +13,636,000,000 or $2,621,000,000. Italy started at once with a so-called +mobilization loan followed by its first war loan in July, 1915, and +successive war loans on the first of January of each of the following +years. The result was that on October 31, 1918, the total debt amounted +to lire 63,093,000,000 or $12,177,000,000. By the end of May, 1919, the +debt had grown to 77,763,000,000 lire or $15,009,000,000 leaving as the +war debt lire 64,127,000,000 or $12,388,000,000.</p> + +<p>Of the Central Powers, Germany started at once on October 1, 1914, to +issue a war loan at 5 per cent., having from the outset decided to rely +upon comparatively long time bonds rather than upon temporary or short +time securities as was the case in England and in France. There followed +in regular succession eight war loans bearing 4½ and 5½ +per cent. interest. As a result, the debt of Germany, which before the +war amounted to Mk. 4,732,000,000 increased on October 31, 1919, to Mk. +204,000,000,000 or $48,552,000,000; the war debt proper in Germany would +therefore amount to $47,426,000,000.</p> + +<h3>TOTAL WAR DEBT, UNITED STATES</h3> + +<p>When the United States entered the war it depended, for the time being, +on temporary war certificates. But at the beginning of June, 1917, +Liberty Loans were issued in continually greater dimensions. In the +table below the details of the four Liberty Loans and the Fifth Victory +Loan are given, showing that over $20,000,000,000 were raised from bonds +alone. To these is to be added the unfunded loans. It appears that the +total net debt of the United States, which in April, 1917, was +$1,190,000,000, increased by June 30, 1919, to $24,232,000,000, making a +war debt of $23,042,000,000. Inasmuch, however, as somewhat over a +billion dollars from the Victory Loan will be paid in the course of the +year 1919—20, and as still more will have to be borrowed temporarily, +the total war debt of the United States by the end of 1920 will amount +to over $25,000,000,000, including the nine billions advanced to the +Allies.</p> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="US debt"> +<tr><th colspan="3">UNITED STATES</th></tr> +<tr><th colspan="3">In Millions</th></tr> +<tr><td></td><th>Debt Less<br />Cash in<br />Treasury</th><th>Annual<br />Interest<br />Charge</th></tr> +<tr><td>April 5, 1917</td><td class="numeric">$1,189</td><td class="numeric">$23</td></tr> +<tr><td>June 30, 1917</td><td class="numeric">1,909</td><td class="numeric">84</td></tr> +<tr><td>June 30, 1918</td><td class="numeric">10,924</td><td class="numeric">466</td></tr> +<tr><td>June 30, 1919</td><td class="numeric">24,233</td><td class="numeric">619</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="Bonds outstanding"> +<tr><th colspan="5">DEBT ON JUNE 30, 1919</th></tr> +<tr><th colspan="5">Bonds</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td colspan="3">Pre-war bonds</td><td class="numeric">833</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="4">War loans</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>First Liberty Loan</td><td class="numeric">$1,985</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Second Liberty Loan</td><td class="numeric">3,566</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Third Liberty Loan</td><td class="numeric">3,959</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Fourth Liberty Loan</td><td class="numeric">6,795</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Victory Loan (notes)</td><td class="numeric">3,468</td><td class="numeric">20,455</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Treasury Certificates</td><td class="numeric">3,634</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Old debt on which interest increased</td><td class="numeric">2</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Non-interest bearing debt</td><td class="numeric">236</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"></td><td class="numeric">———</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Total gross debt</td><td class="numeric">25,485</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Cash on hand</td><td class="numeric">1,252</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"></td><td class="numeric">———</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Net debt</td><td class="numeric">(In Millions) $24,233</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The other belligerents need not be treated separately. The total pre-war +debt, including Japan, whose debt was increased only by the money raised +to loan to Great Britain and France, amounted to almost $28,000,000,000. +The debt at the close of the war amounted to over $224,000,000,000, +making the net war debt somewhat over $196,000,000,000. When we compare +this with the total cost of the war, which, as we have seen, will amount +to about $210,000,000,000, it appears that almost the entire cost of the +war will have been defrayed from loans, the difference of well-nigh $15,000,000,000 + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> + +derived from taxation being due almost entirely to the efforts of Great +Britain and the United States respectively.</p> + +<table class="nobrdr" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Debt of the belligerents"> +<tr><th colspan="6">PUBLIC DEBT OF THE BELLIGERENTS</th></tr> +<tr><th colspan="6">000,000 omitted</th></tr> +<tr><td></td><th>Before the war</th><td></td><th>After the war</th><td></td><th class="numeric">War debt</th></tr> +<tr><td>Great Britain</td><td class="center">Aug. 4, 1914</td><td class="numeric">£650 = $3,165</td><td class="center">Mar. 31, 1919</td><td class="numeric">£7,643<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>= $37,221</td><td class="numeric">$34,056</td></tr> +<tr><td>Australia</td><td class="center">Aug. 4, 1914</td><td class="numeric">97 = 472</td><td class="center">Jan. 31, 1919</td><td class="numeric"><a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>336 = 1,634</td><td class="numeric">1,162</td></tr> +<tr><td>Canada.</td><td class="center">Aug. 4, 1914</td><td class="numeric">332</td><td class="center">Mar. 31, 1919</td><td class="numeric">1,584</td><td class="numeric">1,250</td></tr> +<tr><td>New Zealand</td><td class="center">Aug. 4, 1914</td><td class="numeric">100 = 487</td><td class="center">Mar. 31, 1919</td><td class="numeric">170 = 828</td><td class="numeric">341</td></tr> +<tr><td>South Africa</td><td class="center">Aug. 4, 1914</td><td class="numeric">126 = 614</td><td class="center">Mar. 31, 1919</td><td class="numeric">175 = 846</td><td class="numeric">332</td></tr> +<tr><td>British Empire</td><td></td><td class="numeric">$5,070</td><td></td><td class="numeric">$42,213</td><td class="numeric">$37,143</td></tr> +<tr><td>France</td><td class="center">July Empire</td><td class="numeric">fr. 32,594 = $6,291</td><td class="center">Dec. 31, 1918</td><td class="numeric">fr. 167,459 = 32,322</td><td class="numeric">26,031</td></tr> +<tr><td>Russia</td><td class="center">July 1914</td><td class="numeric">ru. 8,800 = 4,623</td><td class="center">Jan. 1, 1918</td><td class="numeric">ru. 49,288 = 25,383</td><td class="numeric">20,760</td></tr> +<tr><td>Italy</td><td class="center">May 1915</td><td class="numeric">li. 13,636 = 2,621</td><td class="center">Oct. 31, 1918</td><td class="numeric">li. 77,763 = 15,009</td><td class="numeric">12,388</td></tr> +<tr><td>Belgium</td><td class="center">Aug. 2, 1914</td><td class="numeric">fr. 3,743 = 722</td><td class="center">Apr. 30, 1919</td><td class="numeric">fr. 9,787 = 1,888</td><td class="numeric">1,166</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rumania</td><td class="center">Aug. 1916</td><td class="numeric">292</td><td class="center">Oct. 31, 1918</td><td class="numeric">1,020</td><td class="numeric">728</td></tr> +<tr><td>Serbia</td><td class="center">July 1914</td><td class="numeric">271</td><td class="center">Oct. 31, 1918</td><td class="numeric">730</td><td class="numeric">459</td></tr> +<tr><td>Japan</td><td class="center">July 1914</td><td class="numeric">yen 2,494 = 1,190</td><td class="center">July 31, 1918</td><td class="numeric">yen 2,530 = 1,265</td><td class="numeric">18</td></tr> +<tr><td>United States</td><td class="center">Apr. 5, 1917</td><td class="numeric">1,190</td><td class="center">June 30, 1919</td><td class="numeric">24,232</td><td class="numeric">23,042</td></tr> +<tr><td>Entente Powers</td><td></td><td class="numeric">$22,327</td><td></td><td class="numeric">144,062</td><td class="numeric">121,735</td></tr> +<tr><td>Germany</td><td class="center">Aug. 1, 1914</td><td class="numeric">mk. 4,732 = $1,126</td><td class="center">Dec. 31, 1918</td><td class="numeric">mk. 204,000 = $48,352</td><td class="numeric">47,426</td></tr> +<tr><td>Austria-Hungary</td><td class="center">Aug. 1, 1914</td><td class="numeric">3,726</td><td class="center">Oct. 31, 1918</td><td class="numeric">kr. 137,858 = 25,584</td><td class="numeric">24,858<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Turkey</td><td class="center">Nov. 1914</td><td class="numeric">LT 112 = 485</td><td class="center">Oct. 31, 1918</td><td class="numeric">LT 455 = 2,002</td><td class="numeric">1,517</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bulgaria</td><td class="center">Oct. 4, 1915</td><td class="numeric">219</td><td class="center">Oct. 31, 1918</td><td class="numeric">974</td><td class="numeric">755</td></tr> +<tr><td>Central Powers</td><td></td><td class="numeric">$5,556</td><td></td><td class="numeric">$80,112</td><td class="numeric"><del>743,556</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 743,556">74,556</ins></td></tr> +<tr><td>Total</td><td></td><td class="numeric">In Millions $27,883</td><td></td><td class="numeric">In Millions $224,174</td><td class="numeric">196,291</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> +Counting on repayments of one half of the loans to the Allies (£816 millions).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> +Not including the debts of the separate states.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> +Obtained by considering the debt of the new Austria as representing 70 +per cent of the debt of all the states which constituted the old empire.</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-114.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-114thumb.jpg" width="400" height="287" + alt="French School Children Waiting to Welcome General Pétain" + title="French School Children Waiting to Welcome General Pétain" /> + </a> + <p class="caption">French School Children Waiting to Welcome General Pétain</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-114.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>VI—AMERICAN BUSINESS IN THE WAR<br /> +Voluntary Coöperation of Experts and Loyal Support of Labor Put Our +Industries on a War Basis</h2> + +<p class="centerdouble">By GROSVENOR B. CLARKSON</p> +<p class="center">Director of the U. S. Council of National Defense and of Its Advisory +Commission</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Modern wars are not won by mere numbers. They are not won by mere +enthusiasm. They are not won by mere national spirit. They are won by +the scientific conduct of war, the scientific application of +irresistible force.</p> + +<p class="smcapright">—Woodrow Wilson.</p></div> + +<p>War today means that for every man on the fighting line there must be +approximately ten men—and women—behind him in the factories, +mills, and mines of the nation that enters the conflict. It is an +enterprise to which military men alone have ceased to be called, for it +enlists the specialists of every industry and every science from the +fighting line clear back to the last line of defense.</p> + +<p>When the American Marines were thrown into the battle line at the Marne, +a French general officer rode up to headquarters.</p> + +<p>"How deep is your front?" he asked.</p> + +<p>"From here to San Francisco," was the reply; and in that statement lay +the story of America's industrial and economic mobilization for war.</p> + +<p>For America the actual arena of the war was 3,000 miles oversea, and +into this arena the Government of the United States threw 2,000,000 of +the most superb troops that the drama of warfare has known; and, what is +more, got them there on time to make possible the final smashing blow. +The organization, transportation, and clocklike delivery at the eleventh +hour of these irresistible citizen armies of the great Republic of the +western world is an epic in itself.</p> + +<p>But here at home there were armies too. They were created without +mandates; they were welded into cohesive form by suggestion rather than +by order; they were galvanized from beginning to end by the mighty force +of voluntary coöperation; and they went into the home stretch with +a power which nothing could have stopped. These were the armies of +production—production mainly, it is true, of guns and steel plates +and soldiers' shoes; but production as well of energy, of thought that +made the sword a flaming thing, of optimism to offset the stupid +pessimism of people who criticized but had nothing tangible to +contribute, of the immortal spirit of "carry on," of, above all, +unification.</p> + +<p>In all of this endeavor, in all of this uprooting of the static national +life of peace time, the business man of America reached his apotheosis +and surprised even himself in his ability to merge his heart and nerves +and brain into the national interest in the most emergent hour of the +country's history.</p> + +<p>In effect, America went into the war unprepared. The will to war was a +dormant thing throughout the nation. The country was swollen with +material success almost to the point expressed in Lincoln's phrase: "A +fat hound won't hunt." The evolution of the Government of the United +States, enjoying profound peace for more than half a century, except for +the minor military operations of the Spanish-American conflict, into a +great war-making machine in mercilessly short time was a task to +challenge the ability of even the most resourceful nation of the earth.</p> + +<p>There, broadly stated, was the national picture in the spring of 1917. +War came, and almost with every day grew the need for increased +participation on America's part.</p> + +<h3>COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE</h3> + +<p>The only federal agency in existence on April 7, 1917, capable of the +elasticity to mobilize industry, labor, and science for the national +defense was the United States Council of National Defense. This body, +composed of the Secretaries of War, Navy, Interior, Agriculture, +Commerce, and Labor, had providentially been created by Congress + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> + +eight months before. It was charged by Congress with "the +coördination of industries and resources for the national security +and welfare" and "the creation of relations which will render possible +in time of need the immediate concentration and utilization of the +resources of the nation." With it was to act an advisory commission of +seven men, each to have expert knowledge of some special industry, +public utility, or the development of some natural resource.</p> + +<p>The Council was further charged with the following particular duties:</p> + +<ol> +<li>To supervise and direct investigations and make recommendations to the +President and the heads of Executive Departments as to: +<ol class="alpha"> +<li>The location of railroads with reference to the frontier of the United +States, so as to render possible expeditious concentration of troops and +supplies to points of defense.</li> + +<li>The coördination of military, industrial, and commercial purposes +in the location of extensive highways and branch lines of railroads.</li> + +<li>The utilization of waterways.</li> + +<li>The mobilization of military and naval resources for defense.</li> + +<li>The increase of domestic production of articles and materials essential +to the support of the armies and of the people during the interruption +of foreign commerce.</li> + +<li>The development of sea-going transportation.</li> + +<li>Data as to amounts, location, methods and means of production and +availability of military supplies.</li> + +<li>The giving of information to producers and manufacturers as to the class +of supplies needed by the military and other services of the Government, +the requirements relating thereto, and the creation of relations which +will render possible in time of need the immediate concentration and +utilization of the resources of the nation.</li> +</ol> +</li> +<li>To report to the President or to the heads of Executive Departments upon +special inquiries or subjects appropriate thereto.</li> + +<li>To submit an annual report to Congress, through the President, giving as +full a statement of the activities of the Council and the agencies +subordinate to it as is consistent with the public interest, including +an itemized account of the expenditures made by the Council or +authorized by it, in as full detail as the public interest will permit, +providing, however, that when deemed proper the President may authorize, +in amounts stipulated by him, unvouchered expenditures and report the +gross so authorized not itemized.</li> +</ol> + +<h3>PERSONNEL OF THE COUNCIL</h3> + +<p>Save for preliminary meetings late in the winter of 1916, the Council +and Advisory Commission did not get under way to any appreciable degree +until February, 1917, when both bodies began to meet separately and +jointly with the primary purpose of taking the national balance, chiefly +with regard to industrial resources. The permanent organization of both +bodies was made on March 3, 1917.</p> + +<p>The Council of National Defense was composed as follows:</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table class="nobrdr" summary="Council of Nation Defense"> +<tr><td>Secretary of War</td><td>Newton D. Baker, Chairman.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Secretary of the Navy</td><td>Josephus Daniels.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Secretary of the Interior</td><td>Franklin K. Lane.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Secretary of Agriculture</td><td>David F. Houston.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Secretary of Commerce</td><td>William C. Redfield.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Secretary of Labor</td><td>William B. Wilson.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The members of the Advisory Commission +were:</p> + +<dl> +<dt><em>Transportation and Communication</em>:</dt> +<dd>Daniel Willard, Chairman, President of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.</dd> +<dt><em>Munitions and Manufacturing, including Standardization and Industrial Relations:</em></dt> +<dd>Howard E. Coffin, Vice-President of the Hudson Motor Car Company.</dd> +<dt><em>Supplies, including Food and Clothing</em>:</dt> +<dd>Julius Rosenwald, President of Sears, Roebuck & Company.</dd> +<dt><em>Raw Materials, Minerals and Metals</em>:</dt> +<dd>Bernard M. Baruch, financier.</dd> +<dt><em>Engineering and Education</em>:</dt> +<dd>Doctor Hollis Godfrey, President of the Drexel Institute.</dd> +<dt><em>Labor, including Conservation of Health and Welfare of Workers</em>:</dt> +<dd>Samuel Gompers, President of the American Federation of Labor.</dd> +<dt><em>Medicine and Surgery, including General Sanitation</em>:</dt> +<dd>Doctor Franklin Martin, Secretary-General of the American College of Surgeons.</dd> +</dl> + +<p>The Director of the Council and the Advisory Commission during the +greater part of the war was Walter S. Gifford, now Vice-President of the +American Telephone and Telegraph Company, a most capable organizer, who +with the writer had been closely associated with Howard Coffin + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> + +in a pioneer industrial preparedness movement inaugurated in the spring +of 1916 to examine into the capacity of industrial plants for military +purposes. This was an entirely volunteer movement of business men and +industrial engineers under the Naval Consulting Board of the United +States, acting with the full approval of the President and the War and +Navy Departments. Mr. Coffin's Committee on Industrial Preparedness did +a remarkable job in a very short space of time, and the creation of the +Council of National Defense was the logical sequence of the Committee's +work, its records being turned over to the Council. The writer was the +Secretary of the Council and the Advisory Commission throughout until +the early summer of 1918, when he became Acting Director, succeeding Mr. +Gifford shortly after the signing of the armistice.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-117.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-117thumb.jpg" width="400" height="281" + alt="United States Council of National Defense and Its Advisory Commission" + title="United States Council of National Defense and Its Advisory Commission" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright by Harris & Ewing</p> +<p class="caption">United States Council of National Defense and Its Advisory Commission</p> +<p class="description">Seated, left to right: David F. Houston, Secretary of Agriculture; +Josephus Daniels, Secretary of the Navy; Newton D. Baker, Secretary of +War; Franklin K. Lane, Secretary of the Interior; William B. Wilson, +Secretary of Labor.<br /> +Standing, left to right: Grosvenor B. Clarkson, +Secretary, later Director, of both Council and Advisory Commission; +Julius Rosenwald, Bernard M. Baruch, Daniel Willard, Chairman of the +Advisory Commission; Dr. Franklin Martin, Dr. Hollis Godfrey, Howard E. +Coffin and Walter S. Gifford, Director of the Council and Advisory +Commission.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-117.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>PROPOSALS OF THE ADVISORY COMMITTEE</h3> + +<p>Although the Council and Advisory Commission did not, as has been +stated, make permanent organization until March 3, 1917, the Advisory +Commission on December 7, 1916, determined on the following proposals of +action:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>To begin immediately a study to determine the most effective flexible +organization and mechanism for the securing of all necessary information +and for the clarifying, recording, and classifying of such information +when secured.</p> + +<p>To begin immediately a study as to what media now exist which can aid in +the carrying out of the purposes of the council. This study to be + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> + +made in three divisions—governmental media in the departments, +governmental media outside the departments, and civil media. As this +study progresses it is believed that the council can aid materially in +the development of such media, and can from time to time define (<span lang="la">i.e.</span>, +delimit and delineate) spheres of activity in which existing +organizations may operate intensively without duplication.</p> + +<p>To assist in the advance of the physical well being of the people of the +nation.</p> + +<p>To begin immediately a study of the possibility of the coördination +of transportation, communication and surveys.</p> + +<p>To continue the work done on the inventory of manufactures, of medical +equipment and officers, of supplies, and of resources.</p> + +<p>To assist in the development of the "Personal Index" already begun.</p> + +<p>To set a fixed date (a date three months after the beginning of action +is suggested) on which an inspection may be made of the work +accomplished to that date. This inspection to be made through the +submitting to the commission of an actual problem by the Departments of +War and Navy, with the intent to determine at that time what needed +information is or is not available.</p> + +<p>To form a temporary organization to put the above proposals or any part +of them or additional proposals into effect at the earliest possible +date, with the intention of changing from a temporary organization to a +permanent organization as the progress of the work makes this possible.</p> + +<p>To begin a study of the best methods of expression of the work of the +council to the people of the nation.</p> + +<p>To scrutinize all legislative action touching national defense.</p> + +<p>To do any other thing or take any other action necessary to give effect +to the law under which the council and commission are organized.</p></div> + +<h3>PRE-WAR ACTIVITIES</h3> + +<p>At this time there was consideration of plans to enroll labor in an +industrial reserve, and the question of mobilization of American +railroads for military purposes was seriously discussed against future +need. At the same time Commissioner Baruch stated that he had been +making a study of the steel and metal industries in connection with the +national defense, and wished for authority to consult further with the +leaders in those trades. The Director was asked to establish relations +in the interest of the national defense with civic organizations, +patriotic associations, and chambers of commerce.</p> + +<p>At a meeting on February 12, 1917, plans were discussed to call a series +of conferences with the leading men in each industry fundamental to the +defense of the country in the event of war, and at the same meeting a +plan was laid down and afterwards agreed upon to split the Advisory +Commission up into seven separate committees as detailed above, the +Chairman of each committee to be given power to select the members of +his committee from either governmental or civil life, or both.</p> + +<p>At a meeting on February 14, 1917, E. S. Stettinius, who, acting for J. +P. Morgan and Company, was the purchasing agent of the Allies at that +time, was called before the Council to confer with it on the manufacture +of munitions. In the same way during this early period men of the +authority and standing of Herbert Hoover, Admiral Peary, and General +Kuhn, who had closely studied the German armies, were called into +consultation by the Council, Mr. Hoover of course, discussing the +mobilization, distribution, and conservation of food supplies, and +Admiral Peary the development of the aeroplane and seaplane for modern +war.</p> + +<p>On February 15th the Advisory Commission, further to progress its work +then already under way, requested detailed lists of materials, with +specifications and detailed dimensioned blueprints covering all +equipment needed for a force of 1,000,000 men and for the assumed force +of the Navy and Marine Corps with its numbers increased to emergency +strength. It also called for estimates of reasonable accuracy covering +the maintenance of a force of the size mentioned in the field during +each ninety days of active service. The information was desired in order +that approximations might be made as to the amounts of both manufactured +and raw material for which it would be necessary to draw upon the +resources of the country. The Advisory Commission later furnished +estimates of its own.</p> + +<p>On March 3rd Chairman Willard of the Advisory Commission read to the +Council a list of men nominated by the Commission to compose a munitions +standards board. It is highly significant to detail the names of these +men with their occupations, for they were typical of the cream of +American industry + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> + +which from that time on was enlisted in the Government's interest:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>W. H. Vandervoort, builders of special machine tools, and President of +the Moline Automobile Co.</p> + +<p>E. A. Deeds, formerly General Manager for the National Cash Register +Co., President of the Dayton Engineering Laboratories Co., and +interested in many industrial activities.</p> + +<p>Frank A. Scott, Warner & Swasey Co., Cleveland, manufacturers of +automatic machinery and optical instruments.</p> + +<p>Frank Pratt, General Electric Co., Schenectady.</p> + +<p>Samuel Vauclain, Baldwin Locomotive Works, Remington and Westinghouse +Cos.</p> + +<p>John E. Otterson, Vice-President, Winchester Arms Co.</p></div> + +<p>The Council duly approved these nominations.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-119.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-119thumb.jpg" width="400" height="323" +alt="Bernard M. Baruch" +title="Bernard M. Baruch" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> +<p class="caption">Bernard M. Baruch</p> +<p class="description">Known as the "Eye of Industry," because his task was to see that the raw +materials were brought to the factories and the finished products +shipped overseas.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-119.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>MEN OF VISION</h3> + +<p>It is impossible here to give more than a few instances such as the +foregoing of the way in which the Council and Commission, with +remarkable vision and perhaps even more remarkable disregard of +precedent when precedent got in the way of the national welfare, made +history in these pre-war days. Fully to tell the story of this period +would pack a large volume. I quote from a recent partisan criticism +directed by an American Congressman, as chairman of a congressional +committee to investigate war expenditures, against the Advisory +Commission particularly, which he characterized as the "secret +government of the United States" during this vital space of time:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>It appears from the minutes of +the advisory commission and the council, which were kept separately, +that practically all of the measures which were afterwards considered as +war measures, were initiated by this advisory commission, adopted by the +council, and afterwards acted upon by Congress. In many cases, a +considerable period before the actual declaration of war with Germany +this advisory commission was discussing matters which were thought to be +new legislation, conceived by reason of the necessities of war. For +instance, on March 3rd, over a month before the War declaration, the +advisory commission indorsed to the Council of National Defense a +daylight-saving scheme, and recommended a Federal censorship of the +press. The question of Federal censorship of the press was further +discussed on March 24th, two weeks before the declaration of war.</p> + +<p>On February 15th, about two months before the declaration of war, +Commissioners Coffin and Gompers made a report as to the exclusion of +labor from military service, and the draft was discussed; the draft was +also discussed on other occasions before anyone in this country, except +this advisory commission and those who were closely affiliated with the +administration, knew that a declaration of war was to be made later. At +a meeting, on February 15th, this same commission of seven men (none of +whom had any official authority except as advisors), recommended that +Herbert Hoover be employed by the Government in connection with food +control. It was generally understood, as appears from the minutes, that +Mr. Hoover was to be in control of this matter, although war was two +months in the future.</p> + +<p>The advisory commission first met on December 6, 1916. Almost the first +thing the commission did was to take up the matter of arranging an easy +method of communication between the manufacturers and the Government. On +February 12th, for example, Secretary Lane offered a resolution to the +advisory commission suggesting to them to call a series of conferences +of the leading men in various industries, so the industries might +organize and be able to do business with the council through one man. In +several meetings, long before the war was declared, this advisory +commission of seven men met with the representatives of the +manufacturing industries and formed an organization of them for selling +supplies to the Government, which organization was well perfected before +the war was declared. This method consisted of having the +representatives of the various businesses, producing goods which the +Government would have to buy, form themselves into committees so that +they might be able to sell to the Government the goods direct, which +their industries produced. In almost every meeting that this advisory +commission had before the declaration of war, they discussed and +recommended to the council (which consisted of six Cabinet members) +these plans for fixing prices and selling to the Government. When war +was declared on April 6th, this machinery began to move, headed by the +advisory commission of these minutes, the active Government of the seven +men, who were, in effect, as shown by United States, so far as the +purchase of supplies was concerned. So far as I can observe, there was +not an act of the so-called war legislation afterward enacted that had +not before the actual declaration of war been discussed and settled upon +by this advisory commission.</p></div> + +<p>It should be said, of course, that no member of this Council +organization ever sold commodities to himself. But that is another +story.</p> + +<h3>MEN OF EXPERIENCE</h3> + +<p>I could not complete even a skeleton outline of the period in question +without certain other references.</p> + +<p>Further to emphasize the quality of the business men being called to +Washington by the Council and Advisory Commission, I quote part of a +letter to Chairman Willard of the Commission from Commissioner Baruch of +March 23, 1917:</p> + +<p>Mr. Daniel Willard,<br /> +Chairman, Advisory Commission, Council of<br /> +National Defense, Washington, D. C.<br /> +<br /> +Dear Sir:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>In pursuance of the authority given me and in order to be prepared to +meet the requests made of the advisory commission, I have appointed the +following committees. As the necessity arises and the advisability +becomes apparent, I shall add from time to time other members to these +committees, always bearing in mind keeping them down to such a size that +they will be workable. It has been my endeavor to appoint on these +committees men of proved ability and undoubted integrity.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Leather</span>.—Walter C. Garritt, U. S. Leather Co., Boston, Mass.; +George F. Johnson, Endicott, N. Y.; Theodore P. Haight, American Hide +& Leather Co., New York City.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rubber</span>.—A. Marks, Diamond Rubber Co., Akron, Ohio; Fred Hood, Hood +Rubber Co., Watertown, Mass.; Stuart Hotchkiss, General Rubber Co., New +York City.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Steel</span>.—E. H. Gary, President, American Iron & Steel Institute, +New York.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Wool</span>.—J. F. Brown, Boston, Mass.; Sigmund Silberson, Chicago, +Ill.; Joseph R. Grundy, Bristol, Pa.; F. J. Hagenbarth, President, +National Association of Wool Growers, Salt Lake City, Utah.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nickel</span>.—Ambrose Monell, President, International Nickel Co., +New York.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Oil</span>.—I have asked Mr. A. C. Bedford, president of the Standard +Oil Co., to serve on the committee, but I shall probably add +another from the Middle West, whose name I have not yet +determined upon, and Mr. Ed. L. Doheny, of Los Angeles, Calif.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Zinc</span>.—I have in the process of formation a committee +representing the zinc trade. There are certain difficulties in +the way of trade jealousies which we have to smooth away. The +same thing is occurring in other lines, but it will be +adjusted, and I shall report on them from time to time.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Coal</span>.—I have been in consultation with the producers of coal, +both bituminous and anthracite, and am now studying that +situation as to the best method of covering coal.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spruce Wood</span>.—I have also under consideration, but have come to +no conclusion, the employment through a committee of those best +fitted for obtaining the manufacture of aeroplanes for the +Government the proper amount of spruce wood which seems to be +needed.</p></div> + +<h3>LABOR PLEDGES SUPPORT</h3> + +<p>It will be long before the writer forgets the dramatic meeting of the +Advisory Commission as early as March 3, 1917, when Commissioner Gompers +reported that he had called an executive council meeting of the American +Federation of Labor for March 9, 1917, for the purpose of considering +the attitude of labor toward the preparedness plans of the government. +The labor leader spoke with great emotion. He referred to England's +difficulty in the first year of the war in enlisting the services of the +working people. He went on to say that in England unity was then lacking +between government and labor and that the same situation, if not +properly handled before hand, could arise in this country in even more +acute form, largely because of the racial diversity of our working +classes. He concluded by stating that he was now bending his efforts to +mobilizing good will in this direction, saying:<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> "I want the workingmen to +do their part if war comes to America." He forecasted the meeting in +Washington on March 12, 1917, of the officers of the National and +International Trade Unions of America, and said: "I am expecting a +definite response of support from every trade union in America." There +is no doubt in the writer's mind that Samuel Gompers kept the faith +throughout.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> +I took Mr. Gompers' words verbatim.</p></div> + +<p>On April 6, 1917, the Council and Advisory Commission approved a +declaration of the attitude of American labor toward the war presented +by Mr. Gompers' Committee on Labor of the Advisory Commission. This +action was directed toward the maintenance of existing standards of +employment, and provided, among other things, that the Council should +issue a statement to employers and employees in industrial plants and +transportation systems advising that neither employers nor employees +should endeavor to take advantage of the country's necessities to change +existing standards; and providing further that when economic or other +emergencies might arise requiring changes of standards, the same should +be made only after such proposed changes were investigated and approved +by the Council. It likewise provided that the Council urge upon the +legislatures of the States, as well as upon all administrative agencies +charged with the enforcement of labor and health laws, the great duty of +rigorously maintaining the existing safeguards as to the health and +welfare of workers, and that no departure from such standards in State +laws and State rulings affecting labor should be taken without a +declaration of the Council that such departure was essential for the +effective pursuit of the national defense.</p> + +<h3>MERGING THE RAILROADS</h3> + +<p>On April 7, 1917, the Council directed Chairman Willard of the Advisory +Commission to call upon the railroads so to organize their business as +to lead to the greatest expedition in the movement of freight and +troops. The response of the railroads was literally splendid. Their +executives came to Washington, conferred with Mr. Willard, and passed +the following resolution:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Resolved</span>, That the railroads of the United States, acting through their +chief executive officers here and now assembled and stirred by a high +sense of their opportunity to be of the greatest service to their +country in the present national crisis, do hereby pledge themselves, +with the Government of the United States, with the governments of the +several States, and one with another, that during the present war they +will coördinate their operations in a continental railway system, +merging during such period all their merely individual and + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> + +competitive activities in the effort to produce a maximum of national +transportation efficiency. To this end they hereby agree to create an +organization which shall have general authority to formulate in detail +and from time to time a policy of operation of all or any of the +railways, which policy, when and as announced by such temporary +organization, shall be accepted and earnestly made effective by the +several managements of the individual railroad companies here +represented.</p></div> + +<h3>COÖPERATING COMMITTEES</h3> + +<p>The first of July, 1917, found the Council and Advisory Commission +directing the operation of the following boards and committees:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Aircraft Production Board.</p> + +<p>Committee on Coal Production.</p> + +<p>Commercial Economy Board.</p> + +<p>Woman's Committee.</p> + +<p>General Munitions Board with its sub-committees on Army Vehicles, +Armored Cars, Emergency Construction and Contracts, Optical Glass, +Storage Facilities, Machine Guns, Priority, and Accounting.</p> + +<p>Munitions Standards Board with its sub-committees on Gauges and Dies, +Army and Navy Artillery, Fuses and Detonators, Small Arms and Munitions, +Optical Instruments, and Army and Navy Projectiles.</p> + +<p>Section on Coöperation with States.</p> + +<p>Committee on Inland Waterways.</p> + +<p>Committee on Telegraphs and Telephones.</p> + +<p>Committee on Railroad Transportation, with which acted an executive +committee made up of leading railroad presidents and six departmental +committees composed likewise of railroad executives and paralleling the +military departments over the country, and sub-committees on Express, +Car Service, Military Equipment Standards, Military Transportation +Accounting, Military Passenger Tariffs, Military Freight Tariffs, and +Materials and Supplies.</p> + +<p>Committees on Cars and Locomotives, with their personnel made up of the +high executives of such concerns as the Baldwin Locomotive Works, the +Pullman Company, and the American Locomotive Company.</p> + +<p>Committee on Electric Railroad Transportation, composed of electric +railway presidents.</p> + +<p>Committee on Gas and Electric Service.</p> + +<p>Committee on Automotive Transport.</p> + +<p>Committee on Supplies, with its sub-committees on Cotton Goods, Woolen +Manufacturers, Shoe and Leather Industries, Knit Goods, Leather +Equipment, Mattresses and Pillows, and Canned Goods.</p> + +<p>Committee on Raw Materials, with its sub-committees, popularly known at +the time as the "A to Z" committees, on Alcohol, Aluminum, Asbestos, +Magnesia and Roofing, Brass, Cement, Chemicals, Acids, Alkalis, +Electrochemicals, Fertilizers, Miscellaneous Chemicals, Coal-Tar +Products, Pyrites, Sulphur.</p> + +<p>Sub-Committees on Copper, Lead, Lumber, Mica, Nickel, Steel Products, +with sub-committees on Alloys, Sheet Steel, Pig Tin, Steel Distribution, +Scrap Iron, Pig Iron, Iron Ore, and Lake Transportation, Tubular +Products, Tin Plate, Wire Rope, Wire Products, and Cold Rolled and Cold +Drawn Steel.</p> + +<p>Sub-Committee on Oil, Rubber, Wool, and Zinc.</p> + +<p>Committee on Engineering and Education, with its sub-committees on +General Engineering, Production Engineering, Universities and Colleges, +Secondary and Normal Schools, and Construction Engineering.</p> + +<p>Committee on Labor, with its sub-committees on Mediation and +Conciliation, Wages and Hours, Women in Industry, Welfare Work, +Sanitation with twelve subdivisions, Vocational Education with nine +subdivisions, Information and Statistics, Cost of Living and Domestic +Economy.</p> + +<p>General Medical Board, with a long and active list of sub-committees.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft"> +<img src="images/ill-122.jpg" width="400" height="549" +alt="Daniel Willard" +title="Daniel Willard" /> +<p class="credit">Copyright by Underwood & Underwood</p> +<p class="caption">Daniel Willard</p> +<p class="description">President of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. +He was chairman of transportation and communication in the Council of +National Defense.</p></div> + +<h3>SERVICE OF EXPERTS</h3> + +<p>On these boards and committees sat, almost without exception, the +American leaders of industry, science, and labor. Scattered + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> + +through the list one finds such names as:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Rear Admiral David W. Taylor, one of the world's +leading naval constructors.</p> + +<p>F. S. Peabody, the great coal operator.</p> + +<p>James J. Storrow, of Lee, Higginson & Co., of Boston.</p> + +<p>A. W. Shaw, publisher of the <cite>System</cite> magazine, who, as Chairman of the +Commercial Economy Board, preached with remarkable success the gospel of +conservation in business.</p> + +<p>Dr. Anna Howard Shaw, who for her labors as Chairman of the Woman's +Committee received the Distinguished Service Medal.</p> + +<p>Frank A. Scott, on whom was bestowed the same distinction for his +leadership of the General Munitions Board.</p> + +<p>W. A. Starrett, constructing architect of New York, to whom in great +measure is due the credit for the building of the cantonments in an +incredibly short space of time.</p> + +<p>Samuel Vauclain, President of the Baldwin Locomotive Works, whose +contribution in the matter of Army and Navy artillery was monumental.</p> + +<p>Theodore Vail, President of the American Telephone & Telegraph +Company, who brought the wire communication men of the country to a +common center in the national interest.</p> + +<p>Charles Clifton, President of the National Automobile Chamber of +Commerce.</p> + +<p>Gen. George H. Harries, the famous electric railway operator.</p> + +<p>Samuel Insull, President of the Commonwealth Edison Co., of Chicago.</p> + +<p>Charles Eisenman, who, as active head of the Council's Committee on +Supplies, procured for the Government $800,000,000 of supplies in 200 +days at an overhead cost of but $20,000, involving the handling of +45,000 contracts, and who justly received the Distinguished Service +Medal.</p> + +<p>A. F. Bemis, President of the National Association of Cotton +Manufacturers.</p> + +<p>John P. Woods, the eminent woolen manufacturer.</p> + +<p>J. F. McElwain, of the McElwain Shoe Company.</p> + +<p>Lincoln Cromwell, of Wm. Iselin & Co., New York.</p> + +<p>Arthur V. Davis, President of the Aluminum Co. of America.</p> + +<p>Thomas F. Manville, President of H. W. Johns-Manville Co.</p> + +<p>Charles F. Brooker, President of the American Brass Company.</p> + +<p>John E. Morron, President of the Atlas Portland Cement Company.</p> + +<p>John D. Ryan, President of the Anaconda Copper Company.</p> + +<p>R. L. Agassiz, President of the Calumet & Hecla Mining Company.</p> + +<p>W. A. Clark, President of the United Verde Copper Company.</p> + +<p>Murry M. Guggenheim.</p> + +<p>R. H. Downman, President of the National Lumber Manufacturers' +Association.</p> + +<p>Ambrose Monell, President of the International Nickel Company.</p> + +<p>The great steel executives. Gary, Farrell, Burden, Dinkey, King, Grace, +Schwab, Topping, Dalton, and Clarke</p> + +<p>Bedford, Davison, Doheney, Lufkin, Markham, Sinclair, Van Dyke, Muir, +James, and Guffy, in whose hands lay almost the entire oil output of America.</p> + +<p>Stuart Hotchkiss, President of the General Rubber Company.</p> + +<p>F. J. Hagenbarth, President of the National Association of Wool Growers.</p> + +<p>The Presidents of the leading zinc companies.</p> + +<p>Then when we come to Engineering and Education:</p> +<p>Dr. Henry E. Crampton, of Columbia University.</p> +<p>Charles A. Stone, of Stone and Webster.</p> +<p>The heads of the great engineering societies.</p> +<p>The presidents of Harvard, Johns Hopkins, and other famous universities +and colleges.</p> + +<p>Among labor leaders such persons as:</p> +<p>Warren S. Stone, Grand Chief of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers.</p> +<p>James W. Sullivan, Matthew Woll, and Frank Morrison; all high in the +American Federation of Labor.</p> + +<p>Such well-known men as:</p> +<p>V. Everit Macy, Benjamin Ide Wheeler, John H. Finley, August Belmont, +E. T. Stotesbury and Charles G. Dawes, afterwards a brilliant figure as a +General in France.</p> + +<p>Such nationally and internationally known physicians as:</p> + +<p>General Gorgas, Dr. William H. Welch, of Johns Hopkins, the Mayos, +Dr., afterwards Brigadier-General Finney, Dr. George E. Brewer, +Dr. George W. Crile, Dr. Simon Flexner, and Dr. Theodore Janeway.</p> + +<p>Dr. George E. Hale, Chairman of the National Research Council, which was +and is the Council's Department of Science and Research.</p> + +<p>Thomas A. Edison, President of the Naval Consulting Board, which was and +is the Council's Board of Inventions.</p></div> + +<p>The activities of these men and their hundreds of colleagues, nearly all +dollar-a-year workers and men whose time could not be bought, as a rule, +in days of peace, reached out and touched almost every town and village +in almost every part of the United States. They were moved and + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> + +stimulated by the philosophy of voluntary coöperation, which was +first and in a very daring way thrust into the consciousness of the +nation by the Council of National Defense. It was the policy that won +the war. One distinct benefit which the Government received from calling +the industrial intelligence of the country to its aid was the breadth of +view which industrial leaders possess. Their habit of mind to survey the +field as a whole, to take a bird's-eye view of the problem to be solved, +enabled the Government agencies to obtain a proper comprehension of the +task of building the war machine. The country will probably never know +the debt that it owes to these men and their like who came to Washington +and bent their backs throughout the hot Southern summer during a series +of endeavors in which absolutely no paths were charted.</p> + +<h3>NON-PARTISAN REPRESENTATION</h3> + +<p>It has been asked why a coalition government was not formed to wage the +war. That very thing was in effect done by the Council, though we were +all too busy to point it out at the time. A majority of the Advisory +Commission was made up of Republicans. Certainly Republicans were in the +huge preponderance in the Committee and Boards of the Council and +Advisory Commission. Speaking as one who was not affiliated with the +politics of the Administration of Woodrow Wilson, the writer never +perceived a trace of political flavor in the organization and operation +of the Council from first to last. Never did the six Democratic cabinet +officers forming the Council itself so much as inquire into the politics +of the hundreds of business men and experts nominated to them for +appointment. It was an amazing demonstration of non-partisanship in a +national crisis. The Council was an organization of specialists from +beginning to end, and the work was everywhere carried forward on the +most impersonal basis. The writer attributes this state of affairs to +the breadth of view, and the very genuine passion for national service, +of Secretary of War Baker, Chairman of the Council.</p> + +<p>It should be plainly stated that, utilizing in the main dollar-a-year +experts, the Council made the preliminary mobilization of industry to +July 1, 1917, at the grotesquely small sum of $127,000. To May 1, 1919, +its total expenditures, including the operation of the war industries +for nearly a year, amounted to but $1,500,000, and this comprehended the +expenditure of $225,000 for the erection of a building. I doubt if there +is anything in governmental or commercial history to match those +figures, squared with results. The savings of the Council and Advisory +Commission to the Government and the people mounted literally into the +billions, as careful analysis of pre-war and war-time prices on certain +commodities will demonstrate. It was made possible by the Council's +course in commandeering to its side the business men of the United +States.</p> + +<h3>SOME RESULTS OF COÖPERATION</h3> + +<p>One of the practical results of voluntary coöperation was the +agreement made by Mr. Baruch and Mr. Ryan with the largest copper +producers of the country to furnish the Navy 20,000,000 pounds of copper +and the Army 25,510,000 pounds at 16<sup>2</sup>/<sub>3</sub>¢. a pound when the market +price was 35¢. a pound. This meant saving to the Government close +to $10,000,000. The copper men made this offer notwithstanding their +increased cost for labor, materials, etc., because, as they said: "We +believe it to be our duty to furnish the requirements of the Government +in preparing the nation for war with no more profit than we receive from +our regular production in normal times."</p> + +<p>In the same way the steel makers of the country, represented in the +Steel Institute, agreed to furnish steel to the Government at the basic +price of 2.9¢. per pound as compared with the then market price of +from 5¢. to 7¢. a pound. This represented an approximate +saving to the Government of $18,000,000.</p> + +<h3>THE FIELD DIVISION</h3> + +<p>The tremendous effort of the Council to mobilize and coalesce into a +fluid and powerful whole the industrial, economic and scientific forces, +was supplemented and to a great extent made possible by the Council's +Section on Coöperation with States, later known as the Field +Division. Through this + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> + +subordinate body was created, guided and coördinated the 185,000 +units of the state, county, community and municipal councils of defense, +which literally unified the citizenship of America for war. If +production was to win the war, it was elementary that the civilian +morale must be brought to the highest pitch of coöperation and +efficiency—and it was accomplished. In this vital task a noble +part was played by the Woman's Committee of the Council, which in the +most thorough-going and swift manner brought the services of the women +of the country to the Government. The director of this committee, Miss +Hannah J. Patterson, received the Distinguished Service Medal.</p> + +<h3>WAR INDUSTRIES BOARD</h3> + +<p>On August 1, 1917, the Council, with its fortunate power to create +subordinate bodies, brought into being the War Industries Board, of +which the first Chairman was Frank A. Scott, and of which some of the +other members up to the end of the war were:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Robert S. Brookings.</p> + +<p>Brigadier-General Hugh S. Johnson.</p> + +<p>Rear Admiral F. F. Fletcher.</p> + +<p>Hugh Frayne, of the American Federation of Labor.</p> + +<p>George N. Peek, a prominent Middle Western manufacturer.</p> + +<p>J. L. Replogle, who became the very efficient Director of Steel Supply.</p> + +<p>L. L. Summers, an expert on explosives.</p> + +<p>Alexander Legge, General Manager of the International Harvester Company.</p> + +<p>And Judge Edwin B. Parker.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. Brookings was later placed in charge of price fixing and Judge +Parker in charge of priorities. The War Industries Board undoubtedly +accomplished a much better centralization of effort than was possible in +the hurried organization of the early days, when the imperative need was +to increase the sources of supply and get production going until the +executive departments of the Government could get into their full +stride. Mr. Scott was succeeded as Chairman of the War Industries by +Daniel Willard, who in turn was succeeded by B. M. Baruch, who, in his +leadership of this vital and powerful agency, duplicated the success +that Mr. Willard had made as Chairman of the pioneer Advisory +Commission.</p> + +<h3>CANTONMENT CONSTRUCTION</h3> + +<p>In indicating even an outline statement of the American industrial and +economic effort in the war, the writer feels helpless to paint the +picture within the space of a few thousand words. It simply cannot be +done. But to visualize what the measure of the task was, let one thing +be cited:</p> + +<div class="figright"> +<img src="images/ill-125.jpg" +alt="John D. Ryan" width="400" height="578" +title="John D. Ryan" /> +<p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> +<p class="caption">John D. Ryan</p> +<p class="description">President of the Anaconda Copper Company. He was made chairman of the +Aircraft Production Board after we entered the war.</p></div> + +<p>At our entrance into the war there were one colonel and four men to +build the cantonments. The job involved the expenditure of $150,000,000 +in about three months. The largest year's work on the Panama Canal +amounted to but some $50,000,000. The situation was heart-breaking. On +hearing of it Frank Scott, then Chairman of the General Munitions Board, +called up the Secretary of War and said that something had to be done, +with which the Secretary instantly agreed. The result was that the +Colonel, afterwards Brigadier-General Littell, had a civilian +organization built around him by the Council of National + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> + +Defense, notably by W. A. Starrett, later himself a colonel in the Army, +which functioned until the Army was in shape to carry on the job alone. +The building of the cantonments was the greatest job of the ages. +Incidentally it should be stated that the average profit to the +contractors was less than three per cent.</p> + +<h3>MEN LITTLE KNOWN</h3> + +<p>The writer likewise feels great reluctance in mentioning, as he has +mentioned, only a few of the men who waged the industrial side of the +war. Many business men little known to the country gave up their +businesses and came to Washington and did superhuman things—did +them in an impersonal, selfless way that was nothing less than stirring. +Many of them remain unknown to this day, and their chief reward must lie +in the satisfaction that they drew to their own souls by what they did, +which is, of course, the greatest satisfaction of all in such situations +as war-time Washington exemplified.</p> + +<p>It has not even been possible to touch on the work of business men in +such great war agencies as the Food and Fuel Administration, the War +Trade Board, the Shipping Board, the Aircraft Production Board, the +Office of the Alien Property Custodian, the War Finance Corporation, and +those divisions of the War Department which called highly qualified +civilians to their aid. It would seem better to emphasize the initial +effort, when the Council, through force of circumstances, became the +great administrative laboratory for the examination, organization, and, +at the proper time, allocation of totally new and untried phases of +Federal action related to the prosecution of the war. It was in effect a +fecund mother, which, it is not the slightest exaggeration to say, gave +birth to and propelled the war machine which in the closing days of the +conflict <del>oversea</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads oversea">overseas</ins> was reaching to the peak of its load, and which in +fact dealt the death blow to the Imperial German Government. It made, in +truth, its fair share of mistakes, but some day its part in sending out +the trumpet call to the business and labor and scientific leaders of +America to join in the national defense will be fully told. Then there +will be perceived in clear and true light the extent to which +peace-loving American civilians offered all they had and all they were +to the Government of the United States so that decency might again be +paramount upon the face of the earth.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>VII—THE LIBERTY LOAN ARMY<br /> +Mobilizing Americans at Home to Pay for the War—A National Effort +Which Yielded $24,065,810,350</h2> + +<p class="centerdouble">By GUY EMERSON</p> +<p class="center">Vice-President of the National Bank of Commerce, formerly Director of +Publicity, Government Loan Organization</p> + +<p>Our Army was our first line in the war against Germany. Our second line +of offense and defense was the Navy, and behind both stood another line +without which neither the Army nor the Navy could have "carried on." +This third force was the greatest unit ever marshalled in the history of +this or any other country—the Liberty Loan Army. Before a man in +the United States uniform entered a trench, before the first depth bomb +had been dropped on a U-boat, this Army, which finally carried a roster +of 22,777,680 names, had entered the war.</p> + +<p>Think of it! One person in every five in the immense population was in +the war!</p> + +<p>True, their contribution to the eventual triumph of our arms was +measured in dollars while that of the men at the front or on the seas +was in lives or limbs. Yet it is a fact that dollars were as powerful +relatively as men in bringing the Boche to bay.</p> + +<p>Various causes have been given to account for the startlingly sudden +collapse of the Kaiser's army. Some say that the Allies' superior +military strategy brought it to its knees. Others contend that success +against the U-boats broke it down. Both are partly right, for + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> + +each helped to undermine the German morale. But however great the +contribution of both was, it is safe to say that the front presented by +the Liberty Loan Army was a vital factor. The belated German +consciousness that the United States as a whole was in the war, as +tangibly represented in the strength of the Liberty Loan Army, helped to +shatter the Germans' will to victory. As much as the men in khaki or in +blue, this gigantic unit bore in upon his mind as an unyielding +opponent. He understood the futility of trying to defeat a people that +enlisted against him to the number of 22,777,680 at home, 4,000,000 in +the field and 300,000 on the water.</p> + +<h3>THE SPIRIT BEHIND THE DOLLAR</h3> + +<p>There is another angle to this important element of morale. In inverse +ratio to the weakening of the spirit of the Germans against this +resistless body there came a daily strengthening of the morale of our +own men and those of the Allies through this manifestation at home. +Where there are two opposing wills to victory in the field, the one that +has the greater backing at home is certain to overwhelm the other.</p> + +<p>It was not the dollar that won the war, it was the spirit behind the +dollar. Before Prince Max asked for the armistice he had learned that +$9,978,835,800 had been subscribed in this country toward his defeat. It +is natural to assume that this fact did not impress him so much as the +related fact that millions of persons had participated in the +subscription.</p> + +<p>Up to the end of the Fourth Loan, which coincided with the negotiations +for the Armistice, $16,971,909,050 had been paid in and this helped to +save life to an extent that we can only imagine. It was the confident +expectation when the Americans halted the German onslaught at +Château-Thierry that the end of the war would come in the +following spring. None dared to hope that it would come before +Christmas. When the crash came in November, even the Allied commanders +were bewildered by its suddenness. Had the war been prolonged to the +spring of 1919, it is certain that we would have paid a large toll in +lives. Some have estimated that 100,000 more of our young men would have +been sacrificed. That the war did not drag along for six months more may +be ascribed in part to the effect that the demonstrated loyalty of the +Liberty Loan Army had upon German morale. We know that the Germans fed +lies to their own troops and dropped pamphlets with these same +falsehoods into our own trenches. They tried to convince their own and +our men that the Loans had no support.</p> + +<h3>MOBILIZING THE LIBERTY LOAN ARMY</h3> + +<p>When at 11 o'clock on November 11, 1918, peace dawned upon a war-sick +world we had 2,000,000 men in Europe, and as many more on this side +putting themselves in readiness to go across. On the seas we had close +to 300,000 men. This tremendous force was welded into form in the +nineteen months we were in the war. Yet within a few months after our +entrance into the war there were more than this total in the Liberty +Loan Army. The list of subscribers to the First Liberty Loan which +closed two months after our entry had 4,500,000 names.</p> + +<p>And this number remained for the duration of the war, giving every penny +they could spare, mortgaging their property, committing themselves to +personal privations. When the Second Loan books were totalled in +November the number had increased to 9,500,000, and it leaped to +17,000,000 in the Third. In the Fourth—the last loan of +war-time—it had grown to 22,777,680 and in the Fifth which closed +six months after the armistice, it finished with 12,000,000 names.</p> + +<p>As in the Army, where organization is half the battle, it was through +organization of the enthusiasm and the deep fervor of the American +people that success came in this big venture. We had to create a state +of mind, we had to educate the American public in finance—which in +itself appeared an insuperable task—we had to marshal resources on +a scale such as never before had been attempted, and we had to map out a +sales campaign that would comprehend millions of persons. There were no +precedents to go by; the example set in Europe could not have +application in the United States because of temperamental and financial +differences; the flotation of the loans in the Civil War afforded no +practicable working basis. It was pioneering, and this fact was made +clear in the first conference held in Washington when Secretary of the +Treasury William G. McAdoo called together the financial leaders of the +country.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-128.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-128thumb.jpg" width="400" height="560" +alt="A Poster Used During the Fourth Liberty Loan Campaign" +title="A Poster Used During the Fourth Liberty Loan Campaign" /> +</a> +<p class="caption">A Poster Used During the Fourth Liberty Loan Campaign</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-128.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p> + +<p>Only three weeks were allowed to prepare for the First Loan Drive. As +soon as we had decided to get into the war, this decision carried with +it the determination to go in to the limit of our resources. The +Secretary of the Treasury informed the bankers that the first issue +would be for $2,000,000,000 and this would be merely the forerunner of a +succession of loans in larger amounts. The bonds were to be put on the +market at three and a half percent. and the campaigns were to be +conducted according to the territories of the Federal Reserve districts, +twelve in all.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is quite likely," said the Secretary of the Treasury, "that we could +induce a group of men to take up this loan but that would compromise the +country before the world. We must sell to the public in such numbers +that there shall exist no doubt among our enemies that our people are +back of the Government as a unit in this war."</p></div> + +<p>The men whom he addressed were all recognized as organizers, all had +been identified with big business. However, few of them had had the +general contact with the public so essential to popularizing the loan. +They knew how to sell, but not in small denominations or to millions of +purchasers. In an abstract sense they realized the value of advertising +and newspaper publicity, but not one of them had the remotest idea of +how the ideal of Secretary McAdoo could be realized.</p> + +<h3>ORGANIZING THE FIRST DRIVE</h3> + +<p>It was at this point that their resourcefulness came into play. Their +first move was the right one; they engaged specialists to undertake the +tasks of which they knew little. They addressed themselves to the public +through men skilled in establishing such contacts as are given through +advertising, publicity, and canvassing. In the brief time allotted to +them, they barely had time to surround themselves with this trained +talent.</p> + +<p>Verily, it was shooting in the dark, a process of hit and miss. Some one +said that the campaign in the First Loan was planned as we went along, +and that is literally true. The patriotism was there—that was an +unquestionable fact; the problem was to make it manifest itself in +sacrifice of savings and earnings. The work of the whole three weeks was +experimental and the country was the laboratory. Let it be said that the +alchemy of patriotism transmuted the hearts and minds of the public into +pure gold. Once the people were informed of their duty toward the United +States they rallied instantly.</p> + +<p>Newspapers turned over their columns, advertisers offered their precious +space—and it was precious in those days of paper shortage; stores +and banks opened booths for sales, public speakers cancelled every other +engagement that they might participate, factories strove to enlist every +person in their employment as purchasers, clubs responded in whole +memberships, women's committees were formed for the acceleration of +interest, churches consecrated themselves to the project, trade unions +abandoned all differences with employers and allied themselves +unselfishly, writers pleaded for a chance to exercise their influence, +foreign language groups demanded opportunity to prove their Americanism, +actors, singers, and lecturers begged for a place in the campaign.</p> + +<p>Wholeheartedly and with utter disregard of personal sacrifice this vast +aggregation committed itself to the task. The initial momentum gave the +drive the force of an avalanche that swept everything else aside. There +came times during this first drive when the issue seemed in doubt, but +this was due more to an excess of enthusiasm than to a lack of support. +When the totals were in, it was realized that these misgivings were due +to the physical inability of the tabulators to keep abreast of the tide +of subscriptions. The subscriptions went to $3,035,226,850.</p> + +<p>It had been said that the first campaign in its directive agencies was +largely hit and miss. When it was over the strikes were recorded and the +misses eliminated for the preliminary work of the Second Loan which was +to follow in October. Out of the mass was evolved a system of methods +that served as the groundwork of the real organization. The + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> + +results afforded a working basis that would have carried a dozen loans +through, granting that the people remained faithful to their patriotism.</p> + +<h3>THE APPEAL</h3> + +<p>Let it be admitted that in the first loan there was no defined appeal. +We were in the war and in to win, that was sufficient. It was foreseen +that the psychology of the public must have a central theme for the next +loan to which it must respond. The Second campaign began on October 1, +1917, after the embarkation of the nucleus of the vast army that +eventually was to overwhelm the foe. None of them yet had been called +into action. The keynote of this drive was the education of the people +on the meaning of a German victory. We had before us the ghastly stories +of what the Germans had done in Belgium and in France; we had to throw +ourselves into the conflict to keep our own homes safe.</p> + +<p>The eyes of all Europe, our Allies and our enemies, were upon us. It was +clear that by the results at home we would be judged, as we had not yet +had the opportunity to show ourselves in the field. For four weeks and a +day the campaign went on, this time for $3,000,000,000. The appeal which +touched the heartstrings of all persons served a double purpose. Not +only did it carry the message of the Loan, but it knit closer the +sentiment of the whole American people to the purposes of the war. +Through its constant reiteration it had the effect of a prayer and like +a prayer gained added meaning with deeper thought.</p> + +<p>Thought was compelled through its manifold repetitions. All the +functions of life were linked with it, all the recreations, all the +relaxations embodied it in part. It formed the backbone of conversation, +it became a part of every daily activity. It assailed the eye at every +turn, it smote the ear constantly, it crashed into consciousnesses in +every conceivable form. Through a strange paradox it linked a fear and a +hope. It embraced the whole gamut of emotions.</p> + +<h3>GROWING RESPONSE</h3> + +<p>Again there was a resounding response. In the First Loan the +subscriptions were limited to the actual amount of the issue, but in +the Second all subscriptions were accepted. The number of those who +took bonds was increased more than 100 percent.—it reached +9,500,000, to be exact, and the $3,000,000,000 issue went to +$3,808,766,150.</p> + +<p>So it was in the Third, which was put before the public on the +anniversary of our entrance into the war. At this time our men had gone +into the trenches which in itself made the war our own in its most +serious meaning. This was intensified throughout the land by the +operation of the Selective Service Act. The draft had entered almost +every home; many of those who had qualified in the first call were at +that time in France. Casualty lists were beginning to appear in the +newspapers.</p> + +<p>It needed only this fact—the fact in itself was its own +appeal—to bring out the finest in our people. All previous +sentiment faded <del>ito</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads ito">into</ins> insignificance compared with the solemnity of the +actual participation. The resources that we had been led to believe had +been plumbed to their depths were now revealed to us as inexhaustible. +Giving seemed to be the poorest means of showing how the country was +touched; the people gave as if in despair because this was all they +might do.</p> + +<p>The campaign had been for $3,000,000,000 and it brought in returns of +$4,170,069,650 from 17,000,000 men, women and children in the United +States; men, who regretted that this was all they might give to their +country's need; women, who offered with each dollar a passionate prayer +that it might help the men now matching themselves against the foe, and +children, who realized with joy that they were becoming part of the +world's greatest war.</p> + +<h3>FOURTH LIBERTY LOAN</h3> + +<p>Before the Fourth Loan the Rolls of Honor in the daily newspapers were +carrying a lengthening list of those who had paid the supreme sacrifice. +In the training camps more and more hundreds of thousands of drafted men +were preparing themselves to take their places on the line; the sea +lanes were crowded with troopships, each bearing the best of our country +away. There had been a depressing period when Ludendorff's men seemed to +carry everything before them, when the coast ports of France seemed +menaced, but before the bugle called the non-combatants at home to +attention again our boys had turned the tide at Château-Thierry +and now were in full cry after the fugitive enemy.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-131.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-131thumb.jpg" width="400" height="598" +alt="A Poster for the Third Liberty Loan Campaign" +title="A Poster for the Third Liberty Loan Campaign" /> +</a> +<p class="caption">A Poster for the Third Liberty Loan Campaign</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-131.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p> + +<p>On September 27, 1918, the call for the Fourth Loan came and it seemed +at the time as if it had been postponed too long because the foe was +crumbling. President Wilson sounded the tocsin in the Metropolitan Opera +House in New York City. This time the appeal was to drive home the +finishing blows, to demonstrate to the crumbling empire of the +Hohenzollerns that here was a people undivided and unafraid.</p> + +<p>The campaign was carried through in a veritable <del>ecstacy</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads ecstacy">ecstasy</ins> of delight. +Where before there had been the spirit to give in order to wage the war +to any length, here was the spirit to bring the end swiftly and +splendidly, to crown the triumphs of our arms abroad with another +triumph at home. In truth, the prospect of impending triumph at first +almost defeated the need of a campaign. The enthusiasm during the period +of the drive transcended everything ever seen in this country before. +The result reflected it: In an issue of $6,000,000,000 there was an +oversubscription of $933,073,250 and the total number was the 22,777,680 +which will stand as the high mark of Americanism for many generations to +come.</p> + +<h3>AROUSING THE HALF-HEARTED</h3> + +<p>It has been set forth here that all appeals were based on arousing the +emotions of the people. This was necessary because, had the offerings +gone before the public solely on their practical value as investments, +the results would have been considered abroad as another demonstration +of our sordidness. Had the people of the United States been sordid, it +is certain that they might have obtained better investment values. That +they were not touched by selfish instincts is further proved by the fact +that all through the drives the bonds of the previous issues had been +quoted below par, due to the machinations of a group that never could be +lifted above self-interest. The public, in full realization of this +apparent depreciation, fought it out and showed their utter contempt for +the manipulators by subscribing in greater force and for greater amounts +to each subsequent issue.</p> + +<p>It has been said before that the feeling of the public toward the war +was made clear in the First Loan. It became the problem of the Second +and the succeeding drives to organize enthusiasm so that through +contagion the more resistant types might be affected. This compelled an +organization of psychology. Back of each demonstration there were stage +managers. These managers of psychology worked upon the public through +the newspapers, through advertising, through "stunts," and generated a +force of example which affected the whole community in which they were +expressed.</p> + +<p>For instance, a parade always has the effect of stirring people; +feelings deep-hidden cannot be well concealed when, in war-time, +marching men stride past. Unconsciously there comes to the mind of +people the question: "What will become of these fine boys when they +reach France?" There is the wish to help them, and the means to help +them has been before their eyes for days in the Liberty Loan publicity. +That is what is meant by stage management.</p> + +<p>Through all the Loans it was necessary to manipulate the emotions first, +to bring to the consciousness of the people in the news reports the +facts and purposes of the loans; secondly, to carry the "urge" to them +through the advertising; and thirdly to work upon their feelings through +spectacles, meetings, aeroplane flights, sham battles, motion pictures +of actual warfare, and like accelerants. It was necessary to infect them +in the mass so that as individuals they might infect others with the +fever to buy bonds.</p> + +<p>All this work had to be carried through and was carried through with +brilliant success in the four war-time loans. The Army, the Navy, the +stage women's committees, police organizations, Boy Scouts, foreign +language groups, all played a part. When the call came for the Fifth +Loan, practically everything that had been done before had to be +scrapped. It was all part of the war equipment and would help little in +getting over another loan when people were striving with every fiber to +get away from the thought and the sacrifices of the war.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p> + +<h3>"FINISH THE JOB"</h3> + +<p>We had to deal, then, with a people who were beginning to adjust +themselves to peace, who were consoling themselves with the thought that +they had done their part and should not be called upon again. It looked +like a hopeless prospect from the vista presented at the close of the +Fourth campaign to expect the same response for a peace campaign. The +one optimistic fact that stood out was that the people had proved their +patriotism, and such patriotism never dies. The Fifth Loan based its +appeal solely upon patriotism's one expression in peace, duty.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-133.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-133thumb.jpg" width="400" height="349" +alt="Victory Way at Night" +title="Victory Way at Night" /> +</a> +<p class="caption">Victory Way at Night</p> +<p class="description">During the Victory Loan Drive, Park Avenue, just above the Grand Central +Station, was shut off and devoted to propaganda for the drive. The +photograph shows a pyramid of captured German helmets.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-133.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p>"Finish the Job" was the slogan of the Fifth Loan. The country was told +that the war was not ended until its debts were paid, that we should +feel gratitude in the lives spared by its sudden end. The Liberty Loan +workers had to create a new state of mind, to begin a new +education—for this time the issue was in Victory notes instead of +bonds—and to arouse the people to new emotions through spectacles, +parades and other features. It may be mentioned here that the greatest +parade of the entire war was held in New York in this Fifth Loan, when +the different branches of the army showed in procession the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> + +men and weapons they had employed to win victory.</p> + +<p>The call was for $4,500,000,000 and the answer was subscribed in notes +by 12,000,000 persons, who paid in $5,249,908,300.</p> + +<h3>WAR SAVINGS CAMPAIGN</h3> + +<p>In between the drives there was a lesser drive constantly carried on +among people who were not able to participate in bond buying. This was +the War Savings campaign which was a part of the Government Loan +enterprise. Newsboys, bootblacks, shop-girls, clerks and others who had +been unable to participate in the Loan drives or who wanted to prove +again their devotion to their country answered this appeal. In these +savings there was collected for the country up to the date of the +armistice $932,339,000 and the number of persons hoarding in small sums +was far beyond a million.</p> + +<table class="boxed" summary="Liberty Loans"> +<caption> </caption> +<tr><th colspan="5">LIBERTY LOAN FIGURES</th></tr> +<tr><th colspan="5">Entire Country</th></tr> +<tr><td></td><th>Quota</th><th>Am't Subscribed</th><th>Allotted</th><th>No. of Subscribers</th></tr> +<tr><td>First Loan</td><td class="numeric">$2,000,000,000</td> + <td class="numeric">$3,035,226,850</td><td class="numeric">$2,000,000,000</td> + <td class="numeric">4,500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Second Loan</td><td class="numeric">3,000,000,000</td> + <td class="numeric">4,617,532,300</td><td class="numeric">3,808,766,150</td> + <td class="numeric">9,500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Third Loan</td><td class="numeric">3,000,000,000</td> + <td class="numeric">4,170,069,650</td><td class="numeric">4,170,069,650</td> + <td class="numeric">17,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fourth Loan</td><td class="numeric">6,000,000,000</td> + <td class="numeric">6,993,073,250</td><td class="numeric">6,993,073,250</td> + <td class="numeric">22,777,680</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fifth Loan</td><td class="numeric">4,500,000,000</td> + <td class="numeric">5,249,908,300</td><td class="numeric">4,500,000,000</td> + <td class="numeric">12,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">——————</td> + <td class="numeric">——————</td> + <td class="numeric">——————</td> + <td class="numeric">—————</td></tr> +<tr><td>Totals</td><td class="numeric">18,500,000,000</td> + <td class="numeric">$24,065,810,350</td><td class="numeric">$21,471,909,050</td> + <td class="numeric">65,777,680</td></tr> +<tr><th colspan="5">Federal Reserve District of New York</th></tr> +<tr><td>First Loan</td><td class="numeric">$600,000,000</td> + <td class="numeric">$1,191,992,100</td><td class="numeric">$617,831,650</td> + <td class="numeric">978,959</td></tr> +<tr><td>Second Loan</td><td class="numeric">900,000,000</td> + <td class="numeric">1,550,453,500</td><td class="numeric">1,164,366,950</td> + <td class="numeric">2,259,151</td></tr> +<tr><td>Third Loan</td><td class="numeric">900,000,000</td> + <td class="numeric">1,115,243,650</td><td class="numeric">1,115,243,650</td> + <td class="numeric">3,046,929</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fourth Loan</td><td class="numeric">1,800,000,000</td> + <td class="numeric">2,044,901,750</td><td class="numeric">2,044,901,750</td> + <td class="numeric">3,604,101</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fifth Loan</td><td class="numeric">1,350,000,000</td> + <td class="numeric">1,762,684,900</td><td class="numeric">1,318,098,450</td> + <td class="numeric">2,484,532</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td class="numeric">——————</td> + <td class="numeric">——————</td> + <td class="numeric">——————</td> + <td class="numeric">—————</td></tr> +<tr><td>Totals</td><td class="numeric">$5,550,000,000</td> + <td class="numeric">$7,665,275,900</td><td class="numeric">$6,260,442,450</td> + <td class="numeric">12,373,672</td></tr> +</table> + +<h3>BENEFITS DERIVED FROM LOAN CAMPAIGNS</h3> + +<p>The benefits derived from the Loan campaigns were many. Prominent among +them was the growth of thrift among the American people. The growth of +this habit will be an important factor in the future greatness of this +country.</p> + +<p>A lasting monument to the war spirit of those who had to stay at home is +the fact that more than a million persons, men, women and children, were +engaged actively in the promotion of the five loans. In other words, one +person in every hundred in the United States was a part of the +organization, and each induced twenty other persons in that hundred to +buy bonds. This colossal force did not work in haphazard fashion nor +scatter its energy but acted under a definite plan of campaign in which +each had an assigned part and in which each worked according to a method +that would avoid duplication or extra expense.</p> + +<p>The five campaigns which united such an aggregation of workers and which +produced such remarkable results were carried forward with a minimum of +expense. Never before in the history of finance had such widespread +exploitation been accomplished at so low a cost. Of the million workers +all but a small nucleus were volunteers; the resources of the country +were thrown open to the organizers with unexampled prodigality, mediums +of flotation in a veritable flood being contributed without cost to the +officers in the Liberty Loan Army.</p> + +<p>A single purpose animated the whole nation. Party lines, race prejudice, +creed distinctions, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> + +social barriers, all were wiped out in these loan drives. The whole +country formed itself into an All-American team that rushed onward +irresistibly. The closest approximation to a common brotherhood had been +achieved. War, with its terrible losses, with its impairment of lusty +young men, with its heartbreaks and agonies, surely had not been waged +in vain when it brought about such a unity.</p> + +<p>The United States in waging the war for democracy had won that democracy +for herself at home.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>VIII—FOOD AND THE WAR<br /> +How Scientific Control and Voluntary Food-Saving Kept Belgium from Starving +and Enabled the Allies to Avert Famine</h2> + +<p class="centerdouble">By VERNON KELLOGG</p> +<p class="center">Member of the Commission for the Relief of Belgium</p> + +<p>America was made familiar with a slogan during 1917 and 1918 which +declared that "Food Will Win the War." The European Allies became +familiar from the very beginning of the war with the fact that without +much more food than they could count on from their own resources they +could not hope to win the war. And it became equally obvious to Germany +and her associates that if their normal food resources were materially +impaired they also could not hope to win the war.</p> + +<p>So there arose almost from the beginning of the great military struggle +an equally great struggle to get food and to keep food from being got. +The Allies, devoting their manpower to fighting and munitions-making, +saw their farms doomed to neglect and their food reduction doomed to +lessen. And they began their call on America for food in such quantities +as America had never dreamed of exporting before. In the last years +before the war we had been sending about five million tons of foodstuffs +a year to Europe. In 1918 we sent over fourteen million tons. Also the +Allies began trying, by their blockade, to prevent the Central Empires +from adding to their own inevitably lessened native production by +importations from without.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, Germany and her associates began to husband carefully +their internal food supplies by instituting a rigid, or would-be rigid, +control of internal marketing and consumption, and to collect from any +outside sources still accessible to them, such as the contiguous neutral +lands, whatever food was possible. Also they had strong hopes of +preventing, by their submarine warfare, the provisioning of the Allies +from America and other overseas sources.</p> + +<p>Thus, from the beginning of the war, and all through its long course, +food supply and food control were of the most vital importance. If our +epigrammatic slogan, "Food Will Win the War," was, like most epigrams, +not literally true, it was, nevertheless, literally true that there was +always possible to either side the loss of the war through lack of food, +and it is literally true that the food victory of the Allies was a great +element in the final war victory. Germany's military defeat was partly +due to food defeat, and if a military decision had not been reached in +the fall of 1918, Germany would have lost the war in the spring of 1919 +anyway from lack of food and raw materials.</p> + +<h3>ECONOMIC SELF-SUFFICIENCY</h3> + +<p>The great struggle for food supply and food control involved so many and +such complex undertakings that it is hopeless to attempt a detailed +account of it in any space short of a huge volume. Yet the very +limitations of the present discussion may have its advantages in +compelling us to concentrate our attention on the most important aspects +of the struggle and to try to sum up the most important results of it. +Some of these at least should not be forgotten, for they have a bearing +on the peace-time food problem as well + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> + +as the war-time one. Fortunately the war-time food situation has +developed in us a national and an individual food consciousness that +will certainly not disappear in this generation at least.</p> + +<p>The first important lesson that has been learned is that it is of great +value to a nation to be able to provide in its own land its own +necessary food supply. For although in times of peace and usual harvests +international food exchanges enable a country, such as England or +Belgium, highly industrialized and of large population in proportion to +area, to make up without much difficulty its deficit as between +production and consumption, the moment the great emergency arrives there +is the utmost danger for its people. The history of the "relief of +Belgium" during the war will illustrate this.</p> + +<h3>$600,000,000 WORTH OF FOOD SUPPLIED</h3> + +<p>This little country, famous through all past history as a battleground +and now famous for all future time for its heroic and pathetic +rôle in the World War, found itself at the very beginning of the +war faced with a food problem that seemed at first insoluble, and which, +if not solved, meant starvation for its people. It is a country highly +industrialized, and with an agriculture which, though more highly +developed as to method than that of almost any other country, was yet +capable of providing but little more than a third of the food necessary +to its people. It depended for its very life on a steady inflow of food +from outside sources. But with its invasion and occupation by the +Germans this inflow was immediately and completely shut off. Belgium was +enclosed in a ring of steel. What food it possessed inside this ring +disappeared rapidly.</p> + +<p>The terrible situation was met in a way of which Americans may be proud. +For the Commission for the Relief of Belgium, which was the agency that +solved Belgium's great problem, was an American organization with a +staff composed chiefly of young Americans, most of them from American +colleges and universities, headed by an American, Herbert Hoover, of +great organizing and diplomatic genius, and with the large heart of a +world philanthropist. In the four and a half years from November 1, +1914, to May 1, 1919, which was the period of activity of the +Commission, Belgium depended upon it for the supplying of three-fourths +of the food of its people, over seven million in number. This amounted +to about one million tons a year. In addition, the Commission supplied +the food through practically all this period for the maintenance of the +nearly two million unfortunate people in the German-occupied area of +France. This amounted to a total of about one million tons. The total +value of the food supplied to Belgium and occupied France was about six +hundred million dollars, which was provided by the Governments of +Belgium, France, England, and America, and the private charity of the +world.</p> + +<h3>THE FOOD PRODUCTION OF GERMANY</h3> + +<p>For another impressive war-time food problem—which did not have +the same solution as Belgium's—let us take that of Germany. In +peace times the Germans produce about 80 percent. of the total food +annually consumed by them. But their tremendous military effort +necessarily entailed some reduction in their capacity for food +production, although they also made a tremendous effort to stimulate and +direct into most effective channels the native production of food.</p> + +<p>Although it is true, as already stated, that Germany normally produces +about 80 percent. of her food needs, making it seem possible for the +nation to meet the blockade emergency by repressing consumption by 10 +per cent. and increasing production by 10 per cent. this does not mean +that they normally produce 80 per cent. of each kind of food consumed by +them. As a matter of fact, they produce more than their total needs of +certain kinds of food, as sugar, for example, and less than 80 per cent. +of certain other kinds. And while there is a possibility of +substituting, within certain limits, one kind of food for another, so +that a shortage of wheat might be made up by an abundance of rye, or a +shortage of bread-grains in general be made up, in some degree, by +increasing the ration of potatoes, if they are available, this +substitution cannot go to the extent of substituting pure carbo-hydrate +or starchy foods like potatoes, which simply produce heat or energy for +the body, for the protein foods like meat, fish, eggs and dairy + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> + +products which produce not only energy but new tissues. A child must +have protein food in order to grow; an adult must have it in order to +replace the tissues worn out by daily work. Also, there are certain +peculiar and so far little understood elements, called vitamines, found +only in certain kinds of food, notably fats, milk and the green +vegetables, which are essential to the proper metabolism of the body.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-137.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-137thumb.jpg" width="400" height="272" + alt="The Battle Scene at Home" + title="Battle Scene at Home" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Photo by P. Thompson</p> + <p class="caption">The Battle Scene at Home</p> + <p class="description">During the war the Allies called on the + United States for food in far greater quantities than we had + ever dreamed of exporting. For example, in the last years before + the war we had been sending yearly to Europe about five million + tons of food. In 1918 alone we shipped more than fourteen million + tons of foodstuffs overseas.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-137.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>GERMANY'S FOOD PROBLEM</h3> + +<p>Now in the light of these needs for proper feeding, and in the light of +the special conditions produced by the war, what was Germany's food +problem through the war? It was that of attempting to increase +production when the men and work animals had been sent to the fighting +lines, of repressing consumption when both men in the army and the men +in the war factories had to be well fed in order to fight well and work +well, of attempting to get in food from outside the country when a +blockade was steadily closing the borders ever and ever more tightly, +and finally, of trying to get the people to modify their food habits in +the way of accepting substitutes and using strange new semi-artificial +foods in place of the familiar staples.</p> + +<p>In 1916 the potato crop of Germany was a failure—but the turnip +crop was enormous. So turnips were substituted largely for potatoes, and +for many other kinds of food as well. Even marmalade and coffee +substitutes were made from them, and turnip meal was mixed in the +already too coarse and too much mixed flour. The Germans will never +forget that terrible <em>kohl-rüben zeit</em>, or turnip time, of late +1916 and early 1917. And it was just after this time that the effects of +Germany's + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> + +great food difficulties began to show in a really serious way; they +began to undermine the strength and health of the people. Those diseases +like tuberculosis, which can rest in incipient or suppressed form for +years without becoming serious as long as the body is well nourished, +began to develop rapidly and dangerously. The birth rate decreased and +the death rate increased. The physical and mental and moral tone of the +whole nation dropped.</p> + +<h3>THE SUGAR SHORTAGE</h3> + +<p>Belgium and Germany illustrate a special food situation created by the +war, namely, one in which a country, which relied on outside sources for +a greater or lesser part of its food needs, had access to these sources +suddenly and almost completely shut off. But grave food problems also +confronted the countries which were not blockaded in so specific a way. +England and France, with full access to all the great food-producing +lands overseas (except to the extent that the submarines reduced this +freedom of access), nevertheless had food problems hardly less serious +than those of the more strictly blockaded countries. Their difficulties +arose primarily from the fact that there was only so much shipping in +the world and that the war conditions created suddenly a need for much +more shipping than existed. The transference of large numbers of troops +with their necessary equipment and munitions from the distant colonies +to the European seat of fighting, and of other numbers from the mother +countries to extra-European battlegrounds, made great demands on the +shipping available to these nations. At the same time, the reduction of +their native production increased largely their needs of food +importations.</p> + +<p>Take, for example, the case of the sugar supply for England and France. +England is accustomed to use about 2,000,000 tons of sugar a year but +she does not produce, at home, a single ton. She had relied before the +war chiefly on importations from Germany and Austria with some little +from Belgium and France. But with the outbreak of the war, she could get +none from the Central Empires, and none from Belgium, while France, +instead of being able to export sugar, suddenly found herself with her +principal sugar-producing region invaded by the Germans and able to +produce hardly a third of her former output. In fact, France herself was +suddenly placed in the position of needing to import nearly two-thirds +of the supply needed for her own consumption. So England and France had +to turn to Cuba, the nearest great sugar-producing country, and ask for +large quantities of her output. But the United States has always +depended on Cuba for a large part of its own needs. Consequently there +was a sugar problem for our own country as well as for England and +France long before we entered the war.</p> + +<p>The situation was serious; the demands on Cuba were much larger than she +could meet, although she was able under this stimulation of demand to +increase materially her sugar crop in the years following the first of +the war. One way of meeting this problem, which was promptly resorted +to, was to cut down the consumption of sugar in the countries involved. +In England and France sugar was strictly rationed; and in America the +people were called on to limit their use of sugar by voluntary +agreement. England cut her sugar allowance per capita from about seven +and a half pounds a month to two, and France from nearly four to one. In +America we reduced our per capita consumption by legally restricting the +making of soft drinks and candy and by the voluntary restriction of the +home use of sugar by about one-half. All this lessened the demand on +Cuba, and also the demand on shipping.</p> + +<h3>NATIONAL TASTES IN FOOD</h3> + +<p>In this discussion of the war-time sugar problem one may be struck by +the fact, as noted, that the people of France were normally accustomed +to eat much less sugar than the people of England, indeed only about +one-half as much. This introduces a subject of importance in any general +discussion of the world food problem. It is that of the varying food +habits of different peoples, even peoples living under very similar +climatic and general physical conditions. For example, the people of +Germany are accustomed to eat twice as many potatoes as the people of +England, who in turn use more than three times as many as the people of +Italy. On the other + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> + +hand, England uses twice as much sugar as Germany, although she produces +no sugar and Germany produces much sugar. The Italians eat only a third +as much meat as the English and the French only half as much. But the +English eat only two-thirds as much bread as the French.</p> + +<p>These differences in food use, established by long custom, have to be +taken into account in all considerations of the world's food supply. +They are differences which cannot be easily or quickly changed, even +under circumstances which such great emergencies as war may produce. For +example, we in America are accustomed to eat corn as food in the form of +green corn, corn meal, corn flakes, etc. And in Italy one of the great +national dishes is <em>polenta</em> (corn meal cooked in a certain way). But +when the Commission for the Relief of Belgium tried to introduce corn as +human food in Belgium, because of the large amount that could be +obtained from America when wheat and rye were scarce, it met with great +opposition and but little success. To the Belgians, corn is food for +animals.</p> + +<h3>SCIENTIFIC CONTROL OF FOOD</h3> + +<p>An important point brought out by the war-time food problem is that of +the "scientific" make-up of the personal ration. Not only are the +national food habits of a people often difficult to understand from a +point of view of taste, but they are often of such a character as to +lead to a most uneconomical use of food. The exigencies of a world food +shortage and a shortage of shipping for food transport have made it +necessary for food ministries and relief organizations to give careful +consideration to the most economical selection of foods for import and +distribution, both from the point of view of economy of space and weight +and lack of deterioration during shipping and storage, and from that of +concentrated nutritional values and proper balancing of the ration.</p> + +<p>Food provides energy for bodily work and maintenance. It is the fuel for +the human machine. Scientific students of nutrition measure the amount +of energy thus provided, or the amount needed by the body, in units +termed calories. Physiologists have determined by experiment the +different amounts of calories produced by different kinds of foods and +the varying amounts needed by men at rest, at light work, at hard work, +by women and by children. By analyzing the make-up of a given population +as to proportions of men, women and children, and of work done by them, +it is possible to express the total food needs of the population in +calories and to arrange for the most economical provision of the total +calories necessary.</p> + +<p>But the simple provision of the total sum of calories may by no means +satisfy the real food needs of the population. For example, all the +calories might be provided by potatoes alone, or grains alone, or meat +or fats alone. But the population would starve under such circumstances. +Food provides not merely the energy for the body, but the substances +from which the body adds new tissue to itself during growth and +reproduces its constantly breaking down tissues during all of life. Now +while all kinds of food produce energy in greater or less quantity, only +certain kinds are the source of new tissues. Hence there must be in the +personal or national ration a sufficient proportion of the +tissue-producing foods, the protein carriers, as well as a sufficient +amount of the more strictly energy-producing foods, such as the fats and +carbohydrates. And there is necessary, too, in any ration capable of +maintaining the body in properly healthy condition, the presence in it, +in very small quantities, of certain food substances called vitamines +which have an important regulatory effect on the functioning of the +body. These substances occur only in certain kinds of food.</p> + +<p>All these things had to be taken into account in the war-time handling +of food. So important was a proper knowledge of scientific food use and +application of this knowledge, in connection with the efforts of the +various countries to feed themselves most economically and to best +effect in the light of their possibilities in the way of food supply, +that every country concerned called on its scientific men to advise and +help control the obtaining and distribution of its national food supply. +For example, America and the Allies (England, France, Belgium and Italy) +established an Inter-Allied Scientific Food Commission composed of +experts who met at various times at London, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> + +Paris, and Rome, and on whose advice the determination, both as to kind +and quantity, of the necessary importations of food from overseas to +England, France, Belgium and Italy was largely made. Thus the war has +done more to popularize the scientific knowledge of food, and to put +into practice a scientific control of food-use than all the efforts of +colleges and scientific societies and food reform apostles for years and +years before. Calories, proteins, carbohydrates, fats and vitamines have +been taken out of the dictionary and put into the kitchen.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-140.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-140thumb.jpg" width="400" height="269" +alt="A Community Conference on Food-Saving" +title="A Community Conference on Food-Saving" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Photo by P. Thompson</p> +<p class="caption">A Community Conference on Food-Saving</p> +<p class="description">The importance of work of this kind increased after the signing of the +armistice, because the Poles, the Belgians, and other peoples whom we +could not reach during the war needed every pound of food we could +spare.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-140.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS</h3> + +<p>America's special relation to the world's war food problem was primarily +that of a provider of the Allies, but in order to insure that this +provision should be sufficient to keep the Allied soldiers and war +workers up to full fighting and working strength and their families in +full health, it was necessary for America to stimulate its own +production, repress considerably its consumption and cut out all +possible waste in food handling. To do this there was needed some form +of governmental food control and a nation-wide voluntary effort of the +people. Each of the Allied countries had established governmental food +control early in the war under the direction of a "food controller" +either attached to an already existing government department of +agriculture or commerce, or acting as an independent food minister.</p> + +<p>On the actual entrance of America into the war in 1917, governmental +food control was vested in a "United States Food Administration" with +powers given it by Congress to control all exports of food and all +food-handling by millers, manufacturers, jobbers, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> + +wholesalers, and large retail dealers. But no retail dealer doing a +business of less than $100,000 a year, nor any farmer or farmers' +coöperative association came under the Food Administration's +control. Thus the American food administration differed from that of +most European countries in that it had no authority to fix the prices at +which the actual producers should sell their products or the small +retailers should charge the consumers.</p> + +<p>But, indirectly, it was able to do, and did, a good deal in this +direction. By its direct control of exports, and of the millers, +manufacturers and large dealers, it was able to cut out a great part of +the middleman profits, and reduce wholesale prices for most staple +foodstuffs, especially that most important one, flour. By publicity of +prices and by indirect pressure through the wholesaler it was also able +to restrain the further sky-rocketing of retail prices.</p> + +<h3>NATION-WIDE FOOD SAVING</h3> + +<p>But if the Food Administration was limited in what it could effect by +legal authority, there was no limit to what it could do by calling on +the voluntary action of the people of the country, except by the +possible refusal of the people to help. So there was set in movement a +nation-wide propaganda for food-production and food-saving which +resulted in the voluntary acceptance of wheatless and meatless days, +voluntarily modified hotel and restaurant and dining-car meals, and the +adoption of household pledges, taken by more than 12,000,000 American +homes, to follow the Food Administration's suggestions for food-saving. +All this, and the many other things which the Food Administration asked +the people to do, and which the people did, resulted in accomplishing a +very necessary thing. It enabled America not only to meet all those +ever-increasing absolutely imperative calls of the Allies for food for +their armies and people through 1917 and 1918, but to supply its own +army and people sufficiently well to carry on the war effectively. The +more food sunk by submarines, or prevented from coming to Europe from +distant food sources, as Australia and Argentine and India, the more we +provided by saving and increasing our production.</p> + +<p>A few figures will illustrate the actual results of the call for food +conservation. We entered the crop year of 1917 (July 1, 1917, to July 1, +1918), with a wheat supply which gave us only about 20,000,000 bushels +available for export. By December 1, 1917, our surplus had gone overseas +and an additional 36,000,000 bushels had been shipped to the Allies. In +January we learned of the further imperative need of the Allies of +75,000,000 bushels. We responded by sending 85,000,000 bushels between +the first of the year and the advent of the new crop. When the crop year +ended we had sent in all about 136,000,000 bushels of wheat to Europe. +We were assisted in these operations by the importation of 28,000,000 +bushels of wheat from Australia and the Argentine to supplement our +domestic supply, but the outstanding fact was the saving in our domestic +consumption, most of which was accomplished in the six-months' period +from January 1 to July 1, 1918.</p> + +<h3>AMERICAN RELIEF ADMINISTRATION</h3> + +<p>But the cessation of the war did not produce food for the war-ravaged +countries of Europe. The newly liberated peoples of Central and Eastern +Europe found themselves, at the time of the Armistice, facing a period +of starvation until their 1918 harvest could come in. Something to save +these peoples had to be done quickly and on a large scale. The situation +was met by the establishment of a new American governmental organization +called the American Relief Administration which, with Mr. Hoover as +director-general, worked in connection with the Inter-Allied Supreme +Economic Council. Representatives of the A. R. A. were sent at once into +all the countries crying for help to find out the exact food situation, +and to arrange with the respective governments for the immediate +beginning of the importation and distribution of staple foodstuffs. +Programs for a food supply sufficient to last until the 1919 harvest +were determined on a basis of minimum necessity, and provision for +sufficient shipping and rail transportation was arranged by +international agreement.</p> + +<p>Modern war has thrown the spotlight on food. It has partly realized that +famous prophecy of the Polish economist, Jean Bloch, who wrote, twenty +years ago: "That is the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> + +future of war, not fighting, but famine." In the World War of 1914—18 +there was fighting on a scale never before reached, but there was also +famine, as never before dreamed of.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>IX THE HIGH COST OF LIVING<br /> +A Study of the Extraordinary Conditions Subsequent to the Armistice</h2> + +<p class="centerdouble">By THE DIRECTOR OF THE COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE</p> + +<p>On August 9, 1919, Grosvenor B. Clarkson, Director of the Council of +National defense, submitted to the Secretary of War, a report entitled +"An Analysis of the High Cost of Living Problem." This report was the +result of much careful study and investigation. It is non-academic in +form and by omitting details presents a "panoramic view of the problem." +It laid chief stress upon conditions since the armistice.</p> + +<p>In the report the problem of the high cost of living is viewed as a +permanent one. It was, in other words, not peculiar to past war +conditions. Careful investigation by the Council has resulted in the +following analysis of the problem.</p> + +<h3>THE ESSENCE OF THE HIGH COST OF LIVING SITUATION</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"1. The only complaints of the high cost of living which have +justification are those which are based upon inability of the present +income to maintain previous or reasonable standards of living at present +prices—such well-founded complaints mean that increase of income +has not kept pace with increased cost of living, and therefore imply +enforced reduction in standards of living.</p></div> + +<h3>AMERICA'S PRODUCTIVE CAPACITY</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"2. America's industrial and economic achievements during the war, +notwithstanding depleted man power and diversion of productive effort to +war purposes, demonstrate the ample ability of the Nation to sustain its +population according to a standard of living equal to or above standards +of living which obtained previous to or during the war.</p> + +<p>"3. The fundamental basis for the maintenance of national standards of +living is adequate production, economical distribution, and fair +apportionment among the various economic groups which constitute our +society. With the exception of agricultural activity, production since +the armistice has shown evidence of curtailment, and has in general been +abnormally low. Normal consumption can not continue unless an adequate +rate of production is maintained.</p></div> + +<h3>FOOD SITUATION AND READJUSTMENT</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"4. Food production and the facilities for food production were improved +rather than injured during the war. Moreover, the program with respect +to food production since the signing of the armistice has been one of +vigorous expansion of the means of providing raw food products. The +actual consumption of wheat, as shown by the Grain Corporation's report +of May 25, 1919, had for the previous ten months averaged 37,700,000 +bushels per month, as against 39,000,000 bushels for the previous twelve +months. This does not necessarily imply reduced consumption of cereals.</p> + +<p>"The number of cattle slaughtered in the period January to May, 1919, +was 3,803,000, as against 4,204,000 for the corresponding period of +1918, though the national reserve of cattle on farms had increased +during the war. The swine slaughtered January to May increased from +18,260,000 in 1918 to 20,500,000 in 1919.</p></div> + +<h3>CLOTHING SITUATION</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"5. The production of civilian cloths and clothing suffered some +reduction during the war, and has suffered heavy curtailment for many +months since the signing of the armistice.</p> + +<p>"Boot and shoe production for civilian use was unfavorably affected by +the war and has likewise undergone extreme curtailment since the signing +of the armistice.</p></div> + +<h3>HOUSING PROBLEM</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"6. Housing facilities developed acute shortage through curtailment of +building during the war and, due to curtailment, for many months +following the armistice, of the production of building material and of +building construction, housing is still far below normal. Rents continue +to rise.</p></div> + +<h3>PROVISION OF NEW CAPITAL</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"7. The first half of 1919 shows diminished production of raw materials +and subnormal construction of new capital, and thus indicates failure to +utilize an adequate proportion of our productive forces in the +preliminary processes of provision to meet future requirements. In fact, +due to business uncertainty and hesitation and tendencies to +disagreement between productive groups, retailers, wholesalers, +manufacturers, labor, etc., there ensued after the armistice a disuse of +a large proportion of America's productive + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> + +capacity. Unless this slump in production is atoned for by consistent +future activity, and unless production is constantly maintained on an +adequate scale, reduced standards of living will become inescapable, +regardless of prices, whether they rise or fall.</p> + +<p>"8. The very fact that prices of finished commodities, consumption +goods, so called, have risen to an extent out of proportion to the rise +in prices of raw materials and perhaps out of proportion to the rise in +general wages, indicates that production and distribution carried on +under these conditions is, in general, yielding profits abnormally +high."</p></div> + +<p>In corroboration of the preceding analysis, the report cites statistical +data gathered from various sources. The relation of currency and credit +to prices is admirably epitomized in the following extract:</p> + +<h3>CURRENCY AND CREDIT</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The manner in which the volume of circulating credit and currency is +related to the war-time rise in prices is about as follows:</p> + +<p>"The outbreak of the war brought to America urgent government orders for +munitions and supplies. Inasmuch as the belligerent governments could +not brook delay they were obliged to pay the increased prices which +American producers found it possible to demand, and thus the wave of war +prices was started in America. When America entered the war it required, +in order to perform its part, almost boundless quantities of equipment +and man power. Producers naturally took advantage of the extremely +urgent character of these demands in order to increase their prices, +and, as a natural sequence, wages began to advance. These increased +prices and wages of course necessitated larger expenditures by the +government.</p> + +<p>"Increased prices also necessitate the employment of larger funds in the +conduct of a business. A larger volume of credit is required at higher +prices to take care of bills for raw materials, and more money is +necessary to meet increased payrolls. As a consequence, therefore, of +increased prices, business men required increased credit if they were to +avoid curtailment of operations and reduced production. Due to higher +prices, therefore, the banks were under the necessity of meeting the +business demand for expansion of credit."</p></div> + +<h3>INFLATION</h3> + +<p>The inflation process is described as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In pre-war times every dollar finding its way to the market was +supposedly the counterpart of some commodity or part of a commodity also +appearing in the market. Funds expended for the purchase of food, +clothing, and for the payment of rentals were assumed to have been +earned by some productive contribution to the general supply of +commodities. With the outbreak of war there began to appear in the +market, funds derived from wages, profits, etc., which had been paid out +in connection with nonproductive activities of war, and which therefore +implied no corresponding contribution to the market supply of +commodities. The producers of, and the dealers in, the decreased +quantity of commodities brought to market increased the prices of these +commodities to the point where they might absorb all the purchase money +that became available. These increased prices and wages have required +increased circulating medium. This requirement has been met primarily by +increased credit and the increased use of bank checks as an instrument +of payment. As to the currency situation, the total money in the United +States in 1900 amounted to $2,340,000,000. According to a statement +issued by Governor W. P. G. Harding, of the Federal Reserve Board, the +amount of money in circulation has varied during the last five years as +follows:</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li>July 1, 1914, $3,419,108,368, or $34.53 per capita.</li> +<li>April 1, 1917, $4,100,976,000, or $37.88 per capita.</li> +<li>December 1, 1918, $5,129,985,000, or $48.13 per capita.</li> +<li>August 1, 1919, $4,796,890,000, or $45.16 per capita.</li> +</ul> + +<p>"This shows an increase during our war period of $7.28 per capita. The +amount of money in the Treasury and in Federal Reserve Banks is not in +circulation, and is, therefore not included in the figures quoted from +Governor Harding's statement.</p> + +<p>"In regard to the part played by national credit in meeting the +situation growing out of the extraordinary requirements of the +government and the rise in prices which the urgency of demands made +possible, it is to be noted that government bonds had to be sold to pay +for a large proportion of the goods which war activities were consuming. +In consequence the national debt up to August 1, 1919, had been +increased by $24,518,000,000, or approximately $230 per capita. Of +course, government bonds are always good security for bank credit."</p></div> + +<h3>FOOD SUPPLY—WHEAT, CORN AND SUGAR</h3> + +<p>Despite the fact that we sent large shipments of food to our Allies, our +supply at the close of the war was not seriously diminished. The 1919 +crop, while not expected to be large, was amply sufficient to prevent a +real shortage. This is supported by the following extract from Mr. +Clarkson's report:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The wheat crop for 1918 amounted to 917,000,000 bushels, as compared to +an average for + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> + +1910—14 of 728,000,000 bushels; and the probable harvest in 1919 is +1,236,000,000 bushels. Our supply of wheat in elevators, mills, etc., on +May 9, 1919, was 96,000,000 bushels, as against 34,000,000 bushels the +year before. Our flour mills, whose capacity is estimated at something +like double their usual output, were milling week by week during 1919 +considerably more flour than the year before. They produced for the week +ending May 9, 1919, for example, 2,553,000 barrels as against 1,569,000 +barrels for the corresponding week of 1918. Notwithstanding large +exports, our wheat supply is obviously adequate. In 1918, a record year, +we exported 21,000,000 barrels of flour. In 1915 our wheat exports +reached their maximum—206,000,000 bushels.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/ill-144.png" width="800" height="392" +alt="Will There Be Enough to Go Around?" +title="Will There Be Enough to Go Around?" /> +<p class="credit">McCutcheon in the Chicago Tribune</p> +<p class="caption">Will There Be Enough to Go Around?</p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The corn crop of 1918 was likewise sufficient. The supply of corn on +hand on May 1, 1919, was 23,000,000 bushels, as compared with 16,000,000 +bushels May 1, 1918, and 7,000,000 bushels on May 1 of both 1917 and +1913. Though the 1919 corn crop is not expected to be unusually large, +there is no prospect of real shortage. And the situation with respect to +the other cereals is generally very good.</p> + +<p>"The sugar industry of the United States passed through the period of +the war with a tendency to increased production, notwithstanding +shipping difficulties. Though present stocks are somewhat low in the +United States, our exports during 1919 have been unusually large. The +future is normally provided for."</p></div> + +<h3>THE MEAT SUPPLY</h3> + +<p>The meat situation is described as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"America emerged from the war producing meat at a rate far above pre-war +figures, and yet possessing in reserve a larger number of animals on the +farms than we had before the heavy war drafts upon our supplies began. +The number of cattle slaughtered in 1918 was 11,000,000, as compared +with 6,978,000 in 1913. Swine slaughtered were 41,214,000 in 1918 and +34,163,000 in 1913. The cattle slaughtered in 1919, January—May, were +3,803,000, as against 4,204,000, January—May, 1918. The swine +slaughtered January—May, 1919, made an increase over the 1918 record, +the figures being 20,500,000 for the present year, as against 18,260,000 +for the corresponding interval last year. Although exports of hams and +shoulders for 1918 approximately doubled previous records, amounting to +518,000,000 pounds, as against 172,000,000 pounds for 1913, and exports +have continued large during 1919, there is no doubt that our productive +capacity is vastly more than ample to meet our requirements."</p></div> + +<h3>HIGH PRICE OF FOOD</h3> + +<p>In view of the apparent abundance of food it is interesting to know the +reason for the high price of foodstuffs. The Council of National Defense +is of the opinion that the probability that the production of garden +products in war gardens had fallen far below that of 1918, when, it is +estimated, to have reached the value of $525,000,000, would not + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> + +account for the high prices. Exportation and storage had not depleted +our stock sufficiently to affect prices abnormally. In regard to the +question of exports the report gives the following illuminating figures:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Present food prices are not to be accounted for largely on the basis of +heavy exports. Exports of beef, canned, fresh, and pickled, for example, +have been less for 1919 than in the previous year, the quantity +amounting to 23,499,000 pounds in May, 1919, as compared with 82,787,000 +pounds in May, 1918. The May figures for exports of hog products show +125,937,000 pounds in 1919, as against 201,279,000 pounds in May, 1918. +The monthly exports of beef and pork show a declining tendency during +the first five months of 1919, contrary to the tendency in 1918, the +total amounting to 1,090,000,000 pounds in 1919, as against +1,122,000,000 pounds for the corresponding period of 1918—less +than the amount of all meats in cold storage on July 1, 1919, which was +1,336,000,000 pounds."</p></div> + +<p>Concerning storage the same report states that:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Even the fact that the report of goods in cold storage shows an +increase of over 9 per cent. in the quantity of all meats held on July +1, 1919 (1,336,000,000 pounds), as compared with the figures for July 1, +1918, is, though very important, not a matter of significance for any +considerable period of time. Storage poultry July 1, 1919, was +48,895,704 pounds, or 181 per cent. above last year; cheese, about 25 +per cent.; butter, about 75 per cent.; and eggs, about 25 per cent. +above July 1 last year. There was a decrease of frozen fish of about 13 +per cent. from last year. Taken in connection with the evidence of +relatively abundant reserves of live animals and large crops for the +current year, it would seem that some relief from high prices of food +should be possible."</p></div> + +<h3>WHY FOOD PRICES WERE HIGH</h3> + +<p>The explanation of the post-war high prices of food is given as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is true that food is, by comparison, plentiful. But it is also true +that money or other circulating medium is unprecedently plentiful. The +fact that food prices are relatively high and that the prices of +chemicals, metals, lumber, etc., are relatively low, though their supply +is relatively small, may be due to a concentration of purchasing power +upon food, and the general direction of the flow of currency toward the +purchase of immediate consumables. Some relatively minor luxuries such +as jewelry (and perhaps automobiles should also be included here as the +semi-luxury of greater magnitude) find favor with purchasers, but the +main trend of purchase seems to bear toward demand for the necessities +of life now in a finished state or nearly so, with a relatively weaker +tendency toward demand of capital goods. If the supply, and also the +production, of raw materials has been relatively small, and if the +prices at which they have exchanged have also been relatively low, it +seems obvious that the proportionate amount of currency and credit +engaged in their purchase must be abnormally small, thus accounting for +the ability of the producers and purveyors of food to demand abnormally +high prices regardless of the relative plentifulness of their goods."</p></div> + +<h3>CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO PROFITEERING</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The conditions just described are highly favorable to both speculative +profiteering and wasteful distribution, through the intervention of +supernumerary middlemen and caterers. In fact, the statistics published +by the New York Industrial Relations Commission seem to indicate an +unusually large increase of persons engaging in certain kinds of +salesmanship after the armistice. It should, however, be remembered that +even though it may smack of profiteering to produce a very large crop +and sell it at abnormally high prices, this is a kind of profiteering +which deserves unstinted praise as compared with that other species of +profiteering which deliberately reduces output in the expectation that +the extortionate prices which the reduced product will command may more +than make up to the producer or speculator for the portion of production +withheld or the percentage of hoarded goods condemned to spoil and be +lost to the nation."</p></div> + +<h3>OTHER COMMODITIES</h3> + +<p>The price of commodities other than foodstuffs was influenced in 1919 by +the inadequacy of supply and the curtailment of production. This was +especially true of woolens, as stated by the Council:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The most obvious explanation of the high prices of woolens is the +glaring fact of the extreme reduction in output which ensued after the +signing of the armistice and the completion of Army orders, which +practically ended in January, 1919.</p> + +<p>"The war came to an end with the supply of civilian woolens +unprecedentedly low. The total quantity of wool available for civilian +fabrics between April and November, 1918, was probably somewhere in the +neighborhood of 75,000,000 pounds, an amount perhaps a little more than +sufficient to meet the demands of normal manufacture for civilian +consumption for one and one-half months.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p> + +<p>"In consequence of the general situation the total consumption of wool +in manufacture during first five months of the year 1919 amounted to but +little more than one-half the amount consumed during the corresponding +months of the previous year. The proportion of looms, 50-inch reed space +and over, idle increased from 21 per cent. in November, 1918, to 52 per +cent. idle in February, 1919, and these looms were still 39 per cent. +idle in May, 1919. Of worsted spindles, 27 per cent. were reported idle +in December, 1918, and 52 per cent. idle in March, 1919, and 26 per +cent. were still idle in May. In the meantime an extraordinary number of +textile workers were condemned to idleness, their productive capacity +perishing day by day and week by week, while the deficiency in the +supply of clothing was developing to such a point that it became +possible for the wholesale index number of the prices of cloths and +clothing to rise to 250 in June."</p></div> + +<p>The production of cotton and cotton goods also was far below normal. To +quote again from the report:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"When the war ended the world's cotton supply was understood to be below +normal. The supplies of cotton goods were also reported low. The acreage +planted to cotton was in 1919 approximately 9 per cent. less than for +1918. The present prospects are that the cotton crop will be small, and +published articles are appearing expressing gratification over the +prospectively large commercial returns which the cotton producers may be +able to command because of the high prices which may be had for the +reduced cotton output. The forecast of the cotton crop for 1919 is +10,900,000 bales—about 10 per cent. below that of recent years and +but little over two-thirds as large as the record crop of 1914."</p></div> + +<h3>"OUTPUT AND MORE OUTPUT" ABANDONED</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In regard to cotton manufacture, it may be recorded that the situation +is less unsatisfactory than as regards wool manufacture. In this +industry, as in most of our industries, the economic watchword of +war-time, which was 'Output, and more output' (the necessary condition +of full prosperity in peace, as well as of success during war), was not +heard after the armistice. There soon developed, on the contrary, +groundless doubts about future demand, and hints of unhealthy fears of +'overproduction.'</p> + +<p>"Notwithstanding the release of labor, if it were needed, by +demobilization, and notwithstanding adequate supplies of raw cotton to +meet the season's requirements and the lack of any important +difficulties in the way of reconversion to peace-time products, and with +low supplies of finished goods in stock, the cotton industry kept more +spindles idle during the first five months of 1919 than were idle during +the corresponding period for 1918. The amount of cotton consumed in the +United States during the nine months ending with April, 1919, was +approximately 12 per cent. less than for the corresponding nine months +of 1918. The prices of cloths and clothing, as above mentioned, show in +June, 1919, an increase of 150 per cent. over 1913 prices."</p></div> + +<p>The boot and <del>show</del> +<ins title="Transcribers' Note: original reads show">shoe</ins> industry showed a marked decline after the signing of +the armistice. This, too, was borne out by the investigations of the +Council.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The production of boots and shoes for the first quarter of 1919 was +reported as about 60 per cent. below the production for the last quarter +of 1918. Plants were partially closed and in some cases it is reported +that machinery was returned to the Shoe Machinery Co. All in all, there +were 75,000,000 less pairs of shoes produced in the first quarter of +1919 than in the last quarter of 1918.</p> + +<p>"The census report shows a reduction of more than 25 per cent. in the +output of civilian men's shoes in the quarter ending with March, 1919, +as compared with production in the quarter ending with December, 1918, +and nearly 25 per cent. reduction as compared with the quarter ending +with September, 1918. The reduction in output of women's shoes amounted +to approximately 30 and 25 per cent., respectively, in comprising +corresponding periods. The reduction in the output of shoes for youths, +boys and misses was even more marked."</p></div> + +<h3>COAL AND IRON</h3> + +<p>What has been said of the production of cotton and woolen goods applied +equally to the mining of coal and to the output of iron and steel. +During the war we increased our coal production. In 1918 it amounted to +"685,000,000 short tons, almost 50 per cent. of the world's estimated +output for that year. Production for 1913 was 571,000,000 short tons." +The coal situation since the armistice is stated as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Coal, the source of a vast proportion of our industrial power as well +as our chief source of heat and light, is a commodity the production of +which is itself an index of our economic life. Coal output since the +armistice has been greatly reduced, the weekly production of anthracite +for the first half of 1919 being from 1,200,000 to 1,800,000 net tons, +as against 1,800,000 net tons to 3,000,000 net tons for the +corresponding period of 1918. Bituminous production was 9,147,000 net +tons for a typical week in 1919, as against 12,491,000 net tons for the +corresponding week in 1918. Coke production for the week ending June 28, +1919, amounted to only 287,000 net tons, as compared with 627,000 net +tons for the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> + +week ending June 29, 1918. The total amount of coal produced up to July +5, 1919, was 261,000,000 long tons, as compared with 364,000,000 long +tons for the corresponding period of 1918."</p></div> + +<p>The production of iron and steel which was greatly stimulated by the war +was allowed to decline as soon as the concentrated effort of the nation +to win the war was abandoned. The resulting condition is succinctly +described by the Council:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The record of our after-war steel and iron output furnishes us with +another warning that we have been neglecting to keep pace with the +established American rate of industrial improvement and expansion and +foresighted preparation for future requirements and progress.</p> + +<p>"The iron and steel business was considerably stimulated by war-time +requirements. There was a governmental agency whose business it was to +forsee the war needs and to place orders so that those productive +forces which are wrapped up in the steel industry might be utilized to +capacity. The steel industry's activity has, however, since the +armistice greatly declined. Pig-iron production for April, 1919, was +82,607 tons per day, as against 109,607 tons in April, 1918. Birmingham +properties are reported to have been working in April, 1919, at about 50 +per cent. of the 1918 production. For the period January to May, 1919, +pig-iron production was only 2,114,000 tons, as against 3,446,000 tons +during the same period in 1918. Steel-ingot production fell in the +spring of 1919 to lower figures than had been reached in more than two +years. In fact, a regular decline in production was in evidence after +December, 1918.</p> + +<p>"The figures representing the unfilled orders of the United States Steel +Corporation at the end of May, 1919, were smaller than they had been +since 1915."</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-147.jpg"> + <img class="thumb" src="images/ill-147thumb.jpg" width="400" + alt="Women Doing Night Farming" height="282" + title="Women Doing Night Farming" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> + <p class="caption">Women Doing Night Farming</p> + <p class="description">Girls running a tractor plow and harrow at Farmingdale, Long Island.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-147.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>RECOMMENDATIONS</h3> + +<p>The Council summarized its findings and recommends remedial measures as +follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The findings of the Reconstruction Research Division Council of +National Defense, indicate that the high cost of living is primarily due +to curtailment in the production of nearly all commodities except raw +food products, to hoarding of storage food products, to profiteering, +conscious and unconscious, and to inflation of circulating credit. The +findings indicate that the situation may be most advantageously met by:</p> + +<p>"1. Stimulated production. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p> + +<p>"2. Some readjustment of incomes to the basis of higher price levels.</p> + +<p>"3. The repression of hoarding and profiteering.</p> + +<p>"4. Improvement and standardization of methods and facilities for +distributing and marketing goods.</p> + +<p>"5. The perfecting of means of keeping the nation frequently, promptly, +and adequately informed regarding probable national requirements and of +current production and stocks of the more important commodities.</p> + +<p>"The findings emphasize the fact that high standards of living can not +be maintained upon a basis of reduced production, regardless of whether +price levels be high or low."</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-148.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-148thumb.jpg" width="400" height="524" +alt="The Ore Market—Cleveland" +title="The Ore Market—Cleveland" /> +</a> +<p class="caption">The Ore Market—Cleveland</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-148.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2><em>PART II</em></h2> + +<h2>I—THE PEACE CONFERENCE AT WORK<br /> +A Vivid Account from the Inside of the Machinery Which Produced the Peace +Treaty. How the Crises with Japan, Italy and Belgium Were Averted</h2> + +<p class="centerdouble">By THOMAS W. LAMONT</p> +<p class="center">Financial and Economic Adviser at Paris to the American Commission to +Negotiate Peace</p> + +<p>When we finally gain an historic perspective of the work of the Peace +Conference we shall realize that, instead of being unduly delayed, it +was accomplished in an astonishingly brief period. The Treaty of Vienna, +back in 1815, took eleven months, and the factors to be dealt with were +nothing like so numerous nor so complex. The Paris Conference occupied +only about six months, and the earlier weeks were largely given over to +questions relating to the renewal of the Armistice, rather than to the +actual framing of the Peace Treaty. The Treaty text itself—aside +from the League of Nations Covenant—was whipped through in a +little over three months; for the active work of the Commissions which +were to draft the various chapters did not get under way until February +1st; and the Treaty was presented to the German delegates at Versailles +on May 7th.</p> + +<h3>COVENANTS "OPENLY ARRIVED AT"</h3> + +<p>No adequate history of the Peace Conference can be written until years +have elapsed—until it is possible, as it is not now possible, to +make public a multitude of intimate details. Hundreds of important +documents were woven into the completed text of the Treaty. Such +documents must eventually be made available to the chroniclers of +history, who must finally have access to the official records, so that +in course of time they can acquaint the world with the details of those +momentous conferences which were held among the Chiefs of State, where +the ultimate decisions settling every important question were made. +There have been complaints that the covenants of the Treaty were not as +President Wilson had promised, "openly arrived at." In point of fact, as +far as lay within the bounds of possibility, the covenants of the Treaty +<em>were</em> "openly arrived at," inasmuch as their essence was made public +just as soon as an understanding upon them had been reached, and in many +cases, long before the final agreement. Nothing was held back which the +public had any legitimate interest in knowing. It would, of course, have +been quite out of the question for the Chiefs of State to discuss in +public all the highly delicate and complex situations which were bound +to, and which did, arise at Paris. Every man of strong character and +powerful conviction has a view of his own upon any given subject, and +naturally maintains that view with vigor and tenacity—even at +times, if he be bitterly opposed—with acrimony.</p> + +<p>To take a familiar instance, it is an open secret that M. Clemenceau's +first solution of the question of the Saar Basin did not at all suit +President Wilson. Not unnaturally, M. Clemenceau simply wanted in effect +to annex the Saar Basin, on the grounds that the Germans had destroyed +the coal mines of Northern France. Mr. Wilson was in entire +accord—to this extent, that France should, until her coal mines +had been repaired, enjoy the entire output of the Saar coal fields; but +to have France permanently annex the Basin was contrary to his +profoundest convictions, as expressed in the well-known Fourteen Points.</p> + +<p>In the course of the discussion between M. Clemenceau and Mr. Wilson, +their ideas at the start being so divergent, vigorous views were +undoubtedly expressed; quite possibly tart language was used, at any +rate by the French Premier, who was feeling all + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> + +the distress of German frightfulness and war weariness. But to what +possible good end could the detail of such intimate conversations have +been made public? I allude to the possible conversations on the Saar +Basin not as an historical fact, but as an example of what might have +taken place, and very likely did take place; and if such temporary +disagreements existed on that question, undoubtedly, among so many +Chiefs of State as were gathered together at Paris, they existed on +others. But in all cases amicable and cordial agreements were finally +reached.</p> + +<p>Whenever agreements were even in sight, the press was informed; so that, +when the Treaty of Peace and the summary of it finally came out, there +were no surprises for the public. Every covenant, every clause, had been +already foreshadowed and accurately pictured.</p> + +<h3>THE "BIG THREE"</h3> + +<p>Naturally, the question is often asked: Who were the peacemakers at +Paris? Were they two or three powerful Chiefs of State? The answer is +both "Yes" and "No." The final decision on every important matter lay in +the hands of the so-called Big Four, and after Premier Orlando's +defection and return to Italy, it narrowed down to the Big Triumvirate, +Messrs. Wilson, Lloyd George, and Clemenceau. Yet while they made the +final decisions, these were almost invariably based upon reports and +opinions expressed to this trio, or to the quartet, by their advisers +and experts. The actual text of the Treaty was, of course, written by +the technicians, and there is hardly a phrase in the whole of it that +can claim as its original author any one of the Chiefs of State. In +every true sense, then, the Treaty of Peace has been the product, not of +three men, not even of three-score, nor of three hundred, but of +thousands; for quite aside from the official delegations at Paris, which +comprised several hundred persons, we must remember that the data and +the various suggested solutions on most of the questions had been +canvassed at home for each delegation by large groups of office and +technical experts.</p> + +<p>Of course it sounds well to say that the Treaty was written by three +men: the picture of those few Chiefs of State sitting in conference day +after day is dramatic in the extreme. That is, I must confess, the +picture which comes back oftenest to my mind. I see them today, as I saw +them for months at Paris, sitting in that large but cosy salon in the +house allotted to President Wilson on the Place des États Unis; +for, by common consent, it was there that the Supreme Council finally +held all its meetings. It is in that theatre, with the three or four +Chiefs of State taking the leading rôles, that we saw the other +characters in the great drama moving slowly on the stage, playing their +parts, and then disappearing into the wings. Today it might be +Paderewski, pleading with all his earnestness and sincerity, to have +Danzig allotted to the sovereignty of Poland. To-morrow it might be +Hymans, the Belgian Secretary for Foreign Affairs, begging that there +should be a prompt realization of those pledges to Belgium, which +Belgium felt had been made by all the Allies; or it might even be word +brought by special aeroplane from the King of the Belgians at Brussels, +with fresh and important instructions to his delegation in the matter of +Reparation. Or it might be a group of the representatives of those newer +nationalities, Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Jugoslavia, arguing some burning +question of boundary rights. Or it might be the British shipping +experts, maintaining that the captured German ships should be restored +to the various Allies upon a basis dividing the ships <span lang="la">pro rata</span> to the +losses sustained by submarines, and contending against the American +claim that the United States should have all the German ships finding +lodgment in American harbors. Or it might be Herbert Hoover, that +brilliant American, come to describe to the Big Four starvation +conditions in Vienna, and to emphasize his belief that, enemy or no +enemy, those conditions must be relieved or Bolshevism would march into +Austria and directly on west until it reached France—and beyond.</p> + +<h3>THE PLACE OF MEETING</h3> + +<p>The stage for this world drama was originally set at the Ministry of +War, behind the Chamber of Deputies and across the Seine; and here +Premier Clemenceau—who, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> + +it will be remembered, was Minister of War as well as President of the +Council of French Ministers—was the presiding genius. But +eventually, as the result of an interesting trend of circumstances, the +all important conferences took place at President Wilson's house.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-151.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-151thumb.jpg" width="400" height="444" +alt="David Lloyd George" +title="David Lloyd George" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright Walter Adams & Sons</p> +<p class="caption">David Lloyd George</p> +<p class="description">Ray Standard Baker, who attended the Peace Conference, wrote in his +book, "What Wilson Did at Paris": "Lloyd George personally was one of +the most charming and amiable figures at Paris, full of Celtic +quicksilver, a torrential talker in the conference, but no one was ever +quite sure, having heard him express an unalterable determination on one +day, that he would not be unalterably determined some other way the day +following."</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-151.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p>The original theatre of operations at the War Ministry had been so +large, and there was such an enormous chorus brought into + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> + +play, that progress was interminably slow. There were usually present +all five of the plenipotentiaries of each of the five great powers, +including Japan, and very frequently Marshal Foch as well. His presence +automatically commanded the attendance of the chief military experts of +the other delegates. With the innumerable secretaries who had to attend +the plenipotentiaries, with the interpreters and whatnot, the Supreme +Council came to look like a legislative chamber, in the midst of which +sat Clemenceau, presiding with his usual incisiveness. At such meetings +progress could be made only upon rather formal matters which had been +threshed out beforehand. When it came to a point of great delicacy, +where the discussions could be only on a most intimate basis, it became +quite impossible to "carry on." Nobody would feel like speaking out in +meeting and calling the other fellow names—as was necessary at +times in order to clear the atmosphere—if there were half a +hundred other people around, to hear those names, and promptly to babble +them to an expectant throng outside.</p> + +<p>So finally the Supreme Council was boiled down to the four Chiefs of +State, including Japan's representative on any questions not strictly +confined to Western Europe; and the small Council began to meet +alternately at Clemenceau's office in the War Ministry, at Mr. Lloyd +George's house, and at Mr. Wilson's, which was just around the corner +from the British Premier's. Then in March, shortly after President +Wilson's second coming from the United States, he fell ill with the +grippe. After a rather severe attack he was able to get on his feet +again and to do business, but was warned by his vigilant friend and +physician, Admiral Grayson, to keep within doors for a time. Mr. Lloyd +George, M. Clemenceau, and Signor Orlando were glad to accommodate +themselves to Mr. Wilson's necessities, and formed the habit of meeting +regularly at his house. His large salon was much better adapted for +these conferences than the room at Mr. Lloyd George's. So there it was +they met during all the final weeks of the Conference, leading up to the +very end.</p> + +<h3>A DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNCIL CHAMBER</h3> + +<p>In the middle of the salon, facing the row of windows looking out upon +the Place, was a large yet most inviting fireplace. On the left of this, +a little removed from it, President Wilson usually ensconced himself on +a small sofa, where he made room for some one member of his delegation, +whom, for the particular subject under discussion, he desired to have +most available. On the other side of the fireplace sat Mr. Lloyd George +in a rather high, old-fashioned chair of carved Italian maple, and at +his left sat his experts. Opposite the fireplace, to the right of it, +and about half-way across the room, sat M. Clemenceau, with such of his +Ministers as he needed, and then between him and President Wilson was +Signor Orlando with the Italians. This made a semi-circle around the +fireplace, and whenever Viscount Chinda of the Japanese delegation was +present, the circle was usually enlarged so as to give him a seat in the +middle of it. Behind this first semi-circle was a second one, made up of +secretaries and various technical experts, but the conference was always +a limited one, and was not allowed to grow so large as to become +unwieldy.</p> + +<p>Directly in front of the fireplace, almost scorching his coat-tails, sat +Professor Mantou, the official interpreter for the Big Four. Mantou is a +Frenchman, Professor of French in the University of London, so he had a +perfect mastery of both French and English, with a good working +knowledge of Italian. Mantou was quite an extraordinary character, and +the most vivid interpreter I have ever heard, or rather seen; for at +times he entered into the spirit of the discussions more vigorously than +the original actors. M. Clemenceau, for instance, might make a quiet, +moderate statement, in French, of course; and when it became Mantou's +time to interpret it into English, he would enliven and embellish it +with his own unique gestures.</p> + +<p>The Secretary of the Council was Sir Maurice Hankey, a British Army +officer of great skill and tact, who had a marvelous aptitude for +keeping everything straight, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> + +for taking perfectly adequate, and yet not too voluminous minutes, for +seeing that no topic was left in the air without further reference, and +in the last analysis, for holding the Chiefs of State with their noses +to the grindstone. He knew French and Italian well, and was a distinct +asset to the Council. I note that, in the honors and money-grants +disbursed by Parliament to Marshal Haig, Admiral Beatty and others, +Hankey received £25,000. Everybody who worked with him at Paris +will be glad of this just recognition. I have described this Council +Chamber in the President's house rather minutely because, as I have +said, it formed the stage for all of the momentous decisions which went +to make up the final peace settlement. At these conferences there was no +formal presiding officer, but to President Wilson was usually accorded +the courtesy of acting as moderator.</p> + +<h3>HOW THE TREATY WAS COMPOUNDED</h3> + +<p>What, then, is the Treaty? The answer is that it is a human document, a +compound of all the qualities possessed by human beings at their +best—and at their worst. People might expect a Treaty of Peace to +be a formal, legal, mechanical sort of document; and undoubtedly an +effort was made by some of the drafting lawyers, who bound all the +different clauses together, to throw the Treaty into the mold of +formality. But all the same, it is a compound quivering with human +passion—virtue, entreaty, fear, sometimes rage, and above all, I +believe, justice.</p> + +<p>The reason fear enters into the Treaty must be manifest. Take, for +instance, the case of France. France had lived under the German menace +for half a century. Finally the sword of Damocles had fallen, and almost +one-sixth of beautiful France had been laid waste. Her farms, her +factories, her villages, had been destroyed; her women ravished and led +captive; her children made homeless; her men folk killed. Do we realize +that almost 60 per cent. of all the French soldiers under thirty-one +years of age were killed in the war? Is it any wonder France could not +believe that the German menace was gone forever, and that the world +would never again allow German autocracy to overwhelm her? She could not +believe it, and for that reason she felt it essential that the terms of +the Treaty should be so severe as to leave Germany stripped for +generations of any power to wage aggression against beautiful France. If +her Allies pointed out that to cripple Germany economically was to make +it impossible for Germany to repair the frightful damage she had wrought +in France, France would in effect reply that this might be so, but never +again could she endure such a menace as had threatened her eastern +border for the previous half century. If certain of the Treaty clauses +appear to some minds as unduly severe, it must be remembered that the +Allies, little more than France, could bear the thought of letting +Germany off so easily that within a few years she might again prepare +for war.</p> + +<p>There was fear, too, on the part of those new nations, which had been +largely split off from the effete and outworn Austro-Hungarian Empire, +that in some way their ancient oppressors would once more gain sway over +them. And, every nation, great and small, was overshadowed with the +constant terror of Bolshevism,—that dread specter which seemed to +be stalking, with long strides, from eastern Europe west towards the +Atlantic. Unless peace were hastened that evil might overtake all the +Allies. Such apprehensions as these, far more than imperial ambition or +greed, were factors in the Treaty decisions. Judgments that might take +many months in the ripening could not with safety be awaited.</p> + +<h3>THE PROTECTION DEMANDED BY FRANCE</h3> + +<p>France, I say, was thoroughly shocked at the frightful fate which had +come upon so great a portion of her land and population. She seemed to +have real fear that out of the ground, or from the sky, or from the +waters of the earth, at the waving of the devil's wand, there would +spring into being a fresh German army, ready to overwhelm her. It was +this fear that led France to ask for a special Treaty by which England +and America would pledge themselves to come to her aid in case of +Germany's unprovoked attack + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> + +against her. Those Americans who object to this have no conception of +the real terror in France which led her to entreat her two most powerful +Allies to make such a special treaty with her. France maintained, and +with some reason, that during the formative period of the League of +Nations, before it might become an effective instrument, if she did not +have the psychological and practical protection of England and America, +she must look to her own defense, and the only real defense she could +conceive was to make the Rhine her eastern boundary. This suggestion of +Marshal Foch, based upon sound military concept, was rejected by +President Wilson and Mr. Lloyd George on the theory that it would mean +the annexation of German territory, would change Germany's ancient +boundary line of the Rhine, and inevitably lead to future trouble.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-154.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-154thumb.jpg" width="400" height="256" + alt="President Poincaré With the Swiss President, M. Gustave Ador" + title="President Poincaré With the Swiss President, M. Gustave Ador" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> + <p class="caption">President Poincaré With the Swiss President, M. Gustave Ador, + Driving to the Peace Conference in Paris.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-154.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p>"Very well," in effect answered M. Clemenceau, "we see your point, but +if you will not allow us to fix this natural boundary for defense, then +we must beg you to guarantee us by treaty your coöperation against +German aggression. That coöperation you will never be called upon +to render with military force, because if Germany knows you are pledged +to come to our defense, that very fact will act as a complete deterrent +to any aggression."</p> + +<p>This was the sound reasoning which led President Wilson and Mr. Lloyd +George to agree to submit respectively to Congress and Parliament this +special French Treaty; this is the reasoning which ought to lead +Congress, as it has led Parliament, to ratify the French Treaty +promptly. My belief is that after five years, this special Treaty will +be abrogated by mutual consent, because by that time the League of +Nations will be built up into such an effective instrument for the +prevention of future wars, any special treaties will be deemed +unnecessary.</p> + +<h3>THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS COVENANT</h3> + +<p>If, in the foregoing paragraphs, I have given some idea as to how the +Treaty of + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> + +Peace was compounded, how it was made up of a mixture of virtue, +selfishness, fear and justice, then perhaps I can proceed to describe +briefly how the document was actually evolved. First, then, we deal with +the drafting of the League of Nations Covenant:</p> + +<p>The world has come to regard President Wilson as the special promoter +and sponsor for the League of Nations. It is perfectly true that Mr. +Wilson went to Paris with a fixed determination, above all else, to +bring about some definite arrangement which would tend to prevent future +wars. It is also true, however, that English statesmen had, for an even +longer time than President Wilson, been giving this same subject earnest +thought and study. Some of the more enlightened French statesmen, like +Leon Bourgeois, had also been sketching out plans for a League of Free +Nations. In England Viscount Grey of Falloden, England's really great +Minister of Foreign Affairs for almost a decade prior to the war, the +man who did everything that human intelligence and wisdom could devise +to prevent the war, and now happily named as British Ambassador to the +United States, had long worked for a League of Nations. Lord Robert +Cecil, a worthy son of a noble father, was another British statesman who +had given his mind to the same subject. General Smuts of South Africa, +recently made Premier in succession to the late General Botha, was +another. So that President Wilson, Colonel House, and the other +delegates, upon their arrival in Paris, found themselves in a not +uncongenial atmosphere. To be sure, on the part of Clemenceau and of +course of the militarists, there was great scepticism. Nevertheless the +French joined in, and early in January the Covenant for the League of +Nations began to evolve. It was built up step by step, President Wilson +taking a most active part in the work.</p> + +<p>Finally the Covenant was adopted in a preliminary way and made public +late in February. It was subject to amendment, and those who drafted the +document welcomed amendments and urged that they be offered. An especial +effort was made to secure suggestions from various Republican +statesmen. No amendments, so far as I have been able to learn, were +offered by any of the Republican Senators, but ex-President Taft +suggested certain changes, some of which were adopted. President Lowell +of Harvard contributed one or two which were taken over almost verbatim. +Ex-Senator Elihu Root also made valuable suggestions, some of which were +utilized in the final drafting of the Covenant, made public early in +April.</p> + +<h3>ESSENCE AND SPIRIT OF THE LEAGUE</h3> + +<p>Roughly, as the situation developed, the purpose of the League of +Nations became two-fold. The initial purpose, of course, was to set up +the machinery for a body, representative of the nations, keeping in such +close contact and guided by such general principles as would tend to +make it impossible for one nation to begin war upon another. Elsewhere +in this volume ex-Attorney General Wickersham has described in detail +the clauses of the Covenant; but even in this brief allusion it is +proper to set down the essence and spirit of the League. It is this: No +two peoples, if they come to know each other and each other's motives +sufficiently well, and if by certain machinery they are maintained in +close personal and ideal contact, can conceivably fly at each other's +throats. Now no machinery can be devised that will absolutely prevent +war, but a carrying out of the spirit and principles set forth in the +present Covenant ought to make war well-nigh impossible. The machinery +that was thus set up at Paris was deemed at the time to be of course +imperfect and subject to constant improvement.</p> + +<p>The second purpose of the League was to act as the binder, and in a way, +the administrative force of the present existing Treaty. That is to say, +we found as time went on there were many situations so complex that +human wisdom could not devise an immediate formula for their solution. +Hence, it became necessary for the Peace Conference to establish certain +machinery which, if necessary, should function over a series of years, +and thus work out permanently the problems involved. Therefore, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> + +as it fell out, there were established under the Treaty, almost a score +of Commissions, most of them to act under the general supervision of a +League of Nations. Here, then, is another great function that the League +of Nations is immediately called upon to fulfil.</p> + +<h3>WORK OF THE COMMISSIONS</h3> + +<p>With the Covenant of the League of Nations more or less complete, the +next business of the Conference was the setting up of the Treaty proper. +The method for this work was roughly as follows: About the first of +February there was appointed a large number of special Commissions, made +up of members of the various delegations. These Commissions, which were +each to treat of separate topics, having arrived at a solution of the +special subject, were then to draft their reports in such language that +they could readily be embodied in the final Treaty of Peace itself. +Thus, for instance, there was appointed a Commission on Reparations, a +Commission on Economic Phases of the Treaty, a Commission on Finance, a +Commission on Boundaries, a Commission on Military and Naval Armament, a +Commission on German Colonies, a Commission on the Saar Basin Coal +Fields, a Commission on Inland Waterways, and so on to the number of +perhaps twenty. These Commissions immediately organized, and if the +subject were particularly complex and many-sided, resolved themselves +into sub-commissions. These sub-commissions in turn organized, each with +its chairman and vice-chairman, its secretariat, and its interpreters, +together with experts called into attendance.</p> + +<h3>DELAYS TO THE TREATY</h3> + +<p>The sittings of all these Commissions began, as I say, about February +1st, and at that time the plan was that the work of the Commissions +should be concluded in the form of a report to the Supreme Council six +weeks later, or about March 15th. The plan, further, was for the Supreme +Council to pass upon these various reports, amend them if need be, and +then have them drafted in such form as together would go to make up the +Treaty, which, under this scheme, would be presented to the Germans on +or about April 1st. The Germans would presumably sign within a +fortnight, and we should all be going home about April 15th. As a matter +of fact, the Germans signed the Treaty at Versailles at three o'clock on +the afternoon of June 28th, two and one-half months later than the time +originally planned.</p> + +<p>This delay was, however, not at all unreasonable, if one stops to +consider the number of questions involved, their magnitude, and the +difficulty of dealing with them promptly. In the first place, each +Commission was supposed to present the Supreme Council a unanimous +report. The Council had ruled that the Commissions should not report by +majority vote, for if in any given instance the majority overruled the +minority, the minority might have such bitter complaint that there would +be left in the situation the seed for future trouble. Therefore the +Council determined that in the case of divergence of opinion in the same +Commission, the two or more groups in the Commission should make +separate reports to the Council, each having its own day in court. The +Council would act as judges of the last resort, and no delegation would +go away feeling that it had not had ample opportunity to present its +case. Inevitable and sharp differences of opinion did arise, so that at +least half the reports, I should say, as presented to the Big Four had +to be thrashed out there in considerable detail.</p> + +<p>The second handicap to rapid progress, of course, lay in the composition +of the various Commissions. Each of the large five powers had to be +represented on each Commission, and in most instances smaller powers +also demanded representation. On some of the important Commissions the +larger powers had two or more delegates sitting. Owing to the fact that +Paris was full of influenza, each delegate had to have his alternate so +as to keep the ball rolling. When they first met these delegates were +not well acquainted with each other. They did not know how to get along +together. It took weeks for them to shake down, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> + +so as to understand each other's methods and points of view; so as to be +prepared to make the necessary give and take, certain meetings of views +which are always essential where people are gathered from the four +corners of the earth with a single aim, but with vastly different ideas +for attaining it.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-157.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-157thumb.jpg" width="400" height="233" +alt="Where the Peace Treaty Was Signed" +title="Where the Peace Treaty Was Signed" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright by Underwood & Underwood</p> +<p class="caption">Where the Peace Treaty Was Signed</p> +<p class="description">This was the table and chair at which the delegates sat and signed the +peace document.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-157.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>POLITICS AT THE CONFERENCE</h3> + +<p>Still another difficulty was the question of politics which could not be +eliminated. It is easy enough to say, "cut out politics," but in any +international gathering it is never possible to do it. I must say right +here, however, that—as it seemed to me—the American +delegation well-nigh attained that ideal, and be it to President +Wilson's credit, I never once saw him throughout the length of the +conference, "play" politics. But some of the other delegations naturally +felt that at home there was a "list'ning senate" to applaud or to +condemn, and many of these delegates, being members of their respective +parliaments or ministries, naturally had their ear to the ground for the +effect that their course at Paris was producing. Then if, at the +sittings of a Commission, one delegate made a particularly eloquent +speech, his fellow delegate might feel it incumbent upon him to make +another equally long. Some of the delegates deemed it their duty to make +an extended speech every day and seemed to feel that they were lacking +in patriotism if they failed each morning to cover several pages of the +record with their views.</p> + +<h3>THE DIFFICULTY OF LANGUAGE</h3> + +<p>Then the final difficulty, uniting with the other troubles to prevent +rapid progress, was that of language. The Paris Conference was, of +course, a regular Tower of Babel. There were two official +languages—French and English. Each delegation used the language +with which its delegates were most familiar, and every word uttered by +those delegates had to be translated into the vernacular of the others. +Not only did this interpretation consume a vast amount of time, but of +course it frequently proved most unsatisfactory. Both the English and + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> + +French languages are so idiomatic that the finer shades of meaning can +never be well transmuted from one to the other. Hence, frequent and +sometimes serious mistakes arose. For instance, a Serbian delegate who +knew not a word of English would misunderstand something said by the +British delegate, poorly translated into French. As the Serbian +delegate's knowledge of French was also very limited he could not +readily understand. So he would fly into a towering rage, and for an +hour a heated argument would volley back and forth. Perhaps, at the end +of that time, some cool-headed delegate (frequently an American), would +point out that neither of the honorable delegates had any conception of +what the other had said, and at bottom their views were precisely +similar. Each of the competitors would then listen to reason, the +situation would clear up, and things move on more happily.</p> + +<p>I use here as an example a Serbian delegate, not that the Serbian +delegates were more prone to passion than anybody else. We were all +fighting like mad to make peace. We realized that though fundamentally +we all had the same aim, yet as to methods our views were so divergent, +that when we entered into conference at ten o'clock in the morning we +should probably have one continuous struggle, with interludes for +luncheon and dinner, until perhaps late in the evening. These struggles +never ceased altogether, but as we got to know one another better, they +of course let up materially, and we got on amicably and effectively.</p> + +<h3>THE COMMISSION ON REPARATIONS</h3> + +<p>No sketch of the Peace Conference, even one as cursory and superficial +as this, could give any idea of the picture without a more detailed +reference to the workings of some particular Commission that played an +important part in the building up of the Peace Treaty. Hence I may be +permitted to mention the Commission on Reparations. All things +considered, this was perhaps the most important Commission at work.</p> + +<p>The original Commission on Reparations was divided into three +sub-commissions. Commission Number One was to determine upon what +principles reparation should be demanded from Germany, that is to say, +what items of damage should be included. In addition to physical damage +inflicted by Germany upon the Allies, by reason of her aggression on +land or sea, and from the air, should the cost of pensions for dead +French soldiers be claimed? Was the entire cost of the war as waged by +England, for instance, to be included as a charge against Germany? In +other words, just what categories should be adopted in order to define +Germany's liability?</p> + +<p>This Commission Number One sat for weeks, and it was only towards the +very end that it succeeded in establishing the categories. At the start +there was a sharp divergence of opinion among the various delegations. +The American delegation pointed out that under President Wilson's +Fourteen Points costs of war would have to be excluded. The British +delegation maintained otherwise. The French thought the costs of war +ought to be included, but deemed the matter academic, inasmuch as +Germany could never pay the total war costs. And so the argument ran.</p> + +<p>Sub-commission Number Two on reparations had for its object to determine +what Germany's capacity to pay was, and what the proper method of +payment should be. Sub-commission Number Three was to devise sanctions +or guarantees by which the Allies should be assured of receiving the +payments finally determined upon.</p> + +<p>For weeks I was active upon Sub-commission Number Two, and in fact was +charged with the duty of drawing up the initial report covering the +question of Germany's capacity to pay. Early in the deliberations of +this Sub-commission it became apparent that its work was of momentous +import, for whatever the Sub-commission determined as Germany's capacity +to pay, undoubtedly that sum would be fixed as what Germany should be +obligated to pay. Theoretically, as the French had pointed out, it did +not make a great difference what categories of damage were included, +because Germany would probably be unable to pay even the extent of +material damage she had wrought. It + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> + +was equally evident that she would be compelled by the Allies to pay to +the utmost extent of her capacity. Therefore Sub-commission Number Two +was in effect, naming the amount of the German "indemnity."</p> + +<h3>AN ESTIMATE OF GERMANY'S CAPACITY TO PAY</h3> + +<p>This knowledge rendered the work of the delegates on Sub-commission +Number Two considerably more difficult. To estimate Germany's capacity +to pay over a series of years was by no means a purely scientific +matter. No banker, or economist, or financier, whatever his experience, +could look far enough into the future to be able to say what Germany +could or could not pay, in ten, twenty, or thirty years. The initial +estimate made by one of the delegations, as representing Germany's +capacity to pay, was one thousand million of francs. Another estimate +was twenty-four billion sterling, about one hundred twenty billion of +dollars. Now Germany's entire wealth was estimated at not over eighty +billion dollars, so it was inconceivable how it could be possible, even +over a series of years, for Germany to pick up her entire commonwealth +and transfer it to the Allies. Most of Germany's property consists of +the soil, railroads, factories, dwellings, and none of those things can +be transported, none can be made available for the payment of +reparation. Hence the question arose as to how much liquid wealth +Germany could export year after year and still maintain her own economic +life. This was the estimate upon which the British, French and American +delegations wrangled pleasantly for weeks. Whenever we reached too tense +a point, tea and toast was served, with jam to sweeten the atmosphere a +bit, and then we would start afresh.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact, as we encouraged newspaper reporters to surmise, we +had nearly arrived upon a basis of agreement for demanding a fixed sum +from Germany. That sum would not have exceeded forty or forty-five +billion dollars, with interest added. The American delegation believed +it to be far sounder economically to name a fixed sum and thus limit +Germany's liability, so that all nations could address themselves to a +definite end and arrange their fiscal and taxation policies accordingly. +But both Mr. Lloyd George and M. Clemenceau urged that public opinion in +both their countries would not acquiesce in any sum that fell far below +previous expectations; that, therefore, inasmuch as it was difficult +anyway to arrive at once upon the exact amount of damage caused, it +would be wiser to leave the amount of reparation open, to be determined +by a commission which should examine into the damage sustained, and fix +the total amount within two years. America's material interest in the +question was so limited that President Wilson finally did not oppose Mr. +Lloyd George's and M. Clemenceau's judgment. This, in brief, is the +history of the Reparation clauses in the Treaty. As I have already said, +if we realize that in almost every one of the other chapters similar +complex courses of procedure had to be followed, we shall not be +surprised at the time which the Treaty took for drafting.</p> + +<h3>THE ITALIAN CRISIS</h3> + +<p>The world is already familiar with the several crises which arose during +the course of the Peace Conference. The so-called Fiume crisis, when the +Italian delegation walked out and returned to Rome, was regarded as the +most serious. I am not sure it was, although it was generally so +considered. I believe most of Italy's warmest friends maintain that her +action in going home was a mistake. The question of putting Fiume under +Italian sovereignty was not covered nor even touched upon in the Treaty +of London. In face, the question of Fiume arose long after the Peace +Conference was under way. Signor Orlando, the Italian Premier, was +accused of fostering Italian feeling on Fiume and of fanning it into +flame. I believe there is no truth in this. At any rate, if the Italians +had been wise, they would have prevented the matter of Fiume from +becoming such a <span lang="fr">cause celèbre</span>. I think that by judicious work +they could have prevented it. Then, too, probably the difficulty would +have been lessened if President Wilson's statement to the Italian people +had previously met Signor Orlando's approval. Mr. Wilson made his +statement + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> + +with the best will in the world, with the intent to allay and not +inflame Italian public opinion. It should have been possible to +coördinate his idealism with Signor Orlando's position.</p> + +<p>Later on the Italian delegation returned to Paris, realizing that the +question of Fiume, which was formerly an Austrian port, did not bear one +way or another upon the Treaty with Germany. But the Italians had lost a +certain tactical position which was important to them, and in my +judgment the move cost Italy much more than the whole question of Fiume +amounted to.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-160.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-160thumb.jpg" width="400" height="253" +alt="Awaiting the Decision of the German Peace Delegates." +title="Awaiting the Decision of the German Peace Delegates" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> +<p class="caption">Awaiting the Decision of the German Peace Delegates.</p> +<p class="description">President Clemenceau is shown standing. Next to him from right to left +are: President Wilson, Secretary of State Robert Lansing, Commissioner +Henry White, Colonel House, Gen. Tasker H. Bliss, Stephen Pichon, French +Minister of Foreign Affairs; Louis Klotz, French Minister of Finance, +and André Tardieu, French High Commissioner. From Clemenceau, +left to right: Premier Lloyd George, Bonar Law and A. J. Balfour.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-160.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>THE QUESTION OF SHANTUNG</h3> + +<p>The Shantung crisis was another serious one. It was so realized at the +time by the conferees at Paris. The Japanese delegation considered that +it had already suffered one or two rebuffs. Their clause to embody race +equality in the League of Nations Covenant had not been accepted. They, +as the leading Far Eastern Power, were being urged to take an active +part in the organization and development of the League of Nations, yet +they could see nothing for Japan in the idea except a chance to help the +other fellow. It was at this time that the Treaty clause was being +drafted covering the disposition of German rights in the Far East, +including those on the Shantung Peninsula. It will be remembered that at +the outbreak of the war Germany, by reason of treaty rights with China, +had possession of Kiauchau, upon the neck of the Shantung Peninsula. +Back in 1916, at a time when the war was going badly, after Japan had +driven the Germans out of the Far East and had prevented German +submarines from getting a base there to prey upon British troop ships +from Australia, Japan had demanded from + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> + +England and France that she become the inheritor of whatever rights +Germany had in Shantung. England and France readily granted this +request, as America probably would have done if she had been in the war +at the time. Later on, according to the record, China confirmed Japan in +these rights.</p> + +<p>President Wilson's idea, however, was "China for Chinamen"; therefore +Shantung should be turned over to China. This was a proper point of +view. It was a great pity that it could not be made to prevail. The +difficulty, however, was two-fold: first, the agreement which I have +just cited between England and France on one hand, and Japan on the +other; second, Japan's statement to President Wilson that if he began +his League of Nations by forcing England and France to break a solemn +agreement with Japan, then Japan would have no use for such a faithless +confederation and would promptly withdraw. At the same time, however, +Japan reiterated that her inheritance of Shantung was largely a formal +matter, and that if the Allies gave her that recognition, she would feel +in honor bound to withdraw from Shantung in the near future. This +statement, made repeatedly by the Japanese delegates to President +Wilson, finally led him to refrain from forcing Great Britain and France +to break their agreement, as he might perhaps otherwise have done. The +climax, of course, came when Japan gave her ultimatum and said that +unless she had her rights she would retire from the Conference.</p> + +<h3>DEMANDS OF BELGIUM</h3> + +<p>Then came the third and last crisis—the Belgians threatened to +withdraw and go home. They had, as they claimed, been promised by their +Allies, as well as by their enemies, including specifically Germany, +that their country, trampled over and devastated in order to defend +France and England from attack, was to be fully restored and reimbursed +for its expenditures. Early in the Conference Colonel House projected a +plan to Mr. Balfour of the British delegation and Mr. Klotz of the +French delegation, granting Belgium a priority of $500,000,000 on the +German reparation, this sum being sufficient to set Belgium well on her +way to recovery. There was, however, great delay in getting the final +assent to this priority. The American delegation worked hard to bring it +about and to push the plan on every occasion, but it still hung fire.</p> + +<p>The Belgian delegation, finally becoming alarmed, insisted on formally +taking up the question with the Council of Four. The Belgian delegation, +under the leadership of Mr. Hymans, Minister of Foreign Affairs, made +two chief demands, one for the priority already mentioned, and one for +reimbursement for what the war had cost her. To this latter item there +was vigorous objection on the ground that it was inadmissible to provide +for Belgium's "costs of war" and not for those of England, France, Italy +and the other Allies. As a compromise to meet the situation, a formula +was finally proposed in a phrase to the effect that Germany was to be +obligated especially "to reimburse Belgium for all the sums borrowed by +Belgium from the Allies as a necessary consequence of the violation of +the Treaty of 1839." Inasmuch as all such sums borrowed by Belgium were +used for the prosecution of the war, this phrase was simply a euphemism +for granting to Belgium the war costs which she had demanded. But it was +finally agreed to on all hands, and the crisis was averted.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span></p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-162.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-162thumb.jpg" width="400" height="353" +alt="The George Washington" +title="The George Washington" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright by Press Illustrating Service</p> +<p class="caption">The George Washington</p> +<p class="description">It was on this ship that President and Mrs. Wilson made their two trips +across the Atlantic and back during the Peace Conference.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-162.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>THE TREATY PRESENTED TO THE GERMANS AT VERSAILLES</h3> + +<p>The Treaty in its final form was presented to the Germans at Versailles +May 7th. The Germans were hoping they would be permitted to discuss +certain phases of the Treaty in person with the Allied delegates, and in +fact repeatedly requested the opportunity. Some of us believed such +conversations might be advantageous if they were held; not between the +chiefs of the Allied states and the heads of the German delegation, but +between technical experts on both sides. Mr. Wilson favored this view, +as tending to enlighten the Germans on certain phases of the Treaty, +which from their written communications it was evident they did not +understand. We thought that some weeks of delay might possibly be +averted by sitting around the table with the Germans, distasteful as +that task might be, and holding a kind of miniature peace conference. +This suggestion, however, was strongly opposed by M. Clemenceau, +although it was favored by some of his ministers. In fact, some of the +latter, as well as many of the British, were for a time convinced that +the terms of the Treaty were such that Germany would never sign them. +Again and again Clemenceau was urged to give way on this point, but he +sturdily opposed the view and declared positively that he knew the +German character; that the only way to secure a German signature to the +Treaty was to insist upon purely formal and written communications. +Clemenceau had his way, and then began the laying of a good many wagers +as to whether the Germans would sign. This was after the original German +delegation, or at least the chiefs of it, had returned to Berlin and +declared that they would not come back again to Versailles. My own +opinion was, that after making as great a kick as possible the Germans +would undoubtedly sign. The logic of the situation was all for their +signing, the reasoning being this: If the Treaty were a just Treaty, +then they ought to sign any way; if it were an unjust Treaty, then, even +if signed, it + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> + +would eventually fall of its own weight, and the Germans would run no +risk in signing it. I felt that the German psychology of the situation +would be acute enough to see these points and to lead to a signature.</p> + +<h3>GERMANY SIGNS THE TREATY</h3> + +<p>This proved to be the case, and on Saturday, the 21st of June, after +questionings and misgivings, we finally got the word that the Germans +were to sign. I shall never forget the moment that the news came. Some +of us were in session with the Council of Four at the President's house. +Mr. Wilson sat on the right of the fireplace, Mr. Lloyd George on the +left, and M. Clemenceau in the middle. Mr. Orlando was in Italy but his +foreign minister, Baron Sonnino, was there in his place. The afternoon +was a tense one, for the time was growing short and the Germans had, as +I say, not yet signified their intention of signing the treaty. In the +mind of every one of us there lurked the question as to the terrible +steps that would have to be taken in the event the Germans refused to +sign. Late in the afternoon an orderly slipped into the room and +whispered into M. Clemenceau's ear. He struggled to his feet, marched up +to President Wilson and Mr. Lloyd George, and, drawing himself up, said +in solemn tones, "I have the honor to announce to you that the Germans +will sign the treaty."</p> + +<p>And then a moment later the cannon boomed forth to the expectant +populace the news that the Germans would sign, and M. Clemenceau, +turning to me, breathed: "Ah, that is the sound that I have been waiting +to hear for forty-eight years."</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>II—WILSON'S FOURTEEN POINTS<br /> +An Attempt to Raise International Morality to the Level of Private Morality</h2> + +<p>On January 8, 1918, President Wilson outlined the fourteen points on the +basis of which the Allies should make peace. This program was the +startling climax of a whole series of peace proposals which had kept +coming from both camps of belligerents, from neutrals, Socialists, and +the Pope. It is without doubt one of the greatest and most inspiring +State documents in the history of the world. It struck a vital and +telling blow at the basic causes of modern wars. For that reason it +electrified into complete unity the masses of the Allied countries. +Liberal, radical and pacifist opponents of the war rallied around it as +the last great hope of civilization. Its most important effect was to +give a democratic basis to the weary and disillusioned masses of the +Central Powers who were longing for peace. It was on the basis of the +fourteen points that the enemy surrendered.</p> + +<h3>THE WILSON PROGRAM</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>We entered this war because violations of right had occurred which +touched us to the quick and made the life of our own people impossible +unless they were corrected and the world secured once for all against +their recurrence. What we demand in this war, therefore, is nothing +peculiar to ourselves. It is that the world be made fit and safe to live +in; and particularly that it be made safe for every peace-loving nation +which, like our own, wishes to live its own life, determine its own +institutions, be assured of justice and fair dealings by the other +peoples of the world, as against force and selfish aggression. All the +peoples of the world are in effect partners in this interest and for our +own part we see very clearly that unless justice be done to others it +will not be done to us. The programme of the world's peace, therefore, +is our programme, and that programme, the only possible programme, as we +see it, is this:</p> + +<p>I. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall +be no private international understandings of any kind, but diplomacy +shall proceed always frankly and in the public view.</p> + +<p>II. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial +waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in +whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of +international covenants.</p> + +<p>III. The removal, as far as possible, of all economic barriers and the +establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations +consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p> + +<p>IV. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national +armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic +safety.</p> + +<p>V. A free, open minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all +colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in +determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the +populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims +of the government whose title is to be determined.</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-164.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-164thumb.jpg" width="400" height="208" +alt="Paris Crowds Greeting President Wilson" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright by Underwood & Underwood</p> +<p class="caption">Paris Crowds Greeting President Wilson</p> +<p class="description">A general holiday was declared to welcome the President of the United +States. This photograph was taken in the Place dé la Concorde.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-164.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>VI. The evacuation of Russian territory and such a settlement of all +questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and freest +coöperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her +an unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the independent +determination of her own political development and national policy and +assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under +institutions of her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance +also of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The +treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to come +will be the acid test of their good will, of their comprehension of her +needs as distinguished from their own interests, and of their +intelligent and unselfish sympathy.</p> + +<p>VII. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and +restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she enjoys +in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as +this will serve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws +which they have themselves set and demanded for the government of their +relations with one another. Without this healing act the whole structure +and validity of international law is forever impaired.</p> + +<p>VIII. All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions +restored, and the wrong done France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of +Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly +fifty years, should be righted, in order that peace may once more be +made secure in the interest of all.</p> + +<p>IX. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along +clearly recognizable lines of nationality.</p> + +<p>X. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish +to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest +opportunity of autonomous development.</p> + +<p>XI. Rumania, Serbia and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied +territories restored; Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea, +and the relations of the several Balkan States to one another determined +by friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegiance +and nationality, and international guarantees of the political and +economic independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan +States should be entered into.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p> + +<p>XII. The Turkish portions of the present Ottoman Empire should be +assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities which are now +under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and +an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development, and the +Dardanelles should be permanently opened as a free passage to the ships +and commerce of all nations under international guarantees.</p> + +<p>XIII. An independent Polish State should be erected which should include +the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish population, which +should be assured a free and secure access to the sea and whose +political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be +guaranteed by international covenant.</p> + +<p>XIV. A general association of nations must be formed under specific +covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political +independence and territorial integrity to great and small States alike.</p></div> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>III—HOW THE PEACE TREATY WAS SIGNED<br /> +A Description of the Historic Ceremony in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace +of Versailles, June 8, 1919</h2> + +<p class="centerdouble">(Reprinted from the New York <cite>Times</cite>.)</p> + +<p>No nobler and more eloquent setting could have been found for this +greatest of all modern events, the signing of the Peace of Versailles, +after five years of terrific struggle on whose outcome the fate of the +whole world had hung, than the palace of the greatest of French Kings on +the hillcrest of the Paris suburb that gave its name to the treaty. To +reach it, says the correspondent of <cite>The New York Times</cite>, the +plenipotentiaries and distinguished guests from all parts of the world +motored to Versailles that day, and drove down the magnificent +tree-lined Avenue du Château, then across the huge +square—the famous Place d'Armes of Versailles—and up through +the gates and over the cobblestones of the Court of Honor to the +entrance, where officers of the Republican Guard, whose creation dates +back to the French Revolution, in picturesque uniform, were drawn up to +receive them.</p> + +<p>All day the crowd had been gathering. It was a cloudy day; not till noon +did the sky clear. By noon eleven regiments of French cavalry and +infantry had taken position along the approaches to the palace, while +within the court on either side solid lines of infantry in horizon blue +were drawn up at attention.</p> + +<p>Hours before the time set for the ceremony an endless stream of +automobiles began moving out of Paris up the cannon-lined hill of the +Champs Elysées, past the massive Arc de Triomphe, bulking +somberly against the leaden sky, and out through the Bois de Boulogne. +This whole thoroughfare was kept clear by pickets, dragoons, and mounted +gendarmes. In the meantime thousands of Parisians were packing regular +and special trains on all the lines leading to Versailles, and +contending with residents of the town for places in the vast park where +the famous fountains would rise in white fleur-de-lis to mark the end of +the ceremony.</p> + +<h3>A MEMORABLE SCENE</h3> + +<p>Past the line of gendarmes thrown across the approaches to the square +reserved for ticket holders, the crowd surged in a compact and +irresistible wave, while hundreds of the more fortunate ones took up +positions in the high windows of every wing of the palace. Up the broad +boulevard of the Avenue de Paris the endless chain of motor cars rolled +between rows of French soldiers; and a guard of honor at the end of the +big court presented arms to the plenipotentiaries and delegates as they +drove through to the entrance, which for the Allied delegates only was +by the marble stairway to the "Queen's Apartments" and the Hall of +Peace, giving access to the Hall of Mirrors. A separate route of entry +was prescribed for the Germans, an arrangement which angered and +disconcerted them when they discovered it, through the park and up the +marble stairway through the ground floor.</p> + +<p>The delegates and plenipotentiaries began to arrive shortly after +2 p. m., their automobiles rolling between double lines of +infantry with bayonets fixed—it was estimated that there were +20,000 soldiers altogether guarding the route—that held back the +cheering throngs. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> + +The scene from the Court of Honor was impressive. The Place d'Armes was +a lake of white faces, dappled everywhere by the bright colors of flags +and fringed with the horizon blue of troops whose bayonets flamed +silverly as the sun emerged for a moment from behind heavy clouds. At +least a dozen airplanes wheeled and curvetted above.</p> + +<p>Up that triumphal passage, leading for a full quarter of a mile from the +wings of the palace to the entrance to the Hall of Mirrors, +representatives of the victorious nations passed in flag-decked +limousines—hundreds, one after another, without intermission, for +fifty minutes. Just inside the golden gates, which were flung wide, they +passed the big bronze statue of Louis XIV., the "Sun-King," on +horseback, flanked by statues of the Princes and Governors, Admirals and +Generals who had made Louis the Grand Monarque of France. And on the +façade of the twin, temple-like structures on either side of the +great statue they could read as they passed an inscription symbolic of +the historic ceremony just about to occur: "To All the Glories of +France."</p> + +<h3>NOTABILITIES ARRIVE</h3> + +<p>One of the earliest to arrive was Marshal Foch, amid a torrent of +cheering, which burst out even louder a few moments later when the +massive head of Premier Clemenceau was seen through the windows of a +French military car. To these and other leaders, including President +Wilson, General Pershing, and Premier Lloyd George, the troops drawn up +all around the courtyard presented arms. After Clemenceau the unique +procession continued, diplomats, soldiers, Princes of India in gorgeous +turbans and swarthy faces, dapper Japanese in immaculate Western dress, +Admirals, aviators, Arabs; one caught a glimpse of the bright colors of +French, British, and Colonial uniforms. British Tommies and American +doughboys also dashed up on crowded camions, representing the blood and +sweat of the hard-fought victory; they got an enthusiastic reception. It +was 2:45 when Mr. Balfour, bowing and smiling, heralded the arrival of +the British delegates. Mr. Lloyd George was just behind him, for once +wearing the conventional high hat instead of his usual felt. At 2:50 +came President Wilson in a black limousine with his flag, a white eagle +on a dark blue ground; he received a hearty welcome.</p> + +<p>By 3 o'clock the last contingent had arrived, and the broad ribbon road +stretched empty between the lines of troops from the gates of the palace +courtyard. The Germans had already entered; to avoid any unpleasant +incident they had been quietly conveyed from their lodgings at the Hotel +des Reservoirs Annex through the park.</p> + +<h3>THE SCENE INSIDE</h3> + +<p>The final scene in the great drama was enacted in the magnificent Hall +of Mirrors. Versailles contains no more splendid chamber than this royal +hall, whose three hundred mirrors gleam from every wall, whose vaulted +and frescoed ceiling looms dark and high, in whose vastness the +footfalls of the passer re-echo over marble floors and die away +reverberatingly. It was no mere matter of convenience or accident that +the Germans were brought to sign the Peace Treaty in this hall. For this +same hall, which saw the German peace delegates of 1919, representing a +beaten and prostrate Germany, affix their signatures to the Allied terms +of peace, had witnessed in the year 1871 a very different ceremony. It +was in the Hall of Mirrors that the German Empire was born. Forty-nine +years ago, on a January morning, while the forts of beleaguered Paris +were firing their last defiant shots, in that mirror-gleaming hall was +inaugurated the reign of that German Empire the virtual end of which, so +far as the concept held by its originators is concerned, was signalized +in Versailles in the same spot on Saturday, June 28. And in 1871 +President Thiers had signed there the crushing terms of defeat imposed +by a victorious and ruthless Germany.</p> + +<p>In anticipation of the present ceremony carpets had been laid and the +ornamental table, with its eighteenth century gilt and bronze +decorations, had been placed in position on the daïs where the +plenipotentiaries were seated. Fronting the chair of M. Clemenceau was +placed a small table, on which the diplomatic instruments were laid. It +was to this table that each representative was called, in alphabetical +order by countries, to sign his name to the treaty and affix to it his +Governmental + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> + +seal. The four hundred or more invited guests were given places in the +left wing of the Hall of Mirrors, while the right wing was occupied by +about the same number of press representatives. Sixty seats were +allotted to the French press alone. Besides the military guards outside +the palace, the grand stairway up which the delegates came to enter the +hall was controlled by the Republican Guards in their most brilliant +gala uniform.</p> + +<h3>THE PEACE TABLE</h3> + +<p>The peace table—a huge hollow rectangle with its open side facing +the windows in the hall—was spread with tawny yellow coverings +blending with the rich browns, blues, and yellows of the antique +hangings and rugs; these, and the mellow tints of the historical +paintings, depicting scenes from France's ancient wars, in the arched +roof of the long hall, lent bright dashes of color to an otherwise +austere scene. Against the sombre background also stood out the +brilliant uniforms of a few French guards, in red plumed silver helmets +and red, white, and blue uniforms, and a group of Allied Generals, +including General Pershing, who wore the scarlet sash of the Legion of +Honor.</p> + +<p>But all the diplomats and members of the parties who attended the +ceremony of signing wore conventional civilian clothes. All gold lace +and pageantry was eschewed, the fanciful garb of the Middle Ages was +completely absent as representative of traditions and practices sternly +condemned in the great bound treaty-volume of Japanese paper, covered +with seals and printed in French and English, which was signed by +twenty-seven nations that afternoon.</p> + +<p>As a contrast with the Franco-German peace session of 1871, held in the +same hall, there were present some grizzled French veterans of the +Franco-Prussian war. They took the place of the Prussian guardsmen of +the previous ceremony, and gazed with a species of grim satisfaction at +the disciples of Bismarck, who sat this time in the seats of the lowly, +while the white marble statue of Minerva looked stonily on.</p> + +<h3>ENTRANCE OF CHIEF ACTORS</h3> + +<p>The ceremony of signing was marked only by three minor incidents: a +protest by the German delegation at the eleventh hour over the +provision of separate entrance, the filing of a document of protest by +General Jan Smuts of the South African delegation, and the deliberate +absence of the Chinese delegates from the ceremony, due to +dissatisfaction over the concessions granted to Japan in Shantung.</p> + +<div class="figright"> +<img src="images/ill-167.jpg" width="400" height="536" +alt="Henry White" +title="Henry White" /> +<p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> +<p class="caption">Henry White</p> +<p class="description">Former Ambassador to France and Italy and one of the United States +delegates to the Peace Conference.</p> +</div> + +<p>The treaty was deposited on the table at 2:10 p.m. by William Martin of +the French Foreign Office; it was inclosed in a stamped leather case, +and bulked large. Because of the size of the volume and the fragile +seals it bore, the plan to present it for signing to Premier Clemenceau, +President Wilson, and Premier Lloyd George had been given up. A box of +old-fashioned goose quills, sharpened by the expert pen pointer of the +French Foreign Office, was placed on each of the three tables for the +use of plenipotentiaries who desired to observe the conventional +formalities.</p> + +<p>Secretary Lansing, meanwhile, had been the first of the American +delegation to arrive in the palace—at 1:45 p.m. Premier +Clemenceau + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> + +entered at 2:20. Three detachments each consisting of fifteen private +soldiers—from the American, British, and French forces—just +before 3 o'clock and took their places in the embrasures of the windows +overlooking the château park, a few feet from Marshal Foch, who +was seated with the French delegation at the peace table. Marshal Foch +was present only as a spectator, and did not participate in the signing. +These forty-five soldiers of the three main belligerent nations were +present as the real "artisans of peace" and stood within the inclosure +reserved for plenipotentiaries and high officials of the conference as a +visible sign of their rôle in bringing into being a new Europe. +These men had been selected from those who bore honorable wounds. +Premier Clemenceau stepped up to the poilus of the French detachment and +shook the hand of each, expressing his pleasure at seeing them, and his +regrets for the suffering they had endured for France.</p> + +<h3>PRESIDENT WILSON ENTERS</h3> + +<p>Delegates of the minor powers made their way with difficulty through the +crowd to their places at the table. Officers and civilians lined the +walls and filled the aisles. President Wilson entered the Hall of +Mirrors at 2:50. All the Allied delegates were then seated, except the +Chinese representatives, who were conspicuous by their absence. The +difficulty of seeing well militated against demonstrations on the +arrival of prominent statesmen. The crowd refused to be seated and +thronged toward the center of the hall, which is so long that a good +view was impossible from any distance, even with the aid of opera +glasses. German correspondents were ushered into the hall just before 3 +o'clock and took standing room in a window at the rear of the +correspondents' section.</p> + +<p>At 3 o'clock a hush fell over the hall. There were a few moments of +disorder while the officials and the crowd took their places. At 3:07 +the German delegates, Dr. Hermann Müller, German Secretary for +Foreign Affairs, and Dr. Johannes Bell, Colonial Secretary, were shown +into the hall; with heads held high they took their seats. The other +delegates remained seated, according to a prearranged plan reminiscent +of the discourtesy displayed by von Brockdorff-Rantzau, who at the +ceremony of delivery of the peace treaty on May 7th, had refused to rise +to read his address to the Allied delegates. The seats of the German +delegates touched elbows with the Japanese on the right and the +Brazilians on the left. They were thus on the side nearest the entrance, +and the program required them to depart by a separate exit before the +other delegates at the close of the ceremony. Delegates from Ecuador, +Peru, and Liberia faced them across the narrow table.</p> + +<h3>THE GERMANS SIGN</h3> + +<p>M. Clemenceau, as President of the Peace Conference, opened the +ceremony. Rising, he made the following brief address, amid dead +silence:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The session is open. The allied and associated powers on one side and +the German Reich on the other side have come to an agreement on the +conditions of peace. The text has been completed, drafted, and the +President of the Conference has stated in writing that the text that is +about to be signed now is identical with the 200 copies that have been +delivered to the German delegation. The signatures will be given now, +and they amount to a solemn undertaking faithfully and loyally to +execute the conditions embodied by this treaty of peace. I now invite +the delegates of the German Reich to sign the treaty.'</p></div> + +<p>There was a tense pause for a moment. Then in response to M. +Clemenceau's bidding the German delegates rose without a word, and, +escorted by William Martin, master of ceremonies, moved to the signatory +table, where they placed upon the treaty the sign-manuals which German +Government leaders had declared over and over again, with emphasis and +anger, would never be appended to this treaty. They also signed a +protocol covering changes in the documents, and the Polish undertaking. +All three documents were similarly signed by the Allied delegates who +followed.</p> + +<h3>WILSON SIGNS NEXT</h3> + +<p>When the German delegates regained their seats after signing, President +Wilson immediately rose and, followed by the other American +plenipotentiaries, moved around the sides of the horseshoe to the +signature tables. It was thus President Wilson, and not M. Clemenceau, +who was first of the Allied delegates to sign. This, however, was purely +what may + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> + +be called an alphabetical honor, in accordance with which the nations +were named in the prologue to the treaty. Premier Lloyd George, with the +British delegation, came next. The British dominions followed. M. +Clemenceau with the French delegates, was next in line; then came Baron +Saionji and the other Japanese delegates, and they in turn were followed +by the representatives of the smaller powers.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> +<img src="images/ill-169.jpg" width="400" height="571" +alt="Count von Brockdorff-Rantzau" +title="Count von Brockdorff-Rantzau" /> +<p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> +<p class="caption">Count von Brockdorff-Rantzau</p> +<p class="description">Foreign Minister of Germany and President of the German +Peace delegates.</p> +</div> + +<p>During the attaching of the signatures of the great powers and the +Germans a battery of moving picture cameras clicked away so audibly that +they could be heard above the general noise and disorder of the throng. +The close of the ceremony came so quickly and quietly that it was +scarcely noticed until it was all over. M. Clemenceau arose almost +unremarked, and in a voice half lost amid the confusion and the hum of +conversation which had sprung up while the minor powers were signing +declared the conference closed, and asked the Allied and associated +delegates to remain in their seats for a few moments—this to +permit the German plenipotentiaries to leave the building before the +general exodus.</p> + +<h3>THE GERMANS DEPART</h3> + +<p>None arose as the Germans filed out, accompanied by their suite of +secretaries and interpreters, just as all the plenipotentiaries had kept +their seats when Dr. Müller and Dr. Bell entered. The Germans went +forth evidently suffering strong emotion. Outside an unsympathetic crowd +jammed close to the cars which took them away. There was no aggression, +but the sentiment of the throng was unmistakable.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the great guns that announced the closing of the ceremony were +booming, and their concussion shook the old palace of Versailles to its +foundations. Amid confusion the assembly dispersed, and the most +momentous ceremony of the epoch was at an end.</p> + +<p>The great war which for five long years had shaken Europe and the world +was formally ended at last. It was a war which had cost the belligerents +over $200,000,000,000; which had caused the deaths of 8,000,000 human +beings, and which had left the world a post-war burden of debt amounting +to $135,000,000,000. It was a war which had changed the whole face of +Europe, which had brought many new nations into existence, which had +revolutionized the organization of all national and international life. +It was a war which had brought the world the consciousness of its common +obligation to unite against all war. The booming of the great guns of +Versailles seemed to proclaim a new epoch.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>IV—THE PEACE TREATY—ITS MEANING TO AMERICA<br /> +America's "Place in the Sun" Due to Her Efforts to Secure a Just Peace</h2> + +<p class="centerdouble">By GEORGE W. WICKERSHAM</p> +<p class="center">Formerly Attorney-General of the United States.</p> + +<p>"The cause of our entrance into the great war," declares Dr. David Jayne +Hill in a recent essay, "being the violation by the German Imperial +Government of our legal rights as a nation, our object in the war was to +make our rights respected. The one clear duty of the treaty-making power +in concluding peace with Germany, therefore, is to secure this +result."<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> +"Americanizing the Treaty."—<cite>North American Review</cite>, August, 1919.</p></div> + +<p>In these words, one of the most distinguished and accomplished of the +opponents of the treaty of Paris reveals the profound abyss which +separates those who oppose from those who are urging the approval of the +Treaty of Versailles. Dr. Hill, perhaps unconsciously, gives expression +to a sordid, narrow, selfish view of the issues of the war, which would +transmute into the most elemental act of self-defense one of the +greatest crusades of high idealism ever conducted by any people in the +history of nations. If, in fact, the cause of our participation in the +war was merely to repel attacks upon our legal rights as a nation, then +indeed, that end being attained, and the aggressor reduced to impotence +for the future, we may return within our own borders, withdraw unto +ourselves, disclaim all responsibility for the condition of the world +elsewhere and plunge into the selfish exploitation of our national +resources, "the world forgetting, by the world forgot." It is a strange +perversion of the facts of recent history that leads to such a +conception of America's responsibility for the future of civilization.</p> + +<p>There were undoubtedly, as Mr. Wilson said, "violations of right which +touched us to the quick." Was it merely violations of our own national +rights that roused this peace-loving nation to array itself for battle; +that sent two million of our young men across three thousand miles of +ocean to take their places beside the heroes of Verdun and the Marne, +the veterans of Cambrai and Arras, Ypres and the Somme; infused the +weary defenders of civilization with new courage; converted their +defense into an irresistible offensive which shattered the greatest +military machine of history, overthrew the Kaiser and his government, +and brought the German nation to its knees? No! It was not the German +attacks upon our rights as a nation; it was the German challenge of the +whole basis of modern Christian civilization. It was her cynical +disclaimer of the binding character of treaties; her inhuman method of +warfare; her brutal cruelties of non-combatant men, women and children; +her ruthless destruction of monuments of art—the possessions of +not merely one nation, but of the entire world of men and women in every +land who love beauty and revere art. It was the growing conviction that +a government which ordered the sinking of the <cite>Lusitania</cite> and the +<cite>Sussex</cite>; that destroyed the priceless literary treasures of Louvain; +that separated families in Belgium and France, and deported great +companies of men to work in German munition factories; that ruthlessly +cut up by the roots the fruit trees and shrubs of the occupied regions +of France; that sought to destroy not merely the men, but the souls of +nations, so that its own horrid philosophy of Force might reign over +them—that such a government must no longer exist; that its +pestilential influence was more noxious than tuberculosis or the bubonic +plague.</p> + +<h3>THE BASIS OF PEACE</h3> + +<p>Therefore, the Youth of America joyously leaped to arms and crowded +overseas in the greatest of all crusades, insuring victory and promising +the opening of a new and better epoch of human history. It was the +recognition of human kinship; the perception of human brotherhood, that +inspired them to the great endeavor. Our proud sense of American +nationality took on a deeper and holier + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> + +significance as we joined forces with the older peoples in defense of +the great principles of human right which had been formulated by our +fathers and upon which was reared the American State. We were no less +Americans that we had accepted a common responsibility with Great +Britain, France and Italy for the preservation of the ideals of human +freedom for which Washington fought and Lincoln died. Nay! better +Americans, as we realized that the war was being fought in defense of +those principles upon which our own institutions were founded and by +which we had become the great, strong, free nation we are.</p> + +<p>And as the hideous carnage went on, and we saw a whole generation of the +youth of the free nations of Europe butchered because the German people +had become so obsessed with their own sense of superiority that they +were determined to rule the world and impose upon all other peoples +subservience to their Moloch-like gospel of efficiency, another feeling +began to struggle for expression in Europe and America alike—a +determination that all wars of aggression must cease; that disputes +between nations must be settled like those between individuals, by +peaceful arbitration or conciliation; that the causes of war must be +examined and, so far as possible, removed, and that no such war as this +ever again should desolate the earth. This was the meaning of the phrase +one came to hear on many lips, that it was "a war against war." How +could such a result be attained? Obviously, only by the continued +association in peace of those powers whose close coöperation in war +was compelling the overthrow of German militarism, and the widening of +that association to include all the other nations who should accept its +program and give an earnest of adherence to its ideals. There was also +the hope that some time—when they should have offered up that +ancient sacrifice, "an humble and a contrite heart"—even the +German people, enfranchised and regenerated, might be admitted into the +society of Free Peoples and with new significance become entitled to be +called a civilized nation.</p> + +<p>These were the principles that underlay Mr. Wilson's program of +peace—the fourteen points of January 8, 1918, and subsequent +addresses; the only definite formulation of the basis of peace which +was laid before the world, a program concerning which the American +Congress expressed no definite criticism and for which it offered no +substitute; a program which was accepted by Allies and opponents alike, +and which constituted the Chart by which the Conference of Paris was +required to endeavor to formulate the terms of the Treaty of Peace.</p> + +<p>The work of that Conference now has been submitted to the judgment of +mankind. It was accepted by the new government of Germany with a wry +face, as the judgment of the victors naturally would be taken by the +vanquished. It has been ratified by the Parliament of Great Britain, by +Italy, by France and by Japan. It has been for weeks under debate in the +Senate of the United States. Daily efforts have been made to create a +partisan political issue over it, and to visit upon it party resentment +against the past actions of the President.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> +This article by Mr. Wickersham was prepared prior to the Senate +deadlock and the rejection of the Treaty with the Lodge reservations.</p></div> + +<p>Dr. Hill again sums up the case against the treaty—the final basis +which the confused gropings after some means of making it unpopular with +the people finally have evolved—in these words:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The League of Nations, as proposed, includes not only obligations not +related to the reasons for engaging in the war, but also obligations +opposed to the traditions, the time-honored policies, and even the +constitutional provisions of the United States. It commits the whole +future policy of this country to the decisions of an international body +in which it would have only a single voice; it permits that body to +intrude its judgments, and thereby its policies into a sphere hitherto +regarded as exclusively American, and, in addition, it demands that the +territories held by each of the members of the League under this treaty +shall receive the permanent protection of the United States as integral +parts of the Nations that now claim them."</p></div> + +<p>Is it true? What is the real meaning of the Peace Treaty and its effect +upon the people of the United States? The answer to these questions, and +indeed to most of the criticism of the Covenant, is conclusively met by +a reading of the treaty. But first let us turn for a moment to the +fourteen points of Mr. Wilson's address of January 8, 1918. The basis of +the territorial readjustment of Europe which he then proposed, was the +giving + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> + +of national expression to racial aspiration. Alien imperial rule such as +that of Austria over Hungary and Bohemia, and that of Germany, Austria +or Russia over Poland, was to end, and the Poles, the Croats, Serbs, +Hungarians, Bohemians, and the Czechoslavs and Jugoslavs each were to be +allowed national existence, with the right of self-determination. +Whatever may now be thought of the wisdom of this theory, it was +accepted by all of the Allies, who thereby were committed to a +responsibility for the protection, certainly in the early years of their +existence, of the new nations they united to call into being. +Recognizing this fact, the fourteenth of the Wilson points provided for +the creation of an Association of the Allied Nations to protect the work +of their arms. Aside from that practical purpose, the League of Nations +was recognized by many in every land as furnishing the only practicable +machinery for the removal of causes of war and the prevention of new +assaults upon civilization, such as that which Germany had launched in +August, 1914.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-172.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-172thumb.jpg" width="400" height="273" +alt="Victoria Hall at Geneva" +title="Victoria Hall at Geneva" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> +<p class="caption">Victoria Hall at Geneva</p> +<p class="description">Selected by the Council of the Powers as the meeting place of the League +of Nations.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-172.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p>The first Chapter of the Peace Treaty, therefore, is a Covenant or +Compact forming a League of Nations, whose purpose, as expressed in the +Preamble, is "to promote international coöperation and to achieve +international peace and security." Worthy objects, these: how are they +to be attained? The Preamble answers,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"by the acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by the +prescription of open, just and honorable relations between nations, by +the firm establishment of the understandings of international law as to +actual rule of conduct among governments, and by the maintenance of +justice and a scrupulous respect for all treaty obligations in the +dealings of organized peoples with one another."</p></div> + +<p>Are not these methods such as America has made her own? Have we not in +many treaties accepted obligations not to make war until all + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> + +peaceful methods of settling disputes shall have been exhausted; have we +not striven to make the principles of international law rules for the +government of nations; and was not one of the main points in the +indictment of Germany on which we prosecuted the war against her that +she had flouted the sanctity of treaties and made them mere scraps of +paper?</p> + +<p>The objects of the League therefore, as set forth in the Covenant, are +expressive only of policies and principles to which the United States +has given a consistent and unbroken adherence from the days of the Jay +Treaty to the present hour. How are these objects proposed to be +attained in the text of the Covenant? What is there in its provisions to +justify the frantic abuse that has been heaped upon it by its opponents +and to sustain the final accusation that it is "un-American?"</p> + +<h3>MACHINERY OF THE LEAGUE</h3> + +<p>First, as to the Machinery of the League. There is an Assembly of its +members to which each Sovereign State may send delegates. There is an +Assembly of its members to which each nation necessarily has one vote. +In the United States Senate, Rhode Island and New York have equal +representation, despite disparity in wealth and population. The +principle of sovereignty requires this recognition of equality. But the +powers of the Assembly are restricted to voting upon the admission of +new members to the League, the addition of members to the Council, the +disposition of international disputes which may be referred to it by the +Council under Article XV, and the general consideration at its meetings +of "any matter within the sphere of action of the League or affecting +the peace of the world." This general authority only can embrace the +right of discussion, save in very exceptional cases, as by Article V, +"decisions at any meeting of the Assembly or of the Council shall +require the agreement of all the members of the League represented at +the meeting."</p> + +<p>The actual governing body of the League is the Council, which is to +consist of representatives of the five greater powers,—the United +States, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan, together with +representatives of four other members of the League selected by the +Assembly from time to time. These numbers may be increased, but only by +the unanimous vote of the Council, approved by a majority of the +Assembly.</p> + +<p>As noted above, save in the very few expressly expected cases, the +Council can reach decisions only by unanimous vote. What are to be its +functions? They need not be enumerated in detail here. Briefly, they +deal with the reduction of armaments, the control by governments of the +private manufacture of munitions and implements of war, the +consideration of any war or threat of war—"of any circumstance +whatever affecting international relations which threatens to disturb +either the peace or the good understanding between nations upon which +peace depends." They require the formulation and submission to the +members of the League for adoption of plans for the establishment of a +permanent Court of International Justice. They empower the Council to +endeavor to effect a settlement of any international dispute which shall +not be submitted to arbitration by the parties; to investigate, consider +and report upon any such dispute, and to publish its conclusions.</p> + +<p>The parties to the League solemnly covenant and agree that if any +dispute shall arise between them likely to lead to a rupture they will +submit it either to arbitration or inquiry by the Council, and that in +no case will they resort to war until three months after the award by +the arbitrators or the report by the Council. They agree also to carry +out in good faith any award that may be rendered, and not to make war +against any member of the League that complies therewith. If a report by +the Council is unanimously agreed to by its members, other than the +representatives of the disputants, the members agree not to go to war +with any party to the dispute which complies with the recommendations of +the report.</p> + +<h3>OBJECTIONS TO THE PLAN</h3> + +<p>It is objected by some that the decision of questions between nations by +these provisions is left to a body of delegates composing the Council +who are not bound to decide according to rules of international law, but +may reach conclusions merely as political expediency. This seems a +strained interpretation. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> + +The members of the League agree to submit either (1) to arbitration or +(2) to investigation by the Council, every dispute which may arise +between them likely to lead to a rupture and in no case to resort to war +until three months after the award by arbitrators or the report by the +Council. They declare (by Article XIII)</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Disputes as to the interpretation of a treaty, as to any question of +international law, as to the existence of any fact which, if +established, would constitute a breach of any international obligation, +or as to the extent and nature of the reparation to be made for any such +breach," to be among those which are generally suitable for submission +to arbitration. Disputes of the character thus enumerated are what are +known as justiciable, <span lang="la">i. e.</span>, subject to be decided by a Court by the +application of the recognized principles of international law.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. Root recommended that such disputes should be required to be +arbitrated. The Conference at Paris, like those at the two Hague +Conferences, would not agree to that. But in view of the declaration +just quoted, any power which should bring before the Council a dispute +of the character mentioned, but which it was unwilling to submit to +arbitration, would have the burden of showing convincing reason for such +attitude.</p> + +<p>When the first draft of the Covenant was before the country, American +critics objected that it would compel the United States to submit to +arbitration on inquiry by the Council purely domestic questions such as +tariff, immigration and coastwise traffic. To meet this objection, there +was inserted in Art. XV the following paragraph:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"If the dispute between the parties is claimed by one of them, and is +found by the Council to arise out of a matter which by international law +is solely within the domestic jurisdiction of that party, the Council +shall so report, and shall make no recommendation as to its settlement."</p></div> + +<p>To this it is objected that the determination of the question whether or +not a matter of dispute is by the rules of international law solely with +the domestic jurisdiction of a member is left to the Council and not to +the member. Surely, it requires no explanation to demonstrate, that if a +member State may oust the Council of jurisdiction to inquire into a +given dispute which threatens the peace of the world merely by itself +asserting that it arises out of a matter within its exclusive domestic +jurisdiction, a very imperfect means of averting war will have been +provided, and the League Covenant will hardly have more efficacy than +the second Hague Convention. Remember too, that the reports of the +Council must be unanimous, and the unreasonableness of the objection to +the provisions cited will appear.</p> + +<h3>MEANS TO PREVENT WAR</h3> + +<p>Articles XI to XVI constitute the heart of the Covenant, the most +effective means ever formulated to prevent war. The agreements of the +nations not to resort to war until the processes of arbitration or +inquiry are exhausted, are buttressed by the provision that should any +member violate these agreements it shall <span lang="la">ipso facto</span> be deemed to have +committed an act of war against all the other members of the League, +entailing as a consequence commercial boycott, expulsion and the +application of armed force, if the members shall so determine. The +employment of force in this case, as in every other contemplated by the +Covenant, is not left to the decision of Council or Assembly. They can +only recommend. The member States agree <em>not to go</em> to war. There is +nowhere in the document any provision compelling them <em>to go</em> to war. +Even where one State in violation of its Covenant threatens the peace of +the world, the utmost the Council can do is</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"To recommend to the several governments concerned what effective +military or naval forces the members of the League shall severally +contribute to the armaments of forces to be used to protect the +covenants of the League."</p></div> + +<p>Much heated objection has been directed against Article X, which reads +as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as against +external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political +independence of all members of the League. In case of any such +aggression or in case of any threat or danger of such aggression, the +Council shall advise upon the means by which this obligation shall be +fulfilled.'</p></div> + +<p>Again, it is left to the determination of each State what force it shall +employ to enforce this provision. As a matter of fact, this article adds +little, if anything, to the provisions of Article XI, which declares +that "Any war + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> + +or threat of war ... is hereby declared a matter of concern to the whole +League, and the League shall take any action that may be deemed wise and +effectual to safeguard the peace of nations." Any external aggression +against the territorial integrity or political independence of a member +of the League would amount to a war or threat of war, and would invoke +action under Article XI, if not under Article X. But the guaranty of +Article X + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> + +is very necessary as affording a moral protection to the new nations +brought into being through the peace Conference. The United States of +America, whose President formulated the principles of peace to which +these Nations owe their existence, can not afford to shirk +responsibility for their protection. The Covenant abolishes the evil of +secret treaties between the nations composing the League, while +preserving the effectiveness of existing treaties of arbitration.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-175.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-175thumb.jpg" width="400" height="524" +alt="William Howard Taft" +title="William Howard Taft" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright Harris & Ewing</p> +<p class="caption">William Howard Taft</p> +<p class="description">An earnest supporter of the President and his administration throughout +the war, though of the opposite party.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-175.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<h3>THE MONROE DOCTRINE</h3> + +<p>To meet the objection that the Covenant would deprive us of the Monroe +Doctrine—a national policy adopted by the United States as its own +and maintained for its own protection—Article XXI of the amended +Covenant provides that—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Nothing in this Covenant shall be deemed to affect the validity of +international engagements such as treaties of arbitration or regional +understandings like the Monroe Doctrine for securing the maintenance of +peace."</p></div> + +<p>The phrase "regional understanding," as applied to the Monroe Doctrine, +is not a happy one. But the article certainly excludes the Monroe +Doctrine from modification or effect by the treaty. It secures from +every one of the thirty-two original members and the thirteen other +states which shall be invited to join the League, a recognition of the +existence of the Monroe Doctrine and an agreement that it is not to be +affected by anything contained in the Covenant. Certainly <em>that</em> is not +an un-American result to accomplish, and when one reads Dr. Hill's +statement that the Covenant "does not embody our traditional American +ideals," one wonders in what museum of forgotten lore the learned doctor +has found those "traditional ideals" preserved. Dr. Hill's so-called +ideals conflict with the expression in this great treaty of the +peculiarly American ideal of averting war by providing peaceful methods +of settling disputes among nations, with the express recognition by all +the other nations of the doctrine that "was proclaimed in 1823 to +prevent America from becoming a theater for the intrigues of European +absolutism," and with the official commentary of the Delegates of Great +Britain which says that—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"At first a principle of American foreign <em>policy</em>, it (Monroe Doctrine) +has become an international <em>understanding</em>, and it is not illegitimate +for the people of the United States to ask that the Covenant should +recognize this fact."</p></div> + +<h3>GERMAN COLONIES</h3> + +<p>One of the most difficult problems presented to the Peace Conference was +the disposition of the former colonies of Germany in Asia, Africa and +Australasia, and of the communities formerly belonging to the Turkish +Empire. It was recognized that the victors in the war shared a common +responsibility for the just and wise treatment of these peoples, who +were utterly unable to stand alone. The method adopted declared all of +them to be wards of the League of Nations and provided that they should +be governed by Mandatory Powers willing to undertake the task and +appointed by the League under charters framed by the Council. These +Powers would be answerable to the League for the right exercise of their +powers, and subject to inspection and report. A great deal of +impassioned rhetoric has been expended over these provisions, upon the +false assumption that thereby the United States was committed to a +responsibility for the government of remote regions of the earth. The +Covenant commits us to nothing. Our participation in the war has +entailed upon us a common responsibility with our Allies for the +protection and wise government of these communities. We no more can +escape that responsibility with honor than we could after the Spanish +War escape responsibility for the Philippine Islands.</p> + +<p>But it is for the American Congress to determine the extent of +recognition of our duty and the means by which we shall discharge it.</p> + +<p>In the case of the Philippine Islands, the United States set for the +world a great moral example in the government of colonies, not in its +own interest, but for the benefit and exclusively in the interest of the +inhabitants of possessions which fell into our hands as a consequence of +the war with Spain. The principle thus proclaimed and practiced has been +followed in the case of the colonies and territories which the World War +has left at the disposition of the Allied and Associated + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> + +Nations. This principle, in the words of the Covenant, is "that the +well-being and development of such peoples form a sacred trust of +civilization." The best method yet devised for giving practicable effect +to this principle undoubtedly is,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"That the tutelage of such peoples be intrusted to advanced nations who, +by reason of their resources, their experience or their geographical +position, can best undertake this responsibility, and who are willing to +accept it, and that this tutelage should be exercised by them as +mandatories on behalf of the League."</p></div> + +<p>This is the American attitude toward undeveloped peoples. To remove +these provisions from the Peace Treaty would be to <em>de</em>-Americanize the +Treaty.</p> + +<h3>MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS</h3> + +<p>The Covenant brings within the cognizance of the League the regulation +of international relations affecting (1) efforts to secure and maintain +fair and humane conditions of labor for men, women and children—a +subject elaborated and provided for in great detail in Part XIII of the +Peace Treaty; (2) the execution of international agreements with regard +to traffic in women and children, and in opium and other dangerous +drugs; (3) the trade in arms and ammunition with the countries in which +the control of this traffic is necessary in the common interest; (4) the +prevention and control of disease.</p> + +<p>The members of the League further agree (1)</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"To make provision to secure and maintain freedom of communication and +of transit and <em>equitable</em> treatment for the commerce of all members of +the League,"</p></div> + +<p>and (2)</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"to encourage and promote the establishment and coöperation of duly +authorized voluntary national Red Cross organizations having as purposes +improvement of health, the prevention of disease and the mitigation of +suffering throughout the world."</p></div> + +<p>All these are subjects customarily dealt with in international +agreements. These provisions are designed to bring into +coördination with the League and make more effective all provisions +concerning such matters.</p> + +<p>The framers of this great program recognized that it was, necessarily, +an experiment, and that experience doubtless would develop defects and +suggest needed changes. Provision is therefor made for amendments which +should take effect when ratified by the members of the League whose +representatives compose the Council, and by a majority of the members +whose representatives compose the Assembly. But, preserving the theory +that the League is to be an alliance of Sovereign Powers, it also is +provided that no member shall be bound against his will by any such +amendment. It may dissent, and thereby cease to be a member of the +League.</p> + +<p>Finally, any member may, at will, after two years' notice, withdraw from +the League,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"provided that all its international obligations and all its obligations +under this Covenant shall have been fulfilled at the time of its +withdrawal."</p></div> + +<p>No jurisdiction is vested in any organ of the League to determine +whether or not in any instance this condition has been complied with. It +is conceivable that pending some arbitration or inquiry by the Council, +the application of a commercial boycott or other disciplinary process +for violation of a provision of the Covenant, the offending power should +seek to escape the jurisdiction of the League, by exercising the right +of withdrawal. The period of notice probably is too long to allow of +this, and yet the slow process of international procedure might require +more than two years to reach a conclusion. Does it not seem fair that +before a nation should withdraw from this great association it should be +required to fulfil its obligations under the treaty?</p> + +<h3>PROBABILITY OF WAR MINIMIZED</h3> + +<p>The treaty of peace with Germany deals with many questions of vital +import to European nations, but with which America has but little direct +concern. Part I, the Covenant, is the section which touches us most +nearly. It is the part which embodies the idealism of our people, and +through which we are enabled to discharge the responsibilities we +assumed by formulating for friend and foe the conditions of peace. Human +nature changes but little from century to century, but the highest and +purest aspirations of the human heart find expression from age to age +with greater force and with wider acceptance. Doubtless, in the future, +the passions of man + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> + +will again flare up in bloody wars, but the creation of an adequate +machinery for discussion and cooling reflection, must tend to minimize +the probabilities of war. The spirits of millions of slaughtered youth +who sleep in the fields of France and Flanders call out to us, for whom +they died, to consecrate their sacrifice by a new and greater endeavor +to safeguard the future peace of the world.</p> + +<p>The conferees of Paris have formulated a measure for this purpose. It is +not perfect. Experience may develop even greater imperfections than +study has revealed. But it contains much of hope and promise. It is +practical; it is subject to amendment. It commits no one irrevocably to +its provisions. It is instinct with American idealism. It is in accord +with the best American traditions. Washington, Lincoln, McKinley, and +Roosevelt—each has contributed to the establishment of some of its +main provisions. No partisan, no provincial prejudice should be +permitted to influence or control the judgment of our people concerning +it.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>When Peace Came to Verdun</h3> + +<p>It was 10:45 on the morning of November 11th in Verdun. The Germans had +thrown a barrage over the little French city, now immortal; and shells +were falling, plowing up the earth that had been turned over and over, +ground to powder by four years of artillery fire. Would the Germans stop +at 11 o'clock? Reason said "yes." Everyone in Verdun knew that at that +hour the armistice would go into effect.</p> + +<p>It was 10:50. The guns continued bellowing. A feeling deeper than reason +came over those in the city that the Germans would not stop. Verdun had +lived through four years of fire, smoke, thunder, blood, and ruin. +Sometimes for days there would be a lull, but the guns were never quiet +long. The Germans never forgave the "they-shall-not-pass" spirit that +had hurled them back just as the prize—this military key to the +West front—seemed within their grasp.</p> + +<p>It was 10:55. Men were crouching between buildings. They kept +coming—doughboys, Morrocans, English soldiers, more doughboys. +Even the general and his aids began to look anxious.</p> + +<p>"Then," says B. C. Edworthy in <cite>Association Men</cite>, "as suddenly as though +God himself had dropped a wet blanket over the crackling flames of hell +and at one blow had extinguished them all, the firing ceased. There was +an instant's pause, in which it seemed as though the world had come to +an end. Then from the forty bells, high in the still untouched towers of +that old cathedral at Verdun, which had witnessed the most heroic +sacrifice of life and love save that on Calvary alone, pealed forth as +did the voices over the Bethlehem hills those silver tones that once +again were saying, 'Peace on Earth.' The men were joyously and +deliriously leaping about, yelling and shouting and singing and kissing +one another. Slowly those heavy cathedral doors opened and in rushed +about six hundred of the Allied soldiers."</p> + +<p>There were Mohammedans, Catholics, Jews, and Protestants. They pressed +forward into the choir space, the roofs above them open to heaven. A +simple impromptu service of thanksgiving followed. An English soldier +led the Doxology, and all who knew the hymn joined in. Six hundred +worshipers knelt, each soldier praying according to his faith. +Mohammedans bowed to the stones, Catholics crossed themselves, Jews and +Protestants with moving lips bent their heads or lifted their faces to +heaven. Dr. Oscar E. Maurer, of New Haven, Conn., led the <cite>Lord's +Prayer</cite>. As the strange congregation rose, the Americans began "My +Country 'tis of Thee," the English joining in with "God Save the King."</p> + +<p>There could be only one closing hymn in that battered shell of Verdun +Cathedral. Now, as though it had been arranged, the French pushed +forward and began the "Marseillaise." It was the singing of the soul of +a nation, a soul redeemed:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Allons, enfants de la patrie<br /> +Le jour de gloire est arrivé</i></p> +</div> + +<p>Peace had come to Verdun, deliverance to France, safety to the world. +With the last words of the national hymn of France, the service was +finished, and the worshipers turned and reverently left the building.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES AND THE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS</h2> + +<p>(Signed June 28, 1919, Rejected by the United States, November 19, 1919 +and Again Rejected, with the Lodge Reservations, March 19, 1920)</p> + +<p>The preamble contains the names of the plenipotentiaries that took part +in the negotiations and signed the treaty, with a few exceptions: Dr. +Hermann Müller and Dr. Johannes Bell were substituted for +Brockdorff-Rantzau and his associates, China's delegates refused to sign +on account of the Shantung concessions to Japan, and Italy was +represented by a new commission headed by Signor Tittoni, the new +Foreign Minister.</p> + +<p>The text here reproduced is the revised edition of the treaty +distributed in French and English among the delegates at the time of the +signing. The copy actually signed is deposited in the archives of the +Republic of France in Paris.</p> + +<h2>PREAMBLE</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The United States of America, the British Empire, France, Italy, and +Japan, these powers being described in the present treaty as the +principal Allied and Associated Powers; Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, China, +Cuba, Ecuador, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, the Hedjaz, Honduras, Liberia, +Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, the +Serb-Croat-Slovene State; Siam, Czechoslovakia, and Uruguay, these +powers constituting with the principal powers mentioned above the Allied +and Associated Powers of the one part; and Germany, of the other part: +Bearing in mind that on the request of the Imperial German Government an +armistice was granted on Nov. 11, 1918, to Germany by the principal +Allied and Associated Powers in order that a treaty of peace might be +concluded with her, and the Allied and Associated Powers being equally +desirous that the war in which they were successively involved directly +or indirectly, and which originated in the declaration of war by +Austria-Hungary on July 28, 1914, against Serbia; the declaration of war +by Germany against Russia on Aug. 1, 1914, and against France on Aug. 3, +1914, and in the invasion of Belgium, should be replaced by a firm, +just, and durable peace;</p> + +<p>For this purpose the high contracting parties represented as follows:</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, by:</p> + +<p>The Honorable Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States, acting in +his own name and by his own proper authority;</p> + +<p>The Honorable Robert Lansing, Secretary of State;</p> + +<p>The Honorable Henry White, formerly Ambassador Extraordinary and +Plenipotentiary of the United States at Rome and Paris;</p> + +<p>The Honorable Edward M. House;</p> + +<p>General Tasker H. Bliss, Military Representative of the United States on +the Supreme War Council;</p> + +<p>HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND +AND OF THE BRITISH DOMINIONS BEYOND THE SEAS, EMPEROR OF INDIA, by:</p> + +<p>The Right Honorable David Lloyd George, M. P., First Lord of his +Treasury and Prime Minister;</p> + +<p>The Right Honorable Andrew Bonar Law, M. P., his Lord Privy Seal;</p> + +<p>The Right Honorable Viscount Milner, G. C. B., G. C. M. G., his +Secretary of State for the Colonies;</p> + +<p>The Right Honorable Arthur James Balfour, O. M., M. P., his Secretary of +State for Foreign Affairs;</p> + +<p>The Right Honorable George Nicoll Barnes, M. P., Minister without +portfolio; and</p> + +<p>FOR THE DOMINION OF CANADA, by:</p> + +<p>The Right Honorable Sir George Eulas Foster, G. C. M. G., Minister of +Trade and Commerce;</p> + +<p>The Right Honorable Charles Joseph Doherty, Minister of Justice;</p> + +<p>FOR THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA, by:</p> + +<p>The Right Honorable William Morris Hughes, Attorney General and Prime +Minister;</p> + +<p>The Right Honorable Sir Joseph Cook, G. C. M. G., Minister for the Navy;</p> + +<p>FOR THE DOMINION OF SOUTH AFRICA, by:</p> + +<p>General the Right Honorable Louis Botha, Prime Minister;</p> + +<p>Lieut. General the Right Honorable Jan Christiaan Smuts, K. C., Minister +of Defense;</p> + +<p>FOR THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND, by:</p> + +<p>The Right Honorable William Ferguson Massey, Minister of Labor and Prime +Minister;</p> + +<p>FOR INDIA, by:</p> + +<p>The Right Honorable Edwin Samuel Montagu, M. P., his Secretary of State +for India;</p> + +<p>Major General his Highness Maharaja Sir Ganga Singh Bahadur, Maharaja of +Bikanir, G. C. S. I., G. C. I. E., G. C. V. O., K. C. B., A. D. C.;</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Georges Clemenceau, President of the Council, Minister of War;</p> + +<p>Mr. Pichon, Minister of Foreign Affairs;</p> + +<p>Mr. L. L. Klotz, Minister of Finance;</p> + +<p>Mr. André Tardieu, Commissary General for Franco-American +Military Affairs;</p> + +<p>Mr. Jules Cambon, Ambassador of France;</p> + +<p>HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF ITALY,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>by:</p> + +<p>Mr. V. E. Orlando, President of the Council of Ministers;</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> +On account of the overthrow of the Orlando Ministry and the +formation of the Nitti Ministry, the treaty was signed by a delegation +headed by Signor Tittoni, the New Foreign Minister.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Baron S. Sonnino, Minister of Foreign Affairs;</p> + +<p>Mr. S. Crespi, Deputy, Minister of Supplies;</p> + +<p>Marquis G. Imperiali, Senator of the Kingdom, Ambassador of his Majesty +the King of Italy at London;</p> + +<p>Mr. S. Barzilai, Deputy, formerly Minister;</p> + +<p>HIS MAJESTY THE EMPEROR OF JAPAN, by:</p> + +<p>Marquis Saionji, formerly President of the Council of Ministers;</p> + +<p>Baron Makino, formerly Minister of Foreign Affairs, member of the +Diplomatic Council;</p> + +<p>Viscount Chinda, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of H. M. +the Emperor of Japan at London;</p> + +<p>Mr. K. Matsui, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of H. M. the +Emperor of Japan at Paris;</p> + +<p>Mr. H. Ijuin, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of H. M. the +Emperor of Japan at Rome;</p> + +<p>HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE BELGIANS, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Hymans, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of State;</p> + +<p>Mr. Van Den Heuvel, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of +H. M. the King of the Belgians, Minister of State;</p> + +<p>Mr. Vandervelde, Minister of Justice, Minister of State;</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Ismael Montes, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of +Bolivia at Paris;</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF BRAZIL, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Epitacio Pessoa, formerly Minister of State, formerly member of the +Supreme Court of Justice, Federal Senator;</p> + +<p>Mr. Pandiá Calogeras, Deputy, formerly Minister of Finance;</p> + +<p>Mr. Raul Ferdnandes;</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE CHINESE REPUBLIC,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>by;</p> + +<p>Mr. Lou Tseng-Tsiang, Minister of Foreign Affairs;</p> + +<p>Mr. Chengting Thomas Wang, formerly Minister of Agriculture and +Commerce;</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> +Refused to sign on account of Shantung concessions to Japan.</p></div> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE CUBAN REPUBLIC, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Antonio Sanchez de Bustamante, Dean of The Faculty of Law in the +University of Havana, President of the Cuban Society of International +Law;</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Enrique Dorn y de Alsua, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister +Plenipotentiary of Ecuador at Paris;</p> + +<p>HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE HELLENES, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Eleftherios Venizelos, President of the Council of Ministers;</p> + +<p>Mr. Nicolas Politis, Minister of Foreign Affairs;</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF GUATEMALA, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Joaquin Mendez, formerly Minister of State for Public Works and +Public Instruction, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of +Guatemala at Washington, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister +Plenipotentiary on Special Mission at Paris;</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF HAITI, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Tertullien Guilbaud, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister +Plenipotentiary of Haiti at Paris;</p> + +<p>HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE HEDJAZ, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Rustem Haidar;</p> + +<p>Mr. Abdul Hadi Aouni;</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF HONDURAS, by:</p> + +<p>Dr. Policarpe Bonilla, on special mission to Washington, formerly +President of the Republic of Honduras, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister +Plenipotentiary;</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF LIBERIA, by:</p> + +<p>The Honorable C. D. B. King, Secretary of State;</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF NICARAGUA, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Salvador Chamorro, President of the Chamber of Deputies;</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF PANAMA, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Antonio Burgos, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of +Panama at Madrid;</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF PERU, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Carlos G. Candamo, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary +of Peru at Paris;</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE POLISH REPUBLIC, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Roman Dmowski, President of the Polish National Committee;</p> + +<p>Mr. Ignace Paderewski, President of the Council of Ministers, Minister +of Foreign Affairs;</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE PORTUGESE REPUBLIC, by:</p> + +<p>Dr. Affonso Costa, formerly President of the Council of Ministers;</p> + +<p>Mr. Augusto Soares, formerly Minister of Foreign Affairs;</p> + +<p>HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF RUMANIA, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Jean J. C. Bratiano, President of the Council of Ministers, Minister +of Foreign Affairs;</p> + +<p>General Constantin Coanda, Corps Commander, A. D. C. to the King, +formerly President of the Council of Ministers;</p> + +<p>HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE SERBS, THE CROATS, AND THE SLOVENES, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. N. P. Pachitch, formerly President of the Council of Ministers;</p> + +<p>Mr. Ante Trumbic, Minister of Foreign Affairs; Mr. Milenko R. Vesnitch, +Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of H. M. the King of +the Serbs, the Croats, and the Slovenes at Paris;</p> + +<p>HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF SIAM, by:</p> + +<p>Prince Charoon, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of H. +M. the King of Siam at Paris;</p> + +<p>Prince Traidos Prabandhu, Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs;</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE CZECHO-SLOVAK REPUBLIC, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Charles Kramar, President of the Council of Ministers;</p> + +<p>Mr. Edouard Benes, Minister of Foreign Affairs;</p> + +<p>THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF URUGUAY, by:</p> + +<p>Mr. Juan Antonio Buero, Minister of Industry, formerly Minister of +Foreign Affairs;</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-181.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-181thumb.jpg" width="400" height="541" +alt="Woodrow Wilson" +title="Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States " /> +</a> +<p class="caption">Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States +On January 8, 1918, President Wilson outlined the fourteen points on the +basis of which the Allies should make peace.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-181.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>GERMANY,<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>by;</p> + +<p>Count Brockdorff-Rantzau, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Empire;</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> +Treaty Signed by Dr. Hermann Müller, Minister for Foreign Affairs +of the Empire, and Dr. Johannes Bell, Minister of the Empire.</p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Dr. Landsberg, Minister of Justice of the Empire;</p> + +<p>Mr. Giesberts, Minister of Posts of the Empire;</p> + +<p>Oberbürgermeister Leinert, President of the Prussian National +Assembly;</p> + +<p>Dr. Schücking;</p> + +<p>Dr. Karl Melchior; Acting in the name of the German Empire and of each +and every component State.</p></div> + +<p>WHO having communicated their full powers found in good and due form +HAVE AGREED AS FOLLOWS:</p> + +<p>From the coming into force of the present treaty the state of war will +terminate. From that moment and subject to the provisions of this treaty +official relations with Germany and with any of the German States will +be resumed by the Allied and Associated Powers.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PART I<br /> +The Covenant of the League of Nations</h2> + +<p>The high contracting parties, in order to promote international +coöperation and to achieve international peace and security by the +acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by the prescription of +open, just, and honorable relations between nations, by the firm +establishment of the understandings of international law as the actual +rule of conduct among Governments, and by the maintenance of justice and +a scrupulous respect for all treaty obligations in the dealings of +organized peoples with one another, agree to this covenant of the League +of Nations.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 1.</strong>—The original members of the League of Nations shall be +those of the signatories which are named in the annex to this covenant +and also such of those other States named in the annex as shall accede +without reservation to this covenant. Such accession shall be effected +by a declaration deposited with the secretariat within two months of the +coming into force of the covenant. Notice thereof shall be sent to all +other members of the League.</p> + +<p>Any fully self-governing State, dominion, or colony not named in the +annex may become a member of the League if its admission is agreed to by +two-thirds of the assembly, provided that it shall give effective +guarantees of its sincere intention to observe its international +obligations, and shall accept such regulations as may be prescribed by +the League in regard to its military, naval and air forces and +armaments.</p> + +<p>Any member of the League may, after two years' notice of its intention +so to do, withdraw from the League, provided that all its international +obligations and all its obligations under this covenant shall have been +fulfilled at the time of its withdrawal.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 2.</strong>—The action of the League under this covenant shall be +effected through the instrumentality of an assembly and of a council, +with a permanent secretariat.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 3.</strong>—The assembly shall consist of representatives of the +members of the League.</p> + +<p>The assembly shall meet at stated intervals and from time to time as +occasion may require at the seat of the League or at such other place as +may be decided upon.</p> + +<p>The assembly may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere +of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world.</p> + +<p>At meetings of the assembly each member of the League shall have one +vote, and may have not more than three representatives.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 4.</strong>—The council shall consist of representatives of the +principal Allied and Associated Powers, together with representatives of +four other members of the League. These four members of the League shall +be selected by the assembly from time to time in its discretion. Until +the appointment of the representatives of the four members of the League +first selected by the assembly, representatives of Belgium, Brazil, +Spain, and Greece shall be members of the council.</p> + +<p>With the approval of the majority of the assembly, the council may name +additional members of the League whose representatives shall always be +members of the council; the council with like approval may increase the +number of members of the League to be selected by the assembly for +representation on the council.</p> + +<p>The council shall meet from time to time as occasion may require, and at +least once a year, at the seat of the League, or at such other place as +may be decided upon.</p> + +<p>The council may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere +of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world.</p> + +<p>Any member of the League not represented on the council shall be invited +to send a representative to sit as a member at any meeting of the +council during the consideration of matters specially affecting the +interests of that member of the League.</p> + +<p>At meetings of the council, each member of the League represented on the +council shall have one vote, and may have not more than one +representative.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 5.</strong>—Except where otherwise expressly provided in this +covenant or by the terms of the present treaty, decisions at any meeting +of the assembly or of the council shall require the agreement of all the +members of the League represented at the meeting.</p> + +<p>All matters of procedure at meetings of the assembly or of the council, +including the appointment of committees to investigate particular +matters, shall be regulated by the assembly or by the council and may be +decided by a majority of the members of the League represented at the +meeting.</p> + +<p>The first meeting of the assembly and the first meeting of the council +shall be summoned by the President of the United States of America.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 6.</strong>—The permanent secretariat shall be established at the +seat of the League. The secretariat shall comprise a Secretary General +and such secretaries and staff as may be required.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p> + +<p>The first Secretary General shall be the person named in the annex; +thereafter the Secretary General shall be appointed by the council with +the approval of the majority of the assembly.</p> + +<p>The secretaries and staff of the secretariat shall be appointed by the +Secretary General with the approval of the council.</p> + +<p>The Secretary General shall act in that capacity at all meetings of the +assembly and of the council.</p> + +<p>The expenses of the secretariat shall be borne by the members of the +League in accordance with the apportionment of the expenses of the +International Bureau of the Universal Postal Union.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 7.</strong>—The seat of the League is established at Geneva.</p> + +<p>The council may at any time decide that the seat of the League shall be +established elsewhere.</p> + +<p>All positions under or in connection with the League, including the +secretariat, shall be open equally to men and women.</p> + +<p>Representatives of the members of the League and officials of the League +when engaged on the business of the League shall enjoy diplomatic +privileges and immunities.</p> + +<p>The buildings and other property occupied by the League or its officials +or by representatives attending its meetings shall be inviolable.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 8.</strong>—The members of the League recognize that the +maintenance of peace requires the reduction of national armaments to the +lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by +common action of international obligations.</p> + +<p>The council, taking account of the geographical situation and +circumstances of each State, shall formulate plans for such reduction +for the consideration and action of several Governments.</p> + +<p>Such plans shall be subject to reconsideration and revision at least +every ten years.</p> + +<p>After these plans shall have been adopted by the several Governments, +the limits of armaments therein fixed shall not be exceeded without the +concurrence of the council.</p> + +<p>The members of the League agree that the manufacture by private +enterprise of munitions and implements of war is open to grave +objections. The council shall advise how the evil effects attendant upon +such manufacture can be prevented, due regard being had to the +necessities of those members of the League which are not able to +manufacture the munitions and implements of war necessary for their +safety.</p> + +<p>The members of the League undertake to interchange full and frank +information as to the scale of their armaments, their military and naval +programs and the condition of such of their industries as are adaptable +to warlike purposes.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 9.</strong>—A permanent commission shall be constituted to advise +the council on the execution of the provisions of Articles 1 and 8 and +on military and naval questions generally.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 10.</strong>—The members of the League undertake to respect and +preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and +existing political independence of all members of the League. In case of +any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of such +aggression the council shall advise upon the means by which this +obligation shall be fulfilled.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 11.</strong>—Any war or threat of war, whether immediately +affecting any of the members of the League or not, is hereby declared a +matter of concern to the whole League, and the League shall take any +action that may be deemed wise and effectual to safeguard the peace of +nations. In case any such emergency should arise the Secretary General +shall on the request of any member of the League forthwith summon a +meeting of the council.</p> + +<p>It is also declared to be the friendly right of each member of the +League to bring to the attention of the assembly or of the council any +circumstance whatever affecting international relations which threatens +to disturb international peace or the good understanding between nations +upon which peace depends.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 12.</strong>—The members of the League agree that if there should +arise between them any dispute likely to lead to a rupture, they will +submit the matter either to arbitration or to inquiry by the council, +and they agree in no case to resort to war until three months after the +award by the arbitrators or the report by the council.</p> + +<p>In any case under this article the award of the arbitrators shall be +made within a reasonable time, and the report of the council shall be +made within six months after the submission of the dispute.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 13.</strong>—The members of the League agree that whenever any +dispute shall arise between them which they recognize to be suitable for +submission to arbitration and which cannot be satisfactorily settled by +diplomacy, they will submit the whole subject-matter to arbitration.</p> + +<p>Disputes as to the interpretation of a treaty, as to any question of +international law, as to the existence of any fact which if established +would constitute a breach of any international obligation, or as to the +extent and nature of the reparation to be made for any such breach, are +declared to be among those which are generally suitable for submission +to arbitration.</p> + +<p>For the consideration of any such dispute the Court of Arbitration to +which the case is referred shall be the court agreed on by the parties +to the dispute or stipulated in any convention existing between them.</p> + +<p>The members of the League agree that they will carry out in full good +faith any award that may be rendered, and that they will not resort to +war against a member of the League which complies therewith. In the +event of any failure to carry out such an award, the council shall +propose what steps should be taken to give effect thereto.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 14.</strong>—The council shall formulate and submit to the members +of the League for adoption plans for the establishment of a Permanent +Court of International Justice.</p> + +<p>The court shall be competent to hear and determine any dispute of an +international character which the parties thereto submit to it. The +court may also give an advisory opinion upon any dispute or question +referred to it by the council or by the assembly.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 15.</strong>—If there should arise between members of the League +any dispute likely to lead to a rupture, which is not submitted to +arbitration in accordance with Article 13, the members of the League +agree that they will submit the matter to the council. Any party to the +dispute may effect such submission by giving notice of the existence of +the dispute to the Secretary General, who will make all necessary +arrangements for a full investigation and consideration thereof.</p> + +<p>For this purpose the parties to the dispute will communicate to the +Secretary General, as promptly as possible, statements of their case +with all the relevant facts and papers, and the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> + +council may forthwith direct the publication thereof.</p> + +<p>The council shall endeavor to effect a settlement of the dispute, and if +such efforts are successful, a statement shall be made public giving +such facts and explanations regarding the dispute and the terms of +settlement thereof as the council may deem appropriate.</p> + +<p>If the dispute is not thus settled, the council either unanimously or by +a majority vote shall make and publish a report containing a statement +of the facts of the dispute and the recommendations which are deemed +just and proper in regard thereto.</p> + +<p>Any member of the League represented on the council may make public a +statement of the facts of the dispute and of its conclusions regarding +the same.</p> + +<p>If a report by the council is unanimously agreed to by the members +thereof other than the representatives of one or more of the parties to +the dispute, the members of the League agree that they will not go to +war with any party to the dispute which complies with the +recommendations of the report.</p> + +<p>If the council fails to reach a report which is unanimously agreed to by +the members thereof, other than the representatives of one or more of +the parties to the dispute, the members of the League reserve to +themselves the right to take such action as they shall consider +necessary for the maintenance of right and justice.</p> + +<p>If the dispute between the parties is claimed by one of them, and is +found by the council to arise out of a matter which by international law +is solely within the domestic jurisdiction of that party, the council +shall so report, and shall make no recommendation as to its settlement.</p> + +<p>The council may in any case under this article refer the dispute to the +assembly. The dispute shall be so referred at the request of either +party to the dispute, provided that such request be made within fourteen +days after the submission of the dispute to the council.</p> + +<p>In any case referred to the assembly all the provisions of this article +and of Article 12 relating to the action and powers of the council shall +apply to the action and powers of the assembly, provided that a report +made by the assembly, if concurred in by the representatives of those +members of the League represented on the council and of a majority of +the other members of the League, exclusive in each case of the +representatives of the parties to the dispute, shall have the same force +as a report by the council concurred in by all the members thereof other +than the representatives of one or more of the parties to the dispute.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 16.</strong>—Should any member of the League resort to war in +disregard of its covenants under Articles 12, 13, or 15, it shall <strong>ipso +facto</strong> be deemed to have committed an act of war against all other +members of the League, which hereby undertake immediately to subject it +to the severance of all trade or financial relations, the prohibition of +all intercourse between their nationals and the nationals of the +covenant-breaking State and the prevention of all financial, commercial, +or personal intercourse between the nationals of the covenant-breaking +State and the nationals of any other State, whether a member of the +League or not.</p> + +<p>It shall be the duty of the council in such case to recommend to the +several Governments concerned what effective military, naval or air +force the members of the League shall severally contribute to the armed +forces to be used to protect the covenants of the League.</p> + +<p>The members of the League agree, further, that they will mutually +support one another in the financial and economic measures which are +taken under this article, in order to minimize the loss and +inconvenience resulting from the above measures, and that they will +mutually support one another in resisting any special measures aimed at +one of their number by the covenant-breaking State, and that they will +take the necessary steps to afford passage through their territory to +the forces of any of the members of the League which are +coöperating to protect the covenants of the League.</p> + +<p>Any member of the League which has violated any covenant of the League +may be declared to be no longer a member of the League by a vote of the +council concurred in by the representatives of all the other members of +the League represented thereon.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 17.</strong>—In the event of a dispute between a member of the +League and a State which is not a <del>mmber</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads mmber">member</ins>member of the League, or between +States not members of the League, the State or States not members of the +League shall be invited to accept the obligations of membership in the +League for the purposes of such dispute, upon such conditions as the +council may deem just. If such invitation is accepted, the provisions of +Articles 12 to 16 inclusive shall be applied with such modifications as +may be deemed necessary by the council.</p> + +<p>Upon such invitation being given the council shall immediately institute +an inquiry into the circumstances of the dispute and recommend such +action as may seem best and most effectual in the circumstances.</p> + +<p>If a State so invited shall refuse to accept the obligations of +membership in the League for the purposes of such dispute, and shall +resort to war against a member of the League, the provisions of Article +16 shall be applicable as against the State taking such action.</p> + +<p>If both parties to the dispute when so invited refuse to accept the +obligations of membership in the League for the purposes of such +dispute, the council may take such measures and make such +recommendations as will prevent hostilities and will result in the +settlement of the dispute.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 18.</strong>—Every treaty or international engagement entered into +hereafter by any member of the League shall be forthwith registered with +the secretariat and shall as soon as possible be published by it. No +such treaty or international engagement shall be binding until so +registered.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 19.</strong>—The assembly may from time to time advise the +reconsideration by members of the League of treaties which have become +inapplicable and the consideration of international conditions whose +continuance might endanger the peace of the world.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 20.</strong>—The members of the League severally agree that this +covenant is accepted as abrogating all obligations or understandings +inter se which are inconsistent with the terms thereof, and solemnly +undertake that they will not hereafter enter into any engagements +inconsistent with the terms thereof.</p> + +<p>In case any member of the League shall, before becoming a member of the +League, have undertaken any obligations inconsistent with the terms of +this covenant, it shall be the duty of such member to take immediate +steps to procure its release from such obligations.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 21.</strong>—Nothing in this covenant shall be deemed to affect the +validity of international engagements, such as treaties of arbitration +or + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> + +regional understandings like the Monroe Doctrine, for securing the +maintenance of peace.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 22.</strong>—To those colonies and territories which as a +consequence of the late war have ceased to be under the sovereignty of +the States which formerly governed them and which are inhabited by +peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous +conditions of the modern world, there should be applied the principle +that the well-being and development of such peoples form a sacred trust +of civilization and that securities for the performance of this trust +should be embodied in this covenant.</p> + +<p>The best method of giving practical effect to this principle is that the +tutelage of such peoples should be intrusted to advanced nations who by +reason of their resources, their experience or their geographical +position can best undertake this responsibility, and who are willing to +accept it, and that this tutelage should be exercised by them as +mandatories on behalf of the League.</p> + +<p>The character of the mandate must differ according to the stage of +development of the people, the geographical situation of the territory, +its economic conditions and other similar circumstances.</p> + +<p>Certain communities formerly belonging to the Turkish Empire have +reached a stage of development where their existence as independent +nations can be provisionally recognized subject to rendering of +administrative advice and assistance by a mandatory until such time as +they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a +principal consideration in the selection of the mandatory.</p> + +<p>Other peoples, especially those of Central Africa, are at such a stage +that the mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the +territory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of conscience +and religion, subject only to the maintenance of public order and +morals, the prohibition of abuses such as the slave trade, the arms +traffic and the liquor traffic, and the prevention of the establishment +of fortifications or military and naval bases and of military training +of the natives for other than police purposes and the defense of +territory, and will also secure equal opportunities for the trade and +commerce of other members of the League.</p> + +<p>There are territories such as Southwest Africa and certain of the South +Pacific Islands, which, owing to the sparseness of their population or +their small size, or their remoteness from the centers of civilization; +or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the mandatory, and +other circumstances, can be best administered under the laws of the +mandatory as integral portions of its territory, subject to the +safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the indigenous +population.</p> + +<p>In every case of mandate the mandatory shall render to the council an +annual report in reference to the territory committed to its charge.</p> + +<p>The degree of authority, control, or administration to be exercised by +the mandatory shall, if not previously agreed upon by the members of the +League, be explicitly defined in each case by the council.</p> + +<p>A permanent commission shall be constituted to receive and examine the +annual reports of the mandatories and to advise the council on all +matters relating to the observance of the mandates.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 23.</strong>—Subject to and in accordance with the provisions of +international conventions existing or hereafter to be agreed upon, the +members of the League:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li>will endeavor to secure and maintain fair and humane conditions of +labor for men, women and children, both in their own countries and in +all countries to which their commercial and industrial relations extend, +and for that purpose will establish and maintain the necessary +international organizations;</li> + +<li>undertake to secure just treatment of the native inhabitants of +territories under their control;</li> + +<li>will intrust the League with the general supervision over the +execution of agreements with regard to the traffic in women and children +and the traffic in opium and other dangerous drugs;</li> + +<li>will intrust the League with the general supervision of the trade in +arms and ammunition with the countries in which the control of this +traffic is necessary in the common interest;</li> + +<li>will make provision to secure and maintain freedom of communications +and of transit and equitable treatment for the commerce of all members +of the League. In this connection the special necessities of the regions +devastated during the war of 1914—1918 shall be borne in mind;</li> + +<li>will endeavor to take steps in matters of international concern for +the prevention and control of disease.</li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 24.</strong>—There shall be placed under the direction of the +League all international bureaus already established by general treaties +if the parties to such treaties consent. All such international bureaus +and all commissions for the regulation of matters of international +interest hereafter constituted shall be placed under the direction of +the League.</p> + +<p>In all matters of international interest which are regulated by general +conventions but which are not placed under the control of international +bureaus or commissions, the secretariat of the League shall, subject to +the consent of the council and if desired by the parties, collect and +distribute all relevant information and shall render any other +assistance which may be necessary or desirable.</p> + +<p>The council may include as part of the expenses of the secretariat the +expenses of any bureau or commission which is placed under the direction +of the League.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 25.</strong>—The members of the League agree to encourage and +promote the establishment and co-operation of duly authorized voluntary +national Red Cross organizations having as purposes the improvement of +health, the prevention of disease, and the mitigation of suffering +throughout the world.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 26.</strong>—Amendments to this covenant will take effect when +ratified by the members of the League whose representatives compose the +council and by a majority of the members of the League whose +representatives compose the assembly.</p> + +<p>No such amendment shall bind any member of the League which signifies +its dissent therefrom, but in that case it shall cease to be a member of +the League.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p> + +<h3>ANNEX</h3> + +<p>I. Original members of the League of Nations signatories of the treaty +of peace.</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li>United States of America.</li> +<li>Belgium.</li> +<li>Bolivia.</li> +<li>Brazil.</li> +<li>British Empire. +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li>Canada.</li> +<li>Australia.</li> +<li>South Africa.</li> +<li>New Zealand.</li> +<li>India</li> +</ul></li> +<li>China.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></li> +<li>Cuba.</li> +<li>Ecuador.</li> +<li>France.</li> +<li>Greece.</li> +<li>Guatemala.</li> +<li>Uruguay.</li> +<li>Haiti.</li> +<li>Hedjaz.</li> +<li>Honduras.</li> +<li>Italy.</li> +<li>Japan.</li> +<li>Liberia.</li> +<li>Nicaragua.</li> +<li>Panama.</li> +<li>Peru.</li> +<li>Poland.</li> +<li>Portugal.</li> +<li>Rumania.</li> +<li>Serb-Croat-Slovene State.</li> +<li>Siam.</li> +<li>Czecho-Slovakia.</li> +</ul> + +<p>States invited to accede to the covenant.</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li>Argentine Republic</li> +<li>Chile.</li> +<li>Colombia.</li> +<li>Denmark.</li> +<li>Netherlands.</li> +<li>Norway.</li> +<li>Paraguay</li> +<li>Persia.</li> +<li>Salvador.</li> +<li>Spain.</li> +<li>Sweden.</li> +<li>Switzerland.</li> +<li>Venezuela.</li> +</ul> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a>Refused to sign.</p></div> + +<p>II. First Secretary General of the League of Nations. The Honorable Sir +James Eric Drummond, K. C. M. G., C. B.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PART II.<br /> +Boundaries of Germany</h2> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 27.</strong>—The boundaries of Germany will be determined as +follows:</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>With Belgium: From the point common to the three frontiers of +Belgium, Holland, and Germany, and in a southerly direction; the +northeastern boundary of the former territory of neutral Moresnet, then +the eastern boundary of the Kreis of Eupen, then the frontier between +Belgium and the Kreis of Montjoie, then the northeastern and eastern +boundary of the Kreis of Malmédy to its junction with the +frontier of Luxemburg.</p></li> + +<li><p>With Luxemburg: The frontier of the 3d August, 1914, to its junction +with the frontier of France of the 18th July, 1870.</p></li> + +<li><p>With France: The frontier of the 18th July, 1870, from Luxemburg to +Switzerland, with the reservations made in Article 48 of Section 4 +(Sarre Basin) of Part III.</p></li> + +<li><p>With Switzerland: The present frontier.</p></li> + +<li><p>With Austria: The frontier of the 3d August, 1914, from Switzerland +to Czechoslovakia is hereinafter defined.</p></li> + +<li><p>With Czechoslovakia: The frontier of the 3d August, 1914, between +Germany and Austria from its junction with the old administrative +boundary separating Bohemia and the Province of Upper Austria to the +point north of the salient of the old Province of Austrian Silesia +situated at about eight kilometers east of Neustadt.</p></li> + +<li><p>With Poland: From the point defined above to a point to be fixed on +the ground about 2 kilometers east of Lorzendorf: the frontier as it +will be fixed in accordance with Article 88 of the present treaty; +thence in a northerly direction to the point where the administrative +boundary of Posnania crosses the river Bartsch; a line to be fixed on +the ground leaving the following places in Poland: Skorischau, +Reichthal, Trembatschau, Kunzendorf, Schleise, Gross Kosel, +Schreibersdorf, Rippin, Fürstlich-Niefken, Pawelau, Tscheschen, +Konradau, Johannisdorf, Modzenowe, Bogdaj, and in Germany: Lorzendorf, +Kaulwitz, Glausche, Dalbersdorf, Reesewitz, Stradam, Gross Wartenberg +Kraschen, Neu Mittelwalde, Domaslawitz, Wodelsdorf, Tscheschen Hammer; +thence the boundary of Posnania northwestward to the point where it cuts +the Rawitsch-Herrnstadt railway; thence to the point where the +administrative boundary of Posnania cuts the Reisen-Tschirnau road: a +line to be fixed on the ground passing west of Triebusch and Gabel and +east of Saborwitz; thence the administrative boundary of Posnania to its +junction with the eastern boundary of the Kreis of Fraustadt;</p> + +<p>Thence in a northwesterly direction to a point to be chosen on the road +between the villages of Unruhstadt and Kophitz: a line to be fixed on +the ground passing west of Geyersdorf, Brenno, Fehlen, Altkloster, +Klebel, and east of Ulbersdorf, Buchwald, Ilgen, Weine, Lupitze, +Schwenten; thence in a northerly direction to the northernmost point of +Lake Chlop: a line to be fixed on the ground following the median line +of the lakes; the town and the station of Bentschen, however, (including +the junction of the lines Schwiebus-Bentschen and +Züllichau-Bentschen,) remaining in Polish territory;</p> + +<p>Thence in a northeasterly direction to the point of junction of the +boundaries of the Kreise of Schwerin, Birnbaum, and Meseritz: a line to +be fixed on the ground passing east of Betsche; thence in a northerly +direction the boundary separating the Kreise of Schwerin and Birnbaum, +then in an easterly direction the northern boundary of Posnania and to +the point where it cuts the river Netze; thence upstream to its +confluence with the Küddow: the course of the Netze; thence +upstream to a point to be chosen about 6 kilometers southeast of +Schneidemühl; the course of the Küddow;</p> + +<p>Thence northeastward to the most southern point of the re-entrant of the +northern boundary of Posnania about 5 kilometers west of Stahren: a line +to be fixed on the ground leaving the Schneidemühl-Konitz railway +in this area entirely in German territory; thence the boundary of +Posnania northeastward to the point of the salient it makes about 15 +kilometers east of Flatow; thence northeastward to the point where the +river Kamionka meets the southern boundary of the Kreis of Konitz about +3 kilometers northeast of Grunau: a line to be fixed on the ground +leaving the following places to Poland: Jasdrowo, Gr. Lutau, Kl. Lutau +and Wittkau, and to Germany: Gr. Butzig, Cziskowo, Battow, Böch, +and Grunau;</p> + +<p>Thence in a northerly direction the boundary between the Kreise of +Konitz and Schlochau to + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> + +the point where this boundary cuts the river Brahe; thence to a point on +the boundary of Pomerania 15 kilometers east of Rummelsburg: a line to +be fixed on the ground leaving the following localities in Poland: +Konarzin, Kelpin, Adl. Briesen, and in Germany: Sampohl, Neuguth, +Steinfort, and Gr. Peterkau; then the boundary of Pomerania in an +easterly direction to its junction with the boundary between the Kreis +of Konitz and Schlochau;</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-187.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-187thumb.jpg" width="400" height="398" +alt="President and Mrs. Wilson Waving Good Bye" +title="President and Mrs. Wilson Waving Good Bye" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright Press Illustrating Service</p> +<p class="caption">President and Mrs. Wilson Waving Good Bye</p> +<p class="description">This picture was taken as they were starting out for their first trip to +the Peace Conference.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-187.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p>Thence northward the boundary between Pomerania and West Prussia to the +point on the river Rheda about 3 kilometers northwest of Gohra, where +that river is joined by a tributary from the northwest; thence to a +point to be selected in the bend of the Piasnitz River about 1½ +kilometers northwest of Warschkau: a line to be fixed on the ground; +thence this river downstream, then the median line of Lake Zarnowitz, +then the old boundary of West Prussia to the Baltic Sea.</p></li> + +<li><p>With Denmark: The frontier as it will be fixed in accordance with +Articles 109 and 110 of Part III., Section XII., (Schleswig.)</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 28.</strong>—The boundaries of East Prussia, with the reservations +made in Section IX. (East Prussia) of Part III. will be determined as +follows:</p> + +<p>From a point on the coast of the Baltic Sea about 1½ kilometers +north of Pröbbernau Church in a direction of about 159 degrees east +from true north: A line to be fixed on the ground for about 2 +kilometers, thence in a straight line to the light at the bend of the +Elbinger Channel in approximately latitude 54.19½ north, +longitude 19.26 east of Greenwich;</p> + +<p>Thence to the easternmost mouth of the Nogat River at a bearing of +approximately 209 degrees east from true north; + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> + +hence up the course of the Nogat River to the point where the latter +leaves the Vistula, (Weichsel;)</p> + +<p>Thence up the principal channel of navigation of the Vistula, then the +southern boundary of the Kreis of Marienwerder, then that of the Kreis +of Rosenberg, eastward to the point where it meets the old boundary of +East Prussia;</p> + +<p>Thence the old boundary between East and West Prussia, then the boundary +between the Kreise of Osterode and Neidenburg, then the course of the +River Skoppau down stream, then the course of the Neide up stream to a +point situated about 5 kilometers west of Bialutten, being the nearest +point to the old frontier of Russia, thence in an easterly direction to +a point immediately south of the intersection of the road +Neidenburg-Mlava with the old frontier of Russia;</p> + +<p>A line to be fixed on the ground passing north of Bialutten;</p> + +<p>Thence the old frontier of Russia to a point east of Schmalleningken, +then the principal channel of navigation of the Niemen (Memel) down +stream, then the Skierwieth arm of the delta to the Kurisches Haff;</p> + +<p>Thence a straight line to the point where the eastern shore of the +Kurische Nehrung meets the administrative boundary about 4 kilometers +southwest of Nidden;</p> + +<p>Thence this administrative boundary to the western shore of the Kurische +Nehrung.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 29.</strong>—The boundaries as described above are drawn in red on +a one-in-a-million map which is annexed to the present treaty. (Map No. +1.)</p> + +<p>In the case of any discrepancies between the text of the treaty and this +map or any other map which may be annexed, the text will be final.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 30.</strong>—In the case of boundaries which are defined by a +waterway, the terms "course" and "channel" used in the present treaty +signify: in the case of non-navigable rivers, the median line of the +waterway or of its principal arm, and in the case of navigable rivers +the median line of the principal channel of navigation. It will rest +with the boundary commissions provided by the present treaty to specify +in each case whether the frontier line shall follow any changes of the +course or channel which may take place or whether it shall be definitely +fixed by the position of the course or channel at the time when the +present treaty comes into force.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PART III<br /> +Political Clauses for Europe</h2> + +<h3>SECTION I.—<em>Belgium</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 31.</strong>—Germany, recognizing that the treaties of April 19, +1839, which established the status of Belgium before the war, no longer +conform to the requirements of the situation, consents to the abrogation +of the said treaties and undertakes immediately to recognize and to +observe whatever conventions may be entered into by the principal allied +and associated powers, or by any of them in concert with the Governments +of Belgium and of the Netherlands, to replace the said treaties of 1839. +If her formal adhesion should be required to such conventions or to any +of their stipulations, Germany undertakes immediately to give it.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 32.</strong>—Germany recognizes the full sovereignty of Belgium +over the whole of the contested territory of Moresnet, (called Moresnet +Neutre.)</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 33.</strong>—Germany renounces in favor of Belgium all rights and +title over the territory of Prussian Moresnet situated on the west of +the road from Liége to Aix-la-Chapelle: the road will belong to +Belgium where it bounds this territory.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 34.</strong>—Germany renounces in favor of Belgium all rights and +title over the territory comprising the whole of the Kreise of Eupen and +of Malmédy.</p> + +<p>During the six months after the coming into force of this treaty, +registers will be opened by the Belgian authorities at Eupen and +Malmédy in which the inhabitants of the above territory will be +entitled to record in writing a desire to see the whole or part of it +remain under German sovereignty.</p> + +<p>The results of this public expression of opinion will be communicated by +the Belgian Government to the League of Nations, and Belgium undertakes +to accept the decision of the League.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 35.</strong>—A commission of seven persons, five of whom will be +appointed by the principal allied and associated powers, one by Germany +and one by Belgium, will be set up fifteen days after the coming into +force of the present treaty to settle on the spot the new frontier line +between Belgium and Germany, taking into account the economic factors +and the means of communication.</p> + +<p>Decisions will be taken by a majority and will be binding on the parties +concerned.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 36.</strong>—When the transfer of the sovereignty over the +territories referred to above has become definitive, German nationals +habitually resident in the territories will definitively acquire Belgian +nationality ipso facto, and will lose their German nationality.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless German nationals who become resident in the territories +after the 1st August, 1914, shall not obtain Belgian nationality without +a permit from the Belgian Government.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 37.</strong>—Within the two years following the definitive transfer +of the sovereignty over the territories assigned to Belgium under the +present treaty, German nationals over 18 years of age habitually +resident in those territories will be entitled to opt for German +nationality.</p> + +<p>Option by a husband will cover his wife, and option by parents will +cover their children under 18 years of age.</p> + +<p>Persons who have exercised the above right to opt must within the +ensuing twelve months transfer their place of residence to Germany.</p> + +<p>They will be entitled to retain their immovable property in the +territories acquired by Belgium. They may carry with them their movable +property of every description. No export or import duties may be imposed +upon them in connection with the removal of such property. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 38.</strong>—The German Government will hand over without delay to +the Belgian Government the archives, registers, plans, title deeds and +documents of every kind concerning the civil, military, financial, +judicial or other administrations in the territory transferred to +Belgian sovereignty.</p> + +<p>The German Government will likewise restore to the Belgian Government +the archives and documents of every kind carried off during the war by +the German authorities from the Belgian public administrations, in +particular from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs at Brussels.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 39.</strong>—The proportion and nature of the financial liabilities +of Germany and of Prussia which Belgium will have to bear on account of +the territories ceded to her shall be fixed in conformity with Articles +254 and 256 of Part IX. (financial clauses) of the present treaty.</p> + +<h3>SECTION II.—<em>Luxemburg</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 40.</strong>—With regard to the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, Germany +renounces the benefit of all the provisions inserted in her favor in the +treaties of Feb. 8, 1842; April 2, 1847; Oct. 20—25, 1865; Aug. 18, +1866; Feb. 21 and May 11, 1867; May 10, 1871; June 11, 1872, and Nov. +11, 1902, and in all conventions consequent upon such treaties.</p> + +<p>Germany recognizes that the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg ceased to form part +of the German Zollverein as from January 1, 1919; renounces all right to +the exploitation of the railways, adheres to the termination of the +régime of neutrality of the Grand Duchy, and accepts in advance +all international arrangements which may be concluded by the Allied and +Associated Powers relating to the Grand Duchy.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 41.</strong>—Germany undertakes to grant to the Grand Duchy of +Luxemburg, when a demand to that effect is made to her by the principal +Allied and Associated Powers, the rights and advantages stipulated in +favor of such powers or their nationals in the present treaty, with +regard to economic questions, to questions relative to transport and to +aerial navigation.</p> + +<h3>SECTION III.—<em>Left Bank of the Rhine</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 42.</strong>—Germany is forbidden to maintain or construct any +fortifications either on the left bank of the Rhine or on the right bank +to the west of a line drawn fifty kilometers to the east of the Rhine.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 43.</strong>—In the area defined above the maintenance and the +assembly of armed forces either permanently or temporarily, and military +maneuvers of any kind, as well as the upkeep of all permanent works for +mobilization, are in the same way forbidden.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 44.</strong>—In case Germany violates in any manner the provisions +of Article 42 and 43 she shall be regarded as committing a hostile act +against the powers signatory of the present treaty and as calculated to +disturb the peace of the world.</p> + +<h3>SECTION IV.—<em>Sarre Basin</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 45.</strong>—As compensation for the destruction of the coal mines +in the North of France and as part payment toward the total reparation +due from Germany for the damage resulting from the war, Germany cedes to +France in full and absolute possession, with exclusive rights of +exploitation, unincumbered and free from all debts and charges of any +kind, the coal mines situated in the Sarre Basin as defined in Article +48.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 46.</strong>—In order to assure the rights and welfare of the +population and to guarantee to France complete freedom in working the +mines, Germany agrees to the provisions of Chapters 1 and 2 of the annex +hereto.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 47.</strong>—In order to make in due time permanent provision for +the government of the Sarre Basin in accordance with the wishes of the +population, France and Germany agree to the provisions of Chapter 3 of +the annex hereto.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 48.</strong>—The boundaries of the territory of the Sarre Basin, as +dealt with in the present stipulations, will be fixed as follows:</p> + +<p>On the south and southwest: By the frontier of France as fixed by the +present treaty.</p> + +<p>On the northwest and north: By a line following the northern +administrative boundary of the Kreise of Merzig from the point where it +leaves the French frontier to the point where it meets the +administrative boundary, separating the commune of Saarhölzbach +from the commune of Britten; following this communal boundary southward +and reaching the administrative boundary of the Canton of Merzig so as +to include in the territory of the Sarre Basin the Canton of Mettlach, +with the exception of the commune of Britten: following successively the +northern administrative limits of the Cantons of Merzig and Haustadt, +which are incorporated in the aforesaid Sarre Basin, then successively +the administrative boundaries separating the Kreise of Saare Louis, +Ottweiler, and Saint-wendel from the Kreise of Merzig, Treves, (Trier.) +and the principality of Birkenfeld as far as a point situated about 500 +meters north of the village of Furschweiler, (viz.: The highest point of +the Metzelberg.)</p> + +<p>On the northeast and east: From the last point defined above to a point +about 3½ kilometers east-northeast of Saint Wendel:</p> + +<p>A line to be fixed on the ground passing east of Furschweiler, west of +Roschberg, east of points 418, 329, (south of Roschberg,) west of +Leitersweiler, northeast of point 46'4, and following the line of the +crest southward to its junction with the administrative boundary of the +Kreis of Kusel;</p> + +<p>Thence in a southerly direction the boundary of the Kreis of Kusel, then +the boundary of the Kreis of Homburg toward the south-southeast to a +point situated about 1,000 meters west of Dunzweiler;</p> + +<p>Thence to a point about one kilometer south of Hornbach: a line to be +fixed on the ground passing through point 424, (about 1,000 meters +southeast of Dunzweiler,) point 363, (Fuchsberg,) point 322, (southwest +of Waldmohr,) then east of Jagersburg and Erbach, then encircling +Homburg, passing through the points 361, (about 2½ kilometers +northeast by east of that town,) 342, (about 2 kilometers southeast of +that town,) 347, (Schreinersberg,) 356, 350, (about 1½ kilometers +southeast of Schwarzenbach,) then passing east of Einöd, southeast +of points 322 and 333, about 2 kilometers east of Webenheim, about 2 +kilometers east of Mimbach, passing east of the plateau which is +traversed by the road from Mimbach to Böckweiler, (so as to include +this road in the territory of the Sarre Basin,) passing immediately +north of the junction of the roads from Böckweiler and Altheim, +situated about 2 kilometers north of Altheim, then passing south of +Ringweilderhof and north of point 322, rejoining the frontier of France +at the angle which it makes about 1 kilometer south of Hornbach, (see +Map No. 2, scale 1-100,000, annexed to the present treaty.)</p> + +<p>A commission composed of five members, one appointed by France, one by +Germany, and three by the Council of the League of Nations, which will +select nationals of other powers, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> + +will be constituted within fifteen days from the coming into force of +the present treaty, to trace on the spot the frontier line described +above. In those parts of the preceding line which do not coincide with +administration boundaries, the commission will endeavor to keep to the +line indicated, while taking into consideration, so far as is possible +local economic interests and existing communal boundaries.</p> + +<p>The decisions of this commission will be taken by a majority and will be +binding on the parties concerned.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 49.</strong>—Germany renounces in favor of the League of Nations, +in the capacity of trustee, the government of the territory defined +above.</p> + +<p>At the end of fifteen years from the coming into force of the present +treaty the inhabitants of the said territory shall be called upon to +indicate the sovereignty under which they desire to be placed.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 50.</strong>—The stipulations under which the cession of the mines +in the Sarre Basin shall be carried out, together with the measures +intended to guarantee the rights and the well-being of the inhabitants +and the government of the territory, as well as the conditions in +accordance with which the plebiscite hereinbefore provided for is to be +made, are laid down in the annex hereto. This annex shall be considered +as an integral part of the present treaty, and Germany declares her +adherence to it.</p> + +<h3>ANNEX</h3> + +<p>In accordance with the provisions of Articles 45 to 50 of the present +treaty, the stipulations under which the cession by Germany to France of +the mines of the Sarre Basin will be effected, as well as the measures +intended to insure respect for the rights and well-being of the +population and the government of the territory, and the conditions in +which the inhabitants will be called upon to indicate the sovereignty +under which they may wish to be placed, have been laid down as follows:</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER 1.—CESSION AND EXPLOITATION OF MINING PROPERTY</h3> + +<ol> +<li><p>From the date of the coming into force of the present treaty, all the +deposits of coal situated within the Sarre Basin, as defined in Article +48 of the said treaty, become the complete and absolute property of the +French State.</p> + +<p>The French State will have the right of working or not working the said +mines or of transferring to a third party the right of working them, +without having to obtain any previous authorization or to fulfill any +formalities.</p> + +<p>The French State may always require that the German mining laws and +regulations referred to below shall be applied in order to insure the +determination of its rights.</p></li> + +<li><p>The right of ownership of the French State will apply not only to the +deposits which are free, and for which concessions have not yet been +granted, but also to the deposits for which concessions have already +been granted, whoever may be the present proprietors, irrespective of +whether they belong to the Prussian State, to the Bavarian State, to +other States or bodies, to companies or to individuals, whether they +have been worked or not, or whether a right of exploitation distinct +from the right of the owners of the surface of the soil has or has not +been recognized.</p></li> + +<li><p>As far as concerns the mines which are being worked, the transfer of +the ownership to the French State will apply to all the accessories and +subsidiaries of the said mines, in particular to their plant and +equipment both on and below the surface, to their extracting machinery, +their plants for transforming coal into electric power, coke and +by-products, their workshops, means of communication, electric lines, +plant for catching and distributing water, land, buildings, such as +offices, managers', employes', and workmen's dwellings, schools, +hospitals, and dispensaries, their stocks and supplies of every +description, their archives and plans, and in general everything which +those who own or exploit the mines possess or enjoy for the purpose of +exploiting the mines and their accessories and subsidiaries.</p> + +<p>The transfer will apply also to the debts owing for products delivered +before the entry into possession by the French State, and after the +signature of the present treaty, and to deposits of money made by +customers, whose rights will be guaranteed by the French State.</p></li> + +<li><p>The French State will acquire the property free and clear of all +debts and charges. Nevertheless the rights acquired, or in course of +being acquired, by the employes of the mines and their accessories and +subsidiaries at the date of the coming into force of the present treaty, +in connection with pensions for old age or disability, will not be +affected. In return, Germany must pay over to the French State a sum +representing the actuarial amounts to which the said employes are +entitled.</p></li> + +<li><p>The value of the property thus ceded to the French State will be +determined by the Reparation Commission referred to in Article 233 of +Part VIII. (Reparations) of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>This value shall be credited to Germany in part payment of the amount +due for reparation.</p> + +<p>It will be for Germany to indemnify the proprietors or parties +concerned, whoever they may be.</p></li> + +<li><p>No tariff shall be established on the German railways and canals +which may directly or indirectly discriminate to the prejudice of the +transport of the personnel or products of the mines and their +accessories or subsidiaries, or of the material necessary to their +exploitation. Such transport shall enjoy all the rights and privileges +which any international railway conventions may guarantee to similar +products of French origin.</p></li> + +<li><p>The equipment and personnel necessary to insure the dispatch and +transport of the products of the mines and their accessories and +subsidiaries, as well as the carriage of workmen and employes, will be +provided by the local railway administration of the basin.</p></li> + +<li><p>No obstacle shall be placed in the way of such improvements of +railways or waterways as the French State may judge necessary to assure +the dispatch and transport of the products of the mines and their +accessories and subsidiaries, such as double trackage, enlargement of +stations, and construction of yards and appurtenances.</p> + +<p>The distribution of expenses will, in the event of disagreement, be +submitted to arbitration.</p> + +<p>The French State may also establish any new means of communication, such +as roads, electric lines, and telephone connections, which it may +consider necessary for the exploitation of the mines.</p> + +<p>It may exploit freely and without any restrictions the means of +communication of which it may become the owner, particularly those +connecting the mines and their accessories and + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> + +subsidiaries with the means of communication situated in French +territory.</p></li> + +<li><p>The French State shall always be entitled to demand the application +of the German mining laws and regulations in force on the 11th of +November, 1918, excepting provisions adopted exclusively in view of the +state of war, with a view to the acquisition of such land as it may +judge necessary for the exploitation of the mines and their accessories +and subsidiaries.</p> + +<p>The payment for damage caused to immovable property by the working of +the said mines and their accessories and subsidiaries shall be made in +accordance with the German mining laws and regulations above referred +to.</p></li> + +<li><p>Every person whom the French State may substitute for itself as +regards the whole or part of its rights to the exploitation of the mines +and their accessories and subsidiaries shall enjoy the benefit of the +privileges provided in this annex.</p></li> + +<li><p>The mines and other immovable property which become the property of +the French State may never be made the subject of measures of +forfeiture, forced sale, expropriation or requisition, nor of any other +measure affecting the right of property.</p> + +<p>The personnel and the plant connected with the exploitation of these +mines or their accessories and subsidiaries, as well as the product +extracted from the mines or manufactured in their accessories and +subsidiaries, may not at any time be made the subject of any measures of +requisition.</p></li> + +<li><p>The exploitation of the mines and their accessories and +subsidiaries, which become the property of the French State, will +continue, subject to the provisions of Paragraph 23 below, to be subject +to the régime established by the German laws and regulations in +force on the 11th November, 1918, excepting provisions adopted +exclusively in view of the state of war.</p> + +<p>The rights of the workmen shall be similarly maintained, subject to the +provisions of the said Paragraph 23, as established on the 11th +November, 1918, by the German laws and regulations above referred to. No +impediment shall be placed in the way of the introduction or employment +in the mines and their accessories and subsidiaries of workmen from +without the basin.</p> + +<p>The employes and workmen of French nationality shall have the right to +belong to French labor unions.</p></li> + +<li><p>The amount contributed by the mines and their accessories and +subsidiaries, either to the local budget of the territory of the Sarre +Basin or to the communal funds, shall be fixed with due regard to the +ratio of the value of the mines to the total taxable wealth of the +basin.</p></li> + +<li><p>The French State shall always have the right of establishing and +maintaining, as incidental to the mines, primary or technical schools +for its employes and their children, and of causing instruction therein +to be given in the French language, in accordance with such curriculum +and by such teachers as it may select.</p> + +<p>It shall also have the right to establish and maintain hospitals, +dispensaries, workmen's houses and gardens, and other charitable and +social institutions.</p></li> + +<li><p>The French State shall enjoy complete liberty with respect to the +distribution, dispatch and sale prices of the products of the mines and +their accessories and subsidiaries.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, whatever may be the total product of the mines, the French +Government undertakes that the requirements of local consumption for +industrial and domestic purposes shall always be satisfied in the +proportion existing in 1913 between the amount consumed locally and the +total output of the Sarre Basin.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.—GOVERNMENT OF THE TERRITORY OF THE SARRE BASIN</h3></li> + +<li><p>The government of the territory of the Sarre Basin shall be +intrusted to a commission representing the League of Nations. This +commission shall sit in the territory of the Sarre Basin.</p></li> + +<li><p>The Governing Commission provided for by Paragraph 16 shall consist +of five members chosen by the Council of the League of Nations, and will +include one citizen of France, one native inhabitant of the Sarre Basin +not a citizen of France, and three members belonging to three countries +other than France or Germany.</p> + +<p>The members of the Governing Commission shall be appointed for one year +and may be reappointed. They can be removed by the Council of the League +of Nations, which will provide for their replacement. The members of the +Governing Commission will be entitled to a salary which will be fixed by +the Council of the League of Nations, and charged on the local revenues.</p></li> + +<li><p>The Chairman of the Governing Commission shall be appointed for one +year from among the members of the commission by the Council of the +League of Nations and may be reappointed. The Chairman will act as the +executive of the commission.</p></li> + +<li><p>Within the territory of the Sarre Basin the Governing Commission +shall have all the powers of government hitherto belonging to the German +Empire, Prussia or Bavaria, including the appointment and dismissal of +officials, and the creation of such administrative and representative +bodies as it may deem necessary. It shall have full powers to administer +and operate the railways, canals, and the different public services.</p> + +<p>Its decisions shall be taken by a majority.</p></li> + +<li><p>Germany will place at the disposal of the Governing Commission all +official documents and archives under the control of Germany, of any +German State, or of any local authority, which relate to the territory +of the Sarre Basin or to the rights of the inhabitants thereof.</p></li> + +<li><p>It will be the duty of the Governing Commission to insure, by such +means and under such conditions as it may deem suitable, the protection +abroad of the interests of the inhabitants of the territory of the Sarre +Basin.</p></li> + +<li><p>The Governing Commission shall have the full right of user of all +property, other than mines belonging, both in public and in private +domain, to the Imperial German Government, or the Government of any +German State, in the territory of the Sarre Basin.</p> + +<p>As regards the railways, an equitable apportionment of rolling stock +shall be made by a mixed commission on which the government of the +territory of the Sarre Basin and the German railways will be +represented.</p> + +<p>Persons, goods, vessels, carriages, wagons, and mails, coming from or +going to the Sarre Basin, shall enjoy all the rights and privileges +relating to transit and transport which are specified in the provisions +of Part XII. (ports, waterways, railways) of the present treaty.</p></li> + +<li><p>The laws and regulations in force n Nov. 11, 1918, in the territory +of the Sarre Basin, (except those enacted in consequence of the state of +war,) shall continue to apply. If, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> + +for general reasons or to bring these laws and regulations into accord +with the provisions of the present treaty, it is necessary to introduce +modifications, these shall be decided on, and put into effect by the +Governing Commission, after consultation with the elected +representatives of the inhabitants in such a manner as the commission +may determine. No modification may be made in the legal régime +for the exploitation of the mines, provided for in Paragraph 12, without +the French State being previously consulted, unless such modification +results from a general regulation respecting labor adopted by the League +of Nations.</p> + +<p>In fixing the conditions and hours of labor for men, women, and +children, the Governing Commission is to take into consideration the +wishes expressed by the local labor organizations, as well as the +principles adopted by the League of Nations.</p></li> + +<li><p>Subject to the provisions of Paragraph 4, no rights of the +inhabitants of the Sarre Basin acquired or in process of acquisition at +the date of the coming into force of this treaty, in respect of any +insurance system of Germany, or in respect of any pension of any kind, +are affected by any of the provisions of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>Germany and the Government of the territory of the Saare Basin will +preserve and continue all the aforesaid rights.</p></li> + +<li><p>The civil and criminal courts existing in the territory of the Sarre +Basin shall continue.</p> + +<p>A civil and criminal court will be established by the Governing +Commission to hear appeals from the decisions of the said courts, and to +decide matters for which these courts are not competent.</p> + +<p>The Governing Commission will be responsible for settling the +organization and jurisdiction of the said court.</p> + +<p>Justice will be rendered in the name of the Governing Commission.</p></li> + +<li><p>The Governing Commission will alone have the power of levying taxes +and dues in the territory of the Sarre Basin.</p> + +<p>These taxes and dues will be exclusively applied to the needs of the +territory.</p> + +<p>The fiscal system existing on Nov. 11, 1918, will be maintained as far +as possible, and no new tax except customs duties may be imposed without +previously consulting the elected representatives of the inhabitants.</p></li> + +<li><p>The present stipulations will not affect the existing nationality of +the inhabitants of the territory of the Sarre Basin. No hindrance shall +be placed in the way of those who wish to acquire a different +nationality, but in such case the acquisition of the new nationality +will involve the loss of any other.</p></li> + +<li><p>Under the control of the Governing Commission the inhabitants will +retain their local assemblies, their religious liberties, their schools, +and their language. The right of voting will not be exercised for any +assemblies other than the local assemblies, and will belong to every +inhabitant over the age of 20 years without distinction of sex.</p></li> + +<li><p>Any of the inhabitants of the Sarre Basin who may desire to leave +the territory will have full liberty to retain in it their immovable +property or to sell it at fair prices and to remove their movable +property free of any charge.</p></li> + +<li><p>There will be no military service, whether compulsory or voluntary, +in the territory of the Sarre Basin, and the construction of +fortifications therein is forbidden. Only a local gendarmerie for the +maintenance of order may be established. It will be the duty of the +Governing Commission to provide in all cases for the protection of +persons and property in the Sarre Basin.</p></li> + +<li><p>The territory of the Sarre Basin as defined by Article 48 of the +present treaty shall be subjected to the French customs régime. +The receipts from the customs duties on goods intended for local +consumption shall be included in the budget of the said territory after +deduction of all costs of collection. No export tax shall be imposed +upon metallurgical products or coal exported from the said territory to +Germany, nor upon German exports for the use of the industries of the +territory of the Sarre Basin. Natural or manufactured products +originating in the basin in transit over German territory and similarly +German products in transit over the territory of the basin shall be free +of all customs duties.</p> + +<p>Products which both originate in and pass from the basin into Germany +shall be free of import duties for a period of five years from the date +of the coming into force of the present treaty, and during the same +period articles imported from Germany into the territory of the basin +for local consumption shall likewise be free of import duties.</p> + +<p>During these five years the French Government reserves to itself the +right of limiting to the annual average of the quantities imported into +Alsace-Lorraine and France in the years 1911 to 1913 the quantities +which may be sent into France of all articles coming from the basin, +which include raw materials and semi-manufactured goods imported duty +free from Germany. Such average shall be determined after reference to +all available official information and statistics.</p></li> + +<li><p>No prohibition or restriction shall be imposed upon the circulation +of French money in the territory of the Sarre Basin. The French State +shall have the right to use French money in all purchases, payments, and +contracts connected with the exploitation of the mines or their +accessories and subsidiaries.</p></li> + +<li><p>The Governing Commission shall have power to decide all questions +arising from the interpretation of the preceding provisions. France and +Germany agree that any dispute involving a difference of opinion as to +the interpretation of the said provisions shall in the same way be +submitted to the Governing Commission, and the decision of a majority of +the commission shall be binding on both countries.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.—PLEBISCITE</h3></li> + +<li><p>At the termination of a period of fifteen years from the coming into +force of the present treaty, the population of the territory of the +Sarre Basin will be called upon to indicate their desires in the +following manner:</p> + +<p>A vote will take place, by communes or districts, on the three following +alternatives: (a) Maintenance of the régime established by the +present treaty and by this annex; (b) union with France; (c) union with +Germany.</p> + +<p>All persons without distinction of sex, more than 20 years old at the +date of the voting, resident in the territory at the date of the +signature of the present treaty, will have the right to vote.</p> + +<p>The other conditions, methods, and the date of the voting shall be fixed +by the Council of the League of Nations in such a way as to secure the +liberty, secrecy, and trustworthiness of the voting.</p></li> + +<li><p>The League of Nations shall decide on the sovereignty under which +the territory is to be placed, taking into account the wishes of the +inhabitants as expressed by the voting. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>If, for the whole or part of the territory, the League of Nations +decides in favor of the maintenance of the régime established by +the present treaty and this annex, Germany hereby agrees to make such +renunciation of her sovereignty in favor of the League of Nations as the +latter shall deem necessary. It will be the duty of the League of +Nations to take appropriate steps to adapt the régime definitely +adopted to the permanent welfare of the territory and the general +interests.</p></li> + +<li><p>If for the whole or part of the territory the League of Nations +decides in favor of union with France, Germany hereby agrees to cede to +France in accordance with the decision of the League of Nations all +rights and title over the territory specified by the League.</p></li> + +<li><p>If for the whole or part of the territory the League of Nations +decides in favor of union with Germany, it will be the duty of the +League of Nations to cause the German Government to be re-established in +the government of the territory specified by the League.</p> + <div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-193.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-193thumb.jpg" width="400" height="294" + alt="President Wilson's Welcome in Paris" + title="President Wilson's Welcome in Paris" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> + <p class="caption">President Wilson's Welcome in Paris</p> + <p class="description">A general view of the Place de l'Etoile, + showing the President's carriage, passing the triumphant + arch on its way to the Murat Castle, where President Wilson + established his home during his stay in the French Capitol.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-193.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> + </div> +</li> + +</ol></li> +<li><p>If the League of Nations decides in favor of the union of the whole +or part of the territory of the Sarre Basin with Germany, France's +rights of ownership in the mines situated in such part of the territory +will be repurchased by Germany in their entirety at a price payable in +gold. The price to be paid will be fixed by three experts, one nominated +by Germany, one by France, and one, who shall be neither a Frenchman nor +a German, by the Council of the League of Nations. The decision of the +experts will be given by a majority.</p> + +<p>The obligation of Germany to make such payment shall be taken into +account by the Reparation Commission, and for the purpose of this +payment Germany may create a prior charge upon her assets or revenues +upon such detailed terms as shall be agreed to by the Reparation +Commission.</p> + +<p>If, nevertheless, Germany after a period of one year from the date on +which the payment becomes due shall not have effected the said payment, +the Reparation Commission shall do so in accordance with such +instructions as may be given by the League of Nations, and, if +necessary, by liquidating that part of the mines which is in question.</p></li> + +<li><p>If, in consequence of the repurchase provided for in Paragraph 36, +the ownership of the mines or any part of them is transferred to +Germany, the French State and French nationals shall have the right to +purchase such amount of coal of the Sarre Basin as their industrial and +domestic needs are found at that time to require. An equitable +arrangement regarding + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> + +amounts of coal, duration of contract, and prices will be fixed in due +time by the Council of the League of Nations.</p></li> + +<li><p>It is understood that France and Germany may, by special agreements +concluded before the time fixed for the payment of the price for the +repurchase of the mines, modify the provisions of Paragraphs 36 and 37.</p></li> + +<li><p>The Council of the League of Nations shall make such provisions as +may be necessary for the establishment of the régime which is to +take effect after the decisions of the League of Nations mentioned in +Paragraph 35 have become operative, including an equitable apportionment +of any obligations of the Government of the territory of the Sarre Basin +arising from loans raised by the commission or from other causes.</p> + +<p>From the coming into force of the new régime, the powers of the +Governing Commission will terminate, except in the case provided for in +Paragraph 35. (a)</p></li> + +<li><p>In all matters dealt with in the present annex, the decisions of the +Council of the League of Nations will be taken by a majority.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>SECTION V.—<em>Alsace-Lorraine</em></h3> + +<p>The high contracting powers, recognizing the moral obligation to redress +the wrong done by Germany in 1871, both to the rights of France and to +the wishes of the population of Alsace and Lorraine, which were +separated from their country in spite of solemn protests of their +representatives of the Assembly of Bordeaux, agree upon the following +articles:</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 51.</strong>—The territories which were ceded to Germany in +accordance with the preliminaries of peace signed at Versailles on the +26th February, 1871, and the treaty of Frankfort on the 10th May, 1871, +are restored to French sovereignty as from the date of the armistice of +the 11th November, 1918.</p> + +<p>The provisions of the treaties establishing the delimination of the +frontiers before 1871 shall be restored.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 52.</strong>—The German Government shall hand over without delay to +the French Government all archives, registers, plans, titles, and +documents of every kind concerning the civil, military, financial, +judicial, or other administrations of the territories restored to French +sovereignty. If any of these documents, archives, registers, titles, or +plans have been misplaced, they will be restored by the German +Government on the demand of the French Government.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 53.</strong>—Separate agreements shall be made between France and +Germany dealing with the interests of the inhabitants of the territories +referred to in Article 51, particularly as regards their civil rights, +their business and the exercise of their professions, it being +understood that Germany undertakes as from the present date to recognize +and accept the regulations laid down in the annex hereto regarding the +nationality of the inhabitants or natives of the said territories, not +to claim at any time or in any place whatsoever as German nationals +those who shall have been declared on any ground to be French, to +receive all others in her territory, and to conform, as regards the +property of German nationals in the territories indicated in Article 51, +with the provisions of Article 297, and the Annex to Section 4 of Part +X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>Those German nationals who without acquiring French nationality shall +receive permission from the French Government to reside in the said +territories shall not be subjected to the provisions of the said +article.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 54</strong>.—Those persons who have regained French nationality in +virtue of Paragraph 1 of the annex hereto, will be held to be +Alsace-Lorrainers for the purposes of the present section.</p> + +<p>The persons referred to in Paragraph 2 of the said annex will, from the +day on which they have claimed French nationality, be held to be +Alsace-Lorrainers with retroactive effect as from the 11th November, +1918. From those whose application is rejected, the privilege will +terminate at the date of the refusal.</p> + +<p>Such juridical persons will also have the status of Alsace-Lorrainers as +have been recognized as possessing this quality, whether by the French +administrative authorities or by a judicial decision.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 55.</strong>—The territories referred to in Article 51 shall return +to France, free and quit of all public debts under the conditions laid +down in Article 255 of Part IX. (financial clauses) of the present +treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 56.</strong>—In conformity with the provisions of Article 256 of +Part IX. (financial clauses) of the present treaty, France shall enter +into possession of all property and estate within the territories +referred to in Article 51, which belong to the German Empire or German +States, without any payment or credit on this account to any of the +States ceding the territories.</p> + +<p>This provision applies to all movable or immovable property of public or +private domain, together with all rights whatsoever belonging to the +German Empire or the German States or to their administrative areas.</p> + +<p>Crown property and the property of the former Emperor or other German +sovereigns shall be assimilated to property of the public domain.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 57.</strong>—Germany shall not take any action, either by means of +stamping or by any other legal or administrative measures not applying +equally to the rest of her territory, which may be to the detriment of +the legal value or redeemability of German monetary instruments or +moneys which at the date of the signature of the present treaty are +legally current, and at that date are in the possession of the French +Government.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 58.</strong>—A special convention will determine the conditions for +repayment in marks of the exceptional war expenditure advanced during +the course of the war by Alsace-Lorraine or by public bodies in +Alsace-Lorraine on account of the empire in accordance with German law, +such as payment to the families of persons mobilized, requisitions, +billeting of troops, and assistance to persons who have been expelled. +In fixing the amount of these sums Germany shall be credited with that +portion which Alsace-Lorraine would have contributed to the empire to +meet the expenses resulting from these payments, this contribution being +calculated according to the proportion of the imperial revenue derived +from Alsace-Lorraine in 1913.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 59.</strong>—The French Government will collect for its own account +the imperial taxes, duties, and dues of every kind leviable in the +territories referred to in Article 51 and not collected at the time of +the armistice of the 11th November, 1918.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 60.</strong>—The German Government shall without delay restore to +Alsace-Lorrainers, (individuals, juridical persons, and public +institutions,) all property, rights, and interests belonging to them on +the 11th November, 1918, in so far as these are situated in German +territory. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span></p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 61.</strong>—The German Government undertakes to continue and +complete without delay the execution of the financial clauses regarding +Alsace-Lorraine contained in the armistice conventions.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 62.</strong>—The German Government undertakes to bear the expense +of all civil and military pensions which had been earned in +Alsace-Lorraine on the date of the 11th November, 1918, and the +maintenance of which was a charge on the budget of the German Empire.</p> + +<p>The German Government shall furnish each year the funds necessary for +the payment in francs, at the average rate of exchange for that year, of +the sums in marks to which persons resident in Alsace-Lorraine would +have been entitled if Alsace-Lorraine had remained under German +jurisdiction.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 63.</strong>—For the purposes of the obligation assumed by Germany +in Part VIII. (reparations) of the present treaty to give compensation +for damages caused to the civil populations of the Allied and Associated +countries in the form of lines, the inhabitants of the territories +referred to in Article 51 shall be assimilated to the above mentioned +populations.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 64.</strong>—The regulations concerning the control of the Rhine +and of the Moselle are laid down in Part XII. (ports, waterways, and +railways) of the present treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 65.</strong>—Within a period of three weeks after the coming into +force of the present treaty the Port of Strasbourg and the Port of Kehl +shall be constituted, for a period of seven years, a single unit from +the point of view of exploitation.</p> + +<p>The administration of this single unit will be carried on by a manager +named by the Central Rhine Commission, which shall also have power to +remove him. He shall be of French nationality. He will reside in +Strasbourg and will be subject to the supervision of the Central Rhine +Commission.</p> + +<p>There will be established in the two ports free zones in conformity with +Part XII. (ports, waterways, and railways) of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>A special convention between France and Germany, which shall be +submitted to the approval of the Central Rhine Commission, will fix the +details of this organization, particularly as regards finance.</p> + +<p>It is understood that for the purpose of the present article the Port of +Kehl includes the whole of the area necessary for the movements of the +port and the trains which serve it, including the harbor, quays and +railroads, platforms, cranes, sheds and warehouses, silos, elevators and +hydro-electric plants, which make up the equipment of the port.</p> + +<p>The German Government undertakes to carry out all measures which shall +be required of it in order to assure that all the making up and +switching of trains arriving at or departing from Kehl, whether for the +right bank or the left bank of the Rhine, shall be carried on in the +best conditions possible.</p> + +<p>All property rights shall be safeguarded. In particular, the +administration of the ports shall not prejudice any property rights of +the French or Baden railroads.</p> + +<p>Equality of treatment as respects traffic shall be assured in both ports +to the nationals, vessels, and goods of every country.</p> + +<p>In case at the end of the sixth year France shall consider that the +progress made in the improvement of the Port of Strasbourg still +requires a prolongation of this temporary régime, she may ask for +such prolongation from the Central Rhine Commission, which may grant an +extension for a period not exceeding three years.</p> + +<p>Throughout the whole period of any such extension the free zones above +provided for shall be maintained.</p> + +<p>Pending appointment of the first manager by the Central Rhine +Commission, a provisional manager, who shall be of French nationality, +may be appointed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers, subject +to the foregoing provisions.</p> + +<p>For all purposes of the present article the Central Rhine Commission +will decide by a majority of votes.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 66.</strong>—The railway and other bridges across the Rhine now +existing within the limits of Alsace-Lorraine shall, as to all their +parts and their whole length, be the property of the French State, which +shall insure their upkeep.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 67.</strong>—The French Government is substituted in all the rights +of the German Empire over all the railways which were administered by +the Imperial Railway Administration, and which are actually working or +under construction.</p> + +<p>The same shall apply to the rights of the empire with regard to railway +and tramway concessions within the territories referred to in Article +51.</p> + +<p>This substitution shall not entail any payment on the part of the French +State.</p> + +<p>The frontier railway stations shall be established by a subsequent +agreement, it being stipulated in advance that on the Rhine frontier +they shall be situated on the right bank.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 68.</strong>—In accordance with the provisions of Article 268 of +Chapter 1. of Section I. of Part X. (economic clause) of the present +treaty, for a period of five years from the coming into force of the +present treaty, natural or manufactured products originating in and +coming from the territories referred to in Article 51 shall, on +importation into German customs territory, be exempt from all customs +duty. The French Government shall fix each year, by decree communicated +to the German Government, the nature and amount of the products which +shall enjoy this exemption.</p> + +<p>The amount of each product which may be thus sent annually into Germany +shall not exceed the average of the amounts sent annually in the years +1911—1913.</p> + +<p>Further, during the period of five years above mentioned, the German +Government shall allow the free export from Germany and the free +reimportation into Germany, exempt from all customs duties and other +charges (including internal charges), of yarns, tissues, and other +textile materials or textile products of any kind, and in any condition, +sent from Germany into the territories referred to in Article 51, to be +subjected there to any finishing process, such as bleaching, dyeing, +printing, mercerization, gassing, twisting, or dressing.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 69.</strong>—During a period of ten years from the coming into +force of the present treaty, central electric supply works situated in +German territory, and formerly furnishing electric power to the +territories referred to in Article 51, or to any establishment the +working of which passes permanently or temporarily from Germany to +France, shall be required to continue such supply up to the amount of +consumption corresponding to the undertakings and contracts current on +the 11th November, 1918.</p> + +<p>Such supply shall be furnished according to the contracts in force and +at a rate which shall not be higher than that paid to the said works by +German nationals. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span></p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 70.</strong>—It is understood that the French Government preserves +its right to prohibit in the future in the territories referred to in +Article 51 all new German participation:</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>In the management or exploitation of the public domain and of public +services, such as railways, navigable waterways, water works, gas works, +electric power, &c.</p></li> + +<li><p>In the ownership of mines and quarries of every kind and in +enterprises connected therewith;</p></li> + +<li><p>In metallurgical establishments, even though their working may not be +connected with that of any mine.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 71.</strong>—As regards the territories referred to in Article 51, +Germany renounces on behalf of herself and her nationals as from the +11th November, 1918, all rights under the law of the 25th May, 1910, +regarding the trade in potash salts and generally under any stipulations +for the intervention of German organizations in the working of the +potash mines. Similarly she renounces on behalf of herself and her +nationals all rights under any agreements, stipulations or laws, which +may exist to her benefit with regard to other products of the aforesaid +territories.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 72.</strong>—The settlement of the questions relating to debts +contracted before the 11th November, 1918, between the German Empire and +the German States or their nationals residing in Germany on the one +part, and Alsace-Lorrainers residing in Alsace-Lorraine on the other +part, shall be effected in accordance with the provisions of Section +III. of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty, the expression +"before the war" therein being replaced by the expression "before the +11th November, 1918." The rate of exchange applicable in the case of +such settlement shall be the average rate quoted on the Geneva Exchange +during the month preceding the 11th November, 1918. There may be +established in the territories referred to in Article 51, for the +settlement of the aforesaid debts under the conditions laid down in +Section III. of Part X (economic clauses) of the present treaty, a +special clearing office, it being understood that this office shall be +regarded as a "central office" under the provisions of Paragraph 1 of +the annex to the said section.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 73.</strong>—The private property rights and interests of +Alsace-Lorrainers in Germany will be regulated by the stipulations of +Section IV. of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 74.</strong>—The French Government reserves the right to retain and +liquidate all the property, rights and interests which German nationals +or societies controlled by Germany possessed in the territories referred +to in Article 51 on Nov. 11, 1918, subject to the conditions laid down +in the last paragraph of Article 53 above.</p> + +<p>Germany will directly compensate its nationals who may have been +dispossessed by the aforesaid liquidations.</p> + +<p>The product of these liquidations shall be applied in accordance with +the stipulations of Sections III. and IV. of Part X. (economic clauses) +of the present treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 75.</strong>—Notwithstanding the stipulations of Section V. of Part +X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty, all contracts made before +the date of the promulgation in Alsace-Lorraine of the French decree of +30th November, 1918, between Alsace-Lorrainers (whether individuals or +juridical persons) or others resident in Alsace-Lorraine on the one +part, and the German Empire or German States and their nationals +resident in Germany on the other part, the execution of which has been +suspended by the armistice or by subsequent French legislation, shall be +maintained.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, any contract of which the French Government shall notify +the cancellation to Germany in the general interest within a period of +six months from the date of the coming into force of the present treaty +shall be annulled except in respect of any debt or other pecuniary +obligation arising out of any act done or money paid thereunder before +the 11th November, 1918. If this dissolution would cause one of the +parties substantial prejudice, equitable compensation, calculated solely +on the capital employed without taking account of loss of profits, shall +be accorded to the prejudiced party.</p> + +<p>With regard to prescriptions, limitations, and forfeitures in +Alsace-Lorraine, the provisions of Articles 300 and 301 of Section V., +Part X. (economic clauses) shall be applied, with the substitution for +the expression "outbreak of war" of the expression "11th November, +1918," and for the expression "duration of the war" of the expression +"period from the 11th November, 1918, to date of the coming into force +of the present treaty."</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 76.</strong>—Questions concerning rights in industrial, literary, +or artistic property of Alsace-Lorrainers shall be regulated in +accordance with the general stipulations of Section VII. of Part X. +(economic clauses) of the present treaty, it being understood that +Alsace-Lorrainers holding rights of this nature under German legislation +will preserve full and entire enjoyment of those rights on German +territory.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 77.</strong>—The German Government undertakes to pay over to the +French Government such proportion of all reserves accumulated by the +empire or by public or private bodies dependent upon it, for the +purposes of disability and old age insurance, as would fall to the +disability and old age insurance fund at Strasbourg.</p> + +<p>The same shall apply in respect of the capital and reserves accumulated +in Germany falling legitimately to other serial insurance funds, to +miners' superannuation funds, to the fund of the railways of +Alsace-Lorraine, to other superannuation organizations established for +the benefit of the personnel of public administrations and institutions +operating in Alsace-Lorraine, and also in respect of the capital and +reserves due by the insurance fund of private employes at Berlin by +reason of engagements entered into for the benefit of insured persons of +that category resident in Alsace-Lorraine.</p> + +<p>A special convention shall determine the conditions and procedure of +these transfers.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 78.</strong>—With regard to the execution of judgments, orders and +prosecutions, the following rules shall be applied:</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>All civil and commercial judgments which shall have been given since +Aug. 3, 1914, by the courts of Alsace-Lorraine between +Alsace-Lorrainers, or between Alsace-Lorrainers and foreigners, or +between foreigners, and which shall not have been appealed from before +the 11th November, 1918, shall be regarded as final and capable of being +fully executed.</p> + +<p>When the judgment has been given between Alsace-Lorrainers and Germans, +or between Alsace-Lorrainers and subjects of the allies of Germany, it +shall only be capable of execution after the issue of an exequatur by +the corresponding new tribunal in the restored territory referred to in +Article 51.</p></li> + +<li><p>All judgments given by German courts since the 3d August, 1914, +against Alsace-Lorrainers for political crimes or misdemeanors shall be +regarded as null and void.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p></li> + +<li><p>All sentences passed since the 11th November, 1918, by the Imperial +Court of Leipzig on Appeals against the decisions of the courts of +Alsace-Lorraine shall be regarded as null and void and shall be so +pronounced. The papers in regard to the cases in which such sentences +have been given shall be returned to the courts of Alsace-Lorraine +concerned.</p> + +<p>All appeals to the Imperial Court against decisions of the courts of +Alsace-Lorraine shall be suspended. In the cases referred to above, the +papers shall be returned under the aforesaid conditions for transfer +without delay to the French Cour de Cassation which shall be competent +to decide them.</p></li> + +<li><p>All prosecutions of Alsace-Lorraine for offenses committed during the +period between the 11th November, 1918, and the coming into force of the +present treaty will be conducted under German law except in so far as +this has been modified by decrees duly published on the spot by the +French authorities.</p> + +<p>All other questions as to competence, procedure or administration of +justice, shall be determined by a special convention between France and +Germany.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 79.</strong>—The stipulations as to nationality contained in the +annex hereto shall be considered as of equal force with the provisions +of the present section.</p> + +<p>All other questions concerning Alsace-Lorraine which are not regulated +by the present section and the annex thereto, or by the general +provisions of the present treaty, will form the subject of further +conventions between France and Germany.</p> + +<h3>ANNEX</h3> + +<ol> +<li><p>As from the 11th November, 1918, the following persons are ipso facto +reinstated in French nationality:</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"><li><p>First—Persons who lost French nationality by the application of +the Franco-German treaty of the 10th May, 1871, and who have not since +that date acquired any nationality other than German;</p></li> + +<li><p>Second—The legitimate or natural descendants of the persons +referred to the immediately preceding paragraph, with the exception of +those whose ascendants in the paternal line include a German who +migrated into Alsace-Lorraine after the 15th July, 1870;</p></li> + +<li><p>Third—All persons born in Alsace-Lorraine of unknown parents or +whose nationality is unknown.</p></li> + +</ul></li> +<li><p>Within the period of one year from the coming into force of the +present treaty, persons included in any of the following categories may +claim French nationality:</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li><p>First—All persons not restored to French nationality under +Paragraph 1, above, whose ascendants include a Frenchman or French woman +who lost French nationality under the conditions referred to in the said +paragraph;</p></li> + +<li><p>Second—All foreigners not nationals of a German State who acquired +the status of a citizen of Alsace-Lorraine before the 3d August, 1914;</p></li> + +<li><p>Third—All Germans domiciled in Alsace-Lorraine, if they have been +so domiciled since a date previous to 15th July, 1870, or if one of +their ascendants was at that date domiciled in Alsace-Lorraine;</p></li> + +<li><p>Fourth—All Germans born or domiciled in Alsace-Lorraine who have +served in the allied or associated armies during the present war and +their descendants;</p></li> + +<li><p>Fifth—All persons born in Alsace-Lorraine before 10th May, 1871, +of foreign parents, and the descendants of such persons;</p></li> + +<li><p>Sixth—The husband or wife of any person whose French nationality +may have been restored under Paragraph 1 or who may have claimed and +obtained French nationality in accordance with the preceding previsions.</p> + +<p>The legal representatives of a minor may exercise on behalf of that +minor the right to claim French nationality; and if that right has not +been exercised, the minor may claim French nationality within the year +following his majority.</p> + +<p>Except in the case provided in No. 6 of the present paragraph, the +French authorities reserve to themselves the right in individual cases +to reject the claim to French nationality.</p></li> + +</ul></li> +<li><p>Subject to the provisions of Paragraph 2, Germans born or domiciled +in Alsace-Lorraine shall not acquire French nationality by reason of the +restoration of Alsace-Lorraine to France, even though they may have the +status of citizens of Alsace-Lorraine.</p> + +<p>They may acquire French nationality only by naturalization, on condition +of having been domiciled in Alsace-Lorraine from a date previous to the +3d August, 1914, and of submitting proof of unbroken residence within +the restored territory for a period of three years from the 11th +November, 1918.</p> + +<p>France will be solely responsible for their diplomatic and consular +protection from the date of their application for French naturalization.</p></li> + +<li><p>The French Government shall determine the procedure by which +reinstatement in French nationality as of right shall be effected, and +the conditions under which decisions shall be given upon claims to such +nationality and applications for naturalization, as provided by the +present annex.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>SECTION VI.—<em>Austria</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 80.</strong>—Germany acknowledges and will respect strictly the +independence of Austria. Within the frontiers which may be fixed by a +treaty between that State and the principal Allied and Associated Powers +she agrees that this independence shall be inalienable, except with the +consent of the Council of the League of Nations.</p> + +<h3>SECTION VII.—<em>Czechoslovak State</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 81.</strong>—Germany, in conformity with the action already taken +by the Allied and Associated Powers, recognizes the complete +independence of the Czechoslovak State, which will include the +autonomous territory of the Ruthenians to the south of the Carpathians. +Germany hereby recognizes the frontier of this State as determined by +the principal Allied and Associated Powers and the other interested +States.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 82.</strong>—The old frontier as it existed on Aug. 3, 1914, +between Austria-Hungary and the German Empire will constitute the +frontier between Germany and the Czechoslovak State.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 83.</strong>—Germany renounces in favor of the Czechoslovak State +all rights and title over the portion of Silesian territory defined as +follows:</p> + +<p>Starting from a point about 2 kilometers southeast of Katscher, on the +boundary between the Circles (Kreise) of Loebschütz and Ratibor: +the boundary between the two Kreise; then, the former boundary between +Germany and Austria-Hungary up to a point on the Oder immediately to the +south of the Ratibor-Oderberg railway; thence, toward the northwest and +up to a point about 2 kilometers to the southeast of Katscher: a line to +be fixed on the spot passing to the west of Kranowitz. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> + +A commission composed of seven members, five nominated by the Principal +Allied and Associated Powers, one by Poland, and one by the Czechoslovak +State, will be appointed fifteen days after the coming into force of the +present treaty to trace on the spot the frontier line between Poland and +the Czechoslovak State.</p> + +<p>The decisions of this commission will be taken by a majority and shall +be binding on the parties concerned.</p> + +<p>Germany hereby agrees to renounce in favor of the Czechoslovak State all +rights and title over the part of the Kreise of Loebschütz +comprised within the following boundaries in case after the +determination of the frontier between Germany and Poland the said part +of that circle should become isolated from Germany: from the +southeastern extremity of the salient of the former Austrian frontier at +about 5 kilometers to the west of Loebschütz southward and up to a +point of junction with the boundary between the Kreise of +Loebschütz and Ratibor: the former frontier between Germany and +Austria-Hungary; then, northward, the administrative boundary between +the Kreise of Loebschütz and Ratibor up to a point situated about 2 +kilometers to the southeast of Katscher; thence, northwestward and up to +the starting point of this definition: a line to be fixed on the spot +passing to the east of Katscher.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 84.</strong>—German nationals habitually resident in any of the +territories recognized as forming part of the Czechoslovak State will +obtain Czechoslovak nationality ipso facto and lose their German +nationality.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 85.</strong>—Within a period of two years from the coming into +force of the present treaty German nationals over 18 years of age +habitually resident in any of the territories recognized as forming part +of the Czechoslovak State will be entitled to opt for German +nationality. Czechoslovaks who are habitually resident in Germany will +have a similar right to opt for Czechoslovak nationality.</p> + +<p>Option by a husband will cover his wife, and option by parents will +cover their children under 18 years of age. Persons who have exercised +the above right to opt must within the succeeding twelve months transfer +their place of residence to the State for which they have opted. They +will be entitled to retain their landed property in the territory of the +other State where they had place of residence before exercising the +right to opt. They may carry with them their movable property of every +description. No export or import duties may be imposed upon them in +connection with the removal of such property. Within the same period +Czechoslovaks who are German nationals and are in a foreign country will +be entitled, in the absence of any provisions to the contrary in the +foreign law, and if they have not acquired the foreign nationality, to +obtain Czechoslovak nationality and lose their German nationality by +complying with the requirements laid down by the Czechoslovak State.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 86.</strong>—The Czechoslovak State accepts and agrees to embody in +a treaty with the principal Allied and Associated Powers such provisions +as may be deemed necessary by the said powers to protect the interests +of inhabitants of that State who differ from the majority of the +population in race, language or religion.</p> + +<p>The Czechoslovak State further accepts and agrees to embody in a treaty +with the said powers such provisions as they may deem necessary to +protect freedom of transit and equitable treatment of the commerce of +other nations.</p> + +<p>The proportion and nature of the financial obligations of Germany and +Prussia, which the Czechoslovak State will have to assume on account of +the Silesian territory placed under its sovereignty will be determined +in accordance with Article 254 of Part IX. (financial clauses) of the +present treaty.</p> + +<p>Subsequent agreements will decide all questions not decided by the +present treaty which may arise in consequence of the cession of the said +territory.</p> + +<h3>SECTION VIII.—<em>Poland</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 87.</strong>—Germany, in conformity with the action already taken +by the Allied and Associated Powers, recognizes the complete +independence of Poland and renounces in her favor all rights and title +over the territory bounded by the Baltic Sea; the eastern frontier of +Germany as laid down in Article 27 of Part II. (boundaries of Germany) +of the present treaty, up to a point situated about two kilometers to +the east of the Lorzendorf, then a line to the acute angle which the +northern boundary of Upper Silesia makes about three kilometers +northwest of Simmenau, then to where the boundary of Upper Silesia has +its meeting point with the old frontier between Germany and Russia, then +this frontier to the point where it crosses the course of the Niemen, +and then the northern frontier of East Prussia, as laid down in Article +28, Part II. aforesaid.</p> + +<p>The terms of this article do not, however, apply to the territories of +East Prussia and the free city of Danzig, as defined in Article 28, of +Part II. (boundaries of Germany,) and in Article 100 of Section XI. +(Danzig) of this part.</p> + +<p>The boundaries of Poland not laid down in the present treaty will be +subsequently determined by the principal Allied and Associated Powers. A +commission consisting of seven members, five of whom shall be nominated +by the principal Allied and Associated Powers, one by Germany, and one +by Poland, shall be constituted fifteen days after the coming into force +of the present treaty to delimit on the spot the frontier line between +Poland and Germany. The decision of the commission will be taken by a +majority of votes and shall be binding upon the parties concerned.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 88.</strong>—In the portion of Upper Silesia included within the +boundaries described below the inhabitants will be called upon to +indicate by a vote whether they wish to be attached to Germany or to +Poland:</p> + +<p>Starting from the northern point of the salient of the old province of +Austrian Silesia, situated about eight kilometers east of Neustadt, the +former frontier between Germany and Austria, to its junction with the +boundary between the Kreise of Loebschütz and Ratibor; thence in a +northerly direction to a point about two kilometers southeast of +Katscher; the boundary between the Kreise of Loebschütz and +Ratibor; thence in a southeasterly direction to a point on the course of +the Oder immediately south of the Ratibor-Oderberg railway: a line to be +fixed on the ground passing south of Karanowitz;</p> + +<p>Thence the old boundary between Germany and Austria, thence the old +boundary between Germany and Russia to its junction with the +administrative boundary between Posnania and Upper Silesia; thence this +administrative boundary to its junction with the administrative boundary +between Upper and Middle Silesia; thence westward to the point where the +administrative boundary turns in an acute angle to + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> + +the southwest about three kilometers northwest of Simmenau;</p> + +<p>The boundary between Upper and Middle Silesia; thence in a westerly +direction to a point to be fixed on the ground about two kilometers east +of Orzendorf: a line to be fixed on the ground passing north of Kein +Hennersdorf; thence southward to the point where the boundary between +Upper and Middle Silesia cuts the Stadtel-Karlsruhe road: a line to be +fixed on the ground passing west of Hennersdorf, Polkowitz, Noldau, +Steamersdorf and Dammer, and east of Strehlitz, Nassadel, Eckersdorf, +Schwirz, and Stadtel; thence the boundary between Upper and Middle +Silesia to its junction with the eastern boundary of the Kreise of +Falkenberg; thence the eastern boundary of the Kreis of Falkenberg to +the point of the salient which is three kilometers east of Puschine; +thence to the northern point of the salient of the old province of +Austrian Silesia, situated about eight kilometers east of Neustadt: a +line to be fixed on the ground, passing east of Zulls.</p> + +<p>The régime under which this plebiscite will be taken and given +effect to is laid down in the annex hereto.</p> + +<p>The Polish and German Governments hereby respectively bind themselves to +conduct no prosecutions on any part of their territory and to take no +exceptional proceedings for any political action performed in Upper +Silesia during the period of the régime laid down in the annex +hereto, and up to the settlement of the final status of the country +Germany hereby renounces in favor of Poland all rights and title over +the portion of Upper Silesia lying beyond the frontier line fixed by the +principal Allied and Associated Powers as this result of the plebiscite.</p> + +<h3>ANNEX</h3> + +<ol> +<li><p>Within fifteen days from the coming into force of the present treaty +the German troops and such officials as may be designated by the +commission set up under the provisions of Paragraph 2 shall evacuate the +plebiscite area. Up to the moment of the completion of the evacuation +they shall refrain from any form of requisitioning in money or in kind +and from all acts likely to prejudice the material interest of the +country.</p> + +<p>Within the same period the workmen's and soldiers' councils which have +been constituted in this area shall be dissolved. Members of such +councils who are natives of another region and are exercising their +functions at the date of the coming into force of the present treaty, or +who have gone out of office since the 1st March, 1919, shall be +evacuated.</p> + +<p>All military and semi-military unions formed in the said area by the +inhabitants of the district shall be immediately disbanded. All members +of such military organizations who are not domiciled in the said area +shall be required to leave it.</p></li> + +<li><p>The plebiscite area shall be immediately placed under the authority +of an international commission of four members to be designated by the +following powers: The United States of America, France, the British +Empire, and Italy. It shall be occupied by troops belonging to the +Allied and<del>Asociated></del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads Asociated">Associated</ins> +Powers, and the German Government undertakes to give facilities for the +transference of troops to Upper Silesia.</p></li> + +<li><p>The commission shall enjoy all the powers exercised by the German or +by the Prussian Government; except those of legislation or taxation. It +shall also be substituted for the Government of the Province and the +Regierungsbezirk.</p> + +<p>It shall be within the competence of the commission to interpret the +powers hereby conferred upon it, and to determine to what extent it +shall exercise them and to what extent they shall be left in the hands +of the existing authorities.</p> + +<p>Changes in the existing laws and the existing taxation shall only be +brought into force with the consent of the commission.</p> + +<p>The commission will maintain order with the help of the troops which +will be at its disposal and to the extent which it may deem necessary by +means of gendarmerie recruited among the inhabitants of the country. The +commission shall provide immediately for the replacement of the +evacuated German officials, and, if occasion arises, shall itself order +the evacuation of such authorities and proceed to the replacement of +such local authorities as may be required. It shall take all steps which +it thinks proper to insure the freedom, fairness, and secrecy of the +vote. In particular, it shall have the right to order the expulsion of +any person who may in any way have attempted to distort the result of +the plebiscite by methods of corruption or intimidation.</p> + +<p>The commission shall have full power to settle all questions arising +from the execution of the present clauses. It shall be assisted by +technical advisers, chosen by it from among the local populations. The +decision of the commission shall be taken by a majority vote.</p></li> + +<li><p>The vote shall take place at such date as may be determined by the +principal Allied and Associated Powers, but not sooner than six months +or later than eighteen months after the establishment of the commission +in the area.</p> + +<p>The right to vote shall be given to all persons, without distinction of +sex, who:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>Have completed their twentieth year on the 1st of January of the +year in which the plebiscite takes place;</p></li> + +<li><p>Were born in the plebiscite area or have been domiciled there since +a date to be determined by the commission, which shall not be subsequent +to January 1, 1919, or who have been expelled by the German authorities +and have not retained their domicile there.</p> + +<p>Persons convicted of political offenses shall not exercise their right +of voting. Every person will vote in the commune where he is domiciled, +or in which he was born, if he has not retained his domicile in the +area.</p> + +<p>The result of the vote will be determined by the communes according to +the majority of votes in each commune.</p></li> + +</ol></li> +<li><p>On the conclusion of the voting the number of votes cast in each +commune will be communicated by the commission to the principal Allied +and Associated Powers with a full report as to the taking of the vote +and a recommendation as to the line which ought to be adopted as the +frontier of Germany in Upper Silesia. In this recommendation regard will +be paid to the wishes of the inhabitants, as shown by the vote, and to +the geographical and economic conditions of the locality.</p></li> + +<li><p>As soon as the frontier has been fixed by the principal Allied and +Associated Powers the German authorities will be notified by the +International Commission that they are free to take over the +administration of the territory which it is recognized should be German; +the said authorities must proceed to do so within one month of such +notification and in the manner prescribed by the commission. Within the +same period and in the manner prescribed by the commission, the Polish +Government must + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> + +proceed to take over the administration of the territory which it is +recognized should be Polish.</p> + +<p>When the administration of the territory has been provided for by the +German and Polish authorities respectively the powers of the commission +will terminate.</p> + +<p>The cost of the Army of Occupation and expenditure by the commission, +whether in discharge of its own functions or in the administration of +the territory, will be a charge on the area.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 89.</strong>—Poland undertakes to accord freedom of transit to +persons, goods, vessels, carriages, wagons, and mails in transit between +East Prussia and the rest of Germany over Polish territory, including +territorial waters, and to treat them at least as favorably as the +persons, goods, vessels, carriages, wagons, and mails, respectively, of +Polish or of any other most-favored nationality, origin, importation +starting point, or ownership, as regards facilities, restrictions, and +all other matters.</p> + +<p>Goods in transit shall be exempt from all customs or other similar +duties.</p> + +<p>Freedom of transit will extend to telegraphic and telephonic services +under the conditions laid down by the conventions referred to in Article +98.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 90.</strong>—Poland undertakes to permit, for a period of fifteen +years, the exportation to Germany of the products of the mines in any +part of Poland in accordance with the present treaty. Such export shall +be subject to duties or other charges or restrictions on exportation.</p> + +<p>Poland agrees to take such steps as may be necessary to secure that such +products shall be available for sale to purchasers in Germany on terms +as favorable as are applicable to like products sold under similar +conditions to purchasers in Poland or in any other country.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 91.</strong>—German nationals habitually resident in territories +recognized as forming part of Poland will acquire Polish nationality +ipso facto and will lose their German nationality. German nationals, +however, or their descendants who became resident in these territories +after January 1, 1908, will not acquire Polish nationality without a +special authorization from the Polish State.</p> + +<p>Within a period of two years after the coming into force of the present +treaty, German nationals over 18 years of age, habitually resident in +any of the territories recognized as forming part of Poland, will be +entitled to opt for German nationality. Poles who are German nationals +over 18 years of age, and habitually resident in Germany, will have a +similar right to opt for Polish nationality. Option by a husband will +cover his wife and option by parents will cover their children under 18 +years of age. Persons who have exercised the above right to opt must +within the succeeding twelve months transfer their place of residence to +the State for which they have opted. They will be entitled to retain +their immovable property in the territory of the other State, where they +had their place of residence before exercising the right to opt. They +may carry with them their movable property of every description. No +export or import duties or charges may be imposed upon them in +connection with the removal of such property.</p> + +<p>Within the same period Poles who are German nationals and are in a +foreign country will be entitled, in the absence of any provisions to +the contrary in the foreign law, and if they have not acquired foreign +nationality, to obtain Polish nationality and to lose their German +nationality by complying with the requirements laid down by the Polish +State.</p> + +<p>In this portion of Upper Silesia submitted to a plebiscite the +provisions of this article should only come into force as from the +definite attribution of the territory.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 92.</strong>—The proportion and the nature of the financial +liabilities of Germany and Prussia to be borne by Poland will be +determined in accordance with Article 254 of Part IX. (financial +clauses) of the present treaty. There shall be excluded from the share +of such financial liabilities assumed by Poland that portion of the debt +which, according to the finding of the Reparation Commission referred to +in the above mentioned article, arises from measures adopted by the +German and Prussian Governments with a view to German colonization in +Poland. In fixing under Article 256 of the present treaty the value of +the property and possessions belonging to the German Empire and to the +German states which pass to Poland, with the territory transferred +above, the Reparation Commission shall exclude from the valuation +buildings, forests, and other State property which belonged to the +former kingdom of Poland; Poland shall acquire these properties free of +all costs and charges.</p> + +<p>In all the German territory transferred in accordance with the present +treaty and recognized as forming definitely a part of Poland, the +property rights and interests of German nationals shall not be +liquidated under Article 297 by the Polish Government except in +accordance with the following provisions:</p> + +<p>1. The proceeds of the liquidation shall be paid direct to the owner;</p> + +<p>2. If, on his application, the mixed arbitral tribunal provided for by +the Section 6 of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty, or an +arbitrator appointed by that tribunal, is satisfied that the conditions +of the sale or measures taken by the Polish Government outside of its +general legislation were unfairly prejudicial to the price obtained, +they shall have discretion to award to the owner equitable compensation +to be paid by the Polish Government.</p> + +<p>Further agreements will regulate all questions arising out of the +cession of the above territory, which are not regulated by the present +treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 93.</strong>—Poland accepts and agrees to embody in a treaty with +the principal Allied and Associated Powers such provisions as may be +deemed necessary by the said powers to protect the interests of +inhabitants of Poland who differ from the majority of the population in +race, language or religion.</p> + +<p>Poland further accepts and agrees to embody in a treaty with the said +powers such provisions as they may deem necessary to protect freedom of +transit and equitable treatment of the commerce of other nations.</p> + +<h3>SECTION IX.—<em>East Prussia.</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 94.</strong>—In the area between the southern frontier of East +Prussia, as described in Article 28 of Part II. (frontiers of Germany) +of the present treaty, and the line described below, the inhabitants +will be called upon to indicate by a vote the State to which they wish +to belong:</p> + +<p>The western and northern boundary of Regierungsbezirk Allenstein to its +junction with the boundary between the Kreise of Oletsko and Angerburg, +thence, the northern boundary of the Kreise of Oletsko to its junction +with the old frontier of East Prussia.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 95.</strong>—The German troops and authorities will be withdrawn +from the area defined above within a period not exceeding fifteen days +after the coming into force of the present + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> + +treaty. Until the evacuation is completed they will abstain from all +requisitions in money or in kind and from all measures injurious to the +economic interests of the country.</p> + +<p>On the expiration of the above-mentioned period the said area will be +placed under the authority of an International Commission of five +members appointed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers. This +commission will have general powers of administration and, in +particular, will be charged with the duty of arranging for the vote, and +of taking such measures as it may deem necessary to insure its freedom, +fairness, and secrecy. The commission will have all necessary authority +to decide any questions to which the execution of these provisions may +give rise. The commission will make such arrangements as may be +necessary for assistance in the exercise of its functions by officials +chosen by itself from the local population; its decisions will be taken +by a majority.</p> + +<p>Every person, irrespective of sex, will be entitled to vote who:</p> + +<p>(a) Is 20 years of age at the date of the coming into force of the +present treaty, and</p> + +<p>(b) Was born within the area where the vote will take place, or has been +habitually resident there from a date to be fixed by the commission.</p> + +<p>Every person will vote in the commune where he is habitually resident +or, if not habitually resident in the area, in the commune where he was +born.</p> + +<p>The result of the vote will be determined by commune, (Gemeinde,) +according to the majority of the votes in each commune.</p> + +<p>On the conclusion of the voting the number of votes cast in each commune +will be communicated by the commission to the principal Allied and +Associated Powers with a full report as to the taking of the vote and a +recommendation as to the line which ought to be adopted as the boundary +of East Prussia in this region.</p> + +<p>In this recommendation, regard will be paid to the wishes of the +inhabitants as shown by the vote, and to the geographical and economic +conditions of the locality. The principal Allied and Associated Powers +will then fix the frontier between East Prussia and Poland in this +region. If the line fixed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers +is such as to exclude from East Prussia any part of the territory +defined in Article 94, the renunciation of its rights by Germany in +favor of Poland, as provided in Article 87, above, will extend to the +territories so excluded. As soon as the line has been fixed by the +principal Allied and Associated Powers, the authorities administering +East Prussia will be notified by the International Commission that they +are free to take over the administration of the territory to the north +of the line so fixed, which they shall proceed to do within one month of +such notification and in the manner prescribed by the commission. Within +the same period, and as prescribed by the commission, the Polish +Government must proceed to take over the administration of the territory +to the south of the line. When the administration of the territory by +the East Prussian and Polish authorities, respectively, has been +provided for, the powers of the commission will terminate.</p> + +<p>Expenditure by the commission, whether in the discharge of its own +functions or in the administration of the territory, will be borne by +the local revenues. East Prussia will be required to bear such +proportion of any deficit as may be fixed by the principal Allied and +Associated Powers.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 96.</strong>—In the area comprising the Kreise of Stuhm and +Rosenberg, and the portion of the Kreise of Marienburg which is situated +east of the Nogat, and that of Marienwerder east of the Vistula, the +inhabitants will be called upon to indicate by a vote, to be taken in +each commune, (Gemeinde,) whether they desire the various communes +situated in this territory to belong to Poland or to East Prussia.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 97.</strong>—The German troops and authorities will be withdrawn +from the area defined in Article 96 within a period not exceeding +fifteen days after the coming into force of the present treaty. Until +the evacuation is completed they will abstain from all requisitions in +money or in kind and from all measures injurious to the economic +interests of the country. On the expiration of the above-mentioned +period the said area will be placed under the authority of an +International Commission of five members appointed by the principal +Allied and Associated Powers. This commission, supported, if occasion +arises, by the necessary forces, will have general powers of +administration, and, in particular, will be charged with the duty of +arranging for the vote and of taking such measures as it may deem +necessary to insure its freedom, fairness, and secrecy. The commission +will conform as far as possible to the provisions of the present treaty +relating to the plebiscite in the Allenstein area. Its decision will be +taken by a majority. Expenditure by the commission, whether in the +discharge of its own functions or in the administration of the +territory, will be borne by the local revenues.</p> + +<p>On the conclusion of the voting, the number of votes cast in each +commune will be communicated by the commission to the principal Allied +and Associated Powers, with a full report as to the taking of the vote +and a recommendation as to the line which ought to be adopted as the +boundary of East Prussia in this region. In this recommendation regard +will be paid to the wishes of the inhabitants as shown by the vote and +to the geographical and economic conditions of the locality. The +principal Allied and Associated Powers will then fix the frontier +between East Prussia and Poland in this region, leaving in any case to +Poland for the whole of the section bordering on the Vistula full and +complete control of the river, including the east bank as far east of +the river as may be necessary for its regulation and improvement. +Germany agrees that in any portion of the said territory which remains +German no fortifications shall at any time be erected.</p> + +<p>The principal Allied and Associated Powers will at the same time draw up +regulations for assuring to the population of East Prussia to the +fullest extent, and under equitable conditions, access to the Vistula, +and the use of it for themselves, their commerce, and their boats. The +determination of the frontier and the foregoing regulations shall be +binding upon all the parties concerned. When the administration of the +territory has been taken over by the East Prussian and Polish +authorities, respectively, the powers of the commission will terminate.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 98.</strong>—Germany and Poland undertake, within one year of the +coming into force of this treaty, to enter into conventions of which the +terms, in case of difference, shall be settled by the Council of the +League of Nations, with the object of securing on the one hand to +Germany full and adequate railroad, telegraphic, and telephonic +facilities for communication between the rest of Germany and East +Prussia over the intervening Polish territory, and + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> + +the other hand to Poland full and adequate railroad, telegraphic, and +telephonic facilities for communication between Poland and the free city +of Danzig over any German territory that may, on the right bank of the +Vistula, intervene between Poland and the free city of Danzig.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-202.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-202thumb.jpg" width="400" height="493" +alt="Sir Eric Drummond" +title="Sir Eric Drummond" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright Harris and Ewing</p> +<p class="caption">Sir Eric Drummond</p> +<p class="description">The first Secretary of the League of Nations. Sir Eric joined the +British Foreign Office in 1900, and later served as confidential +secretary to Sir Edward (Viscount) Grey, Herbert H. Asquith, and Arthur +J. Balfour. In 1917 he accompanied Mr. Balfour to the United States as a +member of the British High Commission.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-202.jpg"> +Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p> + +<h3>SECTION X.—<em>Memel</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 99.</strong>—Germany renounces in favor of the principal Allied and +Associated Powers all rights and title over the territories included +between the Baltic, the northeastern frontier of East Prussia as defined +in Article 28 of Part II. (frontiers of Germany) of the present treaty +and the former frontier between Germany and Russia.</p> + +<p>Germany undertakes to accept the settlement made by the principal Allied +and Associated Powers in regard to these territories, particularly in so +far as concerns the nationality of the inhabitants.</p> + +<h3>SECTION XI.—<em>Free City of Danzig</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 100.</strong>—Germany renounces in favor of the principal Allied +and Associated Powers all rights and title over the territory comprised +within the following limits:</p> + +<p>From the Baltic Sea southward to the point where the principal channels +of navigation of the Nogat and Vistula (Weichsel) meet;</p> + +<p>The boundary of East Prussia as described in Article 28 of Part II. +(boundaries of Germany) of the peace treaty;</p> + +<p>Thence the principal channel of navigation of the Vistula downstream to +a point about 6½ kilometers north of the bridge of Dirschau;</p> + +<p>Thence northwest to point 5, 1½ kilometers southeast of the +Church of Güttland, a line to be fixed on the ground;</p> + +<p>Thence in a general westerly direction to the salient of the Kreise of +Berent, 8½ kilometers northeast of Schöneck;</p> + +<p>A line to be fixed on the ground passing between Mühlbanz on the +south and Rambeltsch on the north;</p> + +<p>Thence the boundary of the Kreise of Berent, westward to the re-entrant +which it forms 6 kilometers north-northwest of Schöneck;</p> + +<p>Thence to a point on the median line of Lonkener See; a line to be fixed +on the ground passing north of Neu Fietz and Schatarpi and south of +Barenhütte and Lonken; thence the median line of the Lonkener See +to its northernmost point; thence to the southern end of Pollenziner +See; a line to be fixed on the ground;</p> + +<p>Thence the median line of Pollenziner See to its northernmost point;</p> + +<p>Thence in a northeasterly direction to a point about one kilometer south +of Koliebken Church, where the Danzig-Neustadt Railway crosses a stream;</p> + +<p>A line to be fixed on the ground passing southeast of Kamehlen, Krissau, +Fidlin, Sulmin, (Richthof,) Mattern, Schaferei, and to the northwest of +Neuendorf, Marschau, Czapielken, Hoch and Klein Kelpin, Pulvermühl, +Renneberg, and the towns of Oliva and Zoppot;</p> + +<p>Thence the course of this stream to the Baltic Sea.</p> + +<p>The boundaries described above are drawn on a German map scale +1-100,000, attached to the present treaty, (Map No. 4.)</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 101.</strong>—A commission composed of three members appointed by +the principal Allied and Associated Powers, including a High +Commissioner as President, one member appointed by Germany, and one +member appointed by Poland, shall be constituted within fifteen days of +the coming into force of the present treaty for the purpose of +delimiting on the spot the frontier of the territory as described above, +taking into account as far as possible the existing communal boundaries.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 102.</strong>—The principal Allied and Associated Powers undertake +to establish the town of Danzig, together with the rest of the territory +described in Article 100, as a free city. It will be placed under the +protection of the League of Nations.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 103.</strong>—A constitution for the free city of Danzig shall be +drawn up by the duly appointed representatives of the free city in +agreement with a High Commissioner to be appointed by the League of +Nations. The constitution shall be placed under the guarantee of the +League of Nations.</p> + +<p>The High Commissioner will also be intrusted with the duty of dealing in +the first instance with all differences arising between Poland and the +free city of Danzig in regard to this treaty or any arrangements or +agreements made thereunder.</p> + +<p>The High Commissioner shall reside at Danzig.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 104.</strong>—The principal Allied and Associated Powers undertake +to negotiate a treaty between the Polish Government and the free city of +Danzig which shall come into force at the same time as the establishment +of said free city, with the following objects:</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>To effect the inclusion of the free city of Danzig within the Polish +customs frontiers and to establish a free area in the port.</p></li> + +<li><p>To insure to Poland without any restriction the free use and service +of all waterways, docks, basins, wharves, and other works within the +territory of the free city necessary for Polish imports and exports.</p></li> + +<li><p>To insure to Poland the control and administration of the Vistula and +of the whole railway system within the free city; except such street and +other railways as serve primarily the needs of the free city and of +postal, telegraphic, and telephonic communication between Poland and the +Port of Danzig.</p></li> + +<li><p>To insure to Poland the right to develop and improve the waterways, +docks, basins, wharves, railways, and other works and means of +communication mentioned in this article, as well as to lease or purchase +through appropriate processes such land and other property as may be +necessary for these purposes.</p></li> + +<li><p>To provide against any discrimination within the free city of Danzig +to the detriment of citizens of Poland and other persons of Polish +origin or speech.</p></li> + +<li><p>To provide that the Polish Government shall undertake the conduct of +the foreign relations of the free city of Danzig as well as the +diplomatic protection of citizens of that city when abroad.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 105.</strong>—On the coming into force of the present treaty German +nationals ordinarily resident in the territory described in Article 100 +will ipso facto lose their German nationality, in order to become +nationals of the free city of Danzig.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 106.</strong>—Within a period of two years from the coming into +force of the present treaty German nationals over 18 years of age +ordinarily resident in the territory described in Article 100 will have +the right to opt for German nationality.</p> + +<p>Option by a husband will cover his wife and option by parents will cover +their children less than 18 years of age.</p> + +<p>All persons who exercise the right of option referred to above must +during the ensuing + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> + +twelve months transfer their place of residence to Germany.</p> + +<p>These persons will be entitled to preserve the immovable property +possessed by them in the territory of the free city of Danzig. They may +carry with them their movable property of every description. No export +or import duties shall be imposed upon them in this connection.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 107.</strong>—All property situated within the territory of the +free city of Danzig belonging to the German Empire or any German State +shall pass to the principal Allied and Associated Powers for transfer to +the free city of Danzig or to the Polish State as they may consider +equitable.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 108.</strong>—The proportion and nature of the financial +liabilities of Germany and of Prussia to be borne by the free city of +Danzig shall be fixed in accordance with Article 254 of Part IX. +(financial clauses) of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>All other questions which may arise from the cession of the territory +referred to in Article 100 shall be settled by further agreements.</p> + +<h3>SECTION XII.—<em>Schleswig</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 109.</strong>—The frontier between Germany and Denmark shall be +fixed in conformity with the wishes of the population.</p> + +<p>For this purpose the population inhabiting the territories of the former +German Empire situated to the north of a line from east to west, (shown +by a brown line on the Map No. 3 annexed to the present treaty;)</p> + +<p>Leaving the Baltic coast about thirteen kilometers east-northeast of +Flensburg, running southwest so as to pass southeast of Sygum, +Ringsberg, Munkbrarup, Adelby, Tastrup, Jarplund, Oversee, and northwest +of Langballigholz, Langballig, Bönstrup, Rüllschau, Weseby, +Kleinwolstrup, Gross-Solt; thence westward passing south of Frörup +and north of Wanderup; thence in a southwesterly direction passing +southeast of Oxlund, Stieglund, and Ostenau and northwest of the +villages on the Wanderup-Kollund road; thence in a northwesterly +direction passing southwest of Löwenstedt, Joldelund, Goldelund and +northeast of Kalkerheide and Högel to the bend of the Soholmer Au, +about one kilometer east of Soholm, where it meets the southern boundary +of the Kreise of Tondern; thence following this boundary to the North +Sea; thence passing south of the islands of Fohr and Amrum and north of +the islands of Oland and Langeness shall be called upon to pronounce by +a vote which will be taken under the following conditions:</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>Within a period not exceeding ten days from the coming into force of +the present treaty, the German troops and authorities (including the +Oberprasidenten, Regierungs-Prasidenten, Landrathe, Amtsvorsteher, +Oberbürgermeister) shall evacuate the zone lying to the north of +the line above fixed.</p> + +<p>Within the same period the Workmen's and Soldiers' Councils which have +been constituted in this zone shall be dissolved; members of such +councils who are natives of another region and are exercising their +functions at the date of the coming into force of the present treaty, or +who have gone out of office since the 1st March, 1919, shall also be +evacuated.</p> + +<p>The said zone shall immediately be placed under the authority of an +international commission, composed of five members, of whom three will +be designated by the principal Allied and Associated Powers; the +Norwegian and Swedish Governments will each be requested to designate a +member. In the event of their failing to do so, these two members will +be chosen by the principal Allied and Associated Powers.</p> + +<p>The commission, assisted in case of need by the necessary forces, shall +have general powers of administration. In particular, it shall at once +provide for filling the places of the evacuated German authorities, and, +if necessary, shall itself give orders for their evacuation and proceed +to fill the places of such local authorities as may be required. It +shall take all steps which it thinks proper to insure the freedom, +fairness, and secrecy of the vote. It shall be assisted by German and +Danish technical advisers chosen by it from among the local population. +Its decisions will be taken by a majority.</p> + +<p>One-half of the expenses of the International Commission and of the +expenditure occasioned by the plebiscite shall be paid by Germany.</p></li> + +<li><p>The right to vote shall be<del>givn</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads givn">given</ins> all persons, without distinction of +sex, who:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>Have completed their twentieth year at the date of the coming into +force of the present treaty; and</p></li> + +<li><p>Were born in the zone in which the plebiscite is taken, or had been +domiciled there since a date before the 1st January, 1900, or had been +expelled by the German authorities without having retained their +domicile there.</p> + +<p>Every person will vote in the commune (Gemeinde) where he is domiciled +or of which he is a native.</p> + +<p>Military persons, officers, non-commissioned officers and soldiers of +the German Army, who are natives of the zone of Schleswig, in which the +plebiscite is taken, shall be given the opportunity to return to their +native place in order to take part in the voting there.</p></li> + +</ol></li> +<li><p>In the section of the evacuated zone lying to the north of a line +from east to west (shown by a red line on Map No. 3, which is annexed to +the present treaty):</p> + +<p>Passing south of the Island of Alsen and following the median line of +Flensburg Fjord;</p> + +<p>Thence leaving the fjord about six kilometers north of Flensburg, and +following the course of the stream flowing past Kupfermühle +upstream to a point north of Niehuus;</p> + +<p>Thence passing north of Pattburg and Ellund and south of Fröslee to +meet the eastern boundary of the Kreise of Tondern at its junction with +the boundary between the old jurisdiction of Slogs and Kjaer, (Slogs +Herred and Kjaer Herred;)</p> + +<p>Thence the latter boundary to where it meets the Scheidebek;</p> + +<p>Thence the course of the Scheidebek, (Alte Au), Süder Au, and Wied +Au downstream successively to the point where the latter bends +northward, about 1,500 meters west of Ruttebüll;</p> + +<p>Thence in a west-northwesterly direction to meet the North Sea north of +Sieltoft;</p> + +<p>Thence passing north of the Island of Sylt.</p> + +<p>The vote above provided for shall be taken within a period not exceeding +three weeks after the evacuation of the country by the German troops and +authorities.</p> + +<p>The result will be determined by the majority of votes cast in the whole +of this section. This result will be immediately communicated by the +commission to the principal Allied and Associated Governments and +proclaimed.</p> + +<p>If the vote results in favor of the reincorporation of this territory in +the Kingdom of Denmark, the Danish Government, in agreement with the +commission will be entitled to effect its occupation with their military +and administrative authorities immediately after the proclamation.</p></li> + +<li><p>In the section of the evacuated zone situated to the south of the +preceding section and to the north of the line which starts from + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> + +the Baltic Sea thirteen kilometers from Flensburg and ends north of the +islands of Oland and Langeness, the vote will be taken within a period +not exceeding five weeks after the plebiscite shall have been held in +the first section.</p> + +<p>The result will be determined by communes (Gemeinden) in accordance with +the majority of the votes cast in each commune, (Gemeinde.)</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 110.</strong>—Pending a delimination on the spot, a frontier line +will be fixed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers according to +a line based on the result of the voting, and proposed by the +International Commission, and taking into account the particular +geographical and economic conditions of the localities in question.</p> + +<p>From that time the Danish Government may effect the occupation of these +territories which the Danish civil and military authorities, and the +German Government may reinstate up to the said frontier line the German +civil and military authorities whom it has evacuated.</p> + +<p>Germany hereby renounced definitively in favor of the principal Allied +and Associated Powers all rights of sovereignty over the territories +situated to the north of the frontier line fixed in accordance with the +above provisions. The principal Allied and <del>Asociated</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads Asociated">Associated</ins> Powers will hand +over the said territories to Denmark.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 111.</strong>—A commission composed of seven members, five of whom +shall be nominated by the principal Allied and Associated Powers, one by +Denmark, and one by Germany, shall be constituted within fifteen days +from the date when the final result of the vote is known, to trace the +frontier line on the spot.</p> + +<p>The decisions of the commission will be taken by a majority of votes, +and shall be binding on the parties concerned.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 112.</strong>—All the inhabitants of the territory which is +returned to Denmark will acquire Danish nationality ipso facto, and will +lose their German nationality. Persons, however, who had become +habitually resident in this territory after the 1st October, 1918, will +not be able to acquire Danish nationality without permission from the +Danish Government.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 113.</strong>—Within two years from the date on which the +sovereignty over the whole or part of the territory of Schleswig +subjected to the plebiscite is restored to Denmark:</p> + +<p>Any person over 18 years of age, born in the territory restored to +Denmark, not habitually resident in this region and possessing German +nationality, will be entitled to opt for Denmark.</p> + +<p>Any person over 18 years of age habitually resident in the territory +restored to Denmark will be entitled to opt for Germany.</p> + +<p>Option by a husband will cover his wife and option by parents will cover +their children less than 18 years of age.</p> + +<p>Persons who have exercised the above right to opt must within the +ensuing twelve months transfer their place of residence to the State in +favor of which they have opted.</p> + +<p>They will be entitled to retain the immovable property which they own in +the territory of the other State in which they were habitually resident +before opting. They may carry with them their movable property of every +description. No export or import duties may be imposed upon them in +connection with the removal of such property.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 114.</strong>—The proportion and nature of the financial or other +obligations of Germany and Prussia which are to be assumed by Denmark +will be fixed in accordance with Article 254 of Part IX. (financial +clauses) of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>Further stipulations will determine any other questions arising out of +the transfer to Denmark of the whole or part of the territory of which +she was deprived by the treaty of Oct. 30, 1864.</p> + +<h3>SECTION XIII.—<em>Heligoland</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 115.</strong>—The fortifications, military establishments, and +harbors of the islands of Heligoland and Dune shall be destroyed under +the supervision of the principal Allied Governments by German labor and +at the expense of Germany within a period to be determined by the said +Governments.</p> + +<p>The term "harbors" shall include the Northeast Mole, the West Wall, the +outer and inner breakwaters and reclaimed land within them, and all +naval and military works, fortifications, and buildings, constructed or +under construction, between lines connecting the following positions +taken from the British Admiralty Chart No. 126 of 19 April, 1918:</p> + +<p>(A) Lat. 54 degrees 10 minutes 49 seconds N.; long. 7 degrees 53 minutes +39 seconds E.;</p> + +<p>(B) Lat. 54 degrees 10 minutes 35 seconds N.; long. 7 degrees 54 minutes +18 seconds E.;</p> + +<p>(C) Lat. 54 degrees 10 minutes 14 seconds N.; long. 7 degrees 54 minutes +0 seconds E.;</p> + +<p>(D) Lat. 54 degrees 10 minutes 17 seconds N.; long. 7 degrees 53 minutes +37 seconds E.;</p> + +<p>(E) Lat. 54 degrees 10 minutes 44 seconds N.; long. 7 degrees 53 minutes +26 seconds E.</p> + +<p>These fortifications, military establishments, and harbors shall not be +reconstructed nor shall any similar works be constructed in future.</p> + +<h3>SECTION XIV.—<em>Russia and Russian States</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 116.</strong>—Germany acknowledges and agrees to respect as +permanent and inalienable the independence of all the territories which +were part of the former Russian Empire on Aug. 1, 1914.</p> + +<p>In accordance with the provisions of Article 259 of Part IX. (financial +clauses,) and Article 292 of Part X. (economic clauses,) Germany accepts +definitely the abrogation of the Brest-Litovsk Treaties and of all +treaties, conventions, and agreements entered into by her with the +Maximalist Government in Russia.</p> + +<p>The Allied and Associated Powers formally reserve the rights of Russia +to obtain from Germany restitution and reparation based on the +principles of the present treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 117.</strong>—Germany undertakes to recognize the full force of all +treaties or agreements which may be entered into by the Allied and +Associated Powers with States now existing or coming into existence in +future in the whole or part of the former Empire of Russia as it existed +on August 1, 1914, and to recognize the frontiers of any such States as +determined therein.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PART IV<br /> +German Rights and Interests Outside Germany</h2> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 118.</strong>—In territory outside her European frontiers as fixed +by the present treaty, Germany renounces all rights, titles, and +privileges whatever in or over territory which belonged to her or to her +allies, and all rights, titles, and privileges, whatever their origin, +which she held as against the Allied and Associated Powers.</p> + +<p>Germany undertakes immediately to recognize and to conform to the +measures which may be taken now or in the future by the principal Allied +and Associated Powers, in agreement where necessary with third powers, +in order to carry the above stipulation into effect.</p> + +<p>In particular, Germany declares her acceptance of the following articles +relating to certain special subjects:</p> + +<h3>SECTION I.—<em>German Colonies</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 119.</strong>—Germany renounces in favor of the principal Allied +and Associated Powers all her rights and titles over her overseas +possessions.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 120.</strong>—All movable and immovable property in such +territories belonging to the German Empire or to any German State shall +pass to the Government exercising authority over such territories on the +terms laid down in Article 257 of Part IX. (financial clauses) of the +present treaty. The decision of the local courts in any dispute as to +the nature of such property shall be final.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 121.</strong>—The provisions of Section I. (commercial relations) +and Section IV. (property, rights, and interests) of Part X. (economic +clauses) of the present treaty shall apply in the case of these +territories whatever be the form of government adopted for them.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 122.</strong>—The Government exercising authority over such +territories may make such provisions as it thinks fit with reference to +the repatriation from them of German nationals, and to the conditions +upon which German subjects of European origin shall, or shall not, be +allowed to reside, hold property, trade, or exercise a profession in +them.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 123.</strong>—The provisions of Article 260 of Part IX. (financial +clauses) of the present treaty shall apply in the case of all agreements +concluded with German nationals for the construction or exploitation of +public works in the German overseas possessions, as well as any +sub-concessions or contracts resulting therefrom which may have been +made to or with such nationals.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 124.</strong>—Germany hereby undertakes to pay in accordance with +the estimate to be presented by the French Government, and approved by +the Reparation Commission, reparation for damage suffered by French +nationals in the Cameroons or the frontier zone by reason of the acts of +the German civil and military authorities and of German private +individuals during the period from Jan. 1, 1900, to Aug. 1, 1914.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 125.</strong>—Germany renounces all rights under the conventions +and agreements with France of Nov. 4, 1911, and Sept. 28, 1912, relating +to equatorial Africa. She undertakes to pay to the French Government, in +accordance with the estimate to be presented by the Government and +approved by the Reparation Commission, all the deposits, credits, +advances, &c., effected by virtue of these instruments in favor of +Germany.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 126.</strong>—Germany undertakes to accept and observe the +agreements made or to be made by the Allied and Associated Powers or +some of them with any other power with regard to the trade in arms and +spirits, and to the matters dealt with in the general act of Berlin of +Feb. 26, 1885, the general act of Brussels of July 2, 1890, and the +conventions completing or modifying the same.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 127.</strong>—The native inhabitants of the former German overseas +possessions shall be entitled to the diplomatic protection of the +Governments exercising authority over those territories.</p> + +<h3>SECTION II.—<em>China</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 128.</strong>—Germany renounces in favor of China all benefits and +privileges resulting from the provisions of the final protocol signed at +Peking on Sept. 7, 1901, and from all annexes, notes, and documents +supplementary thereto. She likewise renounces in favor of China any +claim to indemnities accruing thereunder subsequent to March 14, 1917.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 129.</strong>—From the coming into force of the present treaty the +high contracting parties shall apply in so far as concerns them +respectively:</p> + +<p>1. The arrangement of Aug. 29, 1902, regarding the new Chinese customs +tariff.</p> + +<p>2. The arrangement of Sept. 27, 1905, regarding Whang-Poo, and the +provisional supplementary arrangement of April 4, 1912. China, however, +will no longer be bound to grant to Germany the advantages of privileges +which she allowed Germany under these arrangements.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 130.</strong>—Subject to the provisions of Section VIII. of this +part, Germany cedes to China all the buildings, wharves and pontoons, +barracks, forts, arms and munitions of war, vessels of all kinds, +wireless telegraphy installations and other public property belonging to +the German Government, which are situated or may be in the German +concessions at Tientsin and Hankow or elsewhere in Chinese territory.</p> + +<p>It is understood, however, that premises used as diplomatic or consular +residences or offices are not included in the above cession, and, +furthermore, that no steps shall be taken by the Chinese Government to +dispose of the German public and private property situated within the +so-called legation quarter at Peking without the consent of the +diplomatic representatives of the powers which, on the coming into force +of the present treaty, remain parties to the final protocol of Sept. 7, +1901.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 131.</strong>—Germany undertakes to restore to China within twelve +months from the coming into force of the present treaty all the +astronomical instruments which her troops in 1900—1901 carried away from +China, and to defray all expenses which may be incurred in affecting +such restoration, including the expenses of dismounting, packing, +transporting, insurance, and installation in Peking.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-207.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-207thumb.jpg" width="400" height="499" +alt="Lord Robert Cecil" +title="Lord Robert Cecil" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">From Around the World Copyright Paul Thompson</p> +<p class="caption">Lord Robert Cecil</p> +<p class="description">A son of Lord Salisbury and one of the most influential statesmen in +Great Britain during the war and an enthusiastic advocate of a League of +Nations.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-207.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 132.</strong>—Germany agrees to the abrogation of the leases from +the Chinese Government under which the German concessions at Hankow and +Tientsin are now held.</p> + +<p>China, restored to the full exercise of her sovereign rights in the +above areas, declares her intention of opening them to international +residence and trade. She further declares that the abrogation of the +leases under which these concessions are now held shall not affect the +property rights of nationals or Allied and Associated Powers who are +holders of lots in these concessions.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 133.</strong>—Germany waives all claims against the Chinese +Government or against any Allied or Associated Government arising out of +the internment of German nationals in China and their repatriation. She +equally renounces all claims arising out of the capture and condemnation +of German ships in China or the liquidation, sequestration or control of +German properties, rights, and interests in that country since Aug. 14, +1917. This provision, however, shall not affect the rights of the +parties interested in the proceeds of any such liquidation, which shall +be governed by the provisions of Part X. (economic clauses) of the +present treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 134.</strong>—Germany renounces, in favor of the Government of his +Britannic Majesty, the German State property in the British concession +at Shameen at Canton. She renounces, in favor of the French and Chinese +Governments conjointly, the property of the German school situated in +the French concession at Shanghai.</p> + +<h3>SECTION III.—<em>Siam</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 135.</strong>—Germany recognizes that all treaties, conventions, +and agreements between her and Siam, and all rights, titles and +privileges derived therefrom, including all rights of extra territorial +jurisdiction, terminated as from July 22, 1917.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 136.</strong>—All goods and property in Siam belonging to the +German Empire or to any German State, with the exception of premises +used as diplomatic or consular residences or offices, pass ipso facto +and without compensation to the Siamese Government.</p> + +<p>The goods, property, and private rights of German nationals in Siam +shall be dealt with in accordance with the provisions of Part X. +(economic clauses) of the present treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 137.</strong>—Germany waives all claims against the Siamese +Government on behalf of herself or her nationals arising out of the +seizure or condemnation of German ships, the liquidation of German +property, or the internment of German nationals in Siam. This provision +shall not affect the rights of the parties interested in the proceeds of +any such liquidation, which shall be governed by the provisions of Part +X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty.</p> + +<h3>SECTION IV.—<em>Liberia</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 138.</strong>—Germany renounces all rights and privileges arising +from the arrangements of 1911 and 1912 regarding Liberia, and +particularly the right to nominate a German receiver of customs in +Liberia. She further renounces all claim to participate in any measures +whatsoever which may be adopted for the rehabilitation of Liberia.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 139.</strong>—Germany recognizes that all treaties and arrangements +between her and Liberia terminated as from Aug. 4, 1917.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 140.</strong>—The property, rights, and interests of Germans in +Liberia shall be dealt with in accordance with Part X. (economic +clauses) of the present treaty.</p> + +<h3>SECTION V.—<em>Morocco</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 141.</strong>—Germany renounces all rights, titles, and privileges +conferred on her by the general act of Algeciras of April 7, 1906, and +by the Franco-German agreements of Feb. 9, 1909, and Nov. 4, 1911. All +treaties, agreements, arrangements, and contracts concluded by her with +the Sherifian Empire are regarded as abrogated as from Aug. 3, 1914.</p> + +<p>In no case can Germany take advantage of these instruments, and she +undertakes not to intervene in any way in negotiations relating to +Morocco which may take place between France and the other powers.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 142.</strong>—Germany having recognized the French Protectorate in +Morocco, hereby accepts all consequences of its establishment, and she +renounces the régime of the capitulations therein.</p> + +<p>This renunciation shall take effect as from Aug. 3, 1914.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 143.</strong>—The Sherifian Government shall have complete liberty +of action in regulating the status of German nationals in Morocco and +the conditions in which they may establish themselves there.</p> + +<p>German-protected persons, semsars, and "associés agricoles" shall +be considered as having ceased, as from Aug. 3, 1914, to enjoy the +privileges attached to their status and shall be subject to the ordinary +law.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 144.</strong>—All property and possessions in the Sherifian Empire +of the German Empire and the German States pass to the Maghzen without +payment.</p> + +<p>For the purposes of this clause, the property and possessions of the +German Empire and States shall be deemed to include all the property of +the crown, the empire, or States, and the private property of the former +German Emperor and other royal personages.</p> + +<p>All movable and immovable property in the Sherifian Empire belonging to +German nationals shall be dealt with in accordance with Sections III. +and IV. of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>Mining rights which may be recognized as belonging to German nationals +by the Court of Arbitration set up under the Moroccan mining regulations +shall form the subject of a valuation, which the arbitrators shall be +requested to make, and these rights shall then be treated in the same +way as property in Morocco belonging to German nationals.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 145.</strong>—The German Government shall insure the transfer to a +person nominated by the French Government of the shares representing +Germany's portion of the capital of the State Bank of Morocco. The value +of these shares, as assessed by the Reparation Commission, shall be paid +to the Reparation Commission for the credit of Germany on account of the +sums due for reparation. The German Government shall be responsible for +indemnifying its nationals so dispossessed.</p> + +<p>This transfer will take place without prejudice to the repayment of +debts which German nationals may have contracted toward the State Bank +of Morocco.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 146.</strong>—Moroccan goods entering Germany shall enjoy the +treatment accorded to French goods.</p> + +<h3>SECTION VI.—<em>Egypt</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 147.</strong>—Germany declares that she recognizes the protectorate +proclaimed over Egypt by Great Britain on Dec. 18, 1914, and that she +renounces the régime of the capitulations in Egypt. This +renunciation shall take effect as from Aug. 4, 1914. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 148.</strong>—All treaties, agreements, arrangements, and contracts +concluded by Germany with Egypt are regarded as abrogated as from Aug. +4, 1914.</p> + +<p>In no case can Germany avail herself of these instruments, and she +undertakes not to intervene in any way in negotiations relating to Egypt +which may take place between Great Britain and the other powers.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 149.</strong>—Until an Egyptian law of judicial organization +establishing courts with universal jurisdiction comes into force, +provision shall be made, by means of decrees issued by his Highness the +Sultan for the exercise of jurisdiction over German nationals and +property by the British consular tribunals.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 150.</strong>—The Egyptian Government shall have complete liberty +of action in regulating the status of German nationals and the +conditions under which they may establish themselves in Egypt.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 151.</strong>—Germany consents to the abrogation of the decree +issued by his Highness the Khédive on Nov. 28, 1904, relating to +the commission of the Egyptian public debt, or to such changes as the +Egyptian Government may think it desirable to make therein.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 152.</strong>—Germany consents, in so far as she is concerned, to +the transfer to his Britannic Majesty's Government of the powers +conferred on his Imperial Majesty the Sultan, by the convention signed +at Constantinople on Oct. 29, 1888, relating to the free navigation of +the Suez Canal.</p> + +<p>She renounces all participation in the Sanitary, Maritime, and +Quarantine Board of Egypt, and consents, in so far as she is concerned, +to the transfer to the Egyptian authorities of the powers of that board.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 153.</strong>—All property and possessions in Egypt of the German +Empire and the German States pass to the Egyptian Government without +payment.</p> + +<p>For this purpose the property and possessions of the German Empire and +States shall be deemed to include all the property of the crown, the +empire, or the States, and the private property of the former German +Emperor and other royal personages.</p> + +<p>All movable and immovable property in Egypt belonging to German +nationals shall be dealt with in accordance with Sections III. and IV. +of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 154.</strong>—Egyptian goods entering Germany shall enjoy the +treatment accorded to British goods.</p> + +<h3>SECTION VII.—<em>Turkey and Bulgaria</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 155.</strong>—Germany undertakes to recognize and accept all +arrangements which the Allied and Associated Powers may make with Turkey +and Bulgaria, with reference to any rights, interests, and privileges +whatever which might be claimed by Germany or her nationals in Turkey +and Bulgaria and which are not dealt with in the provisions of the +present treaty.</p> + +<h3>SECTION VIII.—<em>Shantung</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 156.</strong>—Germany renounces in favor of Japan, all her rights, +titles, and privileges—particularly those concerning the territory +of Kiao-Chau, railways, mines, and submarine cables—which she +acquired in virtue of the treaty concluded by her with China on 6th +March, 1898, and of all other arrangements relative to the Province of +Shantung.</p> + +<p>All German rights in the Tsing-tao-Tsinan-Fu railway, including its +branch lines, together with its subsidiary property of all kinds, +stations, shops, fixed and rolling stock, mines, plant, and material for +the exploitation of the mines are and remain acquired by Japan, together +with all rights and privileges attaching thereto.</p> + +<p>The German State submarine cables from Tsing-tao to Shanghai and from +Tsing-tao to Che Foo, with all the rights, privileges, and properties +attaching thereto, are similarly acquired by Japan, free and clear of +all charges and incumbrances.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 157.</strong>—The movable and immovable property owned by the +German State in the territory of Kiao-Chau, as well as all the rights +which Germany might claim in consequence of the works or improvements +made or of the expenses incurred by her, directly or indirectly, in +connection with this territory, are and remain acquired by Japan, free +and clear of all charges and incumbrances.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 158.</strong>—Germany shall hand over to Japan within three months +from the coming into force of the present treaty the archives, +registers, plans, title deeds, and documents of every kind, wherever +they may be, relating to the administration, whether civil, military, +financial, judicial or other, of the territory of Kiao-Chau.</p> + +<p>Within the same period Germany shall give particulars to Japan of all +treaties, arrangements or agreements relating to the rights, title or +privileges referred to in the two preceding articles.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PART V<br /> +Military, Naval, and Aerial Clauses</h2> + +<p>In order to render possible the initiation of a general limitation of +the armaments of all nations, Germany undertakes strictly to observe the +military, naval, and air clauses which follow:</p> + +<h3>SECTION I.—<em>Military Clauses</em></h3> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.—EFFECTIVES AND CADRES OF THE GERMAN ARMY</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 159</strong>—The German military forces shall be demobilized and +reduced as prescribed hereinafter.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 160</strong>—</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>By a date which must not be later than March 31, +1920, the German Army must not comprise more than seven divisions of +infantry and three divisions of cavalry. After that date the total +number of effectives in the army of the States constituting Germany must +not exceed 100,000 men, including officers and establishments of depots. +The army shall be devoted exclusively to the maintenance of order within +the territory and to the control of the frontiers.</p> + +<p>The total effective strength of officers, including the personnel of +staffs, whatever their composition, must not exceed 4,000.</p></li> + +<li><p>Divisions and army corps headquarters staffs shall be organized in +accordance with Table No. 1 annexed to this section. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> + +The number and strength of the units of infantry, artillery, engineers, +technical services, and troops laid down in the aforesaid table +constitute maxima which must not be exceeded.</p> + +<p>The following units may each have their own depot:</p> + +<p>An infantry regiment; a cavalry regiment; a regiment of field artillery; +a battalion of pioneers.</p></li> + +<li><p>The divisions must not be grouped under more than two army corps +headquarters staff.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p>The maintenance or formation of forces differently grouped or of other +organizations for the command of troops or for preparation for war is +forbidden.</p> + +<p>The Great German General Staff and all similar organizations shall be +dissolved and may not be reconstituted in any form.</p> + +<p>The officers, or persons in the position of officers, in the Ministries +of War in the different States in Germany and in the administrations +attached to them, must not exceed three hundred in number and are +included in the maximum strength of four thousand laid down in the third +sub-paragraph of the first paragraph of this article.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 161.</strong>—Army administrative services consisting of civilian +personnel not included in the number of effectives prescribed by the +present treaty will have such personnel reduced in each class to +one-tenth of that laid down in the budget of 1913.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 162.</strong>—The number of employes or officials of the German +States, such as customs officers, forest guards, and coast guards shall +not exceed that of the employes or officials functioning in these +capacities in 1913.</p> + +<p>The number of gendarmes and employes or officials of the local or +municipal police may only be increased to an extent corresponding to the +increase of population since 1913 in the districts or municipalities in +which they are employed.</p> + +<p>These employes and officials may not be assembled for military training.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 163.</strong>—The reduction of the strength of the German military +forces as provided for in Article 160 may be effected gradually in the +following manner:</p> + +<p>Within three months from the coming into force of the present treaty the +total number of effectives must be reduced to 200,000 and the number of +units must not exceed twice the number of those laid down in Article +160.</p> + +<p>At the expiration of this period, and at the end of each subsequent +period of three months, a conference of military experts of the +principal Allied and Associated Powers will fix the reductions to be +made in the ensuing three months, so that by the 31st of March, 1920, at +the latest, the total number of German effectives does not exceed the +maximum number of 100,000 men laid down in Article 160. In these +successive reductions the same ratio between the number of officers and +of men, and between the various kinds of units shall be maintained as is +laid down in that article.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.—ARMAMENT, MUNITIONS, AND MATERIAL</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 164.</strong>—Up till the time at which Germany is admitted as a +member of the League of Nations the German Army must not possess an +armament greater than the amounts fixed in Table No. 2, annexed to this +section, with the exception of an optional increase not exceeding +one-twenty-fifth part for small arms and one-fiftieth part for guns, +which shall be exclusively used to provide for such eventual +replacements as may be necessary.</p> + +<p>Germany agrees that after she has become a member of the League of +Nations the armaments fixed in the said table shall remain in force +until they are modified by the Council of the League. Furthermore she +hereby agrees strictly to observe the decisions of the Council of the +League on this subject.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 165.</strong>—The maximum number of guns, machine guns, trench +mortars, rifles, and the amount of ammunition and equipment which +Germany is allowed to maintain during the period between the coming into +force of the present treaty and the date of March 31, 1920, referred to +in Article 160, shall bear the same proportion to the amount authorized +in Table No. 3 annexed to this section as the strength of the German +Army as reduced from time to time in accordance with Article 163 bears +to the strength permitted under Article 160.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 166.</strong>—At the date of March 31, 1920, the stock of munitions +which the German Army may have at its disposal shall not exceed the +amounts fixed in Table No. 3 annexed to this section.</p> + +<p>Within the same period the German Government will store these stocks at +points to be notified to the Governments of the principal Allied and +Associated Powers. The German Government is forbidden to establish any +other stocks, depots, or reserves of munitions.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 167.</strong>—The number and calibre of the guns constituting at +the date of the coming into force of the present treaty the armament of +the fortified works, fortresses, and any land or coast forts which +Germany is allowed to retain, must be notified immediately by the German +Government to the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated +Powers, and will constitute maximum amounts which may not be exceeded.</p> + +<p>Within two months from the coming into force of the present treaty the +maximum stock of ammunition for these guns will be reduced to, and +maintained at, the following uniform rates: Fifteen hundred rounds per +piece for those the calibre of which is 10.5 cm. and under; 500 rounds +per piece for those of higher calibre.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 168.</strong>—The manufacture of arms, munitions, or any war +material shall only be carried out in factories or works the locations +of which shall be communicated to and approved by the Governments of the +principal Allied and Associated Powers, and the number of which they +retain the right to restrict.</p> + +<p>Within three months from the coming into force of the present treaty all +other establishments for the manufacture, preparation, storage, or +design of arms, munitions, or any war material whatever shall be closed +down. The same applies to all arsenals except those used as depots for +the authorized stocks of munitions. Within the same period the personnel +of these arsenals will be dismissed.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 169.</strong>—Within two months from the coming into force of the +present treaty, German arms, munitions, and war materials, including +anti-aircraft material, existing in Germany in excess of the quantities +allowed must be surrendered to the Governments of the principal Allied +and Associated Powers, to be destroyed or rendered useless. This will +also apply to any special plant intended for the manufacture of military +material, except such as may be recognized as necessary for equipping +the authorized strength of the German Army.</p> + +<p>The surrender in question will be effected at such points in German +territory as may be selected by the said Governments. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> + +Within the same period, arms, munitions, and war material, including +anti-aircraft material, of origin other than German, in whatever state +they may be, will be delivered to the said Governments, who will decide +as to their disposal.</p> + +<p>Arms and munitions which on account of the successive reductions in the +strength of the German Army become in excess of the amounts authorized +by Tables 2 and 3 of the annex must be handed over in the manner laid +down above within such periods as may be decided by the conferences +referred to in Article 163.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 170.</strong>—Importation into Germany of arms, munitions, and war +material of every kind shall be strictly prohibited.</p> + +<p>The same applies to the manufacture for and export to foreign countries +of arms, munitions, and war material of every kind.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 171.</strong>—The use of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases and +all analogous liquids, materials or devices being prohibited, their +manufacture and importation are strictly forbidden in Germany.</p> + +<p>The same applies to materials specially intended for the manufacture, +storage, and use of the said products or devices.</p> + +<p>The manufacture and the importation into Germany of armored cars, tanks, +and all similar constructions suitable for use in war are also +prohibited.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 172.</strong>—Within a period of three months from the coming into +force of the present treaty the German Government will disclose to the +Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers the nature and +mode of manufacture of all explosives, toxic substances or other like +chemical preparations used by them in the war or prepared by them for +the purpose of being so used.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.—RECRUITING AND MILITARY TRAINING</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 173.</strong>—Universal compulsory military service shall be +abolished in Germany.</p> + +<p>The German Army may only be constituted and recruited by means of +voluntary enlistment.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 174.</strong>—The period of enlistment for non-commissioned +officers and privates must be twelve consecutive years.</p> + +<p>The number of men discharged for any reason before the expiration of +their term of enlistment must not exceed in any year 5 per cent. of the +total effectives as fixed by the second sub-paragraph of Paragraph 1 of +Article 160 of the present treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 175.</strong>—The officers who are retained in the army must +undertake the obligation to serve in it up to the age of forty-five +years, at least.</p> + +<p>Officers newly appointed must undertake to serve on the active list for +twenty-five consecutive years, at least.</p> + +<p>Officers who have previously belonged to any formation whatever of the +army and who are not retained in the units allowed to be maintained must +not take part in any military exercise, whether theoretical or +practical, and will not be under any military obligations whatever.</p> + +<p>The number of officers discharged for any reason before the expiration +of their term of service must not exceed in any year 5 per cent. of the +total effectives of officers provided for in the third sub-paragraph of +Paragraph 1 of Article 100 of the present treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 176.</strong>—On the expiration of two months from the coming into +force of the present treaty there must only exist in Germany the number +of military schools which is absolutely indispensable for the +recruitment of the officers of the units allowed. These schools will be +exclusively intended for the recruitment of officers of each arm, in the +proportion of one school per arm.</p> + +<p>The number of students admitted to attend the courses of the said +schools will be strictly in proportion to the vacancies to be filled in +the cadres of officers. The students and the cadres will be reckoned in +the effectives fixed by the second and third sub-paragraphs of Paragraph +1 of Article 160 of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>Consequently, and during the period fixed above, all military academies +or similar institutions in Germany, as well as the different military +schools for officers, student officers (aspiranten), cadets +non-commissioned officers, or student non-commissioned officers +(aspiranten), other than the schools above provided for, will be +abolished.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 177.</strong>—Educational establishments, the universities, +societies of discharged soldiers, shooting or touring clubs, and, +generally speaking, associations of every description, whatever be the +age of their members, must not occupy themselves with any military +matters. In particular they will be forbidden to instruct or exercise +their members, or to allow them to be instructed or exercised, in the +profession or use of arms.</p> + +<p>These societies, associations, educational establishments, and +universities must have no connection with the Ministries of War or any +other military authority.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 178.</strong>—All measures of mobilization or appertaining to +mobilization are forbidden.</p> + +<p>In no case must formations, administrative services, or general staffs +include supplementary cadres.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 179.</strong>—Germany agrees, from the coming into force of the +present treaty, not to accredit nor to send to any foreign country any +military, naval, or air mission, nor to allow any such missions to leave +her territory, and Germany further agrees to take appropriate measures +to prevent German nationals from leaving her territory to become +enrolled in the army, navy, or air service of any foreign power, or to +be attached to such army, navy, or air service for the purpose of +assisting in the military, naval, or air training thereof, or otherwise +for the purpose of giving military, naval, or air instruction in any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>The Allied and Associated Powers agree, so far as they are concerned, +from the coming into force of the present treaty, not to enroll in nor +to attach to their armies or naval or air forces any German national for +the purpose of assisting in the military training of such armies or +naval or air forces, or otherwise to employ any such German national as +military, naval, or aeronautic instructor.</p> + +<p>The present provision, however, does not affect the right of France to +recruit for the Foreign Legion in accordance with French military laws +and regulations.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.—FORTIFICATIONS</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 180.</strong>—All fortified works, fortresses, and field works +situated in German territory to the west of a line drawn fifty +kilometers to the east of the Rhine shall be disarmed and dismantled.</p> + +<p>Within a period of two months from the coming into force of the present +treaty such of the above fortified works, fortresses, and field works as +are situated in territory not occupied by Allied and Associated troops +shall be disarmed and within a further period of four months they + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> + +shall be dismantled. Those which are situated in territory occupied by +Allied and Associated troops shall be disarmed and dismantled within +such periods as may be fixed by the Allied High Command.</p> + +<p>The construction of any new fortification, whatever its nature and +importance, is forbidden in the zone referred to in the first paragraph +above.</p> + +<p>The system of fortified works of the southern and eastern frontiers of +Germany shall be maintained in its existing state.</p> + +<h3><strong>TABLE NO. 1.</strong></h3> + +<p class="center"><strong>State and Establishment of Army Corps Headquarters Staffs and of +Infantry and Cavalry Divisions.</strong></p> + +<p>These tabular statements do not form a fixed establishment to be imposed +on Germany, but the figures contained in them (number of units and +strengths) represent maximum figures, which should not in any case be +exceeded.</p> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="Maximum strengh of German Army"> +<tr><th rowspan="2">Unit</th><th rowspan="2">Maximum<br />No.<br />Authorized<br />Division.</th><th colspan="2">Max. Strength of Each Unit</th></tr> +<tr><th>Officers.</th><th>N.C.O.'s<br />Men.</th></tr> +<tr><td>Army corps hdq. staffs</td><td class="numeric">2</td><td class="numeric">30</td><td class="numeric">150</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total for hdq. staffs</td><td class="numeric">..</td><td class="numeric">60</td><td class="numeric">300</td></tr> +</table> + +<h3>2. ESTABLISHMENT OF AN INFANTRY DIVISION.</h3> + +<table class="nobrdrsm" summary="maximum strengh of infantry division"> +<tr><th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Unit</th><th rowspan="2">Maximum<br />No. of<br />Such Units<br />in a Single<br />Division</th><th colspan="2">Max. Strength Each Unit</th></tr> +<tr><th>Officers</th><th>N.C.'s and Men</th></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2">Hdqrs. of inf. div.</td><td class="numeric">1</td><td class="numeric">25</td><td class="numeric">70</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2">Hdqrs. of divisional inf.</td><td class="numeric">1</td><td class="numeric">4</td><td class="numeric">30</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2">Hdqrs. of divisional art.</td><td class="numeric">1</td><td class="numeric">4</td><td class="numeric">30</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2">Regiment of inf.</td><td class="numeric">3</td><td class="numeric">70</td><td class="numeric">2,300</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>(Each regiment comprises 3 battalions of infantry. Each battalion comprises 3 companies of infantry and 1 machine-gun company.)</td><td colspan="3"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2">Trench mortar company</td><td class="numeric">3</td><td class="numeric">6</td><td class="numeric">150</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2">Divisional squadron</td><td class="numeric">1</td><td class="numeric">6</td><td class="numeric">150</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2">Field artillery regiment</td><td class="numeric">1</td><td class="numeric">85</td><td class="numeric">1,300</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>(Each regiment comprises 3 groups of artillery. Each group comprises 3 batteries.)</td><td colspan="3"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2">Pioneer battalion</td><td class="numeric">1</td><td class="numeric">12</td><td class="numeric">400</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>(This battalion comprises 2 companies of pioneers, 1 pontoon detachment, 1 searchlight section.)</td><td colspan="3"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2">Signal detachment</td><td class="numeric">1</td><td class="numeric">12</td><td class="numeric">300</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>(This detachment comprises 1 telephone detachment, 1 listening section, 1 carrier pigeon section.)</td><td colspan="3"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2">Divisional Med. Service</td><td class="numeric">1</td><td class="numeric">20</td><td class="numeric">400</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2">Parks and convoys</td><td class="numeric">...</td><td class="numeric">14</td><td class="numeric">800</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2">Total for infantry div.</td><td class="numeric">...</td><td class="numeric">410</td><td class="numeric">10,830</td></tr> +</table> + +<h3>3. ESTABLISHMENT OF A CAVALRY DIVISION.</h3> + +<table class="nobrdrsm" summary="Calvalry division"> +<tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2"></td><th rowspan="2"><a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>Units.</th><th colspan="2">Maximum Strength of Each Unit.</th></tr> +<tr><th>Officers.</th><th>N.C.O.'s and Men.</th></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2">Headquarters of a cavalry division</td><td class="numeric">1</td><td class="numeric">15</td><td class="numeric">50</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2">Cavalry regiment</td><td class="numeric">6</td><td class="numeric">40</td><td class="numeric">800</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>(Each regiment comprises four squadrons.)</td><td colspan="3"></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2">Horse artillery group (three batteries)</td><td></td><td class="numeric">20</td><td class="numeric">400</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td>Total for cavalry division</td><td></td><td class="numeric">275</td><td class="numeric">5,250</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> +Maximum number of such units in single division.</p></div> + +<h3><strong>TABLE NO. 2.</strong></h3> + +<p><strong>Tabular statement of armament establishment for a maximum of seven +infantry divisions, three cavalry divisions, and two army corps +headquarters staffs.</strong></p> + +<table class="nobrdr" summary="Armaments"> +<tr><th>Materials.</th><th>Inft. Div.</th><th>For 7 Inft. Divs.</th><th>Cav. Div.</th><th>For 3 Cav. Divs.</th><th>Total Columns 2 & 4</th></tr> +<tr><td>Rifles</td><td class="numeric">12,000</td><td class="numeric">84,000</td><td class="numeric">...</td><td class="numeric">...</td><td class="numeric">84,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Carbines</td><td class="numeric">...</td><td class="numeric">...</td><td class="numeric">6,000</td><td class="numeric">18,000</td><td class="numeric">18,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Heavy machine guns</td><td class="numeric">108</td><td class="numeric">756</td><td class="numeric">12</td><td class="numeric">36</td><td class="numeric">792</td></tr> +<tr><td>Light machine guns</td><td class="numeric">162</td><td class="numeric">1,134</td><td class="numeric">...</td><td class="numeric">...</td><td class="numeric">1,134</td></tr> +<tr><td>Medium trench mortars</td><td class="numeric">9</td><td class="numeric">63</td><td class="numeric">...</td><td class="numeric">...</td><td class="numeric">63</td></tr> +<tr><td>Light trench mortars</td><td class="numeric">27</td><td class="numeric">189</td><td class="numeric">...</td><td class="numeric">...</td><td class="numeric">189</td></tr> +<tr><td>7.7 cm. guns</td><td class="numeric">24</td><td class="numeric">168</td><td class="numeric">12</td><td class="numeric">36</td><td class="numeric">204</td></tr> +<tr><td>10.5 cm. howitzers</td><td class="numeric">12</td><td class="numeric">84</td><td class="numeric">...</td><td class="numeric">...</td><td class="numeric">84</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Army corps headquarters staff establishment must be drawn from the +increased armaments of the divisional infantry.</p> + +<h3><strong>TABLE NO. 3.<br /> +Maximum Stocks Authorized.</strong></h3> + +<table class="standard" summary="Maximum rounds authorized"> +<col width="40%" /> +<col width="20%" /> +<col width="20%" /> +<col width="20%" /> +<tr><td>Material.</td><td>Maximum Number of Arms Authorized.</td><td>Establishment Per Unit, Rounds.</td><td>Maximum Totals, Rounds</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rifles</td><td class="numeric">84,000</td><td class="numeric" rowspan="2">400</td><td class="numeric" rowspan="2">40,800,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Carbines</td><td class="numeric">18,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Heavy machine guns</td><td class="numeric">792</td><td class="numeric" rowspan="2">8,000</td><td class="numeric" rowspan="2">15,408,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Light machine guns</td><td class="numeric">1,134</td></tr> +<tr><td>Medium trench mortars</td><td class="numeric">63</td><td class="numeric">400</td><td class="numeric">25,200</td></tr> +<tr><td>Light trench mort's</td><td class="numeric">189</td><td class="numeric">800</td><td class="numeric">151,200</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Field artillery—</td></tr> +<tr><td>7.7 cm. guns</td><td class="numeric">204</td><td class="numeric">1,000</td><td class="numeric">204,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>10.5 cm. howitzers</td><td class="numeric">84</td><td class="numeric">800</td><td class="numeric">67,200</td></tr> +</table> + +<h3>SECTION II.—<em>Naval Clauses</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 181.</strong>—After the expiration of a period of two months from +the coming into force of the present treaty the German naval forces in +commission must not exceed: Six battleships of the Deutschland or +Lothringen type, six light cruisers, twelve destroyers, twelve torpedo +boats, or an equal number of ships constructed to replace them as +provided in Article 190.</p> + +<p>No submarines are to be included. All other warships except where there +is provision to the contrary in the present treaty must be placed in +reserve or devoted to commercial purposes.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 182.</strong>—Until the completion of the minesweeping prescribed +by Article 193, Germany will keep in commission such number of +minesweeping vessels as may be fixed by the Governments of the principal +Allied and Associated Powers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 183.</strong>—After the expiration of a period of two months from +the coming into force of the present treaty the total personnel of the +German Navy, including the manning of the fleet, coast defenses, signal +stations, administration, and other land services, must not exceed +15,000, including officers and men of all grades and corps. The total +strength of officers and warrant officers must not exceed 1,500. Within +two months from the coming into force of the present treaty the +personnel in excess of the above strength shall be demobilized. No naval +or military corps or reserve force in connection with the navy may be +organized in Germany without being included in the above strength.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 184.</strong>—From the date of the coming into force of the present +treaty all the German surface warships which are not in German ports +cease to belong to Germany, who renounces all rights over them. Vessels +which, in compliance with the armistice of Nov. 11, 1918, are now +interned in the ports of the Allied and Associated Powers, are declared +to be finally surrendered. Vessels which are now interned in neutral +ports will be there surrendered to the Governments of the principal +Allied and Associated Powers. The German Government must address a +notification to that effect to the neutral powers on the coming into +force of the present treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 185.</strong>—Within a period of two months from the coming into +force of the present treaty the German surface warships enumerated below +will be surrendered to the Governments of the principal Allied and +Associated Powers in such allied ports as the said powers may direct. +These warships will have been disarmed as provided in Article 23 of the +armistice, dated Nov. 11, 1918. Nevertheless, they must have all their +guns on board.</p> + +<p>Battleships—Oldenburg, Thuringen, Ostfriesland, Heligoland, Posen, +Westfalen, Rheinland, and Nassau.</p> + +<p>Light Cruisers—Stettin, Danzig, München, Lübeck, +Stralsund, Augsburg, Kolberg, and Stuttgart.</p> + +<p>And in addition forty-two modern destroyers and fifty modern torpedo +boats, as chosen by the Governments of the principal Allied and +Associated Powers.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 186.</strong>—On the coming into force of the present treaty the +German Government must undertake, under the supervision of the +Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers, the breaking +up of all the German surface warships now under construction.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 187.</strong>—The German auxiliary cruisers and fleet auxiliaries +enumerated below will be disarmed and treated as merchant ships.</p> + +<p>Ships interned in neutral countries: Berlin, Santa Fé, Seydlitz, +Yorck.</p> + +<p>Ships interned in Germany: Ammon, Fürst Bülow, Answald, +Gertrud, Bosnia, Kigoma, Cordoba, Rugia, Cassel, Santa Elena, Dania, +Schleswig, Rio Negro, Möwe, Rio Pardo, Sierra Ventana, Santa Cruz, +Chemnitz, Schwaben, Emil Georg von Strauss, Solingen, Habsburg, +Steigerwald, Meteor, Franken, Waltraute, Gundomar, Scharnhorst.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 188.</strong>—On the expiration of one month from the coming into +force of the present treaty all German submarines, salvage vessels, and +docks for submarines, including the tubular dock, must have been handed +over to the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers. +Such of these submarines, vessels, and docks as are considered by said +Governments to be fit to proceed under their own power or to be towed +shall be taken by the German Government into such allied ports as have +been indicated. The remainder, and also those in course of construction, +shall be broken up entirely by the German Government under the +supervision of the said Governments. The breaking up must be completed +within three months at the most after the coming into force of the +present treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 189.</strong>—Articles, machinery, and material arising from the +breaking up of German warships of all kinds, whether surface vessels or +submarines, may not be used except for purely industrial or commercial +purposes. They may not be sold or disposed of to foreign countries.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 190.</strong>—Germany is forbidden to construct or acquire any +warships other than those intended to replace the units in commission +provided for in Article 181 of the present treaty. The warships intended +for replacement purposes as above shall not exceed the following +displacement: Armored ships, 10,000 tons; light cruisers, 6,000 tons; +destroyers, 800 tons; torpedo boats, 200 tons. Except where a ship has +been lost, units of the different classes shall only be replaced at the +end of a period of twenty years in the case of battleships and cruisers, +and fifteen years in the case of destroyers and torpedo boats, counting +from the launching of the ship.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 191.</strong>—The construction or acquisition of any submarine, +even for commercial purposes, shall be forbidden in Germany.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 192.</strong>—The warships in commission of the German fleet must +only have on board or in reserve the allowance of arms, munitions, and +war material fixed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers. Within +a month from the fixing of the quantities as above, arms, munitions and +war material of all kinds, including mines and torpedoes now in the +hands of the German Government and in excess of the said quantities, +shall be surrendered to the Governments of the said powers at places to +be indicated by them. Such arms, munitions and war material will be +destroyed or rendered useless. All other stocks, depots or reserves of +arms, munitions or naval war material of all kinds are forbidden. The +manufacture of these articles in German territory for, and their export +to, foreign countries shall be forbidden.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 193.</strong>—On the coming into force of the present treaty +Germany will forthwith sweep up the mines in the following areas in the +North Sea to the eastward of longitude 4 degrees 00 minutes east of +Greenwich: (1) Between parallels of latitude 53 degrees 00 minutes N. +and 59 degrees 00 minutes N.; (2) to the northward of latitude 60 +degrees 30 minutes N. Germany must keep these areas free from mines. +Germany must also sweep and keep free from mines such areas in the +Baltic as may ultimately be notified by the Governments of the principal +Allied and Associated Powers.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 194.</strong>—The personnel of the German Navy shall be recruited +entirely by voluntary engagements entered into for a minimum period of +twenty-five consecutive years for officers and warrant officers, and +twelve consecutive years for petty officers, and men. The number engaged +to replace those discharged for any reason before the expiration of +their term of service must not exceed 5 per cent. per annum of the +totals laid down in this section. (Article 183.)</p> + +<p>The personnel discharged from the navy must not receive any kind of +naval or military training or undertake any further service in the navy +or army. Officers belonging to the German Navy and not demobilized must +engage to serve till the age of 45 unless discharged for sufficient +reasons. No officer or man of the German mercantile marine shall receive +any training in the navy.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 195.</strong>—In order to insure free passage into the Baltic to +all nations, Germany shall not erect any fortifications in the area +comprised between latitudes 55.27 north and 54.00 north and longitudes +9.00 east and 16.00 east of the meridian of Greenwich, nor install any +guns commanding the maritime routes between the North Sea and the +Baltic. The fortifications now existing in this area shall be demolished +and the guns removed under the supervision of the Allied Governments and +in periods to be fixed by them. The German Government shall place at the +disposal of the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated +Powers all hydrographical information now in its possession concerning +the channels and adjoining waters between the Baltic and the North Sea.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-214.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-214thumb.jpg" width="400" height="289" + alt="Berlin Demonstrations Against The Peace Treaty" + title="Berlin Demonstrations Against The Peace Treaty" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> + <p class="caption">Berlin Demonstrations Against The Peace Treaty</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-214.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 196.</strong>—All fortified works and fortifications other than +those mentioned in Article 195 and in Part III. (political clauses for +Europe), Section XIII. (Heligoland), now established within fifty +kilometers of the German coast or on German islands off that coast, +shall be considered of a defensive nature and may remain in their +existing condition. No new fortifications shall be constructed within +these limits. The armament of these defenses shall not exceed, as +regards the number and calibre of guns, those in position at the date of +the coming into force of the present treaty. The German Government shall +communicate forthwith particulars thereof to all the European +Governments. On the expiration of a period of two months from the coming +into force of the present treaty the stocks of ammunition for these guns +shall be reduced to and maintained at a maximum figure of fifteen +hundred rounds per piece for calibres of 4.1-inch and under, and five +hundred rounds per piece for higher calibres.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 197.</strong>—During the three months following the coming into +force of the present treaty the German high-power wireless telegraphy +stations at Nauen, Hanover, and Berlin shall not be used for the +transmission of messages concerning naval, military, or political +questions of interest to Germany or any State which has been allied to +Germany in the war, without the assent of the Governments of the +principal Allied and Associated Powers. These stations may be used for +commercial purposes, but only under the supervision of the said +Governments, who will decide the wave length to be used. During the same +period Germany shall not build any more high-power wireless telegraphy +stations in her own territory or that of Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, or +Turkey.</p> + +<h3>SECTION III.—<em>Air Clauses</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 198.</strong>—The armed forces of Germany must not include any +military or naval air forces. Germany may, during a period not extending +beyond Oct. 1, 1919, maintain a maximum number of 100 seaplanes or +flying boats, which shall be exclusively employed in searching for +submarine mines, shall be furnished with + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> + +the necessary equipment for this purpose, and shall in no case carry +arms, munitions, or bombs of any nature whatever. In addition to the +engines installed in the seaplanes or flying boats above mentioned, one +<del>space</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads space">spare</ins> engine may be provided for each engine of each of these craft. No +dirigible shall be kept.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 199.</strong>—Within two months from the coming into force of the +present treaty the personnel of the air forces on the rolls of the +German land and sea forces shall be demobilized. Up to the 1st October, +1919, however, Germany may keep and maintain a total number of 1,000 +men, including officers, for the whole of the cadres and personnel, +flying and nonflying, of all formations and establishments.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 200.</strong>—Until the complete evacuation of German territory by +the Allied and Associated troops, the aircraft of the Allied and +Associated Powers shall enjoy in Germany freedom of passage through the +air, freedom of transit and of landing.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 201.</strong>—During the six months following the coming into force +of the present treaty the manufacture and importation of aircraft, parts +of aircraft, engines for aircraft, and parts of engines for aircraft +shall be forbidden in all German territory.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 202.</strong>—On the coming into force of the present treaty all +military and naval aeronautical material, except the machines mentioned +in the second and third paragraphs of Article 198, must be delivered to +the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers. Delivery +must be effected at such places as the said Governments may select, and +must be completed within three months. In particular, this material will +include all items under the following heads, which are or have been in +use or were designed for warlike purposes:</p> + +<p>Complete airplanes and seaplanes, as well as those being manufactured, +repaired, or assembled.</p> + +<p>Dirigibles able to take the air being manufactured, repaired, or +assembled.</p> + +<p>Plant for the manufacture of hydrogen.</p> + +<p>Dirigible sheds and shelters of every kind for aircraft.</p> + +<p>Pending their delivery, dirigibles will, at the expense of Germany, be +maintained inflated with hydrogen; the plant for the manufacture of +hydrogen, as well as the sheds for dirigibles, may, at the discretion of +said powers, be left to Germany until the time when the dirigibles are +handed over.</p> + +<p>Engines for aircraft.</p> + +<p>Nacelles and fuselages.</p> + +<p>Armament (guns, machine guns, light machine guns, bomb-dropping +apparatus, torpedo-dropping apparatus, synchronization apparatus, aiming +apparatus).</p> + +<p>Munitions (cartridges, shells, bombs, loaded or unloaded, stocks of +explosives or of material for their manufacture).</p> + +<p>Instruments for use on aircraft.</p> + +<p>Wireless apparatus and photographic or cinematograph apparatus for use +on aircraft.</p> + +<p>Component parts of any of the items under the preceding heads.</p> + +<p>The material referred to above shall not be removed without special +permission from the said Governments.</p> + +<h3>SECTION IV.—<em>Interallied Commissions of Control</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 203.</strong>—All the military, naval, and air clauses contained in +the present treaty, for the execution of which a time limit is +prescribed, shall be executed by Germany under the control of +interallied commissions specially appointed for this purpose by the +principal Allied and Associated Powers.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 204.</strong>—The Interallied Commissions of Control will be +specially charged with the duty of seeing to the complete execution of +the delivery, destruction, demolition, and rendering things useless to +be carried out at the expense of the German Government in accordance +with the present treaty. They will communicate to the German authorities +the decisions which the principal Allied and Associated Powers have +reserved the right to take, or which the execution of the military, +naval, and air clauses may necessitate.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 205.</strong>—The Interallied Commissions of Control may establish +their organizations at the seat of the Central German Government. They +shall be entitled as often as they think desirable to proceed to any +point whatever in German territory, or to send sub-commissions, or to +authorize one or more of their members to go, to any such point.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 206.</strong>—The German Government must give all necessary +facilities for the accomplishment of their missions to the Interallied +Commissions of Control and to their members. It shall attach a qualified +representative to each Interallied Commission of Control for the purpose +of receiving the communications which the commission may have to address +to the German Government, and of supplying or procuring for the +commission all information or documents which may be required. The +German Government must in all cases furnish at its own cost all labor +and material required to effect the deliveries and the work of +destruction, dismantling, demolition, and of rendering things useless, +provided for in the present treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 207.</strong>—The upkeep and cost of the Commissions of Control and +the expenses involved by their work shall be borne by Germany.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 208.</strong>—The Military Interallied Commission of Control will +represent the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers +in dealing with the German Government in all matters concerning the +execution of the military clauses. In particular it will be its duty to +receive from the German Government the notifications relating to the +location of the stocks and depots of munitions, the armament of the +fortified works, fortresses and forts which Germany is allowed to +retain, and the location of the works or factories for the production of +arms, munitions and war material and their operations. It will take +delivery of the arms, munitions, and war material, will select the +points where such delivery is to be effected, and will supervise the +works of destruction and demolition and of rendering things useless +which are to be carried out in accordance with the present treaty. The +German Government must furnish to the Military Interallied Commission of +Control all such information and documents as the latter may deem +necessary to insure the complete execution of the military clauses, and +in particular all legislative and administrative documents and +regulations.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 209.</strong>—The Naval Interallied Commission of Control will +represent the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers +in dealing with the German Government in all matters concerning the +execution of the naval clauses. In particular it will be its duty to +proceed to the building yards and to supervise the breaking up of the +ships which are under construction there, to take delivery of all +surface ships or submarines, salvage ships, docks and the tubular dock, +and to supervise the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> + +destruction and breaking up provided for. The German Government must +furnish to the Naval Interallied Commission of Control all such +information and documents as the commission may deem necessary to insure +the complete execution of the naval clauses, in particular the designs +of the warships, the composition of their armaments, the details and +models of the guns, munitions, torpedoes, mines, explosives, wireless +telegraphic apparatus and in general everything relating to naval war +material, as well as all legislative or administrative documents or +regulations.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 210.</strong>—The Aeronautical Interallied Commission of Control +will represent the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated +Powers in dealing with the German Government in all matters concerning +the execution of the air clauses. In particular it will be its duty to +make an inventory of the aeronautical material existing in German +territory, to inspect airplane, balloon, and motor manufactories, and +factories producing arms, munitions, and explosives capable of being +used by aircraft, to visit all aerodromes, sheds, landing grounds, +parks, and depots, to authorize, where necessary, a removal of material, +and to take delivery of such material. The German Government must +furnish to the Aeronautical Interallied Commission of Control all such +information and legislative, administrative or other documents which the +commission may consider necessary to insure the complete execution of +the air clauses, and, in particular, a list of the personnel belonging +to all the German air services, and of the existing material as well as +of that in process of manufacture or on order, and a list of all +establishments working for aviation, of their positions, and of all +sheds and landing grounds.</p> + +<h3>SECTION V.—<em>General Articles</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 211.</strong>—After the expiration of a period of three months from +the coming into force of the present treaty the German laws must have +been modified and shall be maintained in conformity with this part of +the present treaty. Within the same period all the administrative or +other measures relating to the execution of this part of the treaty must +have been taken.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 212.</strong>—The following portions of the armistice of Nov. 11, +1918: Article VI., the first two and the sixth and seventh paragraphs of +Article VII, Article IX, Clauses I., II., and V. of Annex No. 2 and the +protocol, dated April 4, 1919, supplementing the armistice of Nov. 11, +1918, remain in force so far as they are not inconsistent with the above +stipulations.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 213.</strong>—So long as the present treaty remains in force, +Germany undertakes to give every facility for any investigation which +the Council of the League of Nations, acting if need be by a majority +vote, may consider necessary.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PART VI<br /> +Prisoners of War and Graves</h2> + +<h3>SECTION I.—<em>Prisoners of War</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 214.</strong>—The repatriation of prisoners of war and interned +civilians shall take place as soon as possible after the coming into +force of the present treaty and shall be carried out with the greatest +rapidity.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 215.</strong>—The repatriation of German prisoners of war and +interned civilians shall, in accordance with Article 214, be carried out +by a commission composed of representatives of the Allied and Associated +Powers on the one part, and of the German Government on the other part.</p> + +<p>For each of the Allied and Associated Powers a sub-commission composed +exclusively of representatives of the interested powers and of delegates +of the German Government shall regulate the details of carrying into +effect the repatriation of the prisoners of war.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 216.</strong>—From the time of their delivery into the hands of the +German authorities the prisoners of war and interned civilians are to be +returned without delay to their homes by the said authorities. Those +among them who before the war were habitually resident in territory +occupied by the troops of the Allied and Associated Powers are likewise +to be sent to their homes, subject to the consent and control of the +military authorities of the Allied and Associated Armies of Occupation.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 217.</strong>—The whole cost of repatriation from the moment of +starting shall be borne by the German Government, who shall also provide +the land and sea transport and staff considered necessary by the +commission referred to in Article 215.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 218.</strong>—Prisoners of war and interned civilians awaiting +disposal or undergoing sentences for offenses against discipline shall +be repatriated irrespective of the completion of their sentence or of +the proceedings pending against them.</p> + +<p>This stipulation shall not apply to prisoners of war and interned +civilians punished for offenses committed subsequent to May 1, 1919.</p> + +<p>During the period pending their repatriation all prisoners of war and +interned civilians shall remain subject to the existing regulations, +more especially as regards work and discipline.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 219.</strong>—Prisoners of war and interned civilians who are +awaiting disposal or undergoing sentence for offenses other than those +against discipline may be detained.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 220.</strong>—The German Government undertakes to admit to its +territory without distinction all persons liable to repatriation.</p> + +<p>Prisoners of war or other German nationals who do not desire to be +repatriated may be excluded from repatriation; but the Allied and +Associated Governments reserve to themselves the right either to +repatriate them or to take them to a <del>nutral</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads nutral">neutral</ins> country or to allow them to +reside in their own territories.</p> + +<p>The German Government undertakes not to institute any exceptional +proceedings against these persons or their families nor to take any +repressive or vexatious measures of any kind whatsoever against them on +this account.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 221.</strong>—The Allied and Associated Governments reserve the +right to make the repatriation of German prisoners of war or German +nationals in their hands conditional upon the immediate notification and +release by the German Government of any prisoners of war who are +nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers and may still be in +Germany.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 222.</strong>—Germany undertakes:</p> + +<p>1. To give every facility to the commissions to inquire into the cases +of those who cannot be traced; to furnish such commissions with all +necessary means of transport; to allow them access + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> + +to camps, prisons, hospitals, and all other places; and to place at +their disposal all documents, whether public or private, which would +facilitate their inquiries.</p> + +<p>2. To impose penalties upon any German officials or private persons who +have concealed the presence of any nationals of any of the Allied and +Associated Powers, or have neglected to reveal the presence of any such +after it had come to their knowledge.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 223.</strong>—Germany undertakes to restore without delay from the +date of the coming into force of the present treaty all articles, money, +securities, and documents which have belonged to nationals of the Allied +and Associated Powers and which have been retained by the German +authorities.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 224.</strong>—The high contracting parties waive reciprocally all +repayment of sums due for the maintenance of prisoners of war in their +respective territories.</p> + +<h3>SECTION II.—<em>Graves</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 225.</strong>—The Allied and Associated Governments and the German +Government will cause to be respected and maintained the graves of the +soldiers and sailors buried in their respective territories.</p> + +<p>They agree to recognize any commission appointed by an Allied or +Associated Government for the purpose of identifying, registering, +caring for, or erecting suitable memorials over the said graves and to +facilitate the discharge of its duties.</p> + +<p>Furthermore, they agree to afford, so far as the provisions of their +laws and the requirements of public health allow, every facility for +giving effect to requests that the bodies of their soldiers and sailors +may be transferred to their own countries.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 226.</strong>—The graves of prisoners of war and interned civilians +who are nationals of the different belligerent States and have died in +captivity shall be properly maintained in accordance with Article 225 of +the present treaty.</p> + +<p>The Allied and Associated Governments on the one part, and the German +Government on the other part, reciprocally, undertake also to furnish to +each other:</p> + +<p>1. A complete list of those who have died, together with all information +useful for identification.</p> + +<p>2. All information as to the number and position of the graves of all +those who have been buried without identification.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PART VII<br /> +Penalties</h2> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 227.</strong>—The Allied and Associated Powers publicly arraign +William II. of Hohenzollern, formerly German Emperor, for a supreme +offense against international morality and the sanctity of treaties.</p> + +<p>A special tribunal will be constituted to try the accused, thereby +assuring him the guarantees essential to the right of defense. It will +be composed of five judges, one appointed by each of the following +powers: The United States of America, Great Britain, France, Italy, and +Japan.</p> + +<p>In its decision, the tribunal will be guided by the highest motives of +international policy with a view to vindicating the solemn obligations +of international undertakings and the validity of international +morality. It will be its duty to fix the punishment which it considers +should be imposed.</p> + +<p>The Allied and Associated Powers will address a request to the +Government of the Netherlands for the surrender to them of the +ex-Emperor in order that he may be put on trial.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 228.</strong>—The German Government recognizes the right of the +Allied and Associated Powers to bring before military tribunals persons +accused of having committed acts in violation of the laws and customs of +war. Such persons shall, if found guilty, be sentenced to punishments +laid down by law. This provision will apply, notwithstanding any +proceedings or prosecution before a tribunal in Germany or in the +territory of her allies.</p> + +<p>The German Government shall hand over to the Allied and Associated +Powers or to such one of them as shall so request, all persons accused +of having committed an act in violation of the laws and customs of war +who are specified either by name or by the rank, office, or employment +which they held under the German authorities.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 229.</strong>—Persons guilty of criminal acts against the nationals +of one of the Allied and Associated Powers will be brought before the +military tribunals of that power.</p> + +<p>Persons guilty of criminal acts against the nationals of more than one +of the Allied and Associated Powers will be brought before military +tribunals composed of members of the military tribunals of the powers +concerned.</p> + +<p>In every case the accused will be entitled to name his own counsel.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 230.</strong>—The German Government undertakes to furnish all +documents and information of every kind, the production of which may be +considered necessary to insure the full knowledge of the incriminating +acts, the discovery of offenders, and the just appreciation of +responsibility.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PART VIII<br /> +Reparation</h2> + +<h3>SECTION I.—<em>General Provisions</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 231.</strong>—The Allied and Associated Governments affirm, and +Germany accepts, the responsibility of Germany and her allies for +causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated +Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of +the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 232.</strong>—The Allied and Associated Governments recognize that +the resources of Germany are not adequate, after taking into account +permanent diminutions of such resources which will result from other +provisions of the present treaty, to make complete reparation for all +such loss and damage.</p> + +<p>The Allied and Associated Governments, however, require, and Germany +undertakes, that she will make compensation for all damage done + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> + +to the civilian population of the Allied and Associated Powers and to +their property during the period of the belligerency of each as an +Allied or Associated Power against Germany by such aggression by land, +by sea, and from the air, and in general all damage as defined in Annex +I. hereto.</p> + +<p>In accordance with Germany's pledges, already given as to complete +restoration for Belgium, Germany undertakes, in addition to the +compensation for damage elsewhere in this chapter provided for, as a +consequence of the violation of the treaty of 1839, to make +reimbursement of all sums which Belgium has borrowed from the Allies and +Associated Governments up to Nov. 11, 1918, together with interest at +the rate of 5 per cent. per annum on such sums. This amount shall be +determined by the Reparation Commission, and the German Government +undertakes thereupon forthwith to make a special issue of bearer bonds +to an equivalent amount payable in marks gold, on May 1, 1926, or, at +the option of the German Government, on the 1st of May in any year up to +1926. Subject to the foregoing, the form of such bonds shall be +determined by the Reparation Commission. Such bonds shall be handed over +to the Reparation Commission, which has authority to take and +acknowledge receipt thereof on behalf of Belgium.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 233.</strong>—The amount of the above damage for which compensation +is to be made by Germany shall be determined by an interallied +commission, to be called the Reparation Commission, and constituted in +the form and with the power set forth hereunder and in Annexes II. to +VII. inclusive hereto.</p> + +<p>This commission shall consider the claims and give to the German +Government a just opportunity to be heard.</p> + +<p>The findings of the commission as to the amount of damage defined as +above shall be concluded and notified to the German Government on or +before the 1st May, 1921, as representing the extent of that +Government's obligations.</p> + +<p>The commission shall concurrently draw up a schedule of payments +prescribing the time and manner for securing and discharging the entire +obligation within a period of thirty years from the 1st May, 1921. If, +however, within the period mentioned, Germany fails to discharge her +obligations, any balance remaining unpaid may, within the discretion of +the commission, be postponed for settlement in subsequent years, or may +be handled otherwise in such manner as the Allied and Associated +Governments, acting in accordance with the procedure laid down in this +part of the present treaty, shall determine.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 234.</strong>—The Reparation Commission shall after the 1st May, +1921, from time to time, consider the resources and capacity of Germany +and, after giving her representatives a just opportunity to be heard, +shall have discretion to extend the date and to modify the form of +payments, such as are to be provided for in accordance with Article 233; +but not to cancel any part, except with the specific authority of the +several Governments represented upon the commission.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 235.</strong>—In order to enable the Allied and Associated Powers +to proceed at once to the restoration of their industrial and economic +life, pending the full determination of their claims, Germany shall pay +in such installments and in such manner (whether in gold, commodities, +ships, securities, or otherwise) as the Reparation Commission may fix, +during 1919, 1920, and the first four months of 1921, the equivalent of +20,000,000,000 gold marks.</p> + +<p>Out of this sum the expenses of the armies of occupation subsequent to +the armistice of the 11th November, 1918, shall first be met, and such +supplies of food and raw materials as may be judged by the Governments +of the principal Allied and Associated Powers to be essential to enable +Germany to meet her obligations for reparation may also, with the +approval of the said Governments, be paid for out of the above sum. The +balance shall be reckoned toward liquidation of the amounts due for +reparation.</p> + +<p>Germany shall further deposit bonds as prescribed in Paragraph 12 (c) of +Annex II. hereto.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 236.</strong>—Germany further agrees to the direct application of +her economic resources to reparation as specified in Annexes III., IV., +V., and VI., relating respectively to merchant shipping, to physical +restoration, and to coal and derivatives of coal, and to dyestuffs and +other chemical products; provided always that the value of the property +transferred and any services rendered by her under these annexes, +assessed in the manner herein prescribed, shall be credited to her +toward liquidation of her obligations under the above articles.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 237.</strong>—The successive installments, including the above sum, +paid over by Germany in satisfaction of the above claims, will be +divided by the Allied and Associated Governments in proportions which +have been determined upon by them in advance on a basis of general +equity and of the rights of each.</p> + +<p>For the purposes of this division the value of property transferred and +services rendered under Article 243 and under Annexes III., IV., VI., +and VII. shall be reckoned in the same manner as cash payments effected +in that year.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 238.</strong>—In addition to the payments mentioned above, Germany +shall effect, in accordance with the procedure laid down by the +Reparation Commission, restitution in cash of cash taken away, seized, +or sequestrated, and also restitution of animals, objects of every +nature, and securities taken away, seized, or sequestrated, in the cases +in which it proves possible to identify them in territory belonging to +Germany or her allies.</p> + +<p>Until this procedure is laid down restitution will continue in +accordance with the provisions of the armistice of 11th November, 1918, +and its renewals and the protocols thereto.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 239.</strong>—Germany undertakes to make forthwith the restitution +contemplated by Article 238 and to make the payments and deliveries +contemplated by Articles 233, 234, 235, and 236.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 240.</strong>—Germany recognizes the commission provided for by +Article 233 as the same may be constituted by the Allied and Associated +Governments in accordance with Annex II. and agrees irrevocably to the +possession and exercise by such commission of the power and authority +given to it under the present treaty. The German Government will supply +to the commission all the information which the commission may require +relative to the financial situation and operations and to the property, +productive capacity, and stocks and current production of raw materials +and manufactured articles of Germany and her nationals, and, further, +any information relative to military operations which in the judgment of +the commission may be necessary for the assessment of Germany's +liability for reparation as defined in Annex I.</p> + +<p>The German Government will accord to the members of the commission and +its authorized agents the same rights and immunities as are enjoyed in +Germany by duly accredited diplomatic agents of friendly powers. Germany +further agrees to provide for the salaries and expenses of the +commission, and of such staff as it may employ. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 241.</strong>—Germany undertakes to pass, issue, and maintain in force any +legislation, orders, and decrees that may be necessary to give complete +effect to these provisions.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 242.</strong>—The provisions of this part of the present treaty do +not apply to the property, rights, and interests referred to in Sections +III. and IV. of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty, nor to +the product of their liquidation, except so far as concerns any final +balance in favor of Germany under Article 243 (a).</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 243.</strong>—The following shall be reckoned as credits to Germany +in respect of her reparation obligations:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>Any final balance in favor of Germany under Sections III. and IV. of +Part X. (economic clauses) and Section V. (Alsace-Lorraine) of Part III. +(political clauses for Europe).</p></li> + +<li><p>Amounts due to Germany in respect of transfers under Part IX. +(financial clauses), Part XII. (ports, waterways, and railways), and +Section IV. (Sarre Basin) of Part III. (political clauses for Europe).</p></li> + +<li><p>Amounts which in the judgment of the Reparation Commission should be +credited to Germany on account of any other transfers under the present +treaty of property, rights, concessions, or other interests.</p> + +<p>In no case, however, shall credit be given for property restored in +accordance with Article 238.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 244.</strong>—The transfer of the German submarine cables which do +not form the subject of particular provisions of the present treaty as +regulated by Annex VII. hereto.</p> + +<h3>ANNEX I.</h3> + +<p>Compensation may be claimed from Germany under Article 232 above in +respect of the total damage under the following categories:</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>Damage to injured persons and to surviving dependents by personal +injury to or death of civilians caused by acts of war, including +bombardments or other attacks on land, on sea, or from the air, and all +the direct consequences thereof, and of all operations of war by the two +groups of belligerents wherever arising.</p></li> + +<li><p>Damage caused by Germany or her allies to civilian victims of acts of +cruelty, violence, or maltreatment, (including injuries to life or +health as a consequence of imprisonment, deportation, internment, or +evacuation, of exposure at sea, or of being forced to labor by Germany +or her allies,) wherever arising, and to the surviving dependents of +such victims.</p></li> + +<li><p>Damage caused by Germany or her allies in their own territory or in +occupied or invaded territory to civilian victims of all acts injurious +to health or capacity to work, or to honor, as well as to the surviving +dependents of such victims.</p></li> + +<li><p>Damage caused by any kind of maltreatment of prisoners of war.</p></li> + +<li><p>As damage caused to the peoples of the Allied and Associated Powers, +all pensions and compensations in the nature of pensions to naval and +military victims of war, (including members of the air forces,) whether +mutilated, wounded, sick or invalided, and to the dependents of such +victims, the amount due to the Allied and Associated Governments being +calculated for each of them as being the capitalized costs of such +pensions and compensations at the date of the coming into force of the +present treaty, on the basis of the scales in force in France at such +date.</p></li> + +<li><p>The cost of assistance by the Governments of the Allied and +Associated Powers to prisoners of war and to their families and +dependents.</p></li> + +<li><p>Allowances by the Governments of the Allied and Associated Powers to +the families and dependents of mobilized persons or persons serving with +the forces, the amount due to them for each calendar year in which +hostilities occurred being calculated for each Government on the basis +of the average scale for such payments in force in France during that +year.</p></li> + +<li><p>Damage caused to civilians by being forced by Germany or her allies +to labor without just remuneration.</p></li> + +<li><p>Damage in respect of all property, wherever situated, belonging to +any of the Allied or Associated States or their nationals, with the +exception of naval and military works or materials, which have been +carried off, seized, injured, or destroyed by the acts of Germany or her +allies on land, on sea, or from the air, or damage directly in +consequence of hostilities or of any operations of war.</p></li> + +<li><p>Damage in the form of levies, fines and other similar exactions +imposed by Germany or her allies upon the civilian population.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>ANNEX II.</h3> + +<ol> +<li><p>The commission referred to in Article 233 shall be called "The +Reparation Commission," and is hereinafter referred to as "the +commission."</p></li> + +<li><p>Delegates to the commission shall be nominated by the United States +of America, Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Belgium, and the +Serb-Croat-Slovene State. Each of these powers will appoint one delegate +and also one assistant delegate, who will take his place in case of +illness or necessary absence, but at other times will only have the +right to be present at proceedings without taking any part therein. On +no occasion shall the delegates of more than five of the above powers +have the right to take part in the proceedings of the commission and to +record their votes. The delegates of the United States, Great Britain, +France, and Italy shall have this right on all occasions. The delegates +of Belgium shall have this right on all occasions other than those +referred to below. The delegate of Japan shall have this right on +occasions when questions relating to damage at sea and questions arising +under Article 260 of Part IX. (financial clauses) in which Japanese +interests are concerned are under consideration. The delegate of the +Serb-Croat-Slovene State shall have this right when questions relating +to Austria, Hungary, or Bulgaria are under consideration.</p> + +<p>Each Government represented on the commission shall have the right to +withdraw therefrom upon twelve months' notice, filed with the commission +and confirmed in the course of the sixth month after the date of the +original notice.</p></li> + +<li><p>Such of the other Allied and Associated Powers as may be interested +shall have the right to appoint a delegate to be present and act as +assessor only while their respective claims and interests are under +examination or discussion, but without the right to vote.</p></li> + +<li><p>In case of the death, resignation or recall of any delegate, +assistant delegate, or assessor, a successor to him shall be nominated +as soon as possible.</p></li> + +<li><p>The commission will have its principal permanent bureau in Paris and +will hold its first meeting in Paris as soon as practicable after the +coming into force of the present treaty, and thereafter will meet in +such place or places and at such time as it may deem convenient and as + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> + +may be necessary for the most expeditious discharge of its duties.</p></li> + +<li><p>At its first meeting the commission shall elect from among the +delegates referred to above a Chairman and a Vice Chairman, who shall +hold office for one year and shall be eligible for re-election. If a +vacancy in the Chairmanship or Vice Chairmanship should occur during the +annual period the commission shall proceed to a new election for the +remainder of the said period.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-220.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-220thumb.jpg" width="400" height="274" +alt="German Press Representatives in Versailles" +title="German Press Representatives in Versailles" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> +<p class="caption">German Press Representatives in Versailles</p> +<p class="description">These men who are shown in their work room in the Hotel Des Reservoirs, +Versailles, sent the news of the progress of the Peace Treaty throughout +Germany</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-220.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div></li> + +<li><p>The commission is authorized to appoint all necessary officers, +agents, and employees who may be required for the execution of its +functions, and to fix their remuneration; to constitute committees, +whose members need not necessarily be members of the commission, and to +take all executive steps necessary for the purpose of discharging its +duties, and to delegate authority and discretion to officers, agents, +and committees.</p></li> + +<li><p>All proceedings of the commission shall be private unless, on +particular occasions, the commission shall otherwise determine for +special reasons.</p></li> + +<li><p>The commission shall be required, if the German Government so desire, +to hear, within a period which it will fix from time to time, evidence +and arguments on the part of Germany on any question connected with her +capacity to pay.</p></li> + +<li><p>The commission shall consider the claims and give to the German +Government a just opportunity to be heard, but not to take any part +whatever in the decisions of the commission. The commission shall afford +a similar opportunity to the allies of Germany when it shall consider +that their interests are in question.</p></li> + +<li><p>The commission shall not be bound by any particular code or rules of +law or by any particular rule of evidence or of procedure, but shall be +guided by justice, equity, and good faith. Its decisions must follow the +same principles and rules in all cases where they are applicable. It +will establish rules relating to methods of proof of claims. It may act +on any trustworthy modes of computation.</p></li> + +<li><p>The commission shall have all the powers conferred upon it, and +shall exercise all the functions assigned to it by the present treaty.</p> + +<p>The commission shall in general have wide latitude as to its control and +handling of the whole reparation problem as dealt with in this part of +the present treaty, and shall have authority to interpret its +provisions. Subject to the provisions of the present treaty, the +commission is constituted by the several Allied and Associated +Governments referred to in Paragraphs 2 and 3 above as the exclusive +agency of the said Governments respectively for receiving, selling, +holding, and distributing the reparation payments to be made by Germany +under this part of the present treaty. The commission must comply with +the following conditions and provisions:</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>Whatever part of the full amount of the proved claims is not paid in +gold, or in ships, securities, and commodities or otherwise, Germany +shall be required, under such conditions as the commission may +determine, to cover by way of guarantee by an equivalent issue of bonds, +obligations, or otherwise, in order to constitute an acknowledgment of +the said part of the debt;</p></li> + +<li><p>In periodically estimating Germany's capacity to pay, the commission +shall examine the German system of taxation, first to the end that the +sums for reparation which Germany is required to pay shall become a +charge upon all her revenues prior to that for the service or discharge +of any domestic loan, and, secondly, so as to satisfy itself that, in +general, the German scheme of taxation is fully as heavy proportionately +as that of any of the powers represented on the commission.</p></li> + +<li><p>In order to facilitate and continue the immediate restoration of the +economic life of the Allied and Associated countries, the commission +will, as provided in Article 235, take from Germany by way of security +for and acknowledgment of her debt a first installment of gold bearer +bonds free of all taxes or charges of every description established or +to be established by the Government of the German Empire or of the +German States, or by any authority subject to them; these bonds will be +delivered on account and in three portions, the marks gold being payable +in conformity with Article 262 of Part IX. (financial clauses) of the +present treaty, as follows:</p> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><p>First. To be issued forthwith, 20,000,000,000 marks gold bearer bonds, +payable not later than May 1, 1921, without interest. There shall be +specially applied toward the amortization of these bonds the payments +which Germany is pledged to make in conformity with Article 235, after +deduction of the sums used for the reimbursement of expenses of the +armies of occupation and for payment of foodstuffs and raw materials. +Such bonds as have not been redeemed by May 1, 1921, shall then be +exchanged for new bonds of the same type as those provided for below, +(Paragraph 12, c. second.)</p></li> + +<li><p>Second. To be issued forthwith, further 40,000,000,000 marks gold bearer +bonds, bearing interest at 2½ per cent. per annum between 1921 +and 1926, and thereafter at 5 per cent. per annum, with an additional 1 +per cent for amortization beginning in 1926 on the whole amount of the +issue.</p></li> + +<li><p>Third. To be delivered forthwith a covering undertaking in writing, to +issue when, but not until, the commission is satisfied that Germany can +meet such interest and sinking fund obligations, a further installment +of 40,000,000,000 marks gold 5 per cent. bearer bonds, the time and mode +of payment of principal and interest to be determined by the commission.</p> + +<p>The dates for payment of interest, the manner of applying the +amortization fund, and all other questions relating to the issue, +management, and regulation of the bond issue shall be determined by the +commission from time to time.</p> + +<p>Further issues by way of acknowledgment and security may be required as +the commission subsequently determines from time to time.</p></li> + +</ul></li> +<li><p>In the event of bonds, obligations, or other evidence of +indebtedness issued by Germany by way of security for or acknowledgment +of her reparation debt being disposed of outright, not by way of pledge, +to persons other than the several Governments in whose favor Germany's +original reparation indebtedness was created, an amount of such +reparation indebtedness shall be deemed to be extinguished +corresponding to the nominal value of the bonds, &c., so disposed of +outright, and the obligation of Germany in respect for such bonds shall +be confined to her liabilities to the holders of the bonds, as expressed +upon their face.</p></li> + +<li><p>The damage for repairing, reconstructing, and rebuilding property in +the invaded and devastated districts, including reinstallation of +furniture, machinery and other equipment, will be calculated according +to the cost at the dates when the work is done.</p></li> + +<li><p>Decisions of the commission relating to the total or partial +cancellation of the capital or interest of any verified debt of Germany +must be accompanied by a statement of its reasons.</p></li> + +</ol></li> +<li><p>As to voting, the commission will observe the following rules:</p> + +<p>When a decision of the commission is taken, the votes of all the +delegates entitled to vote, or in the absence of any of them, of their +assistant delegates, shall be recorded. Abstention from voting is to be +treated as a vote against the proposal under discussion. Assessors have +no vote.</p> + +<p>On the following questions unanimity is necessary:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>Questions involving the sovereignty of any of the Allied and +Associated Powers, or the cancellation of the whole or any part of the +debt or obligations of Germany.</p></li> + +<li><p>Questions of determining the amount and conditions of bonds or other +obligations to be issued by the German Government and of fixing the time +and manner for selling, negotiating, or distributing such bonds.</p></li> + +<li><p>Any postponement, total or partial, beyond the end of 1930, of the +payment of installments falling due between the 1st May, 1921, and the +end of 1926 inclusive.</p></li> + +<li><p>Any postponement, total or partial, of any installment falling due +after 1926 for a period exceeding three years.</p></li> + +<li><p>Questions of applying in any<del>patricular</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads patricular">particular</ins> case a method of measuring +damages different from that which has been previously applied in a +similar case.</p></li> + +<li><p>Questions of the interpretation of the provisions of this part of +the present treaty.</p></li> + +</ol><p>All other questions shall be decided by the vote of a majority.</p> + +<p>In case of any difference of opinion among the delegates, which cannot +be solved by reference to their Governments, upon the question whether a +given case is one which requires a unanimous vote for its decision or +not, such difference shall be referred to the immediate arbitration of +some impartial person to be agreed upon by the Governments, whose award +the Allied and Associated Governments agree to accept.</p></li> + +<li><p>Decisions of the commission, in accordance with the powers conferred +upon it, shall forthwith become binding and may be put into immediate +execution without further proceedings.</p></li> + +<li><p>The commission will issue to each of the interested powers, in such +form as the commission shall fix:</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li><p>First. A certificate stating that it holds for the account of the said +power bonds of the issues mentioned above, the said certificate, on the +demand of the power concerned, being divisible in a number of parts not +exceeding five;</p></li> + +<li><p>Second. From time to time certificates stating the goods delivered by +Germany on account of her reparation debt which it holds for the account +of the said power. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> + +The said certificates shall be registered, and, upon notice to the +commission, may be transferred by indorsement.</p> + +<p>When bonds are issued for sale or negotiation, and when goods are +delivered by the commission, certificates to an equivalent value must be +withdrawn.</p></li> + +</ul></li> +<li><p>Interest shall be debited to Germany as from 1st May, 1921, in +respect of her debt as determined by the commission, after allowing for +sums already covered by cash payments or their equivalent, or by bonds +issued to the commission, or under Article 243. The rate of interest +shall be 5 per cent., unless the commission shall determine at some +future time that circumstances justify a variation of this rate.</p> + +<p>The commission, in fixing on 1st May, 1921, the total amount of the debt +of Germany, may take account of interest due on sums arising out of the +reparation of material damage, as from 11th November, 1918, up to 1st +May, 1921.</p></li> + +<li><p>In case of default by Germany in the performance of any obligation +under this part of the present treaty, the commission will forthwith +give notice of such default to each of the interested powers and may +make such recommendations as to the action to be taken in consequence of +such default as it may think necessary.</p></li> + +<li><p>The measures which the Allied and Associated Powers shall have the +right to take, in case of voluntary default by Germany, and which +Germany agrees not to regard as acts of war, may include economic and +financial prohibitions and reprisals and in general such other measures +as the respective Governments may determine to be necessary in the +circumstances.</p></li> + +<li><p>Payments required to be made in gold or its equivalent on account of +the proved claims of the Allied and Associated Powers may at any time be +accepted by the commission in the form of chattels, properties, +commodities, businesses, rights, concessions, within or without German +territory, ships, bonds, shares, or securities of any kind, or +currencies of Germany or other States, the value of such substitutes for +gold being fixed at a fair and just amount by the commission itself.</p></li> + +<li><p>The commission, in fixing or accepting payment in specified +properties or rights, shall have due regard for any legal or equitable +interests of the Allied and Associated Powers or of neutral powers or of +their nationals therein.</p></li> + +<li><p>No member of the commission shall be responsible, except to the +Government appointing him, for any action or omission as such member. No +one of the Allied or Associated Governments assumes any responsibility +in respect of any other Government.</p></li> + +<li><p>Subject to the provisions of the present treaty this annex may be +amended by the unanimous decision of the Governments represented from +time to time upon the commission.</p></li> + +<li><p>When all the amounts due from Germany and her allies under the +present treaty or the decisions of the commission have been discharged +and all sums received, or their equivalents, shall have been distributed +to the powers interested, the commission shall be dissolved.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>ANNEX III.</h3> + +<ol> +<li><p>Germany recognizes the right of the Allied and Associated Powers to +the replacement, ton for ton (gross tonnage) and class for class, of all +merchant ships and fishing boats lost or damaged owing to the war.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, and in spite of the fact that the tonnage of German +shipping at present in existence is much less than that lost by the +Allied and Associated Powers, in consequence of the German aggression, +the right thus recognized will be enforced on German ships and boats +under the following conditions:</p> + +<p>The German Government on behalf of themselves and so as to bind all +other persons interested, cede to the Allied and Associated Governments +the property in all the German merchant ships which are of 1,600 tons +gross and upward; in one-half, reckoned in tonnage, of the ships which +are between 1,000 tons and 1,600 tons gross; in one-quarter, reckoned in +tonnage, of the steam trawlers, and in one-quarter, reckoned in tonnage, +of the other fishing boats.</p></li> + +<li><p>The German Government will, within two months of the coming into +force of the present treaty, deliver to the Reparation Commission all +the ships and boats mentioned in Paragraph 1.</p></li> + +<li><p>The ships and boats mentioned in Paragraph 1 include all ships and +boats which (a) fly, or may be entitled to fly, the German merchant +flag; or (b) are owned by any German national, company, or corporation +or by any company or corporation belonging to a country other than an +Allied or Associated country and under the control or direction of +German nationals; or (c) which are now under construction (1) in +Germany, (2) in other than Allied or Associated countries for the +account of any German national, company, or corporation.</p></li> + +<li><p>For the purpose of providing documents of title for the ships and +boats to be handed over as above mentioned, the German Government will:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>Deliver to the Reparation Commission in respect of each vessel a +bill of sale or other document of title evidencing the transfer to the +commission of the entire property in the vessel free from all +incumbrances, charges, and liens of all kinds, as the commission may +require:</p></li> + +<li><p>Take all measures that may be indicated by the Reparation Commission +for insuring that the ships themselves shall be placed at its disposal.</p></li> + +</ol></li> +<li><p>As an additional part of reparation, Germany agrees to cause merchant +ships to be built in German yards for the account of the Allied and +Associated Governments as follows:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>Within three months of the coming into force of the present treaty, +the Reparation Commission will notify to the German Government the +amount of tonnage to be laid down in German shipyards in each of the two +years next succeeding the three months mentioned above:</p></li> + +<li><p>Within twenty-four months of the coming into force of the present +treaty, the Reparation Commission will notify to the German Government +the amount of tonnage to be laid down in each of the three years +following the two years mentioned above;</p></li> + +<li><p>The amount of tonnage to be laid down in each year shall not exceed +200,000 tons, gross tonnage;</p></li> + +<li><p>The specifications of the ships to be built, the conditions under +which they are to be built and delivered, the price per ton at which +they are to be accounted for by the Reparation Commission, and all other +questions relating to the accounting, ordering, building and delivery of +the ships, shall be determined by the commission.</p></li> + +</ol></li> +<li><p>Germany undertakes to restore in kind and in normal condition of +upkeep to the Allied and Associated Powers, within two months of the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> + +coming into force of the present treaty, in accordance with procedure to +be laid down by the Reparation Commission, any boats and other movable +appliances belonging to inland navigation which since the 1st August, +1914, have by any means whatever come into her possession or into the +possession of her nationals, and which can be identified.</p> + +<p>With a view to make good the loss in inland navigation tonnage, from +whatever cause arising, which has been incurred during the war by the +Allied and Associated Powers, and which cannot be made good by means of +the restitution prescribed above, Germany agrees to cede to the +Reparation Commission a portion of the German river fleet up to the +amount of the loss mentioned above, provided that such cession shall not +exceed 20 per cent. of the river fleet as it existed on the 11th +November, 1918.</p> + +<p>The condition of this session shall be settled by the arbitrators +referred to in Article 339 of Part XII. (ports, waterways and railways) +of the present treaty, who are charged with the settlement of +difficulties relating to the apportionment of river tonnage resulting +from the new international régime applicable to certain river +systems or from the territorial changes affecting those systems.</p></li> + +<li><p>Germany agrees to take any measures that may be indicated to her by +the Reparation Commission for obtaining the full title to the property +in all ships which have been during the war transferred, or are in +process of transfer, to neutral flags, without the consent of the Allied +and Associated Governments.</p></li> + +<li><p>Germany waives all claims of any description against the Allied and +Associated Governments and their nationals in respect of the detention, +employment, loss or damage of any German ships or boats, except when +being made of payments due in respect of the employment of ships in +conformity with the armistice agreement of the 13th January, 1919, and +subsequent agreements.</p> + +<p>The handing over of the ships of the German mercantile marine must be +continued without interruption in accordance with the said agreement.</p></li> + +<li><p>Germany waives all claims to vessels or cargoes sunk by or in +consequence of naval action and subsequently salved, in which any of the +Allied or Associated Governments or their nationals may have any +interest, either as owners, charterers, insurers or otherwise, +notwithstanding any decree of condemnation which may have been made by a +prize court of Germany or of her allies.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>ANNEX IV.</h3> + +<ol> +<li><p>The Allied and Associated Powers require, and Germany undertakes, +that, in part satisfaction of her obligations expressed in this part of +the present treaty, she will, as hereinafter provided, devote her +economic resources directly to the physical restoration of the invaded +areas of the Allied and Associated Powers, to the extent that these +powers may determine.</p></li> + +<li><p>The Allied and Associated Governments may file with the Reparation +Commission lists showing:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>Animals, machinery, equipment, tools, and like articles of +commercial character, which have been seized, consumed, or destroyed by +Germany or destroyed in direct consequence of military operations, and +which such Governments, for the purpose of meeting immediate and urgent +needs, desire to have replaced by animals and articles of the same +nature which are being in German territory at the date of the coming +into force of the present treaty;</p></li> + +<li><p>Reconstruction materials, (stones, bricks, refractory bricks, tiles, +wood, window glass, steel, lime, cement, &c.,) machinery, heating +apparatus, furniture, and like articles of a commercial character which +the said Governments desire to have produced and manufactured in Germany +and delivered to them to permit of the restoration of the invaded areas.</p></li> +</ol></li> + +<li><p>The lists relating to the articles mentioned in 2 (a), above, shall +be filed within sixty days after the date of the coming into force of +the present treaty. The lists relating to the articles in 2 (b), above, +shall be filed on or before Dec. 31, 1919. The lists shall contain all +such details as are customary in commercial contracts dealing with the +subject matter, including specifications, dates of delivery, (but not +extending over more than four years,) and places of delivery, but not +price or value, which shall be fixed as hereinafter provided by the +commission.</p></li> + +<li><p>Immediately upon the filing of such lists with the commission, the +commission shall consider the amount and number of the materials and +animals mentioned in the lists provided for above which are to be +required of Germany. In reaching a decision on this matter the +commission shall take into account such domestic requirements of Germany +as it deems essential for the maintenance of Germany's social and +economic life, and the prices and dates at which similar articles can be +obtained in the Allied and Associated countries as compared with those +to be fixed for German articles, and the general interest of the Allied +and Associated Governments that the industrial life of Germany be not so +disorganized as to affect adversely the ability of Germany to perform +the other acts of reparation stipulated for. Machinery, equipment, +tools, and like articles of a commercial character in actual industrial +use are not, however, to be demanded of Germany unless there is no free +stock of such articles respectively which is not in use and is +available, and then not in excess of 30 per cent. of the quantity of +such articles in use in any one establishment or undertaking.</p> + +<p>The commission shall give representatives of the German Government an +opportunity and a time to be heard as to their capacity to furnish the +said materials, articles, and animals. The decision of the commission +shall thereupon and at the earliest possible moment be communicated to +the German Government and to the several interested Allied and +Associated Governments. The German Government undertakes to deliver the +materials, articles, and animals as specified in the said communication, +and the interested Allied and Associated Governments severally agree to +accept the same, provided they conform to the specification given, or +are not, in the judgment of the commission, unfit to be utilized in the +work of reparation.</p></li> + +<li><p>The commission shall determine the value to be attributed to the +materials, articles, and animals to be delivered in accordance with the +foregoing, and the Allied or Associated Power receiving the same agrees +to be charged with such value, and the amount thereof shall be treated +as a payment by Germany to be divided in accordance with Article 237 of +this part of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>In cases where the right to require physical restoration as above +provided is exercised the commission shall insure that the amount to be +credited against the reparation obligation of Germany shall be the fair +value of work done or materials supplied by Germany and that the claim +made by the interested power in respect of the damage so repaired by +physical restoration + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> + +shall be discharged to the extent of the proportion which the damage +thus repaired bears to the whole of the damage thus claimed for.</p></li> + +<li><p>As an immediate advance on account of the animals referred to in +Paragraph 2 (a) above, Germany undertakes to deliver in equal monthly +installments in the three months following the coming into force of the +present treaty the following quantities of live stock:</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li><p>First. To the French Government, 500 stallions, (3 to 7 years,) 30,000 +fillies and mares, (18 months to 7 years,) type: Ardennais, Boulonnais, +or Belgian; 2,000 bulls, (18 months to 3 years); 90,000 milch cows, (2 +to 6 years); 1,000 rams, 100,000 sheep, 10,000 goats.</p></li> + +<li><p>Second. To the Belgian Government, 200 stallions, (3 to 7 years) large +Belgian type; 5,000 mares, (3 to 7 years) large Belgian type; 5,000 +fillies, (18 months to 3 years); large Belgian type; 2,000 bulls, (18 +months to 3 years) 50,000 milch cows, (2 to 6 years) 40,000 heifers, 200 +rams, 20,000 sheep, 15,000 sows.</p> + +<p>The animals delivered shall be of average health and condition. To the +extent that animals so delivered cannot be identified as animals taken +away or seized, the value of such animals shall be credited against the +reparation obligations of Germany in accordance with Paragraph 5 of this +annex.</p></li> +</ul></li> + +<li><p>Without waiting for the decisions of the commission, referred to in +Paragraph 4 of this annex, to be taken, Germany must continue the +delivery to France of the agricultural material referred to in Article 3 +of the renewal of the armistice of 16th January, 1919.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>ANNEX V.</h3> + +<ol> +<li><p>Germany accords the following options for the delivery of coal and +derivatives of coal to the under-mentioned signatories of the present +treaty.</p></li> + +<li><p>Germany undertakes to deliver to France 7,000,000 tons of coal per +year for ten years. In addition, Germany undertakes to deliver to France +annually for a period not exceeding ten years an amount of coal equal to +the difference between the annual production before the war of the coal +mines of the Nord and Pas de Calais, destroyed as a result of the war, +and the production of the mines of the same area during the years in +question; such delivery not to exceed 20,000,000 tons in any one year of +the first five years, and 8,000,000 tons in any one year of the +succeeding five years.</p> + +<p>It is understood due diligence will be exercised in the restoration of +the destroyed mines in the Nord and Pas de Calais.</p></li> + +<li><p>Germany undertakes to deliver to Belgium 8,000,000 tons of coal +annually for ten years.</p></li> + +<li><p>Germany undertakes to deliver to Italy up to the following quantities +of coal:</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li>July, 1919, to June, 1920, 4,500,000 tons.</li> +<li>July, 1920, to June, 1921, 6,000,000 tons.</li> +<li>July, 1921, to June, 1922, 7,500,000 tons.</li> +<li>July, 1922, to June, 1923, 8,000,000 tons.</li> +<li>July, 1923, to June, 1924, 8,500,000 tons.</li> +</ul> + +<p>and each of the following five years, 8,500,000 tons.</p> + +<p>At least two-thirds of the actual deliveries to be land borne.</p></li> + +<li><p>Germany further undertakes to deliver annually to Luxemburg, if +directed by the Reparation Commission, a quantity of coal equal to the +pre-war annual consumption of German coal in Luxemburg.</p></li> + +<li><p>The prices to be paid for coal delivered under these options shall be +as follows:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>For overland delivery, including delivery by barge, the German +pithead price to German nationals, plus the freight to French, Belgian, +Italian, or Luxemburg frontiers, provided the pithead price does not +exceed the pithead price of British coal for export. In case of Belgian +bunker coal, the price shall not exceed the Dutch bunker price. Railroad +and barge tariffs shall not be higher than the lowest similar rates paid +in Germany.</p></li> + +<li><p>For sea delivery, the German export price f. o. b. the German ports, +or the British export price f. o. b. British ports, whichever may be +lower.</p></li> +</ol></li> + +<li><p>The Allied and Associated Governments interested may demand the +delivery in place of coal of metallurgical coke in the proportion of +three tons of coke to four tons of coal.</p></li> + +<li><p>Germany undertakes to deliver to France and to transport to the +French frontier by rail or by water the following products during each +of the three years following the coming into force of this treaty:</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li>Benzol—35,000 tons.</li> +<li>Coal tar—50,000 tons.</li> +<li>Sulphate of ammonia—30,000 tons.</li> +</ul> + +<p>All or part of the coal tar may, at the option of the French Government, +be replaced by corresponding quantities of products of distillation, +such as light oils, heavy oils, anthracine, naphthaline, or pitch.</p></li> + +<li><p>The price paid for coke and for the articles referred to in the +preceding paragraphs shall be the same as the price paid by German +nationals under the same conditions of shipment to the French frontier +or to the German ports, and shall be subject to any advantages which may +be accorded similar products furnished to German nationals.</p></li> + +<li><p>The foregoing options shall be exercised through the intervention of +the Reparation Commission, which, subject to the specific provisions +hereof, shall have power to determine all questions relative to +procedure and the qualities and quantities of products, the quantity of +coke which may be substituted for coal, and the times and modes of +delivery and payment. In giving notice to the German Government of the +foregoing options the commission shall give at least 120 days' notice of +deliveries to be made after 1st January, 1920, and at least thirty days' +notice of deliveries to be made between the coming into force of this +treaty and the 1st January, 1920. Until Germany has received the demands +referred to in this paragraph the provisions of the protocol of the 25th +December, 1918, (execution of Article 6 of the armistice of the 11th +November, 1918,) remain in force.</p> + +<p>The notice to be given to the German Government of the exercise of the +right of substitution accorded by Paragraphs 7 and 8 shall be such as +the Reparation Commission may consider sufficient.</p> + +<p>If the commission shall determine that the full exercise of the +foregoing options would interfere unduly with the industrial +requirements of Germany, the commission is authorized to postpone or to +cancel deliveries, and in so doing to settle all questions of priority, +but the coal to replace coal from destroyed mines shall receive priority +over other deliveries.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>ANNEX VI.</h3> + +<ol> +<li><p>Germany accords to the Reparation Commission an option to require as +part of reparation the delivery by Germany of such quantities and kinds +of dyestuffs and chemical drugs as the commission may designate, not +exceeding 50 per cent. of the total stock of each and every kind of +dyestuff and chemical drug in + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> + +Germany or under German control at the date of the coming into force of +the present treaty.</p> + +<p>This option shall be exercised within sixty days of the receipt by the +commission of such particulars as to stocks as may be considered +necessary by the commission.</p></li> + +<li><p>Germany further accords to the Reparation Commission an option to +require delivery during the period from the date of the coming into +force of the present treaty until Jan. 1, 1920, and during each period +of six months thereafter until Jan. 1, 1925, of any specified kind of +dyestuff and chemical drug up to an amount not exceeding 25 per cent. of +the German production of such dyestuffs and chemical drugs during the +previous six months' period. If in any case the production during such +previous six months was, in the opinion of the commission, less than +normal, the amount required may be 25 per cent. of the normal +production.</p> + +<p>Such option shall be exercised within four weeks after the receipt of +such particulars as to production and in such form as may be considered +necessary by the commission; these particulars shall be furnished by the +German Government immediately after the expiration of each six months' +period.</p></li> + +<li><p>For dyestuffs and chemical drugs delivered under Paragraph 1 the +price shall be fixed by the commission, having regard to pre-war net +export prices and to subsequent increases of cost.</p> + +<p>For dyestuffs and chemical drugs delivered under Paragraph 2 the price +shall be fixed by the commission, having regard to pre-war net export +prices and subsequent variations of cost or the lowest net selling price +of similar dyestuffs and chemical drugs to any other purchaser.</p></li> + +<li><p>All details, including mode and times of exercising the options and +making delivery, and all other questions arising under this arrangement +shall be determined by the Reparation Commission; the German Government +will furnish to the commission all necessary information and other +assistance which it may require.</p></li> + +<li><p>The above expression "dyestuffs and chemical drugs" includes all +synthetic dyes and drugs and intermediate or other products used in +connection with dyeing, so far as they are manufactured for sale. The +present arrangement shall also apply to cinchona bark and salts of +quinine.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>ANNEX VII.</h3> + +<p>Germany renounces on her own behalf and on behalf of her nationals in +favor of the principal Allied and Associated Powers all rights, titles +or privileges of whatever nature in the submarine cables set out below, +or in any portions thereof:</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li>Emden-Vigo: from the Straits of Dover to off Vigo;</li> + +<li>Emden-Brest: from off Cherbourg to Brest;</li> + +<li>Emden-Teneriffe: from off Dunkirk to off Teneriffe;</li> + +<li>Emden-Azores (1): from the Straits of Dover to Fayal;</li> + +<li>Emden-Azores (2): from the Straits of Dover to Fayal;</li> + +<li>Azores-New York (1): from Fayal to New York;</li> + +<li>Azores-New York (2): from Fayal to the longitude of Halifax;</li> + +<li>Teneriffe-Monrovia: from off Teneriffe to off Monrovia;</li> + +<li>Monrovia-Lome: from about latitude 2 degrees 30 minutes north, and +longitude 7 degrees 40 minutes west of Greenwich, to about latitude 2 +degrees 20 minutes north, and longitude 5 degrees 30 minutes west of +Greenwich, and from about latitude 3 degrees 48 minutes north, and +longitude 0 degrees 0 minutes to Lome;</li> + +<li>Lome-Duala: from Lome to Duala;</li> + +<li>Monrovia-Pernambuco: from off Monrovia to off Pernambuco;</li> + +<li>Constantinople-Constanza: from Constantinople to Constanza;</li> + +<li>Yap-Shanghai, Yap-Guam, and Yap-Menado (Celebes): +<ul class="nobullet"> + <li>from Yap Island to Shanghai,</li> + <li>from Yap Island to Guam Island,</li> + <li>and from Yap Island to Menado.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<p>The value of the above-mentioned cables or portions thereof in so far as +they are privately owned, calculated on the basis of the original cost +less a suitable allowance for depreciation, shall be credited to Germany +in the reparation account.</p> + +<h3>SECTION II.—<em>Special Provisions</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 245.</strong>—Within six months after coming into force of the +present treaty the German Government must restore to the French +Government the trophies, archives, historical souvenirs, or works of art +carried away from France by the German authorities in the course of the +war of 1870—71 and during this last war, in accordance with a list which +will be communicated to it by the French Government; particularly the +French flags taken in the course of the war of 1870—71, and all the +political papers taken by the German authorities on Oct. 10, 1870, at +the Château of Cercay, near Brunoy, (Seine-et-Oise,) belonging at +the time to M. Rouher, formerly Minister of State.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 246.</strong>—Within six months of the coming into force of the +present treaty Germany will restore to his Majesty the King of the +Hedjaz the original Koran of the Caliph Othman, which was removed from +Medina by the Turkish authorities and is stated to have been presented +to the ex-Emperor William II.</p> + +<p>Within the same period Germany will hand over to his Britannic Majesty's +Government the skull of the Sultan Mkwawa, which was removed from the +protectorate of German East Africa and taken to Germany.</p> + +<p>The delivery of the articles above referred to will be effected in such +place and in such conditions as may be laid down by the Governments to +which they are to be restored</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 247.</strong>—Germany undertakes to furnish to the University of +Louvain, within three months after a request made by it and transmitted +through the intervention of the Reparation Commission, manuscripts, +incunabula, printed books, maps, and objects of collection corresponding +in number and value to those destroyed in the burning by Germany of the +library of Louvain. All details regarding such replacement will be +determined by the Reparation Commission.</p> + +<p>Germany undertakes to deliver to Belgium, through the Reparation +Commission, within six months of the coming into force of the present +treaty, in order to enable Belgium to reconstitute her two great +artistic works:</p> + +<p>(a) The leaves of the triptych of the Mystic Lamb painted by the Van +Eyck Brothers, formerly in the Church of St. Bavon at Ghent, now in the +Berlin Museum.</p> + +<p>(b) The leaves of the triptych of the Last Supper, painted by Dierick +Bouts, formerly in the Church of St. Peter at Louvain, two of which are +now in the Berlin Museum and two in the old Pinakothek at Munich. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PART IX<br /> +Financial Clauses</h2> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 248.</strong>—Subject to such exceptions as the Reparation +Commission may approve, a first charge upon all the assets and revenues +of the German Empire and its constituent States shall be the cost of +reparation and all other costs arising under the present treaty or any +treaties or agreements supplementary thereto or under arrangements +concluded between Germany and the Allied and Associated Powers during +the armistice or its extensions.</p> + +<p>Up to May 1, 1921, the German Government shall not export or dispose of, +and shall forbid the export or disposal of, gold without the previous +approval of the Allied and Associated Powers acting through the +Reparation Commission.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 249.</strong>—There shall be paid by the German Government the +total cost of all armies of the Allied and Associated Governments in +occupied German territory from the date of the signature of the +armistice of the 11th November, 1918, including the keep of men and +beasts, lodging and billeting, pay and allowances, salaries and wages, +bedding, heating, lighting, clothing, equipment, harness and saddlery, +armament and rolling stock, air services, treatment of sick and wounded, +veterinary and remount services, transport service of all sorts, (such +as by rail, sea, river, or motor lorries,) communications and +correspondence, and in general the cost of all administrative or +technical services, the working of which is necessary for the training +of troops and for keeping their numbers up to strength and preserving +their military efficiency.</p> + +<p>The cost of such liabilities under the above heads, so far as they +relate to purchases or requisitions by the Allied and Associated +Governments in the occupied territories, shall be paid by the German +Government to the Allied and Associated Governments in marks at the +current or agreed rate of exchange. All other of the above costs shall +be paid in gold marks.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 250.</strong>—Germany confirms the surrender of all material handed +over to the Allied and Associated Powers in accordance with the +armistice agreement of the 11th November, 1918, and subsequent armistice +agreements, and recognizes the title of the Allied and Associated Powers +to such material.</p> + +<p>There shall be credited to the German Government against the sums due +from it to the Allied and Associated Powers for reparation, the value, +as assessed by the Reparation Commission referred to in Article 233 of +Part VIII. (reparation) of the present treaty, of the material handed +over in accordance with Article 7 of the armistice agreement of the 11th +November, 1918, Article 3 of the armistice agreement of the 16th +January, 1919, as well as of any other material handed over in +accordance with the armistice agreement of the 11th November, 1918, and +of subsequent armistice agreements, for which, as having non-military +value, credit should, in the judgment of the Reparation Commission, be +allowed to the German Government.</p> + +<p>Property belonging to the Allied and Associated Governments or their +nationals restored or surrendered under the armistice agreements in +specie shall not be credited to the German Government.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 251.</strong>—The priority of the charges established by Article +248 shall, subject to the qualifications made below, be as follows:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>The cost of the armies of occupation as defined under Article 249 +during the armistice and its extensions;</p></li> + +<li><p>The cost of any armies of occupation as defined under Article 249 +after the coming into force of the present treaty;</p></li> + +<li><p>The cost of reparation arising out of the present treaty or any +treaties or conventions supplementary thereto;</p></li> + +<li><p>The cost of all other obligations incumbent on Germany under the +armistice conventions or under this treaty or any treaties or +conventions supplementary thereto.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p>The payment for such supplies of food and raw material for Germany and +such other payments as may be judged by the Allied and Associated Powers +to be essential to enable Germany to meet her obligations in respect of +reparation will have priority to the extent and upon the conditions +which have been or may be determined by the Governments of the said +powers.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 252.</strong>—The right of each of the Allied and Associated Powers +to dispose of enemy assets and property within its jurisdiction at the +date of the coming into force of the present treaty is not affected by +the foregoing provisions.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 253.</strong>—Nothing in the foregoing provisions shall prejudice +in any manner charges or mortgages lawfully effected in favor of the +Allied and Associated Powers or their nationals respectively, before the +date at which a state of war existed between Germany and the Allied and +Associated Powers concerned, by the German Empire or its constituent +States, or by German nationals on assets in their ownership at that +date.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 254.</strong>—The powers to which German territory is ceded shall, +subject to the qualifications made in Article 255, undertake to pay:</p> + +<p>1. A portion of the debt of the German Empire as it stood on the 1st +August, 1914, calculated on the basis of the ratio between the average +for the three financial years 1911, 1912, 1913, of such revenues of the +ceded territory and the average for the same years of such revenues of +the whole German Empire as in the judgment of the Reparation Commission +are best calculated to represent the relative ability of the respective +territories to make payments.</p> + +<p>2. A portion of the debt as it stood on the 1st August, 1914, of the +German State to which the ceded territory belonged, to be determined in +accordance with the principle stated above.</p> + +<p>Such portions shall be determined by the Reparation Commission.</p> + +<p>The method of discharging the obligation both in respect of capital and +of interest, so assumed, shall be fixed by the Reparation Commission. +Such method may take the form, inter alia, of the assumption by the +power to which the territory is ceded of Germany's liability for the +German debt held by her nationals. But in the event of the method +adopted involving any payments to the German Government, such payments +shall be transferred to the Reparation Commission on account of the sums +due for reparation so long as any balance in respect of such sums +remains unpaid.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 255.</strong>—</p> +<ol> +<li><p>As an exception to the above provision and +inasmuch as in 1871 Germany refused to undertake any portion of the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> + +burden of the French debt, France shall be, in respect of +Alsace-Lorraine, exempt from any payment under Article 254.</p></li> + +<li><p>In the case of Poland that portion of the debt which, in the opinion +of the Reparation Commission is attributable to the measures taken by +the German and Prussian Governments for the German colonization of +Poland shall be excluded from the apportionment to be made under Article +254.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-227.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-227thumb.jpg" width="400" height="303" + alt="Dreadnoughts Welcoming President Wilson Home" + title="Dreadnoughts Welcoming President Wilson Home" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> + <p class="caption">Dreadnoughts Welcoming President Wilson Home</p> + <p class="description">This photograph taken from the Fighting Top of the Pennsylvania, shows + American Warships in the North River, firing a salute in honor of the + President's return from France on the George Washington.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-227.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div></li> + +<li><p>In the case of all ceded territories other than Alsace-Lorraine that +portion of the debt of the German Empire or German States which in the +opinion of the Reparation Commission represents expenditure by the +Governments of the German Empire or States upon the Government +properties referred to in Article 256 shall be excluded from the +apportionment to be made under Article 254.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 256.</strong>—Powers to which German territory is ceded shall +acquire all property and possessions situated therein belonging to the +German Empire or to the German States, and the value of such +acquisitions shall be fixed by the Reparation Commission, and paid by +the State acquiring the territory to the Reparation Commission for the +credit of the German Government on account of the sums due for +reparation.</p> + +<p>For the purposes of this article the property and possessions of the +German Empire and States shall be deemed to include all the property of +the Crown, the Empire or the States, and the private property of the +former German Emperor and other royal personages.</p> + +<p>In view of the terms on which Alsace-Lorraine was ceded to Germany in +1871—France shall be exempt in respect thereof from making any +payment or credit under this article for any property or possessions of +the German Empire or States situated therein. Belgium also shall be +exempt from making any payment or any credit under this article for any +property or possessions of the German Empire or States situated in +German territory ceded to Belgium under the present treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 257.</strong>—In the case of the former German territories, +including colonies, protectorates, or dependencies, administered by a +mandatory under Article 22 of Part I. (League of Nations) of the present +treaty, neither the territory nor the mandatory power shall be charged +with any portion of the debt of the German Empire or + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> + +States.</p> + +<p>All property and possessions belonging to the German Empire or +to the German States situated in such territory shall be transferred +with the territories to the Mandatory Power in its capacity as such, and +no payment shall be made nor any credit given to those Governments in +consideration of this transfer.</p> + +<p>For the purpose of this article the property and possessions of the +German Empire and of the German States shall be deemed to include all +the property of the crown, the empire or the States and the private +property of the former German Emperor and other royal personages.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 258.</strong>—Germany renounces all rights accorded to her or her +nationals by treaties, conventions or agreements, of whatsoever kind, to +representation upon or participation in the control or administration of +commissions, state banks, agencies or other financial or economic +organizations of an international character, exercising powers of +control or administration, and operating in any of the Allied or +Associated States, or in Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria or Turkey, or in the +dependencies of these States, or in the former Russian Empire.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 259.</strong>—</p> +<ol> +<li><p>Germany agrees to deliver within one month from +the date of the coming into force of the present treaty, to such +authority as the principal Allied and Associated Powers may designate, +the sum in gold which was to be deposited in the Reichsbank in the name +of the Council of the Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt as +security for the first issue of Turkish Government currency notes.</p></li> + +<li><p>Germany recognizes her obligation to make annually for the period of +twelve years the payments in gold for which provision is made in the +German Treasury bonds deposited by her from time to time in the name of +the Council of the Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt as security +for the second and subsequent issues of Turkish Government currency +notes.</p></li> + +<li><p>Germany undertakes to deliver, within one month from the coming into +force of the present treaty, to such authority as the principal Allied +and Associated Powers may designate, the deposit gold constituted in the +Reichsbank or elsewhere, representing the residue of the advance in gold +agreed to on the 5th of May, 1915, by the Council of the Administration +of the Ottoman Public Debt to the Imperial Ottoman Government.</p></li> + +<li><p>Germany agrees to transfer to the principal Allied and Associated +Powers any title that she may have to the sum in gold and silver +transmitted by her to the Turkish Ministry of Finance in November, 1918, +in anticipation of the payment to be made in May, 1919, for the service +of the Turkish internal loan.</p></li> + +<li><p>Germany undertakes to transfer to the principal Allied and Associated +Powers within a period of one month from the coming into force of the +present treaty, any sums in gold transferred as pledge or as collateral +security to the German Government or its nationals in connection with +loans made by them to the Austro-Hungarian Government.</p></li> + +<li><p>Without prejudice to Article 292 of Part X. (economic clauses) of the +present treaty, Germany confirms the renunciation provided for in +Article XV. of the armistice convention of the 11th November, 1918, of +any benefit disclosed by the treaties of Bucharest and of Brest-Litovsk, +and by the treaties supplementary thereto.</p> + +<p>Germany undertakes to transfer, either to Rumania or to the principal +Allied and Associated Powers, as the case may be, all monetary +instruments, specie, securities and negotiable instruments or goods +which she has received under the aforesaid treaties.</p></li> + +<li><p>The sums of money and all securities, instruments and goods of +whatever nature, to be delivered, paid and transferred under the +provisions of this article, shall be disposed of by the principal Allied +and Associated Powers in a manner hereafter to be determined by these +powers.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 260.</strong>—Without prejudice to the renunciation of any rights +by Germany on behalf of herself or of her nationals in the other +provisions of the present treaty, the Reparation Commission may, within +one year from the coming into force of the present treaty, demand that +the German Government become possessed of any rights and interests of +the German nationals in any public utility undertaking or in any +concession operating in Russia, China, Turkey, Austria, Hungary, and +Bulgaria, or in the possessions or dependencies of these States or in +any territory formerly belonging to Germany or her allies, to be ceded +by Germany or her allies to any power, or to be administered by a +mandatary under the present treaty, and may require that the German +Government transfer, within six months of the date of demand, all such +rights and interests and any similar rights and interests the German +Government may itself possess, to the Reparation Commission.</p> + +<p>Germany shall be responsible for indemnifying her nationals so +dispossessed and the Reparation Commission shall credit Germany on +account of sums due for reparation with such sums in respect of the +value of the transferred rights and interests as may be assessed by the +Reparation Commission, and the German Government shall, within six +months from the coming into force of the present treaty, communicate to +the Reparation Commission all such rights and interests, whether already +granted, contingent, or not yet exercised, and shall renounce on behalf +of itself and its nationals in favor of the Allied and Associated Powers +all such rights and interests which have not been so communicated.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 261.</strong>—Germany undertakes to transfer to the Allied and +Associated Powers any claims she may have to payment or repayment by the +Governments of Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey, and, in particular +any claims which may arise, now or hereafter, from the fulfillment of +undertakings made by Germany during the war to those Governments.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 262.</strong>—Any monetary obligation due by Germany arising out of +the present treaty and expressed in terms of gold marks shall be payable +at the option of the creditors in pounds sterling payable in London; +gold dollars of the United States of America payable in New York; gold +francs payable in Paris, or gold lire payable in Rome.</p> + +<p>For the purpose of this article, the gold coins mentioned above shall be +defined as being of the weight and fineness of gold as enacted by law on +the 1st January, 1914.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 263.</strong>—Germany gives a guarantee to the Brazilian Government +that all sums representing the sale of coffee belonging to the State of +Sao Paolo in the Ports of Hamburg, Bremen, Antwerp, and Trieste, which +were deposited with the Bank of the Bleichröder at Berlin, shall be +reimbursed, together with interest at the rate or rates agreed upon.</p> + +<p>Germany, having prevented the transfer of the sums in question to the +State of Sao Paolo at the proper time, guarantees also that the +reimbursements shall be effected at the rate of exchange of the day of +the deposit. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PART X<br /> +Economic Clauses</h2> + +<h3>SECTION I.—<em>Commercial Relations</em></h3> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.—CUSTOMS REGULATIONS, DUTIES, AND RESTRICTIONS</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 264.</strong>—Germany undertakes that goods the produce or +manufacture of any one of the Allied or Associated States imported into +German territory, from whatsoever place arriving, shall not be subjected +to other or higher duties or charges (including internal charges) than +those to which the like goods the produce or manufacture of any other +such State or of any other foreign country are subject.</p> + +<p>Germany will not maintain or impose any prohibition or restriction on +the importation into German territory of any goods the produce or +manufacture of the territories of any one of the Allied or Associated +States, from whatsoever place arriving, which shall not equally extend +to the importation of the like goods the produce or manufacture of any +other such State or of any other foreign country.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 265.</strong>—Germany further undertakes that, in the matter of the +régime applicable on importation, no discrimination against the +commerce of any of the Allied and Associated States as compared with any +other of the said States or any other foreign country shall be made, +even by indirect means, such as customs regulations or procedure, +methods of verification or analysis, conditions of payment of duties, +tariff classification or interpretation, or the operation of monopolies.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 266.</strong>—In all that concerns exportation Germany undertakes +that goods, natural products or manufactured articles, exported from +German territory to the territories of any one of the Allied or +Associated States shall not be subjected to other or higher duties or +charges (including internal charges) than those paid on the like goods +exported to any other such State or to any other foreign country.</p> + +<p>Germany will not maintain or impose any prohibition or restriction on +the exportation of any goods sent from her territory to any one of the +Allied or Associated States which shall not equally extend to the +exportation of the like goods, natural products or manufactured +articles, sent to any other such State or to any other foreign country.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 267.</strong>—Every favor, immunity, or privilege in regard to the +importation, exportation, or transit of goods granted by Germany to any +Allied or Associated State or to any other foreign country whatever +shall simultaneously and unconditionally, without request and without +compensation, be extended to all the Allied and Associated States.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 268.</strong>—The provisions of Article 264 to 267 inclusive of +this chapter and of Article 323 of Part XII. (ports, waterways, and +railways) of the present treaty are subject to the following exceptions:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>For a period of five years from the coming into force of the present +treaty, natural or manufactured products which both originate in and +come from the territories of Alsace and Lorraine reunited to France +shall, on importation into German customs territory, be exempt from all +customs duty.</p> + +<p>The French Government shall fix each year by decree communicated to the +German Government, the nature and amount of the products which shall +enjoy this exemption.</p> + +<p>The amount of each product which may be thus sent annually into Germany +shall not exceed the average of the amounts sent annually in the years +1911—1913.</p> + +<p>Further, during the period above mentioned the German Government shall +allow the free export from Germany, and the free reimportation into +Germany, exempt from all customs duties and other charges, (including +internal charges,) of yarns, tissues, and other textile materials or +textile products of any kind and in any condition sent from Germany into +the territories of Alsace or Lorraine, to be subjected there to any +finishing process, such as bleaching, dyeing, printing, mercerization, +gassing, twisting, or dressing.</p></li> + +<li><p>During a period of three years from the coming into force of the +present treaty natural or manufactured products which both originate in +and come from Polish territories which before the war were part of +Germany shall, on importation into German customs territory, be exempt +from all customs duty.</p> + +<p>The Polish Government shall fix each year, by decree communicated to the +German Government, the nature and amount of the products which shall +enjoy this exemption.</p> + +<p>The amount of each product which may be thus sent annually into Germany +shall not exceed the average of the amounts sent annually in the years +1911—1913.</p></li> + +<li><p>The Allied and Associated Powers reserve the right to require +Germany to accord freedom from customs duty, on importation into German +customs territory, to natural products and manufactured articles which +both originate in and come from the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, for a +period of five years from the coming into force of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>The nature and amount of the products which shall enjoy the benefits of +this régime shall be communicated each year to the German +Government.</p> + +<p>The amount of each product which may be thus sent annually into Germany +shall not exceed the average of the amounts sent annually in the years +1911—1913.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 269.</strong>—During the first six months after the coming into +force of the present treaty, the duties imposed by Germany on imports +from Allied and Associated States shall not be higher than the most +favorable duties which were applied to imports into Germany on the 31st +July, 1914.</p> + +<p>During a further period of thirty months after the expiration of the +first six months, this provision shall continue to be applied +exclusively with regard to products which, being comprised in Section A +of the First Category of the German Customs Tariff of the 25th December, +1902, enjoyed at the above-mentioned date (31st July, 1914,) rates +conventionalized by treaties with the Allied and Associated Powers, with +the addition of all kinds of wine and vegetable oils, of artificial silk +and of washed or scoured wool, whether or not they were the subject of +special conventions before the 31st July, 1914.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 270.</strong>—The Allied and Associated Powers reserve the right to +apply to German territory occupied by their troops a special customs +régime as regards imports and exports, in + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> + +the event of such a measure being necessary in their opinion in order to +safeguard the economic interests of the population of these territories.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.—SHIPPING</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 271.</strong>—As regards sea fishing, maritime coasting trade, and +maritime towage, vessels of the Allied and Associated Powers shall +enjoy, in German territorial waters, the treatment accorded to vessels +of the most-favored nation.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 272.</strong>—Germany agrees that, notwithstanding any stipulation +to the contrary contained in the conventions relating to the North Sea +fisheries and liquor traffic, all rights of inspection and police shall, +in the case of fishing boats of the Allied Powers, be exercised solely +by ships belonging to those powers.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 273.</strong>—In the case of vessels of the Allied or Associated +Powers, all classes of certificates or documents relating to the vessel, +which were recognized as valid by Germany before the war, or which may +hereafter be recognized as valid by the principal maritime States, shall +be recognized by Germany as valid and as equivalent to the corresponding +certificates issued to German vessels.</p> + +<p>A similar recognition shall be accorded to the certificates and +documents issued to their vessels by the Governments of new States, +whether they have a seacoast or not, provided that such certificates and +documents shall be issued in conformity with the general practice +observed in the principal maritime States.</p> + +<p>The high contracting parties agree to recognize the flag flown by the +vessels of an Allied or Associated Power having no seacoast which are +registered at some one specified place situated in its territory; such +place shall serve as the port of registry of such vessels.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.—UNFAIR COMPETITION</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 274.</strong>—Germany undertakes to adopt all the necessary +legislative and administrative measures to protect goods the produce or +manufacture of any one of the Allied and Associated Powers from all +forms of unfair competition in commercial transactions.</p> + +<p>Germany undertakes to prohibit and repress by seizure and by other +appropriate remedies the importation, exportation, manufacture, +distribution, sale or offering for sale in its territory of all goods +bearing upon themselves or their usual get-up or wrappings any marks, +names, devices, or descriptions whatsoever which are calculated to +convey directly or indirectly a false indication of the origin, type, +nature, or special characteristics of such goods.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 275.</strong>—Germany undertakes on condition that reciprocity is +accorded in these matters to respect any law, or any administrative or +judicial decision given in conformity with such law, in force in any +Allied or Associated State and duly communicated to her by the proper +authorities, defining or regulating the right to any regional +appellation in respect of wine or spirits produced in the State to which +the region belongs or the conditions under which the use of any such +appellation may be permitted; and the importation, exportation, +manufacture, distribution, sale or offering for sale of products or +articles bearing regional appellations inconsistent with such law or +order shall be prohibited by the German Government and repressed by the +measures prescribed in the preceding article.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.—TREATMENT OF NATIONALS OF ALLIED AND ASSOCIATED POWERS</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 276.</strong>—Germany undertakes:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>not to subject the nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers to +any prohibition in regard to the exercise of occupations, professions, +trade, and industry, which shall not be equally applicable to all aliens +without exception;</p></li> + +<li><p>not to subject the nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers in +regard to the rights referred to in Paragraph (a) to any regulation or +restriction which might contravene directly or indirectly the +stipulations of the said paragraph, or which shall be other or more +disadvantageous than those which are applicable to nationals of the +most-favored nation;</p></li> + +<li><p>not to subject the nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers, +their property, rights, or interests, including companies and +associations in which they are interested, to any charge, tax, or +impost, direct or indirect, other or higher than those which are or may +be imposed on her own nationals or their property, rights, or interests;</p></li> + +<li><p>not to subject the nationals of any one of the Allied and Associated +Powers to any restriction which was not applicable on July 1, 1914, to +the nationals of such powers unless such restriction is likewise imposed +on her own nationals.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 277.</strong>—The nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers +shall enjoy in German territory a constant protection for their persons +and for their property, rights, and interests, and shall have free +access to the courts of law.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 278.</strong>—Germany undertakes to recognize any new nationality +which has been or may be acquired by her nationals under the laws of the +Allied and Associated Powers, and in accordance with the decisions of +the competent authorities of these powers pursuant to naturalization +laws or under treaty stipulations, and to regard such persons as having, +in consequence of the acquisition of such new nationality, in all +respects severed their allegiance to their country of origin.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 279.</strong>—The Allied and Associated Powers may appoint Consuls +General, Consuls, Vice Consuls, and Consular Agents in German towns and +ports. Germany undertakes to approve the designation of the Consuls +General, Consuls, Vice Consuls, and Consular Agents, whose names shall +be notified to her, and to admit them to the exercise of their functions +in conformity with the usual rules and customs.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER V.—GENERAL ARTICLES</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 280.</strong>—The obligations imposed on Germany by Chapter I. and +by Articles 271 and 272 of Chapter II. above shall cease to have effect +five years from the date of the coming into force of the present treaty, +unless otherwise provided in the text, or unless the Council of the +League of Nations shall, at least twelve months before the expiration of +that period, decide that these obligations shall be maintained for a +further period with or without amendment.</p> + +<p>Article 276 of Chapter IV. shall remain in operation, with or without +amendment, after the period of five years for such further period, if +any, not exceeding five years, as may be determined by a majority of the +Council of the League of Nations.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 281.</strong>—If the German Government engages in international +trade, it shall not in respect thereof have or be deemed to have any +rights, privileges, or immunities of sovereignty.</p> + +<h3>SECTION II.—<em>Treaties</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 282.</strong>—From the coming into force of the present treaty and +subject to the provisions thereof the multilateral treaties, +conventions, and agreements of an economic or technical character +enumerated below and in the subsequent articles shall alone be applied +as between Germany and those of the Allied and Associated Powers party +thereto:</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>Conventions of March 14, 1884; Dec. 1, 1886, and March 23, 1887, and +final protocol of July 7, 1887, regarding the protection of submarine +cables.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of Oct. 11, 1909, regarding the international circulation +of motor cars.</p></li> + +<li><p>Agreement of May 15, 1886, regarding the sealing of railway trucks +subject to customs inspection, and protocol of May 18, 1907.</p></li> + +<li><p>Agreement of May 15, 1886, regarding the technical standardization of +railways.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of July 5, 1890, regarding the publication of customs +tariffs and the organization of an international union for the +publication of customs tariffs.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of Dec. 31, 1913, regarding the unification of commercial +statistics.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of April 25, 1907, regarding the raising of the Turkish +customs tariff.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of March 14, 1857, for the redemption of toll dues on the +Sound and Belts.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of June 22, 1861, for the redemption of the Stade Toll on +the Elbe.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of July 16, 1863, for the redemption of toll dues on the +Scheldt.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of Oct. 29, 1888, regarding the establishment of a +definite arrangement guaranteeing the free use of the Suez Canal.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of Sept. 23, 1910, respecting the unification of certain +regulations regarding collisions and salvage at sea.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of Dec. 21, 1904, regarding the exemption of hospital +ships from dues and charges in ports.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of Feb. 4, 1898, regarding the tonnage measurement of +vessels for inland navigation.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of Sept. 26, 1906, for the suppression of nightwork for +women.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of Sept. 26, 1906, for the suppression of the use of +white phosphorus in the manufacture of matches.</p></li> + +<li><p>Conventions of May 18, 1904, and May 4, 1910, regarding the +suppression of the white slave traffic.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of May 4, 1910, regarding the suppression of obscene +publications.</p></li> + +<li><p>Sanitary conventions of January, 1892; April 15, 1893; April 3, +1894; April 19, 1897, and Dec. 3, 1903.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of May 20, 1875, regarding the unification and +improvement of the metric system.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of Nov. 29, 1906, regarding the unification of +pharmacopoeial formulae for potent drugs.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of Nov. 16 and 19, 1885, regarding the establishment of a +concert pitch.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of June 7, 1905, regarding the creation of an +International Agricultural Institute at Rome.</p></li> + +<li><p>Conventions of Nov. 3, 1881, and April 15, 1889, regarding +precautionary measures against phylloxera.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of March 19, 1902, regarding the protection of birds +useful to agriculture.</p></li> + +<li><p>Convention of June 12, 1902, as to the protection of minors.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 283.</strong>—From the coming into force of the present treaty the +high contracting parties shall apply the conventions and agreements +hereinafter mentioned, in so far as concerns them, on condition that the +special stipulations contained in this article are fulfilled by Germany.</p> + +<p><strong>Postal Conventions:</strong></p> + +<p>Conventions and agreements of the Universal Postal Union concluded at +Vienna, July 4, 1891.</p> + +<p>Conventions and agreements of the Postal Union signed at Washington, +June 15, 1897.</p> + +<p>Conventions and agreements of the Postal Union signed at Rome May 26, +1906.</p> + +<p><strong>Telegraphic Conventions:</strong></p> + +<p>International Telegraphic Conventions signed at St. Petersburg July 10, +(22,) 1875.</p> + +<p>Regulations and tariffs drawn up by the International Telegraphic +Conference, Lisbon, June 11, 1908.</p> + +<p>Germany undertakes not to refuse her assent to the conclusion by the new +States of the special arrangements referred to in the conventions and +agreements relating to the Universal Postal Union and to the +International Telegraphic Union, to which the said new States have +adhered or may adhere.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 284.</strong>—From the coming into force of the present treaty the +high contracting parties shall apply, in so far as concerns them, the +International Radio-Telegraphic Convention of July 5, 1912, on condition +that Germany fulfills the provisional regulations which will be +indicated to her by the Allied and Associated Powers.</p> + +<p>If within five years after the coming into force of the present treaty a +new convention regulating international radio-telegraphic communications +should have been concluded to take the place of the convention of July +5, 1912, this new convention shall bind Germany even if Germany should +refuse either to take part in drawing up the convention or to subscribe +thereto.</p> + +<p>This new convention will likewise replace the provisional regulations in +force.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 285.</strong>—From the coming into force of the present treaty the +high contracting parties shall apply in so far as concerns them and +under the conditions stipulated in Article 272 the conventions +hereinafter mentioned:</p> + +<p>1. The conventions of May 6, 1882, and Feb. 1, 1889, regulating the +fisheries in the North Sea outside territorial waters.</p> + +<p>2. The conventions and protocols of Nov. 16, 1887, Feb. 14, 1893, and +April 11, 1894, regarding the North Sea liquor traffic.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 286.</strong>—The International Convention of Paris of March 20, +1883, for the protection of industrial property, revised at Washington +on June 2, 1911; the International Convention of Berne of Sept. 9, 1886, +for the protection of literary and artistic works, revised at Berlin on +Nov. 13, 1908, and completed by the additional protocol signed at Berne +on March 20, 1914, will again come into effect as from the coming into +force of the present treaty, in so far as they are not affected or +modified by the exceptions and restrictions resulting therefrom.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 287.</strong>—From the coming into force of the present treaty the +high contracting parties shall apply, in so far as concerns them, the +Convention of the Hague of July 17, 1905, relating to civil procedure. +This renewal, however, will not apply to France, Portugal and Rumania.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 288.</strong>—The special rights and privileges granted to Germany +by Article 3 of the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> + +convention of Dec. 2, 1899, relating to Samoa shall be considered to +have terminated on Aug. 4, 1914.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 289.</strong>—Each of the Allied or Associated Powers, being guided +by the general principles or special provisions of the present treaty, +shall notify to Germany the bilateral treaties or conventions which such +Allied or Associated Power wishes to revive with Germany.</p> + +<p>The notification referred to in the present article shall be made either +directly or through the intermediary of another power. Receipt thereof +shall be acknowledged in writing by Germany. The date of the revival +shall be that of the notification.</p> + +<p>The Allied and Associated Powers undertake among themselves not to +revive with Germany any conventions or treaties which are not in +accordance with the terms of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>The notification shall mention any provisions of the said conventions +and treaties which, not being in accordance with the terms of the +present treaty, shall not be considered as revived. In case of any +difference of opinion, the League of Nations will be called on to +decide.</p> + +<p>A period of six months from the coming into force of the present treaty +is allowed to the Allied and Associated Powers within which to make the +notification.</p> + +<p>Only those bilateral treaties and conventions which have been the +subject of such a notification shall be revived between the Allied and +Associated Powers and Germany; all the others are and shall remain +abrogated.</p> + +<p>The above regulations apply to all bilateral treaties or conventions +existing between all the Allied and Associated Powers signatories to the +present treaty and Germany, even if the said Allied and Associated +Powers have not been in a state of war with Germany.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 290.</strong>—Germany recognizes that all the treaties, +conventions, or agreements which she has concluded with Austria, +Hungary, Bulgaria, or Turkey since Aug. 1, 1914, until the coming into +force of the present treaty are and remain abrogated by the present +treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 291.</strong>—Germany undertakes to secure to the Allied and +Associated Powers, and to the officials and nationals of the said +powers, the enjoyment of all the rights and advantages of any kind which +she may have granted to Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, or Turkey, or to the +officials and nationals of these States by treaties, conventions, or +arrangements concluded before Aug. 1, 1914, so long as those treaties, +conventions, or arrangements remain in force.</p> + +<p>The Allied and Associated Powers reserve the right to accept or not the +enjoyment of these rights and advantages.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 292.</strong>—Germany recognizes that all treaties, conventions, or +arrangements which she concluded with Russia or with any State or +Government of which the territory previously formed a part of Russia, or +with Rumania before Aug. 1, 1914, or after that date until the coming +into force of the present treaty, are and remain abrogated.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 293.</strong>—Should an Allied or Associated Power, Russia, or a +State or Government of which the territory formerly constituted a part +of Russia have been forced since Aug. 1, 1914, by reason of military +occupation or by any other means or for any other cause, to grant or to +allow to be granted by the act of any public authority, concessions, +privileges, and favors of any kind to Germany or to a German nation, +such concessions, privileges, and favors are <span lang="la">ipso facto</span> annulled by +the present treaty.</p> + +<p>No claims or indemnities which may result from this annulment shall be +charged against the Allied or Associated Powers or the powers, States, +Governments, or public authorities which are released from their +engagements by the present article.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 294.</strong>—From the coming into force of the present treaty +Germany undertakes to give the Allied and Associated Powers and their +nationals the benefit <span lang="la">ipso facto</span> of the rights and advantages of any +kind which she has granted by treaties, conventions or arrangements to +non-belligerent States or their nationals since Aug. 1, 1914, until the +coming into force of the present treaty so long as those treaties, +conventions, or arrangements remain in force.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 295.</strong>—Those of the high contracting parties who have not +yet signed, or who have signed but not yet ratified, the Opium +Convention signed at The Hague on Jan. 23, 1912, agree to bring the said +convention into force, and for this purpose to enact the necessary +legislation without delay and in any case within a period of twelve +months from the coming into force of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>Furthermore, they agree that ratification of the present treaty should +in the case of powers which have not yet ratified the Opium Convention +be deemed in all respects equivalent to the ratification of that +convention and to the signature of the special protocol which was opened +at The Hague in accordance with the resolutions adopted by the Third +Opium Conference in 1914 for bringing the said convention into force.</p> + +<p>For this purpose the Government of the French Republic will communicate +to the Government of the Netherlands a certified copy of the protocol of +the deposit of ratifications of the present treaty, and will invite the +Government of the Netherlands to accept and deposit the said certified +copy as if it were a deposit of ratifications of the Opium Convention +and a signature of the additional protocol of 1914.</p> + +<h3>SECTION III.—<cite>Debts.</cite></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 296.</strong>—There shall be settled through the intervention of +clearing offices to be established by each of the high contracting +parties within three months of the notification referred to in paragraph +(e) hereafter the following classes of pecuniary obligations:</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>Debts payable before the war and due by a national of one of the +contracting powers, residing within its territory, to a national of an +opposing power, residing within its territory.</p></li> + +<li><p>Debts which became payable during the war to nationals of one +contracting power residing within its territory and arose out of +transactions or contracts with the nationals of an opposing power, +resident within its territory, of which the total or partial execution +was suspended on account of the declaration of war.</p></li> + +<li><p>Interest which has accrued due before and during the war to a +national of one of the contracting powers in respect of securities +issued by an opposing power, provided that the payment of interest on +such securities to the nationals of that power or to neutrals has not +been suspended during the war.</p></li> + +<li><p>Capital sums which have become payable before and during the war to +nationals of one of the contracting powers in respect of securities +issued by one of the opposing powers, provided that the payment of such +capital sums to nationals of that power or to neutrals has not been +suspended during the war.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-233.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-233thumb.jpg" width="400" height="498" + alt="M. Stephen Pichon" + title="M. Stephen Pichon" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Copyright Harris & Ewing</p> + <p class="caption">M. Stephen Pichon</p> + <p class="description">Chosen Chairman of the provisional + organization of the League of Nations in recognition of his long + leadership, not only in France but internationally, in the work + of bringing about a world-wide organization to preserve peace.</p> + <p class="click"> + <a href="images/ill-233.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a> + </p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p> + +<p>The proceeds of liquidation of enemy property, rights, and interests +mentioned in Section IV. and in the annex thereto will be accounted for +through the clearing offices, in the currency and at the rate of +exchange hereinafter provided in Paragraph (d), and disposed of by them +under the conditions provided by the said section and annex.</p> + +<p>The settlements provided for in this article shall be effected according +to the following principles and in accordance with the annex to this +section:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>Each of the high contracting parties shall prohibit, as from the +coming into force of the present treaty, both the payment and the +acceptance of payment of such debts, and also all communications between +the interested parties with regard to the settlement of the said debts +otherwise than through the clearing offices.</p></li> + +<li><p>Each of the high contracting parties shall be respectively +responsible for the payment of such debts due by its nationals, except +in the cases where before the war the debtor was in a state of +bankruptcy or failure, or had given formal indication of insolvency or +where the debt was due by a company whose business has been liquidated +under emergency legislation during the war. Nevertheless, debts due by +the inhabitants of territory invaded or occupied by the enemy before the +armistice will not be guaranteed by the States of which those +territories form part.</p></li> + +<li><p>The sums due to the nationals of one of the high contracting parties +by the nationals of an opposing State will be debited to the clearing +office of the country of the debtor, and paid to the creditor by the +clearing office of the country of the creditor.</p></li> + +<li><p>Debts shall be paid or credited in the currency of such one of the +Allied and Associated Powers, their colonies or protectorates, or the +British Dominions or India, as may be concerned. If the debts are +payable in some other currency they shall be paid or credited in the +currency of the country concerned, whether an Allied or Associated +Power, colony, protectorate, British Dominion, or India, at the pre-war +rate of exchange.</p> + +<p>For the purpose of this provision the pre-war rate of exchange shall be +defined as the average cable transfer rate prevailing in the Allied or +Associated country concerned during the month immediately preceding the +outbreak of war between the said country concerned and Germany.</p> + +<p>If a contract provides for a fixed rate of exchange governing the +conversion of the currency in which the debt is stated into the currency +of the Allied or Associated country concerned, then the above provisions +concerning the rate of exchange shall not apply.</p> + +<p>In the case of new States the currency in which and the rate of exchange +at which debts shall be paid or credited shall be determined by the +Reparation Commission provided for in Part VIII. (Reparation.)</p></li> + +<li><p>The provisions of this article and of the annex thereto shall not +apply as between Germany on the one hand and any one of the Allied and +Associated Powers, their colonies or protectorates, or any one of the +British Dominions or India on the other hand, unless within a period of +one month from the deposit of the ratifications of the present treaty by +the power in question, or of the ratification on behalf of such dominion +or of India, notice to that effect is given to Germany by the +Government of such Allied or Associated Power or of such Dominion or of +India as the case may be.</p></li> + +<li><p>The Allied and Associated Powers who have adopted this article and +the annex hereto may agree between themselves to apply them to their +respective nationals established in their territory so far as regards +matters between their nationals and German nationals. In this case the +payments made by application of this provision will be subject to +arrangements between the allied and associated clearing offices +concerned.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>ANNEX</h3> + +<ol> +<li><p>Each of the high contracting parties will, within three months from +the notification provided for in Article 296, Paragraph (e), establish a +clearing office for the collection and payment of enemy debts.</p> + +<p>Local clearing offices may be established for any particular portion of +the territories of the high contracting parties. Such local clearing +offices may perform all the functions of a central clearing office in +their respective districts, except that all transactions with the +clearing office in the opposing State must be effected through the +central clearing office.</p></li> + +<li><p>In this annex the pecuniary obligations referred to in the first +paragraph of Article 296 are described as "enemy debts," the persons +from whom the same are due as "enemy debtors," the persons to whom they +are due as "enemy creditors," the clearing office in the country of the +creditor is called the "Creditor Clearing Office," and the clearing +office in the country of the debtor is called the "Debtor Clearing +Office."</p></li> + +<li><p>The high contracting parties will subject contraventions of Paragraph +(a) of Article 296 to the same penalties as are at present provided by +their legislation for trading with the enemy. They will similarly +prohibit within their territory all legal process relating to payment of +enemy debts, except in accordance with the provisions of this annex.</p></li> + +<li><p>The Government guarantee specified in Paragraph (b) of Article 296 +shall take effect whenever, for any reason, a debt shall not be +recoverable, except in a case where at the date of the outbreak of war +the debt was barred by the laws of prescription in force in the country +of the debtor, or where the debtor was at that time in a state of +bankruptcy or failure or had given formal indication of insolvency, or +where the debt was due by a company whose business has been liquidated +under emergency legislation during the war. In such case the procedure +specified by this annex shall apply to payment of the dividends.</p> + +<p>The terms "bankruptcy" and "failure" refer to the application of +legislation providing for such juridical conditions. The expression +"formal indication of insolvency" bears the same meaning as it has in +English law.</p></li> + +<li><p>Creditors shall give notice to the Creditor Clearing Office within +six months of its establishment of debts due to them, and shall furnish +the Clearing Office with any documents and information required of them.</p> + +<p>The high contracting parties will take all suitable measures to trace +and punish collusion between enemy creditors and debtors. The clearing +offices will communicate to one another any evidence and information +which might help the discovery and punishment of such collusion.</p> + +<p>The high contracting parties will facilitate as much as possible postal +and telegraphic communication at the expense of the parties + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> + +concerned and through the intervention of the clearing offices between +debtors and creditors desirous of coming to an agreement as to the +amount of their debt.</p> + +<p>The Creditor Clearing Office will notify the Debtor Clearing Office of +all debts declared to it. The Debtor Clearing Office will, in due +course, inform the Creditor Clearing Office which debts are admitted and +which debts are contested. In the latter case the Debtor Clearing Office +will give the grounds for the non-admission of debt.</p></li> + +<li><p>When a debt has been admitted, in whole or in part, the Debtor +Clearing Office will at once credit the Creditor Clearing Office with +the amount admitted, and at the same time notify it of such credit.</p></li> + +<li><p>The debt shall be deemed to be admitted in full and shall be credited +forthwith to the Creditor Clearing Office unless within three months +from the receipt of the notification or such longer time as may be +agreed to by the Creditor Clearing Office notice has been given by the +Debtor Clearing Office that it is not admitted.</p></li> + +<li><p>When the whole or part of a debt is not admitted the two clearing +offices will examine into the matter jointly, and will endeavor to bring +the parties to an agreement.</p></li> + +<li><p>The Creditor Clearing Office will pay to the individual creditor the +sums credited to it out of the funds placed at its disposal by the +Government of its country and in accordance with the conditions fixed by +the said Government, retaining any sums considered necessary to cover +risks, expenses, or commissions.</p></li> + +<li><p>Any person having claimed payment of an enemy debt which is not +admitted in whole or in part shall pay to the clearing office by way of +fine interest at 5 per cent. on the part not admitted. Any person having +unduly refused to admit the whole or part of a debt claimed from him +shall pay by way of fine interest at 5 per cent. on the amount with +regard to which his refusal shall be disallowed.</p> + +<p>Such interest shall run from the date of expiration of the period +provided for in Paragraph 7 until the date on which the claim shall have +been disallowed or the debt paid.</p> + +<p>Each clearing office shall in so far as it is concerned take steps to +collect the fines above provided for, and will be responsible if such +fines cannot be collected.</p> + +<p>The fines will be credited to the other clearing office, which shall +retain them as a contribution toward the cost of carrying out the +present provisions.</p></li> + +<li><p>The balance between the clearing offices shall be struck monthly, +and the credit balance paid in cash by the debtor State within a week.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, any credit balances which may be due by one or more of the +Allied and Associated Powers shall be retained until complete payment +shall have been effected of the sums due to the Allied or Associated +Powers or their nationals on account of the war.</p></li> + +<li><p>To facilitate discussion between the clearing offices each of them +shall have a representative at the place where the other is established.</p></li> + +<li><p>Except for special reasons all discussions in regard to claims will, +so far as possible, take place at the Debtor Clearing Office.</p></li> + +<li><p>In conformity with Article 296, Paragraph (b), the high contracting +parties are responsible for the payment of the enemy debts owing by +their nationals.</p> + +<p>The Debtor Clearing Office will therefore credit the Creditor Clearing +Office with all debts admitted, even in case of inability to collect +them from the individual debtor. The Governments concerned will, +nevertheless, invest their respective clearing offices with all +necessary powers for the recovery of debts which have been admitted.</p> + +<p>As an exception the admitted debts owing by persons having suffered +injury from acts of war shall only be credited to the Creditor Clearing +Office when the compensation due to the person concerned in respect of +such injury shall have been paid.</p></li> + +<li><p>Each Government will defray the expenses of the clearing office set +up in its territory, including the salaries of the staff.</p></li> + +<li><p>Where the two clearing offices are unable to agree whether a debt +claimed is due, or in case of a difference between an enemy debtor and +an enemy creditor, or between the clearing offices, the dispute shall +either be referred to arbitration <ins title="Transcriber's Note: +original reads of">if</ins><del>of</del> the parties so agree under conditions fixed by +agreement between them, or referred to the mixed arbitral tribunal +provided for in Section VI. hereafter.</p> + +<p>At the request of the Creditor Clearing Office the dispute may, however, +be submitted to the jurisdiction of the courts of the place of domicile +of the debtor.</p></li> + +<li><p>Recovery of sums found by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal, the court, or +the arbitration tribunal to be due shall be effected through the +clearing offices as if these sums were debts admitted by the Debtor +Clearing Office.</p></li> + +<li><p>Each of the Governments concerned shall appoint an agent who will be +responsible for the presentation to the mixed arbitral tribunal of the +cases conducted on behalf of its clearing office. This agent will +exercise a general control over the representatives or counsel employed +by its nationals.</p> + +<p>Decisions will be arrived at on documentary evidence, but it will be +open to the tribunal to hear the parties in person, or, according to +their preference, by their representatives approved by the two +Governments, or by the agent referred to above, who shall be competent +to intervene along with the party or to reopen and maintain a claim +abandoned by the same.</p></li> + +<li><p>The clearing offices concerned will lay before the mixed arbitral +tribunal all the information and documents in their possession, so as to +enable the tribunal to decide rapidly on the cases which are brought +before it.</p></li> + +<li><p>Where one of the parties concerned appeals against the joint +decision of the two clearing offices he shall make a deposit against the +costs, which deposit shall only be refunded when the first judgment is +modified in favor of the appellant and in proportion to the success he +may attain, his opponent in case of such a refund being required to pay +an equivalent proportion of the costs and expenses. Security accepted by +the tribunal may be substituted for a deposit.</p> + +<p>A fee of 5 per cent. of the amount in dispute shall be charged in +respect of all cases brought before the tribunal. This fee shall, unless +the tribunal directs otherwise, be borne by the unsuccessful party. Such +fee shall be added to the deposit referred to. It is also independent of +the security.</p> + +<p>The tribunal may award to one of the parties a sum in respect of the +expenses of the proceedings.</p> + +<p>Any sum payable under this paragraph shall be credited to the clearing +office of the successful party as a separate item.</p></li> + +<li><p>With a view to the rapid settlement of claims, due regard shall be +paid in the appointment of all persons connected with the clearing +offices or with the Mixed Arbitral + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> + +Tribunal to their knowledge of the language of the other country +concerned. Each of the clearing offices will be at liberty to correspond +with the other, and to forward documents in its own language.</p></li> + +<li><p>Subject to any special agreement to the contrary between the +Governments concerned, debts shall carry interest in accordance with the +following provisions:</p> + +<p>Interest shall not be payable on sums of money due by way of dividend, +interest, or other periodical payments which themselves represent +interest on capital.</p> + +<p>The rate of interest shall be 5 per cent. per annum except in cases +where, by contract, law, or custom, the creditor is entitled to payment +of interest at a different rate. In such cases the rate to which he is +entitled shall prevail.</p> + +<p>Interest shall run from the date of commencement of hostilities (or, if +the sum of money to be recovered fell due during the war, from the date +at which it fell due) until the sum is credited to the clearing office +of the creditor.</p> + +<p>Sums due by way of interest shall be treated as debts admitted by the +clearing offices and shall be credited to the Creditor Clearing Office +in the same way as such debts.</p></li> + +<li><p>Where by decision of the clearing offices or the Mixed Arbitral +Tribunal a claim is held not to fall within Article 296, the creditor +shall be at liberty to prosecute the claim before the courts or to take +such other proceedings as may be open to him.</p> + +<p>The presentation of a claim to the clearing office suspends the +operation of any period of prescription.</p></li> + +<li><p>The high contracting parties agree to regard the decisions of the +Mixed Arbitral Tribunal as final and conclusive, and to render them +binding upon their nationals.</p></li> + +<li><p>In any case where a Creditor Clearing Office declines to notify a +claim to the Debtor Clearing Office, or to take any step provided for in +this annex, intended to make effective in whole or in part a request of +which it has received due notice, the enemy creditor shall be entitled +to receive from the clearing office a certificate setting out the amount +of the claim, and shall then be entitled to prosecute the claim before +the courts or to take such other proceedings as may be open to him.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>SECTION IV.—<cite>Property, Rights, and Interests</cite></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 297.</strong>—The question of private property, rights, and +interests in an enemy country shall be settled according to the +principles laid down in this section and to the provisions of the annex +hereto:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>The exceptional war measures and measures of transfer (defined in +Paragraph 3 of the annex hereto) taken by Germany with respect to the +property, rights, and interests of nationals of Allied or Associated +Powers, including companies and associations in which they are +interested, when liquidation has not been completed, shall be +immediately discontinued or stayed and the property, rights, and +interests concerned restored to their owners, who shall enjoy full +rights therein in accordance with the provisions of Article 298.</p></li> + +<li><p>Subject to any contrary stipulations which may be provided for in +the present treaty, the Allied and Associated Powers reserve the right +to retain and liquidate all property, rights, and interests belonging at +the date of the coming into force of the present treaty to German +nationals, or companies controlled by them, within their territories, +colonies, possessions, and protectorates including territories ceded to +them by the present treaty.</p> + +<p>The liquidation shall be carried out in accordance with the laws of the +Allied or Associated State concerned, and the German owner shall not be +able to dispose of such property, rights, or interests nor to subject +them to any charge without the consent of that State.</p> + +<p>German nationals who acquire <span lang="la">ipso facto</span> the nationality of an Allied +or Associated Power in accordance with the provisions of the present +treaty will not be considered as German nationals within the meaning of +this paragraph.</p></li> + +<li><p>The price of the amount of compensation in respect of the exercise +of the right referred to in the preceding Paragraph (b) will be fixed in +accordance with the methods of sale or valuation adopted by the laws of +the country in which the property has been retained or liquidated.</p></li> + +<li><p>As between the Allied and Associated Powers or their nationals on +the one hand and Germany or her nationals on the other hand, all the +exceptional war measures, or measures of transfer, or acts done or to be +done in execution of such measures as defined in Paragraphs 1 and 3 of +the annex hereto shall be considered as final and binding upon all +persons except as regards the reservations laid down in the present +treaty.</p></li> + +<li><p>The nationals of Allied and Associated Powers shall be entitled to +compensation in respect of damage or injury inflicted upon their +property, rights, or interests including any company or association in +which they are interested, in German territory as it existed on Aug. 1, +1914, by the application either of the exceptional war measures or +measures of transfer mentioned in Paragraphs 1 and 3 of the annex +hereto. The claims made in this respect by such nationals shall be +investigated, and the total of the compensation shall be determined by +the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal provided for in Section VI, or by an +arbitrator appointed by that tribunal. This compensation shall be borne +by Germany, and may be charged upon the property of German nationals, +within the territory or under the control of the claimant's State. This +property may be constituted as a pledge for enemy liabilities under the +conditions fixed by Paragraph 4 of the annex hereto. The payment of this +compensation may be made by the Allied or Associated State, and the +amount will be debited to Germany.</p></li> + +<li><p>Whenever a national of an Allied or Associated Power is entitled to +property which has been subjected to a measure of transfer in German +territory and expresses a desire for its restitution, his claim for +compensation in accordance with Paragraph (e) shall be satisfied by the +restitution of the said property if it still exists in specie.</p> + +<p>In such case Germany shall take all necessary steps to restore the +evicted owner to the possession of his property, free from all +incumbrances or burdens with which it may have been charged after the +liquidation, and to indemnify all third parties injured by the +restitution.</p> + +<p>If the restitution provided for in this paragraph cannot be effected, +private agreements arranged by the intermediation of the powers +concerned or the clearing offices provided for in the Annex to Section +III. may be made, in order to secure that the national of the Allied or +Associated Power may secure compensation for the injury referred to in +Paragraph (e) by + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> + +the grant of advantages or equivalents which he agrees to accept in +place of the property, rights or interests of which he was deprived.</p> + +<p>Through restitution in accordance with this article the price or the +amount of compensation fixed by the application of Paragraph (e) will be +reduced by the actual value of the property restored, account being +taken of compensation in respect of loss of use or deterioration.</p></li> + +<li><p>The rights conferred by Paragraph (f) are reserved to owners who are +nationals of Allied or Associated Powers within whose territory +legislative measures prescribing the general liquidation of enemy +property, rights or interests were not applied before the signature of +the armistice.</p></li> + +<li><p>Except in cases where, by application of Paragraph (f), restitutions +in specie have been made, the net proceeds of sales of enemy property, +rights or interests wherever situated carried out either by virtue of +war legislation, or by application of this article, and in general all +cash assets of enemies, shall be dealt with as follows:</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>As regards powers adopting Section III. and the annex thereto, the +said proceeds and cash assets shall be credited to the power of which +the owner is a national, through the clearing office established +thereunder; any credit balance in favor of Germany resulting therefrom +shall be dealt with as provided in Article 243.</p></li> + +<li><p>As regards powers not adopting Section III. and the annex thereto, +the proceeds of the property, rights and interests, and the cash assets, +of the nationals or Allied or Associated Powers held by Germany shall be +paid immediately to the person entitled thereto or to his Government; +the proceeds of the property, rights and interests, and the cash assets, +of German nationals received by an Allied or Associated Power shall be +subject to disposal by such power in accordance with its laws and +regulations and may be applied in payment of the claims and debts +defined by this article or Paragraph 4 of the annex hereto. Any +property, rights and interests or proceeds thereof or cash assets not +used as above provided may be retained by the said Allied or Associated +Power and if retained the cash value thereof shall be dealt with as +provided in Article 243.</p> + +<p>In the case of liquidations effected in new States, which are +signatories of the present treaty as Allied and Associated Powers, or in +States which are not entitled to share in the reparation payments to be +made by Germany, the proceeds of liquidations effected by such States +shall, subject to the rights of the Reparation Commission under the +present treaty, particularly under Articles 235 and 260, be paid direct +to the owner. If on the application of that owner the Mixed Arbitral +Tribunal, provided for by Section VI. of this part or an arbitrator +appointed by that tribunal, is satisfied that the conditions of the sale +or measures taken by the Government of the State in question outside its +general legislation were unfairly prejudicial to the price obtained, +they shall have discretion to award to the owner equitable compensation +to be paid by that State.</p></li> +</ol></li> + +<li><p>Germany undertakes to compensate its nationals in respect of the +sale or retention of their property, rights or interests in Allied or +Associated States.</p></li> + +<li><p>The amount of all taxes and imposts upon capital levied or to be +levied by Germany on the property, rights, and interests of the +nationals of the Allied or Associated Powers from the 11th of November, +1918, until three months from the coming into force of the present +treaty, or, in the case of property, rights or interests which have been +subjected to exceptional measures of war, until restitution in +accordance with the present treaty, shall be restored to the owners.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 298.</strong>—Germany undertakes, with regard to the property, +rights and interests, including companies and associations in which they +were interested, restored to nationals of Allied and Associated Powers +in accordance with the provisions of Article 297, Paragraph (a) or (f):</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>to restore and maintain, except as expressly provided in the present +treaty, the property, rights, and interests of the nationals of Allied +or Associated Powers in the legal position obtaining in respect of the +property, rights, and interests of German nationals under the laws in +force before the war.</p></li> + +<li><p>not to subject the property, rights, or interests of the nationals +of the Allied or Associated Powers to any measures in derogation of +property rights which are not applied equally to the property, rights, +and interests of German nationals, and to pay adequate compensation in +the event of the application of these measures.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>ANNEX</h3> + +<ol> +<li><p>In accordance with the provisions of Article 297, Paragraph (d), the +validity of vesting orders and of orders for the winding up of +businesses or companies, and of any other orders, directions, decisions, +or instructions of any court or any department of the Government of any +of the high contracting parties made or given, or purporting to be made +or given, in pursuance of war legislation with regard to enemy property, +rights, and interests is confirmed. The interests of all persons shall +be regarded as having been effectively dealt with by any order, +direction, decision, or instruction dealing with property in which they +may be interested, whether or not such interests are specifically +mentioned in the order, direction, decision, or instruction. No question +shall be raised as to the regularity of a transfer of any property, +rights, or interests dealt with in pursuance of any such order, +direction, decision, or instruction. Every action taken with regard to +any property, business, or company, whether as regards its +investigation, sequestration, compulsory administration, use, +requisition, supervision, or winding up, the sale or management of +property, rights, or interests, the collection or discharge of debts, +the payment of costs, charges or expenses, or any other matter +whatsoever, in pursuance of orders, directions, decisions, or +instructions of any court or of any department of the Government of any +of the high contracting parties, made or given, or purporting to be made +or given in pursuance of war legislation with regard to enemy property, +rights or interests, is confirmed. Provided that the provisions of this +paragraph shall not be held to prejudice the titles to property +heretofore acquired in good faith and for value and in accordance with +the laws of the country in which the property is situated by nationals +of the Allied and Associated Powers.</p> + +<p>The provisions of this paragraph do not apply to such of the +above-mentioned measures as have been taken by the German authorities in +invaded or occupied territory, nor to such of the above mentioned +measures as have been taken by Germany or the German authorities since +Nov. 11, 1918, all of which shall be void. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p></li> + +<li><p>No claim or action shall be made or brought against any Allied or +Associated Power or against any person acting on behalf of or under the +direction of any legal authority or department of the Government of such +a power by Germany or by any German national wherever resident in +respect of any act or omission with regard to his property, rights, or +interests during the war or in preparation for the war. Similarly no +claim or action shall be made or brought against any person in respect +of any act or omission under or in accordance with the exceptional war +measures, laws, or regulations of any Allied or Associated Power.</p></li> + +<li><p>In Article 297 and this Annex the expression "exceptional war +measures" includes measures of all kinds, legislative, administrative, +judicial, or others, that have been taken or will be taken hereafter +with regard to enemy property, and which have had or will have the +effect of removing from the proprietors the power of disposition over +their property, though without affecting the ownership, such as measures +of supervision, of compulsory administration, and of sequestration; or +measures which have had or will have as an object the seizure of, the +use of, or the interference with enemy assets, for whatsoever motive, +under whatsoever form or in whatsoever place. Acts in the execution of +these measures include all detentions, instructions, orders or decrees +of Government departments or courts applying these measures to enemy +property, as well as acts performed by any person connected with the +administration or the supervision of enemy property, such as the payment +of debts, the collecting of credits, the payment of any costs, charges, +or expenses, or the collecting of fees.</p> + +<p>Measures of transfer are those which have affected or will affect the +ownership of enemy property by transferring it in whole or in part to a +person other than the enemy owner, and without his consent, such as +measures directing the sale, liquidation, or devolution of ownership in +enemy property, or the canceling of titles or securities.</p></li> + +<li><p>All property, rights, and interests of German nationals within the +territory of any Allied or Associated Power and the net proceeds of +their sale, liquidation or other dealing therewith may be charged by +that Allied or Associated Power in the first place with payment of +amounts due in respect of claims by the nationals of that Allied or +Associated Power with regard to their property, rights, and interests, +including companies and associations in which they are interested, in +German territory, or debts owing to them by German nationals, and with +payment of claims growing out of acts committed by the German Government +or by any German authorities since July 31, 1914, and before that Allied +or Associated Power entered into the war. The amount of such claims may +be assessed by an arbitrator appointed by Gustave Ador, if he is +willing, or if no such appointment is made by him by an arbitrator +appointed by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal provided for in Section VI. +They may be charged in the second place with payment of the amounts due +in respect of claims by the nationals of such Allied or Associated Power +with regard to their property, rights, and interests in the territory of +other enemy powers, or debts owing to them by nationals of such powers +in so far as those claims or debts are otherwise unsatisfied.</p></li> + +<li><p>Notwithstanding the provisions of Article 297, where immediately +before the outbreak of war a company incorporated in an Allied or +Associated State had rights in common with a company controlled by it +and incorporated in Germany to the use of trade-marks in third +countries, or enjoyed the use in common with such company of unique +means of reproduction of goods or articles for sale in third countries, +the former company shall alone have the right to use these trade-marks +in third countries to the exclusion of the German company, and these +unique means of reproduction shall be handed over to the former company, +notwithstanding any action taken under German war legislation with +regard to the latter company or its business, industrial property or +shares. Nevertheless, the former company, if requested, shall deliver to +the latter company derivative copies permitting the continuation of +reproduction of articles for use within German territory.</p></li> + +<li><p>Up to the time when restitution is carried out in accordance with +Article 297, Germany is responsible for the conservation of property, +rights, and interests of the nationals of Allied or Associated Powers, +including companies and associations in which they are interested, that +have been subjected by her to exceptional war measures.</p></li> + +<li><p>Within one year from the coming into force of the present treaty the +Allied or Associated Powers will specify the property, rights and +interests over which they intend to exercise the right provided in +Article 297, Paragraph (f).</p></li> + +<li><p>The restriction provided in Article 297 will be carried out by order +of the German Government or of the authorities which have been +substituted for it. Detailed accounts of the action of administrators +shall be furnished to the interested persons by the German authorities +upon request, which may be made at any time after the coming into force +of the present treaty.</p></li> + +<li><p>Until completion of the liquidation provided for by Article 297, +Paragraph (b), the property, rights and interests of German nationals +will continue to be subject to exceptional war measures that have been +or will be taken with regard to them.</p></li> + +<li><p>Germany will within six months from the coming into force of the +present treaty, deliver to each Allied or Associated Power all +securities, certificates, deeds, or other documents of title held by its +nationals and relating to property, rights or interests situated in the +territory of that Allied or Associated Power, including any shares, +stock, debentures, debenture stock, or other obligations of any company +incorporated in accordance with the laws of that power.</p> + +<p>Germany will at any time on demand of any Allied or Associated Power +furnish such information as may be required with regard to the property, +rights, and interests of German nationals within the territory of such +Allied or Associated Power, or with regard to any transactions +concerning such property, rights or interests effected since July 1, +1914.</p></li> + +<li><p>The expression "cash assets" includes all deposits or funds +established before or after the declaration of war, as well as all +assets coming from deposits, revenues, or profits collected by +administrators, sequestrators, or others from funds placed on deposit or +otherwise, but does not include sums belonging to the Allied or +Associated Powers or to their component States, provinces, or +municipalities.</p> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-239.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-239thumb.jpg" width="400" height="552" + alt="Henry Cabot Lodge" + title="Henry Cabot Lodge" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Copyright Harris & Ewing</p> + <p class="caption">Henry Cabot Lodge</p> + <p class="description">Republican Senator from Massachusetts. + One of the most earnest opponents of the peace treaty as originally drawn up.</p> + <p class="click"> + <a href="images/ill-239.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a> + </p> +</div> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></p></li> + +<li><p>All investments wheresoever effected with the cash assets of +nationals of the high contracting parties, including companies and +associations in which such nationals were interested, by persons +responsible for the administration, of enemy properties or having +control over such administration, or by order of such persons or of any +authority whatsoever shall be annulled. These cash assets shall be +accounted for irrespective of any such investment.</p></li> + +<li><p>Within one month from the coming into force of the present treaty, +or on demand at any time, Germany will deliver to the Allied and +Associated Powers all accounts, vouchers, records, documents, and +information of any kind which may be within German territory, and which +concern the property, rights and interests of the nationals of those +powers, including companies and associations in which they are +interested, that have been subjected to an exceptional war measure, or +to a measure of transfer either in German territory or in territory +occupied by Germany or her allies.</p> + +<p>The controllers, supervisors, managers, administrators, sequestrators, +liquidators, and receivers shall be personally responsible under +guarantee of the German Government for the immediate delivery in full of +these accounts and documents, and for their accuracy.</p></li> + +<li><p>The provisions of Article 297 and this annex relating to property, +rights and interests in an enemy country, and the proceeds of the +liquidation thereof, apply to debts, credits and accounts, Section III. +regulating only the method of payment.</p> + +<p>In the settlement of matters provided for in Article 297 between Germany +and the Allied or Associated States, their colonies or protectorates, or +any one of the British Dominions or India, in respect of any of which a +declaration shall not have been made that they adopt Section III., and +between their respective nationals, the provisions of Section III. +respecting the currency in which payment is to be made and the rate of +exchange and of interest shall apply unless the Government of the Allied +or Associated Power concerned shall within six months of the coming into +force of the present treaty notify Germany that the said provisions are +not to be applied.</p></li> + +<li><p>The provisions of Article 297 and this annex apply to industrial, +literary, and artistic property which has been or will be dealt with in +the liquidation of property, rights, interests, companies, or businesses +under war legislation by the Allied or Associated Powers, or in +accordance with the stipulations of Article 297, Paragraph (b).</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>SECTION V.—<em>Contracts, Prescriptions, Judgments</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 299.</strong>—</p> +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>Any contract concluded between enemies shall be +regarded as having been dissolved as from the time when any two of the +parties become enemies, except in respect of any debt or other pecuniary +obligation arising out of any act done or money paid thereunder, and +subject to the exceptions and special rules with regard to particular +contracts or classes of contracts contained herein or in the annex +hereto.</p></li> + +<li><p>Any contract of which the execution shall be required in the general +interest, within six months from the date of the coming into force of +the present treaty, by the Allied or Associated Governments of which one +of the parties is a national, shall be excepted from dissolution under +this article.</p> + +<p>When the execution of the contract thus kept alive would, owing to the +alteration of trade conditions, cause one of the parties substantial +prejudice the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal provided for by Section VI. shall +be empowered to grant to the prejudiced party equitable compensation.</p></li> + +<li><p>Having regard to the provisions of the Constitution and law of the +United States of America, of Brazil, and of Japan, neither the present +Article, nor Article 300, nor the Annex hereto shall apply to contracts +made between nationals of these States and German nationals; nor shall +Article 305 apply to the United States of America or its nationals.</p></li> + +<li><p>The present Article and the Annex hereto shall not apply to +contracts the parties to which became enemies by reason of one of them +being an inhabitant of territory of which the sovereignty has been +transferred, if such party shall acquire under the present Treaty the +nationality of an Allied or Associated Power, nor shall they apply to +contracts between nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers between +whom trading has been prohibited by reason of one of the parties being +in allied or associated territory in the occupation of the enemy.</p></li> + +<li><p>Nothing in the present Article or the Annex hereto shall be deemed +to invalidate a transaction lawfully carried out in accordance with a +contract between enemies if it has been carried out with the authority +of one of the belligerent Powers.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 300.</strong>—</p> +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>All periods of prescription, or limitation of +right of action, whether they began to run before or after the outbreak +of war, shall be treated in the territory of the High Contracting +Parties, so far as regards relations between enemies, as having been +suspended for the duration of the war. They shall begin to run again at +earliest three months after the coming into force of the present Treaty. +This provision shall apply to the period prescribed for the presentation +of interest or dividend coupons or for the presentation for repayment of +securities drawn for repayment or repayable on any other ground.</p></li> + +<li><p>Where, on account of failure to perform any act or comply with any +formality during the war, measures of execution have been taken in +German territory to the prejudice of a national of an Allied or +Associated Power, the claim of such national shall, if the matter does +not fall within the competence of the courts of an Allied or Associated +Power, be heard by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal provided for by Section +VI.</p></li> + +<li><p>Upon the application of any interested person who is a national of +an Allied or Associated Power, the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal shall order +the restoration of the rights which have been prejudiced by the measures +of execution referred to in Paragraph (b), wherever, having regard to +the particular circumstances of the case, such restoration is equitable +and possible.</p> + +<p>If such restoration is inequitable or impossible the Mixed Arbitral +Tribunal may grant compensation to the prejudiced party to be paid by +the German Government.</p></li> + +<li><p>Where a contract between enemies has been dissolved by reason either +of failure on the part of either party to carry out its provisions or of +the exercise of a right stipulated in the contract itself the party +prejudiced may apply to the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal for relief. The +tribunal will have the powers provided for in Paragraph (c).</p></li> + +<li><p>The provisions of the preceding paragraphs of this article shall +apply to the nationals of Allied and Associated Powers who have been +prejudiced by reason of measures referred to above taken by Germany in +invaded or occupied territory, if they have not been otherwise +compensated. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p></li> + +<li><p>Germany shall compensate any third party who may be prejudiced by +any restitution or restoration ordered by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal +under the provisions of the preceding paragraphs of this Article.</p></li> + +<li><p>As regards negotiable instruments, the period of three months +provided under paragraph (a) shall commence as from the date on which +any exceptional regulations applied in the territories of the interested +power with regard to negotiable instruments shall have definitely ceased +to have force.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 301.</strong>—As between enemies, no negotiable instrument made +before the war shall be deemed to have become invalid by reason only of +failure within the required time to present the instrument for +acceptance or payment or to give notice of non-acceptance or non-payment +to drawers or indorsers or to protest the instrument, nor by reason of +failure to complete any formality during the war.</p> + +<p>Where the period within which a negotiable instrument should have been +presented for acceptance or for payment, or within which notice of +non-acceptance or non-payment should have been given to the drawer or +indorser within which the instrument should have been protested, has +elapsed during the war, and the party who should have presented or +protested the instrument or have given notice of non-acceptance or +non-payment has failed to do so during the war, a period of not less +than three months from the coming into force of the present treaty shall +be allowed within which presentation, notice of non-acceptance or +non-payment or protest may be made.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 302.</strong>—Judgments given by the courts of an Allied or +Associated Power in all cases which, under the present treaty, they are +competent to decide, shall be recognized in Germany as final, and shall +be enforced without it being necessary to have them declared executory.</p> + +<p>If a judgment in respect of any dispute which may have arisen has been +given during the war by a German court against a national of an Allied +or Associated State in a case in which he was not able to make his +defense, the allied and associated national who has suffered prejudice +thereby shall be entitled to recover compensation, to be fixed by the +Mixed Arbitral Tribunal provided for in Section VI.</p> + +<p>At the instance of the national of the Allied or Associated Power the +compensation above mentioned may, upon order to that effect of the Mixed +Arbitral Tribunal, be effected where it is possible by replacing the +parties in the situation which they occupied before the judgment was +given by the German court.</p> + +<p>The above compensation may likewise be obtained before the Mixed +Arbitral Tribunal by the nationals of Allied or Associated Powers who +have suffered prejudice by judicial measures taken in invaded or +occupied territories, if they have not been otherwise compensated.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 303.</strong>—For the purpose of Sections III., IV., V., and VII., +the expression "during the war" means for each Allied or Associated +Power the period between the commencement of the state of war between +that power and Germany and the coming into force of the present treaty.</p> + +<h3>ANNEX</h3> + +<h3>I. <em>General Provisions</em></h3> +<ol> +<li><p>Within the meaning of Articles 299, 300 and 301, the parties to a +contract shall be regarded as enemies when trading between them shall +have been prohibited by or otherwise became unlawful under laws, orders +or regulations to which one of those parties was subject. They shall be +deemed to have become enemies from the date when such trading was +prohibited or otherwise became unlawful.</p></li> + +<li>The following classes of contracts are excepted from dissolution by +Article 299 and, without prejudice to the rights contained in Article +297 (b) of Section IV., remain in force subject to the application of +domestic laws, orders or regulations made during the war by the Allied +and Associated Powers and subject to the terms of the contracts: +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>Contracts having for their object the transfer of estates or of real or +personal property where the property therein had passed or the object +had been delivered before the parties became enemies;</p></li> + +<li><p>Leases and agreements for leases of land and houses;</p></li> + +<li><p>Contracts of mortgage, pledge, or lien;</p></li> + +<li><p>Concessions concerning mines, quarries or deposits;</p></li> + +<li><p>Contracts between individuals or companies and States, provinces, +municipalities, or other similar juridical persons charged with +administrative functions, and concessions granted by States, provinces, +municipalities, or other similar juridical persons charged with +administrative functions.</p></li> +</ol> +</li> + +<li><p>If the provisions of a contract are in part dissolved under Article 299, +the remaining provisions of that contract shall, subject to the same +application of domestic laws as is provided for in Paragraph 2, continue +in force if they are severable, but where they are not severable the +contract shall be deemed to have been dissolved in its entirety.</p> + +<h3>II. <em>Provisions Relating to Certain Classes of Contracts</em></h3> + +<h3><em>Stock Exchange and Commercial Exchange Contracts</em></h3> + +</li> +<li> +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>Rules made during the war by any recognized exchange of commercial +association providing for the closure of contracts entered into before +the war by an enemy are confirmed by the high contracting parties, as +also any action taken thereunder, provided:—</p> +<ol class="roman"> +<li><p>That the contract was expressed to be made subject to the rules of the +exchange or association in question;</p></li> +<li><p>That the rules applied to all persons concerned;</p></li> +<li><p>That the conditions attaching to the closure were fair and reasonable.</p></li> +</ol></li> +<li><p>The preceding paragraph shall not apply to rules made +during the occupation by exchange or commercial associations in the +districts occupied by the enemy.</p></li> +<li><p>The closure of contracts relating to cotton "futures," which were closed +as on the 31st July, 1914, under the decision of the Liverpool Cotton +Association, is also confirmed.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3><em>Security</em></h3></li> + +<li><p>The sale of a security held for an unpaid debt owing by an enemy shall +be deemed to have been valid irrespective of notice to the owner if the +creditor acted in good faith and with reasonable care and prudence, and +no claim by the debtor on the ground of such sale shall be admitted.<br /> + +This stipulation shall not apply to any sale of securities effected by +an enemy during the occupation in regions invaded or occupied by the +enemy.</p> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></p> + +<h3><em>Negotiable Instruments</em></h3></li> + +<li><p>As regards powers which adopt Section III. and the Annex thereto the +pecuniary obligations existing between enemies and resulting from the +issue of negotiable instruments shall be adjusted in conformity with the +said Annex by the instrumentality of the Clearing Offices, which shall +assume the rights of the holder as regards the various remedies open to +him.,</p></li> + +<li><p>If a person has either before or during the war become liable upon a +negotiable instrument in accordance with an undertaking given to him by +a person who has subsequently become an enemy, the latter shall remain +liable to indemnify the former in respect of his liability, +notwithstanding the outbreak of war.</p> + +<h3>III. <em>Contracts of Insurance</em></h3></li> + +<li><p>Contracts of insurance entered into by any person with another person +who subsequently became an enemy will be dealt with in accordance with +the following paragraphs:</p> + +<h3><em>Fire Insurance</em></h3></li> + +<li><p>Contracts for the insurance of property against fire entered into by a +person interested in such property with another person who subsequently +became an enemy shall not be deemed to have been dissolved by the +outbreak of war, or by the fact of the person becoming an enemy, or on +account of the failure during the war and for a period of three months +thereafter to perform his obligations under the contract, but they shall +be dissolved at the date when the annual premium becomes payable for the +first time after the expiration of a period of three months after the +coming into force of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>A settlement shall be effected of unpaid premiums which became due +during the war, or of claims for losses which occurred during the war.</p></li> + +<li><p>Where by administrative or legislative action an insurance against fire +effected before the war has been transferred during the war from the +original to another insurer, the transfer will be recognized and the +liability of the original insurer will be deemed to have ceased as from +the date of the transfer. The original insurer will, however, be +entitled to receive on demand full information as to the terms of the +transfer, and if it should appear that these terms were not equitable +they shall be amended so far as may be necessary to render them +equitable.</p> + +<p>Furthermore, the insured shall, subject to the concurrence of the +original insurer, be entitled to retransfer the contract to the original +insurer as from the date of the demand.</p> + +<h3><em>Life Insurance</em></h3></li> + +<li><p>Contracts of life insurance entered into between an insurer and a person +who subsequently became an enemy shall not be deemed to have been +dissolved by the outbreak of war, or by the fact of the person becoming +an enemy.</p> + +<p>Any sum which during the war became due upon a contract deemed not to +have been dissolved under the preceding provision shall be recoverable +after the war with the addition of interest of five per cent. per annum +from the date of its becoming due up to the day of payment.</p> + +<p>Where the contract has lapsed during the war owing to non-payment of +premiums, or has become void from breach of the conditions of the +contract, the assured or his representatives or the persons entitled +shall have the right at any time within twelve months of the coming into +force of the present treaty to claim from the insurer the surrender +value of the policy at the date of its lapse or avoidance.</p> + +<p>Where the contract has lapsed during the war owing to non-payment of +premiums the payment of which has been prevented by the enforcement of +measures of war, the assured or his representative or the persons +entitled shall have the right to restore the contract on payment of the +premiums with interest at five per cent. per annum within three months +from the coming into effect of the present treaty.</p></li> + +<li><p>Any Allied or Associated Power may within three months of the coming +into force of the present treaty cancel all the contracts of insurance +running between a German insurance company and its nationals under +conditions which shall protect its nationals from any prejudice.</p> + +<p>To this end the German insurance company will hand over to the allied or +associated Government concerned, the proportion of its assets +attributable to the policies so canceled and will be relieved from all +liability in respect of such policies. The assets to be handed over +shall be determined by an actuary appointed by the Mixed Arbitral +Tribunal.</p></li> + +<li><p>Where contracts of life insurance have been entered into by a local +branch of an insurance company established in a country which +subsequently became an enemy country, the contract shall, in the absence +of any stipulation to the contrary in the contract itself, be governed +by the local law, but the insurer shall be entitled to demand from the +insured or his representatives the refund of sums paid on claims made or +enforced under measures taken during the war, if the making or +enforcement of such claims was not in accordance with the terms of the +contract itself or was not consistent with the laws or treaties existing +at the time when it was entered into.</p></li> + +<li><p>In any case where by the law applicable to the contract the insurer +remains bound by the contract notwithstanding the non-payment of +premiums until notice is given to the insured of the termination of the +contract, he shall be entitled where the giving of such notice was +prevented by the war to recover the unpaid premiums with interest at +five per cent. per annum from the insured.</p></li> + +<li><p>Insurance contracts shall be considered as contracts of life assurance +for the purpose of Paragraphs 11 to 14 when they depend on the +probabilities of human life combined with the rate of interest for the +calculation of the reciprocal engagements between the two parties.</p> + +<h3><em>Marine Insurance</em></h3></li> + +<li><p>Contracts of marine insurance including time policies and voyage +policies entered into between an insurer and a person who subsequently +became an enemy, shall be deemed to have been dissolved on his becoming +an enemy, except in cases where the risk undertaken in the contract had +attached before he became an enemy.</p> + +<p>Where the risk had not attached, money paid by way of premium or +otherwise shall be recoverable from the insurer.</p> + +<p>Where the risk had attached, effect shall be given to the contract +notwithstanding the party becoming an enemy, and sums due under the +contract either by way of premiums or in respect of losses shall be +recoverable after the coming into force of the present treaty. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the event of any agreement being come to for the payment of interest +on sums due before the war to or by the nationals of States which have +been at war and recovered after the war, such interest shall in the case +of losses recoverable under contracts of marine insurance run from the +expiration of a period of one year from the date of the loss.</p></li> + +<li><p>No contract of marine insurance with an insured person who subsequently +became an enemy shall be deemed to cover losses due to belligerent +action by the power of which the insurer was a national or by the allies +or associates of such power.</p></li> + +<li><p>Where it is shown that a person who had before the war entered into a +contract of marine insurance with an insurer who subsequently became an +enemy entered after the outbreak of war into a new contract covering the +same risk with an insurer who was not an enemy, the new contract shall +be deemed to be substituted for the original contract as from the date +when it was entered into, and the premiums payable shall be adjusted on +the basis of the original insurer having remained liable on the contract +only up till the time when the new contract was entered into.</p> + +<h3><em>Other Insurances</em></h3></li> + +<li><p>Contracts of insurance entered into before the war between an insurer +and a person who subsequently became an enemy other than contracts dealt +with in Paragraphs 9 to 18 shall be treated in all respects on the same +footing as contracts of fire insurance between the same persons would be +dealt with under the said paragraphs.</p> + +<h3><em>Re-Insurance</em></h3></li> + +<li><p>All treaties of re-insurance with a person who became an enemy shall be +regarded as having been abrogated by the person becoming an enemy, but +without prejudice in the case of life or marine risks which had attached +before the war to the right to recover payment after the war for sums +due in respect of such risks.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, if, owing to invasion, it has been impossible for the +re-insured to find another re-insurer, the treaty shall remain in force +until three months after the coming into force of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>Where a re-insurance treaty becomes void under this paragraph, there +shall be an adjustment of accounts between the parties in respect both +of premiums paid and payable and of liabilities for losses in respect of +life or marine risk which had attached before the war. In the case of +risks other than those mentioned in Paragraphs 11 to 18 the adjustment +of accounts shall be made as at the date of the parties becoming enemies +without regard to claims for losses which may have occurred since that +date.</p></li> + +<li><p>The provisions of the preceding paragraph will extend equally to +re-insurances existing at the date of the parties becoming enemies of +particular risks undertaken by the insurer in a contract of insurance +against any risks other than life or marine risks.</p></li> + +<li><p>Re-insurance of life risks effected by particular contracts and not +under any general treaty remain in force.</p> + +<p>The provisions of Paragraph 12 apply to treaties of re-insurance of life +insurance contracts in which enemy companies are the re-insurers.</p></li> + +<li><p>In case of a re-insurance effected before the war of a contract of +marine insurance the cession of a risk which had been ceded to the +re-insurer shall, if it had attached before the outbreak of war, remain +valid and effect be given to the contract notwithstanding the outbreak +of war; sums due under the contract of re-insurance in respect either of +premiums or of losses shall be recoverable after the war.</p></li> + +<li><p>The provisions of Paragraphs 17 and 18 and the last part of Paragraph 16 +shall apply to contracts for the re-insurance of marine risks.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>SECTION VI.—<em>Mixed Arbitral Tribunal</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 304.</strong>—</p> +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>Within three months from the date of the coming +into force of the present treaty, a Mixed Arbitral Tribunal shall be +established between each of the Allied and Associated Powers on the one +hand and Germany on the other hand. Each such tribunal shall consist of +three members. Each of the Governments concerned shall appoint one of +these members. The President shall be chosen by agreement between the +two Governments concerned.</p> + +<p>In case of failure to reach agreement, the President of the tribunal and +two other persons either of whom may in case of need take his place, +shall be chosen by the Council of the League of Nations, or, until this +is set up, by M. Gustave Ador if he is willing. These persons shall be +nationals of Powers that have remained neutral during the war.</p> + +<p>If any Government does not proceed within a period of one month in case +there is a vacancy to appoint a member of the tribunal, such member +shall be chosen by the other Government from the two persons mentioned +above other than the President.</p> + +<p>The decision of the majority of the members of the tribunal shall be the +decision of the tribunal.</p></li> + +<li><p>The Mixed Arbitral Tribunals established pursuant to Paragraph (a) +shall decide all questions within their competence under Sections III., +IV., V., and VII.</p> + +<p>In addition, all questions, whatsoever their nature, relating to +contracts concluded before the coming into force of the present treaty +between nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers and German +nationals shall be decided by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal, always +excepting questions which, under the laws of the Allied, Associated or +neutral powers, are within the jurisdiction of the national courts of +those powers. Such questions shall be decided by the national courts in +question, to the exclusion of the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal. The party who +is a national of an Allied or Associated Power may nevertheless bring +the case before the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal if this is not prohibited by +the laws of his country.</p></li> + +<li><p>If the number of cases justifies it, additional members shall be +appointed and each Mixed Arbitral Tribunal shall sit in divisions. Each +of these divisions will be constituted as above.</p></li> + +<li><p>Each Mixed Arbitral Tribunal will settle its own procedure except in +so far as it is provided in the following Annex, and is empowered to +award the sums to be paid by the loser in respect of the costs and +expenses of the proceedings.</p></li> + +<li><p>Each Government will pay the remuneration of the member of the Mixed +Arbitral Tribunal appointed by it and of any agent whom it may appoint +to represent it before the Tribunal. The remuneration of the President +will be determined by special agreement between the Governments +concerned, and this remuneration and the joint expenses of each tribunal +will be paid by the two Governments in equal moieties.</p> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></p></li> + +<li><p>The high contracting parties agree that their courts and authorities +shall render to the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal direct all the assistance in +their power, particularly as regards transmitting notices and collecting +evidence.</p></li> + +<li><p>The high contracting parties agree to regard the decisions of the +Mixed Arbitral Tribunal as final and conclusive, and to render them +binding upon their nationals.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>ANNEX</h3> + +<ol> +<li><p>Should one of the members of the Tribunal either die, retire, or be +unable for any reason whatever to discharge his functions, the same +procedure will be followed for filling the vacancy as was followed for +appointing him.</p></li> + +<li><p>The tribunal may adopt such rules of procedure as shall be in +accordance with justice and equity and decide the order and time at +which each party must conclude its arguments, and may arrange all +formalities required for dealing with the evidence.</p></li> + +<li><p>The agent and counsel of the parties on each side are authorized to +present orally and in writing to the tribunal arguments in support or in +defense of each case.</p></li> + +<li><p>The tribunal shall keep record of the questions and cases submitted +and the proceedings thereon, with the dates of such proceedings.</p></li> + +<li><p>Each of the Powers concerned may appoint a secretary. These +secretaries shall act together as joint secretaries of the tribunal and +shall be subject to its direction. The tribunal may appoint and employ +any other necessary officer or officers to assist in the performance of +its duties.</p></li> + +<li><p>The tribunal shall decide all questions and matters submitted upon +such evidence and information as may be furnished by the parties +concerned.</p></li> + +<li><p>Germany agrees to give the tribunal all facilities and information +required by it for carrying out its investigations.</p></li> + +<li><p>The language in which the proceedings shall be conducted shall, +unless otherwise agreed, be English, French, Italian, or Japanese, as +may be determined by the Allied or Associated Power concerned.</p></li> + +<li><p>The place and time for the meetings of each tribunal shall be +determined by the President of the tribunal.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 305.</strong>—Whenever a competent court has given or gives a +decision in a case covered by Sections III., IV., V. or VII., and such +decision is inconsistent with the provisions of such sections, the party +who is prejudiced by the decision shall be entitled to obtain redress +which shall be fixed by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal. At the request of +the national of an Allied or Associated Power, the redress may, whenever +possible, be effected by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal directing the +replacement of the parties in the position occupied by them before the +judgment was given by the German Court.</p> + +<h3>SECTION VII.—<em>Industrial Property</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 306.</strong>—Subject to the stipulations of the present treaty, +rights of industrial, literary, and artistic property, as such property +is defined by the International Conventions of Paris and of Berne, +mentioned in Article 286, shall be re-established or restored, as from +the coming into force of the present treaty in the territories of the +high contracting parties, in favor of the persons entitled to the +benefit of them at the moment when the state of war commenced, or their +legal representatives. Equally, rights which, except for the war, would +have been acquired during the war in consequence of an application made +for the protection of industrial property, or the publication of a +literary or artistic work, shall be recognized and established in favor +of those persons who would have been entitled thereto, from the coming +into force of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, all acts done by virtue of the special measures taken +during the war under legislative, executive or administrative authority +of any Allied or Associated Power in regard to the rights of German +nationals in industrial, literary or artistic property shall remain in +force and shall continue to maintain their full effect.</p> + +<p>No claim shall be made or action brought by Germany or German nationals +in respect of the use during the war by the Government of any Allied or +Associated Power, or by any persons acting on behalf or with the assent +of such Government of any rights in industrial, literary or artistic +property, nor in respect of the sale, offering for sale, or use of any +products, articles, or apparatus whatsoever to which such rights +applied.</p> + +<p>Unless the legislation of any one of the Allied or Associated Powers in +force at the moment of the signature of the present treaty otherwise +directs, sums due or paid in virtue of any act or operation resulting +from the execution of the special measures mentioned in Paragraph 1 of +this article shall be dealt with in the same way as other sums due to +German nationals are directed to be dealt with by the present treaty; +and sums produced by any special measures taken by the German Government +in respect of rights in industrial, literary or artistic property +belonging to the nationals of the Allied or Associated Powers shall be +considered and treated in the same way as other debts due from German +nationals.</p> + +<p>Each of the Allied and Associated Powers reserves to itself the right to +impose such limitations, conditions or restrictions on rights of +industrial, literary or artistic property (with the exception of +trade-marks) acquired before or during the war, or which may be +subsequently acquired in accordance with its legislation, by German +nationals, whether by granting licenses, or by the working, or by +preserving control over their exploitation, or in any other way as may +be considered necessary for national defense or in the public interest, +or for assuring the fair treatment by Germany of the rights of +industrial, literary, and artistic property held in German territory by +its nationals, or for securing the due fulfillment of all the +obligations undertaken by Germany in the present treaty.</p> + +<p>As regards rights of industrial, literary and artistic property acquired +after the coming into force of the present treaty, the right so reserved +by the Allied and Associated Powers shall only be exercised in cases +where these limitations, conditions or restrictions may be considered +necessary for national defense or in the public interest.</p> + +<p>In the event of the application of the provisions of the preceding +paragraph by any of the Allied or Associated Powers, there shall be paid +reasonable indemnities or royalties which shall be dealt with in the +same way as other sums due to German nationals are directed to be dealt +with by the present treaty.</p> + +<p>Each of the Allied or Associated Powers reserves the right to treat as +void and of no effect any transfer in whole or in part of or other +dealing with rights of or in respect of + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> + +industrial, literary or artistic property effected after Aug. 1, 1914, +or in the future, which would have the result of defeating the objects +of the provisions of this article.</p> + +<p>The provisions of this article shall not apply to rights in industrial, +literary or artistic property which have been dealt with in the +liquidation of businesses or companies under war legislation by the +Allied or Associated Powers, or which may be so dealt with by virtue of +Article 297, Paragraph (b).</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 307.</strong>—A minimum of one year after the coming into force of +the present treaty shall be accorded to the nationals of the high +contracting parties, without extension fees or other penalty, in order +to enable such persons to accomplish any act, fulfill any formality, pay +any fees, and generally satisfy any obligation prescribed by the laws or +regulations of the respective States relating to the obtaining, +preserving or opposing rights to, or in respect of, industrial property +either acquired before the 1st of August, 1914, or which, except for the +war, might have been acquired since that date as a result of an +application made before the war or during its continuance, but nothing +in this article shall give any right to reopen interference proceedings +in the United States of America where a final hearing has taken place.</p> + +<p>All rights in, or in respect of, such property which may have lapsed by +reason of any failure to accomplish any act, fulfill any formality, or +make any payment, shall revive, but subject in the case of patents and +designs to the imposition of such conditions as each Allied or +Associated Power may deem reasonably necessary for the protection of +persons who have manufactured or made use of the subject matter of such +property while the rights had lapsed. Further, where rights to patents +or designs belonging to German nationals are revived under this article, +they shall be subject in respect of the grant of licenses to the same +provisions as would have been applicable to them during the war, as well +as to all the provisions of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>The period from the 1st August, 1914, until the coming into force of the +present treaty shall be excluded in considering the time within which a +patent should be worked or a trade mark or design used, and it is +further agreed that no patent, registered trade mark or design in force +on the 1st of August, 1914, shall be subject to revocation or +cancellation by reason only of the failure to work such patent or use +such trade mark or design for two years after the coming into force of +the present treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 308.</strong>—The rights of priority, provided by Article IV. of +the International Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property +of Paris, of the 20th March, 1883, revised at Washington in 1911, or by +any other convention or statute, for the filing or registration of +applications for patents or models of utility, and for the registration +of trade marks, designs, and models which had not expired on the 1st +August, 1914, and those which have arisen during the war, or would have +arisen but for the war, shall be extended by each of the high +contracting parties in favor of all nationals of the other high +contracting parties for a period of six months after the coming into +force of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, such extension shall in no way affect the right of any of +the high contracting parties or of any person who before the coming into +force of the present treaty was <span lang="la">bona fide</span> in possession of any rights +of industrial property conflicting with rights applied for by another +who claims rights of priority in respect of them, to exercise such +rights by itself or himself personally, or by such agents or licensees +as derived their rights from it or him before the coming into force of +the present treaty; and such persons shall not be amenable to any action +or other process of law in respect of infringement.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 309.</strong>—No action shall be brought and no claim made by +persons residing or carrying on business within the territories of +Germany on the one part and of the Allied or Associated Powers on the +other, or persons who are nationals of such powers, respectively, or by +any one deriving title during the war from such persons, by reason or +any action which has taken place within the territory of the other party +between the date of the declaration of war and that of the coming into +force of the present treaty, which might constitute an infringement of +the rights of industrial property or rights of literary and artistic +property, either existing at any time during the war or revived under +the provisions of Articles 307 and 308.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/ill-245.jpg" width="400" height="311" + alt="The Hotel Crillon" + title="America's Peace Capitol in Paris" /> + <p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> + <p class="caption">America's Peace Capitol in Paris</p> + <p class="description">The Hotel Crillon, facing upon the Place + de la Concorde, was requisitioned to serve during the Peace + Conference as the office and living quarters of President + Wilson's staff.</p> +</div> + +<p>Equally, no action for infringement of industrial, literary or artistic +property rights by such persons shall at any time be permissible in +respect of the sale or offering for sale for a period of one year after +the signature of the present treaty in the territories of the Allied or +Associated Powers on the one hand or Germany on the other, of products +or articles manufactured, or of literary or artistic works published, +during the period between the declaration of war and the signature of +the present treaty, or against those who have acquired and continue to +use them. It is understood, nevertheless, that this provision shall not +apply when the possessor of the rights was domiciled or had an +industrial or commercial establishment in the districts occupied by +Germany during the war.</p> + +<p>This article shall not apply as between the United States of America on +the one hand and Germany on the other.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span></p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 310.</strong>—Licenses in respect of industrial, literary, or +artistic property concluded before the war between nationals of the +Allied or Associated Powers or persons residing in their territory or +carrying on business therein, on the one part, and German nationals, on +the other part, shall be considered as canceled as from the date of the +declaration of war between Germany and the Allied or Associated Powers. +But, in any case, the former beneficiary of a contract of this kind +shall have the right, within a period of six months after the coming +into force of the present treaty, to demand from the proprietor of the +rights the grant of a new license, the conditions of which, in default +of agreement between the parties, shall be fixed by the duly qualified +tribunal in the country under whose legislation the rights had been +acquired, except in the case of licenses held in respect of rights +acquired under German law. In such cases the conditions shall be fixed +by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal referred to in Section VI. of this Part. +The tribunal may, if necessary, fix also the amount which it may deem +just should be paid by reason of the use of the rights during the war.</p> + +<p>No license in respect of industrial, literary, or artistic property, +granted under the special war legislation of any Allied or Associated +Power, shall be affected by the continued existence of any license +entered into before the war, but shall remain valid and of full effect, +and a license so granted to the former beneficiary of a license entered +into before the war shall be considered as substituted for such license.</p> + +<p>Where sums have been paid during the war by virtue of a license or +agreement concluded before the war in respect of rights of industrial +property or for the reproduction or the representation of literary, +dramatic, or artistic works, these sums shall be dealt with in the same +manner as other debts or credits of German nationals, as provided by the +present treaty.</p> + +<p>This Article shall not apply as between the United States of America on +the one hand and Germany on the other.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 311.</strong>—The inhabitants of territories separated from Germany +by virtue of the present treaty shall, notwithstanding this separation +and the change of nationality consequent thereon, continue to enjoy in +Germany all the rights in industrial, literary, and artistic property to +which they were entitled under German legislation at the time of the +separation.</p> + +<p>Rights of industrial, literary and artistic property which are in force +in the territories separated from Germany under the present treaty at +the moment of the separation of these territories from Germany, or which +will be re-established or restored in accordance with the provisions of +Article 306 of the present treaty, shall be recognized by the State to +which the said territory is transferred and shall remain in force in +that territory for the same period of time given them under the German +law.</p> + +<h3>SECTION VIII.—<em>Social and State Insurance in Ceded Territory</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 312.</strong>—Without prejudice to the provisions contained in +other articles of the present treaty, the German Government undertakes +to transfer to any power to which German territory in Europe is ceded, +and to any power administering former German territory as a mandatory +under Article 22 of Part I. (League of Nations), such portion of the +reserves accumulated by the Government of the German Empire or of German +States, or by public or private organizations under their control, as is +attributable to the carrying on of social or State insurance in such +territory.</p> + +<p>The powers to which these funds are transferred must apply them to the +performance of the obligations arising from such insurances.</p> + +<p>The conditions of the transfer will be determined by special conventions +to be concluded between the German Government and the Governments +concerned.</p> + +<p>In case these special conventions are not concluded in accordance with +the above paragraph within three months after the coming into force of +the present treaty, the conditions of transfer shall in each case be +referred to a commission of five members, one of whom shall be appointed +by the German Government, one by the other interested Government, and +three by the governing body of the International Labor Office from the +nationals of other States. This commission shall by majority vote within +three months after appointment adopt recommendations for submission to +the Council of the League of Nations, and the decisions of the council +shall forthwith be accepted as final by Germany and the other Government +concerned.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PART XI<br /> +Aerial Navigation</h2> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 313.</strong>—The aircraft of the Allied and Associated Powers +shall have full liberty of passage and landing over and in the territory +and territorial waters of Germany, and shall enjoy the same privileges +as German aircraft, particularly in case of distress by land or sea.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 314.</strong>—The aircraft of the Allied and Associated Powers +shall, while in transit to any foreign country whatever, enjoy the right +of flying over the territory and territorial waters of Germany without +landing subject always to any regulations which may be made by Germany, +and which shall be applicable equally to the aircraft of Germany and +those of the Allied and Associated Countries.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 315.</strong>—All aerodromes in Germany open to national public +traffic shall be open for the aircraft of the Allied and Associated +Powers, and in any such aerodrome such aircraft shall be treated on a +footing of equality with German aircraft as regards charges of every +description, including charges for landing and accommodation.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 316.</strong>—Subject to the present provisions, the rights of +passage, transit and landing provided for in Articles 313, 314 and 315 +are subject to the observation of such regulations as Germany may +consider it necessary to enact, but such regulations shall be applied +without distinction to German aircraft and to those of Allied and +Associated Countries.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 317.</strong>—Certificates of nationality, airworthiness, or +competency, and licenses, issued or recognized as valid by any of the +Allied or Associated Powers, shall be recognized in Germany as valid and +as equivalent to the certificates and licenses issued by Germany.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 318.</strong>—As regards internal commercial air traffic, the +aircraft of the Allied and Associated Powers shall enjoy in Germany most +favored nation treatment.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 319.</strong>—Germany undertakes to enforce the necessary measures +to insure that all German aircraft flying over her territory shall +comply with the rules as to lights and signals, rules of the air and +rules for air traffic on and in the neighborhood of aerodromes, which +have been laid down in the convention relative to aerial navigation +concluded between the Allied and Associated Powers.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 320.</strong>—The obligations imposed by the preceding provisions +shall remain in force until the 1st January, 1923, unless before that +date Germany shall have been admitted into the League of Nations or +shall have been authorized, by consent of the Allied and Associated +Powers, to adhere to the convention relative to aerial navigation +concluded between those powers.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PART XII<br /> +Ports, Waterways, and Railways</h2> + +<h3>SECTION I.—<em>General Provisions</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 321.</strong>—Germany undertakes to grant freedom of transit +through her territories on the routes most convenient for international +transit, either by rail, navigable waterway, or canal, to persons, +goods, vessels, carriages, wagons, and mails coming from or going to the +territories of any of the Allied and Associated Powers (whether +contiguous or not); for this purpose the crossing of territorial waters +shall be allowed. Such persons, goods, vessels, carriages, wagons, and +mails shall not be subjected to any transit duty or to any undue delays +or restrictions, and shall be entitled in Germany to national treatment +as regards charges, facilities, and all other matters.</p> + +<p>Goods in transit shall be exempt from all customs or other similar +duties.</p> + +<p>All charges imposed on transport in transit shall be reasonable, having +regard to the conditions of the traffic. No charge, facility, or +restriction shall depend directly or indirectly on the ownership or on +the nationality of the ship or other means of transport on which any +part of the through journey has been, or is to be, accomplished.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 322.</strong>—Germany undertakes neither to impose nor to maintain +any control over transmigration traffic through her territories beyond +measures necessary to insure that passengers are <span lang="la">bona fide</span> in transit; +nor to allow any shipping company or any other private body, +corporation, or person interested in the traffic to take any part +whatever in, or to exercise any direct or indirect influence over, any +administrative service that may be necessary for this purpose.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 323.</strong>—Germany undertakes to make no discrimination or +preference, direct or indirect, in the duties, charges, and prohibitions +relating to importations into or exportations from her territories, or, +subject to the special engagements contained in the present treaty, in +the charges and conditions of transport of goods or persons entering or +leaving her territories, based on the frontier crossed; or on the kind, +ownership, or flag of the means of transport (including aircraft) +employed; or on the original or immediate place of departure of the +vessel, wagon, or aircraft or other means of transport employed, or its +ultimate or intermediate destination; or on the route of or places of +transshipment on the journey; or on whether any port through which the +goods are imported or exported is a German port or a port belonging to +any foreign country or on whether the goods are imported or exported by +sea, by land, or by air.</p> + +<p>Germany particularly undertakes not to establish against the ports and +vessels of any of the Allied and Associated Powers any surtax or any +direct or indirect bounty for export or import by German ports of +vessels, or by those of another power, for example by means of combined +tariffs. She further undertakes that persons or goods passing through a +port or using a vessel of any of the Allied and Associated Powers shall +not be subjected to any formality or delay whatever to which such +persons or goods would not be subjected if they passed through a German +port or a port of any other power, or used a German vessel or a vessel +of any other power.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 324.</strong>—All necessary administrative and technical measures +shall be taken to shorten, as much as possible, the transmission of +goods across the German frontiers and to insure their forwarding and +transport from such frontiers, irrespective of whether such goods are +coming from or going to the territories of the Allied and Associated +Powers or are in transit from or to those territories, under the same +material conditions in such matters as rapidity of carriage and care en +route as are enjoyed by other goods of the same kind carried on German +territory under similar conditions of transport.</p> + +<p>In particular, the transport of perishable goods shall be promptly and +regularly carried out, and the customs formalities shall be effected in +such a way as to allow the goods to be carried straight through by +trains which make connection.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 325.</strong>—The seaports of the Allied and Associated Powers are +entitled to all favors and to all reduced tariffs granted on German +railways or navigable waterways for the benefit of German ports or of +any port of another power.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 326.</strong>—Germany may not refuse to participate in the tariffs +or combinations of tariffs intended to secure for ports of any of the +Allied and Associated Powers advantages similar to those granted by +Germany to her own ports or the ports of any other power.</p> + +<h3>SECTION II.—<em>Navigation</em></h3> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.—FREEDOM OF NAVIGATION</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 327.</strong>—The nationals of any of the Allied and Associated +Powers as well as their vessels and property shall enjoy in all German + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> + +ports and in the inland navigation routes of Germany, the same treatment +in all respects as German nationals, vessels and property.</p> + +<p>In particular the vessels of any one of the Allied or Associated Powers +shall be entitled to transport goods of any description, and passengers, +to or from any ports or places in German territory to which German +vessels may have access, under conditions which shall not be more +onerous than those applied in the case of national vessels; they shall +be treated on a footing of equality with national vessels as regards +port and harbor facilities and charges of every description, including +facilities for stationing, loading and unloading, and duties and charges +of tonnage, harbor, pilotage, lighthouse, quarantine, and all analogous +duties and charges of whatsoever nature, levied in the name of or for +the profit of the Government, public functionaries, private individuals, +corporations or establishments of any kind.</p> + +<p>In the event of Germany granting a preferential régime to any of +the Allied or Associated Powers or to any other foreign power, this +régime shall be extended immediately and unconditionally to all +the Allied and Associated Powers.</p> + +<p>There shall be no impediment to the movement of persons or vessels other +than those arising from prescriptions concerning customs, police, +sanitation, emigration and immigration and those relating to the import +and export of prohibited goods. Such regulations must be reasonable and +uniform and must not impede traffic unnecessarily.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.—FREE ZONES IN PORTS</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 328.</strong>—The free zones existing in German ports on the 1st +August, 1914, shall be maintained. These free zones and any other free +zones which may be established in German territory by the present treaty +shall be subject to the régime provided for in the following +articles.</p> + +<p>Goods entering or leaving a free zone shall not be subjected to any +import or export duty, other than those provided for in Article 330.</p> + +<p>Vessels and goods entering a free zone may be subjected to the charges +established to cover expenses of administration, upkeep and improvement +of the port, as well as to the charges for the use of various +installations, provided that these charges shall be reasonable, having +regard to the expenditure incurred, and shall be levied in the +conditions of equality provided for in Article 327.</p> + +<p>Goods shall not be subjected to any other charge except a statistical +duty which shall not exceed 1 per mille ad valorem, and which shall be +devoted exclusively to defraying the expenses of compiling statements of +the traffic in the port.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 329.</strong>—The facilities granted for the erection of +warehouses, for packing and for unpacking goods, shall be in accordance +with trade requirements for the time being. All goods allowed to be +consumed in the free zone shall be exempt from duty, whether of excise +or of any other description, apart from the statistical duty provided +for in Article 328 above.</p> + +<p>There shall be no discrimination in regard to any of the provisions of +the present article between persons belonging to different nationalities +or between goods of different origin or destination.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 330.</strong>—Import duties may be levied on goods leaving the free +zone for consumption in the country on the territory of which the port +is situated. Conversely, export duties may be levied on goods coming +from such country and brought into the free zone. These import and +export duties shall be levied on the same basis and at the same rates as +similar duties levied at the other customs frontiers of the country +concerned. On the other hand, Germany shall not levy, under any +denomination, any import, export, or transit duty on goods carried by +land or water across her territory to or from the free zone from or to +any other State.</p> + +<p>Germany shall draw up the necessary regulations to secure and guarantee +such freedom of transit over such railways and waterways in her +territory as normally give access to the free zone.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.—CLAUSES RELATING TO THE ELBE, THE ODER, THE NIEMEN +(RUSSTROM-MEMEL-NIEMEN), AND THE DANUBE</h3> + +<h3>(I)—<em>General Clauses</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 331.</strong>—The following rivers are declared international:</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li>The Elbe (Labe) from its confluence with the Vitava (Moldau) and the Vitava (Moldau) from Prague;</li> +<li>the Oder (Odra) from its confluence with the Oppa;</li> +<li>the Niemen (Russtrom-Memel-Niemen) from Grodno,</li> +<li>the Danube from Ulm;</li> +</ul> + +<p>and all navigable parts of these river systems which naturally provide +more than one State with access to the sea, with or without +transshipment from one vessel to another; together with lateral canals +and channels constructed either to duplicate or to improve naturally +navigable sections of the specified river system, or to connect two +naturally navigable sections of the same river.</p> + +<p>The same shall apply to the Rhine-Danube navigable waterway, should such +a waterway be constructed under the conditions laid down in Article 353.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 332.</strong>—On the waterways declared to be international in the +preceding article, the nationals, property and flags of all powers shall +be treated on a footing of perfect equality, no distinction being made +to the detriment of the nationals, property or flag of any power between +them and the nationals, property or flag of the riparian State itself or +of the most favored nation.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, German vessels shall not be entitled to carry passengers +or goods by regular services between the ports of any Allied or +Associated Power, without special authority from such power.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 333.</strong>—Where such charges are not precluded by any existing +conventions, charges varying on different sections of a river may be +levied on vessels using the navigable channels or their approaches, +provided that they are intended solely to cover equitably the cost of +maintaining in a navigable condition, or of improving, the river and its +approaches, or to meet expenditure incurred in the interests of +navigation. The schedule of such charges shall be calculated on the +basis of such expenditure and shall be posted up in the ports. These +charges shall be levied in such a manner as to render any detailed +examination of cargoes unnecessary, except in cases of suspected fraud +or contravention.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 334.</strong>—The transit of vessels, passengers, and goods on +these waterways shall + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> + +be effected in accordance with the general conditions prescribed for +transit in Section I., above.</p> + +<p>When the two banks of an international river are within the same State, +goods in transit may be placed under seal or in the custody of customs +agents. When the river forms a frontier, goods and passengers in transit +shall be exempt from all customs formalities; the loading and unloading +of goods, and the embarkation and disembarkation of passengers, shall +only take place in the ports specified by the riparian State.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 335.</strong>—No dues of any kind other than those provided for in +the present part shall be levied along the course or at the mouth of +these rivers.</p> + +<p>This provision shall not prevent the fixing by the riparian States of +customs, local octroi, or consumption duties, or the creation of +reasonable and uniform charges levied in the ports, in accordance with +public tariffs, for the use of cranes, elevators, quays, warehouses, +&c.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 336.</strong>—In default of any special organization for carrying +out the works connected with the upkeep and improvement of the +international portion of a navigable system, each riparian State shall +be bound to take suitable measures to remove any obstacle or danger to +navigation and to insure the maintenance of good conditions of +navigation.</p> + +<p>If a State neglects to comply with this obligation any riparian State, +or any State represented on the International Commission, if there is +one, may appeal to the tribunal instituted for this purpose by the +League of Nations.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 337.</strong>—The same procedure shall be followed in the case of a +riparian State undertaking any works of a nature to impede navigation in +the international section. The tribunal mentioned in the preceding +article shall be entitled to enforce the suspension or suppression of +such works, making due allowance in its decisions for all rights in +connection with irrigation, waterpower, fisheries, and other national +interests, which, with the consent of all the riparian States or of all +the States represented on the International Commission, if there be one, +shall be given priority over the requirements of navigation.</p> + +<p>Appeal to the tribunal of the League of Nations does not require the +suspension of the works.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 338.</strong>—The régime set out in Articles 332 to 337 +above shall be superseded by one to be laid down in a General Convention +drawn up by the Allied and Associated Powers, and approved by the League +of Nations, relating to the waterways recognized in such Convention as +having an international character. This Convention shall apply in +particular to the whole or part of the above-mentioned river systems of +the Elbe (Labe), the Oder (Odra), the Niemen (Russtrom-Memel-Niemen), +and the Danube, and such other parts of these river systems as may be +covered by a general definition.</p> + +<p>Germany undertakes, in accordance with the provisions of Article 379, to +adhere to the said General Convention as well as to all projects +prepared in accordance with Article 343 below for the revision of +existing international agreements and regulations.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 339.</strong>—Germany shall cede to the Allied and Associated +Powers concerned, within a maximum period of three months from the date +on which notification shall be given her, a proportion of the tugs and +vessels remaining registered in the ports of the river systems referred +to in Article 331 after the deduction of those surrendered by way of +restitution or reparation. Germany shall in the same way cede material +of all kinds necessary to the Allied and Associated Powers concerned for +the utilization of those river systems.</p> + +<p>The number of the tugs and boats and the amount of the material so +ceded, and their distribution, shall be determined by an arbitrator or +arbitrators nominated by the United States of America, due regard being +had to the legitimate needs of the parties concerned, and particularly +to the shipping traffic during the five years preceding the war.</p> + +<p>All craft so ceded shall be provided with their fittings and gear, shall +be in a good state of repair and in condition to carry goods, and shall +be selected from among those most recently built.</p> + +<p>The cessions provided for in the present article shall entail a credit +of which the total amount, settled in a lump sum by the arbitrator or +arbitrators, shall not in any case exceed the value of the capital +expended in the initial establishment of the material ceded, and shall +be set off against the total sums due from Germany; in consequence, the +indemnification of the proprietors shall be a matter for Germany to deal +with.</p> + +<p class="center">(2) <em>Special Clauses Relating to the Elbe, the Oder, and the Niemen +(Russtrom-Memel-Niemen)</em></p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 340.</strong>—The Elbe (Labe) shall be placed under the +administration of an International Commission which shall comprise:</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li>4 representatives of the German States bordering on the river;</li> +<li>2 representatives of the Czechoslovak State;</li> +<li>1 representative of Great Britain;</li> +<li>1 representative of France;</li> +<li>1 representative of Italy;</li> +<li>1 representative of Belgium;</li> +</ul> + +<p>Whatever be the number of members present, each delegation shall have +the right to record a number of votes equal to the number of +representatives allotted to it.</p> + +<p>If certain of these representatives cannot be appointed at the time of +the coming into force of the present treaty, the decisions of the +commission shall nevertheless be valid.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 341.</strong>—The Oder (Odra) shall be placed under the +administration of an International Commission, which shall comprise:</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li>1 representative of Poland;</li> +<li>3 representatives of Prussia;</li> +<li>1 representative of the Czechoslovak State;</li> +<li>1 representative of Great Britain;</li> +<li>1 representative of France;</li> +<li>1 representative of Denmark;</li> +<li>1 representative of Sweden.</li> +</ul> + +<p>If certain of these representatives cannot be appointed at the time of +the coming into force of the present treaty, the decisions of the +commission shall nevertheless be valid.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 342.</strong>—On a request being made to the League of Nations by +any riparian State, the Niemen (Russtrom-Memel-Niemen) shall be placed +under the administration of an International Commission, which shall +comprise one representative of each riparian State, and three +representatives of other States specified by the League of Nations.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 343.</strong>—The International Commissions referred to in Articles +340 and 341 shall meet within three months of the date of the coming +into force of the present treaty, The + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> + +International Commission referred to in Article 342 shall meet within +three months from the date of the request made by a riparian State. Each +of these commissions shall proceed immediately to prepare a project for +the revision of the existing international agreements and regulations, +drawn up in conformity with the General Convention referred to in +Article 338, should such convention have been already concluded. In the +absence of such convention, the project for revision shall be in +conformity with the principles of Articles 332 to 337, above.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 344.</strong>—The projects referred to in the preceding article +shall, <span lang="la">inter alia</span>:</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>Designate the headquarters of the International Commission, and +prescribe the manner in which its President is to be nominated;</p></li> + +<li><p>Specify the extent of the commission's powers, particularly in +regard to the execution of works of maintenance, control, and +improvement on the river system, the financial régime the fixing +and collection of charges, and regulations for navigation;</p></li> + +<li><p>Define the sections of the river or its tributaries to which the +international régime shall be applied.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 345.</strong>—The international agreements and regulations at +present governing the navigation of the Elbe (Labe), the Oder (Odra), +and the Niemen (Russtrom-Memel-Niemen) shall be provisionally maintained +in force until the ratification of the above-mentioned projects. +Nevertheless, in all cases where such agreements and regulations in +force are in conflict with the provisions of Articles 332 to 337 above, +or of the General Convention to be concluded, the latter provisions +shall prevail.</p> + +<h3>(3) <em>Special Clauses Relating to the Danube</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 346.</strong>—The European Commission of the Danube reassumes the +powers it possessed before the war. Nevertheless, as a provisional +measure, only representatives of Great Britain, France, Italy, and +Rumania shall constitute this commission.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 347.</strong>—From the point where the competence of the European +Commission ceases, the Danube system referred to in Article 331 shall be +placed under the administration of an international commission composed +as follows:</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li>2 representatives of German riparian States;</li> +<li>1 representative of each other riparian State;</li> +<li>1 representative of each non-riparian State represented in the future +on the European Commission of the Danube.</li> +</ul> + +<p>If certain of these representatives cannot be appointed at the time of +the coming into force of the present treaty, the decisions of the +commission shall nevertheless be valid.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 348.</strong>—The International Commission provided for in the +preceding article shall meet as soon as possible after the coming into +force of the present treaty, and shall undertake provisionally the +administration of the river in conformity with the provisions of +Articles 332 to 337, until such time as a definitive statute regarding +the Danube is concluded by the powers nominated by the Allied and +Associated Powers.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 349.</strong>—Germany agrees to accept the régime which +shall be laid down for the Danube by a conference of the powers +nominated by the Allied and Associated Powers, which shall meet within +one year after the coming into force of the present treaty, and at which +German representatives may be present.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 350.</strong>—The mandate given by Article 57 of the Treaty of +Berlin of the 13th July, 1878, to Austria-Hungary, and transferred by +her to Hungary, to carry out works at the Iron Gates, is abrogated. The +commission intrusted with the administration of this part of the river +shall lay down provisions for the settlement of accounts subject to the +financial provisions of the present treaty. Charges which may be +necessary shall in no case be levied by Hungary.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 351.</strong>—Should the Czechoslovak State, the Serb-Croat-Slovene +State, or Rumania, with the authorization of or under mandate from the +International Commission undertake maintenance, improvement, weir or +other works on a part of the river system which forms a frontier, these +States shall enjoy on the opposite bank, and also on the part of the bed +which is outside their territory, all necessary facilities for the +survey, execution and maintenance of such works.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 352.</strong>—Germany shall be obliged to make to the European +Commission of the Danube all restitutions, reparations, and indemnities +for damages inflicted on the commission during the war.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 353.</strong>—Should a deep-draught Rhine-Danube navigable waterway +be constructed, Germany undertakes to apply thereto the régime +prescribed in Articles 332 to 338.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.—CLAUSES RELATING TO THE RHINE AND THE MOSELLE</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLES 354.</strong>—As from the coming into force of the present treaty, +the Convention of Mannheim of 17th October, 1868, together with the +Final Protocol thereof, shall continue to govern navigation on the +Rhine, subject to the conditions hereinafter laid down.</p> + +<p>In the event of any provisions of the said Convention being in conflict +with those laid down by the General Convention referred to in Article +338 (which shall apply to the Rhine), the provisions of the General +Convention shall prevail.</p> + +<p>Within a maximum period of six months from the coming into force of the +present treaty, the Central Commission referred to in Article 355 shall +meet to draw up a project of revision of the Convention of Mannheim. +This project shall be drawn up in harmony with the provisions of the +General Convention referred to above, should this have been concluded by +that time, and shall be submitted to the powers represented on the +Central Commission. Germany hereby agrees to adhere to the project so +drawn up.</p> + +<p>Further, the modifications set out in the following articles shall +immediately be made in the Convention of Mannheim.</p> + +<p>The Allied and Associated Powers reserve to themselves the right to +arrive at an understanding in this connection with Holland, and Germany +hereby agrees to accede if required to any such understanding.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 355.</strong>—The Central Commission provided for in the Convention +of Mannheim shall consist of nineteen members, viz.:</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li>Two representatives of the Netherlands;</li> +<li>Two representatives of Switzerland;</li> +<li>Four representatives of German riparian States;</li> +<li>Four representatives of France, which in addition shall appoint the President of the Commission;</li> +<li>Two representatives of Great Britain;</li> +<li>Two representatives of Italy;</li> +<li>Two representatives of Belgium.</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span></p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-251.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-251thumb.jpg" width="400" height="264" + alt="The White Flags That Meant Defeat for the German + Cause and Marked the Beginning of the End of the War" + title="The White Flags That Meant Defeat for the German + Cause and Marked the Beginning of the End of the War" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Drawing by Georges Scott in L'illustration</p> + <p class="caption">The White Flags That Meant Defeat for the German + Cause and Marked the Beginning of the End of the War</p> + <p class="description">German delegates on their way to the + armistice conference with Marshal Foch + reaching the first French lines near + Haudroy, November 7, 1918.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-251.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p> + +<p>The headquarters of the Central Commission shall be at Strasbourg.</p> + +<p>Whatever be the number of members present, each delegation shall have +the right to record a number of votes equal to the number of +representatives allotted to it.</p> + +<p>If certain of these representatives cannot be appointed at the time of +the coming into force of the present treaty, the decisions of the +Commission shall nevertheless be valid.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 356.</strong>—Vessels of all nations, and their cargoes, shall have +the same rights and privileges as those which are granted to vessels +belonging to the Rhine navigation, and to their cargoes.</p> + +<p>None of the provisions contained in Articles 15 to 20 and 26 of the +above-mentioned Convention of Mannheim, in Article 4 of the Final +Protocol thereof, or in later Conventions, shall impede the free +navigation of vessels and crews of all nations on the Rhine and on +waterways to which such Conventions apply, subject to compliance with +the regulations concerning pilotage and other police measures drawn up +by the Central Commission.</p> + +<p>The provisions of Article 22 of the Convention of Mannheim and of +Article 5 of the Final Protocol thereof shall be applied only to vessels +registered on the Rhine. The Central Commission shall decide on the +steps to be taken to insure that other vessels satisfy the conditions of +the general regulations applying to navigation on the Rhine.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 357.</strong>—Within a maximum period of three months from the date +on which notification shall be given Germany shall cede to France tugs +and vessels, from among those remaining registered in German Rhine ports +after the deduction of those surrendered by way of restitution or +reparation, or shares in German Rhine navigation companies.</p> + +<p>When vessels and tugs are ceded, such vessels and tugs, together with +their fittings and gear, shall be in good state of repair, shall be in +condition to carry on commercial traffic on the Rhine, and shall be +selected from among those most recently built.</p> + +<p>The same procedure shall be followed in the matter of the cession by +Germany to France of—</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>the installations, berthing, and anchorage accommodation, platforms, +docks, warehouses, plant, &c., which German subjects or German +companies owned on the 1st August, 1914, in the port of Rotterdam, and</p></li> + +<li><p>the shares or interests which Germany or German nationals possessed in +such installations at the same date.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p>The amount and specifications of such cessions shall be determined +within one year of the coming into force of the present treaty by an +arbitrator or arbitrators appointed by the United States of America, due +regard being had to the legitimate needs of the parties concerned.</p> + +<p>The cessions provided for in the present article shall entail a credit +of which the total amount, settled in a lump sum by the arbitrator, or +arbitrators mentioned above, shall not in any case exceed the value of +the capital expended in the initial establishment of the ceded material +and installations, and shall be set off against the total sums due from +Germany; in consequence, the indemnification of the proprietors shall be +a matter for Germany to deal with.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 358.</strong>—Subject to the obligation to comply with the +provisions of the Convention of Mannheim or of the convention which may +be substituted therefor, and to the stipulations of the present treaty, +France shall have on the whole course of the Rhine included between the +two extreme points of the French frontiers—</p> + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>the right to take water from the Rhine to feed navigation and +irrigation canals (constructed or to be constructed) or for any other +purpose, and to execute on the German bank all works necessary for the +exercise of this right;</p></li> + +<li><p>the exclusive right to the power derived from works of regulation on +the river, subject to the payment to Germany of the value of half the +power actually produced, this payment, which will take into account the +cost of the works necessary for producing the power, being made either +in money or in power and in default of agreement being determined by +arbitration. For this purpose France alone shall have the right to carry +out in this part of the river all works of regulation (weirs or other +works) which she may consider necessary for the production of power. +Similarly, the right of taking water from the Rhine is accorded to +Belgium to feed the Rhine-Meuse navigable waterway provided for below.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p>The exercise of the rights mentioned under (a) and (b) of the present +article shall not interfere with navigability nor reduce the facilities +for navigation, either in the bed of the Rhine or in the derivations +which may be substituted therefor, nor shall it involve any increase in +the tolls formerly levied under the convention in force. All proposed +schemes shall be laid before the Central Commission in order that the +commission may assure itself that these conditions are complied with.</p> + +<p>To insure the proper and faithful execution of the provisions contained +in (a) and (b) above, Germany:</p> + +<ol class="roman"> +<li><p>binds herself not to undertake or to allow the construction of any +lateral canal or any derivation on the right bank of the river opposite +the French frontiers;</p></li> + +<li><p>recognizes the possession by France of the right of support on and +the right of way over all lands situated on the right bank which may be +required in order to survey, to build, and to operate weirs which +France, with the consent of the Central Commission, may subsequently +decide to establish. In accordance with such consent, France shall be +entitled to decide upon and fix the limits of the necessary sites, and +she shall be permitted to occupy such lands after a period of two months +after simple notification, subject to the payment by her to Germany of +indemnities of which the total amount shall be fixed by the Central +Commission. Germany shall make it her business to indemnify the +proprietors whose property will be burdened with such servitudes or +permanently occupied by the works.</p> + +<p>Should Switzerland so demand, and if the Central Commission approves, +the same rights shall be accorded to Switzerland for the part of the +river forming her frontier with other riparian States;</p></li> + +<li><p>shall hand over to the French Government, during the month +following the coming into force of the present treaty, all projects, +designs, drafts of concessions and of specifications concerning the +regulation of the Rhine for any purpose whatever which have been drawn +up or received by the Governments of Alsace-Lorraine or of the Grand +Duchy of Baden.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 359.</strong>—Subject to the preceding provisions, no works shall +be carried out in the bed or on either bank of the Rhine where it forms +the boundary of France and Germany without the previous approval of the +Central Commission or of its agents.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 360.</strong>—France reserves the option of substituting herself as +regards the rights and obligations resulting from agreements arrived at +between the Government of Alsace-Lorraine and the Grand Duchy of Baden +concerning the works to be carried out on the Rhine; she may also +denounce such agreements within a term of five years dating from the +coming into force of the present treaty.</p> + +<p>France shall also have the option of causing works to be carried out +which may be recognized as necessary by the Central Commission for the +upkeep or improvement of the navigability of the Rhine above Mannheim.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 361.</strong>—Should Belgium, within a period of 25 years from the +coming into force of the present treaty, decide to create a deep-draught +Rhine-Meuse navigable waterway, in the region of Ruhrort, Germany shall +be bound to construct, in accordance with plans to be communicated to +her by the Belgian Government, after agreement with the Central +Commission, the portion of this navigable waterway situated within her +territory.</p> + +<p>The Belgian Government shall, for this purpose, have the right to carry +out on the ground all necessary surveys.</p> + +<p>Should Germany fail to carry out all or part of these works, the Central +Commission shall be entitled to carry them out instead; and, for this +purpose, the commission may decide upon and fix the limits of the +necessary sites and occupy the ground after a period of two months after +simple notification, subject to the payment of indemnities to be fixed +by it and paid by Germany.</p> + +<p>This navigable waterway shall be placed under the same administrative +régime as the Rhine itself, and the division of the cost of +initial construction, including the above indemnities, among the States +crossed thereby shall be made by the Central Commission.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 362.</strong>—Germany hereby agrees to offer no objection to any +proposals of the Central Rhine Commission for extending its +jurisdiction:</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>to the Moselle below the Franco-Luxemburg frontier down to the +Rhine, subject to the consent of Luxemburg;</p></li> + +<li><p>to the Rhine above Basle up to the Lake of Constance, subject to the +consent of Switzerland;</p></li> + +<li><p>to the lateral canals and channels which may be established either +to duplicate or to improve naturally navigable sections of the Rhine or +the Moselle, or to connect two naturally navigable sections of these +rivers, and also any other parts of the Rhine River system which may be +covered by the General Convention provided for in Article 338 above.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>CHAPTER V.—CLAUSES GIVING TO THE CZECHO-SLOVAK STATE THE USE OF +NORTHERN PORTS</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 363.</strong>—In the ports of Hamburg and Stettin, Germany shall +lease to the Czechoslovak State, for a period of ninety-nine years, +areas which shall be placed under the general régime of free +zones and shall be used for the direct transit of goods coming from or +going to that State.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 364.</strong>—The delimitation of these areas, and their equipment, +their exploitation, and in general all conditions for their utilization, +including the amount of the rental, shall be decided by a commission +consisting of one delegate of Germany, one delegate of the Czechoslovak +State and one delegate of Great Britain. These conditions shall be +susceptible of revision every ten years in the same manner.</p> + +<p>Germany declares in advance that she will adhere to the decisions so +taken.</p> + +<h3>SECTION III.—<em>Railways</em></h3> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.—CLAUSES RELATING TO INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORT</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 365.</strong>—Goods coming from the territories of the Allied and +Associated Powers, and going to Germany, or in transit through Germany +from or to the territories of the Allied and Associated Powers, shall +enjoy on the German railways as regards charges to be collected (rebates +and drawbacks being taken into account) facilities, and all other +matters, the most favorable treatment applied to goods of the same kind +carried on any German lines, either in internal traffic, or for export, +import or in transit, under similar conditions of transport, for example +as regards length of route. The same rule shall be applied, on the +request of one or more of the Allied and Associated Powers, to goods +specially designated by such power or powers coming from Germany and +going to their territories.</p> + +<p>International tariffs established in accordance with the rates referred +to in the preceding paragraph and involving through waybills shall be +established when one of the Allied and Associated Powers shall require +it from Germany.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 366.</strong>—From the coming into force of the present treaty the +high contracting parties shall renew, in so far as concerns them and +under the reserves indicated in the second paragraph of the present +Article, the conventions and arrangements signed at Berne on the 14th of +October, 1890, the 20th September, 1893, the 16th July, 1895, the 16th +June, 1898, and the 19th September, 1906, regarding the transportation +of goods by rail.</p> + +<p>If within five years from the date of the coming into force of the +present treaty a new convention for the transportation of passengers, +luggage and goods by rail shall have been concluded to replace the Berne +convention of the 14th October, 1890, and the subsequent additions +referred to above, this new convention and the supplementary provisions +for international transport by rail which may be based on it shall bind +Germany even if she shall have refused to take part in the preparation +of the convention or to subscribe to it. Until a new convention shall +have been concluded, Germany shall conform to the provisions of the +Berne Convention and the subsequent additions referred to above, and to +the current supplementary provisions.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 367.</strong>—Germany shall be bound to co-operate in the +establishment of through ticket services (for passengers and their +luggage) which shall be required by any of the Allied and Associated +Powers to insure their communication by rail with each other and with +all other countries by transit across the territories of Germany; in +particular Germany shall, for this purpose, accept trains and carriages +coming from the territories of the Allied and Associated Powers and +shall forward them with a speed at least equal to that of her best + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> + +long-distance trains on the same lines. The rates applicable to such +through services shall not in any case be higher than the rates +collected on German internal services for the same distance, under the +same conditions of speed and comfort.</p> + +<p>The tariffs applicable under the same conditions of speed and comfort to +the transportation of emigrants going to or coming from ports of the +Allied and Associated Powers and using the German railways, shall not be +at a higher kilometric rate than the most favorable tariffs (drawbacks +and rebates being taken into account) enjoyed on the said railways by +emigrants going to or coming from any other ports.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 368.</strong>—Germany shall not apply specially to such through +services or to the transportation of emigrants going to or coming from +the ports of the Allied and Associated Powers, any technical, fiscal or +administrative measures, such as measures of customs examination, +general police, sanitary police, and control, the result of which would +be to impede or delay such services.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 369.</strong>—In case of transport partly by rail and partly by +internal navigation, with or without through way-bill, the preceding +Articles shall apply to the part of the journey performed by rail.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.—ROLLING STOCK</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 370.</strong>—Germany undertakes that German wagons shall be fitted +with apparatus allowing:</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>of their inclusion in goods trains on the lines such of the Allied +and Associated Powers as are parties to the Berne Convention of May 15, +1886, as modified on May 18, 1907, without hampering the action of the +continuous brake which may be adopted in such countries within ten years +of the coming into force of the present treaty, and</p></li> + +<li><p>of the acceptance of wagons of such countries in all goods trains on +the German lines.</p> + +<p>The rolling stock of the Allied and Associated Powers shall enjoy on the +German lines the same treatment as German rolling stock as regards +movement, upkeep and repairs.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.—CESSIONS OF RAILWAY LINES</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 371.</strong>—Subject to any special provisions concerning the +cession of ports, waterways and railways situated in the territories +over which Germany abandons her sovereignty, and to the financial +conditions relating to the concessionaires and the pensioning of the +personnel, the cession of railways will take place under the following +conditions:</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>The works and installations of all the railroads shall be handed over +complete and in good condition.</p></li> + +<li><p>When a railway system possessing its own rolling-stock is handed over +in its entirety by Germany to one of the Allied and Associated Powers, +such stock shall be handed over complete, in accordance with the last +inventory before November 11th, 1918, and in a normal state of upkeep.</p></li> + +<li><p>As regards <del>line</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads line">lines</ins> without any special rolling-stock, commissions of +experts designated by the Allied and Associated Powers, on which Germany +shall be represented, shall fix the proportion of the stock existing on +the system to which those lines belong to be handed over. These +commissions shall have regard to the remount of material registered on +these lines in the last inventory before November 11th, 1918, the length +of track (sidings included), and the nature and amount of traffic. These +commissions shall also specify the locomotives, carriages and wagons to +be handed over in each case; they shall decide upon the conditions of +their acceptance, and shall make the provisional arrangements necessary +to insure their repair in German workshops.</p></li> + +<li><p>Stocks of stores, fittings and plant shall be handed over under the +same conditions as the rolling-stock.</p> + +<p>The provisions of paragraphs 3 and 4 above shall be applied to the lines +of former Russian Poland converted by Germany to the German gauge, such +lines being regarded as detached from the Prussian State System.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.—PROVISIONS RELATING TO CERTAIN RAILWAY LINES</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 372.</strong>—When as a result of the fixing of new frontiers a +railway connection between two parts of the same country crosses another +country, or a branch line from one country has its terminus in another, +the conditions of working, if not specifically provided for in the +present treaty, shall be laid down in a convention between the railway +administrations concerned. If the administrations cannot come to an +agreement as to the terms of such convention, the points of difference +shall be decided by commissions of experts composed as provided in the +preceding Article.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 373.</strong>—Within a period of five years from the coming into +force of the present treaty the Czechoslovak State may require the +construction of a railway line in German territory between the stations +of Schlauney and Nachod. The cost of construction shall be borne by the +Czechoslovak State.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 374.</strong>—Germany undertakes to accept, within ten years of the +coming into force of the present treaty, on request being made by the +Swiss Government after agreement with the Italian Government, the +denunciation of the International Convention of the 13th October, 1909, +relative to the St. Gothard railway. In the absence of agreement as to +the conditions of such denunciation, Germany hereby agrees to accept the +decision of an arbitrator designated by the United States of America.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER V.—TRANSITORY PROVISIONS</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 375.</strong>—Germany shall carry out the instructions given her, +in regard to transport, by an authorized body acting on behalf of the +Allied and Associated Powers:</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>For the carriage of troops under the provisions of the present +treaty, and of material, ammunition and supplies for army use.</p></li> + +<li><p>As a temporary measure, for the transportation of supplies for +certain regions, as well as for the restoration, as rapidly as possible, +of the normal conditions of transport, and for the organization of +postal and telegraphic services.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>SECTION IV.—<em>Disputes and Revision of Permanent Clauses</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 376.</strong>—Disputes which may arise between interested powers +with regard to the interpretation and application of the preceding +articles shall be settled as provided by the League of Nations.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span></p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 377.</strong>—At any time the League of Nations may recommend the +revision of such of these Articles as relate to a permanent +administrative régime.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 378.</strong>—The stipulations in Articles 321 to 330, 332, 365, +and 367 to 369 shall be subject to revision by the Council of the League +of Nations at any time after five years from the coming into force of +the present treaty.</p> + +<p>Failing such revision, no Allied or Associated Power can claim after the +expiration of the above period of five years the benefit of any of the +stipulations in the Articles enumerated above on behalf of any portion +of its territories in which reciprocity is not accorded in respect of +such stipulations. The period of five years during which reciprocity +cannot be demanded may be prolonged by the Council of the League of +Nations.</p> + +<h3>SECTION V.—<em>Special Provision</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 379.</strong>—Without prejudice to the special obligations imposed +on her by the present treaty for the benefit of the Allied and +Associated Powers, Germany undertakes to adhere to any general +conventions regarding the international régime of transit, +waterways, ports or railways which may be concluded by the Allied and +Associated Powers, with the approval of the League of Nations, within +five years of the coming into force of the present treaty.</p> + +<h3>SECTION VI.—<em>Clauses Relating to the Kiel Canal</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 380.</strong>—The Kiel Canal and its approaches shall be maintained +free and open to the vessels of commerce and of war of all nations at +peace with Germany on terms of entire equality.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 381.</strong>—The nationals, property, and vessels of all powers +shall, in respect to charges, facilities, and in all other respects, be +treated on a footing of perfect equality in the use of the canal, no +distinction being made to the detriment of nationals, property, and +vessels of any power between them and the nationals, property, and +vessels of Germany or of the most favored nations.</p> + +<p>No impediment shall be placed on the movement of persons or vessels +other than those arising out of police, customs, sanitary, emigration or +immigration regulations, and those relating to the import or export of +prohibited goods. Such regulations must be reasonable and uniform and +must not unnecessarily impede traffic.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 382.</strong>—Only such charges may be levied on vessels using the +canal or its approaches as are intended to cover in an equitable manner +the cost of maintaining in a navigable condition, or if improving, the +canal or its approaches, or to meet expenses incurred in the interests +of navigation. The schedule of such charged shall be calculated on the +basis of such expenses, and shall be posted up in the ports.</p> + +<p>These charges shall be levied in such a manner as to render any detailed +examination of cargoes unnecessary, except in the case of suspected +fraud or contravention.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 383.</strong>—Goods in transit may be placed under seal or in the +custody of customs agents; the loading and unloading of goods, and the +embarkation and disembarkation of passengers, shall only take place in +the ports specified by Germany.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 384.</strong>—No charge of any kind other than those provided for +in the present treaty shall be levied along the course or at the +approaches of the Kiel Canal.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 385.</strong>—Germany shall be bound to take suitable measures to +remove any obstacle or danger to navigation, and to insure the +maintenance of good conditions of navigation. She shall not undertake +any works of a nature to impede navigation on the canal or its +approaches.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 386.</strong>—In the event of violation of any of the conditions of +Articles 380 to 386, or of disputes as to the interpretation of these +articles, any interested power can appeal to the jurisdiction instituted +for the purpose by the League of Nations.</p> + +<p>In order to avoid reference of small questions to the League of Nations, +Germany will establish a local authority at Kiel qualified to deal with +disputes in the first instance and to give satisfaction so far as +possible to complaints which may be presented through the consular +representatives of the interested powers.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PART XIII<br /> +Labor</h2> + +<h3>SECTION I.—<em>Organization of Labor</em></h3> + +<p>Whereas the League of Nations has for its object the establishment of +universal peace and such a peace can be established only if it is based +upon social justice;</p> + +<p>And whereas conditions of labor exist involving such injustice, +hardship, and privation to large numbers of people as to produce unrest +so great that the peace and harmony of the world are imperiled; and an +improvement of those conditions is urgently required: as, for example, +by the regulations of the hours of work, including the establishment of +a maximum working day and week, the regulation of the labor supply, the +prevention of unemployment, the provision of an adequate living wage, +the protection of the worker against sickness, disease, and injury +arising out of his employment, the protection of the children, young +persons, and women, provision for old age and injury, protection of the +interests of workers when employed in countries other than their own, +recognition of the principle of freedom of association, the organization +of vocational and technical education, and other measures:</p> + +<p>Whereas also the failure of any nation to adopt humane conditions of +labor is an obstacle in the way of other nations which desire to improve +the conditions in their own countries;</p> + +<p>The high contracting parties, moved by sentiments of justice and +humanity as well as by the desire to secure the permanent peace of the +world, agree to the following.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.—ORGANIZATION</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 387.</strong>—A permanent organization is hereby established for +the promotion of the objects set forth in the preamble.</p> + +<p>The original members of the League of Nations shall be the original +members of this organization, and hereafter membership of the League of +Nations shall carry with it membership of the said organization.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 388.</strong>—The permanent organization shall consist of:</p> + +<p>(i) a General Conference of Representatives of the Members, and,</p> + +<p>(ii) an International Labor Office controlled by the governing body +described in Article 393.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 389.</strong>—The meetings of the General Conference of +Representatives of the Members shall be held from time to time as +occasion may require, and at least once in every year. It shall be +composed of four representatives of each of the members, of whom two +shall be Government delegates and the two others shall be delegates +representing respectively the employers and the workpeople of each of +the members.</p> + +<p>Each delegate may be accompanied by advisers, who shall not exceed two +in number for each item on the agenda of the meeting. When questions +specially affecting women are to be considered by the conference, one at +least of the advisers should be a woman.</p> + +<p>The members undertake to nominate non-Government delegates and advisers +chosen in agreement with the industrial organizations, if such +organizations exist, which are most representative of employers or +workpeople, as the case may be, in their respective countries.</p> + +<p>Advisers shall not speak except on a request made by the delegate whom +they accompany and by special authorization of the President of the +conference, and may not vote.</p> + +<p>A delegate may by notice in writing addressed to the President appoint +one of his advisers to act as his deputy, and the adviser, while so +acting, shall be allowed to speak and vote.</p> + +<p>The names of the delegates and their advisers will be communicated to +the International Labor Office by the Government of each of the members.</p> + +<p>The credentials of delegates and their advisers shall be subject to +scrutiny by the conference, which may, by two-thirds of the votes cast +by the delegates present, refuse to admit any delegate or adviser whom +it deems not to have been nominated in accordance with this article.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 390.</strong>—Every delegate shall be entitled to vote individually +on all matters which are taken into consideration by the conference.</p> + +<p>If one of the members fails to nominate one of the non-Government +delegates whom it is entitled to nominate, the other non-Government +delegates shall be allowed to sit and speak at the conference, but not +to vote.</p> + +<p>If, in accordance with Article 389, the conference refuses admission to +a delegate of one of the members, the provisions of the present article +shall apply as if that delegate had not been nominated.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 391.</strong>—The meetings of the conference shall be held at the +seat of the League of Nations, or at such other place as may be decided +by the conference at a previous meeting by two-thirds of the votes cast +by the delegates present.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 392.</strong>—The International Labor Office shall be established +at the seat of the League of Nations as part of the organization of the +League.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 393.</strong>—The International Labor Office shall be under the +control of a governing body consisting of twenty-four persons, appointed +in accordance with the following provisions:</p> + +<p>The governing body of the International Labor Office shall be +constituted as follows:</p> + +<p>Twelve persons representing the Governments:</p> + +<p>Six persons elected by the delegates to the conference representing the +employers:</p> + +<p>Six persons elected by the delegates to the conference representing the +workers.</p> + +<p>Of the twelve persons representing the Governments, eight shall be +nominated by the members which are of the chief industrial importance, +and four shall be nominated by the members selected for the purpose by +the Government delegates to the conference, excluding the delegates of +the eight members mentioned above.</p> + +<p>Any question as to which are the members of the chief industrial +importance shall be decided by the council of the League of Nations.</p> + +<p>The period of office of the members of the governing body will be three +years. The method of filling vacancies and other similar questions may +be determined by the governing body, subject to the approval of the +conference.</p> + +<p>The governing body shall, from time to time, elect one of its members to +act as its Chairman, shall regulate its own procedure, and shall fix its +own times of meeting. A special meeting shall be held if a written +request to that effect is made by at least ten members of the governing +body.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 394.</strong>—There shall be a Director of the International Labor +Office, who shall be appointed by the governing body, and, subject to +the instructions of the Governing Body, shall be responsible for the +efficient conduct of the International Labor Office and for such other +duties as may be assigned to him.</p> + +<p>The Director or his deputy shall attend all meetings of the governing +body.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 395.</strong>—The staff of the International Labor Office shall be +appointed by the Director, who shall, as far as is possible with due +regard to the efficiency of the work of the Office, select persons of +different nationalities. A certain number of these persons shall be +women.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 396.</strong>—The functions of the International Labor Office shall +include the collection and distribution of information on all subjects +relating to the international adjustment of conditions of industrial +life and labor, and particularly the examination of subjects which it is +proposed to bring before the conference with a view to the conclusion of +international conventions, and the conduct of such special +investigations as may be ordered by the conference.</p> + +<p>It will prepare the agenda for the meetings of the conference.</p> + +<p>It will carry out the duties required of it by the provisions of this +part of the present treaty in connection with international disputes.</p> + +<p>It will edit and publish in French and English, and in such other +languages as the governing body may think desirable, a periodical paper +dealing with problems of industry and employment of international +interest.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span></p> + +<p>Generally, in addition to the functions set out in this Article, it +shall have such other powers and duties as may be assigned to it by the +conference.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 397.</strong>—The Government departments of any of the members +which deal with questions of industry and employment may communicate +directly with the Director through the representative of their +Government on the governing body of the International Labor Office, or, +failing any such representative, through such other qualified official +as the Government may nominate for the purpose.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 398.</strong>—The International Labor Office shall be entitled to +the assistance of the Secretary-General of the League of Nations in any +matter in which it can be given.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 399.</strong>—Each of the members will pay the traveling and +subsistence expenses of its delegates and their advisers and of its +representatives attending the meetings of the conference or governing +body, as the case may be.</p> + +<p>All the other expenses of the International Labor Office and of the +meetings of the conference or governing body shall be paid to the +Director by the Secretary-General of the League of Nations out of the +general funds of the League.</p> + +<p>The Director shall be responsible to the Secretary-General of the League +for the proper expenditure of all moneys paid to him in pursuance of +this Article.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.—PROCEDURE</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 400.</strong>—The agenda of all meetings of the conference will be +settled by the governing body, who shall consider any suggestion as to +the agenda that may be made by the Government of any of the members or +by any representative organization recognized for the purpose of Article +389.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 401.</strong>—The Director shall act as the Secretary of the +Conference, and shall transmit the agenda so as to reach the members +four months before the meeting of the conference, and, through them, the +non-Government delegates when appointed.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 402.</strong>—Any of the Governments of the members may formally +object to the inclusion of any item or items in the agenda. The grounds +for such objection shall be set forth in a reasoned statement addressed +to the Director, who shall circulate it to all the members of the +permanent organization.</p> + +<p>Items to which such objection has been made shall not, however, be +excluded from the agenda if at the conference a majority of two-thirds +of the votes cast by delegates present is in favor of considering them.</p> + +<p>If the conference decides (otherwise than under the preceding paragraph) +by two-thirds of the votes cast by the delegates present that any +subject shall be considered by the conference, that subject shall be +included in the agenda for the following meeting.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 403.</strong>—The conference shall regulate its own procedure, +shall elect its own President, and may appoint committees to consider +and report on any matter.</p> + +<p>Except as otherwise expressly provided in this part of the present +treaty, all matters shall be decided by a simple majority of the votes +cast by the delegates present.</p> + +<p>The voting is void unless the total number of votes cast is equal to +half the number of the delegates attending the conference.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 404.</strong>—The conference may add to any committees which it +appoints technical experts, who shall be assessors without power to +vote.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 405.</strong>—When the conference has decided on the adoption of +proposals with regard to an item in the agenda, it will rest with the +conference to determine whether these proposals should take the form: +(a) of a recommendation to be submitted to the members for consideration +with a view to effect being given to it by national legislation or +otherwise, or (b) of a draft international convention for ratification +by the members.</p> + +<p>In either case a majority of two-thirds of the votes cast by the +delegates present shall be necessary on the final vote for the adoption +of the recommendation or draft convention, as the case may be, by the +conference.</p> + +<p>In framing any recommendation or draft convention of general application +the conference shall have due regard to those countries in which +climatic conditions, the imperfect development of industrial +organization or other special circumstances make the industrial +conditions substantially different and shall suggest the modifications, +if any, which it considers may be required to meet the case of such +countries.</p> + +<p>A copy of the recommendation or draft convention shall be authenticated +by the signature of the President of the conference and of the Director +and shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the League of +Nations. The Secretary-General will communicate a certified copy of the +recommendation or draft convention to each of the members.</p> + +<p>Each of the members undertakes that it will, within the period of one +year at most from the closing of the session of the conference, or if it +is impossible owing to exceptional circumstances to do so within the +period of one year, then at the earliest practicable moment and in no +case later than eighteen months from the closing of the session of the +conference, bring the recommendation or draft convention before the +authority or authorities within whose competence the matter lies, for +the enactment of legislation or other action.</p> + +<p>In the case of a recommendation the members will inform the +Secretary-General of the action taken.</p> + +<p>In the case of a draft convention, the member will, if it obtains the +consent of the authority or authorities within whose competence the +matter lies, communicate the formal ratification of the convention to +the Secretary-General and will take such action as may be necessary to +make effective the provisions of such convention.</p> + +<p>If on a recommendation no legislative or other action is taken to make a +recommendation effective, or if the draft convention fails to obtain the +consent of the authority or authorities within whose competence the +matter lies, no further obligation shall rest upon the member.</p> + +<p>In the case of a federal state, the power of which to enter into +conventions on labor matters is subject to limitations, it shall be in +the discretion of that Government to treat a draft convention to which +such limitations apply as a recommendation only, and the provisions of +this article with respect to recommendations shall apply in such case.</p> + +<p>The above Article shall be interpreted in accordance with the following +principle:</p> + +<p>In no case shall any member be asked or required, as a result of the +adoption of any recommendation or draft convention by the conference to +lessen the protection afforded by its existing legislation to the +workers concerned.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 406.</strong>—Any convention so ratified be registered by the +Secretary-General of The + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> + +League of Nations, but shall only be binding upon the members which +ratify it.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> + <a href="images/ill-258.jpg"> + <img src="images/ill-258thumb.jpg" width="400" height="512" + alt="Paris in War Time" + title="Paris in War Time" /> + </a> + <p class="credit">Copyright Underwood & Underwood</p> + <p class="caption">Paris in War Time</p> + <p class="description">A wonderful photograph made from the top + platform of the Eiffel Tower. Hovering over the city is + a French dirigible, a guardian against the dreaded + Zeppelins. Paris in war time pursued the even tenor of + its way, but it was a saddened city where frivolous + tourists were not wanted.</p> + <p class="click"><a href="images/ill-258.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span></p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 407.</strong>—If any convention coming before the conference for +final consideration fails to secure the support of two-thirds of the +votes cast by the delegates present, it shall nevertheless be within the +right of any of the members of the permanent organization to agree to +such convention among themselves.</p> + +<p>Any convention so agreed to shall be communicated by the Governments +concerned to the Secretary-General of the League of Nations, who shall +register it.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 408.</strong>—Each of the members agrees to make an annual report +to the International Labor office on the measures which it has taken to +give effect to the provisions of conventions to which it is a party. +These reports shall be made in such form and shall contain such +particulars as the governing body may request. The Directors shall lay a +summary of these reports before the next meeting of the conference.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 409.</strong>—In the event of any representation being made to the +International Labor Office by an industrial association of employers or +of workers that any of the members has failed to secure in any respect +the effective observance within its jurisdiction of any convention to +which it is a party, the Governing Body may communicate this +representation to the Government against which it is made and may invite +that Government to make such statement on the subject as it may think +fit.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 410.</strong>—If no statement is received within a reasonable time +from the Government in question, or if the statement when received is +not deemed to be satisfactory by the Governing Body, the latter shall +have the right to publish the representation and the statement, if any, +made in reply to it.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 411.</strong>—Any of the members shall have the right to file a +complaint with the International Labor Office if it is not satisfied +that any other member is securing the effective observance of any +convention which both have ratified in accordance with the foregoing +articles.</p> + +<p>The Governing Body may, if it thinks fit, before referring such a +complaint to a Commission of inquiry, as hereinafter provided for, +communicate with the Government in question in the manner described in +Article 409.</p> + +<p>If the Governing Body does not think it necessary to communicate the +complaint to the Government in question, or if, when they have made such +communication, no statement in reply has been received within a +reasonable time which the Governing Body considers to be satisfactory, +the Governing Body may apply for the appointment of a Commission of +inquiry to consider the complaint and to report thereon.</p> + +<p>The Governing Body may adopt the same procedure either of its own motion +or on receipt of a complaint from a Delegate to the Conference.</p> + +<p>When any matter arising out of Articles 410 or 411 is being considered +by the Governing Body, the Government in question shall, if not already +represented thereon, be entitled to send a representative to take part +in the proceedings of the Governing Body while the matter is under +consideration. Adequate notice of the date on which the matter will be +considered shall be given to the Government in question.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 412.</strong>—The Commission of Inquiry shall be constituted in +accordance with the following provisions:</p> + +<p>Each of the members agrees to nominate within six months of the date on +which the present Treaty comes into force three persons of industrial +experience, of whom one shall be a representative of employers, one a +representative of workers, and one a person of independent standing, who +shall together form a panel from which the members of the Commission of +Inquiry shall be drawn.</p> + +<p>The qualifications of the persons so nominated shall be subject to +scrutiny by the Governing Body, which may by two-thirds of the votes +cast by the representatives present refuse to accept the nomination of +any person whose qualifications do not in its opinion comply with the +requirements of the present article.</p> + +<p>Upon the application of the Governing Body, the Secretary-General of the +League of Nations shall nominate three persons, one from each section of +this panel, to constitute the Commission of Inquiry, and shall designate +one of them as the President of the commission. None of these three +persons shall be a person nominated to the panel by any member directly +concerned in the complaint.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 413.</strong>—The members agree that, in the event of the reference +of a complaint to a commission of inquiry under Article 411, they will +each, whether directly concerned in the complaint or not, place at the +disposal of the commission all the information in their possession which +bears upon the subject-matter of the complaint.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 414.</strong>—When the Commission of Inquiry has fully considered +the complaint, it shall prepare a report embodying its findings on all +questions of fact relevant to determining the issue between the parties +and containing such recommendations as it may think proper as to the +steps which should be taken to meet the complaint and the time within +which they should be taken.</p> + +<p>It shall also indicate in this report the measures, if any, of an +economic character against a defaulting Government which it considers to +be appropriate, and which it considers other Governments would be +justified in adopting.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 415.</strong>—The Secretary-General of the League of Nations shall +communicate the report of the Commission of Inquiry to each of the +Governments concerned in the complaint, and shall cause it to be +published.</p> + +<p>Each of these Governments shall within one month inform the +Secretary-General of the League of Nations whether or not it accepts the +recommendations contained in the report of the Commission; and if not, +whether it proposes to refer the complaint to the Permanent Court of +International Justice of the League of Nations.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 416.</strong>—In the event of any member failing to take the action +required by Article 405, with regard to a recommendation or draft +convention, any other member shall be entitled to refer the matter to +the Permanent Court of International Justice.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 417.</strong>—The decision of the Permanent Court of International +Justice in regard to a complaint or matter which has been referred to it +in pursuance of Article 415 or Article 416 shall be final.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 418.</strong>—The Permanent Court of International Justice may +affirm, vary or reverse any of the findings or recommendations of the +Commission of Inquiry, if any, and shall in its decision indicate the +measures, if any, of an economic character which it considers to be +appropriate, and which other Governments would be justified in adopting +against a defaulting Government.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 419.</strong>—In the event of any member failing to carry out +within the time specified the recommendations, if any, contained in the +report of the Commission of Inquiry, or in the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> + +decision of the Permanent Court of International Justice, as the case +may be, any other member may take against that member the measures of an +economic character indicated in the report of the Commission or in the +decision of the Court as appropriate to the case.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 420.</strong>—The defaulting Government may at any time inform the +Governing Body that it has taken the steps necessary to comply with the +recommendations of the Commission of Inquiry or with those in the +decision of the Permanent Court of International Justice, as the case +may be, and may request it to apply to the Secretary-General of the +League to constitute a commission of Inquiry to verify its contention. +In this case the provisions of Articles 412, 413, 414, 415, 417 and 418 +shall apply, and if the report of the Commission of Inquiry or the +decision of the Permanent Court of International Justice is in favor of +the defaulting Government, the other Governments shall forthwith +discontinue the measures of an economic character that they have taken +against the defaulting Government.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.—GENERAL</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 421.</strong>—The members engage to apply conventions which they +have ratified in accordance with the provisions of this part of the +present treaty to their colonies, protectorates, and possessions which +are not fully self-governing:</p> + +<p>1. Except where owing to the local conditions the convention is +inapplicable, or</p> + +<p>2. Subject to such modifications as may be necessary to adapt the +convention to local conditions.</p> + +<p>And each of the members shall notify to the International Labor Office +the action taken in respect of each of its colonies, protectorates, and +possessions which are not fully self-governing.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 422.</strong>—Amendments to this part of the present treaty which +are adopted by the Conference by a majority of two-thirds of the votes +<del>case</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads case">cast</ins> by the delegates present shall take effect when ratified by the +States whose representatives compose the Council of the League of +Nations and by three-fourths of the members.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 423.</strong>—Any question or dispute relating to the +interpretation of this part of the present treaty or of any subsequent +convention concluded by the members in pursuance of the provisions of +this part of the present treaty shall be referred for decision to the +Permanent Court of International Justice.</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.—TRANSITORY PROVISIONS</h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 424.</strong>—The first meeting of the Conference shall take place +in October, 1919. The place and agenda for this meeting shall be as +specified in the Annex hereto.</p> + +<p>Arrangements for the convening and the organization of the first meeting +of the Conference will be made by the Government designated for the +purpose in the said Annex. That Government shall be assisted in the +preparation of the documents for submission to the Conference by an +International Committee constituted as provided in the said Annex.</p> + +<p>The expenses of the first meeting and of all subsequent meetings held +before the League of Nations has been able to establish a general fund, +other than the expenses of delegates and their advisers, will be borne +by the members in Accordance with the apportionment of the expenses of +the International Bureau of the Universal Postal Union.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 425.</strong>—Until the League of Nations has been constituted all +communications which under the provisions of the foregoing articles +should be addressed to the Secretary-General of the League will be +preserved by the Director of the International Labor Office, who will +transmit them to the Secretary-General of the League.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 426.</strong>—Pending the creation of a Permanent Court of +International Justice, disputes which in accordance with this part of +the present treaty would be submitted to it for decision will be +referred to a tribunal of three persons appointed by the Council of the +League of Nations.</p> + +<h3>ANNEX</h3> + +<p><em>First Meeting of Annual Labor Conference, 1919</em> The place of meeting +will be Washington.</p> + +<p>The Government of the United States of America is requested to convene +the conference.</p> + +<p>The International Organizing Committee will consist of seven members, +appointed by the United States of America, Great Britain, France, Italy, +Japan, Belgium, and Switzerland. The committee may, if it thinks +necessary, invite other members to appoint representatives.</p> + +<p>Agenda:</p> + +<ol> +<li>Application of principle of the 8-hours day or of the 48-hours week.</li> +<li>Question of preventing or providing against unemployment.</li> +<li>Women's employment. +<ol class="alpha"> +<li>Before and after childbirth, including the question of maternity benefit.</li> +<li>During the night.</li> +<li>In unhealthy processes.</li> +</ol></li> +<li>Employment of children: +<ol class="alpha"> +<li>Minimum age of employment.</li> +<li>During the night.</li> +<li>In unhealthy processes.</li> +</ol></li> +<li>Extension and application of the International Conventions adopted at +Berne in 1906 on the prohibition of night work for women employed in +industry and the prohibition of the use of white phosphorus in the +manufacture of matches.</li> +</ol> + +<h3>SECTION II.—<em>General Principles</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 427.</strong>—The High Contracting Parties, recognizing that the +well-being, physical, moral, and intellectual, of industrial wage +earners is of supreme international importance, have framed, in order to +further this great end, the permanent machinery provided for in Section +I, and associated with that of the League of Nations.</p> + +<p>They recognize that differences of climate, habits, and customs, of +economic opportunity and industrial tradition, make strict uniformity in +the conditions of labor difficult of immediate attainment. But, holding +as they do, that labor should not be regarded merely as an article of +commerce, they think that there are methods and principles for +regulating labor conditions which all industrial communities should +endeavor to apply, so far as their special circumstances will permit.</p> + +<p>Among these methods and principles, the following seem to the High +Contracting Parties to be of special and urgent importance:</p> + +<p>First—The guiding principle above enunciated that labor should not +be regarded merely as a commodity or article of commerce.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></p> + +<p>Second—The right of association for all lawful purposes by the +employed as well as by the employers.</p> + +<p>Third—The payment to the employed of a wage adequate to maintain a +reasonable standard of life as this is understood in their time and +country.</p> + +<p>Fourth—The adoption of an eight hours day or a forty-eight hours +week as the standard to be aimed at where it has not already been +attained.</p> + +<p>Fifth—The adoption of a weekly rest of at least twenty-four hours, +which should include Sunday wherever practicable.</p> + +<p>Sixth—The abolition of child labor and the imposition of such +limitations on the labor of young persons as shall permit the +continuation of their education and assure their proper physical +development.</p> + +<p>Seventh—The principle that men and women should receive equal +remuneration for work of equal value.</p> + +<p>Eighth—The standard set by law in each country with respect to the +conditions of labor should have due regard to the equitable economic +treatment of all workers lawfully resident therein.</p> + +<p>Ninth—Each State should make provision for a system of inspection +in which women should take part in order to insure the enforcement of +the laws and regulations for the protection of the employed.</p> + +<p>Without claiming that these methods and principles are either complete +or final, the High Contracting Parties are of opinion that they are well +fitted to guide the policy of the League of Nations; and that, if +adopted by the industrial communities who are members of the League, and +safeguarded in practice by an adequate system of such inspection, they +will confer lasting benefits upon the wage earners of the world.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PART XIV<br /> +Guarantees</h2> + +<h3>SECTION I.—<em>Western Europe</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 428.</strong>—As a guarantee for the execution of the present +treaty by Germany, the German territory situated to the west of the +Rhine, together with the bridgeheads, will be occupied by Allied and +Associated troops for a period of fifteen years from the coming into +force of the present treaty.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 429.</strong>—If the conditions of the present treaty are +faithfully carried out by Germany, the occupation referred to in Article +428 will be successively restricted as follows:</p> + +<ol class="roman"> +<li><p>At the expiration of five years there will be evacuated:—the +bridgehead of Cologne and the territories north of a line running along +the Ruhr, then along the railway Jülich, Duren, Euskirchen, +Rheinbach, thence along the road Rheinbach to Sinzig, and reaching the +Rhine at the confluence with the Ahr; the roads, railways and places +mentioned above being excluded from the area evacuated.</p></li> + +<li><p>At the expiration of ten years, there will be evacuated:—the +bridgehead of Coblenz and the territories north of a line to be drawn +from the intersection between the frontiers of Belgium, Germany and +Holland, running about 4 kilometers south of Aix-la-Chapelle, then to +and following the crest of Forst Gremünd, then east of the railway +of the Urft Valley, then along Blankenheim, Valdorf, Dreis, Ulmen to and +following the Moselle from Bremm to Nehren, then passing by Kappel and +Simmern, then following the ridge of the heights between Simmern and the +Rhine and reaching this river at Bacharach; all the places, valleys, +roads and railways mentioned above being excluded from the area +evacuated.</p></li> + +<li><p>At the expiration of fifteen years there will be +evacuated:—the bridgehead of Mainz, the bridgehead of Kehl and the +remainder of the German territory under occupation.</p> + +<p>If at that date the guarantees against unprovoked aggression by Germany +are not considered sufficient by the Allied and Associated Governments +the evacuation of the occupying troops may be delayed to the extent +regarded as necessary for the purpose of obtaining the required +guarantees.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 430.</strong>—In case either during the occupation or after the +expiration of the fifteen years referred to above, the Reparation +Commission finds that Germany refuses to observe the whole or part of +her obligations under the present treaty with regard to reparation, the +whole or part of the areas specified in Article 429 will be re-occupied +immediately by the Allied of the employed.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 431.</strong>—If before the expiration of the period of fifteen +years Germany complies with all the undertakings resulting from the +present treaty, the occupying forces will be withdrawn immediately.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 432.</strong>—All matters relating to the occupation and not +provided for by the present treaty shall be regulated by subsequent +agreements, which Germany hereby undertakes to observe.</p> + +<h3>SECTION II.—<em>Eastern Europe</em></h3> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 433.</strong>—As a guarantee for the execution of the provisions of +the present treaty, by which Germany accepts definitely the abrogation +of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, and of all treaties, conventions and +agreements entered into by her with the Maximalist Government in Russia, +and in order to insure the restoration of peace and good government in +the Baltic Provinces and Lithuania, all German troops at present in the +said territories shall return to within the frontiers of Germany as soon +as the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers shall +think the moment suitable, having regard to the internal situation of +these territories. These troops shall abstain from all requisitions and +seizures and from any other coercive measures, with a view to obtaining +supplies intended for Germany, and shall in no way interfere with such +measures for national defense as may be adopted by the provisional +Governments of Esthonia, Letvia, and Lithuania.</p> + +<p>No other German troops shall, pending the evacuation or after the +evacuation is complete, be admitted to the said territories.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PART XV<br /> +Miscellaneous Provisions</h2> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 434.</strong>—Germany undertakes to recognize the full force of the +treaties of peace and additional conventions which may be concluded by +the Allied and Associated Powers with the powers who fought on the side +of Germany, and to recognize whatever disposition may be made concerning +the territories of the former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, of the Kingdom +of Bulgaria, and of the Ottoman Empire, and to recognize the new States +within their frontiers as there laid down.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 435.</strong>—The high contracting parties, while they recognize +the guarantees stipulated by the treaties of 1815, and especially by the +Act of 20th November, 1815, in favor of Switzerland, the said guarantees +constituting international obligations for the maintenance of peace, +declare nevertheless that the provisions of these treaties, conventions, +declarations and other supplementary acts concerning the neutralized +zone of Savoy, as laid down in paragraph 1 of Article 92 of the Final +Act of the Congress of Vienna, and in paragraph 2 of Article 3 of the +Treaty of Paris of 20th November, 1815, are no longer consistent with +present conditions. For this reason the high contracting parties take +note of the agreement reached between the French Government and the +Swiss Government for the abrogation of the stipulations relating to this +zone which are and remain abrogated.</p> + +<p>The high contracting parties also agree that the stipulations of the +treaties of 1815 and of the other supplementary acts concerning the free +zones of Upper Savoy and the Gex district are no longer consistent with +present conditions, and that it is for France and Switzerland to come to +an agreement together with a view to settling between themselves the +status of these territories under such conditions as shall be considered +suitable by both countries.</p> + +<h3>ANNEX</h3> + +<ol> +<li><p>The Swiss Federal Council has informed the French Government on the +5th May, 1919, that after examining the provisions of Article 435 in a +like spirit of sincere friendship it has happily reached the conclusion +that it was possible to acquiesce in it under the following conditions +and reservations:</p> + +<ul class="nobullet"> +<li>First—The neutralized zone of Haute-Savoie: + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>It will be understood that as long as the Federal Chambers have not +ratified the agreement come to between the two Governments concerning +the abrogation of the stipulations in respect of the neutralized zone of +Savoy nothing will be definitely settled, on one side or the other, in +regard to this subject.</p></li> + +<li>The assent given by the Swiss Government to the abrogation of the +above-mentioned stipulations presupposes, in conformity with the text +adopted, the recognition of the guarantees formulated in favor of +Switzerland by the treaties of 1815 and particularly by the declaration +of 20th November, 1815.</li> + +<li>The agreement between the Governments of France and Switzerland for +the abrogation of the above-mentioned stipulations will only be +considered as valid if the treaty of peace contains this article in its +present wording. In addition, the parties to the treaty of peace should +endeavor to obtain the assent of the signatory powers of the treaties of +1815 and of the declaration of 20th November, 1815, which are not +signatories of the present treaty of peace.</li> +</ol></li> + +<li>Second—Free zone of Haute-Savoie and the district of Gex. + +<ol class="alpha"> +<li><p>The Federal Council makes the most express reservations to the +interpretation to be given to the statement mentioned in the last +paragraph of the above article for insertion in the treaty of peace, +which provides that "the stipulations of the treaties of 1815 and other +supplementary acts concerning the free zones of Haute-Savoie and the Gex +district are no longer consistent with the present conditions." The +Federal Council would not wish that its acceptance of the above wording +should lead to the conclusion that it would agree to the suppression of +a system intended to give neighboring territory the benefit of a special +régime which is appropriate to the geographical and economical +situation and which has been well tested.</p> + +<p>In the opinion of the Federal Council the question is not the +modification of the customs system of the zones as set up by the +treaties mentioned above, but only the regulation in a manner more +appropriate to the economic conditions of the present day of the terms +of the exchange of goods between the regions in question. The Federal +Council has been led to make the preceding observations by the perusal +of the draft convention concerning the future constitution of the zones, +which was annexed to the note of April 26 from the French Government. +While making the above reservations the Federal Council declares its +readiness to examine in the most friendly spirit any proposals which the +French Government may deem it convenient to make on the subject.</p></li> + +<li><p>It is conceded that the stipulations of the treaties of 1815 and +other supplementary acts relative to the free zones will remain in force +until a new arrangement is come to between France and Switzerland to +regulate matters in this territory.</p></li> +</ol></li> +</ul></li> + +<li><p>The French Government have addressed to the Swiss Government, on May +18, 1919, the following note in reply to the communication set out in +the preceding paragraph:</p> + +<p>In a note dated May 5 the Swiss Legation in Paris was good enough to +inform the Government of the French Republic that the Federal Government +adhered to the proposed article to be inserted in the Treaty of Peace +between the Allied and Associated Governments and Germany.</p> + +<p>The French Government have taken note with much pleasure of the +agreement thus reached, and, at their request, the proposed article, +which had been accepted by the Allied and Associated Governments, has +been inserted under No. 435 in the peace conditions presented to the +German plenipotentiaries.</p> + +<p>The Swiss Government, in their note of May 5, on this subject, have +expressed various views and reservations.</p> + +<p>Concerning the observations relating to the free zones of Haute-Savoie +and the Gex district, the French Government have the honor to observe +that the provisions of the last paragraph of Article 435 are so clear +that their purport cannot be misapprehended, especially where it implies +that no other power but France and Switzerland will in future be +interested in that question. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span></p> + +<p>The French Government, on their part, are anxious to protect the +interests of the French territories concerned, and, with that object, +having their special situation in view, they bear in mind the +desirability of assuring them a suitable customs régime and +determining, in a manner better suited to present conditions, the +methods of exchanges between these territories and the adjacent Swiss +territories, while taking into account the reciprocal interests of both +regions.</p> + +<p>It is understood that this must in no way prejudice the right of France +to adjust her customs line in this region in conformity with her +political frontier, as is done on the other portions of her territorial +boundaries, and as was done by Switzerland long ago on her own +boundaries in this region.</p> + +<p>The French Government are pleased to note on this subject in what a +friendly disposition the Swiss Government take this opportunity of +declaring their willingness to consider any French proposal dealing with +the system to be substituted for the present régime of the said +free zones, which the French Government intend to formulate in the same +friendly spirit.</p> + +<p>Moreover, the French Government have no doubt that the provisional +maintenance of the régime of 1815 as to the free zones referred +to in the above-mentioned paragraph of the note from the Swiss Legation +of May 5, whose object is to provide for the passage from the present +régime to the conventional régime, will cause no delay +whatsoever in the establishment of the new situation which has been +found necessary by the two Governments. This remark applies also to the +ratification by the Federal Chambers, dealt with in Paragraph 1 (a), of +the Swiss note of May 5, under the heading "Neutralized Zone of +Haute-Savoie."</p></li> +</ol> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 436.</strong>—The high contracting parties declare and place on +record that they have taken note of the treaty signed by the Government +of the French Republic on July 17th, 1918, with His Serene Highness the +Prince of Monaco defining the relations between France and the +Principality.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 437.</strong>—The high contracting parties agree that, in the +absence of a subsequent agreement to the contrary, the Chairman of any +commission established by the present treaty shall, in the event of an +equality of votes, be entitled to a second vote.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 438.</strong>—The Allied and Associated Powers agree that where +Christian religious missions were being maintained by German societies +or persons in territory belonging to them, or of which the government is +intrusted to them in accordance with the present treaty, the property +which these missions or missionary societies possessed, including that +of trading societies whose profits were devoted to the support of +missions, shall continue to be devoted to missionary purposes. In order +to insure the due execution of this undertaking the Allied and +Associated Governments will hand over such property to boards of +trustees appointed by or approved by the Governments and composed of +persons holding the faith of the mission whose property is involved.</p> + +<p>The Allied and Associated Governments, while continuing to maintain full +control as to the individuals by whom the missions are conducted, will +safeguard the interests of such missions.</p> + +<p>Germany, taking note of the above undertaking, agrees to accept all +arrangements made or to be made by the Allied or Associated Government +concerned for carrying on the work of the said missions or trading +societies and waives all claims on their behalf.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 439.</strong>—Without prejudice to the provisions of the present +treaty, Germany undertakes not to put forward directly or indirectly +against any Allied or Associated Power, signatory of the present treaty, +including those which without having declared war, have broken off +diplomatic relations with the German Empire, any pecuniary claim based +on events which <del>occured</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads occured">occurred</ins> at any time before the coming into force of the +present treaty.</p> + +<p>The present stipulation will bar completely and finally all claims of +this nature, which will be thenceforward extinguished, whoever may be +the parties in interest.</p> + +<p><strong>ARTICLE 440.</strong>—Germany accepts and recognizes as valid and binding +all decrees and orders concerning German ships and goods and all orders +relating to the payment of costs made by any prize court of any of the +Allied or Associated Powers, and undertakes not to put forward any claim +arising out of such decrees or orders on behalf of any German national.</p> + +<p>The Allied and Associated Powers reserve the right to examine in such +manner as they may determine all decisions and orders of German Prize +Courts, whether affecting the property rights of nationals of those +powers or of neutral powers. Germany agrees to furnish copies of all the +documents constituting the record of the cases, including the decisions +and orders made, and to accept and give effect to the recommendations +made after such examination of the cases.</p> + +<p>The present treaty, of which the French and English texts are both +authentic, shall be ratified.</p> + +<p>The deposit of ratifications shall be made at Paris as soon as possible.</p> + +<p>Powers of which the seat of the Government is outside Europe will be +entitled merely to inform the Government of the French Republic through +their diplomatic representative at Paris that their ratification has +been given; in that case they must transmit the instrument of +ratification as soon as possible.</p> + +<p>A first procès-verbal of the deposit of ratifications will be +drawn up as soon as the treaty has been ratified by Germany on the one +hand, and by three of the principal Allied and Associated Powers on the +other hand.</p> + +<p>From the date of the first procès-verbal the treaty will come +into force between the high contracting parties who have ratified it. +For the determination of all periods of time provided for in the present +treaty this date will be the date of the coming into force of the +treaty.</p> + +<p>In all other respects the treaty will enter into force for each power at +the date of the deposit of its ratification.</p> + +<p>The French Government will transmit to all the signatory powers a +certified copy of the procès-verbaux of the deposit of +ratifications.</p> + +<p>IN FAITH WHEREOF the above-named plenipotentiaries (1) except as +indicated in the footnotes to the preamble, have signed the present +treaty.</p> + +<p>DONE AT VERSAILLES, in a single copy which will remain deposited in the +archives of the French Republic, and of which authenticated copies will +be transmitted to each of the signatory powers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>REJECTION OF THE PEACE TREATY<br /> +The Senate Fails to Ratify the Treaty of Versailles With the Revised Lodge +Reservations by a Vote of 49 to 35</h2> + +<p>The Treaty of Versailles with the Covenant of The League of Nations was +signed on June 28, 1919, by Germany and by the representatives of the +Allied and Associated Powers, with the exception of China.</p> + +<p>It was ratified by the German National Assembly on July 10th; by the +British Parliament on July 25th, and by King George on July 31st, by the +King of Italy on October 7th, by France on October 13th and by Japan on +October 27th.</p> + +<p>On the day the Treaty was signed President Wilson sailed for New York, +and on July 10th he addressed the Senate and submitted the Treaty to +that body, which under the Constitution is empowered to give its "advice +and consent" to treaties negotiated by the Chief Executive. Opposition +to the Covenant of the League of Nations had previously developed in the +Senate, especially on the part of the Republican majority. The Foreign +Affairs Committee, of which Senator Lodge of Massachusetts was Chairman, +was from the start unalterably opposed to the Treaty unless it contained +as amendments or as reservations clauses which, it was claimed, would +safeguard American interests and institutions. In February the +President, who had made a hurried trip from Paris in order to acquaint +the American people with the details of the Treaty as it affected this +country, conferred at the White House with the Foreign Relations +Committee of the Senate and the Foreign Affairs Committee of the House, +on which occasion there was a frank and comprehensive discussion, a +complete stenographic report of which was published in the press. On +March 3rd Senator Lodge presented a resolution signed by 39 Republican +Senators and Senators-elect protesting against the Covenant of The +League of Nations, as it stood. As it required a two-thirds vote of the +Senate to ratify, these 39 opponents of the treaty would be sufficient +to reject it, and the virtual effect of this resolution was to give +warning to the President that the Treaty unless it were to be +"Americanized" would fail of ratification.</p> + +<p>The President on March 5th sailed from New York and returned to Paris to +take up his work at the Peace Conference, remaining there until the +Treaty was signed.</p> + +<p>On July 15th, the Foreign Relations Committee took the Treaty under +consideration and conducted hearings on it. One of these, continuing for +several days, was for the purpose of exposing what the Committee +regarded as the unjust treatment of China in respect of the cession to +Japan, under the Treaty, of the German rights in Shantung (Kiauchau).</p> + +<p>On August 19th, the Foreign Relations Committee again conferred at the +White House with the President, and on September 3rd the President +started on a tour of the country to win support for the Treaty and The +League of Nations.</p> + +<p>On September 10th the Foreign Relations Committee reported the Treaty to +the Senate with 45 amendments and four reservations.</p> + +<p>On September 26th, owing to a nervous breakdown, the President at +Wichita, Kansas, gave up his tour of the country and returned to +Washington.</p> + +<p>What were known as the Fall amendments to the Treaty were defeated in +the Senate on October 2nd by 58 to 30, and as this vote indicated the +unlikelihood of amendments being passed, the Republicans of the Foreign +Relations Committee changed their tactics, abandoning amendments and +considering reservations instead. It had been pointed out that American +amendments to the Treaty would require ratification by Germany and that +this might nullify the whole Treaty and necessitate the re-opening of +negotiations, thereby delaying peace indefinitely.</p> + +<p>On October 4th the Massachusetts Republican State Convention, before +which Senator + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> + +Lodge spoke in defense of his attitude on the Treaty, urged prompt +ratification of the Peace Treaty with "reasonable and effective" +reservations.</p> + +<p>On October 15th by a vote of 55 to 35 the Senate rejected a proposed +amendment of the Foreign Relations Committee to the clause affecting the +German rights in Shantung by virtue of which these would be transferred +to China.</p> + +<p>The deadlock in the Senate had meanwhile aroused widespread criticism +throughout the country, the attitude of the Republican majority being +vigorously objected to by influential members of that party. Public +opinion both in and out of the Republican party was generally in favor +of ratification with reservations, as was repeatedly indicated by +"straw" votes among the people.</p> + +<h3>RATIFICATION, WITH ORIGINAL LODGE RESERVATIONS, DEFEATED NOV. 19, 1919.</h3> + +<p>On November 6th Senator Lodge presented 14 reservations which had been +agreed to by the majority members of the Foreign Relations Committee. On +November 19th, they were voted on by the Senate, being coupled with the +following resolution of ratification:</p> + +<p><em>Resolved (two-thirds of the Senators present concurring therein)</em>, That +the Senate advise and consent to the ratification of the Treaty of Peace +with Germany concluded at Versailles on the 28th day of June, 1919 +subject to the following reservations and understandings, which are +hereby made a part and condition to this resolution of ratification, +which ratification is not to take effect or bind the United States until +the said reservations and understandings adopted by the Senate have been +accepted by an exchange of notes as a part and a condition of this +resolution of ratification by at least three of the four principal +allied and associated powers, to wit, Great Britain, France, Italy, and +Japan.</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>The United States so understands and construes Article I that in case +of notice of withdrawal from the League of Nations, as provided in said +article, the United States shall be the sole judge as to whether all its +international obligations and all its obligations under the said +covenant have been fulfilled, and notice of withdrawal by the United +States may be given by a concurrent resolution of the Congress of the +United States.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States assumes no obligation to preserve the territorial +integrity or political independence of any other country or to +interfere in controversies between nations—whether members of the +League or not—under the provisions of Article 10, or to employ the +military or naval forces of the United States under any article of the +Treaty for any purpose, unless in any particular case the Congress, +which, under the Constitution, has the sole power to declare war or +authorize the employment of the military or naval forces of the United +States, shall by act or joint resolution so provide.</p></li> + +<li><p>No mandate shall be accepted by the United States under Article 22, +Part 1, or any other provision of the Treaty of Peace with Germany, +except by action of the Congress of the United States.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States reserves to itself exclusively the right to decide +what questions are within its domestic jurisdiction and declares that +all domestic and political questions relating wholly or in part to its +internal affairs, including immigration, labor, coastwise traffic, the +tariff, commerce, the suppression of traffic in women and children, and +in opium and other dangerous drugs, and all other domestic questions, +are solely within the jurisdiction of the United States and are not +under this Treaty to be submitted in any way either to arbitration or to +the consideration of the Council or of the Assembly of the League of +Nations, or any agency thereof, or to the decision or recommendation of +any other power.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States will not submit to arbitration or to inquiry by the +Assembly or by the Council of the League of Nations, provided for in +said Treaty of Peace, any questions which in the judgment of the United +States depend upon or relate to its long-established policy, commonly +known as the Monroe Doctrine; said doctrine is to be interpreted by the +United States alone and is hereby declared to be wholly outside the +jurisdiction of said League of Nations and entirely unaffected by any +provision contained in the said Treaty of Peace with Germany.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States withholds its assent to Articles 156, 157, and 158, +and reserves full liberty of action with respect to any controversy +which may arise under said articles between the Republic of China and +the Empire of Japan.</p></li> + +<li><p>The Congress of the United States will provide by law for the +appointment of the representatives of the United States in the Assembly +and the Council of the League of Nations, and may in its discretion +provide for the participation of the United States in any commission, +committee, tribunal, court, council, or conference, or in the selection +of any members thereof and for the appointment of members of said +commissions, committees, tribunals, courts, councils, or conferences, or +any other representatives under the Treaty of Peace, or in carrying out +its provisions, and until such participation and appointment have been +so provided for and the powers and duties of such representatives have +been defined by law, no person + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> + +shall represent the United States under either said League of Nations or +the Treaty of Peace with Germany, or be authorized to perform any act +for or on behalf of the United States thereunder, and no citizen of the +United States shall be selected or appointed as a member of said +commissions, committees, tribunals, courts, councils, or conferences +except with the approval of the Senate of the United States.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States understands that the Reparation Commission will +regulate or interfere with exports from the United States to Germany, or +from Germany to the United States, only when the United States by act or +joint resolution of Congress approves such regulation or interference.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States shall not be obligated to contribute to any +expenses of the League of Nations, or of the secretariat, or of any +commission, or committee, or conference, or other agency, organized +under the League of Nations or under the Treaty or for the purpose of +carrying out the Treaty provisions, unless and until an appropriation of +funds available for such expenses shall have been made by the Congress +of the United States.</p></li> + +<li><p>If the United States shall at any time adopt any plan for the +limitation of armaments proposed by the Council of the League of +Nations, under the provisions of Article 8, it reserves the right to +increase such armaments without the consent of the Council whenever the +United States is threatened with invasion or engaged in war.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States reserves the right to permit, in its discretion, +the nationals of a covenant-breaking State, as defined in Article 16 of +the covenant of the League of Nations, residing within the United States +or in countries other than that violating said Article 16, to continue +their commercial, financial, and personal relations with the nationals +of the United States.</p></li> + +<li><p>Nothing in Articles 296, 297, or in any of the annexes thereto or in +any other article, section, or annex of the Treaty of Peace with Germany +shall, as against citizens of the United States, be taken to mean any +confirmation, ratification, or approval of any act otherwise illegal or +in contravention of the right of citizens of the United States.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States withholds its assent to Part XIII. (Articles 387 +to 427, inclusive) unless Congress by act or joint resolution shall +hereafter make provision for representation in the organization +established by said Part XIII, and in such event the participation of +the United States will be governed and conditioned by the provisions of +such act or joint resolution.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States assumes no obligation to be bound by any election, +decision, report, or finding of the council, or assembly in which any +member of the League and its self-governing dominions, colonies, or +parts of empire, in the aggregate have cast more than one vote, and +assumes no obligation to be bound by any decision, report, or finding of +the council or assembly arising out of any dispute between the United +States and any member of the League if such member, or any +self-governing dominion, colony, empire, or part of empire united with +it politically has voted.</p></li> +</ol> + +<p>Ratification of the above resolution required a two-thirds vote. The +resolution was lost 55 to 39, the votes of 13 Republican +"irreconcilables" being cast against the resolution. On a motion to +reconsider, the resolution was again voted on, this time the vote being +51 to 41. Senator Underwood's motion for unconditional ratification of +the Treaty without reservation was then lost 53 to 38.</p> + +<p>The crux of the opposition to the Treaty was Article X. In President +Wilson's view, the Lodge reservation to this article cut the heart out +of the League of Nations, and nullified its whole structure and +practical operation. For a time it looked as if the Peace Treaty was +dead. Public opinion, however, insisted that the Treaty must not be +allowed to die and that the United States was morally obligated to the +rest of the world to take its place in the family of nations as a +signatory to the Treaty with such interpretative reservations as would +protect America's interests, and at the same time not antagonize other +nations.</p> + +<p>Early in January, 1920, the President in a letter to Senator Hitchcock +declared against "strong" reservations, and on January 15th, with a view +to reaching a compromise, there began a series of bi-partisan +conferences among Senators at which were discussed the various +reservations that had been a stumbling block, but no agreement could be +reached. As before, the phraseology and intent of Article X was the +principal bone of contention.</p> + +<h3>THE TREATY AGAIN BEFORE THE SENATE</h3> + +<p>On February 10th Senator Lodge reported the Treaty a second time to the +Senate, and with the original set of reservations. After another month +of debate and of organized efforts on the part of public spirited +citizens to exert pressure on the Senators to settle their differences +and give the nation what it demanded—a Treaty of Peace—the +lines were again drawn preparatory to another vote. The Senate, sitting +in Committee of the Whole, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> + +took up the Lodge reservations, one after another, accepting some +virtually without change, modifying or amplifying others, until all but +Article X had been agreed upon.</p> + +<p>Various new drafts of this reservation were suggested, both by Senators +and by private citizens; some of these were voted on, but none could +muster the votes necessary for adoption.</p> + +<p>Early in March a compromise reservation was worked out by Republicans +and Democrats, and this was made the occasion of an effort to induce the +President to give his views on Article X. For convenience in comparison, +Article X of the League of Nations, the original Lodge reservation, and +the proposed compromise reservation, are reproduced herewith:</p> + +<h3>ARTICLE X OF THE LEAGUE</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as against +external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political +independence of all members of the League. In case of any such +aggression the Council shall advise upon the means by which this +obligation shall be fulfilled.</p> + +<h3>THE ORIGINAL LODGE RESERVATION</h3> + +<p>The United States assumes no obligation to preserve the territorial +integrity or political independence of any other country or to interfere +in controversies between nations—whether members of the League or +not—under the provision of Article X., or to employ the military +or naval forces of the United States under any article of the Treaty for +any purpose, unless in any particular case the Congress, which under the +Constitution has the sole power to declare war or authorize the +employment of the military or naval forces of the United States, shall +by act or joint resolution so provide.</p> + +<h3>THE PROPOSED COMPROMISE RESERVATION</h3> + +<p>The United States assumes no obligation to employ its military or naval +forces, its resources, or the economic boycott to preserve the +territorial integrity or political independence of any other country +under the provisions of Article X., or to employ the military or naval +forces of the United States under any other article of the Treaty for +any purpose, unless in any particular case the Congress, which, under +the Constitution, has the sole power to declare war, shall, by act or +joint resolution, so provide.</p></div> + +<h3>ARTICLE X, SAYS WILSON, NULLIFIES A SACRED OBLIGATION</h3> + +<p>The President expressed his views on Article X and the proposed +reservations to it in a letter to Senator Hitchcock under date of March +8th, in which he said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"There is no escaping the moral obligations which are expressed in +positive terms in this article of the covenant. We won a moral victory +over Germany, far greater even than the military victory won on the +field of battle, because the opinion of the whole world swung to our +support and the support of the nations associated with us in the great +struggle. It did so because of our common profession and promise that we +meant to establish 'an organization of peace which should make it +certain that the combined power of free nations would check every +invasion of right, and serve to make peace and justice the more secure +by affording a definite tribunal of opinion to which all must submit and +by which every international readjustment that cannot be amicably agreed +upon by the peoples directly concerned shall be sanctioned.'</p> + +<p>"This promise and assurance were written into the preliminaries of the +armistice and into the preliminaries of the peace itself and constitute +one of the most sacred obligations ever assumed by any nation or body of +nations. It is unthinkable that America should set the example of +ignoring such a solemn moral engagement.</p> + +<p>"For myself, I feel that I could not look the soldiers of our gallant +armies in the face again if I did not do everything in my power to +remove every obstacle that lies in the way of the adoption of this +particular article of the covenant, because we made these pledges to +them as well as to the rest of the world, and it was to this cause they +deemed themselves devoted in a spirit of crusaders. I should be forever +unfaithful to them if I did not do my utmost to fulfill the high purpose +for which they fought."</p></div> + +<h3>"A NEW DOCTRINE IN THE WORLD'S AFFAIRS"</h3> + +<p>The President said he regarded the stipulations as to constitutional +methods required by the proposed compromise reservation as superfluous, +because it was understood at Paris that whatever duties any nation +undertook under the Treaty would as a matter of course "have to be +fulfilled by its usual and established constitutional methods of +action." He said further:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Any reservation which seeks to deprive the League of Nations of the +force of Article X. cuts at the very heart and life of the covenant +itself. Any League of Nations which does not guarantee as a matter of +incontestable right the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> + +political independence and integrity of each of its members might be +hardly more than a futile scrap of paper, as ineffective in operation as +the agreement between Belgium and Germany which the Germans violated in +1914.</p> + +<p>"Article X. as written into the Treaty of Versailles represents the +renunciation by Great Britain and Japan, which before the war had begun +to find so many interests in common in the Pacific; by France, by Italy, +by all the great fighting powers of the world, of the old pretensions of +political conquest and territorial aggrandisement. It is a new doctrine +in the world's affairs and must be recognized or there is no secure +basis for the peace which the whole world so desperately needs.</p> + +<p>"If Article X. is not adopted and acted upon, the Governments which +reject it will, I think, be guilty of bad faith to their people, whom +they induced to make the infinite sacrifices of the war by the pledge +that they would be fighting to redeem the world from the old order of +force and aggression. They will be acting also in bad faith to the +opinion of the world at large, to which they appealed for support in a +concerted stand against the aggressions and pretensions of Germany.</p> + +<p>"If we were to reject Article X. or so to weaken it as to take its full +force out of it, it would mark us as desiring to return to the old world +of jealous rivalry and misunderstandings from which our gallant soldiers +have rescued us and would leave us without any vision or new conception +of justice and peace. We would have learned no lesson from the war, but +gained only the regret that it had involved us in its maelstrom of +suffering. If America has awakened, as the rest of the world has, to the +vision of a new day in which the mistakes of the past are to be +corrected, it will welcome the opportunity to share the responsibilities +of Article X.</p> + +<p>"It must not be forgotten, Senator, that the article constitutes a +renunciation of all ambition on the part of powerful nations with whom +we were associated in the war. It is by no means certain that without +this article any such renunciation will take place. Militaristic +ambitions and imperialistic policies are by no means dead, even in +counsels of the nations whom we most trust and with whom we most desire +to be associated in the tasks of peace.</p> + +<h3>DEMOCRACY VERSUS IMPERIALISM</h3> + +<p>"The choice is between two ideals; on the one hand, the ideal of +democracy, which represents the rights of free peoples everywhere to +govern themselves, and on the other hand the ideal of imperialism which +seeks to dominate by force and unjust power, an ideal which is by no +means dead and which is earnestly held in many quarters still.</p> + +<p>"Every imperialistic influence in Europe was hostile to the embodiment +of Article X. in the covenant of the League of Nations, and its defeat +now would mark the complete consummation of their efforts to nullify the +Treaty. I hold the doctrine of Article X. as the essence of Americanism. +We cannot repudiate it or weaken it without at the same time repudiating +our own principles.</p> + +<p>"The imperialist wants no League of Nations, but if, in response to the +universal cry of the masses everywhere, there is to be one, he is +interested to secure one suited to his own purposes, one that will +permit him to continue the historic game of pawns and peoples—the +juggling of provinces, the old balances of power, and the inevitable +wars attendant upon these things.</p> + +<p>"The reservation proposed would perpetuate the old order. Does any one +really want to see the old game played again? Can any one really venture +to take part in reviving the old order? The enemies of a League of +Nations have by every true instinct centered their efforts against +Article X., for it is undoubtedly the foundation of the whole structure. +It is the bulwark, and the only bulwark, of the rising democracy of the +world against the forces of imperialism and reaction.</p> + +<p>"Either we should enter the League fearlessly, accepting the +responsibility and not fearing the rôle of leadership, which we +now enjoy, contributing our efforts toward establishing a just and +permanent peace, or we should retire as gracefully as possible from the +great concert of powers, by which the world was saved. For my own part, +I am not willing to trust to the counsel of diplomats the working out of +any salvation of the world from the things which it has suffered."</p></div> + +<h3>ARTICLE X AS FINALLY ADOPTED</h3> + +<p>The Article X reservation was again rewritten and when finally adopted +on March 15 by a vote of 56 to 26, read as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The United States assumes no obligation to preserve the territorial +integrity or political independence of any other country by the +employment of its military or naval forces, its resources, or any form +of economic discrimination, or to interfere in any way in controversies +between nations, including all controversies relating to territorial +integrity or political independence, whether members of the League or +not, under the provisions of Article X., or to employ the military or +naval forces of the United States, under any article of the Treaty for +any purpose, unless in any particular case the Congress, which, under +the Constitution, has the sole power to declare war or authorize the +employment of the military or naval forces of the United States, shall, +in the exercise of full liberty of action, by act or joint resolution so +provide.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span></p> + +<h3>THE TREATY AGAIN REJECTED</h3> + +<p>All of the 14 reservations having been debated and adopted in the +Senate, sitting in Committee of the Whole, a fifteenth reservation +expressing sympathy with the aspirations of the Irish people having been +added, the resolution of ratification was introduced by Senator Lodge on +March 19th. The vote stood: in favor of ratification, 49; against, 35. +By this vote, the Treaty of Versailles was for the second time rejected. +The resolution was supported by 28 Republicans and 21 Democrats, and +opposed by 23 Democrats and 12 Republicans. The resolution lacked seven +votes of the necessary two-thirds, and although it was a Republican +measure, the opposition of the Republican "irreconcilables" or +"bitter-enders" was sufficient to defeat it.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>THE RESERVATIONS WHICH FAILED<br /> +Text of the Preamble and Fifteen Reservations as Adopted by the Senate +Before the Final Vote on Ratification</h2> + +<p>Resolved (two-thirds of the Senators present concurring therein), That +the Senate advise and consent to the ratification of the Treaty of Peace +with Germany concluded at Versailles on the 28th day of June, 1919, +subject to the following reservations and understandings, which are +hereby made a part and condition of this resolution of ratification, +which ratification is not to take effect or bind the United States until +the said reservations and understandings adopted by the Senate have been +accepted as a part and a condition of this resolution of ratification by +the Allied and Associated Powers, and a failure on the part of the +Allied and Associated Powers to make objection to said reservations and +understandings prior to the deposit of ratification by the United States +shall be taken as a full and final acceptance of such reservations and +understandings by said powers:</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>The United States so understands and construes Article I. that in +case of notice of withdrawal from the League of Nations, as provided in +said article, the United States shall be the sole judge as to whether +all its international obligations and all its obligations under the said +covenant have been fulfilled, and notice of withdrawal by the United +States may be given by a concurrent resolution of the Congress of the +United States.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States assumes no obligation to preserve the territorial +integrity or political independence of any other country by the +employment of its military or naval forces, its resources, or any form +of economic discrimination, or to interfere in any way in controversies +between nations, including all controversies relating to territorial +integrity or political independence, whether members of the League or +not, under the provisions of Article X., or to employ the military or +naval forces of the United States, under any article of the treaty for +any purpose, unless in any particular case the Congress, which under the +Constitution has the sole power to declare war or authorize the +employment of the military or naval forces of the United States, shall, +in the exercise of full liberty of action, by act or joint resolution so +provide.</p></li> + +<li><p>No mandate shall be accepted by the United States under Article +XXII., Part 1, or any other provision of the Treaty of Peace with +Germany, except by action of the Congress of the United States.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States reserves to itself exclusively the right to decide +what questions are within its domestic jurisdiction and declares that +all domestic and political questions relating wholly or in part to its +internal affairs, including immigration, labor, coastwise traffic, the +tariff, commerce, the suppression of traffic in women and children and +in opium and other dangerous drugs, and all other domestic questions, +are solely within the jurisdiction of the United States and are not +under this Treaty to be submitted in any way either to arbitration or to +the consideration of the council or of the Assembly of the League of +Nations, or any agency thereof, or to the decision or recommendation of +any other power.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States will not submit to arbitration or to inquiry by the +Assembly or by the Council of the League of Nations, provided for in +said Treaty of Peace, any questions which in the judgment of the United +States depend upon or relate to its long established policy, commonly +known as the Monroe Doctrine; said doctrine is to be interpreted by the +United States alone and is hereby declared to be wholly outside the +jurisdiction of said League of Nations and entirely unaffected by any +provision contained in the said Treaty of Peace with Germany.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States withholds its assent to Articles 156, 157, and 158, +and reserves full liberty of action with respect to any controversy +which may arise under said articles. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p></li> + +<li><p>No person is or shall be authorized to represent the United States, +nor shall any citizen of the United States be eligible, as a member of +any body or agency established or authorized by said Treaty of Peace +with Germany except pursuant to an act of the Congress of the United +States providing for his appointment and defining his powers and duties.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States understands that the Reparation Commission will +regulate or interfere with exports from the United States to Germany, or +from Germany to the United States, only when the United States by act or +joint resolution of Congress approves such regulation or interference.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States shall not be obligated to contribute to any +expenses of the League of Nations, or of the Secretariat or of any +commission, or committee, or conference, or other agency, organized +under the League of Nations or under the Treaty or for the purpose of +carrying out the Treaty provisions, unless and until an appropriation of +funds available for such expenses shall have been made by the Congress +of the United States; provided, that the foregoing limitation shall not +apply to the United States' proportionate share of the expense of the +office force and salary of the Secretary General.</p></li> + +<li><p>No plan for the limitation of armaments as reported by the Council +of the League of Nations under the provisions of Article 8 shall be held +as binding the United States until the same shall have been accepted by +Congress, and the United States reserves the right to increase its +armament without the consent of the Council whenever the United States +is threatened with invasion or engaged in war.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States reserves the right to permit, in its discretion, +the nationals of a covenant-breaking state as defined in Article XVI. of +the covenant of the League of Nations, residing within the United States +or in countries other than such covenant-breaking state, to continue +their commercial, financial and personal relations with the nationals of +the United States.</p></li> + +<li><p>Nothing in Articles 296, 297, or in any of the annexes thereto or in +any other article, section, or annex of the Treaty of Peace with Germany +shall, as against citizens of the United States be taken to mean any +confirmation, ratification or approval of any act otherwise illegal or +in contravention of the rights of citizens of the United States.</p></li> + +<li><p>The United States withholds its assent to Part XIII. (Articles 337 +to 427 inclusive), unless Congress by act or joint resolution shall +hereafter make provision for representation in the organization +established by said Part XIII., and in such event the participation of +the United States will be governed and conditioned by the provisions of +such act or joint resolution.</p></li> + +<li><p>Until Part 1, being the covenant of the League of Nations, shall be +so amended as to provide that the United States shall be entitled to +cast a number of votes equal to that which any member of the League and +its self-governing dominions, colonies or parts of empire, in the +aggregate, shall be entitled to cast, the United States assumes no +obligation to be bound, except in cases where Congress has previously +given its consent, by any election, decision, report, or finding of the +Council or Assembly in which any member of the League and its +self-governing dominions, colonies, or parts of empire, in the +aggregate, have cast more than one vote.</p> + +<p>The United States assumes no obligation to be bound by any decision, +report, or finding of the Council or Assembly arising out of any dispute +between the United States and any member of the League if such member or +any self-governing dominion, colony, empire, or part of empire united +with it politically has voted.</p></li> + +<li><p>In consenting to the ratification of the Treaty with Germany the +United States adheres to the principle of self-determination and to the +resolution of sympathy with the aspirations of the Irish people for a +government of their own choice adopted by the Senate June 6, 1919, and +declares that when such government is attained by Ireland, a +consummation which it is hoped is at hand, it should promptly be +admitted as a member of the League of Nations.</p></li> +</ol> + +<h3>The First Meeting of the Council of the League of Nations</h3> + +<p>Representatives of France, Great Britain, Italy, Greece, Belgium, Spain, +Japan and Brazil, members of the Council of the League of Nations, met +on January 16, 1920, in the "cloak room" of the French Foreign Office +for the first meeting in the history of the League.</p> + +<p>The Council organized by electing Leon Bourgeois Chairman and confirming +the choice of Sir Eric Drummond of Great Britain as General Secretary. +The first official act of the League Council was the appointment of a +commission to trace upon the spot the frontiers of the territory of the +Saar Basin.</p> + +<p>All the members of the Council called for by the covenant of the League, +with the exception of the representative of the United States, were +present. Beside M. Bourgeois, the members were Earl Curzon, the British +Foreign Secretary, for Great Britain; Premier Venizelos, for Greece; +Carlo Ferraris, Italian Minister of Industry, Commerce, Labor and Food, +for Italy; Paul Hymans, the Belgian Foreign Minister, for Belgium; Baron +Matsui, Ambassador to France, for Japan; Dr. Gastoa da Cunha, Ambassador +to France, for Brazil; Count Quinones de Leon, Ambassador to France, for +Spain.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>PEACE BY CONGRESSIONAL ENACTMENT FAILS</h2> + +<p class="centerbig">President Wilson Vetoes Knox Resolution Declaring State of War Ended</p> + +<p>The failure of the Peace Treaty of ratification for the second time on +March 19, 1920, with the Lodge reservations attached, and the determined +refusal of the Republican majority to ratify it in the form desired by +President Wilson, showed quite conclusively that under existing +political alignment no peace might be expected for the country through +the Treaty of Versailles. The Republicans, therefore, turned their +efforts in a new direction to bring about peace without yielding to the +President.</p> + +<p>On April 1st the Foreign Affairs Committee of the House of +Representatives reported favorably a joint resolution declaring the +state of war between Germany and the United States at an end and +terminating the operation of all Congressional acts and Presidential +proclamations dependent for their duration on the termination of the war +or of the "present or existing emergency." It gave Germany forty-five +days in which similarly to declare the ending of the war with the United +States, and to waive all claims against this country, which she would +not have had the right to assert had the United States ratified the +Treaty of Versailles. For failure to comply with this provision, all +commercial intercourse and the furnishing of loans and other financial +assistance by this country to Germany were prohibited, except by license +of the President. In answer to Democratic criticisms that the resolution +was not only insincere, but also unconstitutional in arrogating to +Congress the treaty-making power of the President, the Republican +leaders conceded that, while the negotiation of peace terms rested with +the President, the declaration of a status of peace was quite within the +proper functions of Congress.</p> + +<h3>TEXT OF HOUSE RESOLUTION</h3> + +<p>The original resolution, as introduced in the House, read as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Whereas</span> the President of the United States, in the performance of his +constitutional duty to give to Congress information of the state of the +Union, has advised Congress that the war with the Imperial German +Government has ended;</p> + +<p><em>Resolved</em>, by the Senate and the House of Representatives of the United +States of America in Congress assembled, That the state of war declared +to exist between the Imperial German Government and the people of the +United States by a joint resolution of Congress, approved April 6, 1917, +is hereby declared at an end.</p> + +<p>Section 2—That in the interpretation of any provision relating to +the date of the termination of the present war, or of the present or +existing emergency in any acts of Congress, joint resolutions or +proclamations of the President containing provisions contingent upon the +date of the termination of the war, or of the present or existing +emergency, the date when this resolution becomes effective shall be +construed and treated as the date of the termination of the war, or of +the present or existing emergency, notwithstanding any provision in any +act of Congress or joint resolution providing any other mode of +determination of the date of the termination of the war, or of the +present or existing emergency.</p> + +<p>Section 3—That, with a view to securing reciprocal trade with the +German Government and its nationals, and for this purpose, it is hereby +provided that unless within forty-five days from the date when this +resolution becomes effective the German Government shall duly notify the +President of the United States that it has declared a termination of the +war with the United States and that it waives and renounces on behalf of +itself and its nationals any claim, demand, right or benefit against the +United States, or its nationals, that it or they would not have the +right to assert had the United States ratified the Treaty of Versailles, +the President of the United States shall have the power, and it shall be +his duty, to proclaim the fact that the German Government has not given +the notification hereinbefore mentioned, and thereupon, and until the +President shall have proclaimed the receipt of such notification, +commercial intercourse between the United States and Germany and the +making of loans or credits, and the furnishing of financial assistance +or supplies to the German Government or the inhabitants of +Germany, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> + +directly or indirectly, by the Government or the +inhabitants of the United States, shall, except with the license of the +President, be prohibited.</p> + +<p>Section 4—That whoever shall willfully violate the foregoing +prohibition, whenever the same shall be in force, shall upon conviction +be fined not more than $10,000, or, if a natural person, imprisoned for +not more than two years, or both; and the officer, director or agent of +any corporation who knowingly participates in such violation shall be +punished by a like fine, imprisonment, or both, and any property, funds, +securities, papers, or other articles or documents, or any vessel, +together with her tackle, apparel, furniture, and equipment, concerned +in such violation, shall be forfeited to the United States.</p> + +<p>Section 5—That nothing herein contained shall be construed as a +waiver by the United States of its rights, privileges, indemnities, +reparations or advantages to which the United States has become entitled +under the terms of the armistice signed November 11, 1918, or which were +acquired by or are in the possession of the United States by reason of +its participation in the war or otherwise; and all fines, forfeitures, +penalties, and seizures imposed or made by the United States are hereby +ratified, confirmed, and maintained.</p></div> + +<h3>MINORITY OPPOSITION</h3> + +<p>The Democratic members of the Foreign Affairs Committee presented a +minority report severely arraigning the Republican majority both for the +spirit and the provisions of the resolution, which, the report +contended, "outrageously surrendered" American rights and, by the spirit +in which it was conceived, laid open its authors to the charge of "sharp +practice." The chief points made in the minority report were:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The preamble states that the President of the United States, in the +performance of his constitutional duty to give to Congress information +of the state of the Union, has advised Congress that the war with the +Imperial German Government has ended. At no time and under no +circumstances has the President made any such assertion.</p> + +<p>"It is true that, on the signing of the armistice, the President, in the +course of an address to Congress, used the words, 'the war thus comes to +an end.' But he spoke of actual hostilities, as every one knew, and not +of the technical state of war.</p> + +<p>"It takes a treaty to end a war. Hostilities had ceased, but the war had +not ended, and will not end until it is terminated in a constitutional +manner. The drafters of the resolution and the members of the Committee +on Foreign Affairs who voted for it knew that this was the case.</p> + +<p>"By quoting this statement of the President as the basis for this +resolution the authors of the resolution lay themselves open to the +charge of insincerity and sharp practice. The President never declared +that the technical state of war which this resolution undertakes to +declare at an end had come to an end, and the Supreme Court of the +United States has recently declared that what the President had done did +not announce the termination of the war.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> +The reference is to the Supreme Court decision on the question of +war-time prohibition in the Kentucky distilleries case.</p></div> + +<p>"This resolution contains some provisions that are within the power of +Congress, and others that are not. So far as it seeks to declare peace, +and so far as it seeks to direct the President to issue a proclamation +to the German Government, it trenches upon the treaty-making powers and +is not within the power of Congress.</p> + +<p>"So far as it prohibits the United States citizens and residents from +commercial intercourse with Germany or its nationals, and provides +penalties for the violation of such restriction, it is valid. So far as +it attempts to repeal war legislation, it is, of course, within the +power of Congress."</p></div> + +<p>With regard to Section 2, which fixed the date of the termination of the +war as the date when the resolution shall become effective, the report +said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"There is much war and emergency legislation that should be repealed. +This section does not repeal this legislation, however, and it gives no +relief from the burdens, inconveniences, extravagances and losses which +come from the existence of this legislation. Much of this legislation is +burdensome, and oppressive in time of peace.</p> + +<p>"Congress has the power to repeal it, and it should address itself to +this task instead of frittering away its time in attempting to pass +unconstitutional legislation for the purpose of embarrassing the +executive department of the Government, or for some other political +purpose."</p></div> + +<p>Objection was raised against Section 3 for not adequately protecting +American rights. The report, which was presented by Representative +Flood, observed on this subject:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The first thought which comes to one's mind in connection with this +section is that it gives to Germany and her nationals all the rights +they would have had if the United States had ratified + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> + +the Treaty of Versailles. Without the provisions of the treaty great +uncertainty prevails as to the title to and right to use German ships. +The Versailles Treaty contains Germany's assent to the use of the +property seized by the Alien Property Custodian, amounting to more than +$500,000,000, to pay claims of the United States against Germany. This +resolution does not pretend to accomplish this result.</p> + +<p>"If we are dependent for a status of peace upon this resolution, I fail +to see how we could be able to demand reimbursement for the cost of our +army of occupation.</p> + +<p>"Under the treaty Germany can become a League of Nations member, and, +having under this resolution all the rights it would have had under the +treaty when it became a member of the League, it would be entitled to +assert against the United States the same rights which any other nation +could assert, had our country ratified the treaty. We would thus be in +the position of being compelled to protect the independence and +territorial integrity of Germany against the aggressions of any or all +of our allies.</p> + +<p>"Section 5 is an attempt to preserve something out of the wreck of +American rights which have been so outrageously surrendered in former +sections of the resolution."</p></div> + +<h3>RESOLUTION PASSES HOUSE, 242 TO 150</h3> + +<p>The first test of strength between the supporters and the opponents of +the resolution came on April 8th, when a rule limiting debate was +adopted by a nearly strict party vote of 214 to 155, the Republicans, as +were to be expected, supporting, and the Democrats opposing the rule. +The vote on the resolution itself came next day, April 9th, when, after +a flow of oratory characterized chiefly by bitterly partisan attacks +from both sides of the House, the resolution was adopted by a vote of +242 to 150. Twenty-two Democrats joined the Republicans in voting for +it, and two Republicans broke party lines in opposing it. Despite the +comfortable majority, however, the result showed that without the +President's approval efforts to declare peace by Congressional action +would prove futile, since the vote lacked twenty of the two-thirds +majority necessary to override a veto.</p> + +<h3>SENATE TAKES UP FIGHT TO FORCE PEACE</h3> + +<p>The scene now shifted to the Senate. Here the fortunes of the resolution +were placed in the hands of Senator Philander C. Knox, of Pennsylvania, +Secretary of State in President Taft's cabinet and a recognized +authority on international law. Senator Knox redrafted the House +resolution so as to repeal specifically the joint resolutions of war +against Germany on April 6, 1917, and against Austria-Hungary on +December 7, 1917, and thus, by annulling Congressional action declaring +a state of war, to re-establish <span lang="la">status quo ante bellum</span>.</p> + +<p>Such a solution of the problem, it was felt, did not encroach at all +upon the President's right of making treaties. In fact, the resolution +specifically requested the President to open negotiations for the +purpose of establishing friendly relations and commercial intercourse +between the United States and Germany, and the United States and the +successors of the Austro-Hungarian government. The resolution also +provided for the retention by the United States government of all enemy +property seized during the war until all American claims against enemy +governments had been settled, and declared further that, although the +United States had not ratified the Treaty of Versailles, nevertheless it +did not waive any of the "rights, privileges, indemnities, reparations +or advantages" stipulated for its benefit in the terms of that document.</p> + +<h3>TEXT OF ORIGINAL KNOX RESOLUTION</h3> + +<p>The text of the Knox resolution, as favorably reported to the Senate on +April 30th by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, read:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Joint resolution repealing the joint resolution of April 6, 1917, +declaring a state of war to exist between the United States and Germany, +and the joint resolution of December 7, 1917, declaring that a state of +war exists between the United States and the Austro-Hungarian +Government.</p> + +<p><em>Resolved</em> by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United +States of America, in Congress assembled, that the joint resolution of +Congress passed April 6, 1917, declaring a state of war to exist between +the Imperial German Government and the Government and people of the +United States, and making provisions to prosecute the same, be, and the +same is hereby declared at an end.</p> + +<p>Provided, however, that all property of the Imperial German Government +or its successor or successors, and of all German nationalists +which + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> + +was on April 6, 1917, in or has since that date come into the possession +or under control of the Government of the United States or of any of its +officers, agents, or employees, from any source or by any agency +whatsoever, shall be retained by the United States and no disposition +thereof made, except as shall specifically be hereafter provided by +Congress, until such time as the German Government has by treaty with +the United States, ratification whereof is to be made by and with the +advice and consent of the Senate, made suitable provisions for the +satisfaction of all claims against the German Government of all persons +wheresoever domiciled, who owe permanent allegiance to the United +States, whether such persons have suffered through the acts of the +German Government or its agents since July 31, 1914, loss, damage or +injury to persons or property, directly or indirectly, through the +ownership of shares of stock in German, American, or other corporations, +or otherwise, and until the German Government has given further +undertakings and made provisions by treaty, to be ratified by and with +the advice and consent of the Senate, for granting to persons owing +permanent allegiance to the United States, most favored nation +treatment, whether the same be national or otherwise, in all matters +affecting residence, business, profession, trade, navigation, commerce, +and industrial property rights, and confirming to the United States all +fines, forfeitures, penalties, and seizures imposed or made by the +United States during the war, whether in respect to the property of the +German government or German nationalists, and waiving any pecuniary +claim based on events which occurred at any time before the coming into +force of such treaty, any existing treaty between the United States and +Germany to the contrary notwithstanding.</p> + +<p>To these ends, and for the purpose of establishing fully friendly +relations and commercial intercourse between the United States and +Germany, the President is hereby requested immediately to open +negotiations with the Government of Germany.</p> + +<p>Section 2—That in the interpretation of any provision relating to +the date of the termination of the present war or of the present or +existing emergency in any acts of Congress, joint resolutions or +proclamations of the President containing provisions contingent upon the +date of the termination of the war or of the present or existing +emergency, the date when this resolution becomes effective, shall be +construed and treated as the date of the termination of the war or of +the present or existing emergency, notwithstanding any provision in any +act of Congress or joint resolution providing any other mode of +determining the date of the termination of the war or of the present or +existing emergency.</p> + +<p>Section 3—That until by treaty or act or joint resolution of +Congress it shall be determined otherwise, the United States, although +it has not ratified the Treaty of Versailles, does not waive any of the +rights, privileges, indemnities, reparations, or advantages to which it +and its nationals have become entitled under the terms of the armistice +signed November 11, 1918, or any extensions or modifications thereof or +which, under the Treaty of Versailles, have been stipulated for its +benefit as one of the principal allied and associated powers and to +which it is entitled.</p> + +<p>Section 4—That the joint resolution of Congress, approved December +7, 1917, declaring that a state of war exists between the Imperial and +Royal Austro-Hungarian Government and the Government and people of the +United States, and making provisions to prosecute the same, be and the +same is hereby repealed, and said state of war is hereby declared at an +end, and the President is hereby requested immediately to open +negotiations with the successor or successors of said Government for the +purpose of establishing fully friendly relations and commercial +intercourse between the United States and the Governments and peoples of +Austria and Hungary.</p></div> + +<h3>A DEMOCRAT PAYS HIS RESPECTS TO REPUBLICANS</h3> + +<p>The attitude of leaders of the Democratic party on Republican maneuvers +to force peace by Congressional action was indicated by a statement +issued by Homer S. Cummings, chairman of the Democratic National +Committee, in which the Knox resolution was characterized as "renewed +evidence of the moral leprosy which is eating out the heart of the +Republican party," and which, according to Mr. Cummings, proposed +dishonor in the name of peace. As reported in the press, the statement +said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The so-called Knox peace resolution, which has just been reported by +the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, is renewed evidence of the +moral leprosy which is eating out the heart of the Republican party. In +the name of peace it proposes dishonor.</p> + +<p>"An analysis of the resolution discloses that:</p> + +<p>"First, it recognizes the defect in the recent House resolution, which +attempted to make a separate treaty with Germany by act of Congress.</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-274.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-274thumb.jpg" width="400" height="545" +alt="Senator Philander C. Knox" +title="Senator Philander C. Knox of Pennsylvania" /> +</a> +<p class="caption">Senator Philander C. Knox of Pennsylvania</p> +<p class="description">A former United States Attorney-General and Secretary of State, and one +of the "irreconcilable" opponents of the League of Nations and Treaty of +Versailles. He was the author of the peace resolution declaring war with +Germany ended which was passed by Congress but vetoed by President +Wilson</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-274.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Second, as an alternative proposition, it requests the President to +commence negotiations for a separate peace with Germany.</p> + +<p>"Third, it seeks to terminate, by a paper resolution, a state of war +without protecting American rights.</p> + +<p>"Fourth, it attempts to take advantage of the provisions of the Treaty +of Versailles without becoming a party to that treaty and,</p> + +<p>"Fifth, it requests the President to negotiate a separate peace with +Austria.</p> + +<p>"These are the outstanding features of the resolution. If any group of +leaders a year ago had dared to suggest that we should abandon our +allies and negotiate a separate treaty of peace, they would have found +themselves isolated and discredited. Republican leaders have lost their +moral sense in their mad lust for power.</p> + +<p>"There has not been one moment since November, 1918, during which +America has not suffered in honor, prestige, and power, as the result of +the elections of that year. Since that time everything has been in +confusion, and the frantic attempt of Republican leaders to find a legal +method in which to do the dishonorable thing merely adds to the +confusion. There is but one clear path of duty. It is likewise the path +of honor and of peace and of permanent security.</p> + +<p>"The path lies straight before us, and consists simply in ratifying the +treaty of peace which our companions in arms have already ratified. The +more the matter is debated the more it will become apparent that there +are no substitutes for the requirements of plain duty and American +honor."</p></div> + +<h3>KNOX URGES SEPARATE PEACE WITH GERMANY</h3> + +<p>On May 5th the debate on the resolution was opened in the Senate with a +carefully prepared speech by Senator Knox, which outlined in detail +arguments not only for the propriety and validity of the resolution, but +for the absolute necessity of its adoption. Senator Knox contended that +the war had ended, in fact and in law; that the objects for which the +United States had entered the struggle had been achieved; that a +"power-maddened administration" was continuing the technical state of +war solely for the purpose of coercing the Senate into ratifying the +Versailles Treaty, which had been universally discredited in all its +parts; and that, since there was no hope of co-operation from the +President, Congress must find means of ending the technical state of +war independently of him. Said Senator Knox:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The welfare and safety of the nation imperatively demands that we know +we have peace. The whole world seethes with revolution. Our own nation +is in ferment and turmoil. Force and strife are rampant and threaten the +destruction not only of our property, but of our free institutions and +even of our very lives. And yet we stand, and have stood for months, as +a rudderless ship foundering in the trough of tremendous seas. We must +not dare longer to delay a return to the ordered government of peace. As +a preliminary step, the Executive must be returned to his peace-time +powers and prerogatives. Need, propriety, wisdom, cannot question this. +The resolution before us is designed to bring us to this.</p> + +<h3>WILSON TO BLAME</h3> + +<p>"The course of the President ever since he cruised to Europe to +participate in the Peace Conference leaves no chance for doubt that he +will continue hereafter as heretofore to thwart, so far as he is able, +every attempt on the part of the Senate, the Congress, or the people, to +take any action immediately or remotely affecting, in however slight a +degree, through change or modification, the provisions of the Treaty of +Versailles as it came to us fresh from his signature. He preferred to +keep the country in an alleged state of war for now almost a year rather +than abate one jot or tittle of the full measure his isolated will had +set for the nation. Constitutional order, lawful functions, rights and +duties of position, oaths of office as affecting the members of this +body, he has noticed only to bring into contempt. He has conjured up +every power within the whole vast executive domain in his efforts to +compel this Senate to surrender its will and judgment to him, to become +mere automatons to register his mandate—to approve this treaty in +its last minutiæ of detail as he sent it to us.</p> + +<p>"Now, in the face of this situation, it will be idle for us to pass any +resolution looking to the immediate establishment of peace that does not +contemplate the unqualified acceptance of the treaty, if that resolution +requires from the President the performance of any act or duty in order +to secure peace, because if we do, he will, if the statements of his +representatives are accepted, so delay or ignore that act or duty as to +defeat the end and purpose of our action, for in his opinion wisdom lies +only in following the behests of his will. Therefore, if the resolution +is to be effective, it must be self-operative. Nothing necessary to the +bringing of peace must be left for his accomplishment.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span></p> + +<h3>WHY UNITED STATES WENT TO WAR</h3> + +<p>"Our purposes, as stated by the President, were three-fold:</p> + +<p>"First, the defeat and elimination of the Imperial German Government and +Prussian autocracy;</p> + +<p>"Next, the liberation from their yoke of despotism of the Germans +themselves—for whom we had nothing but sympathy and +friendship—to the end that they might be masters of their own +fates and fortunes; and</p> + +<p>"Lastly, the establishment, as sincere friends of the German people, of +intimate relations of mutual advantage between them and us.</p> + +<p>"In so far as my information goes, the German Government never declared +war against the United States. They merely accepted the status which +this declaration recognized and probably created; for it must be +remembered that while we interpreted, and rightly so, that German +submarine warfare, as directed against the United States, was illegal, +constituting acts of war, the German Government never acquiesced in that +view and, on the contrary, maintained the legality of all general +measures taken.</p> + +<p>"The Imperial German Government, against whom we declared war, did cease +to exist at the time of the signing of the armistice, leaving us from +thence on without any titular enemy against which to wage a war unless +we were warring with the German people, and we have clearly estopped +ourselves to make such a contention.</p> + +<p>"Thus from this point of view also the armistice brought us not alone +the end of hostilities, but the actual peace. There remained only the +making of arrangements covering the ordinary peace-time intercourse.</p> + +<h3>WAR AT END, IN FACT AND IN LAW</h3> + +<p>"As a matter of law and of fact we are at peace with Germany; first, +because of the terms of the armistice of November 11, 1918, its +amendments and renewals; second, because of the 'silent ceasing' of +hostilities; third, because of the disappearance, the extinction of the +Government against which we declared war, and fourth, because of the +negotiation by us and our allies or associates in the war with the +people who were lately our enemies, and the ratification by our allies +or associates and our enemies, of a treaty of peace which specifically +provides both for the termination of hostilities to be followed by a +resumption of diplomatic relations, and also for the status that should +exist during our future peace-time intercourse; which treaty is now in +force and observed everywhere except in the United States, and has in +fact and in international law brought peace to the whole world, +including ourselves.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Having thus in law and in fact international peace, having nothing left +but a domestic status of war created by a legislative declaration of +war, with no hostilities heretofore or now existent or possible in the +territory over which this paper-war status exists, it is not only +legally sound, but economically, morally, and patriotically necessary +and indispensable that we at once repeal the declaration of war and so +immediately end the despotic war powers with which a power-maddened +administration continues to misrule this great people.</p></div> + +<h3>VERSAILLES TREATY IMPOSSIBLE</h3> + +<p>"To what end has all this juggling with obvious facts and universally +recognized principles been maintained? The answer is easy and known to +all. The purpose has been to coerce the Senate to approve the Treaty of +Versailles—a treaty that is almost universally discredited in all +its parts. The majority of its negotiators concede this. Its economic +terms are impossible; its League of Nations is an aggravated imitation +of the worst features of the ill-fated and foolish Holy Alliance of a +century ago. It promises little but mischief unless recast on such +radical lines as will entirely obliterate its identity.</p> + +<p>"Wisdom requires the negotiation of a separate treaty between the United +States and Germany, which should provide reciprocal rights and +obligations between us and that country alone."</p> + +<h3>KNOX RESOLUTION PASSES BOTH HOUSES</h3> + +<p>In the course of its consideration in the Senate, the provision of the +resolution requesting the President to negotiate a separate treaty with +Germany was eliminated, but the request for a treaty with the successors +of the Austro-Hungarian government was retained. In its amended form the +resolution was brought to a decision in the Senate on May 15th, and +adopted by a vote of 43 to 38, three Democrats voting with its +supporters and one Republican with the opposition.</p> + +<p>As the text of the Knox resolution adopted by the Senate differed from +the measure which had been passed by the House of Representatives on +April 9th, the House, to expedite matters, dropped its own resolution, +and passed, on May 21st, the Senate draft by a vote of 228 to 139, +seventeen short of the two-thirds majority necessary to override the +expected Presidential veto.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span></p> + +<h3>TEXT OF AMENDED RESOLUTION</h3> + +<p>The text of the peace resolution as passed by the Senate and later +concurred in by the House of Representatives, read as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The joint resolution of Congress, passed April 6, 1917, declaring a +state of war to exist between the Imperial German Government and the +Government and people of the United States, and making provisions to +prosecute the same, be, and the same is hereby repealed and said state +of war is hereby declared at an end.</p> + +<p>Provided, however, that all property of the Imperial German Government, +or its successor or successors, and of all German nationals which was on +April 6, 1917, is or has since that date come into the possession or +under control of the Government of the United States or any of its +officers, agents or employees from any source or by any agency +whatsoever, shall be retained by the United States and no disposition +thereof made, except as shall specifically be hereafter provided by +Congress, until such time as the German Government has, by treaty with +the United States, ratification whereof is to be made by and with the +advice and consent of the Senate, made suitable provisions for the +satisfaction of all claims against the German Government of all persons, +wheresoever domiciled, who owe permanent allegiance to the United +States, whether such persons have suffered through the acts of the +German Government or its agents since July 31, 1914, loss, damage, or +injury to their persons or property, directly or indirectly, through the +ownership of shares of stock in German, American, or other corporations, +or have suffered damage directly in consequence of hostilities or any +operations of war, or otherwise, or until the German Government has +given further undertakings and made provisions by treaty, to be ratified +by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, for granting to +persons owing permanent allegiance to the United States, most favored +nation treatment, whether the same be national or otherwise, in all +matters affecting residence, business, profession, trade, navigation, +commerce and industrial property rights, and confirming to the United +States all fines, forfeitures, penalties, and seizures imposed or made +by the United States during the war, whether in respect to the property +of the German Government or German nationals, and waiving any pecuniary +claim based on events which occurred at any time before the coming into +force of such treaty, any existing treaty between the United States and +Germany to the contrary notwithstanding.</p> + +<p>That in the interpretation of +any provision relating to the date of the termination of the war or of +the present or existing emergency in any acts of Congress, joint +resolutions or proclamations of the President containing provisions +contingent upon the date of the termination of the war or of the present +or existing emergency, the date when this resolution becomes effective +shall be construed and treated as the date of the termination of the war +or of the present or existing emergency, notwithstanding any provision +in any act of Congress or joint resolution, providing any other mode of +determining the date of the termination of the war or of the present or +existing emergency.</p> + +<p>That until by treaty or act or joint resolution of Congress it shall be +determined otherwise, the United States, although it has not ratified +the Treaty of Versailles, does not waive any of the rights, privileges, +indemnities, reparations or advantages to which it and its nationals +have become entitled under the terms of the armistice signed November +11, 1918, or any extensions or modifications thereof or which under the +Treaty of Versailles have been stipulated for its benefit as one of the +principal allied and associated powers and to which it is entitled.</p> + +<p>That the joint resolution of Congress approved December 7, 1917, +declaring that a state of war exists between the Imperial and Royal +Austro-Hungarian Government and the Government and the people of the +United States and making provisions to prosecute the same, be, and the +same is hereby repealed, and said state of war is hereby declared at an +end, and the President is hereby requested immediately to open +negotiations with the successor or successors of said Government for the +purpose of establishing fully friendly relations and commercial +intercourse between the United States and the Governments and peoples of +Austria and Hungary.</p></div> + +<h3>PRESIDENT'S VETO</h3> + +<p>The resolution now came before the President for his signature. On May +27th he returned it to the House without his approval, and in an +accompanying message explained the reasons for his veto. The President +did not touch upon the question of constitutionality which had been +raised frequently during the debates, but gave as his chief reason +refusal to become party to an action which, he felt, would place +"ineffaceable stain upon the gallantry and honor of the United States."</p> + +<p>Following is the text of President Wilson's message vetoing the peace +resolution:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"<em>To the House of Representatives:</em></p> + +<p>"I return herewith, without my signature, House Joint Resolution 327, +intended to repeal the Joint Resolution of April 6, 1917, declaring a +state of war to exist between the United States and Germany, and the +Joint Resolution of December 7, 1917, declaring a state of war to exist +between the United States and the Austro-Hungarian Government, and to +declare a state of peace. I have not felt at liberty to sign this +resolution because I cannot bring myself to become party to an action +which would place ineffaceable stain upon the gallantry and honor of the +United States.</p> + +<p>"The resolution seeks to establish peace with the German Empire without +exacting from the German Government any action by way of setting right +the infinite wrongs which it did to the peoples whom it attacked and +whom we professed it our purpose to assist when we entered the war. Have +we sacrificed the lives of more than one hundred thousand Americans and +ruined the lives of thousands of others and brought upon thousands of +American families an unhappiness that can never end for purposes which +we do not now care to state or take further steps to attain?</p> + +<p>"The attainment of these purposes is provided for in the Treaty of +Versailles by terms deemed adequate by the leading statesmen and experts +of all the great peoples who were associated in the war against Germany. +Do we now not care to join in the effort to secure them?</p> + +<p>"We entered the war most reluctantly. Our people were profoundly +disinclined to take part in a European war, and at last did so, only +because they became convinced that it could not in truth be regarded as +only a European war, but must be regarded as a war in which civilization +itself was involved and human rights of every kind as against a +belligerent Government. Moreover, when we entered the war we set forth +very definitely the purposes for which we entered, partly because we did +not wish to be considered as merely taking part in a European contest. +This Joint Resolution which I return does not seek to accomplish any of +these objects, but in effect makes a complete surrender of the rights of +the United States so far as the German Government is concerned.</p> + +<p>"A treaty of peace was signed at Versailles on the twenty-eighth of June +last which did seek to accomplish the objects which we had declared to +be in our minds, because all the great Governments and peoples which +united against Germany had adopted our declarations of purpose as their +own and had in solemn form embodied them in communications to the German +Government preliminary to the armistice of November 11, 1918. But the +treaty, as signed at Versailles, has been rejected by the Senate of the +United States, though it has been ratified by Germany. By that rejection +and by its methods we had in effect declared that we wish to draw apart +and pursue objects and interests of our own, unhampered by any +connections of interest or of purpose with other Governments and +peoples.</p> + +<p>"Notwithstanding the fact that upon our entrance into the war we +professed to be seeking to assist in the maintenance of common +interests, nothing is said in this resolution about the freedom of +navigation upon the seas, or the reduction of armaments, or the +vindication of the rights of Belgium, or the rectification of wrongs +done to France, or the release of the Christian populations of the +Ottoman Empire from the intolerable subjugation which they have had for +so many generations to endure, or the establishment of an independent +Polish State, or the continued maintenance of any kind of understanding +among the great powers of the world which would be calculated to prevent +in the future such outrages as Germany attempted and in part +consummated.</p> + +<p>"We have now, in effect, declared that we do not care to take any +further risks or to assume any further responsibilities with regard to +the freedom of nations or the sacredness of international obligations or +the safety of independent peoples. Such a peace with Germany—a +peace in which none of the essential interests which we had at heart +when we entered the war is safeguarded—<em>is</em>, or ought to be, +inconceivable, as inconsistent with the dignity of the United States, +with the rights and liberties of her citizens, and with the very +fundamental conditions of civilization.</p> + +<p>"I hope that in these statements I have sufficiently set forth the +reasons why I have felt it incumbent upon me to withhold my signature."</p> + +<p class="smcapright">Woodrow Wilson.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The White House</span>, <em>May 27, 1920.</em></p></div> + +<p>Next day, May 28th, the resolution was brought before the House in an +attempt to repass it over the veto, but the vote, 219 to 152, lacked +twenty-nine of the necessary two-thirds majority. On the original House +resolution, passed April 9th, the vote had been 242 to 150, and on the +Knox resolution, passed by the House on May 21st, 228 to 139. A few days +later Congress adjourned until the winter session in December.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>THE MAP OF EUROPE REMADE<br /> +Proposed Form of Government, Countries from Which Formed and Ethnic or +Racial Stock of Newly Established Political Units Resulting from the World +War.</h2> + +<p class="center">(From a paper prepared in January, 1920, by O. P. Austin, +Statistical Department, National City Bank.)</p> + +<div class="center"> + <table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Countries of Europe"> + <tr> + <td></td><th><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>Area</th> + <th><a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" + class="fnanchor">[33]</a>Population</th> + <th>Date established</th><th>Form of Government</th> + <th>Countries from which formed</th><th>Ethnic or Racial Stock</th> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Poland</td><td class="numeric">141,854</td><td class="numeric">36,000,000</td> + <td>Nov., 1916</td><td>Republic</td><td>Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary</td> + <td>Slavic, Semitic</td></tr> <tr><td>Czecho-Slovakia</td> + <td class="numeric">60,000</td><td class="numeric">13,000,000</td> + <td>Oct., 1918</td><td>Republic</td><td>Austria-Hungary</td><td>Slavic</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Jugo-Slavia</td><td class="numeric">85,000</td> + <td class="numeric">10,500,000</td><td>Oct., 1918</td><td>Kingdom</td> + <td>Austria-Hungary, Serbia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro</td> + <td>Slavic, Serbs, Croats</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Ukrainia</td><td class="numeric">215,000</td> + <td class="numeric">30,000,000</td><td>Nov., 1917</td><td>Republic</td> + <td>Russia, Austria-Hungary</td><td>Slavic</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Esthonia</td><td class="numeric">7,300</td><td class="numeric">1,750,000</td> + <td>Apr., 1918</td><td>Republic</td><td>Russia</td><td>Slavic</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Livonia</td><td class="numeric">17,000</td><td class="numeric">1,650,000</td> + <td>Apr., 1918</td><td>Republic</td><td>Russia</td><td>Slavic</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Courland</td><td class="numeric">10,000</td><td class="numeric">600,000</td> + <td>Apr., 1918</td><td>Republic</td><td>Russia</td><td>Slavic</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Letvia</td><td class="numeric">9,000</td><td class="numeric">1,500,000</td> + <td>Apr., 1918</td><td>Republic</td><td>Russia</td><td>Letts (Balto- Slavs)</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Lithuania</td><td class="numeric">90,000</td><td class="numeric">10,000,000</td> + <td>Apr., 1918</td><td>Republic</td><td>Russia</td><td>Slavic, Germania</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>White Russia</td><td class="numeric">140,000</td> + <td class="numeric">5,000,000</td><td>May, 1918</td><td>Republic</td> + <td>Russia</td><td>Slavic</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>North Russia</td><td class="numeric">275,000</td> + <td class="numeric">400,000</td><td>Nov., 1918</td> + <td>Military Gov</td><td>Russia</td><td>Slavic, Finns</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Rus. Fed. Soviet Rep</td><td class="numeric">Undet'd</td> + <td class="numeric">Undet'd</td><td>Nov., 1917</td> + <td>Soviet Rep</td><td>Russia</td><td>Slavic</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Don Rep</td><td class="numeric">63,000</td> + <td class="numeric">4,000,000</td><td>Jan., 1918</td> + <td>Military Gov</td><td>Russia</td><td>Slavic, Cossack</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Kuban Rep</td><td class="numeric">36,000</td> + <td class="numeric">3,000,000</td><td>Nov., 1918</td> + <td>Republic</td><td>Russia</td><td>Slavic</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Tauride Rep</td><td class="numeric">23,000</td> + <td class="numeric">1,800,000</td><td>Mar., 1918</td> + <td>Republic</td><td>Russia</td><td>Slavic, Tartar</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Terek Rep</td><td class="numeric">28,000</td> + <td class="numeric">1,300,000</td><td>Sept., 1918</td> + <td>Republic</td><td>Russia</td><td>Turko-Tartar</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Tatar-Bashkir Rep</td><td class="numeric">175,000</td> + <td class="numeric">9,000,000</td><td>Oct., 1918</td> + <td>Military</td><td>Russia</td><td>Turko- Tartar</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Yakutsk Rep</td><td class="numeric">1,000,000</td> + <td class="numeric">400,000</td><td>May, 1918</td> + <td>Military</td><td>Siberian Russia</td><td>Yakuts, Cossack</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Rep. of Siberia</td><td class="numeric">Undet'd</td> + <td class="numeric">Undet'd</td><td>Dec., 1917</td> + <td>Military</td><td>Siberian Russia</td><td>Slav, Mongol, Tartar</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Rep. of Georgia</td><td class="numeric">40,000</td> + <td class="numeric">2,500,000</td><td>Jan., 1918</td> + <td>Republic</td><td>Russia, Turkey</td><td>Georgian, Armenian</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Rep. of Turkestan</td><td class="numeric">400,000</td> + <td class="numeric">6,500,000</td><td>Jan., 1918</td> + <td>Military</td><td>Russia</td><td>Turko-Tartar</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Eastern Karelia</td><td class="numeric">68,000</td> + <td class="numeric">250,000</td><td>May, 1919</td> + <td>Military</td><td>Russia</td><td>Balto-Slavic</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Finland</td><td class="numeric">125,000</td> + <td class="numeric">3,500,000</td><td>Dec., 1917</td> + <td>Republic</td><td>Russia</td><td>Finns</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Murman Region</td><td class="numeric">35,000</td> + <td class="numeric">100,000</td><td>July, 1918</td> + <td>Military</td><td>Russian</td><td>Finns</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>German Rep</td><td class="numeric">175,000</td> + <td class="numeric">60,000,000</td><td>Nov., 1918</td> + <td>Republic</td><td>Germany</td><td>Germanic</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Rep of German Austria</td><td class="numeric">28,000</td> + <td class="numeric">10,000,000</td><td>Oct., 1918</td> + <td>Republic</td><td>Austria</td><td>Germanic</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Hungarian Rep</td><td class="numeric">32,000</td> + <td class="numeric">9,000,000</td><td>Nov., 1918</td> + <td>Soviet Rep</td><td>Hungary</td><td>Magyar</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a> + <a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>Rumania</td> + <td class="numeric">110,000</td><td class="numeric">12,500,000</td> + <td>1919</td><td>Kingdom</td><td>Rumania, Hungary, Bessarabia</td> + <td>Rumanian, Magyar</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Turkey in Europe</td><td class="numeric">10,000</td> + <td class="numeric">1,900,000</td><td></td><td>Undet'd</td> + <td>Turkey</td><td>Turkish</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Anatolia, Asia Minor</td><td class="numeric">145,000</td> + <td class="numeric">5,000,000</td><td></td><td>Undet'd</td> + <td>Turkey</td><td>Turkish</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Armenia, Asia Minor</td><td class="numeric">75,000</td> + <td class="numeric">2,500,000</td><td>Aug., 1918</td> + <td>Undet'd</td><td>Turkey</td><td>Armenians</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Mesopotamia, Asia Minor</td><td class="numeric">143,000</td> + <td class="numeric">2,000,000</td><td>1917</td> + <td>British Admin.</td><td>Turkey</td><td>Turks, Arabs, Persian</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Syria, Asia Minor</td><td class="numeric">37,000</td> + <td class="numeric">1,000,000</td><td>1919</td><td>Undet'd</td> + <td>Turkey</td><td>Syrian, Turkish</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Palestine, Asia Minor</td><td class="numeric">16,000</td> + <td class="numeric">500,000</td><td>1917</td><td>British Admin.</td> + <td>Turkey</td><td>Turks, Arabs, Jews</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Kingdom of Hejaz</td><td class="numeric">96,500</td> + <td class="numeric">300,000</td><td>June, 1916</td><td>Kingdom</td> + <td>Turkey</td><td>Arabs, Turks</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Nejd & Hasa, Arabia</td><td class="numeric">No data</td> + <td class="numeric">No data</td><td>1913</td><td>Emirate</td> + <td>Turkey</td><td>Arabs</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Jebel Shammar, Arabia</td><td class="numeric">No data</td> + <td class="numeric">No data</td><td>1918</td><td>Emirate</td> + <td>Turkey</td><td>Bedouin</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Asir, Arabia</td><td class="numeric">No data</td> + <td class="numeric">No data</td><td>1918</td><td>Principate</td> + <td>Turkey</td><td>Arabs</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Yemen, Arabia</td><td class="numeric">No data</td> + <td class="numeric">No data</td><td>1918</td><td>Imamate</td> + <td>Turkey</td><td>Arabs</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Koweit, Arabia</td><td class="numeric">No data</td> + <td class="numeric">No data</td><td>1918</td><td>Sultanate</td> + <td>Turkey</td><td>Arabs</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Oman, Arabia</td><td class="numeric">82,000</td> + <td class="numeric">500,000</td><td>1913</td> + <td>G. Brit & France</td><td>Turkey</td><td>Arabs</td> + </tr> + <tr><td>Egypt</td><td class="numeric">350,000</td> + <td class="numeric">12,000,000</td><td>1914</td><td>Great Britain</td> + <td>Turkey</td><td>Egyptian</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>German East Africa</td><td class="numeric">384,000</td> + <td class="numeric">8,000,000</td><td>1918</td> + <td>Great Britain</td><td>German Colony</td><td>Bantu</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>German S. W. Africa</td><td class="numeric">322,000</td> + <td class="numeric">200,000</td><td>1915</td><td>British S. Africa</td> + <td>German Colony</td><td>Hottentots</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Kamerun</td><td class="numeric">191,000</td> + <td class="numeric">2,500,000</td><td>1916</td> + <td>British & French</td><td>German Colony</td><td>Sudanese</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Togo</td><td class="numeric">33,000</td> + <td class="numeric">1,000,000</td><td>1914</td><td>Allied Mil</td> + <td>German Colony</td><td>Hamitic</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Kaiser Wilhelm Land</td><td class="numeric">70,000</td> + <td class="numeric">250,000</td><td>1918</td><td>Australia</td> + <td>German Colony</td><td>Malay</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Ger. Samoan Islands</td><td class="numeric">1,200</td> + <td class="numeric">40,000</td><td>1918</td><td>Australia</td> + <td>German Colony</td><td>Samoan</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Nauru Islands</td> + <td class="numeric"><a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a> + <a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></td> + <td></td><td>1918</td><td>Mandate—British</td> + <td>German Colony</td><td>Samoan</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Ger. S. Pacific Islands</td><td class="numeric">15,000</td> + <td class="numeric">350,000</td><td>1918</td><td>Australia</td> + <td>German Colony</td><td>Malay</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Ger. N. Pacific Islands</td><td class="numeric">5,000</td> + <td class="numeric">600,000</td><td>1918</td><td>Mandate— Japan</td> + <td>German Colony</td><td>Malay</td></tr> <tr><td>Kiau Chau</td> + <td class="numeric">200</td><td class="numeric">200,000</td> + <td>1918</td><td>Mandate— Japan</td><td>German Colony</td><td>Chinese</td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a>Latest available estimate.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a>Enlarged by absorption of Hungarian territory.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a>A small island in the Marshall Group occupied as a wireless station; also known as Pleasant Island.</p></div> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>OUR PART IN WINNING THE WAR<br /> +Official Figures That Reveal the Enormous Contribution of This Country +in Men, Money and Supplies</h2> + +<div id="contribution"> + <p class="centerbig">FIGURES OF AMERICAN PARTICIPATION IN THE WAR + <a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a> + <a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> + </p> + <p class="center">Revised to August 1, 1919</p> + + <hr class="minor" /> + <table class="nobrdr" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="U.S. contribution"> + <tr> + <td>Total armed forces, including Army, Navy, Marine Corps, etc.</td> + <td class="numeric">4,800,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Total men in the Army</td><td class="numeric">4,000,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Men who went overseas</td><td class="numeric">2,086,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Men who fought in France</td><td class="numeric">1,390,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Greatest number sent in one month</td><td class="numeric">306,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Greatest number returning in one month</td><td class="numeric">333,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Tons of supplies shipped from America to France</td><td class="numeric">7,500,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Total registered in draft</td><td class="numeric">24,234,021</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Total draft inductions</td><td class="numeric">2,810,296</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Greatest number inducted in one month</td><td class="numeric">400,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Graduates of Line Officers' Training Schools</td><td class="numeric">80,568</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Cost of war to April 30, 1919</td><td class="numeric">$21,850,000,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Cost of Army to April 30, 1919</td><td class="numeric">$13,930,000,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Battles fought by American troops</td><td class="numeric">13</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Months of American participation in the war</td><td class="numeric">19</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Days of battle</td><td class="numeric">200</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Days of duration of Meuse-Argonne battle</td><td class="numeric">47</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Americans in Meuse-Argonne battle</td><td class="numeric">1,200,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>American casualties in Meuse-Argonne battle</td><td class="numeric">120,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>American battle deaths in war</td><td class="numeric">50,300</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>American wounded in war</td><td class="numeric">205,690</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>American deaths from disease</td><td class="numeric">57,500</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Total deaths in the Army</td><td class="numeric">115,500</td> + </tr> + </table> + <p class="footnote"> + <a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a> + <a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> + From the <em>War with Germany</em>—<span class="smcap">A + Statistical Summary</span>, by Leonard P. Ayres, Colonel, + General Staff, U. S. A. (For statistics of American casualties + revised to the end of 1919, see Vol. III, pp. 403-6.) + </p> +</div> + +<p>The part played by the United States in the war is statistically and +graphically summarized in a compact little book prepared by Colonel +Leonard P. Ayres of the Statistical Staff of the War Department. +Attentively as the public may have followed the published reports of the +many progressive steps and stages of our preparation for and +participation in the war, much of the matter in <em>The War With +Germany—A Statistical Summary</em> will have surprising interest. It +is the first time a comprehensive view of the character and magnitude of +our war activities has been made possible through anything so concrete +and authoritative. The data were obtained from official reports, during +the war, to the President, Secretary of War and Chief-of-Staff from the +American Peace Commission in Paris, from the files of the Supreme War +Council in Versailles, and other sources; and though, as Colonel Ayres +states, it was still impossible to get final figures on some points or +wholly reliable ones on others, care was taken to insure the degree of +reliability reasonably practicable. The diagrams, figures and other +information presented here and elsewhere in this volume are reproduced +from Colonel Ayres' <em>Summary</em>, second edition, revised to August 1, +1919.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figleft"> +<img src="images/ill-281.png" width="400" height="406" +alt="Male Population Registered and Not Registered" +title="Male Population Registered and Not Registered" /> +<p class="credit">Official Government Statistics.</p> +<p class="caption">Male Population Registered and Not Registered</p></div> + +<h3>THE SELECTIVE SERVICE</h3> + +<p>"The willingness," Colonel Ayres says, "with which the American people +accepted the universal draft was the most remarkable feature in the +history of our preparation for war. It is a noteworthy evidence of the +enthusiastic support given the war program that, despite the previous +hostility to the principle of universal liability for military service, +a few months after the selective service law was passed, the standing of +the drafted soldier was fully as honorable in the estimation of his +companions and of the country in general as was that of the man who +enlisted voluntarily. Moreover, the record of desertions from the Army +shows that the total was smaller than in previous wars and a smaller +percentage occurred among drafted men than among those who volunteered. +The Selective Service Law was passed on May 19, 1917, and as +subsequently amended, it mobilized all the man power of the nation from +the ages of 18 to 45 inclusive. Under this act, 24,234,021 men were +registered and slightly more than 2,800,000 were inducted into the +military service on the first draft. But during the war, from April 6, +1917, to November 11, 1918, about 4,000,000 served in the Army of the +United States." The total number serving the armed forces of the +country, including Army, Navy, Marine Corps and other services, amounted +to 4,800,000. Approximately five men out of every 100 citizens were in +arms. Of these, 2,086,000, constituting the American Expeditionary +Force, were in service on the Western front. Those who saw actual +fighting were 1,390,000.</p> + +<p>It is interesting in this connection to record the fact that in our +greatest previous war, the Civil War, 2,400,000 men served in the +Northern Armies and in the Navy. In that struggle 10 men in each 100 +inhabitants of the Northern States served as soldiers or sailors.</p> + +<p>The fact is pointed out by Colonel Ayres that though the British sent to +France more men in their first year than we did in our first year, it +took England three years to reach a strength of 2,000,000 men in France +whereas the United States reached that strength in France in a year and +a half. But as an offset, it must be borne in mind that the British had +to use men from the beginning to fill terrible casualty gaps, which was +not the case with the American steadily building forces, and that the +British also were sending men to several other battle fronts than those +of France.</p> + +<h3>HOW THE DRAFT WAS MADE UP</h3> + +<p>Under the draft, registrants were subjected to a preliminary examination +by the local boards to determine who were not of sufficient soundness +and vigor for military life. Those accepted as qualified for service +were sent to training camps where they underwent a second examination +and rejections were made of those in any serious way defective. The not +surprising result of the examinations was the demonstration that men +representing the highest order of physical condition came from +agricultural districts, the country bred boys far excelling those reared +in the city. Taken by States it is noteworthy that men from the Middle +West and those from Kentucky and Arkansas of the Southern States had the +highest record, their physical condition enabling 70 to 80 percent. to +pass the two examinations. The lowest percentage was in the New England +States, in New York, in Michigan and in Western States that have for +years been health resorts, where subnormal persons from all over the +country resort. The percentage of men from those states who passed the +two examinations was but 50 to 59. The intermediate ranges were 60 to +69. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> + +Under the two examinations not only did country boys make a +better showing than city boys (100,000 country boys would furnish for +military service 4,700 more soldiers than would an equal number of city +boys), but the white registrants were better than the colored, the +native-born better than the alien-born. Under the analysis 100,000 +whites would furnish 1,240 more soldiers than would an equal number of +colored; and 100,000 native-born would yield 3,500 more soldiers than +would the like number of foreign-born. As 3,500 men are equivalent to an +infantry regiment at full war strength, the value of these differences +can be appreciated.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> +<img src="images/ill-282.png" width="400" height="387" +alt="Comparative Losses of Merchant Shipping During the War" +title="Comparative Losses of Merchant Shipping During the War" /> +<p class="credit">Official Government Statistics.</p> +<p class="caption">Comparative Losses of Merchant Shipping During the War</p></div> + +<p>About 200,000 commissioned officers were required for the Army. Less +than 9,000 were in the Federal Service at the beginning of the +war,—5,791 were Regulars and 3,199 were officers of the National +Guard in Federal Service. Thus out of every six officers one had had +previous training in the army, Guard or ranks; three trained for their +commissions in officers' training camps; two went from civil life into +the army with little or no military training—the latter being in +the majority physicians, ministers or technical men.</p> + +<h3>CAMPS AND TRAINING</h3> + +<p>Shelter was constructed in a few months for the accommodation of +1,800,000 men under training. For the National Guard and National Army +divisions there were 16 camps and 16 cantonments, chiefly in the North. +For National Guard Units organized during the summer of 1917 there were +canvas camps in the South. One division, the Rainbow, required no +training field, as it was assembled directly at Camp Mills for early +transportation to France. The average American soldier who went to +France received six months' training before he sailed and two months +more in a quiet sector after reaching France, before entering the battle +line.</p> + +<p>The infantry soldier was trained in the division, the American typical +unit, composed of about 1,000 officers and 27,000 men. Before the +signing of the armistice there had been trained and sent overseas 42 +divisions, the training of 12 more was well advanced and 4 others were +being organized. Had the war continued this country would have had 80 +divisions overseas before July, 1919, and 100 by the end of that year.</p> + +<p>This country had the benefit in its training camps of 547 of the ablest +French and English officers who had seen service on the Western front +and were sent over to bring to the training of our men the approved +methods developed in the experiences of the war. There were besides 226 +non-commissioned British officers detailed as instructors. Colonel Ayres +says they rendered services out of all proportion to their number, being +a significant contribution to our training program.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span></p> + +<h3>GETTING THE TROOPS OVER</h3> + +<p>Especially impressive are the figures dealing with troop movements:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"During our nineteen months of war more than 2,000,000 American soldiers +were carried to France. Half a million of these went over in the first +thirteen months, the others in the last six months.</p> + +<p>"The highest troop-carrying records are those of July, 1918, when +306,000 soldiers were carried to Europe, and June, 1919, when 364,000 +were brought home to America.</p> + +<p>"Most of the troops who sailed for France left from New York. Half of +them landed in England and the other half landed in France.</p> + +<p>"Among every 100 Americans who went over forty-nine went in British +ships, forty-five in American ships, three in Italian, two in French, +and one in Russian shipping under English control.</p> + +<p>"Our cargo ships averaged one complete trip every seventy days and our +troopships one complete trip every thirty-five days.</p> + +<p>"The cargo fleet was almost exclusively American. It reached the size of +2,700,000 dead-weight tons and carried to Europe about 7,500,000 tons of +cargo.</p> + +<p>"The greatest troopship among all the ships has been the <cite>Leviathan</cite>, +which landed 12,000 men (the equivalent of a German division) in France +every month.</p> + +<p>"The fastest transports have been the <cite>Great Northern</cite> and the <cite>Northern +Pacific</cite>, which have made complete turn-arounds, taken on new troops and +started back again in nineteen days."</p></div> + +<h3>TRANSPORTATION EXTRAORDINARY</h3> + +<p><span lang="fr">Apropos</span> of the rapid transportation Colonel Ayres says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In June (1918) with the German drives in full swing, the Allies called +on us to continue the extraordinary transportation of troops begun in +April. The early movement had been met by filling up the divisions that +sailed with the best trained men wherever they could be found. Divisions +embarked after July 1 had to meet shortages with men called to the +colors in the spring. By November the average period of training in the +United States had been shortened to close to four months, and the +average for the period July 1 to Nov. 11 was probably five months.</p> + +<p>"In the last months of the war, the induction of men was carried forward +at top speed and every device was used for hastening training. The +result fully justified the effort. Into the great Meuse-Argonne +offensive we were able to throw a force of 1,200,000 men, while we had +many thousands of troops engaged in other parts of the line. Our +training camp officers stood up to the test; our men with their +intensive drilling in open-order fighting, which has characterized +American training, routed the best of the German divisions from the +Argonne Forest and the Valley of the Meuse."</p></div> + +<h3>FEEDING AND CLOTHING PROBLEMS</h3> + +<p>When an army is 3,000 or 4,000 miles from its sources of supply the +amounts of supplies in reserve and in transit are enormous as compared +with the quantities actually consumed each month. As an example the army +purchases of blankets in 1918 were two and one-quarter times as great as +the entire American production in 1914. Put differently, the blankets +bought in one year for the use of 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 soldiers would +have been sufficient to make good the normal consumption of blankets by +100,000,000 American civilians for two and a quarter years. So +proportionately with other things, the rule for clothing was that for +every man at the front there must be a three months' reserve in France, +another two or three months' reserve in the United States and a third +three months' supply continuously in transit.</p> + +<p>The same thing was true of other supplies and munitions. The need for +reserves and the time required for transportation called for the supply +of enormous quantities and called for it at once.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>An indication of the quartermaster problem may be obtained from the fact +that between April 6, 1917, and May 31, 1918, there was delivered to the +army 131,800,000 pairs of wool stockings, 85,000,000 undershirts, +83,600,000 drawers, 30,700,000 pairs of shoes, 26,500,000 flannel +shirts, 21,700,000 blankets, 21,700,000 wool breeches, 13,900,000 wool +coats, and 8,300,000 overcoats. When the troop movement was speeded up +in 1918 Colonel Ayres states that the margin of woolen clothing was +dangerously narrow, and to secure these and other articles in sufficient +quantity it was found necessary to take control of all states of the +manufacturing process, from assembling the raw material to inspecting +the finished product.</p> + +<p>At no time was there a shortage of food in the expeditionary forces. +Soldiers sometimes went hungry in this as in all other wars, but the +condition was local and temporary. It occurred because of transportation +difficulties during periods of active fighting or rapid movement when +the units outran their rolling kitchens.</p> + +<p>In France American engineers built seventeen new ship berths and 1,000 +miles of standard and 125 miles of narrow gauge railroads. The Signal +Corps strung 100,000 miles of telephone wires, and 40,000 American made +motor trucks were shipped overseas. In this country army +construction + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> + +projects cost twice as much as the Panama Canal and were on nearly as +large a scale overseas.</p></div> + +<p>The storage space constructed in France was more than nine-tenths as +large as that built at home. The amount of food on hand from the time +the American troops entered active fighting never fell below a 45 days' +supply, and at the time of the submarine scare, was kept at 59 to 72 +days' supply.</p> + +<p>Likewise the supply of clothing arose to the emergency of combat.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The records of the quartermaster show that during the six months of +hard fighting, from June to November, the enlisted man in the A. E. F. +received on the average:</p> + +<p>"Slicker and overcoat, every 5 months; blanket, flannel shirt, and +breeches, every 2 months; coat, every 79 days; shoes and puttees, every +51 days; drawers and undershirt, every 34 days; woolen socks, every 23 +days."</p></div> + +<h3>GUNS AND MUNITIONS</h3> + +<p>When war was declared we had on hand nearly 600,000 Springfield rifles. +The American Enfield rifle was designed and manufactured. The total +production of the two up to the signing of the armistice was over +2,500,000. The production of rifle ammunition amounted to 3,500,000,000, +of which half was shipped overseas, in addition to the 200,000,000 +rounds secured from the French and British.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>During the war the Browning automatic rifle and the Browning machine gun +were developed, put into quantity production and used in large numbers +in the final battles in France. Before the war the allowance of machine +guns in the American Army was four guns to a regiment; the allowance now +is 336 to a regiment, testimony to the demonstrated importance in war of +that effective weapon. The Browning machine guns are believed to be more +effective than the corresponding weapons used in any other army.</p> + +<p>The total number of machine guns produced in America up to the end of +1918 was 226,557, of these 69,960 being of the light Browning and 56,612 +of the heavy Browning type. The Vickers field machine guns produced +totaled 12,125, the other field guns 6,366, the Lewis aircraft guns, +39,200, the Browning aircraft 580, the Marlin aircraft 38,000, and the +Vickers aircraft 3,714. Before Nov. 1, 1918, 29,000 light Brownings, +27,000 heavy Brownings, and 1,500,000,000 rounds of rifle and +machine-gun ammunition were shipped.</p> + +<p>When war was declared the United States had sufficient light artillery +to equip an army of 500,000 men, and shortly found itself confronted +with the problem of preparing to equip 5,000,000 men. To meet the +situation, it was decided in June, 1917, to allot our guns to training +purposes and to equip our forces in France with artillery conforming to +the French and British standard calibers. It was arranged that we should +purchase from the French and British the artillery needed for our first +divisions and ship them in return equivalent amounts of steel, copper +and other raw materials so that they could either manufacture guns for +us in their own factories or give us guns out of their stocks and +replace them by new ones made from our materials.</p> + +<p>Up to the end of April, 1919, the number of complete artillery units +produced in American plants was more than 3,000, or equal to all those +purchased from the French and British during the war. The number of +rounds of complete artillery ammunition produced in American plants was +in excess of 20,000,000, as compared with 10,000,000 rounds secured from +the French and British. In the first twenty months after the declaration +of war by each country, the British did better than we did in the +production of light artillery, and we excelled them in producing heavy +artillery and both light and heavy shells.</p></div> + +<h3>THE ARTILLERY SUPPLY</h3> + +<p>Colonel Ayres says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The most important single fact about our artillery in France is that we +always had a sufficient supply of light artillery for the combat +divisions that were ready for front-line service. This does not mean +that when the divisions went into the battle line they always had their +artillery with them, for in a number of cases they did not.</p> + +<p>"The result of the compilation is to show that in every 100 days that +our combat divisions were in line they were supported by their own +artillery for seventy-five days, by British artillery for five days, by +French for one and one-half days, and were without artillery for +eighteen and one-half days out of the 100. Of these eighteen and +one-half days, however, eighteen days were in quiet sectors and only +one-half of one day in each hundred was in active sectors. There are +only three records of American divisions being in an active sector +without artillery support. The total of these three cases amounts to +one-half of 1 per cent., or about fourteen hours out of the typical 100 +days just analyzed.</p> + +<p>"The facts can be summarized in round numbers with approximate accuracy +by saying that we had in France 3,500 pieces of artillery of which +nearly 500 were made in America, and we used on the firing line 2,250, +of which over 100 were made in America."</p></div> + +<h3>THE CAMPAIGN OF 1919</h3> + +<p>At the conclusion of his chapter on rifles and machine guns Colonel +Ayres has an interesting + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> + +bit of semi-critical comment on the question of foresight, of which some +desk-experts have been inclined to doubt the United States authorities +were possessed. He says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"At this point it is appropriate to comment on the fact that there are +many articles of munitions in which American production reached great +amounts by the fall of 1918 but which were not used in large quantities +at the front because the armistice was signed before big supplies of +them reached France. In the main, these munitions are articles of +ordnance and aviation equipment, involving such technical difficulties +of manufacture that their production could not be improvised or even +greatly abbreviated in time.</p> + +<p>"As the production figures are scrutinized in retrospect, and it is +realized that many millions of dollars were spent on army equipment that +was never used at the front, it seems fair to question whether prudent +foresight could not have avoided some of this expense.</p> + +<p>"Perhaps the best answer to the question is to be found in the record of +a conference that took place in the little French town of Trois +Fontaines on October 4, 1918, between Marshal Foch and the American +Secretary of War.</p> + +<p>"In that conference the Allied Commander-in-Chief made final +arrangements with the American Secretary as to the shipment of American +troops and munitions in great numbers during the fall and winter +preparatory for the campaign of 1919.</p> + +<p>"This was one day before the first German peace note and 38 days before +the end of the war, but Marshal Foch was then calling upon America to +make her great shipments of munitions and her supreme contribution of +man-power for the campaign of the following year."</p></div> + +<h3>GAS AND EXPLOSIVES</h3> + +<p>One of the striking contributions to the cause of the Allies was the +enormous quantity of smokeless powder and high explosives produced. From +April 1, 1917, to November 11, 1918, the production of smokeless powder +in the United States was 632,000,000 pounds, which was almost equal to +the combined production of France and Great Britain. But by the time the +war ended the production of smokeless powder in this country was 45 per +cent. greater than that of France and Great Britain combined.</p> + +<p>The output of high explosives, T.N.T. and others, increased rapidly from +its pre-war status to a quantity 40 percent. greater than that of Great +Britain, and nearly double the French production at the close of the +war.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The result of the high rate of production of both smokeless powder and +high explosives was that the artillery ammunition program was never +held up for lack of either the powder which hurls the bullet or the +shell from the gun, or the high explosive which makes the shell +effective when it reaches its destination."</p></div> + +<p>Colonel Ayres says of toxic gases:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"When the clouds of chlorine suddenly enveloped the British and French +lines in the Ypres salient, early in 1915, a new weapon was introduced +into the war. That it was a powerful weapon is evidenced by the fact +that during the year 1918 from 20 to 30 percent. of all our battle +casualties were due to gas.</p> + +<p>"At the time we entered the war we had practically no experience in +manufacturing toxic gases, and no existing facilities which could be +readily converted to such use. At the signing of the armistice we were +equipped to produce gas at a more rapid rate than France, England, or +Germany."</p></div> + +<h3>THE AIR SERVICE</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"On the declaration of war the United States had fifty-five training +airplanes, of which fifty-one were classified as obsolete and the other +four as obsolescent. When we entered the war the Allies made the designs +of their planes available to us and before the end of hostilities +furnished us from their own manufacture 3,800 service planes.</p> + +<p>"Aviation training schools in the United States graduated 8,602 men from +elementary courses and 4,028 from advanced courses. More than 5,000 +pilots and observers were sent overseas. The total personnel of the Air +Service, officers, students, and enlisted men, increased from 1,200 at +the outbreak of the war to nearly 200,000 at its close.</p> + +<p>"There were produced in the United States to Nov. 30, 1918, more than +8,000 training planes and more than 16,000 training engines.</p> + +<p>"The De Haviland-4 observation and day bombing plane was the only plane +the United States put into quantity production. Before the signing of +the armistice 3,227 had been completed and 1,885 shipped overseas. The +plane was successfully used at the front for three months.</p> + +<p>"The production of the 12-cylinder Liberty engine was America's chief +contribution to aviation. Before the armistice 13,574 had been +completed, 4,435 shipped to the expeditionary forces, and 1,025 +delivered to the Allies.</p> + +<p>"The first fliers in action wearing the American uniforms were members +of the Lafayette Escadrille, who were transferred to the American +service in December, 1917.</p> + +<p>"The American air force at the front grew from 3 squadrons in April to +45 in November, 1918. On Nov. 11 the 45 squadrons had an equipment of +740 planes.</p> + +<p>"Of 2,698 planes sent to the zone of the advance for American aviators +667, or nearly one-fourth, were of American manufacture. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span></p> + +<p>"American air squadrons played important rôles in the battles of +Château-Thierry, St. Mihiel, and the Meuse-Argonne. They brought +down in combat 755 enemy planes, while their own losses of planes +numbered only 357."</p> + +<p>"The squadrons were of four types: Observation squadrons, whose business +it is to make observations, take photographs, and direct artillery fire; +pursuit squadrons, using light fighting planes to protect the +observation planes at their work, to drive the enemy from the air, or to +<em>strafe</em> marching columns by machine-gun fire; the day bombers, whose +work was the dropping of bombs on railways or roads; and the night +bombers, carrying heavier bomb loads for the destruction of strategic +enemy works."</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/ill-286.png" width="800" height="726" +alt="Production of Training Planes and Engines to the End of Each Month" +title="Production of Training Planes and Engines to the End of Each Month" /> +<p class="credit">Official Government Statistics</p> +<p class="caption">Production of Training Planes and Engines to the End of Each Month</p></div> + +<p>At the armistice there were on the front 20 pursuit squadrons, 18 +observation squadrons and 7 bomber squadrons with 1,238 flying officers +and 740 service planes, in addition to which there were 23 balloon +companies.</p> + +<h3>CARGO SHIPMENTS</h3> + +<p>Altogether, from our entrance into the war through April, 1919, the Army +shipped from this side of the Atlantic nearly seven and a half million +tons (7,500,000) of cargo.</p> + +<p>Included in the cargo shipment were 1,791 consolidation locomotives of +the 100-ton type. Of these, 650 were shipped, set up on their own wheels +so that they could be unloaded in France and run off in a few hours +under their own steam.</p> + +<p>The Army also shipped 26,994 standard-gauge freight cars; motor car +trucks to the number of 47,018, and rails and fittings for the +reinforcing of French railways and for the construction of our own lines +of communications to the aggregate of 423,000 tons. The Army also +shipped 68,694 horses and mules.</p> + +<h3>SIGNAL CORPS STATISTICS</h3> + +<p>In order to operate the transportation of supplies in France the Signal +Corps strung its wires over nearly every part of that country. At the +end of the war the Signal Corps was + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> + +operating 282 telephone exchanges and 133 complete telegraph stations. +The telephone lines numbered 14,956, reaching 8,959 stations. More than +100,000 miles of wire had been strung. The peak load of operation +reached was 47,555 telegrams a day, averaging 60 words each.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/ill-287.png" width="800" height="825" +alt="Number of Battle Aeroplanes in Each Army at the Date of the Armistice" +title="Number of Battle Aeroplanes in Each Army at the Date of the Armistice" /> +<p class="credit">Official Government Statistics</p> +<p class="caption">Number of Battle Aeroplanes in Each Army at the Date of the Armistice</p></div> + +<h3>CONSTRUCTION STATISTICS</h3> + +<p>In building factories and storage warehouses for supplies as well as +housing for troops, 200,000 workmen in the United States were kept +continuously occupied for the period of the war.</p> + +<p>The operations of the Construction Division constituted what was +probably the largest contracting business ever handled in one office. +The total expenditures in this enterprise to November 11, 1918, were +about $800,000,000.</p> + +<p>Construction projects were conducted in France by the Corps of Engineers +under the services of supplies. Up to the signing of the armistice these +projects had been undertaken to the number of 831, distributed all over +France. To economize tonnage, materials were obtained in Europe as far +as possible. The Engineer Corps ran its own quarries, and its own +logging camps and saw-mills. The labor force consisted largely of +American soldiers and German prisoners, though French and English +civilians and Chinese coolies were used wherever available.</p> + +<h3>TWO HUNDRED DAYS OF BATTLE</h3> + +<p>Of our combat forces Colonel Ayres says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Two out of every three American soldiers who reached France took part +in battle. The number who reached France was 2,086,000, and of these +1,390,000 saw active service in the front line.</p> + +<p>"American combat forces were organized into divisions, which consisted +of some 28,000 officers and men. These divisions were the largest on the +Western front, since the British division numbered about 15,000 and +those of the French and Germans about 12,000 each. There were sent +overseas 42 American divisions and several hundred thousand +supplementary artillery and service of supply troops.</p> + +<p>"Of the 42 divisions that reached France 29 took part in active combat +service, while the others were used for replacements or were just +arriving during the last month of hostilities. The battle record of the +United States Army in this war is largely the history of these 29 combat +divisions. Seven of them were Regular Army divisions, 11 were organized +from the National Guard, and 11 were made up of National Army troops.</p> + +<p>"American combat divisions were in battle for 200 days, from the 25th of +April, 1918, when the first Regular division after long training in +quiet sectors, entered an active sector on the Picardy front, until the +signing of the armistice. During these 200 days they were engaged in 13 +major operations, of which 11 were joint enterprises + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> + +with the French, British, and Italians, and 2 were distinctively +American.</p> + +<p>"At the time of their greatest activity in the second week of October +all 29 American divisions were in action. They then held 101 miles of +front, or 23 percent. of the entire allied battle line. From the middle +of August until the end of the war they held, during the greater part of +the time a front longer than that held by the British. Their strength +tipped the balance of man-power in favor of the Allies, so that from the +middle of June, 1918, to the end of the war the Allied forces were +superior in numbers to those of the enemy."</p></div> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-288.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-288thumb.jpg" width="400" height="269" +alt="Our Flag in Alsace" +title="Our Flag in Alsace " /> +</a> +<p class="caption">Our Flag in Alsace</p> +<p class="description">A scene in Alsace after the armistice when American doughboys occupied a +small town. They were welcomed there by the inhabitants.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-288.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p>The total battle advances of the American divisions amounted to 782 +kilometers, or 485 miles, an average advance for each division of 17 +miles, nearly all of it against desperate enemy resistance. They +captured 63,000 prisoners, 1,378 pieces of artillery, 708 trench +mortars, and 9,650 machine guns. In June and July they helped to shatter +the enemy advance toward Paris, and to turn retreat into a triumphant +offensive.</p> + +<p>It is stated in reference to the part played by the American divisions +in the Argonne-Meuse that it was the 77th Division of New York selective +draft men that achieved the greatest advance against the +enemy—71½ kilometers, or nearly 45 miles.</p> + +<p>In that battle the American Army captured 16,059 prisoners, liberated +150 French towns and villages, and as an army penetrated 34 miles into +territory previously held by the Germans.</p> + +<h3>THE DEADLIEST WAR</h3> + +<p>In his chapter on "Health and Casualties," Colonel Ayres reminds us that +"the war was undoubtedly the bloodiest that has ever been fought." The +total battle deaths is given as 7,450,200. Russia led the death list +with 1,700,000; Germany came next with 1,600,000; France next with +1,385,300; Great Britain next with 900,000; Austria, 800,000; Italy, +364,000; Turkey, 250,000; Serbia and + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> + +Montenegro, 125,000; Belgium, 102,000; Rumania and Bulgaria 100,000 +each; the United States, 50,300; Greece, 7,000; Portugal, 2,000.</p> + +<p>Of every 100 American soldiers and sailors who took part, 2 were killed +or died of disease during the period of hostilities. Among the other +nations between 20 and 25 in every 100 were killed or died.</p> + +<p>The total deaths were greater than all the deaths in all wars for more +than one hundred years previous. In the above figures only deaths +resulting directly from action are included. The total deaths from all +causes is very much larger. Some of the armies lost more heavily through +disease and privation than from battle. With regard to civilians' deaths +due to the war, see Volume XII.</p> + +<div class="thumbbox"> +<a href="images/ill-289.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill-289thumb.jpg" width="400" height="344" +alt="Secretary of War Baker Drawing Registration Numbers" +title="Secretary of War Baker Drawing Registration Numbers" /> +</a> +<p class="credit">National Service Magazine</p> +<p class="caption">Secretary of War Baker Drawing Registration Numbers</p> +<p class="description">The head of the War Department is drawing for the first capsule after +the registration of young men who have become of age in the past year. +All told 24,000,000 names were registered in the draft.</p> +<p class="click"><a href="images/ill-289.jpg">Click for a larger image.</a></p> +</div> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></p> + +<h2>INDEX</h2> + +<table style="width:75%;" border="1" summary="index"> +<tr> +<th><a href="#Ain">A</a></th> +<th><a href="#Bin">B</a></th> +<th><a href="#Cin">C</a></th> +<th><a href="#Din">D</a></th> +<th><a href="#Ein">E</a></th> +<th><a href="#Fin">F</a></th> +<th><a href="#Gin">G</a></th> +<th><a href="#Hin">H</a></th> +<th><a href="#Iin">I</a></th> +<th><a href="#Jin">J</a></th> +<th><a href="#Kin">K</a></th> +<th><a href="#Lin">L</a></th> +<th><a href="#Min">M</a></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<th><a href="#Nin">N</a></th> +<th><a href="#Oin">O</a></th> +<th><a href="#Pin">P</a></th> +<th><a href="#Qin">Q</a></th> +<th><a href="#Rin">R</a></th> +<th><a href="#Sin">S</a></th> +<th><a href="#Tin">T</a></th> +<th><a href="#Uin">U</a></th> +<th><a href="#Vin">V</a></th> +<th><a href="#Win">W</a></th> +<th><a href="#Xin">X</a></th> +<th><a href="#Yin">Y</a></th> +<th><a href="#Zin">Z</a></th> +</tr> +</table> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Ain" id="Ain">A</a></li> +<li>Abbas Hilmi, Khedive of Egypt, pro-Turkish attitude, vi: 68.</li> +<li>Abbatiale Farm, captured by 28th Div., Oct, 4, '18, v: 239.</li> +<li>Abbeville agreement, + <ul class="index"> + <li>on U. S. military participation in War, v: I28, 284;</li> + <li>text, v: 378.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Abi Dinas, Sudanese leader, defeated at Eli Tasher, iii: 191.</li> +<li>Abo, occupied by Germans, Mar. 16, '18, i: 395.</li> +<li><cite>Aboukir</cite>, British cruiser, sunk by <cite>U-9</cite>, Sept. 22, '14, iv: 205, x: 274-280, xi: 234.</li> +<li>Absinthe, sale forbidden in France, Jan. 7, '15, i: 378.</li> +<li>Acceleration, in projectiles viii: 111.</li> +<li>Achi Baba, + <ul class="index"> + <li>key to southern Gallipoli, iii: 170;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Gallipoli Campaign.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Acre taken by British, Sept. 23, '18, iii: 199.</li> +<li>Activism, Swedish pro-German movement, vi: 394.</li> +<li>Adana, British objective in Turkish Campaigns, ii: 90.</li> +<li>Adler, Friedrich, kills Austrian Premier, Count Carl Sturgkh, Oct. 21, '16, vi: 312.</li> +<li>Adkinson, Sgt. Joseph B., gets Congressional Medal ofHonor, x: 395.</li> +<li><cite>Admiral Charner</cite>, French cruiser torpedoed, Feb. 13, '16, i: 384.</li> +<li>Ador, Gustave, becomes head of Swiss Foreign Office, vi: 380.</li> +<li>Adramyti Gulf of, British bombard Turks, Mar. 3, '15, iv: 44.</li> +<li>Adrian barracks, description, v: 8.</li> +<li>Adriatic coast, disputed territory between Latin and Slav, vi: 359.</li> +<li>Advisory Labor Council, U. S., activities, <a href="#Page_71">xii: 71</a>.</li> +<li>A. E. G. bombing airplanes, viii: 221.</li> +<li>Aerial photography, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in range-finding, ii: 126, viii: 14;</li> + <li>gun cameras, description, viii: 216;</li> + <li>value, viii: 226, 331;</li> + <li>diffculties, viii: 228;</li> + <li>U. S. photographers in War, viii: 228-235;</li> + <li>future, viii: 234;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Photography.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Aeronautics: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Airplanes, + <ul class="index"> + <li>conditions for effectiveness, ii: 123;</li> + <li>use of depth bombs by, iv: 332;</li> + <li>torpedo planes, iv: 335;</li> + <li>number shot down by U. S. pilots, v: 309;</li> + <li>as war weapon, viii: <em>Intro.</em>, xi: 214;</li> + <li>detection by sounds rangers, viii: 20;</li> + <li>machine-gun mountings on, types, viii: 86, 189-192, 196, 208-216;</li> + <li>Allied and German equipment at start of War, viii: 189;</li> + <li>Farman plane, viii: 189;</li> + <li>utility in scouting, viii: 189;</li> + <li>albatross pursuit planes, viii: 192;</li> + <li>Nieuport scout planes, viii: 192;</li> + <li>Allied and German types compared, viii: 194;</li> + <li>Spad biplanes, viii: 194;</li> + <li>General utility planes, viii: 196;</li> + <li>Gotha biplanes, viii: 196;</li> + <li>Handley-Page bombers, viii: 196, 204, 223;</li> + <li>aero engines, development of, vii: 198-200;</li> + <li>Liberty motor, viii: 199;</li> + <li>construction, essentials in, viii: 200;</li> + <li>maneuvering, types of, viii: 200;</li> + <li>Allied strength at end of war, viii: 201;</li> + <li>French types, viii: 202, 206;</li> + <li>British types, viii: 203-206;</li> + <li>British planes, viii: 203;</li> + <li>D. H. 10 British bombers, viii: 204;</li> + <li>German equipment, viii: 206;</li> + <li>Pre-War record flights, viii: 206;</li> + <li>National supremacy, viii: 207;</li> + <li>Machine-gun fire synchronizer, viii: 208;</li> + <li>aerial marksmanship, viii: 210;</li> + <li>"C. C. Gear," for timing gunfire through propeller blades, viii: 214-216;</li> + <li>navigating instruments, viii: 217-221;</li> + <li>bombing planes, types, viii: 221-224;</li> + <li>A. E. G. bombing planes, viii: 221;</li> + <li>Gotha bombers, viii: 221;</li> + <li>Lizenz bombing planes, viii: 222;</li> + <li>Caproni triplanes, viii: 223;</li> + <li>Caudron bombers, viii: 223;</li> + <li>Letord bombers, viii: 223;</li> + <li>Voisin bombers, viii: 223;</li> + <li>Breguet bombers, viii: 224;</li> + <li>spruce in aircraft construction, viii: 308;</li> + <li>signals for landing in dark, viii: 335;</li> + <li>value in directing artillery fire, viii 337, xi: 277;</li> + <li>ambulance planes, viii: 379;</li> + <li>U. S., in War, xi: 218;</li> + <li>development, xi: 219;</li> + <li>Use against submarine, xi: 239;</li> + <li>commercial uses <a href="#Page_103">xii: 103</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Aviators, + <ul class="index"> + <li>duties, iii: 392;</li> + <li>kinds of patrol, iii: 392;</li> + <li>fitness test by orientator, viii: 356-358;</li> + <li>qualifications, xi: 215.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Balloons, + <ul class="index"> + <li>development for war use, iv: 288;</li> + <li>in naval operations, iv: 289;</li> + <li>number shot down by U. S. pilots, v: 309;</li> + <li>functions and handling of captive balloons, viii: 257-264;</li> + <li>parachutes use by military balloonists, viii: 260-263;</li> + <li>hydrogen, use in inflation of, viii: 263.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Dirigibles, use in coast patrol, iv: 290; + <ul class="index"> + <li>compared with airplanes, viii: 241-245;</li> + <li>in long-distance transportation, Pg531 243-245;</li> + <li>British types, viii: 245;</li> + <li><cite>R-34</cite>, description, viii: 245, 254;</li> + <li><cite>R-34</cite>, crosses Atlantic, viii: 2445;</li> + <li>U. S. types, viii: 245, 255-257;</li> + <li>U. S. "Blimps," viii: 245, 255-257;</li> + <li>U. S. C-class, viii: 245, 255-257;</li> + <li>mooring masts, viii: 245;</li> + <li>development in different countries, iii: 254;</li> + <li><cite>R-33</cite>, sister ship of <cite>R-34</cite>, viii: 254;</li> + <li>Zeppelins, <em>see below</em> under Aeronautics.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Navigation, rules for, Peace Treaty provisions, <a href="#Page_246">xii: 246</a>.</li> + <li>Observation, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in range-finding, ii: 126, viii: 337, xi: 277;</li> + <li>uses of captive balloons, viii: 257-264;</li> + <li>utility in War, xi: 216.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Seaplanes, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in battle of Jutland, iv: 107;</li> + <li>for submarine spotting, iv: 285;</li> + <li>U. S. <cite>N-C-4</cite> first to cross Atlantic, iv: 288, viii: 240;</li> + <li>N-C flying boats, desription, viii: 236-240.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Zeppelins, progress in construction, '14—'18, viii: 241; + <ul class="index"> + <li>use during War, viii: 24-246-248;</li> + <li>description, viii: 248-254;</li> + <li>number in crew, viii: 254.</li> + <li><em>See also</em> under each country.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Airplane see Aeronautics, Airplane.</li> +<li>Afghanistan, + <ul class="index"> + <li>put outside Russian sphere by Anglo-Russian agreement, '07, i: 104;</li> + <li>friendly to England during War, vi: 78;</li> + <li>changed attitude toward British, '19, vi: 80;</li> + <li>border warfare with India, '19, vi: 81.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Africa, + <ul class="index"> + <li>dark continent, i: 10;</li> + <li>European pennetration, i: 48;</li> + <li>"spheres of influence," i: 96.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>African campaigns, iii: 250-256; + <ul class="index"> + <li>tropical peculiarities, iii: 250;</li> + <li>German handicaps, iii: 252;</li> + <li>Operations in Cameroons (Kamerun), iii: 252;</li> + <li>in Togoland, iii: 252;</li> + <li>in German Southwest Africa, iii: 253;</li> + <li>in Gernan East Africa, iii: 255.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Agirdir incident, Germany creates Moroccan crisis, July, '11, i: 104, 203.</li> +<li><cite>Agamemnon</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31;</li> + <li>hit by gun fire, iv: 43.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Agram, suppression of Jugoslav National Congress at, Mar., '18, vi: 363. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></p></li> + +<li>Ahmed Fevzi Trurkish commander at Erzerum, iii: 262.</li> +<li>Aincreville, captured by 90th Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 262.</li> +<li>Air raids, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Ludendorff's plan to burn Allied capitals, ii: 333;</li> + <li>use of Zeppelins in vii: 246;</li> + <li>success of xi: 216;</li> + <li>on: + <ul class="index"> + <li>England, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Aug. 9, '15, i: 381;</li> + <li>Aug. 17, '15, i: 381;</li> + <li>Sept. 8, '15, i: 381;</li> + <li>Oct. 13, '15, i: 382;</li> + <li>Jan. 31, '16, i: 384;</li> + <li>Mar. 1, '16, i: 384;</li> + <li>Mar. 5, '16, i: 384;</li> + <li>Mar. 19, '16, i: 384;</li> + <li>Apr. 1—3, '16, i: 385;</li> + <li>Apr. 24, '16, i: 385;</li> + <li>Aug. 9, '16, i: 386;</li> + <li>Sept. 23, '16, i: 388;</li> + <li>Sept. 25, '16, i: 388;</li> + <li>Oct. 1, '16, i: 388;</li> + <li>attacks on undefended coast towns, ii: 266, vi: 4;</li> + <li>first attack on London, iii: 41.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Paris, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Jan. 30, '16, i: 384;</li> + <li>Mar. 11, '18, i: 395.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Air Speed Indicator, for airplanes, viii: 220.</li> +<li>Aircraft, <em>see</em> Aeronautics.</li> +<li>Aire valley, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description, v: 73;</li> + <li>scene of action in Meuse-Argonne offensive, v: 225.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Airships, <em>see</em> Aeronautics.</li> +<li>Aisne, battles of: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Sept., '14, i: 375, 376, iii: 36.</li> + <li>Apr.—Nov., '17, iii: 73-76; + <ul class="index"> + <li>French start offensive, iii: 73;</li> + <li>early French success, iii: 73;</li> + <li>battle for Chemin des Dames, iii: 73;</li> + <li>Germans driven from Chemin des Dames, iii: 76.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>May 27—June 5, '18, iii: 92-95, v: 129-135; + <ul class="index"> + <li>situation before German offensive, iii: 92;</li> + <li>Soissons-Rheims salient, iii: 93;</li> + <li>Germans cross Vesle River, iii: 93;</li> + <li>Soissons captured by Germans, May 29, iii: 93;</li> + <li>Château-Thierry captured by Germans, June 1, iii: 93;</li> + <li>Germans reach Marne, iii: 93;</li> + <li>American troops check enemy, iii: 94.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Aisne-Marne offensive, v: 130, 158-183; + <ul class="index"> + <li>artillery, important feature, v: 171;</li> + <li>A. E. F. casualties, v: 179, 181.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Aisne-Meuse sector, Franco-American offensive, Nov, 1—11, '18, iii: 103.</li> +<li>Aisne-Ourcq sector, struck by Foch, '18, ii: 84.</li> +<li>Aix-les-Bains, A. E. F. leave area, "Y" work in, vii: 269.</li> +<li>Akabah, occupied by British, Nov. 3, '14, i: 376.</li> +<li>Ala, captured by Italians, May 29, '15, iii: 234.</li> +<li>Aland Island, occupied by Germans, Nov. 9, '17, i: 392.</li> +<li>Alaska, acquisition by U. S., i: 52.</li> +<li>Albania, + <ul class="index"> + <li>primitiveness of people, i: 92;</li> + <li>William of Wied becomes ruler, i: 206;</li> + <li>Allied offensive in, July, '18, i: 397;</li> + <li>Serbians retreat into, iii: 160;</li> + <li>Italy takes possession, Dec. '14, vi: 120;</li> + <li>promised to Italy, '15, vi: 361.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Albatross pursuit planes, viii: 192.</li> +<li>Albert, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by British, ii: 157, iii: 98;</li> + <li>captured by Germans in second Somme battle, iii: 89.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Albert, Dr. Heinrich, German propagandist in U. S., i: 133, x: 327.</li> +<li>Albert, King of Belgians, biography, ix: 385-391, xi: 128-131.</li> +<li><cite>Albert of Belgium</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>poem by Dana Burnet, i: 228;</li> + <li>by Dorothy S. Phillips, ix: 391.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Albion</cite>, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31.</li> +<li>Albrecht, Grand Duke of Württemberg, army commands, ii: 184, iii: 10.</li> +<li><cite>Alcantara</cite>, British armed liner, sinks German <cite>Greif</cite>, iv: 200.</li> +<li><cite>Alcedo</cite>, American ship torpedoed, Nov. 6, '17, i: 392.</li> +<li>Aldis Optical Sight, use in aerial marksmanship, viii: 211.</li> +<li>Aleppo, captured by British, Oct. 25, '18, iii: 200.</li> +<li>Alexander, Crown Prince of Serbia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>re-enters Belgrade, Dec. 15, '14, iii: 397;</li> + <li>foreign policy, vi: 355;</li> + <li>head of united Jugoslavs, vi: 366.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Alexanderson alternator, for generation of radio waves, viii: 316-318.</li> +<li>Alexandria, captured by Germans, Nov., '16, i: 389, iii: 222.</li> +<li>Alexieff, Gen. Michael Vassilivitch, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands Russian forces in Poland, iii: 140;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 238.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Algeciras Conference, '06, i: 86, 99, 203.</li> +<li>Algeria, French occupation of, i: 37.</li> +<li><cite>Algonquin</cite>, American steamer sunk by U-boat, Mar. 2, '17, i: 349.</li> +<li>All-American (82nd) Division, <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>All-Russian Congress of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates, convention of, '17, vi: 164.</li> +<li>All-Russian Government of Siberia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>formation, vi: 191;</li> + <li>collapse, vi: 193.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Allen, Corp. Jake, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.</li> +<li>Allen, Maj.-Gen. Henry T., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands 90th Div., v: 196;</li> + <li>in St. Mihiel drive, v: 202.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Allenby, Gen. Sir Edmund H. H., + <ul class="index"> + <li>British commander in Palestine, ii: 90, iii: 193;</li> + <li>defeats Turks, ii: 92, 218, v: 213;</li> + <li>captures Jerusalem, ii: 92, iii: 322, xi: 48;</li> + <li>strategy of Palestine campaign, ii: 93;</li> + <li>at first battle of Ypres, ii: 171;</li> + <li>commands British cavalry at Mons retreat, iii: 25;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 194-199.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Allenstein, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russians defeated at, Aug. 26, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>occupied by Russians, iii: 111.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Alliances, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Holy Alliance, + <ul class="index"> + <li>formation, i: 33;</li> + <li>conflict of European, i: 93-101;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Three Emperors' League, i: 95;</li> + <li>Triple Alliance, i: 95, 208, 255, ii: 4, 48, vi: 115;</li> + <li>Entente Cordiale, between France and Russia, i: 98;</li> + <li>Triple Entente, i: 98, 103, 106, 146, 218, 220, ii: 2;</li> + <li>Anglo-Japanese, '05, '11, i: 104, 107;</li> + <li>Balkan League, i: 204;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under name of alliance.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Allied Home for Munition Workers, vii: 108.</li> +<li>Allies, + <ul class="index"> + <li>superiority in inventiveness, i: <em>Intro. ix</em>;</li> + <li>agree not to make separate peace, i: 146;</li> + <li>defensive policy compared with German aggression, ii: 1;</li> + <li>lack unity of command, ii: 22, 40, 58, 230, iii: 55;</li> + <li>unsuccessful in all theaters of War during '15, ii: 36, 50;</li> + <li>unite command under Foch, ii: 40, 218, v: 120, 214;</li> + <li>man-power, ii: 82, 115, 154, iii: 403;</li> + <li>"Will to win" <em>vs.</em> German efficiency, ii: 100;</li> + <li>underestimate German strength, ii: 101;</li> + <li>propaganda among German troops, ii: 321;</li> + <li>plan of campaign against German invasion of France, iii: 8;</li> + <li>Balkan blunder, iii: 156;</li> + <li>fail to support Rumania, iii: 214;</li> + <li>casualties, iii: 404;</li> + <li>prisoners of war, iii: 404;</li> + <li>war aims, iv: 6;</li> + <li>military position, '17, iv: 10;</li> + <li>lack aggressive plan in Mediterranean, iv: 13;</li> + <li>gain superiority in air for first time, Sept., '18, v: 206;</li> + <li>make simultaneous attacks on all fronts, Sept., '18, v: 213;</li> + <li>appeal for U. S. troops, v: 373-375, 378;</li> + <li>secret treaty with Italy, Apr., '15, vi: 122, 361;</li> + <li>send troops to Russia, vi: 187;</li> + <li>intervene in Siberia, vi: 192;</li> + <li>intervene in Austria, '19, vi: 320;</li> + <li>occupy Hungary, '19, vi: 325;</li> + <li>secret treaties, '16—'17, dispose of Asiatic Turkey, vi: 334;</li> + <li>overcome German superiority in artillery, viii: 36;</li> + <li>war cost, <a href="#Page_27">xii: 27</a>, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>plan of economic boycott against Germany, <a href="#Page_102">xii: 102</a>;</li> + <li>rise in national debts, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>;</li> + <li>list of "Allied and Associated Powers" against Germany, <a href="#Page_179">xii: 179</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Allworth, Capt. Edward S., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 391.</li> +<li>Almereyda, traitorous editor of <cite>Bonnet Rouge</cite>, vi: 105.</li> +<li><cite>Alnwick Castle</cite>, British ship sunk without warning, Mar. 19, '17, iv: 230.</li> +<li>Alpini, description, ii: 242.</li> +<li>Alsace-Lorraine, + <ul class="index"> + <li>early history, i: 210-212;</li> + <li>annexed by Germany, 1871, i: 212;</li> + <li>formed into <cite>Reichsland</cite>, i: 213;</li> + <li>German dictatorship in, i: 213;</li> + <li>fidelity to France during War, i: 215;</li> + <li>German immigration into, i: 215;</li> + <li>German constitution for, '11, i: 215;</li> + <li>French invasion of, during War, i: 375, 376, iii: 14-21;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty provisions for return to France, <a href="#Page_194">xii: 194-197</a>;</li> + <li>exempt from share in German national debt, <a href="#Page_226">xii: 226</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Altimeter, airplane altitude indicator, viii: 220.</li> +<li>Altkirch, taken by French Aug. 7, '14, iii: 16.</li> +<li>Alvensleben, G. C. A. von, German financier and spy, sensational career, x: 363-368. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></p></li> + +<li><cite>Amalfi</cite>, Italian cruiser sunk by Austrian U-boat, July 7, '15, i: 380, iv: 369.</li> +<li>Amara, taken by British, May, '15, iii: 181.</li> +<li>Ambrine, use in treatment of burns, viii: 290.</li> +<li>Ambulance, + <ul class="index"> + <li>first use, vii: 9;</li> + <li>Red Cross companies, location, vii: 30-31;</li> + <li>difficulties of transporting wounded, viii: 376;</li> + <li>improved types of stretchers, viii: 377;</li> + <li>drawn by dogs, viii: 379;</li> + <li>airplane ambulances, viii: 379;</li> + <li>hospital trains, viii: 380;</li> + <li>perils of driving, x: 92.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>American Committee for Armenian and Syrian Relief, vii: 92.</li> +<li>American Committee for Devastated France, vii: 92.</li> +<li>American Committee for Relief of Belgian Prisoners in Germany, vii: 88.</li> +<li>American Escadrille, <em>see</em> Lafayette Escadrille.</li> +<li>A. E. F., <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>American Fund for French Wounded, vii: 89.</li> +<li>American Jewish Committee, + <ul class="index"> + <li>relief for Belgium, vii: 350;</li> + <li>relief for Palestine, vii: 350;</li> + <li>organization, vii: 354.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>American Relief Administration, + <ul class="index"> + <li>for feeding newly liberated peoples, <a href="#Page_141">xii: 141</a>;</li> + <li>Herbert Hoover director-general, <a href="#Page_141">xii: 141</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>American Students' Committee of École des Beaux Arts, vii: 108.</li> +<li>American Women's War Relief Fund, vii: 89, 91.</li> +<li>Amerongen, residence of Kaiser after abdication, vi: 278.</li> +<li>Ames, Winthrop, helps start Over-There Theater League, vii: 339.</li> +<li>Amiens, + <ul class="index"> + <li>strategic importance, ii: 69;</li> + <li>German attacks on, unsuccessful, Apr., '18, ii: 152, 314, iii: 389;</li> + <li>British offensive, Aug. 8, '18, ii: 281.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Aminullah Khan, murders father and succeeds to throne of Afghanistan, vi: 81.</li> +<li>Ammunition: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Bullets, + <ul class="index"> + <li>component parts, viii: 1;</li> + <li>steel-piercing, viii: 60-64;</li> + <li>Clay armor-piercing, description, viii: 60-63;</li> + <li>advantages of sharp-nosed, viii: 93;</li> + <li>types used in aerial fighting, viii: 211-214;</li> + <li>U. S. war output of rifle ammunition, <a href="#Page_284">xii: 284</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Explosives, + <ul class="index"> + <li>function, viii: 1;</li> + <li>detonation compared with explosion, viii: 1;</li> + <li>explosive <em>compound</em> and explosive <em>mixture</em> compared, viii: 2;</li> + <li>black powder, viii: 2;</li> + <li>guncotton, viii: 2;</li> + <li>nitrogen necessary in, viii: 2;</li> + <li>driving power of gunpowder, viii: 2;</li> + <li>smokeless powder, viii: 4;</li> + <li>primers, viii: 6;</li> + <li>composition and properties of different kinds, viii: 6;</li> + <li>cordite, viii: 6;</li> + <li>trinitrotoluol (T.N.T.), viii: 6;</li> + <li>ballistic tests, viii: 7;</li> + <li>muzzle flash, viii: 7;</li> + <li>manufacture, xi: 282-284;</li> + <li>U. S. war production, + <ul class="index"> + <li>of smokeless powder, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>;</li> + <li>of high explosives, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>;</li> + <li>of T.N.T., <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Shells, + <ul class="index"> + <li>high explosive, compared with shrapnel, ii: 288;</li> + <li>non-ricochet, iv: 333;</li> + <li>star, iv: 334, viii: 77;</li> + <li>gas, U. S. production, v: 324;</li> + <li>kinds, viii: 8;</li> + <li>used by U. S. 3-in. field guns, viii: 23;</li> + <li>structure of "Big Bertha" shells, viii: 46;</li> + <li>illuminating shells and bombs, viii: 74;</li> + <li>rifle lights, viii: 75;</li> + <li>reason for rotating motion in flight, viii: 110;</li> + <li>forces determining path of flight, viii: 111-112;</li> + <li>computation of air resistance, viii: 113;</li> + <li>U. S. war production of artillery ammunition, <a href="#Page_284">xii: 284</a>;</li> + <li>shrapnel, <em>see below</em>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Shrapnel, compared with high explosive shell, ii: 287; + <ul class="index"> + <li>invention, viii: 72;</li> + <li>description, viii: 72;</li> + <li>manufacture, viii: 72-74.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Amputation, new method of, viii: 367.</li> +<li>Anatolia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>area, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Anatolian Railway Co., gets concessions in Turkey, 1888, ii: 292.</li> +<li><cite>Ancona</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Austria-Hungary promises reparation for sinking, i: 326, 384;</li> + <li>controversy between U. S. and Austria-Hungary over sinking, summary, i: 361;</li> + <li>torpedoed by Austrian U-boat, i: 382, iv: 223.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ancre sector, British offensive, ii: 212, iii: 64, 66.</li> +<li>Anderson, Sgt. Johannes S., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.</li> +<li>Andrassy, Count Julius, + <ul class="index"> + <li>member Hungarian Independence Party, vii: 311;</li> + <li>statement on Communist Government, vii: 328.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Andrews, Brig.-Gen. Avery D., Chief of G-1, G. H. Q., A. E. F., Sept., '17, v: 102.</li> +<li>Anglo-French Loan, floated in U. S., <a href="#Page_111">xii: 111</a>.</li> +<li>Annunzio, Gabriele D', <em>see</em> D'Annunzio.</li> +<li>Anti-aircraft guns, + <ul class="index"> + <li>range, ii: 264;</li> + <li>effectiveness, v: 308.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Anti-din compound, amount issued by U. S. Army, v: 324.</li> +<li><cite>Antilles</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>U. S. transport torpedoed, Oct. 17, '17, i: 392, iv: 337;</li> + <li>eye-witness account, iv: 337.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Antioch, captured by British, Jan. 30, '18, i: 393.</li> +<li>Antivari, surrender to Austrians, Jan. 20, '16, i: 384.</li> +<li>Antwerp, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Belgian Government moves to, Aug. '17, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>captured by Germans, Oct. 8, '14, i: 376, ii: 143, 168, iii: 15;</li> + <li>strategic value controlled by Dutch, vi: 375.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Anzac Cove, landing place of British troops at Gallipoli, ii: 30, iii: 170.</li> +<li>Anzacs, <em>see</em> Gallipoli Campaign.</li> +<li>Apponyi, Count Albert, + <ul class="index"> + <li>advocates war, vi: 307;</li> + <li>leader of Hungarian Independence Party, vi: 311.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Aprémont, + <ul class="index"> + <li>location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199;</li> + <li>captured by 28th Div., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Arabia, revolt against Turkey, iii: 196, vi: 333.</li> +<li><cite>Arabia</cite>, British steamer sunk by U-boat, Nov. 6, '16, i: 334.</li> +<li><cite>Arabic</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British steamer sunk by U-boat, Aug. 19, '15, i: 323, 381, iv: 223, xi: 20;</li> + <li>loss of life in sinking, i: 323;</li> + <li>controversy between U. S. and Germany on sinking, summary, i: 361.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Arabs, with Turkish forces invading Egypt, iii: 190.</li> +<li>Arbitration, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Tribunal established by First Hague Conference, i: 94;</li> + <li>international treaties of, i: 103.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Archangel, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Allies land forces at, Apr. 21, '18, i: 395;</li> + <li>limited value as port, iii: 161;</li> + <li>A. E. F. sent to fight Bolsheviki, v: 394, vi: 187.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Archangel, Mt., French attack Bulgars, Nov. 9—19, '15, iii: 204.</li> +<li>Ardahan, Turks defeated by Russians at, Jan. 3—4, '15, i: 378.</li> +<li>Ardennes, + <ul class="index"> + <li>strategic importance, ii: 6;</li> + <li>topography, ii: 87, v: 73;</li> + <li>French retire from, Aug., '14, iii: 20.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Arditi, description, ii: 240.</li> +<li><cite>Arethusa</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British cruiser sunk by mine, Feb. 14, '16, i: 384;</li> + <li>in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240;</li> + <li>sinks German <cite>Blücher</cite> at Dogger Bank, iv: 247.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Argentine, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German population of, i: 79;</li> + <li>ultimatum to Germany, Sept. 22, '17, i: 390;</li> + <li>neutrality, vi: 389;</li> + <li>soviet riots, '19, vi: 389.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Arges River, Rumanian stand at, iii: 222.</li> +<li>Argonne Forest, + <ul class="index"> + <li>military topography, v: 73, 217, 234;</li> + <li>battle of, <em>see</em> Meuse-Argonne Offensive.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Ariadne</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German cruiser in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240;</li> + <li>sunk, iv: 241.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Arietal Farm, taken by 26th Inf., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240.</li> +<li><cite>Ark Royal</cite>, mother-ship for British aircraft at Gallipoli, iv: 43.</li> +<li>Armaments, + <ul class="index"> + <li>international movement for reduction, i: <em>Intro. xi</em>;</li> + <li>battleships, xi: 280-282.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Armenia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>military operations in, iii: 260-263;</li> + <li>massacres in, by Turks, iii: 405, vi: 331;</li> + <li>early history, vi: 231;</li> + <li>fate under secret treaties of '16—'17, vi: 334;</li> + <li>independent government established. Aug., '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Armenian and Syrian Relief, American Committee for, vii: 92. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></p></li> + +<li>Armentières, + <ul class="index"> + <li>occupied by Germans, Apr., '18, i: 395, ii: 75, iii: 359;</li> + <li>recaptured by British, Oct. 2, 18, i: 399, iii: 101.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Armies, <em>see under</em> name of country.</li> +<li>Armies of Occupation, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Allied, expense to be paid by Germany, <a href="#Page_226">xii: 226</a>;</li> + <li>conditions for withdrawal, <a href="#Page_261">xii: 261</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Armistice, + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Bulgaria, Sept. 30, '18, i: 399, vi: 347;</li> + <li>with Germany, Nov. 11, '18, i: 399, iii: 402, iv: 142-144, v: 391, vi: 271, xi: 54;</li> + <li>false report in U. S., of signing, Nov. 7, i: 399, iii: 400;</li> + <li>terms extended, Dec. 11, '18, i: 399;</li> + <li>with Austria-Hungary, Nov. 3, '18, iii: 400;</li> + <li>celebrations, iii: 402;</li> + <li>with Turkey, Oct. 31, '18, vi: 334.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Armor, use in modern warfare, viii: 59, 69.</li> +<li>Army Educational Commission, American Y. M. C. A., vii: 282.</li> +<li>Army of Occupation, <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>Army schools, U. S., <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>Arnim, Gen. von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander 6th German Army Corps, iii: 14;</li> + <li>launches last attack on Ypres, iii: 360.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Arras, + <ul class="index"> + <li>battle of, Apr., '17, ii: 341, iii: 70-72;</li> + <li>Vimy Ridge captured by Canadians, iii: 70;</li> + <li>British capture "Oppy Line," iii: 72;</li> + <li>German casualties, iii: 72;</li> + <li>results, iii: 72.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Arras-Roye sector, British offensive, Mar., '17, iii: 68.</li> +<li>Arsiero, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Austrians, May 28, '16, i: 385, iii: 238;</li> + <li>retaken by Italians, June 27, '16, i: 386.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Artificial eyes, for war blind, viii: 391.</li> +<li>Artificial limbs, for war cripples, viii: 384-390.</li> +<li>Artillery: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Anti-aircraft, v: 308.</li> + <li>Bore, + <ul class="index"> + <li>explained, viii: 7, 111;</li> + <li>bore pressure in modern guns, viii: 7;</li> + <li>rifling, viii: 7, 111.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Durability, viii: 7, 26, xi: 280.</li> + <li>Field, + <ul class="index"> + <li>French 75-mm. gun, ii: 287;</li> + <li>German and Austrian, viii: 22;</li> + <li>structure and operation, viii: 22;</li> + <li>U. S. pre-War equipment, viii: 22-25;</li> + <li>U. S. 3-in. gun, viii: 23;</li> + <li>U. S. 2.95-in. mountain gun, viii: 24;</li> + <li>U. S. 4.7-in. gun, viii: 24;</li> + <li>development of light guns to accompany infantry, viii: 140;</li> + <li>French 37-mm. quick firers, viii: 140.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Heavy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>mobile German guns, ii: 287;</li> + <li>German superiority, ii: 288;</li> + <li>U. S. Naval Batteries on Western Front, iv: 323, viii: 42-45;</li> + <li>use in offensive, v: 304;</li> + <li>French 155-mm. G. P. F. gun, v: 308;</li> + <li>U. S. railway-mount guns, viii: 36-39;</li> + <li>U. S. caterpillar-mount guns, viii: 39;</li> + <li>long-range bombardment of Paris, viii: 45-47, xi: 271-274;</li> + <li>structure of shells hitting Paris, viii: 46;</li> + <li>super-range guns impractical, viii: 47;</li> + <li>U. S. 121-mile range super-gun, viii: 48-51;</li> + <li>British naval super-guns, viii: 53;</li> + <li>manufacture of big guns, viii: 54-58;</li> + <li>shell velocity of, viii: 314;</li> + <li>destructive power of 16-in. gun, viii: 336;</li> + <li>kinds used during War, xi: 274;</li> + <li>naval, xi: 280-282.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Howitzers, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Skoda, viii: 22, xi: 278;</li> + <li>U. S. pre-War types, viii: 24;</li> + <li>U. S. railway-mount types, viii, 38, 39;</li> + <li>French 520-mm. (21-in.) gun, viii: 51-53;</li> + <li>use against forts and trench systems, xi: 274.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Importance, Field Marshal Haig's report on, ii: 123-131.</li> + <li>Mortars, + <ul class="index"> + <li>limitations, viii: 30;</li> + <li>range of latest U. S. types, viii: 31;</li> + <li>German 11-in. siege mortars, viii: 34-36;</li> + <li>absence of rifling in bore, viii: 112;</li> + <li>device for rotating shell during flight, viii: 112;</li> + <li>functions, viii: 118;</li> + <li>Stokes mortar, viii: 141;</li> + <li>trench mortars captured by A. E. F., <a href="#Page_288">xii: 288</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Range-finding, + <ul class="index"> + <li>muzzle velocity, viii: 7;</li> + <li>by sight, viii: 8-14;</li> + <li>telescopic range-finder, viii: 9;</li> + <li>problem of marksmanship, viii: 10-13;</li> + <li>use of aircraft in, viii: 13;</li> + <li>by sound, viii: 14-16;</li> + <li>use of photography in, viii: 14;</li> + <li>direct and indirect fire, viii: 28;</li> + <li>zones of fire, viii: 32;</li> + <li>altering range by change of projectile and powder charge, viii: 32;</li> + <li>air-resistance to flying projectile, viii: 113.</li> + <li><em>See also</em> under each country.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Artistic rights, Peace Treaty provisions for re-establishment of, <a href="#Page_244">xii: 244-246</a>.</li> +<li>Artois, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Allied offensive in, '15, ii: 148, iii: 46;</li> + <li>battle of, May, '14, iii: 42.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Asiago, Austrians reach, May 28, '16, i: 385, iii: 238.</li> +<li>Asir, Principate of, established, '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> +<li><cite>Askold</cite>, Russian cruiser at Gallipoli, iv: 41.</li> +<li>Asquith, Herbert Henry, + <ul class="index"> + <li>responsibility for Gallipoli disaster, ii: 198, 200, 202, 204;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 30-35.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Association of Highland Societies of Edinburgh, viii: 95.</li> +<li>Astor, Mrs. Vincent, "Y" worker in Paris, vii: 267.</li> +<li><cite>Asturias</cite>, British hospital ship torpedoed, Mar. 20, '17, iv: 232.</li> +<li>Athletics, for A. E. F., <em>see</em> Sports.</li> +<li>Atkins, Tommy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>nickname for British soldier, origin of, vi: 230;</li> + <li>fighting qualities, xi: 181-189.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Atrocities, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German, summary of crimes, i: 400;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's explanation, ii: 346;</li> + <li>burning of Louvain, iii: 273-277;</li> + <li>in Marne district, iii: 297-300;</li> + <li>at Senlis, iii: 334-337;</li> + <li>in Belgium, vi: 84;</li> + <li>destruction of Rheims Cathedral, vi: 97.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Aubers Ridge, battle of, iii: 42.</li> +<li><cite>Audacious</cite>, British battleship sunk by U-boat, Oct. 27, '14, i: 376.</li> +<li>Audenarde, taken by 91st Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 279.</li> +<li>Auffenberg, Gen. von, commands Austrian army invading Poland, iii: 118.</li> +<li>Augustovo, battle of, German defeat at, iii: 118.</li> +<li>Australia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>war casualties, iii: 404, 405;</li> + <li>army strength, iii: 405;</li> + <li>naval strength, iv: 58;</li> + <li>history prior to '14, vi: 37;</li> + <li>area and population, vi: 37;</li> + <li>pro-War platform of Liberal Party, vi: 39;</li> + <li>recruiting opposed by Socialists, vi: 40;</li> + <li>conscription opposed by Labor Party, vii: 41, 42;</li> + <li>conscription defeated by referendum, Oct., '16, vi: 41;</li> + <li>labor unrest, '16, vi: 42;</li> + <li>Labor Party split on conscription, vi: 42;</li> + <li>coalition government formed, Feb., '17, vi: 42;</li> + <li>"Commonwealth War Government" takes office, Feb., '17, vi: 42;</li> + <li>Australian Workers' Union, similar to American Federation of Labor, vi: 45;</li> + <li>"One Big Union" movement, vi: 45;</li> + <li>labor vote defeats conscription referendum second time, '17, vi: 45;</li> + <li>war legislation by Nationalists, vi: 45;</li> + <li>soviet government favored by labor, vi: 46;</li> + <li>war cost, Aug., '14—Mar., '19, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>rise in public debt, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Conference delegates, <a href="#Page_179">xii: 179</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Austria, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Republic established, Nov. 13, '18, vi: 318;</li> + <li>Germany acknowledges independence of, '19, <a href="#Page_197">xii: 197</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Austria-Hungary: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German estimate of effectiveness, ii: 4;</li> + <li>pre-War organization, iii: 7, 105;</li> + <li>requirements reduced, '15, vi: 311;</li> + <li>for military operations, <em>see</em> name of campaign.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Blockade of, vi: 253; + <ul class="index"> + <li>food shortage due to, vi: 312.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Casualties, + <ul class="index"> + <li>total in War, ii: 116, iii: 404;</li> + <li>battle deaths, v: 363;</li> + <li>Aug., '14—Aug., '15, vi: 311;</li> + <li>money equivalent of manpower lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Coal, production, '13—'17, <a href="#Page_48">xii: 48</a>.</li> + <li>Cost of living, per cent. rise during War, <em>Intro. x.</em></li> + <li>Declarations of war, + <ul class="index"> + <li>ultimatum to Serbia, July 23, '14, i: 112, 375, vi: 306, 357, xi: 4;</li> + <li>on Serbia, July 28, '14, 1: 115, 375;</li> + <li>reasons for war on Serbia, i: 243;</li> + <li>on Russia, Aug. 6, '14, i: 375; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></p></li> + + <li>by Great Britain, Aug. 12, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>on Belgium, Aug. 28, '14, 1: 375;</li> + <li>by Rumania, Aug. 27, '16, 1: 386;</li> + <li>diplomatic relations broken with U. S., Apr. 8, '17, i: 389;</li> + <li>by China, Aug. 14, '17, i: 390;</li> + <li>by U. S., Dec. 7, '17, i: 393.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Food shortage, vi: 312, 314, 317, 321; + <ul class="index"> + <li>forces demand for peace, vi: 314, 317;</li> + <li>cause of revolt, Apr., '19, vi: 321.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Foreign policy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German foreknowledge of ultimatum to Serbia, i: 8, 133-136, 252;</li> + <li>not a colonizing nation, i: 37;</li> + <li>Austro-Prussian War, 1866, i: 41;</li> + <li>world position in 1871, i: 47;</li> + <li>gets control of Bosnia-Herzegovina, i: 50;</li> + <li>subservience to Germany, i: 79, 133;</li> + <li>joins Triple Alliance, i: 95;</li> + <li>annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina, i: 109;</li> + <li>ultimatum to Serbia, July 23, '14, i: 112, 375, vi: 306, 357, xi: 4;</li> + <li>during last days before War, i: 126;</li> + <li>unity of Austro-German interests, i: 208;</li> + <li>reasons for war on Serbia, i: 243;</li> + <li>antagonism to Russia, vi: 306;</li> + <li>antagonism to Italy, vi: 308;</li> + <li>ambition to incorporate Jugoslavs in Empire, vi: 355;</li> + <li>opposition to Serbian aspirations, vi: 356;</li> + <li>anti-Slav policy, vi: 360;</li> + <li>suppression of Czechoslovak nationalism, vi: 396.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Internal conditions, + <ul class="index"> + <li>race rivalries, i: 21, ii: 63, vi: 306;</li> + <li>loyalty of German elements, vi: 307;</li> + <li>revolution suppressed, '14, vi: 308;</li> + <li>effect of Italian declaration of war, vi: 309;</li> + <li>parliamentary disturbances, '15—'16, vi: 311;</li> + <li>labor troubles, vi: 311, 314;</li> + <li>revolution threatened, '16, vi: 313;</li> + <li>revolution breaks out, '18, vi: 317;</li> + <li>Republic established, Nov. 13, '18, vi: 318;</li> + <li>Bolshevism, vi: 319.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>National anthem, xi: 332.</li> + <li>Navy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>development, iv: 364;</li> + <li>surrender to Jugoslavs, vi: 364;</li> + <li><cite>Monarch</cite> sunk, x: 290;</li> + <li><cite>Wien</cite> sunk, x: 290;</li> + <li><cite>Viribus Unitis</cite> sunk by Italians in Pola harbor, x: 297-303.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Peace negotiations, + <ul class="index"> + <li>proposal to U. S. through Swedish minister, Sept. 16, '18, i: 397;</li> + <li>appeal to U. S., Oct. 7, '18, i: 399;</li> + <li>asks U. S. for armistice, Oct. 27—29, '18, i: 399;</li> + <li>Emperor Charles' secret peace offer, '17, ii: 63, vi: 315;</li> + <li>asks Italy for armistice, ii: 252;</li> + <li>armistice signed, Nov. 3, '18, iii: 400, vi: 271, xi: 52;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty terms, vi: 321;</li> + <li>armistice terms, vi: 364.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Population, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in 1860, i: 40;</li> + <li>German, i: 79, vi: 306;</li> + <li>Hungarian, i: 79;</li> + <li>Slav, i: 79.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Press, + <ul class="index"> + <li><cite>Tageblatt</cite> demands war, '14, vi: 306;</li> + <li>attack on Italy, '15, vi: 310;</li> + <li>attitude on labor strikes, '18, vi: 314;</li> + <li><cite>Arbeiter Zeitung</cite> preaches radicalism, vi: 315;</li> + <li>comment on peace terms, vi: 322.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Prisoners of war, iii: 404.</li> + <li>War cost, + <ul class="index"> + <li>money equivalent of man-power lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>value of property loss, <a href="#Page_26">xii: 26</a>;</li> + <li>average daily war cost, <a href="#Page_106">xii: 106</a>;</li> + <li>total war cost, July, '14—Oct., '19, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>rise in national debt, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Authe, seized by 79th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266.</li> +<li>Autocracy, destruction of, by War, i: <em>Intro. x.</em></li> +<li>Autrecourt, captured by 77th Div., Nov. 6, '18, v: 269.</li> +<li>Averescu, Gen., Rumanian commander in Wallachia, iii: 222.</li> +<li>Aviators, <em>see</em> Aeronautics.</li> +<li>Avlona, occupied by Italy, Dec., '14, vi: 120.</li> +<li>Avocourt Woods, + <ul class="index"> + <li>French retire from, Mar. 21, '16, i: 384;</li> + <li>scene of fierce battle at Verdun, iii: 51.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Ayesha, S. S.</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>Emden's</em> landing party escapes from Keeling Island in, iv: 186, 191;</li> + <li>abandoned, iv: 192.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Aylmer, Gen., commands British force sent to relieve Kut-el-Amara, iii: 184.</li> +<li>Ayres, Col. Leonard P., extracts from <em>The War with Germany—a Statistical Summary</em>, by, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280-289</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Bin" id="Bin">B</a></li> +<li>Babtie, Surg.-Gen. responsibility for lack of medical service in Mesopotamia, iii: 367.</li> +<li>"Babushka," pet name of Catherine Breshkovsky, q.v., ix: 348.</li> +<li>Baccarat sector, + <ul class="index"> + <li>assigned to A. E. F., v: 11;</li> + <li>training area for 42nd Div., v: 118.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bacteriology, in disease prevention, vii: 253.</li> +<li>Badonviller, German attack at, v: 21, 28.</li> +<li>Bagdad, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by British, Mar. 11, '17, i: 389, ii: 92, iii: 187, xi: 29, 48;</li> + <li>description, iii: 332.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bagdad Railway, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German plan for connecting Berlin with Bagdad, i: 80;</li> + <li>Anglo-German agreement for joint control, '14, i: 200, ii: 13, 295;</li> + <li>menaced by Serbia, ii: 33;</li> + <li>"largest single factor in bringing on the War," ii: 290;</li> + <li>beginnings, 1871, ii: 291;</li> + <li>Anatolian Railway Co. gets concessions in Turkey, 1888, ii: 292;</li> + <li>Germans get concession to build road from Haidar Pasha to Angora, 1888, ii: 292;</li> + <li>British oppose German concessions, ii: 292;</li> + <li>German Emperor visits Sultan, 1898, ii: 292;</li> + <li><span lang="fr">La Société Impériale Ottomane du Chemin de Fer de Bagdad</span>, terms of concession to, ii: 292;</li> + <li>Germans get privilege to extend line to Bagdad, ii: 292;</li> + <li>clash of European interests, ii: 292;</li> + <li>compromise of clashing interests, ii: 294;</li> + <li>sections finished, Aug., '14, ii: 294;</li> + <li>Pan-German policy, ii: 296;</li> + <li>internationalization, ii: 297;</li> + <li>cut by fall of Nish, Oct., '18, iii: 213;</li> + <li>opened, '15, vi: 258;</li> + <li>route, xi: 4.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bagley, Lieut.-Com. David W., commander of U. S. destroyer <cite>Jacob Jones</cite>, sunk by U-boat, iv: 346.</li> +<li>Bailey, Maj.-Gen. Charles J., commands 81st Div., v: 197.</li> +<li>Bailleul, captured by Germans, iii: 360.</li> +<li>Bainsizza Plateau, Italian offensive, Aug., '17, ii: 58, iii: 240.</li> +<li>Baker, Newton D., + <ul class="index"> + <li>biography, ix: 323-326;</li> + <li>conference with Marshal Foch at Trois Fontaines, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bakeries, constructed by A. E. F. in France, v: 333, 400.</li> +<li>Bakhireff, Vice-Adm., commands Russians in battle of Riga Gulf, iv: 366.</li> +<li>Balance of Power, early wars for, i: 28.</li> +<li>Balfour, Rt. Hon. Arthur James, + <ul class="index"> + <li>biography, ix: 40-44;</li> + <li>visits America, ix: 44.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Balkan League, i: 204.</li> +<li>Balkan Wars, + <ul class="index"> + <li>'12—'13, i: 109, 204;</li> + <li>unsatisfactory peace settlement, i: 110;</li> + <li>Sir Edward Grey's efforts to prevent general European war, i: 198;</li> + <li>London Ambassadorial Conference, i: 204;</li> + <li>London Peace Conference, i: 204;</li> + <li>war between Bulgaria and rest of Balkan Allies, i: 206;</li> + <li>Rumanian intervention, i: 206;</li> + <li>peace terms, i: 206;</li> + <li>German incitement, i: 207, ii: 27.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Balkans, + <ul class="index"> + <li>conflagration center of World War, i: 1, 89;</li> + <li>international position in '14, i: 62;</li> + <li>area, i: 90, 92;</li> + <li>independent states in, i: 92;</li> + <li>population in '14, i: 92;</li> + <li>racial mixtures, i: 92;</li> + <li>policy of Great Powers, i: 92, 114;</li> + <li>German dynasties in, i: 96;</li> + <li>German designs on, ii: 27;</li> + <li>civilian deaths from disease and famine, iii: 405.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ball, Capt., air duel with Capt. Immelmann, x: 209-211, xi: 228.</li> +<li>Ballin, Herr, head of Hamburg-American Line, i: 264.</li> +<li>Ballistics, computation of air resistance to flying projectile, viii: 113.</li> +<li>Balloons, <em>see</em> Aeronautics.</li> +<li>Ballou, Maj.-Gen. Charles C., commander 92nd Div., v: 145.</li> +<li>Baltic Provinces, + <ul class="index"> + <li>early history, vi: 226;</li> + <li>Russian duplicity in, vi: 226;</li> + <li>under domination of German landlords, vi: 226;</li> + <li>revolt, '05, vi: 227;</li> + <li>form Lettish Legion, vi: 227;</li> + <li>Bolshevik propaganda in, vi: 228;</li> + <li>overrun by Germans, vi: 230;</li> + <li>ask recognition by Peace Conference, vi: 238. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></p></li> + +</ul></li> +<li><cite>Baltimore</cite>, U. S. cruiser used in laying North Sea mine barrage, iv: 326.</li> +<li>Bamberg, seat of Bavarian Government during Spartacide revolution, Mar.—May, '19, vi: 300.</li> +<li>Bamford, Brig.-Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander 1st Div., v: 250;</li> + <li>of 26th Div., v: 252.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Banitza, occupied by Bulgars, Aug. 19, '16, iii: 208.</li> +<li>Banking Indicator, on airplanes, viii: 221.</li> +<li>Bantheville, captured by 90th Div., Oct. 22, '18, v: 252.</li> +<li>Bapaume, + <ul class="index"> + <li>taken by British, Aug. 28,'18, i: 397, ii: 157;</li> + <li>British objective in Somme battle, iii: 55;</li> + <li>captured by British, Mar. 17, '17, iii: 68.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bar-sur-Aube, rest area for 26th Div., v: 118.</li> +<li>Barbed wire, + <ul class="index"> + <li>French use in trench defense, v: 13;</li> + <li>impenetrable cloth as protection against, viii: 68;</li> + <li>value as defensive barrier, viii: 136, 152;</li> + <li>French devices for destruction of, viii: 152-155;</li> + <li>Breton-Prepot cutter, viii: 152;</li> + <li>Gabet-Aubriot electric torpedo for destruction of, viii: 154.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Barger, Pvt. Charles D., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400.</li> +<li>Barkeley, Pvt. David B., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.</li> +<li>Barkley, Pvt. John L., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 390.</li> +<li>Barracks, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Adrian type, v: 8;</li> + <li>constructed in France by A. E. F., v: 332, 400.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Barrage, North Sea, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Allied mine, iv: <em>Intro. xi</em>, 324-330, viii: 274;</li> + <li>artillery, viii: 136-140, x: 162.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Barrett, Sir Arthur, commands British troops in Mesopotamia, iii: 180.</li> +<li>Barricourt Wood, + <ul class="index"> + <li>taken by 89th Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 262;</li> + <li>heights captured by Fifth Corps, v: 391.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Barrow, Sir Edmund, responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364.</li> +<li>Bart, Pvt. Frank J., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 388.</li> +<li>Barth, Brig.-Gen. Charles H., commander 81st Div., v: 197.</li> +<li>Bartlett, Brig.-Gen., commander, Expeditionary Brigade, Coast Artillery Corps, v: 305.</li> +<li>Barton, Clara, mother of American Red Cross, vii: 12.</li> +<li>Baruch, Bernard M., + <ul class="index"> + <li>Chairman, U. S. War Industries Board, <a href="#Page_72">xii: 72</a>;</li> + <li>member Advisory Commission, U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_116">xii: 116</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Base hospitals, <em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Hospitals;</li> + <li>Red Cross.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bases, German, in France, ii: 86.</li> +<li>Basra, + <ul class="index"> + <li>occupied by British Nov. 21, '14, i: 376, iii: 180;</li> + <li>British base for Mesopotamian expedition, ii: 91, iii: 330.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Battalion of Death, Russian women's, x: 183-185, xi: 205.</li> +<li>Battles: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Aisne, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Sept., '14, i: 375, 376, iii: 36;</li> + <li>Apr.—Nov., '17, iii: 73-76;</li> + <li>May 27—June 5, '18, iii: 92-95, 129-135.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Allenstein, Aug. 26, '14, i: 375.</li> + <li>Amiens, ii: 152, 281, 314, iii: 389.</li> + <li>Ardahan, Jan. 3—4, '15, i: 378.</li> + <li>Argonne, <em>see</em> Meuse-Argonne Offensive.</li> + <li>Arras, Apr. 9, '17, ii: 341, iii: 70-72.</li> + <li>Artois, May 9, '14, iii: 42.</li> + <li>Augustovo, iii: 118.</li> + <li>"Battle of France," Sept.—Nov., '18, iii: 100-103.</li> + <li>Belleau Wood, iii: 94, v: 135-139, 192, 382, xi: 43.</li> + <li>Cambrai, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Nov., '17, i: 392, 393, ii: 280, iii: 80-82, 337-340, viii: 142, 156;</li> + <li>Sept.—Oct., '18, ii: 281, iii: 101, v: 213, xi: 52.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Cantigny, + <ul class="index"> + <li>May 28, '18, i: 395;</li> + <li>'18, iii: 94, v: 31-34, 122, 124-128, 141, 380.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Champagne, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Sept., '15, i: 382, ii: 25, iii: 46;</li> + <li>July 15—17, '18, v: 47, 129, 148-158.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Château-Thierry, + <ul class="index"> + <li>May 31—June 3, '18, v: 35, 130, 134-135, 381-382, xi: 43.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Chemin des Dames, May 27, '18, i: 395, ii: 76, 154, v: 132.</li> + <li>Coronel, '14, i: 376, iv: 64-68, ix: 308.</li> + <li>Ctesiphon, iii: 182, 367, 384.</li> + <li>Dogger Bank, Jan. 24, '15, iv: 246-253.</li> + <li>Falkland Islands, Dec. 8, '14, i: 376, iv: 69-85, ix: 308.</li> + <li>Flanders, + <ul class="index"> + <li>June—July, '17, ii: 56, 343, iii: 38, 40, viii: 299;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Yser.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Heligoland Bight, i: 375, iv: 240-243, <a href="#Page_205">xii: 205</a>.</li> + <li>Isonzo, <em>see</em> Italian Front.</li> + <li>Jadar, '14, ii: 32, iii: 152.</li> + <li>Jutland, May 31, '16, iv: 99-136, 144-156, 256, 258, xi: 29.</li> + <li>Kars, '15, iii: 260.</li> + <li>Kut-el-Amara, i: 382, 385, 389, iii: 181-183, 318-320, 364, xi: 29.</li> + <li>Le Cateau, '14, ii: 162, 174, 176-182, iii: 23.</li> + <li>Liége, i: 143, 375, ii: 348, iii: 10, xi: 9.</li> + <li>Lys, iii: 91.</li> + <li>Marne, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Sept., '14, i: 375, ii: 9, 82, 103, 138, 140-142, 182-184, 220, 227, 258, iii: 30-34, xi: 12;</li> + <li>July—Aug., '18, ii: 77, 154, 322-324, 326, iii: 95, v: 47-61, 129, 148-183, 382, viii: 148, x: 381-387.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Mazurian Lakes, i: 378, iii: 113-116, 130.</li> + <li>Messines Ridge, i: 395, ii: 56, iii: 74, 76, 77, 360.</li> + <li>Mons-Charleroi, Aug. 21—23, '14, i: 375, ii: 162, iii: 277-281, xi: 10.</li> + <li>Neuve Chapelle, Mar., '15, iii: 41, 375.</li> + <li>Passchendaele Ridge, i: 392, 395, ii: 56, iii: 79, 360, v: 377.</li> + <li>Passenheim, Aug., '14, iii: 116.</li> + <li>Ravaruska, Sept. 4—10, '14, iii: 122.</li> + <li>Riga, Oct. 18, '17, i: 392.</li> + <li>St. Mihiel, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Sept. 20, '14, iii: 37;</li> + <li>Sept. 12, '18, ii: 84, iii: 99, v: 65-72, 199-212, 309, 384-386, xi: 46.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>San, May 15—17, '15, i: 380, iii: 136.</li> + <li>Sarre, Aug., '14, iii: 18.</li> + <li>Somme, + <ul class="index"> + <li>July, '16, i: 386, ii: 44-47, 126, 148, iii: 55-68, 314;</li> + <li>Mar., '18, iii: 86-90, xi: 24;</li> + <li>Aug., '18, ii: 331, xi: 46.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Tannenberg, Aug. 26, '14, i: 375, ii: 24, 228, 353, iii: 112-116.</li> + <li>Vaux, i: 385, ii: 189, iii: 52, 54, 62, 306, 313, 327-329; + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see also</em> Verdun.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Verdun, i: 268, 376, 384, 388, 390, ii: 36-39, 47, 67, 186-189, iii: 46-55, 61, 62, 79, 302-315, 327-329, viii: 289-291, xi: 22.</li> + <li>Vimy Ridge, i: 46, 47, 70, iii: 343-349.</li> + <li>Ypres, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Nov., '14, i: 376, ii: 144, 170, iii: 41;</li> + <li>Apr., '15, ii: 170, 222, iii: 42, 320;</li> + <li>July—Sept., '17, ii: 128;</li> + <li>Apr., '18, ii: 153, iii: 359-363.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Yser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Oct., 14, i: 376, ii: 220, iii: 40;</li> + <li>July, '17, iii: 77.</li> + </ul></li> + <li><em>See also</em> under name of engagement.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bauer, Herr Gustav, chosen head of German cabinet, June, '19, vi: 304.</li> +<li>Bauer, Otto, + <ul class="index"> + <li>leader of Austrian Maximalists, vi: 314;</li> + <li>activities, '18, vi: 318;</li> + <li>becomes Minister of Foreign Affairs, '19, vi: 319.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Baulny, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 28, '18, v: 227.</li> +<li>Bavaria, + <ul class="index"> + <li>socialist republic proclaimed, Nov., '18, vi: 273, 280;</li> + <li>revolt against Kurt Eisner, Feb., '19, vi: 298;</li> + <li>soviet republic proclaimed, Feb., '19, vi: 298, 300;</li> + <li>Revolutionary Tribunals in control of Munich, Mar., '19, vi: 300;</li> + <li>Peasants' Union declares food blockade against Munich, Mar., '19, vi: 300.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bavarian Digging Song, xi: 339.</li> +<li>Bayonet fighting, use in modern warfare, viii: 105-110.</li> +<li>Bayonville, captured by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263.</li> +<li>Beatty, Adm. Sir David, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at battle of Jutland, iv: 99;</li> + <li>British commander at battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240;</li> + <li>at battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246;</li> + <li>arranges for surrender of German fleet, iv: 383;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 283-287.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Beauclaire, captured by 89th Div., Nov. 3, '18, v: 265. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></p></li> + +<li>Beaucourt, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by British, Nov. 14, '16, i: 388;</li> + <li>British gain control of valley, Jan., '17, iii: 64.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Beaufort, taken by 89th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266.</li> +<li>Beaulencourt-Loupart line, captured by British, Mar., '17, iii: 64.</li> +<li>Beaumont, + <ul class="index"> + <li>taken by Germans, Feb. 23, '16, iii: 48;</li> + <li>Germans driven from, by British, iii: 64;</li> + <li>captured by 2nd and 80th Divs., Nov. 5, '18, v: 266.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Beaune, A. E. F. University at, v: 106, vii: 282.</li> +<li>Beauquesne, training area for 27th Div., v: 290.</li> +<li>Bebel, Herr, personal sketch, vi: <em>Intro. ix.</em></li> +<li>Bedouins, join Turks invading Egypt, iii: 190.</li> +<li>Beersheba, captured by British, Oct. 31, '17, iii: 194.</li> +<li>Beirut, taken by French, Oct. 10, '18, iii: 199.</li> +<li>Beit Lekia, taken by British Nov. 19, '17, iii: 194.</li> +<li>Bela Kun, Hungarian Bolshevik leader, activities, vi: 324-326.</li> +<li>Belfort, + <ul class="index"> + <li>defenses of, iii: 2, v: 215;</li> + <li>bombarded by Germans, Jan., '16, iii: 48.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Belgian Relief, <em>see</em> Belgium; War Relief.</li> +<li><cite>Belgian Prince, S. S.</cite>, sunk by U-boat, July 31, '17, iv: 232.</li> +<li><cite>Belgium, 1918</cite>, poem by Sheril Schell, xi: 84.</li> +<li>Belgium: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>increase in, '09—'12, i: 144;</li> + <li>dependence on Germany for munition supply, i: 234;</li> + <li>German estimate of effectiveness, ii: 4;</li> + <li>escapes from Antwerp, Oct. 9, '14, ii: 143;</li> + <li>pre-War organization, iii: 4;</li> + <li>mobilized, June 28, '14, iii: 378;</li> + <li>strength of air service at end of War, viii: 202;</li> + <li>for military operations, <em>see under</em> name of campaign.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Casualties, + <ul class="index"> + <li>total in War, iii: 404;</li> + <li>money equivalent of manpower lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>battle deaths, <a href="#Page_289">xii: 289</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Coal production '13—'15, <a href="#Page_48">xii: 48</a>.</li> + <li>Food, <em>see</em> Relief, below.</li> + <li>Neutrality, + <ul class="index"> + <li>guaranteed by European Powers, 1831, 1839, i: 141, 229;</li> + <li>British policy, history of, i: 141, 222, 224;</li> + <li>defense arrangement with British, '06, i: 143;</li> + <li>German violation, Aug. 4, '14, i: 144, 223, ii: 8, iii: 8-16, 380, xi: 4;</li> + <li>Bethmann-Hollweg's "Scrap of paper" statement, i: 146;</li> + <li>France pledges to respect, Aug., '14, i: 223, iii: 380;</li> + <li>King Albert appeals to England, i: 223;</li> + <li>violation menace to Great Britain, i: 224;</li> + <li>Sir Edward Grey urges British intervention, Aug. 3, '14, i: 224;</li> + <li>German ultimatum, Aug. 2, '14, i: 227, iii: 380;</li> + <li>German reasons for violation, i: 229, 231, xi: 9;</li> + <li>Bismarck's pledge of guarantee, i: 229;</li> + <li>German admission of injustice of violation, i: 230;</li> + <li>German ultimatum rejected, i: 230. iii: 378-381;</li> + <li>German charge of secret Anglo-Belgian agreement, i: 231;</li> + <li>British offer of help, i: 232;</li> + <li>appeal to England, Aug. 4, '14, i: 233;</li> + <li>German charge of unneutral conduct denied, i: 234;</li> + <li>evidences of trust in German good faith, i: 234;</li> + <li>Lloyd George denounces violation, i: 236;</li> + <li>German disregard of, in planning campaign against France, ii: 4;</li> + <li>military topography of German border, ii: 6;</li> + <li>French consider German invasion improbable, ii: 8;</li> + <li>effect of invasion on result of War, ii: 206;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's justification of violation, ii: 346;</li> + <li>composition of invading forces, iii: 10;</li> + <li>French defenders retire, Aug., '14, iii: 20;</li> + <li>invasion creates national unity, vi: 84;</li> + <li>Bryce Report on atrocities, vi: 84;</li> + <li>deportation of civilian population, vi: 84;</li> + <li>for invasion and military operations, <em>see</em> name of engagement.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Peace Conference, delegates, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>.</li> + <li>Peace Treaty, + <ul class="index"> + <li>claims against Holland, vi: 89;</li> + <li>acquires Moresnet, <a href="#Page_188">xii: 188</a>;</li> + <li>acquires Eupen, <a href="#Page_188">xii: 188</a>;</li> + <li>acquires Malmédy, <a href="#Page_188">xii: 188</a>;</li> + <li>reparation by Germany, <a href="#Page_218">xii: 218</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Prisoners of war, iii: 404.</li> + <li>Relief, Commission for, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Belgium, vii: 116-144;</li> + <li>famine conditions, vii: 117;</li> + <li>early relief organization, vii: 118;</li> + <li>Herbert Hoover's activities, vii: 119, 124, 136;</li> + <li><span lang="fr">Comité Nationale Belge, de Secours et d'Alimentation</span>, vii: 120;</li> + <li>overcoming blockade difficulties, vii: 120-127;</li> + <li>care of children, vii: 134;</li> + <li>American contributions, vii: 139-144;</li> + <li>dependence on imports for existence, <a href="#Page_136">xii: 136</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Royal family, ix: 388, xi: 143-145.</li> + <li>War cost, + <ul class="index"> + <li>debt to U.S., <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18</a>;</li> + <li>money equivalent of manpower lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>value of property loss, <a href="#Page_26">xii: 26</a>;</li> + <li>war cost, Aug., '14—Oct., '18, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>rise in national debt, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Belgrade, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Austrians, Dec. 2, '14, i: 376, vi: 357;</li> + <li>recaptured by Serbians, Dec. 15, '14, iii: 155, 394, 397;</li> + <li>retaken by Austrians, Oct. 6—8, '15, i: 382, vi: 357.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Belikamen, Serbs rout Austrians at, ii: 32.</li> +<li>Bell, Maj.-Gen. George, Jr., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander 33rd Div., v: 144;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 219.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Belleau Wood, battle of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>June, '18, 2nd Div. at, iii: 94, v: 135-139, 382, xi: 43;</li> + <li>strategic importance, v: 138;</li> + <li>renamed "Bois de la Brigade Marine," v: 139;</li> + <li>Gen. Degoutte's praise of A. E. F. at, v: 192.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bellicourt, position on Hindenburg Line, v: 290.</li> +<li>Below, Gen. Otto von, commands 17th German Army, ii: 149.</li> +<li>Benedict XV, Pope, + <ul class="index"> + <li>makes peace plea, Aug. 15, '17, i: 390;</li> + <li>offer accepted by Germany, Sept. 21, '17, i: 390;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 405.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Benes, Edward, + <ul class="index"> + <li>seeks Allied aid for Bohemia, vi: 397;</li> + <li>member of Czechoslovak provisional government, vi: 399.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Benet-Mercier machine gun, description, viii: 80.</li> +<li>Benson, Admiral William S., biography, ix: 296-298.</li> +<li>Bentinck, Count, Kaiser's host after abdication, Nov., '18, vi: 278.</li> +<li>Berat, occupied by Italians, July 11, '18, i: 397.</li> +<li>Berbers, with Turkish forces invading Egypt, iii: 190.</li> +<li>Berchtold, Count A. J. S. J. K., biography, ix: 143.</li> +<li>Berehaven, Ireland, U. S. naval base, iv: 356.</li> +<li>Bergson, Henri, French philosopher, on German doctrine of force, i: 152.</li> +<li>Berlin, + <ul class="index"> + <li>revolution, Nov., '18, vi: 273-276, 284;</li> + <li>Spartacide uprising, Jan., '19, vi: 287;</li> + <li>Spartacides suppressed by Ebert, vi: 289;</li> + <li>second Spartacide revolution, Mar., '19, vi: 299.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Berlin-Bagdad Railroad, <em>see</em> Bagdad Railway.</li> +<li>Berlin Conference, '85, divides Africa into "spheres of influence," i: 96.</li> +<li>Berlin, Congress of, 1878, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russian ambitions in Near East checked, i: 48, 93;</li> + <li>terms of settlement at, i: 93;</li> + <li>defects of settlement, i: 93.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bernhardi, Gen. Friedrich von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>expounds German Kultur in <cite>Germany and the Next War</cite>, i: 67;</li> + <li>on desirability of a European war, i: 131;</li> + <li>striking quotations from, i: 179.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bernstein, Herr, German Socialist leader, opposes war, vi: <em>Intro. xii.</em></li> +<li>Bernstorff, Count Johann von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>activities as head of German spy system in U. S., i: 8, x: 326;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 133.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Berny, taken by French, Sept. 17, '16, i: 388.</li> +<li>Bersaglieri, description, ii: 240.</li> +<li>Berthelot, Gen., drives Germans from Vesles to Aisne, '18, ii: 214.</li> +<li>Berzy-le-Sec, captured by 1st Div., July 21, '18, v: 55, 179, 383. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></p></li> + +<li>Bessarabia, Russian offensive in, + <ul class="index"> + <li>starts, Dec. 24, '15, i: 382;</li> + <li>invaded by Bolsheviki, vi: 350.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Béthincourt, captured by Germans, Mar. 6, '16, i: 384.</li> +<li>Bethmann-Hollweg, Dr. Theobold von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German Chancellor, justification of Germany, i: 117;</li> + <li>"scrap of paper" statement on Belgian neutrality, i: 146;</li> + <li>statement of reasons for unrestricted submarine warfare, i: 344;</li> + <li>proposes compromise peace, '17, vi: 262;</li> + <li>resigns as Chancellor, July, '17, vi: 266;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 121-126;</li> + <li>admission of German guilt, ix: 121;</li> + <li>opposition to ruthless warfare, ix: 126.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>"Big Bertha," German long-range gun, bombards Paris, viii: 45-47, xi: 271-274.</li> +<li>Birdwood, Lieut.-Gen. Sir William, personality, iii: 375.</li> +<li>Births, decrease due to War, statistics, iii: 406.</li> +<li>Bishop, Col. Wm. A., British ace, story of, x: 215-221, xi: 229.</li> +<li>Bismarck, Prince Otto von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>builder of German Empire, i: 41;</li> + <li>Near East policy, i: 48;</li> + <li>forced to resign Chancellorship, 1890, i: 73, 97, ix: 359;</li> + <li>forms Triple Alliance, i: 95;</li> + <li>colonial policy, i: 97;</li> + <li>representative of Junker class, i: 258;</li> + <li>plan for universal empire, ii: 2;</li> + <li>publishes von Moltke's views on German strategy, ii: 14.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bismarck, Major von, German military attaché in Switzerland, vi: 380.</li> +<li>Bissell, Lieut., commands detachment defending bridge at Château-Thierry, May 31, '18, v: 134.</li> +<li>Bissolati, Signor, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Italian political leader, advocates Jugoslav conciliation, vi: 362;</li> + <li>against policy of aggrandizement, vi: 366.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bistritz, taken by Rumanians, Sept. 4, '16, iii: 218.</li> +<li>Bitlis, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Russians, Mar. 2, '16, iii: 263;</li> + <li>evacuated by Russians, Aug. 8, '16, i: 386;</li> + <li>recaptured by Russians, Aug. 26, '16, i: 386.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bitur, taken by British, Nov., '17, iii: 194.</li> +<li>"Black Cobra Bill," nickname of "Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of India," vi: 78.</li> +<li><cite>Black Prince</cite>, British warship lost at battle of Jutland, iv: 121.</li> +<li>Black Sea, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russia gains freedom of action in, 1871, i: 47;</li> + <li>Turkish bombardment of ports, Oct. 28, '14, i: 376.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Blackwell, Pvt. Robert L., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.</li> +<li>Blanc Mont, captured by French and Americans, Oct. 5, '18, v: 241, 255, 257.</li> +<li>Blankets, for U. S. Army, v: 358.</li> +<li>Bligny, German repulse at, July 15, '18, v: 51.</li> +<li>"Blimps," U. S., scout dirigibles, viii: 245, 255.</li> +<li>Blind, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Committee for Men Blinded in Battle, activities, vii: 99;</li> + <li>Permanent Relief War Fund, activities, vii: 255-259;</li> + <li>Red Cross Institute for, vii: 259;</li> + <li>number blinded in War, vii: 260.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Blinkers, use of, in action, v: 319.</li> +<li>Bliss, Gen. Tasker H., U. S. representative on Supreme War Council, iii: 84.</li> +<li>Blockade, + <ul class="index"> + <li>of Allies by Germany, <em>see</em> Submarine Warfare;</li> + <li>of Germany by Allies, <em>see</em> Germany, Blockade of.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Blücher</cite>, German cruiser sunk at Dogger Bank, eye-witness account, iv: 247.</li> +<li>Blue and Gray (29th) Division, <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>Blue Ridge (80th) Division, <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>Bobo, Capt. Stephen N., story of his band of "rough-neck" weaklings, x: 49.</li> +<li>Boehm-Ermolli, Gen., commands Austrians relieving Przemysl, iii: 132.</li> +<li>Boers, + <ul class="index"> + <li>rebel against British, '14, vi: 49;</li> + <li>Gen. Hertzog leader of rebellion, vi: 49;</li> + <li>aid Germans in Southwest Africa, '14, vi: 50;</li> + <li><em>see</em> also South Africa, Union of.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bohemia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Diet suppressed by Austria-Hungary, '15, vi: 311;</li> + <li>early history, vi: 396;</li> + <li>oppression by Austria-Hungary, vi: 396;</li> + <li>press comment on Czech loyalty, '14, vi: 396;</li> + <li>formation of army, '17, vi: 398;</li> + <li>National Council, vi: 399;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Czechoslovakia.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Boirault tank, viii, 153.</li> +<li>Boiselles, taken by French, Jan. 17—18, '15, i: 378.</li> +<li>Bolivia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>severs diplomatic relations with Germany, Apr. 13, '17, i: 389;</li> + <li>Peace Conference, delegate to, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bolo Pasha, French traitor, pro-German plots, vi: 105, x: 340-344.</li> +<li>Bolshevism, + <ul class="index"> + <li>fallacy of, i: <em>Intro. xi.</em>;</li> + <li>doctrines, vi: 148, ix: 112, xi: 33;</li> + <li>as product of high cost of living, <em>Intro. xiii</em>;</li> + <li>in: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Australia, revolutionary spirit among labor, vi: 45.</li> + <li>Austria, rise and overthrow, '19, vi: 319.</li> + <li>Bulgaria, outbreak in, vi: 346.</li> + <li>Czechoslovakia, anti-Bolshevik feeling, vi: 400.</li> + <li>Finland, + <ul class="index"> + <li>provisional government established, Nov., '17, vi: 198;</li> + <li>suppressed by Mannerheim, '18, vi: 200.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Germany, <em>see</em> Spartacides.</li> + <li>Hungary, + <ul class="index"> + <li>riots, Jan.—Feb., '19, vi: 324;</li> + <li>success, Mar., '19, vi: 325.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>India, propaganda stirs unrest, vi: 77.</li> + <li>Poland, spread in, vi: 223.</li> + <li>Russia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>peace of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, Mar. 3, '18, ii: 272, VI: 183;</li> + <li>propaganda among German troops, '18, ii: 322;</li> + <li>Russian troops incited to desert and revolt, iii: 269, vi: 155, 164;</li> + <li>doctrines, vi: 148, ix: 112, xi: 33;</li> + <li>navy demoralized, vi: 155, 164;</li> + <li>Kornilov rebellion defeated, vi: 169;</li> + <li>movement against Kerensky spreads, Oct., '17, vi: 173;</li> + <li>arguments used to win populace, vi: 175;</li> + <li>Bolsheviki call on Soviets to seize government, Nov. 2, '17, vi: 175;</li> + <li>increasing power of movement, Oct., '17, vi: 177;</li> + <li>overthrow Kerensky and seize government, vi: 177-183;</li> + <li>Lenin announces platform, Nov. 8, '17, vi: 179;</li> + <li>dictatorship of proletariat, vi: 181;</li> + <li>Bolshevik land program, vi: 181;</li> + <li>opposition of middle class functionaries, vi: 181;</li> + <li>Russian secret treaties made public, vi: 183;</li> + <li>Constituent Assembly dissolved, Jan. 18, vi: 185;</li> + <li>Red Army raised, vi: 185;</li> + <li>reign of terror, vi: 187;</li> + <li>state of war declared with Entente, vi: 187;</li> + <li>Princes' Island Conference proposed by Peace Conference, vi: 188;</li> + <li>Finland used as base of operations. '15, vi: 198;</li> + <li>progress in Letvia, vi: 228;</li> + <li>financing German Spartacides, vi: 281;</li> + <li>connection with Maximalists, vi: 314;</li> + <li>Lenin's defense of tyrannical methods, ix: 115;</li> + <li>currency inflation, <a href="#Page_xiii">xii: <em>Intro. xiii</em></a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Siberia, opposition in, vi: 189.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bombs: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Aerial, viii: 221-225.</li> + <li>Depth, + <ul class="index"> + <li>evolution of, iv: 307;</li> + <li>for combating U-boats, iv: 317;</li> + <li>development by U. S. Navy, iv: 330;</li> + <li>launching mechanism, iv: 331;</li> + <li>invention of "Y" gun, iv: 332;</li> + <li>description, viii: 281, xi: 239.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Illuminating, drop bombs, viii: 76.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bona, bombarded by <cite>Breslau</cite>, Aug. 4, '14, iv: 14.</li> +<li>Bone, Fl.-Com. R. J., battle with German planes invading England, x: 237.</li> +<li><cite>Bonnet Rouge</cite>, traitorous French newspaper, vi: 105.</li> +<li>Books, demand for, in A. E. F. schools, vii: 282.</li> +<li>Bordeaux, + <ul class="index"> + <li>French government moves to, Sept. 3, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>embarkation port for returning A. E. F., v: 395.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Borden, Sir Robert, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Premier of Canada, vi: 24;</li> + <li>urges increase of Foreign Service Army, Jan., '16, vi: 27.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>"Bore" of gun, defined, viii: 111.</li> +<li>Boris, Czar of Bulgaria, succeeds to throne following abdication of Ferdinand, '18, vi: 347.</li> +<li>Boselli, Signor, forms coalition Italian cabinet, June, '16, vi: 127. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></p></li> + +<li>Bosnia-Herzegovina, + <ul class="index"> + <li>annexed by Austria, '08, i: 109, vi: 356;</li> + <li>devastated, '18, vi: 363.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bosphorus, bombarded by Russian warships, Mar. 28, '15, i: 378.</li> +<li>Botchkareva (Butchkareff), Ensign Vera, commander of Battalion of Death, x: 183-185, xi: 205.</li> +<li>Botha, Gen. Louis, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander of British South African troops, iii: 253;</li> + <li>policy as Prime Minister of Union of South Africa, vi: 47;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 191-193.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bott, Capt. Alan, British ace, experiences as Turkish prisoner, x: 235-237.</li> +<li>Bourassa, Henri, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Canadian Nationalist leader, vi: 30;</li> + <li>opposition to Canadian participation in War, vi: 30.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bouresches, objective in Belleau Wood action, v: 37, 133, 137.</li> +<li>Bourgeois, Leon, advocate of League of Nations, <a href="#Page_155">xii: 155</a>.</li> +<li>Bourmont, training area for 2nd Div., v: 6.</li> +<li><cite>Bouvet</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31;</li> + <li>sunk by mine, Mar. 18, '15, iv: 35, 47, 375.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bovington, U. S. Tank School at, v: 314.</li> +<li>Boy-Ed, Capt. Karl, German Naval Attaché in U. S., + <ul class="index"> + <li>dismissed, i: 276;</li> + <li>share in passport frauds, i: 315;</li> + <li>German arch-spy in U. S., x: 329.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Boy Scouts, war-time activities, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British, xi: 94;</li> + <li>Belgian, xi: 98;</li> + <li>French, xi: 98;</li> + <li>American, xi: 100-116.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Boycott, anti-German, Allied proposals for, <a href="#Page_102">xii: 102</a>.</li> +<li>Boyemia River, French withdraw to, in Salonika Campaign, iii: 204.</li> +<li>Boyle, Lieut.-Com. E. C., commander of British submarine <cite>E-14</cite>, iv: 209.</li> +<li>Boyon Wood, taken by 18th and 28th Inf., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240.</li> +<li><cite>Brabançonne, La</cite>, Belgian national hymn, xi: 327.</li> +<li>Brabant, A. E. F. engineers bridge Meuse at, Oct. 8, '18, v: 245.</li> +<li>Bradley, Brig.-Gen. Alfred E., Chief Surgeon, A. E. F., v: 345.</li> +<li>Brady, Father John J., heroic chaplain of U. S. Marines, x: 100.</li> +<li>Brandeville, occupied by 5th Div., Nov. 7, '18, v: 271.</li> +<li>Brazil, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German population of, i: 79;</li> + <li>severs diplomatic relations with Germany, Apr. 11, '17, i: 389;</li> + <li>declares war on Germany, Oct. 26, '17, i: 392, vi: 390;</li> + <li>Peace Conference delegates, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bread, daily consumption by A. E. F., v: 330.</li> +<li>Breguet bombing airplanes, viii: 224.</li> +<li>Breheville, taken by 5th Div., Nov. 8, '18, v: 272.</li> +<li><cite>Bremen</cite>, German cruiser sunk by British submarine, Dec. 18, '15, i: 382.</li> +<li>Bremen, Spartacide uprising in, Feb., '19, vi: 294.</li> +<li>Breshkovsky, Catherine, + <ul class="index"> + <li>leader of Russian Socialist-Revolutionary Party, vi: 148;</li> + <li>prophecy on Russia, ix: 231;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 348.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Breslau</cite>, German cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>outwits Allied fleets and escapes to Bosphorus, Aug., '14, i: 375, iv: 13;</li> + <li>sunk, Jan. 20, '18, i: 393.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Brest, embarkation port for returning A. E. F., v: 396.</li> +<li>Brest-Litovsk, captured by Germans, Aug. 25, '15, i: 381, iii: 138.</li> +<li>Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of, between Russia and Germany, + <ul class="index"> + <li>a dictated "German peace," ii: 63, vi: 183, vi: 268;</li> + <li>effect of Austro-Hungarian demands for peace on, vi: 314;</li> + <li>abrogated by Treaty of Versailles, '19, <a href="#Page_205">xii: 205</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><em>Bretelle</em>, definition of, v: 16.</li> +<li>Breton, J. L., inventor of armored barbed-wire cutter, viii: 152.</li> +<li>Briand, Aristide, forms French Cabinet, Oct., '15, vi: 100.</li> +<li>Bridges, + <ul class="index"> + <li>pontoons, viii: 299;</li> + <li>portable steel, viii: 301.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Brieulles-sur-Bar, captured by 78th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266.</li> +<li>Brieuvilles-sur-Meuse, action in Meuse-Argonne battle at, Sept. 27, '18, v: 226.</li> +<li>Briey, iron area coveted by Germans, ii: 6.</li> +<li><cite>Brilliant</cite>, British cruiser in Zeebrugge raid, iv: 262.</li> +<li>Briquenay, captured by 78th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 91.</li> +<li><cite>Bristol</cite>, British warship in battle of Falkland Islands, iv: 70.</li> +<li>Bristol airplanes, viii: 203.</li> +<li><cite>Britannia</cite>, British battleship torpedoed, Nov. 9, '18, i: 399.</li> +<li><cite>Britannic</cite>, British hospital ship sunk by mine, Nov. 21, '16, i: 389.</li> +<li>British American War Relief Fund, vii: 99.</li> +<li>Brody, captured by Russians, July 28, '16, i: 386, iii: 120, 145.</li> +<li><cite>Broke</cite>, British destroyer, night battle with German destroyers, x: 293-295.</li> +<li>Browning, Vice-Adm. Sir Montague E., head of British delegation to U. S., iv: 157.</li> +<li>Browning machine-guns, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description, viii: 84-87;</li> + <li>U. S. production figures, <a href="#Page_284">xii: 284</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Brunehilde position, location, v: 84.</li> +<li>Brusiloff, Gen. Alexei Alexeievitch, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands Russian invasion of Galicia, '16, ii: 42, 235, iii: 119;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 232-235.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Brussels, + <ul class="index"> + <li>occupied by Germans, Aug. 20, '14, iii: 14;</li> + <li>German entry described by Richard Harding Davis, iii: 271-273.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Brussels</cite>, Capt. Fryatt's ship, x: 265.</li> +<li>Bryan, William Jennings, + <ul class="index"> + <li>policy on German submarine warfare, i: 321;</li> + <li>resigns as Secretary of State, i: 321.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Buchan, John, description of Mons retreat, iii: 277-281.</li> +<li>Bucharest, captured by Germans, Dec. 6, '16, iii: 222.</li> +<li>Bucharest, Treaty of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>between Rumania and Central Powers, May 6, '18, i: 395, vi: 352;</li> + <li>Bulgarian attitude on, vi: 339.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Buck, Maj.-Gen. Beaumont B., + <ul class="index"> + <li>cited for gallantry at Berzy-le-Sec, v: 180;</li> + <li>promoted to major-general, v: 182;</li> + <li>commands 3rd Div. at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12, '18, v: 202.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Buckeye (37th) Division, <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>Budapest, Bolshevik riots in, '18—'19, vi:323.</li> +<li>Buenz, Dr. Karl, German secret agent in U. S., x: 331.</li> +<li>Buffaloes (92nd Division), <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>Bukovina, occupied by Russians, iii: 122.</li> +<li>Bulair Lines, Gallipoli defenses, iv: 24.</li> +<li>Bulgaria, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German ruler of, i: 96;</li> + <li>defeat and surrender to Allies, Sept. 30, '18, i: 399, ii: 94, 96, 216, iii: 213, vi: 347, xi: 48;</li> + <li>key to Balkan situation, ii: 28;</li> + <li>tool of Germany, ii: 28;</li> + <li>enmity for Serbia, ii: 32;</li> + <li>reasons for siding with Germany, ii: 32;</li> + <li>enters War, Oct. 14, '15, ii: 33, vi: 343;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's reasons for collapse of, ii: 329;</li> + <li>mobilizes against Serbia, iii: 156, vi: 342;</li> + <li>invades Rumania, Sept. 2, '16, iii: 218;</li> + <li>prisoners of war, iii: 404;</li> + <li>casualties, iii: 404, <a href="#Page_289">xii: 289</a>;</li> + <li>effect of surrender on German morale, vi: 270;</li> + <li>racial characteristics, vi: 338;</li> + <li>desire for Balkan supremacy, vi: 339;</li> + <li>geographical position, vi: 341;</li> + <li>attitude toward Allies, vi: 341;</li> + <li>proclaims neutrality, '14, vi: 341;</li> + <li>terms for entering War, vi: 341;</li> + <li>antagonism toward Russia, vi: 342;</li> + <li>Agrarian Party against War, vi: 343;</li> + <li>result of Teutonic alliance, vi: 344;</li> + <li>cession of Demotika to, by Turkey, vi: 344;</li> + <li>friction with Germany, vi: 344;</li> + <li>attitude toward Russian Revolution, vi: 344;</li> + <li>dispute with Turkey, '18, vi: 345;</li> + <li>Bolshevism in, vi: 346;</li> + <li>terms of armistice with Allies, vi: 347;</li> + <li>money equivalent of man-power lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>war cost, Oct., '15—Oct., '19, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>rise in national debt, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>;</li> + <li>for military operations, <em>see</em> name of campaign.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bullard, Lieut.-Gen. Robert Lee, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in command of Third Army Corps, A. E. F., Aug., '18, v: 62,167, 189, 383;</li> + <li>of Second Army, Oct., '18, v: 83, 246, 390;</li> + <li>of Toul sector, Jan., '18, v: 115;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 219, 388;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 218-221.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bullets, <em>see</em> Ammunition. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></p></li> + +<li>Bülow, Gen. von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands German army in first Marne battle, ii: 184, iii: 10;</li> + <li>on Italian Front, iii: 247.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bülow, Prince Bernhard von, biography, ix: 128-131.</li> +<li>Bulson, captured by 42nd Div., Nov. 6, '18, v: 269.</li> +<li><cite>Bulwark</cite>, British battleship blows up, Nov. 26, '14, i: 376.</li> +<li>Bundesrat, German, composition and powers, i: 71, 156.</li> +<li>Bundy, Maj.-Gen. Omar, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander, 2nd Div., v: 109, 132;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 223-226.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Burat, captured by Bulgars, Jan. 23, '16, i: 384.</li> +<li>Burdick, "Ma," Salvation Army mother in France, vii: 384.</li> +<li>Bures, training area for 1st Div., v: 6.</li> +<li><cite>Buresk, S. S.</cite>, <cite>Emden's</cite> collier, iv: 188.</li> +<li>Burney, Vice-Adm. Sir Cecil, commands British Channel Fleet, iv: 89.</li> +<li>Burnham, Gen., commands 82nd Div. at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12, '18, v: 202.</li> +<li>Burns, use of ambrine in treatment of, viii: 390.</li> +<li>Bushnell, David, Revolutionary War inventor of submarine, iv: 201.</li> +<li>Buzancy, captured by 80th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 91, 217, 264.</li> +<li>Buzzer phone, use of, in action, v: 318.</li> +<li>Byng, Gen. Sir Julian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander of British Third Army, ii: 214, iii: 371;</li> + <li>fights battle of Cambrai, Nov., '17, iii: 82, 337-340, viii: 142;</li> + <li>personal traits, iii: 376.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bzura, scene of fighting in German attack on Warsaw, iii: 129.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Cin" id="Cin">C</a></li> +<li><cite>Cabinga, S. S.</cite>, prize of German raider <cite>Emden</cite>, iv: 172.</li> +<li>Cables, German submarine surrendered to Allies under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_225">xii: 225</a>.</li> +<li>Cableways, Italian aerial, viii: 303-306.</li> +<li>Cadets, Russian political party, aims of, vi: 148.</li> +<li>Cadorna, Gen. Luigi, + <ul class="index"> + <li>member of Inter-Allied General Staff, iii: 84;</li> + <li>Italian commander in Isonzo campaign, iii: 241;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 225-229.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Caillaux, Joseph, + <ul class="index"> + <li>arrested on charge of treason, Jan. 13, '18, i: 393;</li> + <li>accused of traitorous activities, vi: 106.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Caillette Wood, taken by French Oct. 24, '16, i: 388.</li> +<li>Calais, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German drive for, iii: 40;</li> + <li>Calais to Persia, Germany's goal in world control plan, '13, ii: 2.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Call, 2nd Lieut. Donald M., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 402.</li> +<li>Callaghan, Adm. Sir George, commander of British Grand Fleet, relieved by Jellicoe, Aug. 5, '14, iv: 88.</li> +<li>Cambrai, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German base in France, ii: 86;</li> + <li>first battle of, Nov., '17, Maj.-Gen. Swinton on work of British tanks at, ii: 280;</li> + <li>Byng's surprise attack, iii: 80, viii: 142, 156; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Philip Gibbs's description, iii: 337-340 ,</li> + </ul></li> + <li>American engineers at, iii: 82;</li> + <li>German prisoners captured, iii: 82;</li> + <li>German counter-offensive, iii: 82;</li> + <li>"best-kept secret of War," iii: 337;</li> + <li>adventures of a tank pilot, iii: 338;</li> + <li>Order of the Day for Tank Corps, Nov. 20, '17, iii: 340;</li> + <li>second battle of, Sept. 27—Oct. 10, '18, ii: 281, v: 213;</li> + <li>captured by Allies, Oct. 9, '18, xi: 52.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cambrai-St. Quentin sector, Allies smash Hindenburg Line, '18, iii: 101.</li> +<li>Cameron, Maj.-Gen. George H., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands 4th Div., May, '18, v: 128;</li> + <li>commands Fifth Corps, St. Mihiel, Sept., '18, v: 65, 202, 386;</li> + <li>commands Fifth Corps in Meuse-Argonne, Sept., '18, v: 219, 388.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cameroons (Kamerun), + <ul class="index"> + <li>conquered by Allies, Aug., '14—Feb., '16, iii: 252, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>population, '16, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Camilla, S. S.</cite>, Belgian Relief ship sunk by U-boat, iv: 230.</li> +<li>Camouflage, + <ul class="index"> + <li>use in outwitting U-boats, iv: 311, viii: 343, xi: 241;</li> + <li>for masking machine-guns, v: 287;</li> + <li>development, viii: 136;</li> + <li>in nature, viii: 336;</li> + <li>war uses, viii: 336-344, xi: 277, 291-295.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Camp des Romains fort, location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199.</li> +<li><cite>Campbells Are Coming</cite>, Scotch patriotic air, xi: 334.</li> +<li>Canada, + <ul class="index"> + <li>becomes self-governing dominion, 1867, i: 43;</li> + <li>army in Europe, July, '16, iii: 343;</li> + <li>characteristics of fighting forces, iii: 343;</li> + <li>war casualties, iii: 404, 405;</li> + <li>prisoners of war, iii: 404;</li> + <li>strength of army, iii: 405;</li> + <li>political conditions, prior to '14, vi: 23;</li> + <li>enthusiastic response to declaration of war, vi: 24;</li> + <li>political situation, Aug., '14, vi: 25;</li> + <li>war donations by provinces, vi: 25;</li> + <li>Conservatives advocate close Imperial Federation, vi: 25;</li> + <li>Premier Borden's view of Canada as a "participating nation" of British Empire, vi: 25;</li> + <li>Liberal view of Imperial Federation, vi: 26;</li> + <li>voluntary enlistments, vi: 26;</li> + <li>increase in land under cultivation, '15, vi: 26;</li> + <li>increase in food exports, '15, vi: 26;</li> + <li>bilingual schools issue creates race antagonism, vi: 27-28;</li> + <li>Bourassa, Nationalist leader, opposes War, vi: 30;</li> + <li>failure of recruiting among French-Canadians, vi: 31-36;</li> + <li>conscription, problems of, vi: 31-36;</li> + <li>Anglo-Saxons indorse conscription, vi: 31;</li> + <li>labor against conscription, vi: 32;</li> + <li>Liberals support conscription, vi: 32;</li> + <li>Conscription Bill announced, June, '17, vi: 32;</li> + <li>Conscription Bill passed, Aug., '17, vi: 33;</li> + <li>War Franchise Bill, '17, vi: 34;</li> + <li>Catholic Church opposes conscription, vi: 34;</li> + <li>results of election, '17, vi: 35;</li> + <li>pro-conscriptionists form "Unionist" coalition, vi: 35;</li> + <li>secessionist talk, vi: 36;</li> + <li>Quebec draft riots, Mar., '18, vi: 36;</li> + <li>loans floated in U. S., Aug., '14—Jan., '17, <a href="#Page_2">xii: 2</a>;</li> + <li>coal production, '13—'17, <a href="#Page_48">xii: 48</a>;</li> + <li>nationalization plans for railroads, <a href="#Page_90">xii: 90</a>;</li> + <li>war cost, Aug., '14—Aug., '19, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>rise in public debt, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Conference delegates, <a href="#Page_179">xii: 179</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Great Britain.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Canadian sector on Western Front, '17, iii: 343.</li> +<li><cite>Canadians</cite>, poem by W. H. Ogilvie, x: 318.</li> +<li>Canal du Nord, crossed by Allies, Sept. 25, '18, i: 397.</li> +<li>Canal sector, Ypres to Voormezeele, v: 300.</li> +<li>Canary birds, as gas detectors, xi: 324.</li> +<li>Cannon, <em>see</em> Artillery.</li> +<li><cite>Canopus</cite>, British battleship, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Gallipoli, iv: 33;</li> + <li>in Cradock's fleet off Coronel, iv: 64;</li> + <li>in battle of Falklands, iv: 70.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cantigny, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by 1st Div., May 28, '18, i: 395, iii: 94, v: 31, 124;</li> + <li>American casualties at, v: 33, 128, 141;</li> + <li>significance of capture, v: 34;</li> + <li>Pershing's report on capture, v: 380.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cantonments, U. S., + <ul class="index"> + <li>description, xi: 155;</li> + <li>soldiers' life at, xi: 159;</li> + <li>construction of, <a href="#Page_125">xii: 125</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Cap Trafalgar</cite>, armed German liner, battle with British <cite>Carmania</cite>, Sept. 14, '14, iv: 199, x: 318-321.</li> +<li>Cape Helles, Turkish fortification at, iv: 42.</li> +<li>Cape Yeni Shehr, Turkish fortifications at, iv: 42.</li> +<li>Caporetto, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Italian disaster at, Oct. 21—Nov. 1, '17,</li> + <li>effect on Western Front, ii: <em>Intro. xx</em>;</li> + <li>Italian rout before Austrian advance, ii: 246;</li> + <li>wholesale Italian surrenders, ii: 246;</li> + <li>army demoralized, iii: 247;</li> + <li>causes of rout, ii: 248, vi: 129;</li> + <li>retreat checked at the Piave, ii: 250;</li> + <li>effect on Italo-Slav unity, vi: 362.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Caproni triplanes, viii: 223.</li> +<li>Carabinieri, Italian military police, ii: 242.</li> +<li>Carbon dioxide, asphyxiating properties of, viii: 166;</li> +<li>Carbon monoxide, poisonous properties of, viii: 166-168.</li> +<li>Carbonyl chloride, <em>see</em> Phosgene. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></p></li> + +<li>Carden, Vice-Adm., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands British naval forces in Mediterranean,'15, iv: 28;</li> + <li>at Gallipoli, iv: 31;</li> + <li>resigns, Mar. 16, '15, iv: 32.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Carency, French attack at, May 11—12, '15, i: 380.</li> +<li>Carignan-Sedan-Mézières railroad, + <ul class="index"> + <li>vital importance to Germans, v: 387;</li> + <li>threatened by Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 387.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Carmania</cite>, armed British liner, battle with German <cite>Cap Trafalgar</cite>, Sept. 14, '14, iv: 199, x: 318-321.</li> +<li><cite>Carnarvon</cite>, British cruiser at Falklands, armament of, iv: 70.</li> +<li><cite>Carnetta, S. S.</cite>, Belgian Relief ship sunk by U-boat, iv: 230.</li> +<li>Carniola, clash of Italians and Jugoslavs in, vi: 364.</li> +<li>Carpathian Mts., + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russian attempts to cross, '15, ii: 26;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's account of campaigns, ii: 360;</li> + <li>topography, iii: 108;</li> + <li>Russians occupy passes, Sept., '14, iii: 124;</li> + <li>Austrian attacks, Jan.—Mar., '15, iii: 132;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Russian Front.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Carpenter, Capt., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander of <cite>Vindictive</cite> at Zeebrugge raid, iv: 263;</li> + <li>account of Zeebrugge raid, iv: 266.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Carrel, Dr. Alexis, + <ul class="index"> + <li>invents Carrel-Dakin treatment for infected wounds, viii: 369, ix: 312, xi: 289;</li> + <li>wins Nobel prize, '12, ix: 310;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 310-313.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Carrel-Dakin treatment, description, viii: 369-372, ix: 312, xi: 289.</li> +<li>Carso Plateau, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description, ii: 244, iii: 239;</li> + <li>Italian advance across, June, '15—Oct., '17, ii: 245;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Italian Front.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Carson, Sir Edward, + <ul class="index"> + <li>leader of Ulster opposition to Irish Home Rule, vi: 53, 60;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 50-53.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cary, Gen. Langle de, commands a French army at first Marne battle, ii: 184.</li> +<li>Casement, Sir Roger, + <ul class="index"> + <li>hanged for treason, Aug. 3, '16, i: 386, vi: 60, ix: 53;</li> + <li>negotiations with Germany, vi: 57;</li> + <li>captured, vi: 58.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Cassin</cite>, U. S. destroyer torpedoed, account of, iv: 343.</li> +<li>Castelletto, mined by Italians, viii: 311.</li> +<li>Castelnau, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands French forces in Lorraine, iii: 16;</li> + <li>stops Germans at Roye, Sept., '14, iii: 38;</li> + <li>appointed Chief of Staff, Dec., '14, iii: 46;</li> + <li>at Verdun, iii: 304.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Casualties, + <ul class="index"> + <li>among troops attacking with tanks, ii: 284;</li> + <li>total in War, iii: 403;</li> + <li>classified by belligerents, iii: 404;</li> + <li>civilian deaths due to War, iii: 405;</li> + <li>per cent. of head wounds, viii: 64;</li> + <li>in World War compared with all other wars, 1800—1913, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>money equivalent of man-power lost, military and civilian, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>total battle deaths, by countries, <a href="#Page_288">xii: 288</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under campaign, battle, and country.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cattaro, bombarded by French and British, Aug. 24, '14, i: 375.</li> +<li>Caucasus, + <ul class="index"> + <li>military operations in, Oct., '14—Jan., '15, ii: 91-92; iii: 260-263, xi: 29;</li> + <li>early history, vi: 231;</li> + <li>conflict of racial interests, vi: 231;</li> + <li>Russian misrule in, vi: 231;</li> + <li>demand for self-government, '05, vi: 231;</li> + <li>effect of Russian Revolution, vi: 232;</li> + <li>rise of new nations under Russian Revolution, vi: 233.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Caudron bombing airplanes, viii: 223.</li> +<li>Causes, of War, + <ul class="index"> + <li>summarized by Dr. Chas. W. Eliot, i: <em>Intro. vii</em>;</li> + <li>complexity of, i: 2;</li> + <li>conflict of political systems, i: 4;</li> + <li>conflict of nationalistic aspirations, i: 5;</li> + <li>element of individual responsibility, i: 5;</li> + <li>German desire for war, i: 8;</li> + <li>colonial rivalry, i: 14;</li> + <li>Anglo-German economic rivalry, i: 78, 121;</li> + <li>German ambitions for world power, i: 83;</li> + <li>murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, i: iii;</li> + <li>Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg's statement of, i: 117;</li> + <li>Vice-Chancellor Helfferich's statement of, i: 119;</li> + <li>Dr. Dernburg's statement of, i: 120;</li> + <li>statement of German "Intellectuals" on, i: 120;</li> + <li>racial element in, i: 120;</li> + <li>German territorial ambitions, i: 122;</li> + <li>German excuse of Russian menace, i: 137, 139;</li> + <li>German statement of English responsibility, i: 193;</li> + <li>Prince Lichnowsky denies Anglo-German commercial jealousy, i: 193;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's analysis of, ii: 346;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Germany, Responsibility for War.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cavalry, + <ul class="index"> + <li>function in Palestine campaign, ii: 93;</li> + <li>Field-Marshal Haig on value of, ii: 120;</li> + <li>German military critic on importance of, ii: 260;</li> + <li>use in St. Mihiel drive, v: 206;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under armies of each country.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cavell, Edith, + <ul class="index"> + <li>executed Oct. 12, '15, i: 382;</li> + <li>story of, x: 172;</li> + <li>betrayed by Gaston Quien, x: 352.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>"C. C. Gear," for timing machine-gun fire through airplane propeller blades, viii: 214-216.</li> +<li>Cecil, Lord Robert, advocate of League of Nations, <a href="#Page_155">xii: 155</a>.</li> +<li>Cemeteries for A. E. F. dead in France, v: 331, 400.</li> +<li>Central Committee for Relief of Jews Suffering Through the War, vii: 352; + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see also</em> Jews.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Central Council of Delegates meets in Berlin, Dec. 16, '18, vi: 283.</li> +<li>Central Powers, + <ul class="index"> + <li>unity of command established, ii: 330;</li> + <li>general strategic plan on Eastern Front, iii: 110;</li> + <li>mobilized strength, iii: 430;</li> + <li>war casualties, iii: 404;</li> + <li>prisoners of war, iii: 404;</li> + <li>peace proposals, Dec. 12, '16, vi: 313;</li> + <li>Anti-Slav policy, vi: 360;</li> + <li>war cost, <a href="#Page_27">xii: 27</a>, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>rise in national debts, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also,</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Austria-Hungary;</li> + <li>Bulgaria;</li> + <li>Germany;</li> + <li>Turkey.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Central Records Office, A. E. F., v: 402.</li> +<li>Cereals, shipped to Europe by U. S., '16—'18, <a href="#Page_37">xii: 37</a>.</li> +<li>Cerna River, Serb attack on Bulgars at, Sept. 15, '18, iii: 213.</li> +<li>Cernavoda, captured by Teutons, Oct. 25, '16, i: 388, iii: 221.</li> +<li>Cernavoda-Constanza Railway, Teutons gain control of, iii: 221.</li> +<li>Cettinje, captured by Austrians, Jan. 13, '16, i: 384.</li> +<li>Châlons, + <ul class="index"> + <li>abandoned by Allies, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>taken by French, Sept. 11, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>system of trench defenses, v: 44.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Chamberlain, Austen, responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364.</li> +<li>Chamberlaine, Brig.-Gen. Wm., commands Railway Reserve, First Army, A. E. F., v: 305.</li> +<li>Champagne, + <ul class="index"> + <li>French offensive in, Sept., '15, ii: 25, iii: 46;</li> + <li>as possible sector for German spring drive, '18, ii: 67;</li> + <li>German offensive checked, July 15—17, '18, v: 47, 129, 155, viii: 146-148;</li> + <li>A. E. F. participation in Allied defensive, July 15—17, '18, v: 148-158.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Champigneulle, attacked by 77th Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263.</li> +<li>Champneuville, captured by Germans, Feb. 27, '16, i: 384.</li> +<li>Chanak, + <ul class="index"> + <li>town on Dardanelles, iv: 24;</li> + <li>bombarded by Allies, Mar. 6, '15, iv: 45.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Channel ports, + <ul class="index"> + <li>importance to Allies, ii: <em>Intro. viii</em>;</li> + <li>German drive for, '18, ii: 75, iii: 38, 359;</li> + <li>opposing views of Viscount French and Joffre on importance of, ii: 172;</li> + <li>Belgian coast evacuated by Germans, Oct., '18, ii: 214.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Chant du Départ, Le</cite>, French patriotic song, xi: 333.</li> +<li>Chapman, Victor, member of Lafayette Escadrille, killed at Verdun, iii: 391.</li> +<li>Charcoal, use in gas masks, viii: 176.</li> +<li><cite>Charge of the Tank Brigade</cite>, poem by Vilda Sauvage Owens, xi: 267.</li> +<li><cite>Charlemagne</cite>, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31.</li> +<li>Charleroi, captured by Germans, Aug. 21—23, '14, i: 375.</li> +<li>Charles Francis, Emperor of Austria-Hungary, + <ul class="index"> + <li>ascends throne, Nov. 21, '16, i: 388;</li> + <li>secret letter to Prince Sixtus asking for peace, Mar., '17, ii: 63, 315;</li> + <li>conciliatory policy, vi: 313;</li> + <li>overthrown by Socialist revolution, '18, vi: 317;</li> + <li>letter of appeal to King Ferdinand of Rumania, vi: 317;</li> + <li>leaves Austria, Mar. 23, '19, vi: 319;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 371-373.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Charpentry, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 27, '18, v: 227.</li> +<li>Chartèves, captured by 3rd Div., v: 383.</li> +<li>Chasseurs, description, xi: 189. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></p></li> + +<li>Château-Thierry, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Germans, June 1, '18, ii: 154, iii: 93;</li> + <li>Ludendorff on A. E. F. fighting at, ii: 320;</li> + <li>re-occupied by A. E. F. and French, July 21, '18, iii: 96, v: 184;</li> + <li>German attempts to cross Marne at, repulsed by A. E. F., May 31—June 3, '18, v: 35, 130, 134-135, 381-382, xi: 43;</li> + <li>location and importance, v: 133;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Marne, battles of, July, '18.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Châteauroux, U. S. gas-mask factory at, v: 324.</li> +<li>Châtel-Chehery, captured by 28th Div., Oct. 7, '18, v: 243.</li> +<li>Châtillon, Germans force bridgehead at, July 15, '18, v. 51.</li> +<li>Châtillon Wood, taken by 60th Inf., Nov. 5, '18, v: 271.</li> +<li>Chaulnes, captured by British, Mar. 17, '17, iii: 68.</li> +<li>Chaumont, A. E. F. general headquarters, v: 100.</li> +<li>Chaumont-en-Vixen, training area for 1st Div., v: 121.</li> +<li>Chelsea War Refugees Fund, vii: 106.</li> +<li>Chemery, captured by 42nd Div., Nov. 6, '18, v: 269.</li> +<li>Chemical warfare, + <ul class="index"> + <li>poison gas first used by Germans at battle of Ypres, Apr., '15, iii: 42, 288, 320, xi: 316, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>;</li> + <li>first use against Russians, iii: 288-292;</li> + <li>Pierre Loti's description of gassed, iii: 320-322;</li> + <li>German projector batteries, v: 28;</li> + <li>U. S. Chemical Warfare Service, activities, v: 321-327, 401;</li> + <li>gas warfare development, v: 321;</li> + <li>kinds of poison gases used, v: 321, viii: 166-172;</li> + <li>mustard gas, v: 321, viii: 171, xi: 321;</li> + <li>phosgene (carbonyl chloride), v: 321, viii: 168-170;</li> + <li>U. S. production of gas shells, v: 324, 325;</li> + <li>invention in U. S. of super-poisonous gas, viii: <em>Intro. ix</em>;</li> + <li>methods of gas attack, viii: 162-165;</li> + <li>gas clouds, viii: 162-164, xi: 316;</li> + <li>gas shells, description and use, viii: 164, xi: 320;</li> + <li>poisoning and asphyxiation, differences, viii: 166-167;</li> + <li>carbon dioxide, asphyxiating properties, 166;</li> + <li>nitrogen, asphyxiating properties, viii: 166;</li> + <li>carbon monoxide, poisonous properties, viii: 166, 167, 168;</li> + <li>chlorine, use in gas attacks, viii: 168-170;</li> + <li>vaporous liquid poisons, use in gas attacks, viii: 170-172;</li> + <li>diphosgene, use in gas attacks, viii: 170;</li> + <li>xylyl bromide (tear gas), use in gas attacks, viii: 170;</li> + <li>chlorpicrin, use in gas attacks, viii: 171;</li> + <li>sneezing gas, use in gas attacks, viii: 171;</li> + <li>Lewisite, new American poison gas, deadliest of all, viii: 172;</li> + <li>methods of defense against gas attacks, viii: 173-179;</li> + <li>oxygen helmets, viii: 173;</li> + <li>gas masks, viii: 174-178;</li> + <li>use of charcoal in gas masks, viii: 176;</li> + <li>fans for blowing away poison gases, viii: 178;</li> + <li>use of neutralizing reagents, viii: 178;</li> + <li>wet blankets as air-locks, viii: 178;</li> + <li>U. S. poison-gas production at Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 179-187, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>;</li> + <li>gas gangrene, xi: 287;</li> + <li>international law on, xi: 313;</li> + <li>general description, xi: 313-323.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Chemin des Dames, + <ul class="index"> + <li>battle and capture of, by Germans, May 27, '18, i: 395, ii: 76, 154, v: 132;</li> + <li>Germans driven from, '17, iii: 73-76;</li> + <li>training area for 26th Div., v: 117.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Chemung, S. S.</cite>, American steamer torpedoed, Nov. 26, '16, i: 389.</li> +<li>Chennery, captured by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263.</li> +<li>Cheppy, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 225.</li> +<li>Chiapovano Valley, Italian objective in '17 drive, ii: 58.</li> +<li>Children in the War, xi: <em>Intro. ix-xiii</em>, 56-84; + <ul class="index"> + <li>letters of, xi: 60, 74-84;</li> + <li>brave Belgian boys run off to war, xi: 67;</li> + <li>Prudent Marius, the boy dispatch rider, xi: 69;</li> + <li>"The Little Serbian Sergeant," xi: 69;</li> + <li>American relief for European, xi: 84-93.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Chile, + <ul class="index"> + <li>neutral during War, vi: 390;</li> + <li>Tacna-Arica dispute with Peru, vi: 390.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Chiles, Capt. Marcellus H., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.</li> +<li>Chilly, taken by French, Sept. 4, '16, i: 386.</li> +<li>China, + <ul class="index"> + <li>under foreigners' yoke, i: 18;</li> + <li>defeated by Japan in war of 1894, i: 20;</li> + <li>forced to accept "open door" policy, i: 38;</li> + <li>U. S. policy of "open door" in, i: 57;</li> + <li>special Japanese interests in, recognized by Lansing-Ishii Note, '17, i: 58;</li> + <li>international position of, '14, i: 63;</li> + <li>severs diplomatic relations with Germany, Mar. 14, '17, i: 389;</li> + <li>declares war on Teutonic Allies, Aug. 14, '17, i: 390;</li> + <li>coolie labor in France, ii: 377, <a href="#Page_80">xii: 80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">xii: 85</a>;</li> + <li>siege of Tsing Tau, iii: 257;</li> + <li>Tsing Tau seized by Germans, 1897, iii: 259;</li> + <li>origin of phrase "yellow peril," vi: 248;</li> + <li>Japanese demands on, '15, vi: 385;</li> + <li>coal production, '13—'15, <a href="#Page_48">xii: 48</a>;</li> + <li>refuses to sign Peace Treaty with Germany, <a href="#Page_167">xii: 167</a>;</li> + <li>delegates to Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>;</li> + <li>German rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_206">xii: 206</a>;</li> + <li>Kiao-Chau (Shantung) transferred to Japan under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_209">xii: 209</a>; + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see also</em> Kiau-Chau; Shantung.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>"Chinese Citizen Boy," letter from, xi: 179.</li> +<li>Chipilly Ridge, 33rd Div. breaks German line at, 'Aug. 1, '18, v: 260.</li> +<li>Chloride of lime, amount issued by U. S. Army, v: 324.</li> +<li>Chlorine, + <ul class="index"> + <li>first used by Germans in gas attack at Ypres, Apr., '15, iii: 42, 288, 320, xi: 316, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>;</li> + <li>poisonous properties of, viii: 166, 168;</li> + <li>use in chemical warfare, viii: 168-170;</li> + <li>manufacture of, at U. S. Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 183.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Chlorpicrin, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description of, v: 321;</li> + <li>use in chemical warfare, viii: 171;</li> + <li>manufacture of, at U. S. Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 185.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Choising, S. S.</cite>, <cite>Emdens's</cite> survivors transfer from <cite>Ayesha</cite> to, iv: 192.</li> +<li>Cholm, claimed by Poland and Ukraine, vi: 248.</li> +<li>Chronoscope, for measuring reaction times, viii: 352.</li> +<li>Chunuk Bair, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Turk stronghold at Gallipoli, iii: 172;</li> + <li>Anzac attack on, iii: 173, 356-358;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Gallipoli Campaign.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Churchill, Winston Spencer, + <ul class="index"> + <li>advocates Dardanelles attack, ii: <em>Intro. x, xiv.</em>, 29, 200;</li> + <li>responsibility for Gallipoli disaster, ii: 198, 200;</li> + <li>member of British Cabinet War Council, ii: 198;</li> + <li>defends Dardanelles campaign, ii: 205, iv: 56;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 44-47.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cierges, attacked by 37th Div., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229.</li> +<li>Ciezkowice, captured by Germans, May 2, '15, i: 380.</li> +<li>Cimone, Mt., taken by Italians, July 25, '16, i: 386.</li> +<li>Citizenship, Bureau of, educational work among A. E. F., vii: 282.</li> +<li>Cividale, taken by Germans, Oct. 28, '17, iii: 247.</li> +<li>Civil War, Gen. Maurice on strategy of, compared with World War, ii: <em>Intro. xiii.</em></li> +<li>Civilian deaths, + <ul class="index"> + <li>due to War, iii: 405;</li> + <li>money value of, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Clam-Martinitz, Premier of Austria-Hungary, appointment as, vi: 313.</li> +<li>Clarkson, Grosvenor B., + <ul class="index"> + <li>Director of U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_115">xii: 115</a>;</li> + <li>on causes of high cost of living, <a href="#Page_142">xii: 142-148</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Clausewitz, Gen. Karl von, influence on development of German militarism, i: 166.</li> +<li>Clay, Capt. W. L., inventor of armor-piercing bullet, viii: 60.</li> +<li>Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, between U. S. and Great Britain on Panama Canal, i: 86.</li> +<li>Clemenceau, Georges, + <ul class="index"> + <li>makes <cite>Bonnet Rouge</cite> disclosures, vi: 105;</li> + <li>forms new War Cabinet, Nov., '17, vi: 106;</li> + <li>disagrees with Pres. Wilson's peace aims, vi: 108;</li> + <li>publishes letter of Emperor Charles to Prince Sixtus offering to make peace, vi: 315;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 1-13, xi: 125;</li> + <li>record as Premier, ix: 12;</li> + <li>view of "Fourteen Points," ix: 13;</li> + <li>bibliography, ix: 13;</li> + <li>faith in Foch, ix: 151;</li> + <li>at the Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_149">xii: 149-163</a>;</li> + <li>excludes Germans from, <a href="#Page_162">xii: 162</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Clermont-Ferrand, U. S. Air-Service Training School at, v: 313.</li> +<li>Cléry-le-Grand, taken by 60th Inf., Nov. 1, '18, v: 262.</li> +<li>Cléry-le-Petit, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 2, '18. v: 264. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></p></li> + +<li>Clifford, Rev. J. H., "Doc of the Fifth," chaplain of U. S. Marines, x: 32-35.</li> +<li>Clocks, for airplanes, viii: 220.</li> +<li>Cloth, anti-gas, amount issued by U. S. Army, v: 324.</li> +<li>Coal, + <ul class="index"> + <li>abundance secret of German power, i: 267;</li> + <li>German production, 1880—1913, i: 267;</li> + <li>seizure of French mines by Germany, ii: 20;</li> + <li>consumption of, by A. E. F., v: 331;</li> + <li>Dutch supply from Germany, vi: 377;</li> + <li>U. S. production, '18—'19, <a href="#Page_46">xii: 46</a>;</li> + <li>production by chief countries, '13—'17, <a href="#Page_47">xii: 47</a>;</li> + <li>war-time price of, <a href="#Page_48">xii: 48</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty requirements for German deliveries to France, Belgium, Italy, <a href="#Page_224">xii: 224</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Coast Guard, Boy Scouts in, xi: 104.</li> +<li>"Coastals," type of U. S. dirigibles, viii: 245, 256.</li> +<li>Coblenz, + <ul class="index"> + <li>bombed by Allied airmen, Oct. 1, '17, i: 392;</li> + <li>bridgehead at, occupied by A. E. F., Dec. 8, '18, i: 400, v: 394;</li> + <li>conditions for Allied withdrawal from, <a href="#Page_261">xii: 261</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cochin, Lieut., French submarine commander, feat in clearing minefield, iv: 375.</li> +<li>Codes, detection of, v: 319.</li> +<li>Coetquidan, artillery training camp in Brittany, v: 6.</li> +<li>Coffin, H. E., + <ul class="index"> + <li>Chairman of Committee on Industrial Preparedness, <a href="#Page_69">xii: 69</a>;</li> + <li>views on industrial preparedness, <a href="#Page_69">xii: 69</a>;</li> + <li>member of Advisory Commission, U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_116">xii: 116</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cohalan, Justice, leads Irish-American movement for Irish Republic, vi: 65.</li> +<li>Cold storage plants, use by A. E. F., v: 331.</li> +<li>Colmar, French advance toward, Aug., '14, iii: 16.</li> +<li>Cologne, bridgehead at, + <ul class="index"> + <li>occupied by British, Dec. 6, '18, i: 400;</li> + <li>conditions for Allied withdrawal from, <a href="#Page_261">xii: 261</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Colombia, pro-German attitude of, vi: 392.</li> +<li>Colonies, + <ul class="index"> + <li>important share of British, in winning War, i: 13;</li> + <li>loss of German, i: 13;</li> + <li>German miscalculation of loyalty of British, i: 14;</li> + <li>share of French, in final victory, i: 14;</li> + <li>European rivalries for, a chief cause of war, i: 14;</li> + <li>era of colonization by European nations, i: 26;</li> + <li>influence on development of naval power, i: 28;</li> + <li>colonization during 19th century, i: 37;</li> + <li>in Far East, i: 38;</li> + <li>expansion important motive in German war policy, ii: 13.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Columbia, S. S.</cite>, American steamer sunk by U-boat, Nov. 7, '16, i: 388.</li> +<li>Colyer, Sgt. Wilbur E., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 388.</li> +<li>Combles, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Allies, Sept. 26, '16, i: 388, iii: 58, 59;</li> + <li>recaptured by Allies, Aug. 30, '18, ii: 158.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><span lang="fr">Comité Nationale Belge de Secours et d'Alimentation</span>, organization, vii: 120.</li> +<li>Commerce, + <ul class="index"> + <li>national rivalries, i: 262;</li> + <li>English blockade threatens ruin of German, vi: 253;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Trade, under name of country.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Commerce raiders, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German, exploits of <cite>Emden</cite>, iv: 166-194;</li> + <li><cite>Königsberg</cite>, career in Indian Ocean, iv: 195;</li> + <li><cite>Karlsruhe</cite>, activities in Atlantic, iv: 196;</li> + <li><cite>Königin Luise</cite>, operations in English Channel, iv: 197;</li> + <li><cite>Meteor</cite>, activities in Baltic, iv: 197;</li> + <li><cite>Moewe</cite>, converted merchantman, iv: 197;</li> + <li><cite>Seeadler</cite>, iv: 198;</li> + <li><cite>Wolf</cite>, seaplane carrier, iv: 198.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Commissaries, political, in Russia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>demoralize army, iii: 268;</li> + <li>Council of People's, dictatorship of, vi: 181;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Russia.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Commission for Relief in Belgium, vii: 116-144.</li> +<li>Committee, of Mercy, vii: 87; + <ul class="index"> + <li>for Fatherless Children of France, vii: 105.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Communication, lines of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>French railways available for A. E. F. use, '18, v: 110;</li> + <li>between France and Germany, v: 214.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Compass, + <ul class="index"> + <li>for airplanes, viii: 220;</li> + <li>Sperry gyro-compass, viii: 348.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Comrades in Service, vii: 284.</li> +<li><cite>Conduct of War, The</cite>, by Marshal Foch, ix: 152.</li> +<li><span lang="fr">Confédération Générale du Travail</span>, French labor union, political activities, vi: 110.</li> +<li>Congo, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Belgian exploitation of, i: 50;</li> + <li>creation of Congo Free State, i: 50.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Congo Conference, '84—'85, i: 16.</li> +<li>Congress of Berlin, 1878, i: 16.</li> +<li>Congressional Medal of Honor, list and deeds of recipients during War, x: 388-402.</li> +<li>Conner, Brig.-Gen. Fox, Chief of Operations, A. E. F. General Staff, v: 102.</li> +<li>Connolly, James, Sinn Fein leader, + <ul class="index"> + <li>wounded during Dublin rioting, Apr., '16, vi: 60;</li> + <li>Commandant-General of "Irish Republic," ix: 53.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Conscientious objectors, treatment of, in Great Britain, vi: 8.</li> +<li>Conscription, <em>see under</em> name of country.</li> +<li>Consevoie, U. S. engineers bridge Meuse at, Oct. 8, '18, v: 245.</li> +<li>Constantine, King of Greece, + <ul class="index"> + <li>abdicates throne, June 12, '17, i: 390;</li> + <li>opposed to Allied cause, iii: 202;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 380-382.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Constantinesco, M., inventor of "C. C. Gear" for regulating airplane fire, viii: 215.</li> +<li>Constantinople, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russian ambitions for, i: 63;</li> + <li>captured by Turks, 1453, i: 90;</li> + <li>Gallipoli base of defense of, ii: 27;</li> + <li>key to early ending of War, ii: 29;</li> + <li>early history, iv: 18;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Gallipoli Campaign;</li> + <li>Turkey.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Constantinople Convention, 1888, Suez Canal neutralized, i: 15.</li> +<li>Constanza, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Teuton forces, Oct. 23, '16, i: 388, iii: 221;</li> + <li>bombarded by Russian fleet, Nov. 11, '16, i: 388.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Constituent Assembly, Russian, dissolved by Bolsheviki, Jan., '18, vi: 185.</li> +<li>Contraband, <em>see</em> Germany, Blockade.</li> +<li>Contracts, between German and Allied nationals, Peace Treaty provisions on status and methods of discharge, <a href="#Page_240">xii: 240-243</a>.</li> +<li>Convoy service, difficulties of, iv: 317.</li> +<li>Cook, Lieut. S. W., co-inventor of depth-bomb launching device, iv: 331.</li> +<li>Co-operative Societies, Siberia, organization of landowning peasants, vi: 191.</li> +<li>Cordite, composition and explosive properties, viii: 6.</li> +<li>Corfu, + <ul class="index"> + <li>seat of Serbian government transferred to, iii: 160;</li> + <li>meeting of Jugoslav representatives at, Aug., '17, vi: 359.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Cormoran, S. S.</cite>, converted into auxiliary cruiser by <cite>Emden's</cite> crew, vi: 169.</li> +<li><cite>Cornwall</cite>, British cruiser at Falklands, iv: 70.</li> +<li>Cornwall, Jack, heroic British Boy Scout, xi: 98.</li> +<li><cite>Cornwallis</cite>, British battleship, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sunk, Jan. 9, '17, i: 389;</li> + <li>at Gallipoli, iv: 33.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Coronel, battle of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Nov. 1, '14, iv: 64-68, ix: 308;</li> + <li>comparison of opposing fleets, iv: 64, 65;</li> + <li>Von Spee's account of, iv: 66;</li> + <li>British account of, iv: 67;</li> + <li>losses, iv: 68;</li> + <li>Sir Henry Newbolt on strategy of, iv: 68.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Corps, compared with Division, v: 109.</li> +<li>Cossacks, + <ul class="index"> + <li>origin, vi: 146;</li> + <li>fight against Bolsheviki, vi: 192.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cost of living, + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see</em> Prices;</li> + <li><em>also</em> under each country.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cost of War, + <ul class="index"> + <li>capitalized value of lives lost, iii: 406, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>importance of money as war weapon, <a href="#Page_1">xii: 1</a>;</li> + <li>compared with previous wars, <a href="#Page_24">xii: 24</a>;</li> + <li>value of property destroyed, <a href="#Page_24">xii: 24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>economic loss in man-power, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>value of production loss, <a href="#Page_26">xii: 26</a>;</li> + <li>value of tonnage sunk, <a href="#Page_26">xii: 26</a>;</li> + <li>cost to Allies and Central Powers, <a href="#Page_27">xii: 27</a>, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>meaning of "cost of war," <a href="#Page_105">xii: 105</a>;</li> + <li>difficulties of computing money equivalent, <a href="#Page_105">xii: 105</a>;</li> + <li>range of expenditures, <a href="#Page_105">xii: 105</a>;</li> + <li>expenditures of different belligerents, <a href="#Page_106">xii: 106-107</a>;</li> + <li>methods used to raise war funds, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107-114</a>;</li> + <li>taxation <em>vs.</em> borrowing, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>rise in national debts of belligerents, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under each belligerent. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Costin, Pvt. Henry G., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 394.</li> +<li>Côte de Châtillon, capture of, by 42nd Div., Oct. 16, '18, v: 84, 250, 252.</li> +<li>Côtes-de-Meuse, taken in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. 12—13, '18, v: 69.</li> +<li>Cotton, not on British contraband list, ii: 21.</li> +<li>Coulommiers, Germans beaten back at, in first battle of the Marne, iii: 32.</li> +<li>Council of National Defense, U. S., + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see</em> United States, Council of National Defense.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Courcelette, taken by Allies, Sept. 15, '16, i: 388.</li> +<li>Courland, + <ul class="index"> + <li>early history, vi: 226;</li> + <li>Republic of, established Apr., '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>population, Apr., '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Baltic Provinces.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Courtu, stormed by French in first battle of the Somme, '16, iii: 58.</li> +<li><cite>Covington</cite>, U. S. transport sunk, July 1, '18, i: 397, iv: 337.</li> +<li>Cracow, Russian operations against, '14, iii: 127.</li> +<li>Cradock, Adm. Sir Christopher, commander of defeated British fleet in battle of Coronel, iv: 63, ix: 308.</li> +<li>Crandell, Miss Marion G., American "Y" worker with French, killed vii: 313.</li> +<li><cite>Cressy</cite>, British cruiser, sunk by <cite>U-9</cite>, Sept. 22, '14, iv: 205, x: 274-280, xi: 234.</li> +<li>Crile, Col. George W., first demonstrator of nitrous oxide as anæsthetic, vii: 68.</li> +<li>Croats, + <ul class="index"> + <li>early history, vi: 354;</li> + <li>antagonism to Italy, vi: 362.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Croix de Guerre, awards to American "Y" workers, vii: 275, 313.</li> +<li>Cromarty, as British naval base, iv: 94.</li> +<li>Cromer, Lord, chairman of commission to investigate Gallipoli disaster, ii: 197.</li> +<li>Cronkhite, Gen. Adelbert, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander 80th Div., v: 144;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 219.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Crothers, Rachel, starts Stage Women's War Relief, vii: 343.</li> +<li>Crown Prince of Germany, <em>see</em> Frederick William.</li> +<li>Crown Prince of Prussia, <em>see</em> Frederick William.</li> +<li>Ctesiphon, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British defeated at, by Turks, Jan. 3, '16, i: 384, iii: 182;</li> + <li>description of Arch of, iii: 331;</li> + <li>collapse of British medical service at battle of, iii: 367.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cuba, + <ul class="index"> + <li>revolt against Spain, i: 56;</li> + <li>declares war on Germany, Apr. 7, '17, i: 389;</li> + <li>debt to U. S., <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Conference delegate, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cuisy Wood, captured by 79th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 224.</li> +<li>Cukela, 1st Lieut. Louis, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 388.</li> +<li>Cumières, captured and lost by Germans, May 23—27, '16, iii: 54, 312.</li> +<li>Cunel, captured by 5th Div., Oct. 14, '18, v: 250.</li> +<li>Curlu, captured by British, July 2, '16, i: 386.</li> +<li><cite>Cushing</cite>, American ship attacked by German airplane, Apr. 28, '15, iv: 218.</li> +<li>Custace, Capt. Frank M., war services, x: 322.</li> +<li>Custer (85th) Division, <em>see</em> U. S. Army.</li> +<li>Customs duties, German, regulation of, by Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_229">xii: 229</a>.</li> +<li>Cuxhaven, bombarded by British airmen, Dec. 25, '14, i: 378.</li> +<li><cite>Cyclops</cite>, U. S. collier, mysterious disappearance, iv: 356.</li> +<li>Cyprus, acquired by Great Britain, i: 93.</li> +<li>Cyrenaica, base of Turkish forces invading western Egypt, iii: 190.</li> +<li>Czar of Russia, <em>see</em> Nicholas II.</li> +<li>Czechoslovakia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>anti-Bolshevist forces in Russia, vi: 187, 192;</li> + <li>capture of Vladivostok, June, '18, vi: 192;</li> + <li>attack on Hungary, April—May, '19, vi: 326;</li> + <li>antagonism to Italy, vi: 362;</li> + <li>independence recognized, vi: 399;</li> + <li>German elements rebel against new government, vi: 399;</li> + <li>Socialist movement in, '19, vi: 400;</li> + <li>against Bolshevism, vi: 400;</li> + <li>claims Teschen at Peace Conference, vi: 400;</li> + <li>debt to U. S., <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Conference delegates, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty provisions for independence of, <a href="#Page_197">xii: 197</a>;</li> + <li>use of German ports, Peace Treaty provisions for, <a href="#Page_253">xii: 253</a>;</li> + <li>Republic established, Oct., '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>population, Oct., '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Bohemia.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Czernin, Count, Austro-Hungarian Minister of Foreign Affairs, + <ul class="index"> + <li>appointment as, vi: 313;</li> + <li>peace statement, July, '17, vi: 314;</li> + <li>resigns as Foreign Minister, vi: 315.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Czernowitz, + <ul class="index"> + <li>taken by Russians, Nov. 29, '14, i: 376, iii: 122;</li> + <li>abandoned by Russians, Jan. 5, '16, i: 384;</li> + <li>recaptured by Russians, June 17—18, '16, i: 385, iii: 144;</li> + <li>occupied by Teutons, Aug. 3, '17, i: 390.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Din" id="Din">D</a></li> +<li><cite>Daffodil</cite>, British ferryboat in Zeebrugge raid, iv: 262.</li> +<li>Daghestan, Republic of, formed by Caucasian mountaineers, vi: 234.</li> +<li>Dalmatia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Italian claims for, vi: 361;</li> + <li>conflict between Italians and Jugoslavs for possession of, vi: 365.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>D'Amade, Gen., commander of French forces at Gallipoli, iii: 167.</li> +<li>Damascus, captured by British and Arabs, Oct. 1, '18, i: 399, iii: 199.</li> +<li>Damloup, scene of fighting at Verdun, iii: 55.</li> +<li>Dammartin, 1st Div. headquarters, June, '18, v: 143.</li> +<li>"Danger Zone," in rifle fire, viii: 93.</li> +<li>Daniels, Josephus, biography, ix: 326-329.</li> +<li>Dankl, Gen., commands Austrian army invading Russian Poland, '14, iii: 118.</li> +<li>Dannevoux, scene of fighting in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept. 26, '18, v: 224.</li> +<li>D'Annunzio, Gabriele, + <ul class="index"> + <li>pro-Ally propaganda during Italian neutrality, ii: 239, vi: 119, 124, ix: 343;</li> + <li>manifesto on Italian claims for eastern Adriatic coast, vi: 368;</li> + <li>claims Fiume, vi: 369;</li> + <li>seizes Fiume, vi: 370;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 343-345;</li> + <li>author of <cite>Song of the Dardanelles</cite>, ix: 343;</li> + <li>message to America, ix: 344.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Danton</cite>, French battleship torpedoed, Mar. 19, '17, iv: 376.</li> +<li>Danube River, + <ul class="index"> + <li>as barrier against invasion, iii: 151, 214;</li> + <li>bridge across, blown up by Rumanians, iii: 221;</li> + <li>internationalized by Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_248">xii: 248</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Danzig, + <ul class="index"> + <li>demanded by Poland, vi: 225;</li> + <li>made free city under Peace Treaty, vi: 226, <a href="#Page_203">xii: 203</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dardanelles, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russian gateway to the sea, ii: 28, iii: 161;</li> + <li>closed by Turkey, Sept., '14, ii: 28;</li> + <li>strategic importance, ii: 29;</li> + <li>Narrows, critical point, ii: 29;</li> + <li>topography of shores, iii: 165, iv: 21, 23;</li> + <li>modern defenses, iii: 165, iv: 23, 27, 45;</li> + <li>early history, iv: 18-22;</li> + <li>early fortifications, iv: 19;</li> + <li>closed by Turkey to warships of other nations, iv: 20;</li> + <li>forced in 1807 by Adm. Duckworth, iv: 20;</li> + <li>fortified by Allies in Crimean War, iv: 20;</li> + <li>forced in 1878, by Adm. Hornby, iv: 21;</li> + <li>importance to Turkey, iv: 23;</li> + <li>importance of combining land and naval attacks in forcing, iv: 26;</li> + <li>description, xi: 14;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Gallipoli Campaign.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dardanelles Expedition, <em>see</em> Gallipoli Campaign.</li> +<li>Dardanos Fort, bombarded by British, Feb. 19, '15, iv: 43.</li> +<li>Dar-es-Salam, captured by British, iii: 255.</li> +<li>Davis, Richard Harding, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description of German entry into Brussels, iii: 271-273;</li> + <li>description of burning of Louvain, iii: 273-277.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Davison, Henry P., + <ul class="index"> + <li>Chairman, War Council American Red Cross, vii: i;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 339.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>De Ram automatic camera for aerial photography, viii: 228, 333. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></p></li> + +<li>De Valera, Prof. Eamonn, + <ul class="index"> + <li>elected to Parliament, vi: 62;</li> + <li>arrest and escape from jail, vi: 65;</li> + <li>elected President of Irish Republic, ix: 55;</li> + <li>address to America, ix: 55.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dead Man's Hill, at Verdun, battle of, May, '16, iii: 51, 53, 306, 308, 310, xi: 22.</li> +<li>Debeney, Gen., commander of French First Army, ii: 212.</li> +<li>Debts, national, + <ul class="index"> + <li>of belligerents, <a href="#Page_111">xii: 111-114</a>;</li> + <li>between German and Allied nationals, Peace Treaty provisions for settlement of, <a href="#Page_232">xii: 232-236</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Decorations, Congressional Medal of Honor, list and deeds of recipients during War, x: 388-402.</li> +<li><cite>Deductions from the World War</cite>, by Gen. Baron von Freytag-Loringhoven, summary of, ii: 254.</li> +<li><cite>Defender</cite>, British destroyer in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240.</li> +<li><cite>Defense</cite>, British ship sunk at Jutland, iv: 121.</li> +<li>Defense, + <ul class="index"> + <li>elements in, iv: 4;</li> + <li>French trench system of, v: 12;</li> + <li>Gouraud's method of, against infiltration, v: 46, 155, viii: 146-148;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Tactics.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Defense of the Realm Act, British, + <ul class="index"> + <li>as weapon against war-time labor strikes, vi: 14;</li> + <li>used to prevent electricians' strike, Feb., '19, vi: 20.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Definitions, of popular war terms, xi: 359-362.</li> +<li>Delcassé, Théophile, + <ul class="index"> + <li>dismissed as French Minister through German pressure, i: 99;</li> + <li>resignation from Viviani government, Oct., '15, vi: 100.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Delousing, by Salvage Service of A. E. F., v: 331.</li> +<li>Demir-hissar, occupied by Bulgars, iii: 207.</li> +<li>Demir-Kapu, taken by French, Oct. 20, '15, iii: 204.</li> +<li>Democracy, in Europe, + <ul class="index"> + <li>as result of the War, i: <em>Intro. x</em>;</li> + <li>rise of, during 19th century, i: 29;</li> + <li>among American colonists, i: 29;</li> + <li>development in France, i: 30;</li> + <li>European reaction, 1814—40, i: 32;</li> + <li>failure of movement of 1848 in Germany, i: 32;</li> + <li>growth of national sentiment for, in U. S., '04—'14, i: 293.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Demotika, + <ul class="index"> + <li>ceded to Bulgaria by Turkey, vi: 344;</li> + <li>Turkey demands return of, vi: 345.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Denikin, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>report on collapse of Russian armies, iii: 267-270;</li> + <li>leads fight on Bolsheviki, vi: 192, 248.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Denmark, + <ul class="index"> + <li>war with Prussia, 1864, i: <em>Intro. vii</em>;</li> + <li>neutral during War, vi: 393;</li> + <li>popular sentiment pro-Ally, vi: 393;</li> + <li>war-time increase in shipping, <a href="#Page_101">xii: 101</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Depth bomb, + <ul class="index"> + <li>evolution of, iv: 307;</li> + <li>use in fighting submarines, iv: 317;</li> + <li>development by U. S. Navy, iv: 330;</li> + <li>launching mechanism, iv: 331;</li> + <li>invention of "Y" gun, iv: 332;</li> + <li>for discharge from airplanes, iv: 332;</li> + <li>description, viii: 281, xi: 239.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Der Kampf</cite>, Maximalist publication, vi: 314.</li> +<li><cite>Der Tag</cite>, the German "millennium," xi: 195.</li> +<li><cite>Derflinger</cite>, German cruiser in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.</li> +<li>Dernburg, Dr. Bernhard, + <ul class="index"> + <li>justifies German war policy, i: 120;</li> + <li>heads German propaganda in U. S., i: 274, 316;</li> + <li>character sketch of, ix: 353.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Derrière Chez Mon Père</cite>, French soldiers' song, xi: 339.</li> +<li>D'Esperey, Gen. Franchet, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands French troops at first Marne battle, ii: 184, iii: 31;</li> + <li>commands Allied troops on Balkan front, ii: 218, iii: 212, vi: 347;</li> + <li>signs armistice with Hungary, vi: 323.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Destroyers, effectiveness against submarines, viii: <em>Intro. viii.</em></li> +<li>Detonation, of explosives compared with explosion, viii: 1.</li> +<li><cite>Deutschland</cite>, German merchant submarine, + <ul class="index"> + <li>arrives at Baltimore, July 9, '16, i: 334, iv: 214;</li> + <li>Capt. Koenig's account of trip, iv: 215;</li> + <li>feat in crossing Atlantic, x: 271-274.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Devastation of France, + <ul class="index"> + <li>by Germans in retreat to Hindenburg Line, iii: 67;</li> + <li>French protest to neutrals, iii: 68;</li> + <li>German excuses for, iii: 68.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Devoir, Le</cite>, Canadian Nationalist newspaper, vi: 30.</li> +<li>D'Eyncourt, Sir E., share in development of tank, viii: 155.</li> +<li>D. H. 10, British bombing planes, viii: 204.</li> +<li><cite>Dhair Hissar</cite>, Turkish torpedo-boat in Ægean, iv: 49.</li> +<li>Diaz, Gen., succeeds Cadorna as Italian Commander-in-Chief, iii: 248.</li> +<li>Dickebusch sector, A. E. F. in, v: 286, 289.</li> +<li>Dickinson, Prof. G. Lowes, defense of British conscientious objectors, vi: 8.</li> +<li>Dickman, Maj.-Gen. Joseph T., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands 3rd Div. at Mezy-Moulins, v: 51;</li> + <li>commands Fourth Corps at St. Mihiel, v: 65, 202, 386;</li> + <li>commands First Corps in Meuse-Argonne, v: 83, 132;</li> + <li>commands 3rd Div. at Château-Thierry, v: 132;</li> + <li>commands Army of Occupation, v: 395.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dilboy, Pvt. George, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 391.</li> +<li>Dimethyl-trithiocarbonate (skunk gas), use in chemical warfare, v: 322.</li> +<li>Dinant, Germans checked at, in march through Belgium, Aug., '14, iii: 12.</li> +<li>Diphenylchlorarsine, use in chemical warfare, v: 322.</li> +<li>Diphosgene, use in chemical warfare, viii: 170.</li> +<li>Dirigibles, <em>see</em> Aeronautics.</li> +<li>Disarmament, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Anglo-German negotiations, '12, i: 106, 194;</li> + <li>German answer to British proposals, i: 195.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Disease, + <ul class="index"> + <li>statistics for U. S. Army, v: 402, vii: 179, 193-196, 208-209;</li> + <li>early handicaps in prevention, vii: 177;</li> + <li>preventive methods in U. S. Army, vii: 193, 245-248;</li> + <li>results of preventive methods, statistics for U. S. Army, vii: 195;</li> + <li>sanitation, vii: 253;</li> + <li>inoculation against, vii: 253;</li> + <li>prevention of infections among troops, viii: 392-397;</li> + <li>anti-typhoid immunization, viii: 393;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Infection;</li> + <li>Medical Science;</li> + <li>Sanitation.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Distinguished Service Cross, awards of, to "Y" workers, vii: 272.</li> +<li>"Divine right of kings," Kaiser's conception of, i: 68.</li> +<li>Dixmude, + <ul class="index"> + <li>occupied by Germans, Nov. 10, '14, i: 376;</li> + <li>evacuated by Germans, Dec. 20, '14, i: 376;</li> + <li>occupied by Belgians, Sept. 29—30, '18, i: 397;</li> + <li>German repulse at, in march through Belgium, '14, iii: 40.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dixmude-Ypres sector, Allied offensive, Sept. 28—Oct. 3, '18, iii: 100.</li> +<li>Djemal Pasha, commander of Turkish forces operating against Suez, iii: 190.</li> +<li>Dmitrieff, Gen., biography, iii: 119.</li> +<li>Dmowski, Roman, leader of Polish reactionary parties, vi: 220.</li> +<li>Dniester River, Germans defeated at, in Galician campaign, '15, iii: 136.</li> +<li>Dobrudja, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German conquest of, Sept.—Oct., '16, ii: 60, iii: 218-221;</li> + <li>description of, iii: 215;</li> + <li>disastrous Rumanian counter-offensive, Oct., '16, iii: 220;</li> + <li>dispute between Germany and Bulgaria over, vi: 344;</li> + <li>overrun by Bulgarians, vi: 344.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Docks, constructed by A. E. F. in France, v: 332, 400.</li> +<li>Dogger Bank, battle of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British defeat fleet of German raiders, Jan. 24, '15, iv: 246-253;</li> + <li>eye-witness accounts, iv: 247-250;</li> + <li>Adm. Beatty's official report, iv: 250.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dogs in War, + <ul class="index"> + <li>as ambulance drawers, viii: 379;</li> + <li>varied activities, xi: 340-347;</li> + <li>story of "Cap," the Red Cross dog, xi: 362-367;</li> + <li>story of "Pat," Liberty Bonds salesman, xi: 396-402;</li> + <li>effect of food shortage on, <a href="#Page_40">xii: 40</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dommartin-la-Montagne, captured by 26th Div., Sept. 12—13, '18, v: 69, 212.</li> +<li>Don Republic, + <ul class="index"> + <li>established Jan., '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dormans, + <ul class="index"> + <li>28th Div. holds German line at, July 15, '18, v: 53;</li> + <li>location, v: 133.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Douai, German base in France, ii: 86.</li> +<li>Douaumont Fort, at Verdun, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Germans, Feb. 25—26, '16, i: 384, ii: 189, iii: 48, 305;</li> + <li>French recapture and lose, May 22—25, '16, i: 385, iii: 310;</li> + <li>retaken by French, Oct. 24, '16, i: 388, iii: 61. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Doughboys, + <ul class="index"> + <li>spirit of self-assurance of, i: 370;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> U. S., Army.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Doughnuts, Salvation Army specialty, vii: 399.</li> +<li>Doulcon, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 92, 264.</li> +<li>Dozier, 1st Lieut. James C., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.</li> +<li>Draft, <em>see</em> Conscription under name of country.</li> +<li><cite>Drake</cite>, British cruiser torpedoed, Oct. 1, '17, i: 392.</li> +<li><cite>Dresden</cite>, German cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in battle off Coronel, armament, iv: 65;</li> + <li>in battle of Falkland Islands, iv: 70;</li> + <li>sunk by British near Juan Fernandez, Mar. 14, '15, iv: 70.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Drina River, crossed by Austrians invading Serbia, iii: 151.</li> +<li>Drop bombs, viii: 76.</li> +<li>Drummond, Sir James Eric, first Secretary-General of League of Nations, <a href="#Page_186">xii: 186</a>.</li> +<li>Dubilier, Wm., inventor of anti-submarine listening device, iv: 308.</li> +<li>Dublin, bloody fighting at, during Irish Rebellion, vi: 60.</li> +<li>Dubno, captured by Russians, June 11, '16, i: 385, iii: 144.</li> +<li>Duck-boards, use in mud fields of Flanders, viii: 300.</li> +<li>Duds, deloading of, v: 326.</li> +<li>Dueidar, Turks defeated at, Apr., '16, iii: 191.</li> +<li>Duff, Sir Beauchamp, responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364, 370.</li> +<li>Dugouts, subterranean system of, in Hindenburg Line, v: 301.</li> +<li>Dukla Pass, occupied by Russians, Dec., '14, iii: 127.</li> +<li>Duma, Russian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>reconvened, Feb. 22, '16, vi: 140;</li> + <li>struggle against reactionary government, vi: 140, 142, 144;</li> + <li>forces dismissal of Stürmer as Premier, vi: 142;</li> + <li>Czar issues undated decree ordering dismissal, vi: 144;</li> + <li>refuses to be dismissed, Mar. 10, '17, vi: 146;</li> + <li>activities during Revolution, Mar., '17, vi: 150-155;</li> + <li>establishes Provisional Government under Prince Lvov, vi: 155;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Russia.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dumba, Dr. Constantin, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Austro-Hungarian Ambassador at Washington, i: 275;</li> + <li>dismissed from U. S. for instigating labor strikes, i: 275.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dun-sur-Meuse, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by 61st Inf., Nov. 5, '18, v: 94, 271, 391;</li> + <li>bombed by U. S. airmen, v: 311.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dunant, Henri, influence in organization of International Red Cross, vii: 12.</li> +<li>Duncan, Maj.-Gen. George B., + <ul class="index"> + <li>brigade commander in Toul sector, Jan., '18, v: 115;</li> + <li>commands 77th Div., May, '18, v: 141.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dunkirk, + <ul class="index"> + <li>bombarded by Germans, Apr. 30,'15, i: 380;</li> + <li>bombarded by Germans, June, 22, '15, i: 380;</li> + <li>German drive for, '14, iii: 40.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dunn, Rear-Adm. Herbert O., biography, ix: 295.</li> +<li>Dunne, Edw. F., member of Irish-American delegation to Peace Conference, vi: 66.</li> +<li>Durazzo, + <ul class="index"> + <li>occupied by Austrians, Feb. 26, '16, i: 384;</li> + <li>naval base at, destroyed by Allied warships, Oct. 1, '18, i: 399;</li> + <li>occupied by Italians, Oct. 13, '18, i: 399;</li> + <li>retreating Serbs embark for Corfu from, '16, iii: 286.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dushkin, Alexander, visits Europe for Jewish relief, vii: 360.</li> +<li>Dutov, Gen., commands anti-Bolshevik troops in Siberia, vi: 192.</li> +<li>Duval, + <ul class="index"> + <li>traitorous owner of <cite>Bonnet Rouge</cite>, vi: 105;</li> + <li>found guilty and shot, vi: 106.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dwyer, Lance Corp. Edward, wins Victoria Cross, x: 128.</li> +<li>Dyestuffs, German deliveries to Allies, Peace Treaty demands, <a href="#Page_224">xii: 224</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Ein" id="Ein">E</a></li> +<li><cite>E-7</cite>, British submarine, exploit in Sea of Marmora, iv: 211.</li> +<li><cite>E-9</cite>, British submarine, in German waters, iv: 207.</li> +<li><cite>E-11</cite>, British submarine, daring in Sea of Marmora, iv: 210.</li> +<li><cite>E-14</cite>, British submarine, activities in Dardanelles, iv: 209.</li> +<li><cite>E-50</cite>, British submarine, rams U-boat, iv: 214.</li> +<li><cite>E-54</cite>, British submarine, sinks U-boat, iv: 212.</li> +<li>Eagle Hut, American "Y" center in London, vii: 288, 300.</li> +<li>East, Maj.-Gen. Maurice on strategic value of campaigns in, ii: <em>Intro. vii-xxiv.</em></li> +<li>East Africa, German, + <ul class="index"> + <li>conquered by Allies, iii: 255;</li> + <li>acquired by Great Britain, '18, <a href="#Page_271">xii: 271</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_271">xii: 271</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>East Prussia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russian invasion of, Aug., '14, ii: 24, 227, iii: 110-116;</li> + <li>battle of Tannenberg, Aug., '14, ii: 24, iii: 112-116;</li> + <li>effect of Russian invasion on first battle of the Marne, ii: 227;</li> + <li>German campaigns against Russia, '14, Ludendorff's account, ii: 353-357;</li> + <li>plan of Russian invasion, iii: 110;</li> + <li>importance, iii: 112;</li> + <li>Hindenburg's strategy, iii: 113;</li> + <li>strength of Hindenburg's forces, iii: 113;</li> + <li>decisive German victory at Mazurian Lakes, iii: 113;</li> + <li>Russian withdrawal, iii: 116;</li> + <li>plebiscite provisions of Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_200">xii: 200</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Eastern Front, + <ul class="index"> + <li>fortifications of, iii: 109;</li> + <li>strategic aspects, iii: 110;</li> + <li>Austrian strategic plans, iii: 118;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>East Prussia;</li> + <li>Galicia;</li> + <li>Mazurian Lakes;</li> + <li>Poland.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Eastern Karelia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>military government established, May, '19, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ebert, Friedrich, + <ul class="index"> + <li>elected President of Germany, Feb., '19, vi: <em>Intro. xiii</em>, 292;</li> + <li>appointed Chancellor, Nov., '18, vi: 273;</li> + <li>establishes new democratic government, Nov., '18, vi: 277;</li> + <li>states government's determination to put down Spartacides, Jan. 8, '19, vi: 287;</li> + <li>outlines policies of Provisional Government, Feb., '19, vi: 292;</li> + <li>German press comment on personality, vi: 293;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 135-138.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Economic strategy, in war, + <ul class="index"> + <li>theory and example of, ii: 16;</li> + <li>Allied proposals for anti-German boycott, <a href="#Page_102">xii: 102</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ecuador, + <ul class="index"> + <li>proletarian unrest, vi: 392;</li> + <li>delegates to Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ecurey, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 8, '18, v: 272.</li> +<li>Edgewood Arsenal, great U. S. poison-gas plant, viii: 179-187.</li> +<li>Education, + <ul class="index"> + <li>bilingual schools discontinued in Canada, vi: 29;</li> + <li>A. E. F. becomes "College in Khaki," vii: 280;</li> + <li>A. P. Stokes makes survey for A. E. F., vii: 281;</li> + <li>Y. M. C. A. hut classes, vii: 281;</li> + <li>demand for text-books in A. E. F. schools, vii: 282;</li> + <li>A. E. F. post schools, vii: 282;</li> + <li>work of Bureau of Citizenship among A. E. F., vii: 282;</li> + <li>U. S. soldier students at French and British universities, vii: 282, 290;</li> + <li>Army Educational Committee, vii: 282;</li> + <li>A. E. F. university at Beaune, vii: 282;</li> + <li>Y. M. C. A. work for prisoners of war, vii: 306.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Edward VII promotes Anglo-French good will, i: 98.</li> +<li>Edwards, Maj.-Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands 26th Div. at St. Mihiel, Sept., '18, v: 202;</li> + <li>relieved of command, Oct. 24, '18, v: 252.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Effects Depot, S. O. S., for care of effects of deceased men, v: 331.</li> +<li>Eggers, Sgt. Alan Louis, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 392.</li> +<li>Eggs, imports of, by Germany, ii: 18.</li> +<li>Egli, Col., head of Swiss Intelligence Service, tried for unneutral communication with Germans, vi: 380.</li> +<li>Egypt, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British establish themselves in, 1882, i: 48;</li> + <li>British control recognized by France, '04, i: 99;</li> + <li>anti-British German propaganda, iii: 188;</li> + <li>political unrest, iii: 188;</li> + <li>operations against Suez Canal, iii: 189;</li> + <li>Turks start offensive in western Egypt, iii: 190;</li> + <li>Turks driven out, '16, iii: 191;</li> + <li>tribesmen suppressed, '16—'17, iii: 191;</li> + <li>resentment against British domination, vi: 67;</li> + <li>popular pro-Turkish sympathy, vi: 68, 330;</li> + <li>Nationalist cry against "British oppression," vi: 69;</li> + <li>Great Britain declares protectorate over, Dec. 19, '14, vi: 69, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>Nationalist movement for independence, '18, vi: 70;</li> + <li>insurrection, '19, vi: 71;</li> + <li>German rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_208">xii: 208</a>;</li> + <li>area, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>population, '14, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Eichhorn, chief of Berlin police, deposed, Jan. 5, '19, vi: 287.</li> +<li>Eichorn, Marshal von, assassinated by Ukrainian, vi: 187, 248.</li> +<li>Eisner, Kurt, + <ul class="index"> + <li>becomes head of Bavarian Socialist Republic, Nov., '18, vi: 273, 280;</li> + <li>appeals to German national government on behalf of Berlin Spartacides, vi: 288;</li> + <li>assassinated, Feb. 21, '19, vi: 298.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>El Arish, + <ul class="index"> + <li>occupied by Turks, Jan., '15, iii: 189;</li> + <li>taken by British, Dec. 22, '16, iii: 192.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>El Kubri, Turks engage British in vicinity of, iii: 190.</li> +<li>El Tasher, British defeat Sudanese at, May, '16, iii: 191.</li> +<li>Elbe, internationalized by Peace Treaty, rules of navigation, <a href="#Page_248">xii: 248</a>.</li> +<li>Electric drive, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description and advantages of, iv: 322;</li> + <li>successfully applied in <cite>U. S. S. New Mexico</cite>, iv: 322.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Electric welding, + <ul class="index"> + <li>use in repairing interned German liners, iv: 319;</li> + <li>use in U. S. in construction of ships, iv: 322.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Elles, Gen., commander of British Tank Corps, iii: 377.</li> +<li>Elliott, Col., leader of British Marines, killed in Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 264.</li> +<li>Ellis, Sgt. Michael B., wins Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 388.</li> +<li>Ely, Maj.-Gen., Hanson E., + <ul class="index"> + <li>as colonel, commands 28th Inf. at Cantigny, May 28, '18, v: 124;</li> + <li>assigned to command of 5th Div., Oct. 21, '18, v: 252.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Emden</cite>, German commerce raider, + <ul class="index"> + <li>exploits of, iv: 166-194;</li> + <li>method of sinking captured ships, iv: 173;</li> + <li>bombards Madras, Sept. 18, '14, iv: 174;</li> + <li>attacks Penang Harbor, Oct. 28, '14, iv: 178;</li> + <li>lands force on Keeling Island, Nov. 9, '14, iv: 184;</li> + <li>attacked by <cite>Sydney</cite> off Keeling Island, Nov. 9, '14, iv: 185;</li> + <li>destruction of, report of captain of <cite>Sydney</cite>, iv: 187;</li> + <li>summary of raiding activities, iv: 189;</li> + <li>landing force at Keeling escapes on <cite>Ayesha</cite>, iv: 190-194.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Emmich, Gen. von, commands German attack on Liége, iii: 10.</li> +<li>Emont Wood, + <ul class="index"> + <li>cleared by 37th Div., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229;</li> + <li>37th Div. retreats from, Sept. 29, '18, v: 230.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Emplacements, duplicate, permitting rotation of artillery in trenches, v: 14.</li> +<li><cite>Empress Maria</cite>, Russian dreadnought, blown up in Black Sea, iv: 366.</li> +<li>Enfield rifle, + <ul class="index"> + <li>facilities for manufacture in U. S., v: 347;</li> + <li>standard British service rifle, viii: 95;</li> + <li>U. S. production figures, <a href="#Page_284">xii: 284</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Engineering, + <ul class="index"> + <li>development in U. S. Navy, iv: 319;</li> + <li>relation of, to war, viii: 298-302.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Engines, shipment of American locomotives to France, <a href="#Page_286">xii: 286</a>.</li> +<li>England, <em>see</em> Great Britain.</li> +<li>Entente Cordiale, established between France and Russia, 1891, i: 98.</li> +<li>Entertainment, + <ul class="index"> + <li>27th Div. theatrical troupe, v: 299;</li> + <li>Over-There Theater League, activities, vii: 277, 339-343;</li> + <li>for A. E. F., by Y. M. C. A., vii: 277;</li> + <li>at Winchester camp, vii: 287;</li> + <li>for Army of Occupation, vii: 292;</li> + <li>for A. E. F. in Siberia, vii: 295;</li> + <li>"Y" program for Navy, vii: 299;</li> + <li>by Stage Women's War Relief, vii: 346, 348.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Enver Pasha, + <ul class="index"> + <li>leader of Young Turks, i: 109, ix: 270;</li> + <li>commander of Turkish army, iii: 164;</li> + <li>in Caucasus campaign, iii: 260;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 270-274.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Eperlecques, training area for 30th Div., v: 300.</li> +<li>Epieds, German stand at, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in retreat from Marne, July 21, '18, v: 184;</li> + <li>General Degouette commends Americans for service at, v: 192.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Epionville, taken by 91st Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 225.</li> +<li>Ersatz, German, i: 72.</li> +<li>Erskine, Prof. John, + <ul class="index"> + <li>member of Army Educational Commission, vii: 282;</li> + <li>educational director of A. E. F. university at Beaune, vii: 283.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Erwin, Brig.-Gen. James B., commands 6th Div., Aug., '18, v: 197.</li> +<li>Erzberger, + <ul class="index"> + <li>leader of German Center Party, vi: <em>Intro. xiii</em>;</li> + <li>becomes Minister of Finance, July, '19, vi: <em>Intro. xiii.</em></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Erzerum, captured by Russians, Feb. 15, '16, i: 384, ii: 91, iii: 262.</li> +<li>Erzingan, captured by Russians, July 25, '16, i: 386, iii: 263.</li> +<li>Eseka, captured by French, Oct. 30, '15, i: 382.</li> +<li>Esnes, + <ul class="index"> + <li>location of, v: 217;</li> + <li>4th Engineers build road from, to Malancourt, Sept., '18, v: 226.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Essen, bombarded by Belgian airplanes, Nov. 19, '15, i: 382.</li> +<li>Essen trench, captured and reversed by French, Oct. 1—3, '18, v: 254.</li> +<li>Essey, captured by 42nd Div., Sept. 12, '18, v: 211.</li> +<li>Essomes-sur-Marne, location of, v: 133.</li> +<li>Estaires, occupied by Germans, Apr. 10—11, '18, i: 395.</li> +<li>Esternay, destruction by Germans, iii: 297.</li> +<li>Esthonia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>early history, vi: 226;</li> + <li>independent Republic established, Apr., '18, vi: 230, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>population, '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Baltic Provinces.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Estrayes Wood, captured by 29th Div., Oct. 23, '18, v: 252.</li> +<li>Etraye, + <ul class="index"> + <li>threatened by 33rd Div., Oct. 7, '18, v: 82;</li> + <li>ridge taken by 29th Div., Oct. 23, '18, v: 86;</li> + <li>captured by 79th Div., Nov. 9, '18, v: 272.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Eupen, ceded to Belgium, under Peace Treaty, vi: 89, <a href="#Page_188">xii: 188</a>.</li> +<li>Europe, + <ul class="index"> + <li>area of greatest nationalistic development, i: 9;</li> + <li>race rivalries in, i: 21;</li> + <li>alignment of nations at outbreak of War, ii: 2;</li> + <li>general conditions, winter '17—'18, v: 1, 113;</li> + <li>military situation in, Nov. 1, '18, v: 253.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Evan-Thomas, Rear-Adm. Hugh, commands British 5th Battle Squadron at battle of Jutland, iv: 110.</li> +<li>Everts, Gen., commander of Russian Army of the Bug, iii: 119.</li> +<li>Exermont Valley, + <ul class="index"> + <li>slopes taken by 182nd Brig., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229;</li> + <li>heavy A. E. F. casualties at, Oct. 5, '18, v: 240.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Explosion, compared with detonation, viii: 1.</li> +<li>Explosive shell, compared with shrapnel, ii: 288.</li> +<li>Explosives, <em>see</em> Ammunition.</li> +<li>Extraterritoriality, + <ul class="index"> + <li>explained, i: 17;</li> + <li>Japan withdraws rights of, i: 18;</li> + <li>Turkey withdraws rights of, i: 18.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Fin" id="Fin">F</a></li> +<li><cite>Falaba, S. S.</cite>, British steamer, sunk by German submarine, Mar., '15, i: 319, 378, iv: 218.</li> +<li>Falkenhayn, Gen. Erich G. A. S. von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sent to regain Bagdad, ii: <em>Intro. xx</em>, iii: 196;</li> + <li>invades Rumania, ii: 60, iii: 218;</li> + <li>replaced as Chief of German General Staff by von Hindenburg, iii: 61;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 262.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Falkland Islands, battle of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British defeat German fleet, Dec. 8, '14, i: 376, iv: 69-85, ix: 308;</li> + <li>strength of opposing fleets, iv: 70;</li> + <li>von Spee's strategy, criticism of, iv: 70;</li> + <li>Sturdee's tactics, iv: 71;</li> + <li>German cruiser <cite>Dresden</cite> escapes, iv: 74;</li> + <li>British casualties, iv: 74;</li> + <li>German loss in men and ships, iv: 74;</li> + <li>importance of victory, iv: 74;</li> + <li>Admiral Sturdee's official report, iv: 75-79;</li> + <li>eye-witness accounts, iv: 80-85.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Fallon, Capt. David, brave tank commander, x: 165.</li> +<li><cite>Falmouth</cite>, British cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sunk, Aug. 19, '16, i: 386;</li> + <li>at battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Falzarego Pass, limit of Italian advance in Cadore, iii: 234.</li> +<li><cite>Fanning</cite>, U. S. destroyer, captures German submarine, iv: 350. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></p></li> + +<li>Fanning Island, Germans destroy wireless station at, Sept. 7, '14, iv: 62.</li> +<li>Fao, British land at, Nov. 7, '14, iii: 180.</li> +<li><cite>Farewell</cite>, poem by Lieut. Robert Nichols, R. F. A., vii: 389.</li> +<li>Farman airplane, viii: 189.</li> +<li>Farnsworth, Maj.-Gen. Charles S., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands 37th Div., June, '18, v: 145;</li> + <li>in Marne-Aisne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 219.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Fay, Robert, German agent, plots to blow up ships, x: 369-377.</li> +<li>Fay-en-Haye, location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199.</li> +<li>Fayolle, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands Allied forces opposing German drive on Paris, '18, ii: 152;</li> + <li>decorated for Somme campaign, iii: 60.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Fearless</cite>, British cruiser in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240.</li> +<li>Federalism, development in America and Europe, i: 30.</li> +<li>Ferdinand, Archduke Francis, + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see</em> Francis Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ferdinand, Czar of Bulgaria, + <ul class="index"> + <li>abdicates, Oct. 5, '18, i: 399, vi: 347;</li> + <li>proclamation to army, vi: 340;</li> + <li>appeals to Germany, vi: 347;</li> + <li>character, ix: 378;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 378-380.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Ferdinand of Bulgaria</cite>, poem by D. S. P., ix: 376.</li> +<li>Ferdinand, King of Rumania, biography, ix: 399-401.</li> +<li>Fère Forest captured by 42nd Div., July 26, '18, v: 58.</li> +<li>Ferrero, Guglielmo, Italian historian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>comparison of German militarism with Roman imperialism, ii: 365-372;</li> + <li>sympathy with Allies, '14, vi: 119.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Fertilizers, shortage in Germany during blockade, ii: 18.</li> +<li>Field glasses for A. E. F., viii: 326.</li> +<li>Finland, + <ul class="index"> + <li>signs peace with Germany, Mar. 7, '18, i: 393;</li> + <li>political history, 1809—1914, vi: 196;</li> + <li>granted autonomy, 1809, vi: 196;</li> + <li>autonomy revoked, 1899, vi: 196;</li> + <li>threatened with class revolution, '05, vi: 196;</li> + <li>socialist tendency in Diet, '05, vi: 196;</li> + <li>nationalism assailed by Russian bureaucracy, '14, vi: 196;</li> + <li>German aid against Russification, vi: 196;</li> + <li>declares independence, Mar., '17, vi: 198;</li> + <li>base for Russian revolutionary activities, '17, vi: 198;</li> + <li>Bolshevik revolution, Nov., '17, vi: 198;</li> + <li>Russia recognizes Bolshevik government, '17, vi: 198;</li> + <li>Socialists demand union with Russian Soviet, Nov. '17, vi: 198;</li> + <li>White Guards recalled from Germany to quell civil war, vi: 198;</li> + <li>General von der Goltz sent to aid Whites, vi: 199;</li> + <li>Republic established by moderate Socialists, '18, vi: 200;</li> + <li>new government recognized by Great Britain and U. S., '18, vi:200;</li> + <li>Bolshevism stamped out by Mannerheim, '18, vi: 200;</li> + <li>origin of inhabitants, vi: 200;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Finland</cite>, U. S. transport, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sunk by U-boat, Nov. 2, '17, i: 392;</li> + <li>torpedoed, Oct. 27, '17, iv: 337.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Firedrake</cite>, British destroyer in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241.</li> +<li>First aid, importance in treatment of wounded, vii: 178.</li> +<li>Fisher, Adm. Lord John, + <ul class="index"> + <li>responsibility for Gallipoli disaster, ii: 198, 200;</li> + <li>views on advisability of Dardanelles expedition, ii: 203;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 288-290.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Fisher, Prof. Irving, analysis of high cost of living, <em>Intro.</em></li> +<li>Fiske, Rear-Adm. Bradley T., invents torpedo plane, iv: 335.</li> +<li>Fiske, Brig.-Gen. H. B., Chief of Training, A. E. F., Sept., '17, v: 102.</li> +<li>Fismes, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by 32nd Div., Aug. 6, '18, v: 61;</li> + <li>taken and retaken by U. S. divisions, July—Aug., '18, v: 189;</li> + <li>General Degoutte commends Americans for services at, Sept. 9, '18, v: 192.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Fismette, captured by 28th Div., Aug., '18, v: 62.</li> +<li>Fiume, + <ul class="index"> + <li>conflict of Italians and Jugoslavs for, vi: 365;</li> + <li>arrival of U. S. troops at, vi: 366;</li> + <li>Italian delegates withdraw from Peace Conference in controversy over, vi: 368-370, <a href="#Page_159">xii: 159</a>;</li> + <li>occupied by D'Annunzio, vi: 370;</li> + <li>awarded to Italy conditionally, vi: 370.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Five Souls</cite>, poem by W. N. Ewer, xi: 93.</li> +<li>Flabas, captured by 26th Div., Nov. 8, '18, v: 271.</li> +<li>Flanders, battles of: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Oct., '14, + <ul class="index"> + <li>nature of terrain, iii: 38, viii: 299;</li> + <li>extent of battle line, iii: 38;</li> + <li>Foch cuts dikes of Yser, iii: 40;</li> + <li>Germans repulsed, iii: 40.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Aug., '17, + <ul class="index"> + <li>failure of British offensive, ii: 56;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's criticism of, ii: 343;</li> + <li>description of, iii: 78-80;</li> + <li>duration, iii: 78;</li> + <li>objects, iii: 78;</li> + <li>Allied offensive checked by rains, iii: 79;</li> + <li>Passchendaele Ridge captured by Canadians, iii: 79;</li> + <li>Allied gains, Sept.—Oct., '17, iii: 79;</li> + <li>results, iii: 79.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Sept., '18, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Belgians and British renew offensive, v: 213.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Flemings, failure of German propaganda among, vi: 86.</li> +<li>Flers, captured by Allies, Sept. 15, '16, i: 388.</li> +<li>Fleury, at Verdun, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by French, Aug. 3, '16, i: 386;</li> + <li>captured by Germans, '16, iii: 313.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Fleville, captured by 16th Inf., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240.</li> +<li><em>Florence H.</em>, cargo-carrier, heroism of crew, iv: 354.</li> +<li>Florina, + <ul class="index"> + <li>occupied by Allies, Sept. 18, '16, i: 388, iii: 208;</li> + <li>occupied by Bulgars, Aug. 17, '16, iii: 207, 208.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>"Flying Dutchman," name applied to <em>Emden</em>, iv: 187.</li> +<li>Foch, Marshal Ferdinand, + <ul class="index"> + <li>strategy of, in Allied offensive, '18, ii: 76-98, 212, v: 213;</li> + <li>at second Marne battle, ii: 77, 154;</li> + <li>theories on strategy, ii: 80, 81, 103, 137;</li> + <li>takes initiative of attack from Germans, ii: 84, v: 130;</li> + <li>as Lieut.-Col., Professor of General Tactics at École de Guerre, ii: 103, 137, 220;</li> + <li>share in victory at first Marne battle, ii: 103, 138-142, 182, 184, 220;</li> + <li>author of <cite>Principles of War</cite>, summary, ii: 104;</li> + <li>conception of <em>mind</em> as determining factor in victory, ii: 138;</li> + <li>on functions of a general, ii: 138;</li> + <li>theories on battle tactics, ii: 138;</li> + <li>commands 20th Corps at Nancy, '14, ii: 138;</li> + <li>organizes new French army, '14, ii: 138;</li> + <li>famous despatch during first Marne battle, ii: 141, iii: 33;</li> + <li>given command of French Army of the North, Oct., '14, ii: 143, iii: 38;</li> + <li>floods Belgium as defense against Germans, '14, ii: 145;</li> + <li>stops British retreat at Ypres, '14, ii: 145, 220;</li> + <li>commands French at Somme battle, July, '16, ii: 148;</li> + <li>appointed co-ordinator of Allied operations, Dec., '16, ii: 148;</li> + <li>appointed Chief of Staff, French Army, Mar., '17, ii: 148;</li> + <li>sends reinforcements to check Italian rout, ii: 149;</li> + <li>French representative on Allied War Council, ii: 149;</li> + <li>appointed Allied Commander-in-Chief on Western Front, Mar. 28, '18, ii: 151, iii: 89, v: 120, 380, xi: 41;</li> + <li>analysis of weakness of German drive, '18, ii: 154;</li> + <li>made Marshal of France, ii: 156, iii: 97;</li> + <li>Viscount French's eulogy of, ii: 170;</li> + <li>General Malleterre's eulogy of, ii: 220;</li> + <li>commands 20th Corps at battle of the Selle, '14, iii: 18;</li> + <li>repulses Germans at Mondement, '14, iii: 33;</li> + <li>member Inter-Allied General Staff, iii: 84;</li> + <li>text of appointment as Allied Commander-in-Chief, v: 380;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 148-153;</li> + <li>Clemenceau's estimate of, ix: 151;</li> + <li>pronunciation of name, ix: 151;</li> + <li>bibliography, ix: 153;</li> + <li>members of family killed in War, ix: 153;</li> + <li>military commandments, xi: 55;</li> + <li>conference with Secretary Baker, at Trois Fontaines, Oct. 4, '18, <a href="#Page_277">xii: 277</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Focsani, captured by Germans, Jan. 8, '17, i: 389.</li> +<li>Fogaras, captured by Rumanians, iii: 218.</li> +<li>Fokker airplane, machine-gun mounting on, viii: 192, 208-210.</li> +<li>Foltz, Brig.-Gen. F. S., commands 91st Div., July, '18, v: 196. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></p></li> + +<li>Food, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sent to Europe from U. S., '16—'18, <a href="#Page_36">xii: 36</a>;</li> + <li>importance in winning War, <a href="#Page_40">xii: 40</a>, <a href="#Page_135">xii: 135</a>;</li> + <li>War's effect on neutrals, <a href="#Page_42">xii: 42</a>;</li> + <li>European relief by U. S., Hoover's report, <a href="#Page_42">xii: 42</a>;</li> + <li>situation in Europe after armistice, <a href="#Page_43">xii: 43</a>;</li> + <li>world's requirements and supply, '19, <a href="#Page_44">xii: 44</a>;</li> + <li>use of potatoes as, <a href="#Page_47">xii: 47</a>;</li> + <li>U. S. exports to Europe, before and during War, <a href="#Page_135">xii: 135</a>;</li> + <li>problem of national self-sufficiency, <a href="#Page_135">xii: 135</a>;</li> + <li>war-time sugar shortage, <a href="#Page_138">xii: 138</a>;</li> + <li>national tastes in, <a href="#Page_138">xii: 138</a>;</li> + <li>scientific rations <em>vs.</em> personal taste, <a href="#Page_139">xii: 139</a>;</li> + <li>scientific rations as conservation measure, <a href="#Page_139">xii: 139</a>;</li> + <li>Inter-Allied Scientific Food Commission, functions, <a href="#Page_139">xii: 139</a>;</li> + <li>war-time government control, <a href="#Page_140">xii: 140</a>;</li> + <li>U. S. wheat exports to Allies, July 1, '17—July 1, '18, <a href="#Page_141">xii: 141</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under each country.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Foreign Legion, + <ul class="index"> + <li>American enlistments in, '14—'17, iii: 391;</li> + <li>in Aisne-Marne Offensive, July 18, '18, v: 168;</li> + <li>heroic story of, x: 27-32;</li> + <li>history, xi: 193.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Forestry, A. E. F. operations, v: 334, 400.</li> +<li>Forests, French, chief source of Allied lumber supply, viii: 307.</li> +<li>Forêt Wood, captured by 4th Div., Oct. 11, '18, v: 248.</li> +<li>Forges, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Germans, Mar. 6, '16, iii: 51, 306;</li> + <li>captured by 33rd Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 224.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Formidable</cite>, British battleship sunk by U-boat, Jan. 1, '15, i: 378.</li> +<li>Formosa, acquired by Japan, 1895, i: 20.</li> +<li>Forrest, Sgt. Arthur J., wins Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.</li> +<li>Forstner, Lieut. von, share in Zabern incident, i: 73.</li> +<li>Fortescue, Granville, description of scenes behind Turkish lines at Gallipoli, iii: 340.</li> +<li>Foster, Sgt. Gary Evans, wins Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.</li> +<li>"Fourteen Points," President Wilson's basis for peace, <a href="#Page_163">xii: 163-165</a>.</li> +<li>"Foyers du Marin," "Y" huts for French sailors, vii: 313.</li> +<li>"Foyers du Soldats," + <ul class="index"> + <li>comfort huts for French soldiers, vii: 310;</li> + <li>number, vii: 311;</li> + <li>locations, vii: 313.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Fractures, treatment of, viii: 367.</li> +<li>France: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Air Service, + <ul class="index"> + <li>strength at end of War, viii: 201;</li> + <li>personnel and equipment, viii: 202, 206.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>increase in, for '14, i: 132;</li> + <li>German estimate of military effectiveness, '14, ii: 4;</li> + <li>military resources, Aug. 1, '14, ii: 12;</li> + <li>German military critic on, ii: 256;</li> + <li>uniform, ii: 286;</li> + <li>pre-War organization, iii: 3;</li> + <li>morale, '17, iv: 10;</li> + <li>relations with A. E. F., v: 22;</li> + <li>type of service rifle, viii: 95;</li> + <li>medical service, viii: 362-365;</li> + <li>Chasseurs, xi: 189;</li> + <li>Spahi, xi: 189;</li> + <li>Zouaves, xi: 189;</li> + <li>Tirailleurs, xi: 191;</li> + <li>Foreign Legion, xi: 193;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Foreign Legion;</li> + <li>for military operations, <em>see</em> name of campaign.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Artillery, + <ul class="index"> + <li>famous "75's," efficiency of, ii: 287;</li> + <li>plan of rotating in trenches, v: 14;</li> + <li>520-mm. (21-inch) howitzers, viii: 51-53.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Casualties, total in War, ii: 116, iii: 404; + <ul class="index"> + <li>money equivalent of man-power lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>total battle deaths, <a href="#Page_288">xii: 288</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Cost of living, per cent. rise during War, <em>Intro. x.</em></li> + <li>Declarations of war, + <ul class="index"> + <li>by Germany on, Aug. 3, '14, i: 140;</li> + <li>on Austria-Hungary, Aug. 10, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>on Turkey, Nov. 5, '14, i: 376;</li> + <li>on Bulgaria, Oct. 16, '15, i: 382;</li> + <li>popular reception of, '14, vi: 95.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Food, + <ul class="index"> + <li>potato crop, <a href="#Page_47">xii: 47</a>;</li> + <li>war-time sugar shortage, <a href="#Page_138">xii: 138</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Foreign policy, occupation of Algeria, i: 37; + <ul class="index"> + <li>world position, 1871, i: 47;</li> + <li>world position, '14, i: 59;</li> + <li>Triple Entente among France, Russia, Great Britain, i: 98, 103, 106, 107, 218, 220, ii: 2;</li> + <li>Entente Cordiale with Russia, 1891, i: 98;</li> + <li>Anglo-French Treaty of, '04, i: 99;</li> + <li>Franco-Russian treaty of July, '12, i: 107;</li> + <li>Anglo-French agreement for united action against "third Power," '12, i: 107, 220;</li> + <li>Russian alliance cause of entry into War, i: 220;</li> + <li>pledge to respect Belgian neutrality, i: 223;</li> + <li>French complaints of British shirking of war duty, iii: 382;</li> + <li>Austro-Hungarian attempts to make peace with, '17, vi: 315;</li> + <li>claims to Asiatic Turkey under secret treaties, '16—'17, vi: 334;</li> + <li>Turkish policy announced, Nov. 7, '18, vi: 334.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Forests, chief source of Allied lumber supply, viii: 307.</li> + <li>Frontiers, + <ul class="index"> + <li>topography of German border, ii: 6;</li> + <li>defenses, iii: 2;</li> + <li>natural gateways on, v: 214.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Industries, + <ul class="index"> + <li>war-time disorganization, <a href="#Page_79">xii: 79</a>;</li> + <li>economic value of A. E. F. to, <a href="#Page_86">xii: 86</a>;</li> + <li>German destruction in invaded territory, <a href="#Page_87">xii: 87</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Internal politics, + <ul class="index"> + <li>development of democracy, i: 30;</li> + <li>organization of War Cabinet by Viviani, vi: 97;</li> + <li>fall of Viviani government, Oct. 28, '15, vi: 100;</li> + <li>nation united in War aims, vi: 101;</li> + <li>mixed reception of Wilson's peace proposals, vi: 102;</li> + <li>Socialists advocate peace by negotiation, vi: 102, 103;</li> + <li>fall of Briand ministry, '17, vi: 103;</li> + <li>effect of Russian Revolution, vi: 103;</li> + <li>Stockholm Conference causes crisis, vi: 103;</li> + <li><cite>Bonnet Rouge</cite> disclosures wreck Ribot Cabinet, '17, vi: 104;</li> + <li>Painlevé forms new Cabinet, vi: 105;</li> + <li>Painlevé ministry falls, Nov., '17, vi: 106;</li> + <li>Clemenceau succeeds as Premier, vi: 106;</li> + <li>Clemenceau overcomes pacifist opposition, vi: 106;</li> + <li>growth of labor movement in politics, vi: 109;</li> + <li>class war, '19, vi: 110;</li> + <li>Jaurès parade, '19, vi: 110;</li> + <li>significance of attempt to kill Clemenceau, vi: 110;</li> + <li>French peace aims, vi: 111;</li> + <li>May Day riots, '19, vi: 111;</li> + <li>class war intensified, vi: 113.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Labor, + <ul class="index"> + <li>war achievements, ii: 373-382;</li> + <li>shortage due to mobilization, ii: 373;</li> + <li>skilled workers recalled from army, ii: 374;</li> + <li>women as munition workers, ii: 376;</li> + <li>foreigners recruited for war work, ii: 377;</li> + <li>importation of Chinese laborers, ii: 377;</li> + <li>use of colonials, ii: 377;</li> + <li>use of prisoners of war, ii: 377;</li> + <li>size of labor army, ii: 377;</li> + <li>housing of war workers, ii: 377;</li> + <li>co-operative societies for provisioning of war workers, ii: 378;</li> + <li>protection for women workers, ii: 379;</li> + <li>war-time abandonment of strike and sabotage, ii: 379;</li> + <li>state intervention in industrial disputes, ii: 380;</li> + <li>growth of syndicalism, ii: 381;</li> + <li>demand for share in management, ii: 381;</li> + <li>selective assignment to industries, <a href="#Page_79">xii: 79</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Minerals, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German plans for seizure of iron mines, i: 122, 267, ii: 15, 20;</li> + <li>coal production, '13—'17, <a href="#Page_48">xii: 48</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Morale, + <ul class="index"> + <li>of people during War, i: <em>Intro. xiii</em>, ii: 383-392;</li> + <li>war-time unity, ii: 385;</li> + <li>factors in war-time unity, ii: 392;</li> + <li>depression, '17—'18, v: 2.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Munitions, + <ul class="index"> + <li>statistics on ordnance production, ii: 373;</li> + <li>immensity of need unforeseen, ii: 373.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Navy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>strength in '06, i: 101;</li> + <li>increase in, for '14, i: 132;</li> + <li>entrusted control of Mediterranean by Allies, iv: 12;</li> + <li>strength at outbreak of War, iv: 13, 373;</li> + <li>war record in Mediterranean, iv: 373;</li> + <li>work in Dardanelles, iv: 375;</li> + <li><span lang="fr">Fusiliers marins</span>, French naval gunners, on Western Front, iv: 376;</li> + <li>protection of French coast, iv: 377;</li> + <li>anti-submarine activities, iv: 378.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Peace Conference, + <ul class="index"> + <li>delegates to, <a href="#Page_179">xii: 179</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Peace Conference.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Peace Treaty, + <ul class="index"> + <li>ratified, Oct. 13, '19, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Peace Treaty.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Population, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in 1860, i: 40;</li> + <li>in 1874, compared with that of Germany, i: 61;</li> + <li>in '14, compared with that of Germany, i: 61;</li> + <li>growth since 1870 compared with that of Germa + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> + <li>Prisoners of war, iii: 404.</li> + <li>Railroads, + <ul class="index"> + <li>unprecedented war-time demands on, <a href="#Page_91">xii: 91</a>;</li> + <li>equipment shipped to France by U. S., <a href="#Page_95">xii: 95</a>, <a href="#Page_286">xii: 286</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Reconstruction, material needs, <a href="#Page_87">xii: 87</a>.</li> + <li>Shipping, war losses, <a href="#Page_87">xii: 87</a>.</li> + <li>War cost, + <ul class="index"> + <li>loans floated in U. S., Aug., '14—Jan., '17, <a href="#Page_2">xii: 2</a>;</li> + <li>income-tax rates compared with British and U. S., <a href="#Page_4">xii: 4</a>;</li> + <li>debt to U. S., <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18</a>, <a href="#Page_31">xii: 31</a>;</li> + <li>money equivalent of man-power lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>value of property loss, <a href="#Page_26">xii: 26</a>;</li> + <li>André Tardieu's estimate, <a href="#Page_86">xii: 86</a>;</li> + <li>average daily war cost, <a href="#Page_106">xii: 106</a>;</li> + <li>total war cost, Aug., '14—Mar., '19, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>taxation, <a href="#Page_109">xii: 109</a>;</li> + <li>loans, <a href="#Page_111">xii: 111</a>;</li> + <li>rise in national debt, <a href="#Page_111">xii: 111-113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>War relief, <em>see</em> War relief.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, + <ul class="index"> + <li>heir to Austrian throne, i: 111;</li> + <li>murdered with consort at Sarajevo, June 28, '14, i: 111, 375, vi: 306, xi: 4;</li> + <li>responsibility of Serbian government for murder, i: 112;</li> + <li>responsibility disclaimed, i: 246;</li> + <li>causes and results of murder, vi: 135;</li> + <li>national policy, vi: 356.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria-Hungary, + <ul class="index"> + <li>dies, Nov. 21, '16, i: 388, vi: 313;</li> + <li>tragedies of reign, vi: 305;</li> + <li>proclamation against Italy, vi: 310;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 370-373.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Franco-American Committee for Protection of Children of Frontier, vii: 101.</li> +<li>Francois, Gen. von, German commander in East Prussia, iii: 111.</li> +<li>Frankenau, Russians defeat Germans near, Aug. 22, '14, iii: 111.</li> +<li>Frankfurt, bombed by Allied airmen, Oct. 1, '17, i: 392.</li> +<li>Frantz, Gen. von, protest against Allies' peace terms, May, '19, vi: 302.</li> +<li><cite>Frauenlob</cite>, German cruiser, torpedoed in Baltic by British, Nov. 7, '15, i: 382.</li> +<li>Frederick William, German Crown Prince, + <ul class="index"> + <li>moving spirit for campaign in West, '14, ii: 13;</li> + <li>commands an Army at first Marne battle, ii: 184;</li> + <li>renounces succession, Nov. 9, '18, ii: 340;</li> + <li>commands one of armies of invasion, '14, iii: 10;</li> + <li>commands German armies at Verdun, '16, iii: 303;</li> + <li>detained at Wieringen by Dutch, Nov., '18, vi: 278;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 367-369.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Free Milk for France, + <ul class="index"> + <li>fund started, vii: 376;</li> + <li>object, vii: 376;</li> + <li>French testimonials, vii: 379.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Freedom of the seas, + <ul class="index"> + <li>U. S. note to Germany on, i: 324;</li> + <li>Maurice Revai, Austro-Hungarian deputy, on Teutonic conception of, ii: 27;</li> + <li>definition, xi: 18.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>French Heroes' Lafayette Memorial Fund, vii: 90, 110-116.</li> +<li>French, Field-Marshal Sir John, Viscount of Ypres, + <ul class="index"> + <li>report on events leading to first Marne battle, ii: 9;</li> + <li>first British commander-in-chief in France, ii: 159, iii: 22, ix: 180;</li> + <li>publishes <cite>1914</cite>, account of military operations of year, ii: 159;</li> + <li>summary of <cite>1914</cite>, ii: 160-174;</li> + <li>arrival in France, ii: 161;</li> + <li>dispute with Kitchener on British military policy in France, ii: 164, 169;</li> + <li>exposé of British shell shortage, ii: 173;</li> + <li>overruled by Joffre on plan for offensive against Channel ports, ii: 174;</li> + <li>commands British at first Marne battle, ii: 184;</li> + <li>official despatch on Mons retreat, iii: 24;</li> + <li>relieved as commander-in-chief, iii: 46, ix: 52;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 177-181;</li> + <li>Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, '18, ix: 181.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>French-Swiss, characteristics of, vi: 380.</li> +<li>French Wounded Emergency Fund, vii: 91.</li> +<li>Fresne, captured by Germans, Mar. 7, '16, i: 384.</li> +<li>Fresnes-en-Woevre, taken by 4th Div. in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. 13, '18, v: 69.</li> +<li>Freyberg, Colonel, New Zealander, wins Victoria Cross, x: 131.</li> +<li>Freytag-Loringhoven, Gen. Baron von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German military critic, view on German tactics at start of War, ii: 10;</li> + <li>summary of his <cite>Deductions from the World War</cite>, ii: 254;</li> + <li>exposition of German war philosophy, ii: 260.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Fricourt, captured by Allies in Somme battle, iii: 58.</li> +<li>Friedrichshaven, bombarded by British airmen, Nov. 21, '14, i: 376.</li> +<li>Frise, captured by Germans, Jan., '16, iii: 47.</li> +<li>Fryatt, Capt. Chas., + <ul class="index"> + <li>executed by Germans, July 27, '16, i: 386, x: 265-269;</li> + <li>attempts to ram <cite>U-33</cite>, Mar. 20, '15, x: 265;</li> + <li>Ambassador Gerard's intervention for, fails, x: 265.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Fuchs, Lieut.-Gen., German commander in St. Mihiel salient, Sept., '18, v: 201.</li> +<li>Funk, Pvt. Jesse N., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.</li> +<li>Furlong, 1st Lieut. Richard A., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.</li> +<li>Fyfe, Hamilton, defense of General Gough in defeat of British Fifth Army, ii: 190.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Gin" id="Gin">G</a></li> +<li><cite>G-13</cite>, British submarine, sinks U-boat, iv: 213.</li> +<li>G. C.'s, explanation of, v: 12.</li> +<li>Gaba Tepe. <em>see</em> Gallipoli Campaign.</li> +<li>Gabet-Aubriot electric torpedo, for destroying barbed wire, viii: 154.</li> +<li>Gädke, Col., German military writer, views on the War, ii: 270.</li> +<li>Gaffney, Pvt. Frank, wins Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393.</li> +<li>Galicia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German offensive in, '15, ii: 233, iii: 135-138; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Ludendorff's account, ii: 360;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Russian invasion of, '14, iii: 118-124;</li> + <li>General Russky crosses border, Sept., '14, iii: 120;</li> + <li>Lemberg captured by Russians, Sept. 3, '14, iii: 121;</li> + <li>rout of Auffenberg's army, iii: 121;</li> + <li>last Russian offensive, '17, iii: 146, 147;</li> + <li>Russian attempts at Russification of, vi: 243.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Galliéni, Gen. Joseph-Simon, + <ul class="index"> + <li>prepares Paris for siege by Germans, iii: 28;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 161-164;</li> + <li>Military Governor of Paris, ix: 163.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gallipoli Campaign, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Winston Churchill advocates forcing Dardanelles, ii: <em>Intro. x, xii</em>, 29, 200;</li> + <li>reasons for, ii: <em>Intro. xii</em>, 27-31, 198, iii: 161-164, iv: 51-57;</li> + <li>failure of initial naval attack, ii: <em>Intro. xv</em>;</li> + <li>reasons for land attack after naval failure, ii: <em>Intro. xv</em>;</li> + <li>weakness, ii: <em>Intro. xvi</em>;</li> + <li>strategy, ii: 27-31;</li> + <li>Feb.—Dec., '15, ii: 27-31;</li> + <li>Viscount French's condemnation, ii: 173;</li> + <li>Commission of Inquiry into responsibility for failure, appointment and personnel, ii: 197;</li> + <li>persons named as responsible, ii: 198;</li> + <li>summary of Commission's report on responsibility, ii: 200;</li> + <li>British War Council, responsibility of, for disaster, ii: 200;</li> + <li>campaign sanctioned without expert study, ii: 200;</li> + <li>Lord Fisher disapproves expedition, ii: 203;</li> + <li>Premier Asquith's defense, ii: 204, iv: 53;</li> + <li>Winston Churchill's defense, ii: 205, iv: 56;</li> + <li>military operations, Apr. 25, '15—Jan. 9, '16, iii: 161-177;</li> + <li>Allies assemble troops in Egypt for expedition, Apr., '15, iii: 162;</li> + <li>composition of Allied forces, iii: 162;</li> + <li>Gen. Sir Ian Hamilton commander of Allied troops, iii: 162, iv: 32;</li> + <li>Enver Bey commands Turkish defenders, iii: 164;</li> + <li>composition of Turkish forces, iii: 164;</li> + <li>topography of peninsula, iii: 165, iv: 21, 23;</li> + <li>defenses, iii: 165, iv: 23, 27, 45;</li> + <li>British plans for landing attack, iii: 167;</li> + <li>Allied landing, Apr. 25, '15, iii: 167-170, 352, x: 35-40; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Adm. de Robeck's official report, iv: 36-42 ;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Anzacs scale cliffs near Gaba Tepe, Apr. 25, iii: 167; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Masefield's description, iii: 352;</li> + <li>official report, iv: 36;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Achi Baba, key to southern Gallipoli, iii: 170, 355;</li> + <li>Pasha Dagh, Australian objective, iii: 170;</li> + <li>Krithia, objective of Allied attack, May—June, '15, iii: 170;</li> + <li>"war of attrition" on Anzac sector, iii: 171;</li> + <li>Allies' revised strategy, July, '15, iii: 171-173;</li> + <li>Turkish positions, July, '15, iii: 171;</li> + <li>Anzac reinforcements land for final attack, Aug., '15, iii: 173;</li> + <li>last Allied offensives fail, Aug., '15, iii: 173; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Masefield's description, iii: 355-358;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>last attack on Chunuk Bair, Aug., '15, iii: 173, 355;</li> + <li>last attack on Koja Chemen Tepe, Aug., '15, iii: 173, 355, 357;</li> + <li>last attack on Krithia, Aug., '15, iii: 173;</li> + <li>obstacles to success of last Allied offensive, iii: 173; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></p></li> + + <li>Gen. Monro succeeds Hamilton, iii: 174;</li> + <li>evacuation, Nov., '15—Jan., '16, iii: 174-177, 358;</li> + <li>casualties, Allied and Turkish, iii: 177, 355, 357, iv: 51;</li> + <li>reasons for failure, iii: 177;</li> + <li>bibliography, iii: 177;</li> + <li>Fortescue's description, iii: 340-343;</li> + <li>Turkish camp scenes behind the lines, iii: 341;</li> + <li>Masefield's description of British embarkation for, iii: 350;</li> + <li>soldier's life on Gallipoli, described by Masefield, iii: 353;</li> + <li>Gen. Hamilton's report on Lone Pine fighting, iii: 356;</li> + <li>Adm. Carden favors naval attack, iv: 28;</li> + <li>initial Allied bombardment, Nov. 3, '14, iv: 28;</li> + <li>British plan of operations, iv: 30;</li> + <li>preliminaries to attack, Jan. 15—Feb. 19, '15, iv: 30;</li> + <li>bombardment by Allied fleet, Feb. 19, '15, iv: 30, 42;</li> + <li>Allied fleet enters Straits, Mar. 1, '15, iv: 32;</li> + <li>Vice-Adm. de Roebeck succeeds to command of Allied fleet, Mar., '15, iv: 32;</li> + <li>Allies decide to combine naval and land operations, iv: 32, 35, 49;</li> + <li>number and description of Allied warships participating, iv: 33;</li> + <li>Allied bombardment, Mar. 18, '15, 47; + <ul class="index"> + <li>official report, iv: 34;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Hamilton's delay fatal mistake of campaign, iv: 34;</li> + <li>French land troops at Kum Kale, Apr. 25, '15, iv: 41;</li> + <li>heroic minesweeping, iv: 43;</li> + <li>Narrows forts bombarded, Mar. 5, 7, '15, iv: 45;</li> + <li>analogy to opening of Mississippi by Farragut during Civil War, iv: 51;</li> + <li>cost of expedition, iv: 51;</li> + <li>lessons of, iv: 52;</li> + <li>mistakes in plan and execution, iv: 56;</li> + <li>Turkish joy over Allied failure, vi: 330;</li> + <li>Y. M. C. A. with British at, vii: 321;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Dardanelles.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gallowitz, Gen. von, military career, v: 203.</li> +<li>Gangrene, treatment for gas gangrene, viii: 367, xi: 287.</li> +<li>Garda, Lake, naval operations on, iii: 232.</li> +<li>Gardens, + <ul class="index"> + <li>cultivated in France by British soldiers, ii: 131;</li> + <li>by A. E. F., v: 330.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gardiner, J. B. W., on strategy of the War, ii: 1.</li> +<li>Garibaldi, descendants of Liberator, in War, x: 62-65.</li> +<li><cite>Garibaldi</cite>, Italian cruiser sunk by U-boat, iv: 369.</li> +<li><cite>Garibaldi Hymn</cite>, Italian national anthem, xi: 328.</li> +<li>Garrisons, use of small <span lang="fr">groupes de combat</span> by French, v: 13.</li> +<li>Garua, taken by Allies, June 11, '15, i: 380.</li> +<li>Gas, <em>see</em> Chemical warfare.</li> +<li>Gas gangrene, <em>see</em> Gangrene.</li> +<li>Gas masks, v: 324, viii: 174-178, xi: 317.</li> +<li>Gasoline, consumption by A. E. F., v: 331.</li> +<li><cite>Gaulois</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31;</li> + <li>damaged in attack, Mar. 18, '15, iv: 35.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gaza, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Turks defeated by British at, Mar. 26—27, '17, iii: 192;</li> + <li>captured by British, Nov. 6, '17, iii: 194.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Geddes, Sir Eric, biography, ix: 313-316.</li> +<li>Generalship, British, in the War, + <ul class="index"> + <li>analyzed by Philip Gibbs, iii: 370-378;</li> + <li>physical characteristics of British leaders, iii: 371;</li> + <li>mostly of cavalry training, iii: 371;</li> + <li>personal gallantry, iii: 371;</li> + <li>as great "English gentlemen," iii: 371;</li> + <li>mental characteristics, iii: 371;</li> + <li>mostly conservative men, iii: 372;</li> + <li>no leader of magnetism, iii: 372, 374;</li> + <li>personal traits of Sir Douglas Haig, iii: 373;</li> + <li>ill feeling against Staff by men in ranks, iii: 373;</li> + <li>faulty tactics in battles of the Somme, iii: 374;</li> + <li>desire to gain worthless ground, iii: 374;</li> + <li>efficiency of administrative organization, iii: 374;</li> + <li>Sir Herbert Plumer, great military chief, iii: 375;</li> + <li>faults at battles of Neuve Chapelle and Loos, iii: 375;</li> + <li>Gen. Birdwood's popularity, iii: 375;</li> + <li>tragedy of Second Army, iii: 375;</li> + <li>final victory not due to generalship, iii: 378;</li> + <li>success of unprofessional soldier as leader, iii: 378;</li> + <li>inefficiency of Staff College, iii: 378;</li> + <li>chief shortcoming, iii: 378.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Geneva, designated capital of League of Nations, vi: 382, <a href="#Page_183">xii: 183</a>.</li> +<li>Geologists, war services, v: 327, viii: 311.</li> +<li>Geophone, description and use for sound locating, viii: 312-314.</li> +<li>George V, King of England, + <ul class="index"> + <li>receives General Pershing, June, '17, v: 97;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 392-395.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Georgia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>early history of people, vi: 231;</li> + <li>Republic established, Jan., '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gerache Wood, taken by 80th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266.</li> +<li>Gerard, James W., leaves Germany as U. S. Ambassador, i: 346.</li> +<li>German-Americans, + <ul class="index"> + <li>distribution and characteristics, i: 278;</li> + <li>Bernhardi's views on political importance, i: 279.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>German-Swiss, characteristics, vi: 380.</li> +<li><cite>Germania, To</cite>, Bulgarian ode, vi: 342.</li> +<li>Germany: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Air Service, + <ul class="index"> + <li>passing of supremacy, vii: 201;</li> + <li>strength at end of War, viii: 202;</li> + <li>pre-War record flights, viii: 206;</li> + <li>equipment and strength, viii: 206;</li> + <li>supremacy over Allies, viii: 207;</li> + <li>bombing planes, viii: 221-222;</li> + <li>A. E. G. bombers, viii: 221;</li> + <li>Gotha bombers, viii: 221;</li> + <li>Lizenz bombers, viii: 222;</li> + <li>Zeppelins during War, viii: 246-248;</li> + <li>Zeppelins described, viii: 248-254;</li> + <li>military service abolished under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_214">xii: 214</a>;</li> + <li>surrendered to Allies, <a href="#Page_215">xii: 215</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Area, of Republic, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + <li>Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>aristocratic character, i: 69;</li> + <li>system of organization, i: 71, iii: 4-6;</li> + <li>tradition of efficiency, i: 72;</li> + <li>conception of duties, i: 72;</li> + <li>increase in peace strength, '14, i: 131;</li> + <li>dependence on imports for munitions, ii: 21;</li> + <li>loss of morale in Somme battle, '16, ii: 47;</li> + <li>manpower on Western Front, Mar., '18, ii: 65;</li> + <li>loss of morale under Allied offensive, '18, ii: 86, v: 87, vi: 270;</li> + <li>German critic's opinion of, ii: 257;</li> + <li>machine-gun equipment, ii: 275;</li> + <li>heroism of machine-gunners, ii: 282;</li> + <li>invisibility of uniform, ii: 286;</li> + <li>recruiting situation, '18, ii: 308-310, 318;</li> + <li>desertions, ii: 309;</li> + <li>punishments not severe enough, Ludendorff's view, ii: 318;</li> + <li>Ludendorff on causes of demoralization, ii: 320, 333;</li> + <li>agitators undermine morale, ii: 320;</li> + <li>reorganized after Somme battle, '16, iii: 61;</li> + <li>best equipped, iii: 272;</li> + <li>infiltration method of attack, iii: 386, v: 17;</li> + <li>construction of machine-gun nests, v: 37;</li> + <li>sympathy with Revolution, '18, vi: 274;</li> + <li>return to Berlin, Dec. 10, '18, vi: 282;</li> + <li>Machine Gun Corps, viii: 79;</li> + <li>trench systems, viii: 124-129;</li> + <li>adopt trench defense after Marne defeat, '14, viii: 134;</li> + <li>machine-gun equipment compared with Allied, Aug., '14, viii: 134;</li> + <li>method of attack, viii: 137;</li> + <li>"holding" troops, viii: 144;</li> + <li>"shock" troops, viii: 144;</li> + <li>training, xi: 195-204;</li> + <li>cavalry, xi: 196;</li> + <li>discipline, xi: 202;</li> + <li>reduction in strength under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_209">xii: 209</a>, <a href="#Page_211">xii: 211</a>;</li> + <li>reduction in equipment under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_210">xii: 210</a>, <a href="#Page_212">xii: 212</a>;</li> + <li>table of organization imposed by Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_212">xii: 212</a>;</li> + <li>for military operations, <em>see</em> Western Front;</li> + <li><em>also</em> name of campaign or engagement.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Artillery, + <ul class="index"> + <li>superiority over Allies, ii: 128, 288, viii: 36;</li> + <li>guns captured by Allies, July—Nov., '18, iii: 103;</li> + <li>development of heavy field howitzers, viii: 22;</li> + <li>11-in. siege mortars described, viii: 34-36;</li> + <li>long-range bombardment of Paris, viii: 45-47;</li> + <li>structure of long-range shells hitting Paris, viii: 46. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> + <li>Bagdad Railway, interest in, <em>see</em> Bagdad Railway.</li> + <li>Belgian neutrality, violation of, <em>see</em> Belgium, Neutrality.</li> + <li>Blockade of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>effectiveness, i: 280, vi: 253; + <ul class="index"> + <li>German view, <a href="#Page_97">xii: 97</a>;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Allied regulation of neutral commerce, i: 280, vi: 377;</li> + <li>controversy between U. S. and Great Britain on seizure of neutral cargoes, i: 312, 318, 339;</li> + <li>British Order in Council, Mar. 15, '15, i: 318;</li> + <li>Allied trade blacklist, i: 335;</li> + <li>controversy between U. S. and Great Britain on seizure of neutral mail, i: 335;</li> + <li>measures to starve Germany, i: 358;</li> + <li>objects of British Orders in Council, ii: 16;</li> + <li>food shortage, ii: 17, vi: 253-255, 260, 261, 266, 285, 294;</li> + <li>report of German scientists on, ii: 17;</li> + <li>estimate of minimum food requirements, ii: 17;</li> + <li>meat production self-sufficient, ii: 18;</li> + <li>statistics on pre-War food imports, ii: 18;</li> + <li>shortage of fertilizers, ii: 18;</li> + <li>increased production as offset against blockade, ii: 18;</li> + <li>reduction of waste, ii: 18, vi: 254;</li> + <li>increase in tilled land, ii: 19;</li> + <li>international law on, ii: 21;</li> + <li>difficulties of enforcement, ii: 21, iv: 86;</li> + <li>German isolation, ii: 21;</li> + <li>value of, ii: 22;</li> + <li>effect on civilian population, ii: 99;</li> + <li>use of dog flesh as food, <a href="#Page_41">xii: 41</a>;</li> + <li>after-War food conditions, <a href="#Page_45">xii: 45</a>;</li> + <li>U. S. export license system, <a href="#Page_99">xii: 99</a>;</li> + <li>German trade with neutrals, <a href="#Page_100">xii: 100</a>;</li> + <li>smuggling, <a href="#Page_100">xii: 100</a>;</li> + <li>Allied plan of after-War economic boycott, <a href="#Page_102">xii: 102</a>;</li> + <li>pre-War food production, <a href="#Page_136">xii: 136-138</a>;</li> + <li>war-time food problems, <a href="#Page_136">xii: 136</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Boundaries, under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_186">xii: 186</a>.</li> + <li>Casualties, + <ul class="index"> + <li>total in War, ii: 116, iii: 404;</li> + <li>princes killed in battle, ix: 237;</li> + <li>money equivalent of man-power lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>total battle deaths, <a href="#Page_288">xii: 288</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>China, rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_206">xii: 206</a>.</li> + <li>Coal, + <ul class="index"> + <li>production, 1880—1913, i: 267;</li> + <li>secret of power, i: 267;</li> + <li>production, '13—'15, <a href="#Page_48">xii: 48</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Colonies, + <ul class="index"> + <li>loss of, i: 13;</li> + <li>acquisition of African, i: 50, 95;</li> + <li>acquisition of Pacific islands, i: 81;</li> + <li>acquisition of Kiau-Chau, i: 82;</li> + <li>South American settlements, i: 84;</li> + <li>area and population of African, i: 96, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>understanding with British on African expansion, i: 200;</li> + <li>necessity as outlet for population, i: 262;</li> + <li>important motive in war policy, ii: 13;</li> + <li>conquest of African, by Allies, iii: 252-256;</li> + <li>New Guinea conquered by Australians, vi: 38;</li> + <li>Samoa conquered by New Zealanders, vi: 38;</li> + <li>surrendered to Allies under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_206">xii: 206</a>;</li> + <li>Kiau-Chau transferred to Japan, <a href="#Page_209">xii: 209</a>, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>distribution among Allies, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> name of colony.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Cost of living, per cent. rise during War, <em>Intro. x.</em></li> + <li>Declarations of war, + <ul class="index"> + <li>on Russia, Aug. 1, '14, i: 115, 139, 375;</li> + <li>on France, Aug. 3, '14, i: 140, 375;</li> + <li>by Great Britain, Aug. 4, '14, i: 145, 375;</li> + <li>on Belgium, Aug. 4, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>by Italy, Aug. 27, '16, i: 386;</li> + <li>on Rumania, Aug. 28, '16, i: 386;</li> + <li>by U. S., Apr. 6, '17, i: 389, ii: 53, xi: 35;</li> + <li>diplomatic relations with Brazil severed, Apr. 11, '17, i: 389;</li> + <li>diplomatic relations with Bolivia severed, Apr. 13, '17, i: 389;</li> + <li>Greece breaks off diplomatic relations, June, 29, '17, i: 390;</li> + <li>by China, Aug. 14, '17, i: 390.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Defeat, causes of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>underestimate of Allied inventive capacity, i: <em>Intro. ix</em>;</li> + <li>underestimate of British, ii: <em>Intro, viii</em>;</li> + <li>strategic, ii: 15;</li> + <li>faulty psychology, ii: 53, 78, 221;</li> + <li>collapse of Germanic allies, ii: 89, 98, 329;</li> + <li>analysis of, ii: 99;</li> + <li>German efficiency <em>vs.</em> Allies' "will to win," ii: 100;</li> + <li>Field-Marshal Haig on, ii: 120;</li> + <li>failure to take Channel ports in '14, ii: 221;</li> + <li>Russian campaigns, ii: 221;</li> + <li>adoption of trench warfare, ii: 222;</li> + <li>forcing U. S. into War, ii: 222;</li> + <li>miscalculation of German endurance, ii: 224;</li> + <li>launching of '18 offensive, ii: 225;</li> + <li>failure to learn from American Civil War, ii: 255;</li> + <li>not in position for war of exhaustion, ii: 304;</li> + <li>Ludendorff ascribes to incompetent civil government, ii: 301-304, 310;</li> + <li>Allied superiority too great, Ludendorff's view, ii: 227;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under Germany, Strategy;</li> + <li>for military operations, <em>see</em> Western Front,</li> + <li><em>also</em> campaign or engagement.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Egypt, rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_208">xii: 208</a>.</li> + <li>Food, <em>see</em> Blockade.</li> + <li>Foreign policy, world position, 1871, i: 44; + <ul class="index"> + <li>influence of industrialism on, i: 77;</li> + <li>domination over Austria-Hungary, i: 79, 133;</li> + <li>Near East policy, i: 80, 207, ii: 89;</li> + <li>ambition for world power, i: 83, 170, ii: 2, 13;</li> + <li>expansion in South America, i: 84;</li> + <li>Venezuelan controversy with U. S., i: 86;</li> + <li>jealousy of U. S. strength, i: 87;</li> + <li>plans for subjugation of U. S., i: 87-88;</li> + <li>ambition for "place in the sun," i: 95, ii: 27;</li> + <li>enters Triple Alliance, i: 95;</li> + <li>dynastic relations in Balkans, i: 96;</li> + <li>sympathy with Boers, i: 96, 192;</li> + <li>Turkish policy, i: 98, 207, ii: 28, vi: 330;</li> + <li>Kaiser's statement of Moroccan policy, Mar., '05, i: 99, 202;</li> + <li>hatred of Great Britain, i: 101, 167, 190-194, ii: 14, vi: 251-252, 264;</li> + <li>Moroccan crisis forced by sending gunboat <cite>Panther</cite> to Agadir, July, '11, i: 104, 203;</li> + <li>negotiations with British for curbing naval program, '12, i: 106, 194-197;</li> + <li>dream of Central European Federation under herself, 171, vi: 258;</li> + <li>von Bülow's statement of policy, i: 173;</li> + <li>Bernhardi's view of British as declining nation, i: 190;</li> + <li>ill feeling against Kaiser's English mother, i: 192;</li> + <li><cite>Hymn of Hate</cite>, i: 194;</li> + <li>negotiations with British for mutual neutrality, '12, i: 194-197;</li> + <li>Prince Lichnowsky on Moroccan policy, i: 204;</li> + <li>Kaiser visits Turkey, 1889, 1898, i: 207;</li> + <li>unity of Austro-German interests, i: 208;</li> + <li>Austria as buffer against Slavs, i: 209;</li> + <li>hatred of France, i: 215;</li> + <li>Sir Edward Grey's statement of events, July 23—Aug. 3, '14, i: 218-227;</li> + <li>refusal to pledge respect of Belgian neutrality, '14, i: 223;</li> + <li>Bismarck's pledge to respect Belgian neutrality, 1870, i: 229;</li> + <li>Russian policy, i: 239;</li> + <li>statement of war aims by Chancellor Michaelis, '16, ii: 14;</li> + <li>plans for annexation of Russian territories, ii: 15;</li> + <li>anti-British plans in East, ii: 27;</li> + <li>"Gott strafe England," vi: 251;</li> + <li>Russo-British alliance rouses hatred, '14, vi: 251;</li> + <li>desire to include Austria in Republic, vi: 322;</li> + <li>friction with Bulgaria, vi: 344;</li> + <li>attitude on Dutch neutrality, vi: 376;</li> + <li>relations with Japan, vi: 382;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under Germany, Militarism, Pan-Germanism.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Fortifications, demolition under Peace Treaty terms, <a href="#Page_189">xii: 189</a>, <a href="#Page_205">xii: 205</a>, <a href="#Page_211">xii: 211</a>, <a href="#Page_214">xii: 214</a>.</li> + <li>Health, effect of War on, iii: 406.</li> + <li>Industries, + <ul class="index"> + <li>rise as industrial power, i: 75-78;</li> + <li>state aid, i: 76;</li> + <li>influence on foreign policy, i: 77;</li> + <li>industrial mobilization, <a href="#Page_80">xii: 80</a>;</li> + <li>effects of war-time shortage of raw materials, <a href="#Page_97">xii: 97</a>;</li> + <li>use of potash boycott against U. S., <a href="#Page_98">xii: 98</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Internal politics, + <ul class="index"> + <li>political organization, 1648 to French Revolution, i: 26;</li> + <li>failure of democratic movement, 1848, i: 32;</li> + <li>unification under Bismarck, i: 40-44, ii: 1;</li> + <li>political organization of Empire, i: 70, 156;</li> + <li>strength of Social-Democrats, i: 71, vi: <em>Intro. xi, xv;</em> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></p></li> + + <li>powers of Imperial Chancellor, i: 71, 156;</li> + <li>William II becomes Emperor, 1888, i: 97;</li> + <li>Professor Lamprecht's defense of German system, i: 155;</li> + <li>composition and powers of Bundesrat, i: 156;</li> + <li>composition and powers of Reichstag, i: 156;</li> + <li>powers of Emperor, i: 156;</li> + <li>dominance of Prussia, i: 156, 258;</li> + <li>social classes, i: 258;</li> + <li>Bismarck representative of Junker class, i: 258;</li> + <li>change from agricultural into industrial state, i: 259-260;</li> + <li>struggle between old aristocracy and new capitalists, i: 260;</li> + <li>basis of national strength, i: 260;</li> + <li>social legislation, i: 264;</li> + <li>Sir Thomas Barclay on German political parties, vi: <em>Intro. ix-xvi</em>;</li> + <li>party principles compared, vi: <em>Intro. ix, xii</em>;</li> + <li>Social-Democratic leaders, vi: <em>Intro. ix</em>;</li> + <li>Sir Thomas Barclay on Revolution of '18, vi: <em>Intro. x</em>;</li> + <li>leaders of the Revolution, vi: <em>Intro. x</em>;</li> + <li>strength of Center Party, vi: <em>Intro. xi, xv</em>;</li> + <li>strength of Conservatives, vi: <em>Intro. xi, xiv, xv</em>;</li> + <li>Conservative principles, vi: <em>Intro. xii</em>;</li> + <li>principles of Social-Democrats, vi: <em>Intro. xii</em>;</li> + <li>principles of National-Liberals, vi: <em>Intro. xii</em>;</li> + <li>policies of Center Party, vi: <em>Intro. xiii</em>;</li> + <li>National-Liberal strength, vi: <em>Intro. xv</em>;</li> + <li>strength of Democratic Party, vi: <em>Intro. xv</em>;</li> + <li>Germany politically undeveloped, vi: <em>Intro. xv</em>;</li> + <li>city governments non-partisan, vi: <em>Intro. xvi</em>;</li> + <li>public sentiment on War, '14, vi: 250;</li> + <li>anti-War protest by Social Revolutionists, '14, vi: 250;</li> + <li>Socialist peace agitation, '15, vi: 258, 262;</li> + <li>Socialist split on war policy, '15, vi: 260;</li> + <li>beginnings of Spartacide group, vi: 260;</li> + <li>"preventive arrests" for suppressing pacifists, '16, vi: 262;</li> + <li>Socialists demand peace without annexations, '17, vi: 266;</li> + <li>Socialists demand liberal terms for Russians at Brest-Litovsk, vi: 268;</li> + <li>labor strikes during Brest-Litovsk peace negotiations,'17, vi: 268;</li> + <li>strikes suppressed by armed force, vi: 260;</li> + <li>reduction in munition output, '18, vi: 270;</li> + <li>Germany faces defeat, vi: 270;</li> + <li>Prince Maximilian of Baden succeeds Count von Hertling as Chancellor, Oct. 3, '18, vi: 270;</li> + <li>Prince Max proposes Liberal-Socialist coalition government, vi: 270;</li> + <li>Kaiser's last appeals fail, vi: 270, 271;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's régime ends, Oct., '18, vi: 271;</li> + <li>revolutionary threats, Oct., '18, vi: 271;</li> + <li>Revolution starts, Nov. 7, '18, vi: 272;</li> + <li>Kaiser abdicates, Nov. 9, '18, vi: 272;</li> + <li>establishment of German republics, vi: 273, 280;</li> + <li>revolutionary scenes in Berlin, vi: 273-277;</li> + <li>Ebert, as Chancellor, establishes provisional government, Nov. 9, '18, vi: 277;</li> + <li>Kaiser flees to Holland, vi: 277;</li> + <li>radical Socialists oppose Ebert government, vi: 278;</li> + <li>Spartacides urge Bolshevik revolution, vi: 279;</li> + <li>spread of Bolshevism, vi: 280;</li> + <li>Independents demand immediate social reconstruction before political reform, vi: 280;</li> + <li>Ebert government appeals for bourgeois support, vi: 280;</li> + <li>Spartacides allied with Russian Bolsheviki, vi: 280;</li> + <li>return of "victorious" army to Berlin strengthens Provisional Government, vi: 282;</li> + <li>Central Council of Delegates convened by Ebert, Dec. 16, '18, vi: 283;</li> + <li>Central Council votes for election of National Assembly, Dec. 19, '18, vi: 283;</li> + <li>Central Executive Committee created, Dec., '18, vi: 283;</li> + <li>Majority Socialists in absolute control of government, vi: 283;</li> + <li>Soldiers' and Workmen's Councils ordered dissolved, Dec., '18, vi: 283;</li> + <li>Spartacides and Independents threaten proletarian revolution, Dec., '18, vi: 283;</li> + <li>Count zu Reventlow on Germany under Socialist régime, vi: 284;</li> + <li>hunger and unemployment, vi: 285-287, 294-298;</li> + <li>Spartacide insurrection, Jan., '19, vi: 287-290;</li> + <li>Bavarian government supports Berlin Spartacides, vi: 288;</li> + <li>Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg killed, Jan. 14, '19, vi: 289;</li> + <li>National Assembly elections, Jan. 19, '19, vi: 290;</li> + <li>National Assembly meets at Weimar, Feb. 6, '19, vi: 291;</li> + <li>Ebert's speech before National Assembly on government's policies, vi: 292;</li> + <li>Ebert elected President of Germany, Feb., '19, vi: 292;</li> + <li>Scheidemann elected Chancellor, Feb., '19, vi: 292;</li> + <li>composition of Scheidemann Cabinet, vi: 292;</li> + <li>German press comment on Ebert as President, vi: 293;</li> + <li>middleclass "counter strikes" against extremists, vi: 294;</li> + <li>Kurt Eisner assassinated, Feb. 21, '19, vi: 298;</li> + <li>Soviet established in Munich, Feb. 19, vi: 298, 300;</li> + <li>Spartacides in control of Saxony, Feb., '19, vi: 299;</li> + <li>second Spartacide rising in Berlin suppressed by Noske, Mar., '19, vi: 299;</li> + <li>Ebert government overthrows Munich Soviet, Apr.—May, '19, vi: 300-301;</li> + <li>forced to accept Versailles Peace Treaty, vi: 302-305;</li> + <li>press comment on peace terms, vi: 302-304;</li> + <li>Gustav Bauer succeeds Scheidemann as Chancellor to sign Peace Treaty, vi: 304;</li> + <li>National Assembly votes to accept Allies' terms, June 22, '19, vi: 305.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>International concessions, surrendered under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_228">xii: 228</a>.</li> + <li>Iron, + <ul class="index"> + <li>plans for annexation of French ore lands, i: 122, 267, ii: 13, 15;</li> + <li>importance of Lorraine ore deposits, i: 267;</li> + <li>seizure of French and Belgian mines, '14, ii: 20.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Kultur, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Bernhardi on, i: 64, 159, 160;</li> + <li>great men of, i: 64;</li> + <li>significance, i: 64;</li> + <li>manifestations, i: 64;</li> + <li>spokesmen of, i: 66;</li> + <li>gospel of conquest, i: 66;</li> + <li>educational program for dissemination of, i: 67;</li> + <li>supremacy of State dominant idea, i: 68, 148;</li> + <li>doctrine of "divine right of kings," i: 68;</li> + <li>relation to militarism, i: 69;</li> + <li>German social philosophy compared with British, i: 149;</li> + <li>strength of State higher good than happiness of individuals, i: 149;</li> + <li>Bergson on German doctrine of force, i: 152;</li> + <li>transition from idealism to materialism, i: 152;</li> + <li>materialistic spirit of German students, i: 154;</li> + <li>national egoism, i: 154;</li> + <li>contributions to world culture, i: 154;</li> + <li>definition and exposition of, i: 158;</li> + <li>compared with <em>culture</em>, i: 158;</li> + <li>Bernhardi's belief in supremacy of German brain, i: 160;</li> + <li>right to conquest, i: 161;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under Germany, Militarism.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Liberia, rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_208">xii: 208</a>.</li> + <li>Luxemburg, violation of neutrality, <em>see</em> Luxemburg.</li> + <li>Militarism, + <ul class="index"> + <li>war as national policy, i: <em>Intro. vii</em>, 70;</li> + <li>basic conception, i: 69;</li> + <li>glorification of doctrine of force, i: 69;</li> + <li>Henri Bergson on, i: 152;</li> + <li>Professor Lamprecht's defense, i: 155;</li> + <li>Bernhardi on universal military training, i: 162;</li> + <li>Bernhardi on necessity of war to progress, i: 162;</li> + <li>Bernhardi condemns love of peace, i: 162, 171;</li> + <li>German pride in, i: 163;</li> + <li>compared with Christianity, i: 165;</li> + <li>compared with British policy, i: 165;</li> + <li>force in place of diplomacy, i: 166;</li> + <li>"World power or downfall," i: 170;</li> + <li>von der Goltz's plea against peace, i: 171;</li> + <li>German statement of policy, i: 171-173; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></p></li> + + <li>striking quotations from Bernhardi, i: 179;</li> + <li>Bernhardi on conqueror's right to annex territory, i: 181;</li> + <li>German denial of, i: 182;</li> + <li>compared with Allies' defensive policy, '14, ii: 1;</li> + <li>statement of war aims by Chancellor Michaelis, ii: 14;</li> + <li>explained by Baron von Freytag-Loringhoven, ii: 260;</li> + <li>compared with Roman imperialism, by Professor Ferrero, ii: 365-372;</li> + <li>pre-War preparedness, vi: 249;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>under Germany,</li> + <li>Foreign policy,</li> + <li>Kultur,</li> + <li>Pan-Germanism.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Morale, + <ul class="index"> + <li>demands of War on nation, ii: 302;</li> + <li>fighting spirit waning, '18, ii: 309-311;</li> + <li>change between '17 and '18, v: 2.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Morocco, rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_208">xii: 208</a>.</li> + <li>Navy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>strength in '06, i: 101;</li> + <li>negotiations with British for curbing naval program, i: 106, 194-197;</li> + <li>increase in "peace strength" for '14, i: 131;</li> + <li>strength threat to British security, i: 196;</li> + <li>surrendered to Allies, Nov. 21, '18, i: 400, iv: 142-144; + <ul class="index"> + <li>list and description of major units, iv: 383-384;</li> + <li>German eye-witness account, iv: 385-387;</li> + <li>American eye-witness account, iv: 387-390;</li> + <li>British eye-witness account, iv: 390-394;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty terms, <a href="#Page_213">xii: 213</a>;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>hemmed in by British, ii: <em>Intro. viii</em>;</li> + <li>efforts to break blockade by use of submarines, iv: 7, 256;</li> + <li>strength of China Squadron, iv: 58;</li> + <li>operations in Pacific, iv: 60;</li> + <li>strategy of defense, iv: 86;</li> + <li>operations of High Sea Fleet in North Sea, iv: 91;</li> + <li>superior to British in destroyers, iv: 94;</li> + <li>use of fleet criticized by Jellicoe, iv: 94;</li> + <li>High Sea Fleet compared with British Grand Fleet, iv: 96;</li> + <li>North Sea raids, iv: 136;</li> + <li>mission during War, iv: 138;</li> + <li>development, iv: 362;</li> + <li>Bolshevik propaganda in, iv: 380;</li> + <li>revolts, Nov., '18, iv: 380-383, vi: 272, 283;</li> + <li>morale, iv: 294;</li> + <li>mutiny suppressed, '17, vi: 266;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty conditions for reduction, <a href="#Page_212">xii: 212-214</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Submarine warfare.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Occupation by Allies, + <ul class="index"> + <li>expense to be paid by Germany, <a href="#Page_226">xii: 226</a>;</li> + <li>conditions for withdrawal, <a href="#Page_261">xii: 261</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Pan-Germanism, + <ul class="index"> + <li>ideal of unification of all Teuton elements in Europe, i: 78, xi: 4;</li> + <li>Pan-German League, objects, i: 79;</li> + <li>propaganda in U. S., i: 79;</li> + <li>policy in South America, i: 84;</li> + <li>Bernhardi's statement of principles, i: 152;</li> + <li>Bismarck's plan for world empire, ii: 2;</li> + <li>first steps toward under William II, ii: 2;</li> + <li>goal of Calais to Bagdad, ii: 13;</li> + <li>Bagdad Railway important factor in, ii: 296;</li> + <li>compared with Roman imperialism, by Professor Ferrero, ii: 365-372;</li> + <li>expounded by Friedrich Naumann in <cite>Mitteleuropa</cite>, vi: 258;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under Germany, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Foreign policy,</li> + <li>Militarism.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Peace negotiations, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Prince Max asks Wilson to intercede, Oct. 6, '18, i: 399, vi: 271;</li> + <li>armistice, Nov. 11, '18, i: 399, iii: 402, v: 391, vi: 271, xi: 54;</li> + <li>war aims expressed in secret memorandum to Austria, '16, ii: 14;</li> + <li>condemned by Ludendorff, ii: 303;</li> + <li>Allies reject, prior to Spring offensive, '18, ii: 316;</li> + <li>Kaiser orders proposals through Queen of Holland, ii: 331;</li> + <li>Ludendorff convinced Germany can't win, Sept., '18, ii: 333, 335;</li> + <li>drive for "mental armistice," ii: 387-390;</li> + <li>armistice with Russia, Dec. 6, '17, v: 113;</li> + <li>Brest-Litovsk treaty with Russia, Mar. 3, '18, vi: 183;</li> + <li>Socialists present peace manifesto, Nov., '15, vi: 258;</li> + <li>Bethmann-Hollweg rejects Socialist peace demands, vi: 260;</li> + <li>Bethmann-Hollweg proposes "peace of compromise," '17, vi: 262-264;</li> + <li>Socialists support peace without annexations, '17. vi: 266;</li> + <li>Reichstag passes resolution for peace without annexations, '17, vi: 266;</li> + <li>forced to accept Versailles Peace Treaty, vi: 302-305;</li> + <li>Allies' peace terms received, May 7, '19, vi: 302;</li> + <li>press comment on peace terms, vi: 302-304;</li> + <li>National Assembly votes to sign Peace Treaty, June 22, '19, vi: 304;</li> + <li>Peace Conference delegates, <a href="#Page_179">xii: 179</a>, <a href="#Page_182">xii: 182</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty ratified, July 10, '19, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Peace, moves for.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Population, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in 1860, i: 40;</li> + <li>compared with France, 1874—1914, i: 61;</li> + <li>emigration to U. S., i: 75, 79, 277;</li> + <li>emigration to South America, i: 79;</li> + <li>growth since 1870 compared with that of France, i: 262;</li> + <li>relation of growth to colonial expansion, i: 262;</li> + <li>rapid increase, i: 277;</li> + <li>of Republic, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Prisoners of war, iii: 404.</li> + <li>Propaganda, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in U. S. before War, i: 79;</li> + <li>activities of Dr. Albert, i: 133;</li> + <li>artificial nature of public opinion, i: 149;</li> + <li>preparing German mind for war, i: 171, 181;</li> + <li>appeal to Americans, Aug., '14, i: 268;</li> + <li>von Jagow's defense against American criticisms, i: 273;</li> + <li>activities of German agents in U. S., i: 274, 302, 314, x: 326-348;</li> + <li>Dr. Dernburg's activities in U. S., i: 274;</li> + <li>instigating Hindu revolutions, i: 317;</li> + <li>Mexican plot-against U. S., i: 347;</li> + <li>on Italian Front, iii: 247, vi: 128;</li> + <li>following capture of Americans at Seicheprey, v: 123;</li> + <li>in Spain, <a href="#Page_101">xii: 101</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Railroads, + <ul class="index"> + <li>war-time deterioration, viii: 283;</li> + <li>efficiency under war conditions, viii: 284-285;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty regulations, <a href="#Page_253">xii: 253</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Reparation, views of U. S. press on, <a href="#Page_24">xii: 24</a>; + <ul class="index"> + <li>estimates of capacity to pay, <a href="#Page_159">xii: 159</a>;</li> + <li>cession of Sarre coalfields to France, <a href="#Page_189">xii: 189</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty provisions, <a href="#Page_217">xii: 217-225</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Responsibility for War, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German manipulations to force war, i: 8, 129-138;</li> + <li>unwillingness to coöperate to prevent World War, i: 115, 124-126, 246, 250;</li> + <li>responsibility denied, i: 116-120;</li> + <li>Bethmann-Hollweg's statement, i: 117;</li> + <li>Hellferich's justification, i: 119;</li> + <li>statement by German "Intellectuals," i: 120;</li> + <li>Dr. Dernburg's defense, i: 120;</li> + <li>German case against Great Britain, i: 121;</li> + <li>evidences of anticipating the War, i: 131;</li> + <li>complicity in Austrian ultimatum to Serbia, i: 133-136, 252;</li> + <li>Potsdam Conference, July 5, '14, i: 136, 250;</li> + <li>statement of Allied infractions of international law, i: 139;</li> + <li>Sir Edward Grey's statement of events leading to War, July 23—Aug. 3, '14, i: 218-227;</li> + <li>Prince Lichnowsky's account of events leading to War, i: 246, 250;</li> + <li>Dr. Mühlon's disclosures, i: 250-254;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty provisions for trial of guilty, <a href="#Page_217">xii: 217</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Causes of the War.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Royal family, xi: 149; + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>William II;</li> + <li>Frederick William.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Shipping, + <ul class="index"> + <li>increase in tonnage, 1880—1913, compared with British, i: 77;</li> + <li>increase in tonnage, '00—'04, i: 263;</li> + <li>Kaiser's personal interest in, i: 264;</li> + <li>German resourcefulness, i: 264;</li> + <li>tonnage and capital of North German Lloyd Line, i: 264;</li> + <li>tonnage and earnings of Hamburg-American Line, i: 264;</li> + <li>tonnage and earnings of Hansa Line, i: 264;</li> + <li>tonnage of Hamburg-South American Line, i: 264.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Siam, rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_208">xii: 208</a>.</li> + <li>Strategy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>seizure of French coal and iron mines, i: 122, 267, ii: 13, 15, 20;</li> + <li>general war plans, ii: 1-8, iii: 8, iv: 4-8;</li> + <li>estimate of European military alignments, ii: 2-4;</li> + <li>conquest of France first objective, ii: 4-8, iii: 2, 10;</li> + <li>topography of German western frontier, ii: 6;</li> + <li>invasion of Belgium and northern France, ii: 8, xi: 9;</li> + <li>mistake of striking first at France instead of Russia, '14, ii: 11;</li> + <li>probable results of a vigorous offensive against Russia in '14, ii: 13; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></p></li> + + <li>reasons for striking at France first, ii: 13;</li> + <li>destructiveness as war policy, ii: 15, xi: 20, <a href="#Page_23">xii: 23</a>;</li> + <li>defensive attitude toward Russia, '14, ii: 22;</li> + <li>East Prussian campaigns, ii: 24;</li> + <li>invasion of Russian Poland, ii: 25;</li> + <li>failure to operate against Suez Canal, ii: 31;</li> + <li>military plans for '17, ii: 53;</li> + <li>necessity for military strokes of '18, ii: 65;</li> + <li>at strategic advantage, Mar., '18, ii: 66;</li> + <li>selection of front for spring offensive, '18, ii: 67;</li> + <li>plans for '18 campaign, ii: 70, 149;</li> + <li>retreat under blows of Foch, ii: 86;</li> + <li>causes of failure, ii: 99;</li> + <li>faced with military disaster, Nov., '18, ii: 215;</li> + <li>Russia overwhelmed, '15, ii: 233;</li> + <li>Col. Gädke on German war plans and results, ii: 270;</li> + <li>underestimate of U. S. strength, ii: 272;</li> + <li>fortified lines of retreat behind Western Front, ii: 304;</li> + <li>Gen. von Schlieffen responsible for plan of invasion through Belgium, ii: 345;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's defense of war policy, ii: 346;</li> + <li>alternatives facing Germany, winter, '17—'18, v: 3;</li> + <li>general strategy on Western Front, viii: 133;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under Germany, Defeat, causes of;</li> + <li><em>also</em> Western Front; + <ul class="index"> + <li>campaign or engagement.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Submarine warfare, <em>see</em> Submarine warfare.</li> + <li>Trade, 1880—1914, compared with British, i: 77; + <ul class="index"> + <li>tariff policy, i: 78;</li> + <li>production and import of grains, ii: 17;</li> + <li>dependence on imports for war materials, ii: 20;</li> + <li>war trade with neutrals, ii: 21, <a href="#Page_100">xii: 100</a>;</li> + <li>anti-German toy boycott in New York, <a href="#Page_99">xii: 99</a>;</li> + <li>Allied proposals for after-War economic boycott, <a href="#Page_102">xii: 102</a>;</li> + <li>customs regulations imposed by Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_229">xii: 229</a>;</li> + <li>suppression of unfair competition by Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_230">xii: 230</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Treaties, + <ul class="index"> + <li>pre-War agreements with Allies revived by Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_231">xii: 231</a>;</li> + <li>with Germanic allies, abrogated by Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_232">xii: 232</a>;</li> + <li>with Russia, abrogated by Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_232">xii: 232</a>;</li> + <li>with Rumania, abrogated by Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_232">xii: 232</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Brest-Litovsk Treaty;</li> + <li>Bucharest, Treaty of;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty;</li> + <li>Triple Alliance.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + <li>War booty, value, <a href="#Page_22">xii: 22</a>.</li> + <li>War cost, + <ul class="index"> + <li>financial mobilization, ii: 265, <a href="#Page_21">xii: 21</a>;</li> + <li>gold reserves, June 30, '14, i: 265;</li> + <li>loans floated in U. S., Aug., '14—Jan., '17, <a href="#Page_2">xii: 2</a>;</li> + <li>method of raising war funds, <a href="#Page_21">xii: 21</a>;</li> + <li>system of loans, <a href="#Page_21">xii: 21</a>, <a href="#Page_113">xii: 113</a>;</li> + <li>estimate of expenditures, <a href="#Page_21">xii: 21</a>;</li> + <li>currency inflation, <a href="#Page_22">xii: 22</a>;</li> + <li>war finance system compared with British, <a href="#Page_22">xii: 22</a>;</li> + <li>money equivalent of man-power lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>value of property loss, <a href="#Page_26">xii: 26</a>;</li> + <li>average daily war cost, <a href="#Page_106">xii: 106</a>;</li> + <li>total war cost, Aug., '14—Oct. '19, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>taxation, <a href="#Page_109">xii: 109</a>;</li> + <li>rise in national debt, <a href="#Page_113">xii: 113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Wireless stations, Peace Treaty regulations for, <a href="#Page_214">xii: 214</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Germany and the Next War</cite>, book by General von Bernhardi, striking quotations from, i: 179.</li> +<li>Germont, seized by 79th Div., Nov. 3, '18, v: 266.</li> +<li>Gesnes, + <ul class="index"> + <li>location, v: 217;</li> + <li>captured by 32nd Div., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ghent, Belgians re-enter, iii: 103.</li> +<li>Gibbons, Floyd, account of <cite>Laconia</cite> sinking, iv: 226-229.</li> +<li>Gibbs, Philip, + <ul class="index"> + <li>analysis of German war blunders, ii: 221;</li> + <li>account of Cambrai battle, Nov., '17, iii: 337;</li> + <li>description of German spring offensive, '18, iii: 360;</li> + <li>analysis of British generalship, iii: 370-378.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gibercy, taken by 79th Div., Nov. 9, '18, v: 272.</li> +<li>Gifford, Walter S., Director U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_116">xii: 116</a>.</li> +<li>Ginchy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>objective in Somme battle, iii: 58;</li> + <li>description of battle, x: 147-155.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Giolitti, Italian political leader, opposes entry into War, ii: 236, vi: 123.</li> +<li>Girba, Turks routed at, Feb., '17, iii: 191.</li> +<li>Glasgow, labor riots in, Jan., '19, vi: 19.</li> +<li><cite>Glasgow</cite>, British cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in battle off Coronel, iv: 65;</li> + <li>hit by gunfire, iv: 68;</li> + <li>in battle of Falklands, iv: 70.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gleaves, Adm., convoys first U. S. troops to France, June 26, '17, iv:160, v: 106.</li> +<li><cite>Glenart Castle</cite>, British hospital ship, sunk Feb. 26, '18, i: 393.</li> +<li>Glenn, Maj.-Gen. Edwin F., commands 83rd Div., June, '18, v: 146.</li> +<li><cite>Glory of War, The</cite>, poem by Dana Burnet, ix: 261.</li> +<li>Glossop, Capt. John C. T., commands <cite>Sydney</cite> in engagement with <cite>Emden</cite>, iv: 187.</li> +<li><cite>Gloucester Castle</cite>, British hospital-ship torpedoed without warning, iv: 232.</li> +<li>Gloves, anti-gas, number issued by U. S. Army, v: 324.</li> +<li><cite>Gneisenau</cite>, German cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in battle off Coronel, iv: 65, 66;</li> + <li>sunk at battle of Falklands, iv: 70, ix: 308;</li> + <li>eye-witness account of sinking, iv: 82.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>God Save the King</cite>, English national anthem, xi: 326.</li> +<li>Godfrey, Dr. Hollis, member, Advisory Commission, U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_116">xii: 116</a>.</li> +<li><cite>Goeben</cite>, German battle cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>eludes Allied fleet in Mediterranean and escapes to Turkish waters, Aug., '14, iv: 13-16;</li> + <li>far-reaching effects of escape, iv: 16;</li> + <li>sold to Turkey, iv: 16;</li> + <li>damaged by mine in Black Sea, Nov. 18, '15, iv: 50, 365.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gold, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Peace Treaty restriction on German export of, <a href="#Page_226">xii: 226</a>;</li> + <li>deliveries of, by Germany to Allies under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_228">xii: 228</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Goldschmidt alternator, for generating radio waves, viii: 316.</li> +<li><cite>Goliath</cite>, British battleship, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Gallipoli, iv: 33;</li> + <li>sunk by Turks, May 13, '15, iv: 50.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Golice, captured by Germans, May 2, '15, i: 380.</li> +<li>Goltz, Field-Marshal Baron von der, + <ul class="index"> + <li>heads German mission to Turkey, iii: 164;</li> + <li>commands German troops in Finland, vi: 199;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 268.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Goltz, Horst von der, plots to blow up Welland Canal, x: 333.</li> +<li>Golytsin, Russian Prime Minister, + <ul class="index"> + <li>reactionary government of, vi: 143;</li> + <li>gets undated order from Czar dismissing Duma, '17, vi: 144;</li> + <li>issues Czar's order dismissing Duma, Mar. 10, '17, vi: 146.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gompers, Samuel, member Advisory Commission, U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_116">xii: 116</a>.</li> +<li>Gondrecourt, training area for 1st Div., v: 6.</li> +<li><cite>Good-by-ee</cite>, English soldiers' song, xi: 338.</li> +<li><cite>Good Hope</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Admiral Cradock's flagship at battle off Coronel, iv: 64;</li> + <li>hit by gunfire, iv: 66;</li> + <li>sunk by explosion, iv: 67, ix: 308.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Goremykin, deposed as Russian Prime Minister, '15, vi: 140.</li> +<li>Gorizia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Italian attacks fail, '15, ii: 50, 240, iii: 244;</li> + <li>captured by Italians, Aug., '16, ii: 51, 242, iii: 246;</li> + <li>life in, under Italian occupation, ii: 244;</li> + <li>key to Isonzo, iii: 239.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Goshawk</cite>, British destroyer, in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240.</li> +<li>Gotha airplanes, description, viii: 196, 221.</li> +<li>Goto, Baron, biography, ix: 92.</li> +<li>Göttingen prison camp, Y. M. C. A. work in, vii: 303.</li> +<li>Gough, Gen. Sir Hubert, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at first Ypres battle, ii: 171;</li> + <li>responsibility for defeat of British Fifth Army, Mar., '18, ii: 190-197;</li> + <li>decorated for Somme campaign, iii: 60.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gouraud, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>defensive tactics against German advance, July, '18, ii: 209, v: 46, 155, viii: 146-148;</li> + <li>famous appeal to troops, July, '18, v: 45;</li> + <li>qualities as leader, v: 46. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Gourko, Gen. Basil, Chief of Russian General Staff, ii: 225; + <ul class="index"> + <li>exposition of Russian strategy, ii: 225.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gradisca, captured by Italians, June 9, '15, iii: 244.</li> +<li>Grado, bombarded by Austrian airplanes, Nov. 19, '15, i: 382.</li> +<li>Granatieri, description of, ii: 242.</li> +<li>Grandcourt, taken by British, Nov. 18, '16, i: 388.</li> +<li>Grand Fleet, British, <em>see</em> Great Britain, Navy.</li> +<li>Grand Pré, captured by A. E. F., Oct., '18. v: 85, 218, 252, xi: 53.</li> +<li>Granger, Dr. Amédée, invents X-ray apparatus for locating bullets in flesh, viii: 374.</li> +<li>Graves, war, + <ul class="index"> + <li>A. E. F. Registration Service, v: 331, 400;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty provisions for care of, <a href="#Page_217">xii: 217</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Great Britain: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Air Service, + <ul class="index"> + <li>formation of Royal Air Force, viii: 202;</li> + <li>strength at end of War, viii: 202;</li> + <li>types of airplanes, viii: 203-206;</li> + <li>Bristol planes, viii: 203;</li> + <li>Handley-Page bombers, viii: 204, 223;</li> + <li>D. H.-10 bombers, viii: 204;</li> + <li>types of dirigibles, viii: 245;</li> + <li>dirigible <cite>R-34</cite> crosses Atlantic, viii: 245;</li> + <li>dirigibles <cite>R-33</cite> and <cite>R-34</cite>, description, viii: 254.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German contempt for, i: 191;</li> + <li>lands in France, Aug. 6, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>ammunition shortage, '14, ii: <em>Intro. xiii</em>; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Viscount French's exposé, xiii: 173;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>deficiency in trained men, ii: 113;</li> + <li>deficiency in material, ii: 114;</li> + <li>Field-Marshal Haig on value of cavalry, ii: 120;</li> + <li>machine-gun equipment, ii: 125, 275;</li> + <li>artillery equipment, ii: 125;</li> + <li>Haig on effects of growth in artillery service, ii: 125;</li> + <li>artillery at Somme battle, '16, ii: 126;</li> + <li>ammunition used on Western Front, Aug.—Nov., '18, ii: 130;</li> + <li>military hospitals in France, ii: 131;</li> + <li>total strength in France, ii: 131;</li> + <li>service of supply behind the lines, ii: 131-132;</li> + <li>Haig's opinion of British officer, ii: 133;</li> + <li>Haig's opinion on present organization, ii: 134;</li> + <li>changing civilians into soldiers described by Haig, ii: 135;</li> + <li>Haig's tribute to Regular Army, ii: 136;</li> + <li>opinion of a German military critic, ii: 256;</li> + <li>pre-War organization, iii: 3;</li> + <li>Intelligence service, iii: 383;</li> + <li>strength, '14—'18, iii: 404, 405;</li> + <li>strength in Italy, iii: 405;</li> + <li>strength in Mesopotamia, iii: 405;</li> + <li>"Pal" regiments, vi: 6;</li> + <li>slackers driven into service, vi: 6;</li> + <li>origin of nickname "Tommy," vi: 230;</li> + <li>types of rifles used, viii: 95;</li> + <li>Indian winners of Victoria Cross, x: 85;</li> + <li>Senegalese troops, x: 116;</li> + <li>British soldier as fighter, xi: 181-189;</li> + <li>for military operations, <em>see</em> campaign or engagement.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Blockade by Germany, <em>see</em> Submarine warfare.</li> + <li>Blockade of Germany, <em>see</em> Germany, Blockade of.</li> + <li>Casualties, + <ul class="index"> + <li>total in War, ii: 116, iii: 404, 405;</li> + <li>causes for extent of, analyzed by Field-Marshal Haig, ii: 118;</li> + <li>at Gallipoli, iii: 177;</li> + <li>in attempts to relieve Kut-el-Amara, iii: 364;</li> + <li>in '17, iii: 382;</li> + <li>in German spring offensive, '18, iii: 390;</li> + <li>money equivalent of man-power lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>total battle deaths, <a href="#Page_288">xii: 288</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> campaign or engagement.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Coal, + <ul class="index"> + <li>production, '13—'17, <a href="#Page_47">xii: 47</a>;</li> + <li>war-time fuel control, <a href="#Page_51">xii: 51</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Cost of living, + <ul class="index"> + <li>increase in, by reduction of imports, ii: <em>Intro. xxii</em>;</li> + <li>price movements in England and U. S. since 1780, <em>Intro. viii-x</em>;</li> + <li>criticism of government policy, <a href="#Page_28">xii: 28</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Declarations of war, + <ul class="index"> + <li>on Germany, Aug. 4, '14, circumstances of, i: 145, 375; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Sir Edward Grey's statement, i: 218-227;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>on Austria-Hungary, Aug. 12, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>on Turkey, Nov. 5, '14, i: 376;</li> + <li>on Bulgaria, Oct. 15, '15, i: 382.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Food, + <ul class="index"> + <li>effect of submarine warfare, vi: 10;</li> + <li>police prevent hoarding, vi: 11;</li> + <li>government control of, <a href="#Page_34">xii: 34</a>, <a href="#Page_59">xii: 59</a>;</li> + <li>Food Control Committee established, <a href="#Page_34">xii: 34</a>;</li> + <li>sugar shortage, <a href="#Page_34">xii: 34</a>, <a href="#Page_138">xii: 138</a>;</li> + <li>meat control, <a href="#Page_34">xii: 34</a>;</li> + <li>war-time fish supply, <a href="#Page_34">xii: 34</a>;</li> + <li>wheat control, <a href="#Page_35">xii: 35</a>;</li> + <li>increase in crop production, '16—'18, <a href="#Page_40">xii: 40</a>;</li> + <li>work of women in production of, <a href="#Page_40">xii: 40</a>;</li> + <li>effect of food shortage on dogs, <a href="#Page_40">xii: 40</a>;</li> + <li>potato crop, <a href="#Page_47">xii: 47</a>;</li> + <li>war-time problems, <a href="#Page_138">xii: 138</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Foreign policy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>value of U. S. good-will, i: 35;</li> + <li>world position, 1871, i: 44;</li> + <li>Turkish policy at Congress of Berlin, i: 48;</li> + <li>acquires control of Egypt, i: 48;</li> + <li>extent of colonial empire, i: 59;</li> + <li>international position, '14, i: 59;</li> + <li>policy of conciliation, i: 59, 107, 218;</li> + <li>Anglo-French good-will, i: 98;</li> + <li>treaty with France, '04, i: 99;</li> + <li>agreement with Russia for control of Persia, '07, i: 104;</li> + <li>Anglo-Japanese Alliance, i: 104;</li> + <li>negotiations with Germany for curbing naval program, '12, i: 106, 194-197;</li> + <li>statement of policy by Asquith, Nov., '11, i: 106;</li> + <li>agreement with France for united action against "third Power," '12, i: 107, 220;</li> + <li>negotiations to prevent World War, July—Aug., '14, i: 115, 124,; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Sir Edward Grey's account, i: 218-227;</li> + <li>Prince Lichnowsky's account, i: 247-249;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>policy on Belgian neutrality, i: 141, 222, 224;</li> + <li>arrangement with Belgium for defense of neutrality, '06, i: 143, 231;</li> + <li>promise to defend French coast, Aug. 2, '14, i: 146, 220;</li> + <li>statement of war aims by Lloyd George, i: 189;</li> + <li>negotiations with Germany for mutual neutrality, '12, i: 194-197;</li> + <li>Sir Edward Grey's efforts to establish Anglo-German good-will, i: 198;</li> + <li>agreement with Germany on African expansion, i: 200;</li> + <li>agreement for settling rivalries in Turkey, '14, i: 200;</li> + <li>question of armed intervention in Moroccan crisis, i: 218;</li> + <li>freedom from secret obligations in event of war, i: 218;</li> + <li>Sir Edward Grey urges intervention in defense of Belgian neutrality, i: 224;</li> + <li>offer of help to Belgium, Aug. 4, '14, i: 232;</li> + <li>influence in the East, ii: 27;</li> + <li>claims to Turkey under secret treaties, '16—'17, vi: 334;</li> + <li>Turkish policy, announced Nov. 7, '18, vi: 334;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Triple Entente.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Industries during War, + <ul class="index"> + <li>peace and war productivity compared, <a href="#Page_19">xii: 19</a>, <a href="#Page_77">xii: 77-79</a>;</li> + <li>women in, xiii: 25;</li> + <li>bonuses to labor, <a href="#Page_28">xii: 28</a>;</li> + <li>provisions for settlement of labor disputes, <a href="#Page_79">xii: 79</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Internal politics, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Imperial unity through war, i: <em>Intro. xiv</em>;</li> + <li>political philosophy compared with German, i: 165;</li> + <li>members of War Council, Nov., '14, ii: 198;</li> + <li>political conditions, Aug., '14, vi: 1;</li> + <li>industrial and social unrest, '15, vi: 2;</li> + <li>labor opposition to conscription, vi: 6;</li> + <li>Conscription Bill passed, Apr., '16, vi: 6;</li> + <li>treatment of conscientious objectors, vi: 8;</li> + <li>pacifists indorse Soviet peace aims, '17, vi: 12;</li> + <li>Lord Lansdowne's peace letter, vi: 13;</li> + <li>Defense of the Realm Act inadequate to prevent strikes, vi: 14;</li> + <li>Labor Party platform, '17, vi: 14;</li> + <li>conditions at close of War, vi: 15;</li> + <li>general elections, '18, vi: 16-17;</li> + <li>industrial strikes spread, Jan., '19, vi: 17;</li> + <li>ship-builders' strike, vi: 19;</li> + <li>Glasgow riots, vi: 19;</li> + <li>strike in electrical trades prevented by Defense of the Realm Act, Feb., '19, vi: 20;</li> + <li>Lloyd George calls Labor Peace Conference, Feb., '19, vi: 20;</li> + <li>commission of inquiry into mining conditions appointed, Feb., '19, vi: 20;</li> + <li>truce in labor war till completion of Peace Treaty, vi: 22;</li> + <li>after-War problems, vi: 23.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Munitions, + <ul class="index"> + <li>exposé of shell shortage by Viscount French, ii: 173;</li> + <li>production compared with that of Central Empires, <a href="#Page_78">xii: 78</a>;</li> + <li>work of Ministry of Munitions, <a href="#Page_78">xii: 78</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Navy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>protector of lines of supply, i: 15;</li> + <li>rise to world supremacy, i: 28;</li> + <li>strength in '06, i: 101; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></p></li> + + <li>negotiations with Germany for curbing naval program, i: 106, 194-197;</li> + <li>general strategy during War, ii: <em>Intro. vii</em>, iv: 85-93;</li> + <li>ships in Mediterranean at outbreak of War, iv: 13;</li> + <li>squadrons in Eastern waters, iv: 58;</li> + <li>ships in West Atlantic, iv: 58;</li> + <li>problem of maintaining Allied supremacy, iv: 86;</li> + <li>Admiral Jellicoe appointed to command of Grand Fleet, Aug. 4, '14, iv: 88;</li> + <li>minesweeping operations, iv: 91;</li> + <li>convoy of troopships, iv: 92;</li> + <li>bases, iv: 92;</li> + <li>extracts from Jellicoe's <cite>The Grand Fleet, 1914—1916</cite>, iv: 93-97;</li> + <li>unpreparedness, '14, iv: 93;</li> + <li>lack of destroyers, iv: 94;</li> + <li>Grand Fleet compared with German High Sea Fleet, iv: 96;</li> + <li>Jellicoe's reasons for not attacking Germans, iv: 96;</li> + <li>make-up of Grand Fleet, Aug., '14, iv: 97;</li> + <li>make-up of Grand Fleet at battle of Jutland, iv: 119;</li> + <li>Lord Fisher's views on share in Allied victory, iv: 140;</li> + <li>statistics on transport of troops, '15—'18, iv: 239;</li> + <li>18-in. super naval guns, viii: 53;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>battle or engagement;</li> + <li>Gallipoli Campaign.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Peace Conference, + <ul class="index"> + <li>delegates, <a href="#Page_179">xii: 179</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Peace Conference.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Peace Treaty, + <ul class="index"> + <li>press views, vi: 22;</li> + <li>ratified, July 25—31, '19, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Peace Treaty with Germany.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Prisoners of war, iii: 404.</li> + <li>Railroads, system of war-time government control, <a href="#Page_89">xii: 89</a>.</li> + <li>Royal family, xi: 150-152; + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see also</em> George V.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Shipping, + <ul class="index"> + <li>tonnage, 1880—1913, compared with German, i: 77;</li> + <li>government control of ship-building, <a href="#Page_95">xii: 95</a>;</li> + <li>tonnage in '14, <a href="#Page_95">xii: 95</a>;</li> + <li>yearly tonnage production, '14—'17, <a href="#Page_96">xii: 96</a>;</li> + <li>war-time shortage of, <a href="#Page_96">xii: 96</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Strategy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>analyzed by Maj.-Gen. Maurice, ii: <em>Intro. vii-xxiv</em>;</li> + <li>naval, iv: 85-93.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Trade, 1880—1913, + <ul class="index"> + <li>compared with German, i: 77;</li> + <li>pre-War position, <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18-19</a>;</li> + <li>pre-War and war-time compared, <a href="#Page_78">xii: 78</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>War cost, + <ul class="index"> + <li>financial position at start of War, <a href="#Page_1">xii: 1</a>, <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18</a>;</li> + <li>loans floated in U. S., Aug., '14—Jan., '17, <a href="#Page_2">xii: 2</a>;</li> + <li>income tax rates, compared with U. S. and French rates, <a href="#Page_4">xii: 4</a>;</li> + <li>debt to U. S., <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18</a>;</li> + <li>exchange rates with U. S., <a href="#Page_19">xii: 19</a>;</li> + <li>extravagance in expenditure of war funds, <a href="#Page_19">xii: 19-20</a>;</li> + <li>taxes, <a href="#Page_20">xii: 20</a>, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">xii: 108</a>, 111;</li> + <li>money equivalent of manpower lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>value of property loss, <a href="#Page_26">xii: 26</a>;</li> + <li>currency inflation, <a href="#Page_27">xii: 27-28</a>;</li> + <li>average daily war cost, <a href="#Page_105">xii: 105</a>;</li> + <li>total war cost, Aug., '14—Mar., '19, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>war loans, <a href="#Page_111">xii: 111</a>;</li> + <li>rise in national debt, <a href="#Page_111">xii: 111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Great Northern, S. S.</cite>, speed record as army transport, v: 358.</li> +<li>Greece, + <ul class="index"> + <li>revolts against Turkey, 1825, i: 34;</li> + <li>breaks off diplomatic relations with Central Powers, June 29, '17, i: 390, vi: 345;</li> + <li>anti-Allied attitude at Salonika, iii: 206;</li> + <li>Venizelos establishes revolutionary government, Sept., '16, iii: 210;</li> + <li>Venizelos government recognized by Allies, Jan., '17, iii: 210;</li> + <li>King Constantine deposed by Allies, iii: 210, vi: 245;</li> + <li>war casualties, iii: 404, <a href="#Page_289">xii: 289</a>;</li> + <li>prisoners of war, iii: 404;</li> + <li>debt to U. S., <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18</a>;</li> + <li>money equivalent of man-power lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Conference delegates, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Salonika Campaign.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Greek fire, composition of, xi: 314.</li> +<li>Gregory, Sgt. Earl D., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.</li> +<li><cite>Greif</cite>, German armed liner, sunk in fight with British <cite>Alcantara</cite>, iv: 200.</li> +<li>Grenades, + <ul class="index"> + <li>number of U. S., at front, Nov. 11, '18, v: 350;</li> + <li>ancient method of throwing weapons by hand revived, viii: 119;</li> + <li>Germans first to use, viii: 119;</li> + <li>Allied unpreparedness at start of War, viii: 119;</li> + <li>nature, viii: 119;</li> + <li>technique of throwing, viii: 120;</li> + <li>kinds, viii: 120, xi: 211.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Grenfell, Capt. Francis O., first winner of Victoria Cross in War, x: 10.</li> +<li>Gresham, Pvt., one of first of A. E. F. to be killed in France, xi: 173.</li> +<li>Grey, Edward, Viscount of Fallodon, + <ul class="index"> + <li>efforts to prevent the War, i: 124-126, 247;</li> + <li>mediation in Balkan Wars, i: 198;</li> + <li>efforts to establish Anglo-German good-will, i: 198;</li> + <li>negotiations to settle Anglo-German rivalry in Mesopotamia, '12—'14, i: 200;</li> + <li>speech before Parliament summarizing events leading to World War, Aug. 3, '14, i: 218-227;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 35-40;</li> + <li>bibliography, ix: 40;</li> + <li>advocate of League of Nations, <a href="#Page_155">xii: 155</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Grierson, Gen. Sir James, commander of British Second Corps, death in France, ii: 176.</li> +<li>Grimancourt, taken by 322nd Inf., Nov. 10, '18, v: 277.</li> +<li>Grimm, Swiss Socialist, expelled by Russian Provisional Government, vi: 380.</li> +<li>Grissinger, Col. J. W., Chief Surgeon, Third Army, A. E. F., v: 346.</li> +<li>Grodno, captured by Germans, Sept. 2, '15, i: 381, iii: 140.</li> +<li><span lang="fr">Groupes de Combat</span>, function in French defensive, v: 12.</li> +<li>Guatemala, + <ul class="index"> + <li>severs diplomatic relations with Germany, Apr. 28, '17, i: 390;</li> + <li>delegate to Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Guedecourt, taken by British, Sept. 26, '16, i: 388.</li> +<li>Guépratte, Rear-Adm., commands French fleet at Gallipoli, iv: 31.</li> +<li>Guillaumat, Gen., drives Germans from Vesles to Aisne, ii: 214.</li> +<li><cite>Guillaume, Empereur d'Allemagne</cite>, French soldiers' song, xi: 339.</li> +<li>Guillemont, taken by Allies, Sept. 3, '16, i: 386.</li> +<li>Guillemont Farm, strong point on Hindenburg Line, v: 290.</li> +<li><cite>Gulflight</cite>, first American ship sunk by U-boat, May 1, '15, i: 319, 380, iv: 218.</li> +<li>Gumbinnen, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russians defeat Germans at, Aug. 16—24, '14, iii: 111;</li> + <li>retaken by Germans, iii: 116.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gumpertz, Sgt. Sydney G., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.</li> +<li>Guncotton, + <ul class="index"> + <li>composition and detonating properties, viii: 2; + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see also</em> Ammunition.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gunpowder, black, + <ul class="index"> + <li>composition and explosive properties, viii: 2;</li> + <li>smokeless, composition and action, viii: 4;</li> + <li>muzzle flash, viii: 7;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Ammunition.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gunpowder Neck, U. S. poison-gas plant at, viii: 179-187.</li> +<li>Guns, <em>see</em> Artillery.</li> +<li><cite>Guns of Verdun</cite>, poem by Patrick R. Chalmers, vi: 91.</li> +<li>Guthrie, Col. Percy, first Canadian to enlist, x: 44.</li> +<li>Guynemer, Capt. Georges, French "miracle ace," x: 202, xi: 231.</li> +<li>Gyles, Midshipman Donald, heroic fight against German destroyers, x: 293-295.</li> +<li>Gyroscope, war uses, viii: 348.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Hin" id="Hin">H</a></li> +<li>Haase, Herr, + <ul class="index"> + <li>leader German Social-Democratic minority, vi: <em>Intro. xii</em>;</li> + <li>in Ebert ministry, Nov., '18, vi: 278;</li> + <li>advocates Bolshevik principles, vi: 299.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Habibullah Khan, Emir of Afghanistan, assassinated, Feb., '19, vi: 80.</li> +<li>Hagen position, location in Argonne, v: 218.</li> +<li>Hague Conference, + <ul class="index"> + <li>establishes Arbitration Tribunal, 1899, i: 94;</li> + <li>convened for second time at suggestion of Roosevelt, '07, i: 103;</li> + <li>accomplishments, i: 103.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hahn, Maj.-Gen. W. G., commander 32nd Div., Feb., '18, v: 119.</li> +<li>Hai River, near Kut-el-Amara, iii: 186.</li> +<li>Haifa, captured by British, Sept. 23, '18, iii: 199. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></p></li> + +<li>Haig, Field-Marshal Sir Douglas, + <ul class="index"> + <li>analysis of Western Front campaigns, ii: 112-136;</li> + <li>theories on warfare, ii: 118;</li> + <li>on causes of German military collapse, ii: 120;</li> + <li>on functions of cavalry in the War, ii: 120;</li> + <li>on importance of infantry in the War, ii: 123;</li> + <li>on importance of artillery in the War, with statistics, ii: 123, 126;</li> + <li>on efficiency of British army officers, ii: 133;</li> + <li>on British military organization, ii: 134;</li> + <li>appointed Commander-in-Chief of British Expeditionary Force, Dec. 15, '15, iii: 46;</li> + <li>famous "Our backs to the wall" appeal, Mar., '18, iii: 359, v: 120;</li> + <li>personal traits, iii: 373;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 181-184.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Haiti, delegate to Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>.</li> +<li>Halahan, Capt., killed at Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 264.</li> +<li>Haldane, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander of British Sixth Army, iii: 371;</li> + <li>personal traits, iii: 377.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Haldane, Lord, mission to Germany, '12, i: 106, 194.</li> +<li>Halicz, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russians retire from, June 27, '15, i: 380;</li> + <li>captured by Russians, '14, iii: 121;</li> + <li>recaptured by Russians, July, '17, iii: 146.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hall, Richard Nelville, brave ambulance driver, story of, x: 95.</li> +<li>Hall, Sgt. Thomas Lee, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.</li> +<li>Haller, Gen., leads revolt of Polish "Iron Brigade" against Austria, vi: 216.</li> +<li>Hamburg-American Line, tonnage and earnings, i: 264.</li> +<li>Hamburg-Persian Gulf railway, <em>see</em> Bagdad Railway.</li> +<li>Hamburg-South American Line, tonnage, i: 264.</li> +<li>Hamel, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Germans, Apr. 7, '18, i: 395;</li> + <li>work of tanks at Allied attack, July 4, '18, ii: 281;</li> + <li>share of 33rd Div. in recapture of, July, '18, v: 260.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hamidieh II, Turkish battery at Gallipoli, armament of, iv: 45.</li> +<li>Hamilton, Gen. Sir Ian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Allied commander-in-chief at Gallipoli, iii: 162, iv: 32;</li> + <li>succeeded by Gen. Monro, iii: 174;</li> + <li>despatches to War Office, iv: 35-36.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Hampshire</cite>, British cruiser, sunk June 5, '16, with Kitchener and staff, i: 385.</li> +<li>Handley-Page bombing planes, viii: 196, 204, 223.</li> +<li>Hankey, Sir Maurice, secretary, Supreme Peace Council, <a href="#Page_152">xii: 152</a>.</li> +<li>Hanotaux, Gabriel, on U. S. neutrality, i: 290.</li> +<li>Hansa Line, tonnage and earnings, i: 264.</li> +<li>Hapsburgs, + <ul class="index"> + <li>rise and downfall, vi: 305;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Austria-Hungary;</li> + <li>Charles Francis;</li> + <li>Francis Joseph.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hara, Japanese Prime Minister, <em>see</em> Kei Hara.</li> +<li>Harbin, bourgeois government set up by General Horvath at, vi: 192.</li> +<li>Harbord, Maj.-Gen. James G., + <ul class="index"> + <li>Chief of Staff, A. E. F., Sept., '17, v: 101, 403;</li> + <li>commands 2nd Div. in Aisne-Marne Offensive, July, '18, v: 167;</li> + <li>commander, Services of Supply, v: 401.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hardaumont, captured by Germans, Mar. 8, '16, i: 384.</li> +<li>Harden, Maximilian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>on sordid nature of World War, i: 123;</li> + <li>on relations between U. S. and Germany, i: 274;</li> + <li>on American war prosperity, i: 311;</li> + <li>optimistic view of German food situation, '14, vi: 254;</li> + <li>on Allied peace terms, vi: 303.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hardinge, Lord, responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364, 370.</li> +<li>Harington, Sir John, "brain of British armies in the field," iii: 375.</li> +<li>Harper, Harry, description of Zeppelins by, ii: 262.</li> +<li>Harper, Gen., of British Fourth Corps, personal traits, iii: 377.</li> +<li>Hart, Prof. Albert B., summary of U. S. official correspondence on submarine sinkings, i: 358-362.</li> +<li>Hartlepool, bombarded by Germans, Dec. 16, '14, i: 376, iv: 245.</li> +<li>Hartmannsweilerkopf, captured by French, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Mar. 25, '15, i: 378;</li> + <li>Dec., '15, iii: 46.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hartwell, William, first officer of <cite>S. S. Brussels</cite>, report on Fryatt case, x: 266-269.</li> +<li>Harvey, Lieut. F. U. W., wins Victoria Cross at Vimy Ridge, iii: 349.</li> +<li>Hassein, King of Hedjaz, joins forces with British, iii: 199.</li> +<li>Hatler, Sgt. M. Waldo, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.</li> +<li>Haucourt, taken by Germans, Apr. 5, '16, i: 384, iii: 51.</li> +<li>Haudromont Quarries, taken by French, Oct. 24, '16, i: 388.</li> +<li>Hausen, Gen. von, commander of a German Army at first Marne battle, ii: 184.</li> +<li>Hauts de Meuse, location, v: 199.</li> +<li>Havre, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Belgian government moved to, Oct. 13, '14, i: 376;</li> + <li>embarkation port for returning A. E. F., v: 395.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Hawke</cite>, British cruiser, torpedoed Oct. 13, '14, i: 376.</li> +<li>Hay, Maj.-Gen. Wm. H., commander 28th Div., v: 278.</li> +<li>Hay, Pvt., one of first of A. E. F. to be killed, xi: 173.</li> +<li>Hays, 1st Lieut. George Price, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 391.</li> +<li>Hayward, Col. Wm. D., account by, of his colored regiment of "bell-hops and waiters," x: 135-137.</li> +<li>Hazois Wood, taken by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263.</li> +<li>Hebron, occupied by British, Dec. 7, '17, i: 393, iii: 196.</li> +<li>Hedjaz, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Arabs aid British in Palestine operations, iii: 196, 199;</li> + <li>kingdom established under secret treaties, '16—'17, vi: 334, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>delegate to Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Heeringen, Gen. von, commands German Sixth Army of invasion, Aug., '14, iii: 10.</li> +<li><cite>Hela</cite>, German cruiser torpedoed off Heligoland, Sept. 13, '14, iv: 207.</li> +<li>Helfferich, Karl, + <ul class="index"> + <li>on justification of Germany's part in War, i: 119;</li> + <li>director of Deutsche Bank, i: 133, 252;</li> + <li>German Vice-Chancellor, i: 133, 252;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 353.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Helgoland</cite>, German battleship, mutiny of crew starts revolution, Oct. 31, '18, iv: 381.</li> +<li>Heligoland, Peace Treaty provisions for destruction of fortifications on, <a href="#Page_205">xii: 205</a>.</li> +<li>Heligoland Bight, naval battle of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British victory, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375, iv: 240-243;</li> + <li>Admiral Beatty's official report on, iv: 241.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Helmets, steel, + <ul class="index"> + <li>devised by French, viii: 64;</li> + <li>process of manufacture of French type, viii: 64;</li> + <li>rate of production, viii: 65;</li> + <li>efficiency as protection, viii: 65;</li> + <li>process of manufacture of U. S. Army type, viii: 66-68;</li> + <li>bullet-resisting tests, viii: 69-72.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hem, stormed by French in battle of the Somme, July, '16, iii: 58.</li> +<li>Henderson, Arthur, biography, ix: 47-50.</li> +<li><cite>Henri IV</cite>, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33.</li> +<li>Henry, Prince, of Prussia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>visits U. S., '02, i: 80;</li> + <li>escapes from mutiny of German Fleet, Nov. 7, '18, vi: 272.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Herbebois, taken by Germans, Feb. 21, '16, iii: 48.</li> +<li>Heriot, Corp. James D., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.</li> +<li>Hermannstadt, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Rumanians, Sept. 2, '16, i: 386;</li> + <li>Rumanians defeated at, Sept. 29—30, '16, i: 388.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hertling, Count von, German Chancellor, + <ul class="index"> + <li>comment on failure of Champagne-Marne Offensive, July 15—18, '18, v: 158;</li> + <li>retires as Chancellor, Oct. 3, '18, vi: 270.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hertzog, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>anti-British Nationalist leader in South Africa, vi: 49, 50;</li> + <li>heads Nationalist delegation to Peace Conference, Jan., '19, vi: 52.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Herzegovina, + <ul class="index"> + <li>annexed by Austria, '08, i: 109, vi: 356;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Bosnia-Herzegovina.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Hesperian, S. S.</cite>, torpedoed by German submarine, Sept. 4, '15, i: 326.</li> +<li>Hickey, Gen., commander of 16th Irish Div., iii: 377.</li> +<li>Hickory (30th) Division, <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>High Sea Fleet, <em>see</em> Germany, Navy.</li> +<li>Hill, Corp. Ralyn, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397.</li> +<li>Hill 60, at Ypres, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by British, Apr, 17, '15, i: 378, iii: 42;</li> + <li>captured by Germans, May 5, '15, i: 380. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Hill 70, at Loos, captured by British, Sept., '15, iii: 46.</li> +<li>Hill 140, near Souchez, captured by French, Sept., '15, iii: 46.</li> +<li>Hill 180, captured by 327th Inf. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct. 7, '18, v: 242.</li> +<li>Hill 190, near Ronchères, captured by 3rd Div., July 27, '18, v: 187.</li> +<li>Hill 204, near Château-Thierry, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by 26th Div., July 20, '18, v: 56;</li> + <li>dominating situation, v: 133;</li> + <li>captured by French and A. E. F., June 6, '18, v: 135.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hill 223, near Châtel Chehery, captured by 28th Div., Oct. 7, '18, v: 243.</li> +<li>Hill 240, captured by 18th and 28th Infs. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct. 5, '18, v: 240.</li> +<li>Hill 242, near Côte de Châtillon, captured by 168th Inf., Oct. 15, '18, v: 84.</li> +<li>Hill 244, near Châtel Chehery, captured by 28th Div., Oct. 7, '18, v: 243.</li> +<li>Hill 258, captured by 127th Div. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct. 14, '18, v: 250.</li> +<li>Hill 263, captured by 28th Div. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept. 26, '18, v: 225.</li> +<li>Hill 269, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by 26th Inf. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct. 5, '18, v: 240;</li> + <li>held by 1st Engineers against German attacks, v: 246.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hill 288, near Côte de Châtillon, captured by 168th Inf., Oct. 14, '18, v: 84.</li> +<li>Hill 304, at Verdun, battle for, iii: 51.</li> +<li>Hill 378, stormed by 79th Div. troops in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Nov. 5, '18, v: 270.</li> +<li>Hilton, Sgt. Richmond H., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.</li> +<li>Hindenburg, Field-Marshal Paul von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>put in command of German armies in East Prussia, Aug., '14, ii: 24, 353, iii: 112;</li> + <li>destroys Russian Army at battle of Tannenberg, Aug. 26—31, '14, ii: 24, iii: 112-116, ix: 242; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Ludendorff's account, iii: 353;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>campaigns in Russian Poland, ii: 25, iii: 116-118, ix: 245;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's tribute to, ii: 300;</li> + <li>appointed Chief of German General Staff, Aug. 29, '16, ii: 326, iii: 61;</li> + <li>made Chief of General Staff of Central Powers, ii: 331;</li> + <li>proclamation against "unconditional surrender," Oct. 24, '18, ii: 335;</li> + <li>first meeting with Ludendorff, Aug. 23, '14, ii: 353;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 242-249;</li> + <li>nicknamed "Old Man of the Swamps," ix: 242;</li> + <li>decorated for valor, ix: 246;</li> + <li>popularity, ix: 249.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hindenburg Line, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German strategic retreat to, '17, ii: 53, iii: 66-70;</li> + <li>Germans driven to, Sept., '18, ii: 157, iii: 98, 100;</li> + <li>extent and description, iii: 66, v: 216, 301;</li> + <li>strategic purpose, iii: 66;</li> + <li>devastation of French territory in retreat to, '17, iii: 67;</li> + <li>reasons for strategic retreat of '17, iii: 70;</li> + <li>27th and 30th Divs., A. E. F., attacking with British, break through in Cambrai-St. Quentin sector, Sept.—Oct., '18, iii: 101, v: 290-295, 301, 393;</li> + <li>Michel position on St. Mihiel front, v: 69;</li> + <li>Kriemhilde position on Meuse-Argonne front, v: 74, 218;</li> + <li>First Army breaks through in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 390.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hines, Maj.-Gen, John L., + <ul class="index"> + <li>promotion, v: 182;</li> + <li>commands 4th Div. at St. Mihiel, Sept., '18, v: 202;</li> + <li>commands 4th Div. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 219;</li> + <li>commands Third Corps in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 83, 390.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hintzmann, Korvettenkapitan, German delegate to arrange for surrender of German fleet, iv: 384.</li> +<li>Hipper, Rear-Adm. von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands German squadron at battle of Dogger Bank, Jan. 24, '15, iv: 246;</li> + <li>commands German advance fleet at battle of Jutland, May 31, '16, iv: 99, 103, 108, 113.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hirson, captured by Allies, Nov., '18, iii: 103.</li> +<li>Hodges, Maj.-Gen. H. F., commander 76th Div., July, '18, v: 196.</li> +<li>Hoffman, Sgt. Chas. F., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 389.</li> +<li>Hoffman, Conrad, executive secretary, American Y. M. C. A., work for prisoners in Germany, vii: 309.</li> +<li><cite>Hogue</cite>, British cruiser, torpedoed by <cite>U-9</cite>, Sept. 22, '14, + <ul class="index"> + <li>eye-witness accounts, iv: 205, x: 274-280;</li> + <li>as told by U-boat commander, x: 279.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Holbrook, Lieut.-Com. Norman D., blows up Turk warship in Dardanelles, x: 317.</li> +<li>"Holding" troops, German, viii: 144.</li> +<li>Holland, <em>see</em> Netherlands.</li> +<li><cite>Holland No. 9</cite>, first U. S. Navy submarine, iv: 205.</li> +<li>Holy Alliance, + <ul class="index"> + <li>formation of, i: 33;</li> + <li>defects of, i: 35.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Holy War, + <ul class="index"> + <li>declared by Turks, Nov. 17, '14, i: 376, vi: 330;</li> + <li>to destroy British control in East, ii: 27;</li> + <li>failure of, ii: 31;</li> + <li>response to, in India, vi: 74.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Home Rule, Irish, <em>see</em> Ireland.</li> +<li>Home Service, Red Cross, activities of, vii: 35.</li> +<li>Homs, taken by Allies, Oct., '18, iii: 199.</li> +<li>Honduras, delegate to Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>.</li> +<li>Hood, Rear-Adm. Horace L. A., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands 3rd British Battle Cruiser Squadron at battle of Jutland, iv: 117;</li> + <li>lost with sinking of <cite>Invincible</cite>, iv: 120.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hoofien, S., Dutch representative in Palestine, report on American relief work, vii: 366.</li> +<li>Hoover, Herbert C., + <ul class="index"> + <li>appointed U. S. Food Administrator, May 19, '17, i: 390;</li> + <li>pioneer of American relief in Europe, vii: 85;</li> + <li>organizes American Relief Committee, vii: 119;</li> + <li>organizes American Commission for Relief in Belgium, vii: 119, <a href="#Page_136">xii: 136</a>;</li> + <li>account of interview with Lloyd George on Belgian Relief, vii: 124;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 316-323;</li> + <li>bibliography, ix: 323;</li> + <li>work as U. S. Food Administrator, <a href="#Page_35">xii: 35</a>;</li> + <li>report on U. S. food exports for relief of Europe, <a href="#Page_42">xii: 42</a>;</li> + <li>director-general of American Relief Administration, <a href="#Page_141">xii: 141</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Horn, Lieut. Werner, German spy, tries to blow up bridge on Canadian border, i: 316, x: 368.</li> +<li>Hornby, Sir Geoffrey Phipps, forces Dardanelles, 1878, iv: 21.</li> +<li>Horne, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands British First Army in offensive against Cambrai, Sept., '18, ii: 214, v: 213;</li> + <li>characterization by Philip Gibbs, iii: 371.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Horns, for gas alarm, number issued by U. S. Army, v: 324.</li> +<li>Horses, + <ul class="index"> + <li>utility in the War, viii: 397;</li> + <li>hospitals for, viii: 398;</li> + <li>number shipped to France by U. S., <a href="#Page_95">xii: 95</a>, <a href="#Page_278">xii: 278</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Horton, Lieut.-Com. Max, exploit in command of submarine <cite>E-9</cite>, iv: 207.</li> +<li>Horvath, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>sets up bourgeois government in Siberia, vi: 192;</li> + <li>resigns from government, vi: 193.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hospitals: + <ul class="index"> + <li>British, in France, ii: 131.</li> + <li>French, medical service for wounded, viii: 362-365.</li> + <li>United States, <em>see</em> U. S. Army, Medical Service.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hotchkiss machine-gun, viii: 87.</li> +<li>House, Col. E. M., + <ul class="index"> + <li>U. S. representative on Supreme War Council, iii: 84;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 70-76.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Howitzers, <em>see</em> Artillery.</li> +<li>Hughes, W. M., Premier of Australia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>advocate of closer union within British Empire, vi: 40;</li> + <li>for vigorous war policy, vi: 40;</li> + <li>delegate to Allied Economic Conference, June, '16, vi: 40;</li> + <li>forms "Hughesite" Liberal government supporting conscription, vi: 42.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hulloch, British enter, Sept. 26, '14, iii: 46.</li> +<li><cite>Humber</cite>, British monitor, description, iv: 281.</li> +<li>Humbert, Charles, French Senator, implicated in Bolo Pasha plots, x: 344. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></p></li> + +<li>Hungary, + <ul class="index"> + <li>war sentiment, '14, vi: 306;</li> + <li>parliamentary struggle, '16, vi: 311;</li> + <li>Independence Party, leaders and aims of, vi: 311;</li> + <li>"Independence and 1848" Party, formation and aims of, '16, vi: 311;</li> + <li>Socialist demands for peace, '16, vi: 312;</li> + <li>effects of Rumanian invasion, '16, vi: 313;</li> + <li>"bloodless" revolution overthrows Hapsburg rule, Oct., '18, vi: 322;</li> + <li>National Council, governing body during revolution, vi: 322;</li> + <li>Republic established, Nov., '18, vi: 323, ix: 146, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>Count Karolyi, provisional head of Republic, vi: 323;</li> + <li>armistice signed with Allies, vi: 323;</li> + <li>Ironworkers' Party, conflict with government, vi: 324;</li> + <li>Bolshevists under Bela Kun seize control, Mar., '19, vi: 324-328;</li> + <li>military occupation by Allies, Mar., '19, vi: 325;</li> + <li>Allies' peace terms rejected, vi: 326;</li> + <li>the Red Army, vi: 326;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Austria-Hungary.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Hunley</cite>, Confederate submarine in American Civil War, iv: 203.</li> +<li>Hurley, Edward, biography, ix: 335-337.</li> +<li>"Hush" ships, description of, iv: 303.</li> +<li>Hussein Kamil Pasha, made Khédive of Egypt by British, vi: 69.</li> +<li>Hutier, Gen. von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands Eighteenth German Army, ii: 149;</li> + <li>new method of surprise attack, general plan and tactics of, v: 41, viii: 143-145.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hutton, Col. P. C., Chief Surgeon, "Paris Group," A. E. F., v: 346.</li> +<li>Hydrogen, use for inflating balloons, viii: 263.</li> +<li>Hydrophones, use in detection of U-boats, viii: 17-20, 279-281.</li> +<li>Hydroplanes, <em>see</em> Aeronautics.</li> +<li><cite>Hymn of Hate</cite>, German, against England, i: 194, vi: 253.</li> +<li><cite>Hymn of the Lusitania</cite>, German, i: 365.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Iin" id="Iin">I</a></li> +<li><cite>I Want to Be an Angel</cite>, aviators' song, xi: 338.</li> +<li>Igel, Wolf von, German arch-spy in U. S., x: 337;</li> +<li>Imecourt, captured by 319th Inf., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263.</li> +<li>Immelmann, Capt., German ace, death in air duel with Capt. Ball, x: 209-211, xi: 216.</li> +<li>Immigration, to U. S. from Europe, i: 37.</li> +<li><cite>Imperatritsa</cite>, Russian battleship, burns and sinks in Black Sea, Oct. 20, '16, i: 388.</li> +<li><cite>Implacable</cite>, British battleship, at Gallipoli, iv: 33.</li> +<li><cite>In Flanders Fields</cite>, poem by Lieut.-Col. John McCrae, xi: 54.</li> +<li>Incendiary bullets, viii: 214.</li> +<li><cite>Indefatigable</cite>, British battle cruiser, sunk at battle of Jutland, iv: 108.</li> +<li>Indemnity, <em>see</em> Reparation.</li> +<li>Index numbers, for measuring price changes, <a href="#Page_vii">xii: <em>Intro. vii</em></a>.</li> +<li>India, + <ul class="index"> + <li>troops in Palestine and Salonika campaigns, ii: <em>Intro. xxiii</em>;</li> + <li>Suez Canal gateway to, ii: 27;</li> + <li>response to appeal of Holy War, ii: 27, vi: 74;</li> + <li>casualties, total in War, iii: 404, 405;</li> + <li>strength of army, iii: 405;</li> + <li>agitation for autonomy, vi: 72;</li> + <li>response to British war needs, vi: 72;</li> + <li>reasons for loyalty, vi: 73;</li> + <li>Nationalist claims for independence, vi: 74;</li> + <li>political demands on Great Britain, vi: 75;</li> + <li>caste system, description of, vi: 75;</li> + <li>influenza epidemic, '18, vi: 76;</li> + <li>suffering from famine, '18—'19, vi: 76;</li> + <li>Defense of India Act, for suppressing sedition, vi: 77;</li> + <li>Bolshevism in, vi: 77;</li> + <li>"Black Cobra Bill," for suppressing radicalism, vi: 78;</li> + <li>coal production, '13—'16, <a href="#Page_48">xii: 48</a>;</li> + <li>War cost, Aug., '14—Mar. '19, <a href="#Page_106">xii: 106</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Conference delegates, <a href="#Page_179">xii: 179</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Indian, American, as fighter, xi: 175-179.</li> +<li>Indo-China, French, Japan's desire for, vi: 386.</li> +<li><cite>Indomitable</cite>, British cruiser in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.</li> +<li>Industrial rights, Peace Treaty provisions for re-establishment of, <a href="#Page_244">xii: 244-246</a>.</li> +<li>Infantry, Field-Marshal Haig's estimate of importance, ii: 123.</li> +<li>Infection, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in shell wounds, viii: 362, 367;</li> + <li>causes, viii: 369;</li> + <li>Carrel-Dakin treatment, viii: 369-372, ix: 312, xi: 288-289;</li> + <li>prevention among troops, viii: 392-397, xi: 286-289;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Disease;</li> + <li>Medical science;</li> + <li>Sanitation.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>"Infiltration," + <ul class="index"> + <li>new German method of attack, iii: 386, v: 17, 19;</li> + <li>Gen. Gouraud's method of defense against, v: 46, 155, viii: 146-148.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Inflexible</cite>, British battle cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Gallipoli, iv: 31;</li> + <li>damaged by gunfire in Gallipoli attack, Mar. 18, '15, iv: 35;</li> + <li>at battle of Falklands, iv: 70.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Influenza, deaths from, in '18, iii: 405.</li> +<li>Insterburg, important junction on Petrograd-Berlin Railroad, iii: 111.</li> +<li>Insurance, social, in territories ceded by Germany, funds to be transferred to Allies, <a href="#Page_246">xii: 246</a>.</li> +<li>Intelligence tests for soldiers, viii: 349-351.</li> +<li>Inter-Allied Commissions of Control, to supervise execution of military terms of Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_215">xii: 215</a>.</li> +<li>Inter-Allied Conference, Mar., '16, decides on Somme offensive, iii: 55.</li> +<li>Inter-Allied Games, at Pershing Stadium, vii: 313.</li> +<li>Inter-Allied General Staff, created, iii: 84.</li> +<li>Inter-Allied Scientific Food Commission, functions, <a href="#Page_139">xii: 139</a>.</li> +<li>Inter-Allied War Council, <em>see</em> Supreme War Council.</li> +<li>International law, + <ul class="index"> + <li>formulation of, by Grotius, i: 26;</li> + <li>German statement of Allied infractions, i: 139;</li> + <li>Lansing's proposal for regulation of U-boat war, i: 281, 328;</li> + <li>comment of London <cite>Times</cite> on Lansing proposal, i: 282;</li> + <li>German protest against U. S. position on armed merchantmen, i: 282;</li> + <li>U. S. position on status of armed merchantmen, i: 283;</li> + <li>controversy between U. S. and Great Britain on right of seizure of neutral cargoes, i: 312, 318, 339;</li> + <li>controversy between U. S. and Germany on submarine warfare, i: 317-326, 329-335, 339; + <ul class="index"> + <li>chronological summary; i: 357-361;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>U. S. note to Germany on "Freedom of the seas," July 21, '15, i: 323;</li> + <li>controversy between U. S. and Austria-Hungary on submarine warfare, i: 326;</li> + <li>President Wilson opposed to principle of McLemore Resolution, i: 327;</li> + <li>controversy between U. S. and Great Britain on seizure of neutral mail, i: 335;</li> + <li>on blockades, ii: 21;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Germany, Blockade of;</li> + <li>Submarine warfare.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>International rivalries, factors in, 1890—1914, i: 58-63.</li> +<li>International Sanitary Commission, for Serbian typhus relief, iii: 398.</li> +<li><cite>Intrepid</cite>, British cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 262;</li> + <li>sunk in channel at Zeebrugge, iv: 265.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Inventions, displace importance of strategy in war, viii: <em>Intro. vii.</em></li> +<li><cite>Invincible</cite>, British battle cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>armament, iv: 70;</li> + <li>blown up at Jutland, iv: 119;</li> + <li>at Heligoland Bight, iv: 241.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ipek, occupied by French, Oct. 16, '18, i: 399.</li> +<li><cite>Iphigenia</cite>, British cruiser in Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 262; + <ul class="index"> + <li>sunk in channel at Zeebrugge, iv: 265. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Ireland, + <ul class="index"> + <li>history of Home Rule movement, vi: 53;</li> + <li>Ulster, led by Carson, opposes Home Rule, vi: 53, 60, ix: 50;</li> + <li>situation at outbreak of War, vi: 53;</li> + <li>loyalty to British in early days of War, vi: 55;</li> + <li>Sinn Feiners start separatist propaganda, vi: 55;</li> + <li>spread of Sinn Fein movement, vi: 57;</li> + <li>Sir Roger Casement's negotiations with Germans, vi: 57;</li> + <li>Sinn Feiners organize armed opposition, vi: 57;</li> + <li>Irish Volunteers, vi: 57;</li> + <li>sympathy with Germany, vi: 57;</li> + <li>German arms for Sinn Feiners captured by British, vi: 58;</li> + <li>Sir Roger Casement captured, vi: 58, ix: 53;</li> + <li>Easter Rebellion, Apr., '16, vi: 58;</li> + <li>proclamation of Republic, Apr., '16, vi: 60;</li> + <li>Padraic Pearse, Provisional President, vi: 60, ix: 53;</li> + <li>collapse of rebellion, May, '16, vi: 60;</li> + <li>leaders executed for treason, May 3, '16, vi: 60, ix: 53;</li> + <li>Lloyd George's proposal for Home Rule settlement, '17, vi: 61;</li> + <li>Irish Convention meets to discover way for settlement, '18, vi: 61-63;</li> + <li>De Valera, leader of Sinn Feiners, vi: 61;</li> + <li>De Valera elected to Parliament, vi: 62;</li> + <li>Sinn Feiners' attitude toward Convention, vi: 62;</li> + <li>government's new Home Rule Bill, '18, outline of, vi: 64;</li> + <li>struggle over conscription, vi: 64;</li> + <li>Sinn Feiners carry parliamentary elections, '18, vi: 64;</li> + <li>Irish Republic proclaimed by National Assembly at Dublin, '18, vi: 64;</li> + <li>delegates to Peace Conference appointed, vi: 64;</li> + <li>movement in U. S. in support of Irish freedom, vi: 65;</li> + <li>Irish-American mission to Peace Conference, vi: 65;</li> + <li>Peace Conference refuses hearing to Irish cause, vi: 66;</li> + <li>Sinn Fein platform, ix: 52;</li> + <li>De Valera elected President of Irish Republic, ix: 55.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ireland, Maj.-Gen. M. W., Surgeon-General, U. S. Army, v: 346.</li> +<li><cite>Iris</cite>, British ferryboat in Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 262.</li> +<li>Irish-Americans, + <ul class="index"> + <li>support for cause of Irish freedom, vi: 65;</li> + <li>Irish Race in America Convention, Feb., '19, vi: 65;</li> + <li>delegation to Peace Conference, vi: 65.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Irkutsk, captured by Czechoslovaks, July 13, '18, i: 397.</li> +<li>Iron, + <ul class="index"> + <li>importance of Lorraine deposits, i: 267;</li> + <li>importance in war, i: 268;</li> + <li>French mines coveted by Germany, ii: 13, 15;</li> + <li>French mines seized by Germany, ii: 20.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Irresistible</cite>, British battleship, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Gallipoli, iv: 31;</li> + <li>sunk in Gallipoli attack, Mar. 18, '15, iv: 35, 48.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Isherwood, Lieut.-Com., co-inventor of launching device for depth bombs, iv: 331.</li> +<li>Ishii, Viscount, biography, ix: 90.</li> +<li>Ishtib, occupied by Allies, Sept. 26, '18, i: 397.</li> +<li>Isonzo Front, <em>see</em> Italian Front.</li> +<li>Isonzo River, course, ii: 48.</li> +<li>Is-sur-Tille, center of American lines of supply, iii: 83, v: 11, 330.</li> +<li>Istria, given by Allies to Italy under secret treaty, '15, vi: 361.</li> +<li><em>Italia Irredenta</em>, definition, xi: 18.</li> +<li>Italian Front, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Lloyd George advocates strong offensive on, ii: <em>Intro. xx</em>;</li> + <li>most difficult theater of War, ii: 48;</li> + <li>general military topography, ii: 48, 49, 236, 244, iii: 226-230, xi: 25;</li> + <li>general strategy at start of War, ii: 48, 49, iii: 228-231, 239-241;</li> + <li>topography of Isonzo Front, ii: 48, iii: 239;</li> + <li>Isonzo campaigns, ii: 49-52, 56-58, 240, 242-250, iii: 239-248;</li> + <li>topography of Trentino Front, ii: 49, iii: 230;</li> + <li>Trentino campaigns, ii: 49, 51, iii: 230-239;</li> + <li>Italian attacks on Gorizia fail, '15, ii: 50, 240;</li> + <li>results of '15 campaign, ii: 51;</li> + <li>Gorizia captured by Italians, Aug., 16, ii: 51, 242, iii: 246;</li> + <li>Caporetto disaster and Italian rout, Oct.—Dec., '17, ii: 56-58, 246-250, iii: 80, 246-248, vi: 129, xi: 37;</li> + <li>Italian retreat checked by stand at the Piave, Nov., '17, ii: 58, 250, iii: 80, 248;</li> + <li>last Austrian offensive, June, '18, ii: 94-96, 250-252, iii: 249;</li> + <li>victorious final offensive by Italy, Oct., '18, ii: 96, 252-254, iii: 249;</li> + <li>Carso Plateau, description of, ii: 244;</li> + <li>Gradisca captured by Italians, June 9, '15, iii: 244;</li> + <li>Monfalcone captured by Italians, June, '15, iii: 244;</li> + <li>casualties and prisoners of war, Austrian and Italian, during Isonzo campaigns, iii: 244, 246, 248;</li> + <li>Cividale captured by Austro-Germans, Oct. 28, '17, iii: 247;</li> + <li>Udine captured by Austro-Germans, Oct., '17, iii: 247;</li> + <li>Italian losses in men and territory in great retreat, Oct.—Dec., '17, ii: 248;</li> + <li>Jugoslavs in Austrian army desert to Italians, iii: 249;</li> + <li>American reinforcements arrive, July, '18, iii: 249, v: 394;</li> + <li>bibliography, iii: 249;</li> + <li>aerial cableways across the Alps, viii: 303-306.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Italian Front, On the</cite>, poem by G. E. Woodbury, vi: 114.</li> +<li>Italy: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German estimate of effectiveness, '14, ii: 4;</li> + <li>Arditi, description of, ii: 240;</li> + <li>Bersaglieri, description of, ii: 240;</li> + <li>Alpini, description of, ii: 242;</li> + <li>Carabinieri, as military police, ii: 242;</li> + <li>Granatieri, description of, ii: 242;</li> + <li>pre-War organization and equipment, iii: 224-226;</li> + <li>effect of enemy propaganda on morale, iii: 247, vi: 128;</li> + <li>for military operations, <em>see</em> Italian Front.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Casualties, + <ul class="index"> + <li>total in War, ii: 116, iii: 404, vi: 130;</li> + <li>money equivalent of man-power lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>total battle deaths, <a href="#Page_288">xii: 288</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Declarations of war, + <ul class="index"> + <li>on Austria, May 23, '15, i: 380, ii: 48, 236, vi: 126, 309, xi: 18;</li> + <li>on Turkey, Aug. 21, '15, i: 381;</li> + <li>on Bulgaria, Oct. 19, '15, i: 382;</li> + <li>on Germany, Aug. 27, '16, i: 386;</li> + <li>belligerency condemned as traitorous by Austrian press, vi: 310.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Foreign policy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>international position, '14, i: 61;</li> + <li>ambition for Mediterranean supremacy, i: 61;</li> + <li>member of Triple Alliance, i: 95, 255, ii: 48, vi: 114;</li> + <li>war with Turkey for Tripoli, '12, i: 109, vi: 114;</li> + <li>neglected by Germany, i: 255;</li> + <li>Bissolati's explanation of neutrality, i: 256;</li> + <li>refusal to enter War as German ally, ii: 48, xi: 6;</li> + <li>Central Powers bargain for neutrality, ii: 48;</li> + <li>parliamentary struggle between neutralists and interventionists, ii: 236, vi: 123-126;</li> + <li>Salandra and Sonino advocate war on side of Allies, ii: 236, vi: 123;</li> + <li>Giolitti advocates continued neutrality, ii: 236, vi: 123;</li> + <li>attitude toward U. S., ii: 245;</li> + <li>public opinion for neutrality in early days of War, vi: 116;</li> + <li>pro-German sentiment, vi: 118;</li> + <li>pro-Ally sentiment grows, vi: 119;</li> + <li>territorial demands on Austria, '14, vi: 120;</li> + <li>Avlona occupied, Dec., '14, vi: 120;</li> + <li>secret treaty with Allies, Apr., '15, price of entry into War, vi: 122, 361;</li> + <li>occupation of Austrian territories following armistice, vi: 129, 364;</li> + <li>unpopularity of Austrian alliance, vi: 308;</li> + <li>claims to Asiatic Turkey under secret treaties, '16—'17, vi: 334;</li> + <li>hostility to Jugoslav expansion, vi: 360-362, 364-370;</li> + <li>Adriatic aspirations, vi: 361;</li> + <li>Fiume dispute, vi: 365-370.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Imports, dependence on, ii: 236, vi: 127.</li> + <li>Internal politics, + <ul class="index"> + <li>unification, i: 39;</li> + <li>parliamentary struggle between neutralists and war party, ii: 236, vi: 123-126;</li> + <li>Salandra and Sonnino advocate war on side of Allies, ii: 236, vi: 120, 123;</li> + <li>Giolitti for continued neutrality, ii: 236, vi: 123;</li> + <li>D'Annunzio rouses people to side with Allies, ii: 239, vi: 124;</li> + <li>strikes instigated by Bolshevik propaganda, iii: 247, vi: 128;</li> + <li>political situation preceding entry into War, vi: 114;</li> + <li>popular sentiment for neutrality, vi: 116;</li> + <li>pro-Ally sentiment, vi: 116, 119;</li> + <li>attitude of political parties on neutrality, vi: 117;</li> + <li>pro-German sympathies, vi: 118;</li> + <li>King Victor takes decisive step for war, vi: 125;</li> + <li>obstructionist policy of Catholics and Socialists, vi: 126;</li> + <li>fall of Salandra Cabinet, June, '16, vi: 127;</li> + <li>coalition government under Boselli takes office, June, '16, vi: 127;</li> + <li>pacifist propaganda and riots, vi: 128;</li> + <li>fall of Boselli government, Oct., '17, vi: 129;</li> + <li>Orlando heads new Cabinet, vi: 129;</li> + <li>Cabinet crisis on Fiume question, '18, vi: 369.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Navy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>strength at outbreak of War, iv: 368;</li> + <li>War record, iv: 368;</li> + <li>blockade of Jugoslav ports, vi: 369.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Peace Conference, delegates to, <a href="#Page_179">xii: 179</a>.</li> + <li>Peace Treaty, ratified, Oct. 7, '19, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264</a>.</li> + <li>Prisoners of war, iii: 404.</li> + <li>Royal family, xi: 141-143; + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see also</em> Victor Emmanuel.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>War cost, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Luzzati's statement on, vi: 130;</li> + <li>relatively largest of all belligerents, vi: 131;</li> + <li>financial position at start of War, <a href="#Page_1">xii: 1</a>;</li> + <li>debt to U. S., <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18</a>;</li> + <li>value of man-power lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>value of property destroyed, <a href="#Page_26">xii: 26</a>;</li> + <li>average daily war cost, <a href="#Page_106">xii: 106</a>;</li> + <li>total war cost, May, '15—Oct., '18, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>taxation, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">xii: 109</a>;</li> + <li>loans, <a href="#Page_113">xii: 113</a>;</li> + <li>rise in national debt, <a href="#Page_113">xii: 113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Jin" id="Jin">J</a></li> +<li>Jablonitza, captured by Russians, Aug. 15, '16, i: 386.</li> +<li><cite>Jacob Jones</cite>, U. S. destroyer, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sunk by U-boat, Dec. 6, '17, i: 393;</li> + <li>report of Lieut.-Com. Bagley, iv: 346-349.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Jador, battle of, Austrians driven from Serbia, '14, ii: 32, iii: 152.</li> +<li>Jaffa, captured by British, iii: 194.</li> +<li>Jagow, Gottlieb von, German Foreign Secretary, ix: 127-128.</li> +<li>Jametz, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 10, '18, v: 272.</li> +<li>Japan, + <ul class="index"> + <li>abrogates extraterritorial rights, i: 18;</li> + <li>acquires Formosa, 1894, i: 20;</li> + <li>acquires Port Arthur and Korea in Russo-Japanese War, i: 20;</li> + <li>rise as world power, '05, i: 20;</li> + <li>adopts "open door" policy, 1854, i: 38;</li> + <li>Root-Takahira agreement on "open door" in China, '08, i: 57;</li> + <li>Lansing-Ishii Note recognizes special Japanese interest in China, '17, i: 58;</li> + <li>international position in '14, i: 63;</li> + <li>Anglo-Japanese Alliance, terms of, i: 104, 107;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's comment on entry into War, ii: 357;</li> + <li>siege and capture of Kiau-Chau (Tsing Tau), Aug. 23—Nov. 7, '14, iii: 257-259, iv: 367, vi: 382-383;</li> + <li>total casualties, iii: 404;</li> + <li>prisoners of war, iii: 404;</li> + <li>naval strength, iv: 58;</li> + <li>naval service to Allies, iv: 367;</li> + <li>motive in siding with Allies, iv: 367, vi: 382;</li> + <li>sends troops to Vladivostok against Soviet government, vi: 193;</li> + <li>the "Yellow Peril," origin of phrase, vi: 248;</li> + <li>ultimatum to Germany demanding surrender of Kiau-Chau, Aug. 17, '14, vi: 382;</li> + <li>declares war on Germany, Aug. 23, '14, vi: 382;</li> + <li>internal politics during War, vi: 384;</li> + <li>forces China to accede to "Group Demands," '15, vi: 385;</li> + <li>summary of concessions obtained under "Group Demands," vi: 385;</li> + <li>ambition for domination in Far East, vi: 386;</li> + <li>treaty with Russia, '16, vi: 386;</li> + <li>imperialists advocate intervention in Siberia, '17, vi: 386;</li> + <li>Terauchi Cabinet opposed by liberals, vi: 386-388;</li> + <li>Kei Hara succeeds Terauchi as Premier, '18, vi: 388;</li> + <li>opposition by conservatives to Hara government, vi: 388;</li> + <li>separatist movement in Korea, vi: 388;</li> + <li>money equivalent of man-power lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>coal production, '13—'16, <a href="#Page_48">xii: 48</a>;</li> + <li>delegates to Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>;</li> + <li>Shantung (Kiau-Chau) transferred to, by Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_209">xii: 209</a>;</li> + <li>ratifies Peace Treaty, Oct. 27, '19, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Kiau-Chau;</li> + <li>Shantung.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Jaroslav, fortress on San, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Russians, Sept. 21, '14, i: 376, iii: 123;</li> + <li>retaken by Germans, May 17, '15, iii: 136.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Jassy, Rumanian government moved to, Nov. 28, '16, i: 389.</li> +<li>Jastrow, Prof. Morris, Jr., discussion of Bagdad Railway problem, ii: 290-297.</li> +<li>Jaulgonne, + <ul class="index"> + <li>location, v: 133;</li> + <li>captured by 3rd Div., July, '18, v: 383.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Jauréguiberry</cite>, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33.</li> +<li>Jaurès, Jean, French anti-militarist, assassinated, vi: 95.</li> +<li>Jebel Shammar, Emirate of, established, '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> +<li>Jellicoe, Adm. Sir John, + <ul class="index"> + <li>appointed Commander-in-Chief of British Grand Fleet, Aug. 4, '14, iv: 88;</li> + <li>analysis of British and German fleets at start of War, iv: 93-97;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 275-282;</li> + <li>bibliography, ix: 282.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Jericho, captured by British, Feb. 22, '18, i: 393, ii: 196.</li> +<li>Jerusalem, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Gen. Allenby, Dec. 11, '17, ii: 92, iii: 196, 322-326;</li> + <li>Allenby's proclamation to people of, iii: 325;</li> + <li>work of Y. M. C. A. in, vii: 323.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Jeszcze Polska</cite>, Polish national anthem, xi: 331.</li> +<li>Jews, + <ul class="index"> + <li>distress in war areas, vii: 349;</li> + <li>number in Russian Poland, vii: 349, 358, 361, 376;</li> + <li>number in Galicia, vii: 349, 376;</li> + <li>number in Germany, vii: 349;</li> + <li>number in Turkey, vii: 349, 376; + <ul class="index"> + <li>outside of Palestine, vii: 368;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>number in Palestine, vii: 349, 366, 376;</li> + <li>number in Serbia, vii: 349, 369, 376;</li> + <li>American aid for needy in Palestine, vii: 350, 358, 365-368;</li> + <li>American aid for needy in Belgium, vii: 350;</li> + <li>organization of war relief agencies in U. S., vii: 351-354;</li> + <li>American Jewish Relief Committee formed, vii: 354;</li> + <li>funds raised in U. S. for overseas war relief, '16—'17, vii: 355-356;</li> + <li>American relief for destitute in Russian Poland, vii: 356-358, 360-363;</li> + <li>refugees in interior of Russia, relief activities for, vii: 356, 363-365;</li> + <li>conditions in Galicia, vii: 358;</li> + <li>number dependent on war relief, by countries, vii: 358, 361, 362, 363, 366, 367, 369, 376;</li> + <li>work of relief commission sent to Europe from U. S., vii: 359-360;</li> + <li>American relief for needy in Constantinople, vii: 368;</li> + <li>contributions to destitute in Serbia and Greece, vii: 368;</li> + <li>aid for war refugees in Spain, vii: 369;</li> + <li>relief funds raised in U. S. during '18, vii: 370-374;</li> + <li>reports, on after-War distress in Europe, vii: 375-376;</li> + <li>extent of relief work in Vilna, vii: 375;</li> + <li>number in Lithuania, vii: 376;</li> + <li>number in Baltic Provinces, vii: 376;</li> + <li>number in Russia, vii: 376;</li> + <li>number in Serbia, vii: 376;</li> + <li>number in Rumania, vii: 376;</li> + <li>number in Bulgaria, vii: 376;</li> + <li>number in Greece, vii: 376;</li> + <li>number in Hungary, vii: 376;</li> + <li>number in Persia, vii: 376.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Jihad, <em>see</em> Holy War.</li> +<li>Joffre, Marshal Josef Jacques César, + <ul class="index"> + <li>fights first battle of the Marne, Sept., '14, ii: 9, 182, iii: 30;</li> + <li>controversy with Viscount French on importance of Channel ports, ii: 172;</li> + <li><cite>General Joffre and His Battles</cite>, book by Raymond Recouly, summary of, ii: 182-189;</li> + <li>appointed Commander-in-Chief of French armies, iii: 46;</li> + <li>technical adviser to French War Council, iii: 62;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 154-161;</li> + <li>visit to U.S., ix: 161;</li> + <li>bibliography, ix: 161;</li> + <li>intimate anecdote of, ix: 269.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Johnston, Sgt. Harold I., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.</li> +<li>Johnston, Maj.-Gen. W. H., + <ul class="index"> + <li>in command of 91st Div., Aug., '18, v: 196;</li> + <li>at Marne-Aisne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 220.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Joint Distribution Committee, for Jewish war relief, formation of, vii: 354.</li> +<li>Jonc de Mer Ridge, Germans driven back at, by A. E. F., Oct. 18, '18, v: 296.</li> +<li>Jordan River, military operations along, iii: 197.</li> +<li>Joseph Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, commands Austrian forces to invade Poland, iii: 119.</li> +<li>Jugoslavs, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Austrian Army desert to Italians, '18, iii: 249;</li> + <li>Austrian and Russian policies toward, vi: 306;</li> + <li>attack Hungarian Republic, April—May, '19, vi: 326;</li> + <li>racial groups among, with early history, vi: 354;</li> + <li>Serbian ambition for unification, vi: 355, 363;</li> + <li>clash with Austrian interests, vi: 355-359;</li> + <li>meeting of Jugoslav representatives in Corfu plans for united nation, Aug.,'17, vi: 359;</li> + <li>conflict with Italy over eastern Adriatic coast, vi: 359-363, 364-370;</li> + <li>Hungarian government suppresses Jugoslav Congress at Agram, Mar., '18, vi: 363;</li> + <li>establish united Provisional Government, Nov., '18, vi: 364;</li> + <li>seize Austrian navy and merchant marine, Nov., '18, vi: 364;</li> + <li>armed opposition to Italian advance in Carniola, Nov., '18, vi: 364;</li> + <li>struggle with Italy for possession of Fiume and Dalmatia, vi: 365-370;</li> + <li>establish united kingdom under Prince Alexander of Serbia, Dec. 21, '18, vi: 366;</li> + <li>recognized by U. S., Feb. '19, vi: 366;</li> + <li>President Wilson's note supporting Jugoslav claim for Fiume, vi: 369;</li> + <li>claims for independence recognized by Austria-Hungary in agreeing to armistice, vi: 399;</li> + <li>area and population of united kingdom, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Serbia. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Junior American Red Cross, activities, xi: 90.</li> +<li>Justh, Julius, leader of Hungarian Independence Party, vi: 311.</li> +<li>Jutland, battle of, May 31, '16, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description in full, with official reports, iv: 99-136;</li> + <li>outline in brief, iv: 99-104;</li> + <li>opposing commanders, iv: 99;</li> + <li>British ships and men lost, iv: 100;</li> + <li>German ships and men lost, iv: 100;</li> + <li>moral victory for Germans, iv: 100;</li> + <li>criticism of Jellicoe's tactics, iv: 101;</li> + <li>greatest naval engagement in history, iv: 102;</li> + <li>conditions influencing, iv: 102;</li> + <li>strength and composition of fleets engaged, iv: 103-104, 112, 114, 119;</li> + <li>disposition of British forces, iv: 104;</li> + <li>first phase, iv: 106-113;</li> + <li>Beatty's report on first phase, iv: 106-110;</li> + <li>Jellicoe's account of first phase, iv: 108;</li> + <li>accuracy of German fire, iv: 108;</li> + <li><cite>Indefatigable</cite> sunk, iv: 108;</li> + <li>fight between destroyer flotillas, iv: 109;</li> + <li><cite>Queen Mary</cite> blown up, iv: 110;</li> + <li>critical analysis of first phase, iv: 110-113;</li> + <li>second phase, Beatty's report on, iv: 113-115;</li> + <li>weather conditions, iv: 113;</li> + <li>critical analysis of second phase, iv: 115;</li> + <li>third phase, iv: 115-130;</li> + <li>Jellicoe's account of third phase, iv: 117-120, 121-129;</li> + <li>Third Battle Cruiser Squadron under Hood reinforces Beatty, iv: 117;</li> + <li>British miscalculate position, iv: 117;</li> + <li>Hood gets into action with enemy, iv: 119;</li> + <li>Beatty's report on third phase, iv: 119, 120-121, 129;</li> + <li><cite>Invincible</cite> blows up, iv: 119;</li> + <li>Adm. Hood lost with <cite>Invincible</cite>, iv: 119-120;</li> + <li><cite>Shark</cite>, <cite>Defence</cite>, and <cite>Black Prince</cite> sunk, iv: 121;</li> + <li>low visibility, iv: 121-123;</li> + <li>British alter course to avoid torpedo attack, iv: 125;</li> + <li>German destroyers sunk, iv: 126;</li> + <li>Germans retire under cover of smoke screen, iv: 126;</li> + <li>Jellicoe pursues enemy, iv: 127;</li> + <li>critical analysis of third phase, iv: 129;</li> + <li>fourth phase, iv: 131-136;</li> + <li>night fighting and torpedo attacks, iv: 131;</li> + <li>Jellicoe abandons pursuit, iv: 133;</li> + <li>critical analysis of fourth phase, iv: 133-136;</li> + <li>effect of battle on military situation, iv: 135;</li> + <li>lessons taught by, iv: 135;</li> + <li>account and analysis of, by Arthur Pollen, iv: 144-156;</li> + <li>authoritative information incomplete, iv: 146;</li> + <li>British lose chance for decisive victory, iv: 152, 156;</li> + <li>German eye-witness account, iv: 256;</li> + <li>British eye-witness account, iv: 258.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Juvigny, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by French and 32nd Div., A. E. F., Aug., '18, i: 397, v: 62, 258, 384;</li> + <li>32nd Div. casualties at, v: 259.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Kin" id="Kin">K</a></li> +<li><cite>K-13</cite>, British submarine, account of sinking, and rescue of crew, x: 304-315.</li> +<li>"Kahkos," description, viii: 257.</li> +<li>Kaiser, <em>see</em> William II.</li> +<li>Kaiser Wilhelm Land, + <ul class="index"> + <li>acquired by Australia, '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kakali, captured by Allies, Oct., '15, iii: 204.</li> +<li>Kale-I-Sultanie, fort on the Dardanelles, ii: 29.</li> +<li>Kaledin, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands Russian army at Rovno, iii: 142;</li> + <li>leads Cossacks in Siberia, vi: 192.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Kambana</cite>, Bulgarian newspaper, + <ul class="index"> + <li>statement against Russia, June, '15, vi: 342.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kamerun, <em>see</em> Cameroons.</li> +<li>Kamio, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>Japanese commander at siege of Tsing Tau (Kiau-Chau), iii: 257.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Karaburnu, Greek fort occupied by Allies, iii: 206.</li> +<li>Karaurgan, Russians defeat Turks at, Jan. 16, '15, i: 378.</li> +<li>Karlsruhe, Allied air raid on, June 15, '15, i: 380.</li> +<li><cite>Karlsruhe</cite>, German sea-raider, + <ul class="index"> + <li>battle with British cruiser <cite>Bristol</cite>, Aug. 6, '14, iv: 63;</li> + <li>career in Atlantic, iv: 196.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Karnes, Sgt. James E., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.</li> +<li>Karolyi, Count Michael, + <ul class="index"> + <li>pleads Hungary's cause in U. S., '14, vi: 307;</li> + <li>leader of Hungarian Independence Party, vi: 311;</li> + <li>forms "Independence and 1848" Party, '16, vi: 311;</li> + <li>appointed Premier of Hungary, Nov., '18, vi: 323;</li> + <li>resigns as Premier, Mar., '19, vi: 325;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 144-147.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kars, Russians defeat Turks at, Jan. 1, '15, iii: 260.</li> +<li>Katia, battle between Turks and British at, Apr., '16, iii: 191.</li> +<li>Katz, Sgt. Philip C., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.</li> +<li>Kaufman, Sgt. Benjamin, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 399.</li> +<li>Kautsky, Herr, German Social-Democratic leader, opposes war, vi: <em>Intro. xii.</em></li> +<li>Kavala, + <ul class="index"> + <li>bombarded by British warships, Aug. 27, '16, i: 386;</li> + <li>occupied by Bulgars, '16, iii: 207, vi: 344.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Kawachi</cite>, Japanese battleship blows up, July 12, '18, i: 397.</li> +<li>Keeling Island, destruction on, by landing party from <cite>Emden</cite>, Nov. 9, '14, iv: 184, 190.</li> +<li><cite>Keep the Home Fires Burning</cite>, American soldiers' song, xi: 336.</li> +<li><cite>Keep Your Head Down, Fritzie Boy</cite>, American soldiers' song, xi: 337.</li> +<li>Kei Hara, heads liberal Japanese Cabinet, vi: 388.</li> +<li>Keirsbilk, Alois Van, Belgian hero, executed for plotting death of Kaiser, x: 357-360.</li> +<li>Kellermann, Bernhard, German novelist, description of conditions at front, iii: 286.</li> +<li>Kelley, Col., British commander against Sudanese, iii: 191.</li> +<li>Kelly, Pvt. John Joseph, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 389.</li> +<li>Kem, captured by Anglo-American forces, July 15, '18, i: 397.</li> +<li>Kemmel, Mount, + <ul class="index"> + <li>stormed and captured by Germans, Apr., '18, i: 395, iii: 91, 360;</li> + <li>occupied by Anglo-American troops, Aug. 19, '18, i: 397;</li> + <li>key-point in defense of Channel ports, iii: 381;</li> + <li>27th and 30th Divs. in sector, v: 286.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kennedy, Maj.-Gen. C. W., commands 85th Div., Aug., '18, v: 197.</li> +<li><cite>Kent</cite>, British cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at battle of Falklands, armament, iv: 70;</li> + <li>sinks <cite>Nürnberg</cite>, iv: 74.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kerensky, Alexander Feodorovitch, + <ul class="index"> + <li>speech in Duma predicting revolution, vi: 144;</li> + <li>leader of Socialist-Revolutionary Party, vi: 148;</li> + <li>pacifies revolting Petrograd troops, Mar. 12, '17, vi: 151;</li> + <li>Minister of Justice in Prince Lvov's Cabinet, vi: 155;</li> + <li>character sketch, vi: 155;</li> + <li>abolishes death penalty, vi: 157;</li> + <li>Minister of War in Lvov's coalition Cabinet, vi: 160;</li> + <li>member of "Group of Toil," vi: 160;</li> + <li>becomes Premier and dictator of Russia, vi: 165;</li> + <li>struggle with Kornilov for supreme power, vi: 167-171;</li> + <li>declares himself Commander-in-Chief, vi: 171;</li> + <li>struggle with Soviets, vi: 175-179;</li> + <li>overthrown by Bolsheviki, vi: 179-181;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 104-109;</li> + <li>bibliography, ix: 109.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kermanshah, captured by Russians, Feb. 25, '16, i: 384.</li> +<li>Kerosene, amount used by A. E. F., v: 331.</li> +<li>Kessler, Count, expelled from Poland, vi: 220.</li> +<li>Kessler, George A., starts Blind Relief War Fund, vii: 255.</li> +<li>Keystone (28th) Division, <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>Kharga, British base in Libyan Desert, iii: 191.</li> +<li><cite>Kheyr-ed-Din-Barbarossa</cite>, Turkish battleship sunk by British submarine, Aug. 9, '15, i: 381.</li> +<li>Khvostov, Russian Minister of Interior, removed from office, Feb., '16, vi: 140.</li> +<li>Kiau-Chau (Kiao-Chau), + <ul class="index"> + <li>seized by Germany, 1897, i: 15, 82;</li> + <li>siege and conquest of Tsing Tau by Japanese, Aug. 24—Nov. 7, '14, iii: 257-259, iv: 367, vi: 382-383;</li> + <li>German rights transferred to Japan under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_209">xii: 209</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Shantung. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Kiel Canal, Peace Treaty provisions for navigation of, <a href="#Page_255">xii: 255</a>.</li> +<li>Kienzle, Herbert, in German plot to blow up ships at sea, x: 372.</li> +<li>Kiev, captured by Germans, Mar. 2, '18, i: 393.</li> +<li>Kilid-Bahr, + <ul class="index"> + <li>fortification of, on Gallipoli, ii: 29, iv: 24, 45;</li> + <li>objective of British landing forces, iii: 167;</li> + <li>bombarded, Mar. 5, '15, iv: 45;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Gallipoli Campaign.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Killingholme, England, U. S. seaplane station at, iv: 359.</li> +<li><cite>Kimigayo</cite>, Japanese national anthem, xi: 328.</li> +<li><cite>King Edward VII</cite>, British battleship sunk by mine, Jan. 10, '16, i: 384.</li> +<li>Kiribaba Pass, seized by Russians, Jan. 16, '15, i: 378.</li> +<li>Kitchener, Field-Marshal Lord Horatio Herbert, + <ul class="index"> + <li>drowned in sinking of cruiser <cite>Hampshire</cite>, June 5, '16, i: 385, ix: 168;</li> + <li>attitude on Dardanelles campaign, ii: <em>Intro. xv</em>;</li> + <li>dispute with Field-Marshal French, ii: 164-169;</li> + <li>member of British Cabinet War Council, ii: 198;</li> + <li>responsibility for Dardanelles disaster, ii: 198, 202;</li> + <li>influence in War Council described by Winston Churchill, ii: 202;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 168-176;</li> + <li>bibliography, ix: 176;</li> + <li>military commandments, xi: 55.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>K-K-K-Katy</cite>, American soldiers' song, xi: 335.</li> +<li>Kluck, Gen. Alexander von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>leads invasion of Belgium and France, Aug., '14, ii: 8, iii: 10, xi: 10;</li> + <li>occupies Brussels, Aug. 20, '14, ii: 8, iii: 21;</li> + <li>defeated at first Marne battle and forced to retreat, Sept., '14, ii: 9, 184, iii: 30-34;</li> + <li>strategy of Aug., '14 advance, criticism of, by Field-Marshal French, ii: 168;</li> + <li>avoids Paris and crosses the Marne, iii: 28;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 266-268.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Knights of Columbus, + <ul class="index"> + <li>war-time activities of, vii: 328-339;</li> + <li>organizing for war work, vii: 330;</li> + <li>funds raised, vii: 331;</li> + <li>war work expenditures, vii: 332;</li> + <li>War Activities Committee, vii: 334;</li> + <li>employment bureaus for discharged service men, vii: 338.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Knotty Ash Camp, Liverpool, American Y. M. C. A. at, vii: 287.</li> +<li>Knox peace resolution, + <ul class="index"> + <li>declaring war between U. S. and Germany at end, passed by Congress in substitution for Treaty of Versailles, <a href="#Page_273">xii: 273-277</a>;</li> + <li>text of original resolution asking the President to make separate peace, <a href="#Page_273">xii: 273-274</a>;</li> + <li>text of amended resolution, <a href="#Page_277">xii: 277</a>;</li> + <li>vetoed by President Wilson, <a href="#Page_277">xii: 277</a>;</li> + <li>President's veto message, <a href="#Page_278">xii: 278</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kocak, Sgt. Matej, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 389.</li> +<li>Koenig, Paul, + <ul class="index"> + <li>head of Hamburg-American Line secret service, i: 317;</li> + <li>German spy in U. S., x: 347.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Koenig, Capt. Paul, commander of German commerce submarine <cite>Deutschland</cite>, personal account of trans-Atlantic trip, iv: 214-216, x: 271-274.</li> +<li>Koja Chemen Tepe, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Gallipoli, dominates Anzac positions, iii: 172;</li> + <li>Anzac assault on, iii: 173;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Gallipoli Campaign.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kolchak, Adm. Aleksandr Vasiliyevich, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Siberian government of, recognized by Allies, vi: 188;</li> + <li>declares himself dictator of Siberia, vi: 194;</li> + <li>leader of anti-Bolshevik forces in Russia, vi: 194;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 239-241.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kollontai, Mme., member of Bolshevik presidium, vi: 179.</li> +<li><cite>Köln</cite>, German cruiser sunk at battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241.</li> +<li><cite>Königin Luise</cite>, German raider in English Channel, iv: 197.</li> +<li>Königsberg, in East Prussia, Russian objective, iii: 111.</li> +<li><cite>Königsberg</cite>, German sea-raider, sunk by British monitors, July 11, '15, i: 381, iv: 195.</li> +<li>Koran of Caliph Othwan, Peace Treaty provision for return of, by Germany to King of Hedjaz, <a href="#Page_225">xii: 225</a>.</li> +<li>Korea, + <ul class="index"> + <li>acquired by Japan, i: 20;</li> + <li>struggle for independence, vi: 388.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kornilov, Gen. Laurus, + <ul class="index"> + <li>appointed Commander-in-Chief of Russian armies by Kerensky, vi: 164;</li> + <li>rebellion against Kerensky, vi: 167-171;</li> + <li>imprisoned, vi: 171;</li> + <li>leads Cossacks against Bolsheviki, vi: 192;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 235-237.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kossaima, occupied by Turks, Jan., '15, iii: 189.</li> +<li>Kovel, military importance, ii: 42.</li> +<li>Kovno, captured by Germans, Aug. 17, '15, i: 381, ii: 363, iii: 138.</li> +<li>Koweit, Sultanate of, established, '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> +<li>Kriemhilde Position, German line of defense, + <ul class="index"> + <li>extent and description, v: 74, 218, 234;</li> + <li>A. E. F. breakthrough in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.—Nov., '18, v: 80-88, 240, 245, 262;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Meuse-Argonne Offensive.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Krithia, at Gallipoli, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Allied attacks on, iii: 169-173;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Gallipoli Campaign.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Kronprinz Wilhelm</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>comes into Newport News harbor, Apr. 11, '15, i: 378;</li> + <li>interned, Apr. 26, '15, i: 380.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kronstadt, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Rumanians, Sept., '16, iii: 218;</li> + <li>recaptured by Teutons, Oct., '16, iii: 220;</li> + <li>military headquarters of Bolsheviki, vi: 164.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Krovno, occupied by Austrians, Feb. 4, '16, i: 384.</li> +<li>Krupp, Bertha, owner of largest German munition plant, ix: 352.</li> +<li>Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, Dr. Gustave, + <ul class="index"> + <li>head of Krupp Works, visit to England, June, '14, i: 265;</li> + <li>husband of Bertha Krupp, ix: 352.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kuban Republic, + <ul class="index"> + <li>established, Nov., '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kucharzewski, Premier of Poland under German jurisdiction, vi: 214.</li> +<li>Kuhn, Maj.-Gen. Joseph E., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands 79th Div., Aug., '18, v: 197;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 219.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kultur, German, <em>see</em> Germany, Kultur.</li> +<li>Kum Kale, + <ul class="index"> + <li>French land troops at, for Gallipoli Campaign, Apr. 25, '15, iv: 41;</li> + <li>Turkish fortifications at, iv: 42;</li> + <li>Allied bombardment of, Mar. 4, '15, iv: 44.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kurnah, taken by British, Dec. 9, '14, i: 376, iii: 180.</li> +<li>Kuryet-el-Enad, taken by British, Nov. 19, '17, iii: 194.</li> +<li>Kusmanek, Gen. von, Austrian commander defending Przemysl, iii: 134.</li> +<li>Kut-el-Amara, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by British, Sept., '15, iii: 181;</li> + <li>siege and surrender of British at, Dec. 7, '15—Apr. 29, '16, iii: 183, 318-320;</li> + <li>number of British surrendered, iii: 318;</li> + <li>conditions in, during siege, iii: 364.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Lin" id="Lin">L</a></li> +<li>La Bassée, captured by British, Jan. 23, '15, i: 378.</li> +<li>La Boisselle, captured by Allies in Somme battle, '16, iii: 58.</li> +<li>Labor, + <ul class="index"> + <li>anti-war spirit, <a href="#Page_65">xii: 65</a>;</li> + <li>importance in winning the War, <a href="#Page_68">xii: 68</a>;</li> + <li>floating, <a href="#Page_68">xii: 68</a>;</li> + <li>women in war industries, <a href="#Page_83">xii: 83-85</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty charter for international organization, <a href="#Page_255">xii: 255-261</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under each country.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Labor Peace Conference, British, Feb. 27, '19, vi: 20.</li> +<li>"Labyrinth," + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by French, June 22, '15, i: 380;</li> + <li>designation for German trenches between Arras and Neuville St. Vaast, iii: 42.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Laconia, S. S.</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Cunard liner torpedoed, Feb. 25, '17, i: 389;</li> + <li>eye-witness account, iv: 225-229.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ladd, Anna Coleman, makes copper face masks for mutilated, vii: 68.</li> +<li><cite>Lafayette</cite>, poem by R. A. Purdy, xi: 18.</li> +<li>Lafayette Escadrille, + <ul class="index"> + <li>formation, iii: 391;</li> + <li>first members, iii: 391;</li> + <li>Capt. Thenault appointed commander, iii: 391;</li> + <li>first casualties, iii: 391;</li> + <li>equipment of fliers, iii: 392;</li> + <li>propaganda among Germans, iii: 392;</li> + <li>total casualties, iii: 392;</li> + <li>story of, x: 196-202.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lafayette Fund, first American war relief organizations vii: 85. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></p></li> + +<li>La Fère, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British driven from, Aug. 26, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>captured by Germans, Aug. 29, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>recaptured by Allies, Oct. 13, '18, i: 399, xi: 52;</li> + <li>German base in France, ii: 86;</li> + <li>French attacks on, '17, iii: 68.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>La-Ferte-sous-Jouarre, headquarters of First Army, A. E. F., v: 384.</li> +<li>Lamarch, captured by 42nd Div., Sept. 12, '18, v: 211.</li> +<li>Lamont, Thomas W., + <ul class="index"> + <li>financial adviser to U. S. delegation to Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_149">xii: 149</a>;</li> + <li>account of Peace Conference at work, <a href="#Page_149">xii: 149-163</a>;</li> + <li>member of Reparations Commission, <a href="#Page_158">xii: 158</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lamprecht, Prof. Karl, German historian, defense of German system of government, i: 155.</li> +<li>Landres-St. Georges, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 90, 263;</li> + <li>bombed by A. E. F. airmen, v: 311.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Landreville, captured by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263.</li> +<li>Landsberg, Herr, member of Ebert government, Nov. 9, '18, vi: 277.</li> +<li>Landsturm, German, i: 72.</li> +<li>Landwehr, German, i: 72.</li> +<li>Lane, Franklin K., on meaning of the War to America, i: 367.</li> +<li>Langfitt, Maj.-Gen. Wm. C., Chief Engineer, A. E. F., v: 336.</li> +<li>Langres, A. E. F. training schools at, v: 106, 314.</li> +<li>Lanrezac, Gen., Viscount French's criticism of, ii: 162.</li> +<li>Lansdowne, Lord, letter calling on Allies to state war aims, vi: 12.</li> +<li>Lansing-Ishii Note, '17, recognizes Japan's special interests in China, i: 58, vi: 386.</li> +<li>Laon, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Germans, Aug. 29, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>German base in France, ii: 86;</li> + <li>captured by Gen. Mangin, Oct. 12, '18, ii: 214, xi: 52.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>La Peyrère, Adm., Commander-in-Chief of French navy, '14, iv: 12.</li> +<li>La Pultière Wood, captured by 5th Div., Oct. 14, '18, v: 250.</li> +<li><cite>Lars Kruse</cite>, Belgian relief ship sunk by U-boat, iv: 230.</li> +<li>La Rue Farm, captured by 27th Div., v: 296.</li> +<li><span lang="fr">La Société Impériale Ottomane du Chemin de Fer de Bagdad</span>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>formation, ii: 292;</li> + <li>terms of concession to, ii: 292.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Last Long Mile, The</cite>, British soldiers' song, xi: 337.</li> +<li>Latham, Sgt. John C., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393.</li> +<li>Latin America, participation in War, vi: 389.</li> +<li>Launeville, taken by 89th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266.</li> +<li>Laurier, Sir Wilfrid, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Canadian Liberal leader, vi: 24;</li> + <li>speech pledging War support, Aug., '14, vi: 24;</li> + <li>against Imperial federation, vi: 26;</li> + <li>declines to form coalition Cabinet, vi: 33.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>League of Nations, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Charles W. Eliot on, i: <em>Intro. xiii</em>;</li> + <li>international co-operation during War, i: <em>Intro. xiii</em>;</li> + <li>summary of provisions, i: <em>Intro. xiv</em>;</li> + <li>proposal to place Fiume under, vi: 369;</li> + <li>spirit of, <a href="#Page_155">xii: 155</a>;</li> + <li>prominent advocates, <a href="#Page_155">xii: 155</a>;</li> + <li>drafting of Covenant described by Thos. W. Lamont, <a href="#Page_155">xii: 155</a>;</li> + <li>analysis by Geo. W. Wickersham, <a href="#Page_170">xii: 170-178</a>;</li> + <li>text of Covenant in full, <a href="#Page_182">xii: 182-185</a>;</li> + <li>countries invited to join, <a href="#Page_186">xii: 186</a>;</li> + <li>original members, <a href="#Page_186">xii: 186</a>;</li> + <li>Sir James Eric Drummond, first secretary-general, <a href="#Page_186">xii: 186</a>;</li> + <li>U. S. Senate opposition to, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264-270</a>;</li> + <li>first meeting of Council, Jan. 20, '20, <a href="#Page_270">xii: 270</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Leather, war-time conservation in shoemaking, <a href="#Page_53">xii: 53</a>.</li> +<li>Leave areas, "Y" service at, vii: 269; + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see also</em> Y. M. C. A.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lebanon, disposal under secret treaties, '16—'17, vi: 334.</li> +<li>Le Cateau, + <ul class="index"> + <li>battle of, Aug. 26, '14,</li> + <li>criticism of Smith-Dorrien's strategy at, by Field-Marshal French, ii: 162, 174;</li> + <li>account of battle, ii: 174-182, iii: 23.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Le Charmel, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German stand at, July 21, '18, v: 185;</li> + <li>Gen. Degoutte's commendation of A. E. F. at, v: 192.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Le Chêne Tondu, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German defense of, against 56th Brig., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229;</li> + <li>captured by 28th Div., Oct. 4, '18, v: 239.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lee service rifle, viii: 95.</li> +<li><cite>Leelanaw, S. S.</cite>, American steamship sunk by U-boat, July 25. '15, i: 381.</li> +<li><cite>Leipzig</cite>, German cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in battle off Coronel, armament, iv: 65;</li> + <li>sunk in battle of Falklands, iv: 70, ix: 308;</li> + <li>eye-witness account of sinking, iv: 80.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lejeune, Gen., commander of 2nd Div. at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12, '18, v: 202.</li> +<li>Leman, Gen., defender of Liége, iii: 11.</li> +<li>Le Mans, embarkation center for returning A. E. F., v: 395.</li> +<li>Lemberg, + <ul class="index"> + <li>battle of, and capture by Russians, Sept. 1—3, '14, i: 375, ii: 23, iii: 121, xi: 16;</li> + <li>recaptured by Austrians, June 22, '15, i: 380, iii: 137;</li> + <li>military importance, ii: 42;</li> + <li>seized by Poles, Nov., '18, vi: 217.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lemert, Sgt. Milo, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.</li> +<li>Lemordant, French painter-soldier, x: 169.</li> +<li>Lenin, Nicolai, + <ul class="index"> + <li>urges defeat of Russia, '14, '15, vi: 140;</li> + <li>leader of Bolsheviki, vi: 161-163;</li> + <li>overthrows Kerensky, Nov., '17, vi: 179-181;</li> + <li>becomes President of Council of People's Commissaries, Nov. 8, '17, vi: 181;</li> + <li>policies of government, vi: 181;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 109-115;</li> + <li>bibliography, ix: 115.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lens, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Allied objective in battle of Artois, May, '15, iii: 42;</li> + <li>objective in battle of Arras, Apr., '17, iii: 70;</li> + <li>held by Germans against Allied attacks in Arras battle, iii: 72.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Léon Gambetta</cite>, French cruiser torpedoed, Apr. 27, '15, iv: 373.</li> +<li><cite>Leonardo da Vinci</cite>, Italian dreadnought blown up, Aug. 2, '16, i: 386.</li> +<li>Leopold, Prince, commands Bavarians entering Warsaw, iii: 138.</li> +<li>L'Epasse Wood, captured by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263.</li> +<li>Le Prêtre Wood, captured by 180 Inf. Brig., Sept. 13, '18, v: 209.</li> +<li>Lescarboura, Austin C., + <ul class="index"> + <li>on trench warfare, viii: 133;</li> + <li>opinion on efficiency of tanks, xi: 251;</li> + <li>on use of dogs in War, xi: 340.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Le Selle River, German stand at, Oct., '18, v: 295.</li> +<li>Les Eparges, + <ul class="index"> + <li>location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199;</li> + <li>captured by French, Sept. 12, '18, v: 212.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Les Petites Armoises, captured by 78th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266.</li> +<li>Letord bombing airplanes, viii: 223.</li> +<li>Letts, + <ul class="index"> + <li>peasant inhabitants of Baltic Provinces, vi: 226;</li> + <li>early history, vi: 226;</li> + <li>rebellion of '05, vi: 227;</li> + <li>form Lettish Legion to fight in War, '15, vi: 227;</li> + <li>join Bolsheviki, vi: 228.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Letvia, Republic of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>established, Apr., '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Leviathan</cite>, work as U. S. transport, <a href="#Page_275">xii: 275</a>.</li> +<li>Levicu, Dr., leader in movement for Soviet government in Munich, Mar., '19, vi: 300.</li> +<li>Lewis machine-gun, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description, viii: 81;</li> + <li>rejected by U. S. government, viii: 82;</li> + <li>use on airplanes, viii: 87;</li> + <li>U. S. production figures for aircraft, <a href="#Page_284">xii: 284</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Liberty Loans, + <ul class="index"> + <li>U. S., popularity, <a href="#Page_10">xii: 10</a>;</li> + <li>selection of drive periods, <a href="#Page_11">xii: 11</a>;</li> + <li>influence on national thrift, <a href="#Page_11">xii: 11-16</a>;</li> + <li>subscription figures by Federal Reserve Districts, <a href="#Page_12">xii: 12</a>;</li> + <li>New York City subscriptions, by borough, <a href="#Page_12">xii: 12</a>;</li> + <li>compared with amount of other U. S. indebtedness, <a href="#Page_16">xii: 16</a>;</li> + <li>amounts raised, <a href="#Page_113">xii: 113</a>;</li> + <li>effect on German morale, <a href="#Page_126">xii: 126</a>;</li> + <li>number of subscribers, <a href="#Page_127">xii: 127</a>;</li> + <li>methods used in selling campaigns, <a href="#Page_127">xii: 127-134</a>;</li> + <li>sales psychology, <a href="#Page_132">xii: 132</a>;</li> + <li>Victory Way, <a href="#Page_133">xii: 133</a>;</li> + <li>number of persons engaged in drives, <a href="#Page_134">xii: 134</a>;</li> + <li>statistics, <a href="#Page_134">xii: 134</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> U. S., War cost.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Liberty motor, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description, viii: 199;</li> + <li>production figures, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Liberty truck, development and description, viii: 291-294.</li> +<li>Libyan Desert, military operations in '16—'17, iii: 191. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></p></li> + +<li>Lichnowsky, Prince Karl Maximilian, German ambassador to England, + <ul class="index"> + <li>negotiations for settlement of Anglo-German rivalries, '12—'14, i: 196, 250;</li> + <li>account of events leading to World War, i: 246;</li> + <li>author of <cite>Memorandum</cite>, account of diplomatic experiences in England, i: 250;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 131-133.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Liebau, Hans, German propagandist in U. S., x: 338.</li> +<li>"Liebau Employment Agency," center of German propaganda in U. S., x: 338.</li> +<li>Liebknecht, Karl, German radical leader, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sketch of, by Sir Thomas Barclay, vi: <em>Intro. x</em>;</li> + <li>votes against war credits, vi: <em>Intro. xii</em>;</li> + <li>protest against War, '14, vi: 249;</li> + <li>imprisoned, '16, vi: 262, ix: 140, 141;</li> + <li>freed from prison, Oct., '18, vi: 272;</li> + <li>leads Spartacides, Nov., '18, vi: 278, ix: 142;</li> + <li>organizes Spartacide demonstrations, Dec., '18, vi: 283;</li> + <li>killed during Spartacide uprising, Jan. 15, '19, vi: 289, ix: 142;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 138-143;</li> + <li>elected to Prussian Assembly while in prison, ix: 140;</li> + <li>expelled from Socialist Party, ix: 141;</li> + <li>bibliography, ix: 142.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Liége, + <ul class="index"> + <li>forts constructed, 1890, i: 143;</li> + <li>captured by Germans, Aug. 7, '14, i: 375, iii: 10, xi: 9. + <ul class="index"> + <li>Ludendorff's account, ii: 348;</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Liggett, Lieut.-Gen. Hunter, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands First Corps, A. E. F., in Marne defensive, July, '18, v: 56;</li> + <li>commands First Corps in St. Mihiel drive, v: 65, 202, 386;</li> + <li>appointed commander of First Army, Oct. 16, '18, v: 83, 246, 390;</li> + <li>in command of 41st Div., '17, v: 109;</li> + <li>commands First Corps in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 220, 388, 390;</li> + <li>commands First Army in Meuse-Argonne, v: 390;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 218.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lightning (78th) Division, <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>Lille, + <ul class="index"> + <li>abandoned by Allies, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>death-rate during German occupation, iii: 406.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Lille, Laon and St. Dié</cite>, poem by John Finley, vi: 82.</li> +<li>Limburg, claimed by Belgium, vi: 91.</li> +<li>Limey, location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199.</li> +<li>Liners, interned German, in U. S. ports, injuries to, iv: 319.</li> +<li>Linsingen, Gen. von, commands Austrians operating against Lemberg, iii: 132.</li> +<li>Liny-devant-Dun, captured by 11th Inf., Nov. 5, '18, v: 271.</li> +<li><cite>Lion</cite>, British battle cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Beatty's flagship in battle of Jutland, iv: 105;</li> + <li>in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241;</li> + <li>disabled in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Liquid fire, + <ul class="index"> + <li>first use by Germans in Belgium, July 30, '15, i: 381;</li> + <li>how used, viii: 120;</li> + <li>story of Germans caught in own trap, x: 18.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lisle, Gen. de, at first battle of Ypres, ii: 171.</li> +<li>Lissey, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 8, '18, v: 272.</li> +<li>Listening device, + <ul class="index"> + <li>for detecting submarines, description, iv: 308;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Hydrophones;</li> + <li>Microphone.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Literary rights, Peace Treaty provisions for re-establishment of, <a href="#Page_244">xii: 244-246</a>.</li> +<li>Lithuania, + <ul class="index"> + <li>struggle for independence, vi: 234-236;</li> + <li>opposed by Polish aspirations, vi: 234;</li> + <li>fight against Bolshevism, vi: 236;</li> + <li>Cabinet of '18, vi: 236;</li> + <li>fight against Polish aggression, vi: 236;</li> + <li>Republic established, Apr., '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Little Russia, <em>see</em> Ukraine.</li> +<li>Livonia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>early history, vi: 226;</li> + <li>Republic established, Apr., '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Baltic Provinces.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lizenz bombing airplanes, viii: 222.</li> +<li><cite>Llandovery Castle</cite>, torpedoed, June 22, '18, i: 395.</li> +<li>Lloyd George, David, + <ul class="index"> + <li>advocates aggressive campaign against Austria, ii: <em>Intro. x, xx</em>;</li> + <li>becomes British Prime Minister, ii: <em>Intro. xx</em>, vi: 10, ix: 28;</li> + <li>military policy, ii: <em>Intro, xxi</em>;</li> + <li>becomes Minister of Munitions, May, '15, vi: 5, <a href="#Page_78">xii: 78</a>;</li> + <li>appeal to munition workers, vi: 5, ix: 27;</li> + <li>speeds up British war efforts, vi: 10;</li> + <li>statement of Allied war aims, vi: 12;</li> + <li>indorses President Wilson's Fourteen Points, vi: 14;</li> + <li>conciliatory policy between labor and capital, vi: 20;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 21-30;</li> + <li>bibliography, ix: 30;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Peace Conference.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Loans, raised by belligerents for conduct of War, <a href="#Page_111">xii: 111</a>.</li> +<li>Locomotives, + <ul class="index"> + <li>number shipped to France from U. S., <a href="#Page_95">xii: 95</a>, <a href="#Page_286">xii: 286</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Railroads.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lodge, Senator Henry Cabot, + <ul class="index"> + <li>leads opposition to Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264</a>;</li> + <li>original reservations to Peace Treaty, text, <a href="#Page_265">xii: 265</a>;</li> + <li>revised reservations to Peace Treaty, text, <a href="#Page_269">xii: 269</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lodz, occupied by Germans, Nov. 27, '14, iii: 129.</li> +<li>Logan, Col. James A., Chief of Administration (G-1), G. H. Q., A. E. F., v: 101.</li> +<li>Loman, Pvt. Berger, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397.</li> +<li>Lome, surrender to British, Aug., '14, iii: 252.</li> +<li>London, + <ul class="index"> + <li>air raids on, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Aug. 17, '15, i: 381;</li> + <li>Sept. 8, '15, i: 381;</li> + <li>Oct. 13, '15, i: 382;</li> + <li>Dec. 24, '14, iii: 41;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>welcome to Pershing, June, '17, v: 97;</li> + <li>American Y. M. C. A. in, vii: 288.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>London</cite>, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33.</li> +<li>London Volunteer Motor Corps, vii: 107.</li> +<li><cite>Long, Long Trail</cite>, American soldiers' song, xi: 335.</li> +<li>Longueval, objective in Somme battle, iii: 58.</li> +<li>Longwy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>abandoned by Allies, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>iron area coveted by Germans, '14, ii: 6.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Loos, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British attempt to pierce German lines at, '15, ii: 25;</li> + <li>captured by British, Sept. 26, '15, iii: 46;</li> + <li>faulty British generalship in battle of, iii: 375.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Lord Nelson</cite>, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31.</li> +<li>Lorraine, + <ul class="index"> + <li>value of iron deposits, i: 267;</li> + <li>French offensive in, Aug., '14, iii: 16.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Losnitza, Austrians cross Drina at, iii: 151.</li> +<li>Losses, + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see</em></li> + <li>Casualties;</li> + <li>Prisoners of war.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>"Lost Battalion," under Major Whittlesey, + <ul class="index"> + <li>cut off from 77th Div., Oct. 2, '18, v: 231, 239;</li> + <li>attempts at relief of, fail, v: 241, 242;</li> + <li>rescued, Oct. 7, '18, v: 243;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 363.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Loti, Pierre, description of gas victims, iii: 320-322.</li> +<li>Lough Foyle, Ireland, U. S. naval air station at, iv: 357.</li> +<li>Louppy, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 10, '18, v: 272.</li> +<li>"Lousy Champagne," location, v: 43.</li> +<li>Louvain, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Germans, Aug. 19, '14, i: 375, iii: 14;</li> + <li>burned by Germans, Aug. 26, '14, i: 375, iii: 14;</li> + <li>description of burning by Richard Harding Davis, iii: 273-277.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Louvain, University of, Peace Treaty provisions for restoration by Germany of books destroyed, <a href="#Page_225">xii: 225</a>.</li> +<li>Lowenstein, Milton B., Boy Scout in air service, xi: 116.</li> +<li>Lowestoft, attacked by German battle cruiser squadron, Apr. 25, '16, i: 385.</li> +<li>Lowicz, occupied by Germans, Dec. 18, '14, i: 376.</li> +<li>Lublin, occupied by Austrians, July 30, '15, i: 381.</li> +<li>Lublin-Cholm Railway, cut by Germans in '15 offensive, iii: 138.</li> +<li>Lubomirsky, Prince, appointed by Germany to Regency Council of Poland, vi: 214.</li> +<li>"Lucky Bag," explanation of term, iv: 171.</li> +<li>Lucy-la-Bocage, important point near Château-Thierry, v: 132.</li> +<li>Ludendorff, Gen. Erich von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>War account, ii: 298-365;</li> + <li>estimate of own importance to German victories, ii: 298, 300;</li> + <li>appointed First Quartermaster-General, Aug. 29, '16, ii: 326, iii: 61;</li> + <li>denies being Germany's dictator, ii: 333;</li> + <li>resignation forced, Oct. 26, '18, ii: 336, vi: 271;</li> + <li>opinion of A. E. F., ii: 337;</li> + <li>war attitude, explained by himself, ii: 344;</li> + <li>brigade commander at start of War, ii: 345;</li> + <li>share in capture of Liége, ii: 348;</li> + <li>appointed Chief of Staff to Hindenburg in East Prussia, Aug., '14, ii: 351;</li> + <li>account of first meeting with Hindenburg, Aug. 23, '14, ii: 353;</li> + <li>appointed Chief of Staff for operations on southeastern front, Sept., '14, ii: 357;</li> + <li>failure of "Spring Drive" loses War, '18, vi: 270;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 250-257. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Luderitz Bay, captured by British, iii: 254.</li> +<li>Lufberry, Maj. Raoul, American ace, story of, x: 191-196.</li> +<li>Luke, Lieut. Frank, Jr., + <ul class="index"> + <li>American aviator, story of, x: 211-214;</li> + <li>gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lukin, Gen., heads expedition against Sollum, iii: 191.</li> +<li><cite>Lullaby for a Baby Tank</cite>, poem by H. T. Craven, xi: 270.</li> +<li>Lumber, uses in war, viii: 306-309.</li> +<li>Lunacharsky, member of Bolshevik presidium, vi: 179.</li> +<li>Lunéville, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Germans, Aug. 21—23, '14, i: 375, iii: 20;</li> + <li>retaken by French, Sept. 11, '14, i: 375.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lupkow Pass, occupied by Russians, Dec., '14, iii: 127.</li> +<li><em>Lurcher</em>, British destroyer at battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241.</li> +<li><em>Lusitania, S. S.</em>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German warning against travelling on, May 1, '15, i: 319;</li> + <li>sunk by German submarine, May 7, '15, i: 319, 358, 380, xi: 20, 237; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Lord Mersey's official report, i: 362-365;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>loss of life, i: 319, 362;</li> + <li>U. S. note to Germany on sinking, May 13, '15, i: 320;</li> + <li>Roosevelt's statement on, i: 320;</li> + <li>Taft's view of action by U. S. over sinking, i: 320;</li> + <li>U. S. demands disavowal of sinking by Germany, i: 323;</li> + <li>summary of controversy between U. S. and Germany over sinking, i: 358;</li> + <li>dimensions, i: 362;</li> + <li>number and nationality of passengers on last trip, i: 362;</li> + <li>number in crew, i: 362;</li> + <li>not armed, i: 363;</li> + <li>German hymn of glory over sinking of, i: 365;</li> + <li>eye-witness accounts of sinking, iv: 220-222;</li> + <li>Capt. Turner's account, iv: 222;</li> + <li>Germans celebrate destruction as naval victory, iv: 223.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lutsk, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Germans, Sept. 1, '15, i: 381;</li> + <li>recaptured by Russians, Sept. 23, '15, i: 382;</li> + <li>recaptured by Germans, Sept. 27, '15, i: 382;</li> + <li>captured by Russians, June 6, '16, i: 385, iii: 142.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><em>Lützow</em>, German battle cruiser sunk at Jutland, eye-witness account, iv: 256.</li> +<li>Luxemburg, Duchess of, <em>see</em> Marie Adelaide.</li> +<li>Luxemburg, Grand Duchy of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>invaded by Germans, Aug. 2, '14, i: 144, iii: 10, vi: 93, xi: 10;</li> + <li>annexation sought by Belgium and France, '19, vi: 94;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty provisions concerning, <a href="#Page_189">xii: 189</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Luxemburg, Rosa, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German radical leader, protest against War, '14, vi: 249;</li> + <li>imprisoned, '16, vi: 262;</li> + <li>leads Spartacides, Nov., '18, vi: 278;</li> + <li>killed during Spartacide uprising, Jan. 14, '19, vi: 289;</li> + <li>views on social revolution, ix: 147.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lvov, Prince George E., + <ul class="index"> + <li>Premier under Russian Provisional Government, Mar. 14, '17, vi: 155;</li> + <li>manifesto on war aims, Apr. 9, '17, vi: 159;</li> + <li>forms Coalition Cabinet, vi: 160;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 100-102;</li> + <li>President of All-Russian Union of Provincial Councils, <a href="#Page_82">xii: 82</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lynch, George, inventer of impenetrable cloth against barbed wire, viii: 68.</li> +<li>Lys, battle of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Apr., '18, ii: 153, iii: 91;</li> + <li>Portuguese troops flee under German attack, ii: 153, iii: 91, vi: 374;</li> + <li>Allied lines broken, ii: 153, iii: 91;</li> + <li>Germans turn attack to Channel ports, iii: 91.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lysk, Germans defeat Russians at '14, iii: 116.</li> +<li><cite>Lynx</cite>, British destroyer blown up in Baltic, iv: 197.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Min" id="Min">M</a></li> +<li>Ma'an, seized by Arabs, Sept., '18, iii: 199.</li> +<li>Maastricht salient, claimed by Belgium, vi: 91.</li> +<li>MacArthur, Brig.-Gen. Douglas, + <ul class="index"> + <li>leads pursuit of Germans to Vesle River, Aug. 2—3, '18, v: 61;</li> + <li>commands 84th Inf. Brig., Oct. 14—16, '18, v: 84;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 213-217.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Macao, purchase of Portuguese interests at, by Japan, vi: 386.</li> +<li>Macdonald, Ramsay, + <ul class="index"> + <li>endorses Bolshevist peace aims, vi: 12;</li> + <li>defeated in Parliamentary elections, '18, vi: 17.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Macdowell, Major T. W., wins Victoria Cross for gallantry at Vimy Ridge, iii: 349.</li> +<li>Macedonia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>promised to Bulgaria by Germany, ii: 32;</li> + <li>occupation of, by Bulgarians, vi: 343-344;</li> + <li>military operations in, <em>see</em> Salonika Campaign.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Machine-guns, use of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in British Army, ii: 125;</li> + <li>British and German equipments, Aug., '14, ii: 275;</li> + <li>utility in trench warfare, ii: 288, viii: 134-136;</li> + <li>nests, construction of, v: 37;</li> + <li>pits, v: 287;</li> + <li>number on A. E. F. front, Nov. 11, '18, v: 350;</li> + <li>predecessors of modern types, viii: 78;</li> + <li>Hiram Maxim's invention, 1883, viii: 78;</li> + <li>German pre-War preparedness, viii: 78;</li> + <li>effectiveness, viii: 79, 136;</li> + <li>usefulness compared with rifle, viii: 79;</li> + <li>German Machine-Gun Corps, viii: 79;</li> + <li>principal types, viii: 80-87;</li> + <li>Maxim gun, viii: 80, 87;</li> + <li>Benet-Mercier gun, viii: 80;</li> + <li>Lewis gun, viii: 81-82;</li> + <li>Browning gun, viii: 84-87;</li> + <li>on airplanes, viii: 86-87, 189-192, 196, 208-216;</li> + <li>Hotchkiss gun, viii: 87;</li> + <li>German and Allied equipments compared, Aug., '14, viii: 134;</li> + <li>tank <em>vs.</em> machine-gun, viii: 150-151;</li> + <li>U. S. production figures, <a href="#Page_284">xii: 284</a>;</li> + <li>number captured by Americans, <a href="#Page_288">xii: 288</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mackensen, Field-Marshal August von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander of Teuton forces conquering Serbia, ii: 34, iii: 156;</li> + <li>leads invasion of Rumania, ii: 60, iii: 222;</li> + <li>leader of offensive through Galicia and Poland, ii: 233, iii: 128;</li> + <li>commands Bulgarian forces, iii: 218;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 257-261.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Madeline Farm, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Germans resist attacks on, by 80th and 3rd Divs., Oct. 6, '18, v: 241;</li> + <li>captured by Americans, Oct. 9, '18, v: 245.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Madelon, Le</cite>, French soldiers' song, xi: 339.</li> +<li>Madras, bombarded by German raider <cite>Emden</cite>, Sept. 18, '14, iv: 174.</li> +<li><cite>Magdeburg</cite>, German cruiser sunk by Russians, Aug., '14, iv: 365.</li> +<li>Maghdaba, British defeat Turks at, iii: 192.</li> +<li>Magnes, Dr. Judah L., visits Europe for Jewish war relief, vii: 356, 360.</li> +<li><cite>Magpies in Picardy</cite>, poem by "Tipcuca," xi: 224.</li> +<li>Magyars, + <ul class="index"> + <li>predominance in Austria-Hungary, vi: 306;</li> + <li>loyalty to Empire, vi: 306;</li> + <li>rebel against new Czechoslovak government, vi: 399;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Austria-Hungary;</li> + <li>Hungary.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mahon, Gen., commands British at Salonika, iii: 202.</li> +<li>Maidos, defenses of Gallipoli at, iv: 24.</li> +<li><cite>Mainz</cite>, German cruiser, sunk in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241.</li> +<li>Mainz, occupation by Allies and conditions for withdrawal from, <a href="#Page_261">xii: 261</a>.</li> +<li>Maize, imports of, by Germany, ii: 17.</li> +<li><cite>Majestic</cite>, British battleship, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Gallipoli, iv: 31;</li> + <li>sunk by submarine at Gallipoli, May 27, '15, iv: 50.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Malancourt, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Germans, Mar., '16, iii: 51;</li> + <li>location, v: 217;</li> + <li>4th Engrs. build artillery road from, to Esnes, Sept., '18, v: 226.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Malborghetto, captured by Italians, iii: 244.</li> +<li><cite>Mali Journal</cite>, Serbian newspaper, on antagonism to Austria-Hungary, vi: 356.</li> +<li>Malingering, devices for detection of, viii: 358-361. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></p></li> + +<li>Malinov, + <ul class="index"> + <li>succeeds Radoslavov as Bulgarian Premier, vi: 346;</li> + <li>statement on circumstances of Bulgarian surrender, vi: 347.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Malleterre, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>discussion of Allied victory, ii: 206;</li> + <li>Professor of Military Geography at École de Guerre, ii: 220;</li> + <li>eulogy of Foch and Pétain, ii: 220.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mallon, Capt. George H., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397.</li> +<li>Malmédy, ceded to Belgium under Peace Treaty, vi: 89, <a href="#Page_188">xii: 188</a>.</li> +<li>Malmö, meeting of Scandinavian rulers at, and pledge of mutual neutrality, vi: 393.</li> +<li>Malvy, French Minister of Interior, + <ul class="index"> + <li>tried for criminal neglect, iv: 10;</li> + <li>implicated in <cite>Bonnet Rouge</cite> case, vi: 105;</li> + <li>exiled from France, vi: 106.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mametz, captured by British in Somme battle, iii: 58.</li> +<li>Manchuria, Japanese penetration of, i: 20.</li> +<li>Mangin, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>attacks Germans on Villers-Cotterets and Soissons line, July, '18, ii: 210, v: 159;</li> + <li>appointed commander of Verdun sector, iii: 62;</li> + <li>successful attack at Verdun, Dec., '16, iii: 62.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mann, Maj.-Gen. William A., relieved of command of 42nd Div., '17, v: 109.</li> +<li>Mannerheim, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands Finnish White Guards, vi: 198;</li> + <li>dictator of Finnish de facto Republic, '18, vi: 200.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Manning, Corp. Sidney E., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 399.</li> +<li>Manoury, Gen., commands a French army at first Marne battle, ii: 182, 184.</li> +<li>Mantou, Prof., interpreter to Supreme Peace Council, <a href="#Page_152">xii: 152</a>.</li> +<li><cite>Maple Leaf Forever, The</cite>, Canadian national hymn, xi: 330.</li> +<li>March, Gen. Peyton C., Chief of Staff, U. S. Army, biography, ix: 210-212.</li> +<li>Margate, bombed by German airmen, Oct. 22, '16, i: 388.</li> +<li>Marie, Queen of Rumania, appeal for American aid, vi: 349.</li> +<li>Marie Adelaide, Grand Duchess of Luxemburg, + <ul class="index"> + <li>resigns in favor of sister, vi: 94;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 383-384.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Marina, S. S.</cite>, British freighter sunk by German submarine, Oct. 28, '16, i: 335, 388.</li> +<li>Marines, U. S., <em>see</em> U. S., Marines.</li> +<li>Maritz, Col., rebel Boer leader, joins Germans in Southwest Africa, '14, iii: 254, vi: 50.</li> +<li><cite>Markomannia</cite>, auxiliary to German raider <cite>Emden</cite>, iv: 170, 172.</li> +<li>Marlin aircraft guns, + <ul class="index"> + <li>U. S. production figures, <a href="#Page_284">xii: 284</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Machine-guns.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Marne, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Allied retreat to the, Aug.—Sept., '14, iii: 20-30;</li> + <li>topography of salient, v: 42, 133.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Marne, battles of: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Sept., '14, + <ul class="index"> + <li>report of Field-Marshal French on preliminary action, ii: 9;</li> + <li>outline of maneuvers, ii: 9;</li> + <li>Foch's generalship at, ii: 103, 138-142, 182, 220, iii: 31-34;</li> + <li>described by French participant, ii: 182;</li> + <li>Gen. Manoury's share in victory, ii: 182;</li> + <li>military situation preceding, ii: 183;</li> + <li>Allied generals under Joffre at, ii: 184;</li> + <li>German commanders at, ii: 184;</li> + <li>effect of Russian invasion of East Prussia on, ii: 227;</li> + <li>analysis of, by a German military critic, ii: 258;</li> + <li>detailed account of, iii: 30-36;</li> + <li>casualties at, iii: 35.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>July, '18, + <ul class="index"> + <li> Foch's strategy, ii: 77, ii: 154;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's account, ii: 322-324;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's comment on casualties, ii: 326;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's comment on A. E. F. fighting, ii: 326;</li> + <li>general account of battle, iii: 95-97, v: 129;</li> + <li>detailed account of A. E. F. participation, v: 47-61, 148-192, 382;</li> + <li>reasons for failure of German offensive, v: 54;</li> + <li>German artillery captured by Americans, v: 56;</li> + <li>stand of 38th Inf. against German attempts to cross Marne, July 15, '18, v: 150-153, x: 381-387;</li> + <li>Pershing's message to troops, v: 191;</li> + <li>Gen. Degoutte's praise of A. E. F. at, v: 192;</li> + <li>work of tanks at, viii: 148;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Aisne-Marne Offensive;</li> + <li>Champagne.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Marne District, German destruction in, iii: 297-300.</li> +<li>Marne (3rd) Division, <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>Mars, A. E. F. base hospital at, v: 400.</li> +<li><cite>Marseillaise</cite>, French national anthem, + <ul class="index"> + <li>an Alsatian song, i: 211;</li> + <li>effect on French audience, i: 211;</li> + <li>words, xi: 326.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Marseilles, embarkation port for returning A. E. F., v: 395.</li> +<li>Marshal, Gen., commander of British capturing Bagdad, xi: 48.</li> +<li>Marshall, Louis, President American Jewish Relief Committee, vii: 354.</li> +<li>Martin, Miss Winona C., American "Y" worker killed in France, vii: 313.</li> +<li>Martin, Dr. Franklin, member of Advisory Commission, U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_116">xii: 116</a>.</li> +<li>Martinpuich, captured by Allies, Sept. 15, '16, i: 388.</li> +<li>Mary, Queen of England, biography, ix: 392-395.</li> +<li>Masaryk, T. G., leader of movement for Czech independence, vi: 397.</li> +<li>Masefield, John, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description of British embarkation for Gallipoli, iii: 350;</li> + <li>account of Gallipoli fighting, iii: 352, 355-358;</li> + <li>description of soldier's life at Gallipoli, iii: 353.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mata-Hari, woman spy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>executed by French, Oct. 15, '17, i: 392;</li> + <li>discloses tank secret to Germans, x: 360.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Matz Valley, German attacks during '18 offensive, ii: 76.</li> +<li>Maubeuge, Allied objective in final drive, Nov., '18, iii: 103.</li> +<li>Maude, Gen. Sir Frederick Stanley, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Mesopotamian successes, '16—'17, ii: <em>Intro. xviii</em>, 90, iii: 185;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 194-199.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Maurepas, captured by French during battle of the Somme, iii: 58.</li> +<li>Maurice, Maj.-Gen. Sir Frederick, on general strategy of the War, ii: <em>Intro. vii-xxiv.</em></li> +<li>Mauser rifle, description, viii: 95.</li> +<li>Max, Burgomaster of Brussels, demand of concessions from Germans, iii: 14.</li> +<li>Maxim, Hiram, invents machine-gun, 1883, viii: 78.</li> +<li>Maxim machine-gun, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description, viii: 80;</li> + <li>modified type used by Germans and Austrians, viii: 87.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Maximilian of Baden, Prince, + <ul class="index"> + <li>appointed German Chancellor, Oct. 3, '18, vi: 270;</li> + <li>appeals to Wilson for armistice, vi: 270.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mayo, Adm. Henry Thomas, biography, ix: 296.</li> +<li>Mazurian Lakes, + <ul class="index"> + <li>topography of district, iii: 108;</li> + <li>difficulty of military operations in, iii: 113;</li> + <li>Russian armies annihilated by Hindenburg, Aug., '14, iii: 113-116;</li> + <li>second battle, Feb., '15, iii: 130;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Tannenberg, battle of.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>McAdoo, William G., + <ul class="index"> + <li>biography, ix: 329-331;</li> + <li>Director General, U. S. Railroad Administration, <a href="#Page_88">xii: 88</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>McAlexander, Brig.-Gen. U. G., + <ul class="index"> + <li>as colonel commands 38th Inf. Regt. in second battle of the Marne, July, '18, v: 152;</li> + <li>commands 180th Inf. Brig, at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12—15, '18, v: 209;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 216.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>McAndrew, Maj.-Gen. James W., + <ul class="index"> + <li>succeeds Gen. Harbord as Chief of Staff, A. E. F., Aug., '17, v: 102;</li> + <li>Pershing's appreciation, v: 403-404;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 216.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>McCaw, Brig.-Gen. Walter D., Chief Surgeon, A. E. F., v: 346.</li> +<li>McLemore Resolution, + <ul class="index"> + <li>warning to Americans not to travel on belligerent ships, i: 327;</li> + <li>President Wilson opposes, i: 327;</li> + <li>defeated, i: 328.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>McLeod, Marguerite Gertrude Zelle, German spy, discloses tank secret, x: 360.</li> +<li>McMahon, Maj.-Gen. James E., + <ul class="index"> + <li>in command of 5th Div., May, '18, v: 128;</li> + <li>at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12, '18, v: 202;</li> + <li>relieved of command of 5th Div., Oct., '18, v: 252.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>McMurtry, Capt. George C., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 399.</li> +<li>McRae, Maj.-Gen. James H., + <ul class="index"> + <li>in command of 78th Div., June, '18, v: 144;</li> + <li>at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12, '18, v: 202. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Meat packers, profits before and during War, <a href="#Page_56">xii: 56</a>.</li> +<li>Mecca, captured by Arabs, July 15, '16, i: 386.</li> +<li>Medeah Farm, captured by 67th French Div., Oct. 3, '18, v: 256.</li> +<li>Medical Corps, U. S., <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>Medical science, + <ul class="index"> + <li>use of X-ray, vii: 221, viii: 373-376;</li> + <li>development under war needs, viii: 361-365, xi: 286-291;</li> + <li>rifle and shell wounds, relative dangers of, viii: 361;</li> + <li>French medical service for wounded, viii: 362-365;</li> + <li>danger of infection in shell wounds, viii: 362, 367;</li> + <li>treatment of head wounds, viii: 365;</li> + <li>treatment of face wounds, viii: 366;</li> + <li>treatment of body wounds, viii: 366;</li> + <li>treatment of blood vessel lesions, viii: 366;</li> + <li>treatment of nerve cord lesions, viii: 366;</li> + <li>treatment of fractures, viii: 367;</li> + <li>new method of amputation, viii: 367;</li> + <li>prevention of tetanus infection, viii: 367, xi: 287;</li> + <li>prevention of gas gangrene, viii: 367, xi: 287-288;</li> + <li>treatment of shell shock, viii: 368;</li> + <li>causes of infection, viii: 369;</li> + <li>Carrel-Dakin treatment, viii: 369-372, xi: 288-289;</li> + <li>mechanical treatments for injured limbs, viii: 381-384;</li> + <li>artificial arms for war cripples, viii: 384-388;</li> + <li>artificial legs for war cripples, viii: 388-390;</li> + <li>reconstructing mutilated faces, viii: 390;</li> + <li>use of ambrine in treatment of burns, viii: 390;</li> + <li>artificial eyes for war blind, viii: 391;</li> + <li>prevention of infectious diseases among troops, viii: 392-397;</li> + <li>anti-typhoid immunization, viii: 393;</li> + <li>making drinking water safe for army, viii: 394-396;</li> + <li><em>see also:</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Disease;</li> + <li>Infection;</li> + <li>Reconstruction of disabled;</li> + <li>Sanitation;</li> + <li>Surgery.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Medwa, Turks defeated at, by British, Jan., '16, iii: 191.</li> +<li>Mehun, U. S. Ordnance repair shop at, v: 350.</li> +<li>Memel, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Russians, Mar. 19, '15, i: 378;</li> + <li>evacuated by Russians, Mar. 21, '15, i: 378;</li> + <li>raided by Russian fleet, Mar., '15, iv: 365;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty provisions concerning, <a href="#Page_203">xii: 203</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Men of Harlech</cite>, Welsh national hymn, xi: 330.</li> +<li>Menoher, Maj.-Gen. Charles T., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander 42nd Div., '17, v: 109;</li> + <li>at St. Mihiel, Sept., '18, v: 202.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mensheviki, Russian political party, doctrines of, vi: 148.</li> +<li>Menshikov, Russian imperialist, outlines plan of conquest, '14, vi: 134.</li> +<li>Merchant marine, <em>see</em> Shipping.</li> +<li>Mercier, Cardinal Désiré, biography and war-time activities, ix: 341-343.</li> +<li><cite>Mersey</cite>, British monitor, in Flanders and East Africa, iv: 281.</li> +<li>Mersey, Lord, official report on <cite>Lusitania</cite> sinking, i: 362-365.</li> +<li>Merville salient, evacuation of, by Germans, iii: 98.</li> +<li>Mesopotamia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German dream of acquisition, ii: 27;</li> + <li>British irrigation schemes in, ii: 295;</li> + <li>terrain and climate, iii: 178;</li> + <li>historic background of modern battlefields, iii: 329-334;</li> + <li>disposition under secret treaties of '16—'17, vi: 334;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mesopotamian Campaign, + <ul class="index"> + <li>strategic importance and Allied plan of operations, ii: <em>Intro. xvi</em>, 87-91, iii: 178-180;</li> + <li>British land troops at Fao to protect oil fields, Nov., '14, ii: <em>Intro. xvi</em>, iii: 180;</li> + <li>Gen. Nixon pursues Turks and threatens Bagdad, '15, ii: <em>Intro. xvi</em>, 91, iii: 180-182;</li> + <li>British defeated at Ctesiphon and driven into Kut-el-Amara, Dec., '15, ii: <em>Intro. xvi</em>, 91, 182-183;</li> + <li>siege of Kut and Gen. Townshend's surrender, Dec. 7, '15—Apr. 29, '16, ii: <em>Intro. xvii</em>, 91, iii: 183-185, 363, 364;</li> + <li>British reorganize campaign after Kut disaster, ii: <em>Intro. xviii</em>, 92, iii: 185;</li> + <li>British capture Bagdad, Mar. 11, '17, ii: <em>Intro. xviii</em>, 92, iii: 187;</li> + <li>British landing force advances to Basra and Kurna, Dec., '14, iii: 180;</li> + <li>British capture Kut-el-Amara, Sept., '15, iii: 181;</li> + <li>unsuccessful attempts to relieve siege of Kut, iii: 184-185;</li> + <li>Gen. Maude placed in command of British, '16, iii: 185;</li> + <li>causes of and responsibility for British disaster, report of Royal Commission, iii: 185, 363-370;</li> + <li>battle of Sannyat, iii: 185-187;</li> + <li>bibliography, iii: 187;</li> + <li>personnel of Commission of inquiry, iii: 363;</li> + <li>conditions in Kut during siege, iii: 364;</li> + <li>casualties in attempts to relieve Kut, iii: 364.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Messines Ridge, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British mine and blow up German positions, June, '17, ii: 56, iii: 74, 76-77, viii: 310;</li> + <li>nature of German defenses, iii: 77;</li> + <li>casualties, British and German, iii: 77;</li> + <li>recaptured by Germans, Apr., '18, iii: 360.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Messudiyeh</cite>, Turkish warship, blown up in Dardanelles, Dec. 13, '14, i: 376, x: 317.</li> +<li>Mestrovitch, Sgt. James I., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393.</li> +<li><cite>Meteor</cite>, German raider in Baltic, iv: 197.</li> +<li>Metternich, Prince, theory of government, i: 33.</li> +<li>Metz, + <ul class="index"> + <li>bombarded by British airmen, Jan. 14, '18, i: 393;</li> + <li>entered by French, Nov. 19, '18, i: 400;</li> + <li>Allied plan for capture of, Nov., '18, v: 274.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Meurer, Vice-Adm., German delegate to arrange for surrender of German fleet, iv: 384.</li> +<li>Meurthe River, line of defense before Nancy, iii: 19.</li> +<li>Meuse River, + <ul class="index"> + <li>French forced to retire from, Aug., '14, iii: 20;</li> + <li>German attempt to invade France through valley of, '14, v: 199.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Meuse-Argonne Offensive, + <ul class="index"> + <li>concentration of A. E. F. for, Sept., '18, ii: 84, v: 75, 218, 388;</li> + <li>objectives, ii: 84, 214, 387;</li> + <li>topography of battleground, ii: 214, v: 73-74, 90, 217-218;</li> + <li>strategic importance, ii: 215, v: 214-216, 387;</li> + <li>breakdown of A. E. F. supply service, ii: 215;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's comment on, ii: 334;</li> + <li>detailed account of battle, Sept. 25—Nov. 11. '18, iii: 100, v: 72-95, 213-253, 260-279;</li> + <li>extent of A. E. F. front, v: 72-73, 217, 390;</li> + <li>Allied plan of campaign, v: 73, 75, 216, 218;</li> + <li>A. E. F. divisions participating, with positions in line, v: 74, 219-222, 388;</li> + <li>German defenses, position and strength, v: 74, 217-218, 388;</li> + <li>A. E. F. advance to Kriemhilde position, v: 78-82;</li> + <li>Allies break through Kriemhilde line, v: 83-88;</li> + <li>Germans dislodged and thrown across the Meuse, Nov., '18, v: 88-95;</li> + <li>number of French troops participating, v: 220, 388;</li> + <li>German strength, v: 220, 388;</li> + <li>day by day account of operations, Sept. 25—Oct. 3, v: 222-233;</li> + <li>number of Allied airplanes, v: 223, 388;</li> + <li>day by day account, Oct. 4—31, v: 234-253;</li> + <li>day by day account of last phase, Nov. 1—11, v: 260-279;</li> + <li>Argonne Forest cleared of Germans, Nov. 3, '18, v: 266;</li> + <li>number of Allied tanks used, v: 315, 388;</li> + <li>sector assigned to A. E. F., v: 385;</li> + <li>Pershing's official report, v: 386-393;</li> + <li>Allies' artillery strength, v: 388;</li> + <li>strength of First Army, A. E. F., v: 390, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280</a>;</li> + <li>desperate nature of fighting, v: 390-391;</li> + <li>Germans appeal for Armistice, Nov. 6, '18, v: 391;</li> + <li>German guns captured, v: 393;</li> + <li>German prisoners captured, v: 393;</li> + <li>casualties of First Army, v: 393, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280</a>;</li> + <li>magnitude of operations, v: 393.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mexico, German plot to involve in war with U. S., i: 347.</li> +<li>Meyer-Waldeck, Capt., German governor of Tsing-Tau, iii: 257.</li> +<li>Mézières, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Germans, Aug. 27, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>Allied objective in final drive, Nov., '18, iii: 103;</li> + <li>captured by French, Nov. 9,. '18, iii: 103;</li> + <li>fortified French frontier town, v: 215.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mézières-Sedan railroad, key to German lines of communication on Western Front, v: 216, 387.</li> +<li>Mezy, Germans force passage of Marne at, July 15, '18, v: 150.</li> +<li>Mice, uses in war, vii: 229. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></p></li> + +<li>Michael, Grand Duke, + <ul class="index"> + <li>designated as successor by Czar on abdication, vi: 156;</li> + <li>renounces succession to Russian throne Mar., '17, vi: 156.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Michaelis, Georg, + <ul class="index"> + <li>statement of German war aims, ii: 14;</li> + <li>appointment as German Chancellor, July, '17, vi: 266.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Michel position, section of Hindenburg Line on St. Mihiel Front, v: 69.</li> +<li>Michitch, Gen., Serbian commander, stops advance of Austrian invaders, Dec., '14, iii: 394.</li> +<li>Michler, Gen., decorated for Somme campaign, iii: 60.</li> +<li>Microphone, + <ul class="index"> + <li>instrument for detection of U-boats, iv: 308, xi: 241;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Hydrophones.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Milan, bombarded by Austrian airmen, Feb. 14, '16, i: 384.</li> +<li>Miles, Capt. Wardlaw L., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 399.</li> +<li>Militarism, German, <em>see</em> Germany, Militarism.</li> +<li>Military commandments, by Kitchener and Foch, xi: 55.</li> +<li>Military training, universal, + <ul class="index"> + <li>advocated by Dr. Chas. W. Eliot, i: <em>Intro. xii</em>;</li> + <li>German system of, i: 71;</li> + <li>Bernhardi's defense of, i: 162;</li> + <li>Roosevelt's advocacy of, for U. S., i: 326;</li> + <li>abolition of, in Germany under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_211">xii: 211</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Milk supply, German, ii: 18.</li> +<li>Miller, Lieut. John Q., observation pilot, story of, x: 232-235.</li> +<li>Miller, Major Oscar F., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 402.</li> +<li>Millicent Sutherland Ambulance, vii: 107.</li> +<li>Milne, Adm., commander of British fleet in Mediterranean, Aug., '14, iv: 13.</li> +<li>Milne, Pvt. W. J., awarded Victoria Cross for gallantry at Vimy Ridge, iii: 349.</li> +<li>Milyukov, Paul M., Russian statesman, + <ul class="index"> + <li>exposes treachery of Stürmer, Nov., '16, vi: 142;</li> + <li>assails Government distribution of food, Feb., '17, vi: 144;</li> + <li>Minister of Foreign Affairs in Provisional Government, Mar., '17, vi: 158;</li> + <li>statement of loyalty to Allied cause, vi: 158, 159;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 102-103.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mines, submarine, + <ul class="index"> + <li>North Sea mine barrage, iv: <em>Intro. xi</em>, 324, viii: 274;</li> + <li>use of trawlers for sweeping, iv: 292;</li> + <li>use in fighting U-boats, iv: 312;</li> + <li>use of Paravanes as protection against, iv: 313;</li> + <li>methods of laying, iv: 326.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mining, in land operations, + <ul class="index"> + <li>blowing up of Messines Ridge by British, iii: 74, 76-77, viii: 310;</li> + <li>of Austrian positions in Alps by Italians, viii: 311.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Minkler, C. T., inventor of depth bomb, iv: 330.</li> +<li>Miraumont, evacuated by Germans, iii: 64.</li> +<li>Mirbach, Count von, assassinated by Bolsheviki, vi: 187.</li> +<li>Missionaries, European, as colonial pioneers in East, i: 17.</li> +<li>Missions, German Christian, continuity guaranteed by Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_263">xii: 263</a>.</li> +<li>Missy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>scene of hard fighting by 1st Div., July, '18, v: 55;</li> + <li>1st Div. makes first capture of German guns by A. E. F., v: 174.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mitau, captured by Germans, Aug. 2, '15, i: 381.</li> +<li>Mitrovitza, captured by Germans, Nov. 23, '15, i: 382.</li> +<li>Mixed Arbitral Tribunal, establishment and functions under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_243">xii: 243</a>.</li> +<li>Mkwawa, Sultan, skull of, Peace Treaty provision for return of, by Germany, <a href="#Page_225">xii: 225</a>.</li> +<li>Mobile ordnance repair shops, description and functions, v: 350, viii: 294-298.</li> +<li><cite>Moewe</cite>, German raider, activities, iv: 197.</li> +<li>Moffat, John, + <ul class="index"> + <li>systematizes American war relief, vii: 87;</li> + <li>decorated for relief work, vii: 87.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Moffett, Capt. Wm. A., commander of Great Lakes Naval Training Station, iv: 318.</li> +<li><cite>Moltke</cite>, German cruiser in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.</li> +<li>Moltke, Field-Marshal von, views on German strategy, ii: 14.</li> +<li>Moltke, Lieut.-Gen. Helmuth von, biography, ix: 264.</li> +<li><cite>Monarch</cite>, Austrian battleship torpedoed by Italians at Trieste, x: 290.</li> +<li>Monastir, + <ul class="index"> + <li>evacuated by Serbs, Dec. 3, '15, i: 382;</li> + <li>retaken by Allies, Nov. 19, '16, i: 388, iii: 208.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Moncy Wood, captured by 26th Inf., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240.</li> +<li>Mondement, Germans driven back at, in first Marne battle, iii: 33.</li> +<li>Mondragon, Gen., of Mexico, designer of self-loading rifle, viii: 90.</li> +<li>Money, + <ul class="index"> + <li>effect of unsecured paper money on prices, <em>Intro. viii</em>;</li> + <li>inflation chief cause of high prices, <em>Intro. xii</em>, 27;</li> + <li>war-time inflation in U. S., <em>Intro. xii</em>;</li> + <li>inflation throughout world, <em>Intro. xiii</em>;</li> + <li>functions, <em>Intro. xv</em>;</li> + <li>standardized dollar as remedy for fluctuating cost of living, <em>Intro. xv</em>;</li> + <li>inflation defined, <a href="#Page_28">xii: 28</a>;</li> + <li>effects of inflation, <a href="#Page_29">xii: 29</a>;</li> + <li>revaluation of gold standard, <a href="#Page_31">xii: 31</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Prices.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Monfalcone, captured by Italians, June 9, '15, iii: 244.</li> +<li><cite>Monge</cite>, French submarine, rammed by Austrian warship, x: 295.</li> +<li>Monitors, + <ul class="index"> + <li>revival of discarded naval type, iv: 280;</li> + <li>description of British type, iv: 281;</li> + <li>service at Dardanelles, iv: 282;</li> + <li>service at Trieste, iv: 283;</li> + <li>service in Serbia, iv: 283;</li> + <li>construction of, iv: 284.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Monmouth</cite>, British cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in battle off Coronel, armament, iv: 65;</li> + <li>struck during battle, iv: 66;</li> + <li>sunk by <cite>Nürnberg</cite>, iv: 67, ix: 308.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Monneaux, location, v: 133.</li> +<li>Monro, Gen., Sir Charles, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sent to India to develop military resources, ii: <em>Intro. xviii</em>;</li> + <li>succeeds Gen. Hamilton at Gallipoli, iii: 174;</li> + <li>conducts evacuation of Gallipoli, iii: 174.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Monroe Doctrine, + <ul class="index"> + <li>barrier against European expansion in America, i:37;</li> + <li>interpretation under Roosevelt, i: 84;</li> + <li>upheld by Roosevelt against German coercion of Venezuela, i: 86.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mons, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Germans, Aug. 21—23, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>British retreat from, Aug., '14, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Viscount French's account, ii: 162;</li> + <li>John Buchan's description, iii: 277-281;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>British gallantry at, xi: 10.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Monsard, taken by Fourth Corps, Sept. 12, '18, v: 206.</li> +<li>Mont Blanc, captured by 2nd Div., v: 393.</li> +<li>Mont Mare Wood, passage by 89th Div., Sept. 12, '18, v: 210.</li> +<li>Mont St. Père-Chartèves, location, v: 133.</li> +<li>Mont St. Quentin, captured by British, Mar. 18, '17, iii: 68.</li> +<li>Mont Sec, dominating position on St. Mihiel sector, v: 65, 116, 199.</li> +<li>Mont Wood, captured by 90th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 264.</li> +<li>Montauban, captured by British in Somme battle, iii: 58.</li> +<li>Montblainville, captured by 28th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 325.</li> +<li>Montdidier, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by French, Aug. 11, '18, i: 397;</li> + <li>1st Div. relieves French near, v: 29.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Montdidier-Noyon defensive, + <ul class="index"> + <li>by Allies, June 9—15, '18, iii: 94, v: 129, 139-141;</li> + <li>conditions leading to German attack, v: 139;</li> + <li>Allied use of artillery during, v: 139.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Monte Nero, captured by Italians, iii: 244.</li> +<li>Montecuccoli, Adm., responsible for development of Austrian navy, iv: 364.</li> +<li>Montenegro, + <ul class="index"> + <li>declares war on Austria, Aug. 7, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>declares war on Germany, Aug. 10, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>forced to surrender to Austria, Feb., '16, vi: 358-359;</li> + <li>joins Jugoslav union, vi: 366;</li> + <li>battle deaths, <a href="#Page_288">xii: 288</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Montfaucon, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German stronghold in Meuse-Argonne sector, v: 78, 218;</li> + <li>captured by 79th Div., Sept. 27, '18, v: 224-225.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Montfaucon Wood, captured by 37th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 224.</li> +<li>Montmédy, captured by Germans, Aug. 27, '14, i: 375.</li> +<li>Montmirail, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German objective in last drive on Paris, v: 36;</li> + <li>headquarters of 28th Div., June, '18, v: 143. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Montrebeau Wood, captured by 1st Div., Oct. 4, '18, v: 237.</li> +<li>Montrieul-aux-Lions, headquarters of 2nd Div., June, '18, v: 143.</li> +<li>Moore, Rear-Adm. Sir Archibald, second in command of British in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.</li> +<li>Morale, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Allied and German during winter, '17—'18, v: 1;</li> + <li>German, weakened by failure of great offensive, July, '18, v: 53;</li> + <li>American, under hardships of Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 87, 232;</li> + <li>Allied and German, Sept., '18, v: 213.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Moranville, taken by 322nd Inf., Nov. 9, '18, v: 277.</li> +<li>Morava-Maritza Valley, approach to Constantinople through Serbia, iii: 150.</li> +<li>Moravia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>early history, vi: 396;</li> + <li>nationalistic aspirations, vi: 396.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Moresnet, ceded to Belgium under Peace Treaty, vi: 89, <a href="#Page_188">xii: 188</a>.</li> +<li>Moreuil salient, + <ul class="index"> + <li>military operations in, Aug.—Sept., '18, iii: 98;</li> + <li>Allied attack on Albert-Montdidier line, iii: 98;</li> + <li>Albert captured by British, Aug., '18, iii: 98;</li> + <li>British attack on the Scarpe, Sept., '18, iii: 98.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Morgan, Miss Anne, war relief activities, vii: 92.</li> +<li>Morine Wood, captured by 32nd Div., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240.</li> +<li>Morocco, + <ul class="index"> + <li>French control of, recognized by Great Britain, '04, i: 99, 202;</li> + <li>Kaiser's famous speech at Tangier on German policy, Mar., '05, i: 99, 202;</li> + <li>European crisis on dispatch of German gunboat <cite>Panther</cite> to Agadir, July, '11, i: 104, 203;</li> + <li>storm center of European diplomacy, i: 202;</li> + <li>Prince Lichnowsky's views on German policy, i: 204;</li> + <li>German rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_208">xii: 208</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mort Homme, + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Dead Man's Hill;</li> + <li>Verdun.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mortars, <em>see</em> Artillery.</li> +<li>Morton, Maj.-Gen. Charles G., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands 29th Div., June, '18, v: 146;</li> + <li>takes command of sector on right bank of Meuse, Oct. 10, '18, v: 246.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Moscow, + <ul class="index"> + <li>municipal elections annulled by reactionary Protopopov, '17, vi: 143;</li> + <li>Conference called by Kerensky, '17, vi: 167;</li> + <li>meeting of Soviet Congress, Mar., '18, vi: 185.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Moselle River, German attempt to enter France through valley of, '14, v: 199.</li> +<li>Mosley, Brig.-Gen. G. Van H., Chief of Co-ordination, G. H. Q., A. E. F., Sept., '17, v: 102.</li> +<li>Motors, + <ul class="index"> + <li>airplane, production in U. S., <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>;</li> + <li>Liberty, production figures, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Motor Transport Corps, U. S., <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>Motor trucks, + <ul class="index"> + <li>important function in Verdun defense, iii: 50, viii: 289-291;</li> + <li>mobile ordnance repair shops, description and functions, v: 350, v: 294-298;</li> + <li>armored cars, viii: 286;</li> + <li>Paris buses as war transports, viii: 286;</li> + <li>use as ambulances, viii: 287;</li> + <li>number in use by belligerents, Aug., '14, viii: 288;</li> + <li>number in use at front, June, '15, viii: 288;</li> + <li>number shipped to France from U. S., viii: 288, <a href="#Page_95">xii: 95</a>, <a href="#Page_286">xii: 286</a>;</li> + <li>Liberty truck, development and description, viii: 291-294.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mott, Dr. John R., General Secretary, Y. M. C. A. War Work Council, vii: 261.</li> +<li><cite>Mount Vernon</cite>, U. S. transport torpedoed, Sept. 5, '17, iv: 337.</li> +<li><cite>Mousquet</cite>, French destroyer sunk by <cite>Emden</cite>, Oct. 28, '14, iv: 181.</li> +<li>Mouzay, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 9, '18, v: 94, 272.</li> +<li>Mücke, Lieut. Hellmuth von, account of exploits of German raider <cite>Emden</cite>, iv: 167-187, 190-194.</li> +<li>Mudros, British advance base for Gallipoli campaign, iii: 164, iv: 30.</li> +<li>Mühlon, Dr. William, disclosures of German complicity in forcing War, i: 133-136, 250-254.</li> +<li>Muir, Maj.-Gen. Charles H., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands 28th Div., May, '18, v: 128;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 220.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mules, number shipped to France by U. S., <a href="#Page_95">xii: 95</a>, <a href="#Page_286">xii: 286</a>.</li> +<li>Mülhausen, captured by French, Aug. 8, '14, iii: 16.</li> +<li>Müller, Capt. Karl von, commander of German raider <cite>Emden</cite>, iv: 166.</li> +<li>Munich, + <ul class="index"> + <li>murder of Kurt Eisner and Spartacide uprising in, Feb., '19, vi: 298;</li> + <li>Spartacides establish Soviet, vi: 300;</li> + <li>Soviet overthrown by Noske, May, '19, vi: 301.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Münsterberg, Prof. Hugo, on "Russian Peril," vi: 250.</li> +<li>Murfin, Capt. O. G., in charge of U. S. Navy mine bases, iv: 325.</li> +<li>Murman Region, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Military Government of, established, July, '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Murmansk, fighting between Allies and Bolsheviki at, vi: 187.</li> +<li>Murray, Gen., commands British troops defending Suez, iii: 191.</li> +<li>Mush, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Russians, Feb. 18, '16, i: 384, iii: 263;</li> + <li>evacuated by Russians, Aug. 8, '16, i: 386.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mushi, captured by British, Mar. 13, '16, i: 384.</li> +<li>Mustard gas, + <ul class="index"> + <li>use in chemical warfare, v: 321, viii: 171-172, xi: 321;</li> + <li>use of "Sag Paste," as protection against, v: 324;</li> + <li>manufacture of, at U. S. Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 186.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Nin" id="Nin">N</a></li> +<li>Namazieh Battery, at Gallipoli, iv: 45.</li> +<li>Namur, forts of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>constructed, 1890, i: 143;</li> + <li>captured by Germans, Aug., '14, i: 375, iii: 14-15.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Nancy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German advance on, checked, Aug., '14, iii: 19;</li> + <li>important frontier fortress, v: 199, 215.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Nantillois, captured by 315th Inf., Sept. 28, '18, v: 228.</li> +<li>Napier, Rear-Adm. T. D. W., commander of British 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron at Jutland, iv: 120.</li> +<li>Naples, bombed by German aviators, Mar. 11, '18, i: 395.</li> +<li>Napoleon, Fort, at Gallipoli, bombarded by French battleship <cite>Gaulois</cite>, Mar. 2, '15, iv: 43.</li> +<li>Narew, Russian Army of the, invades East Prussia, iii: 111.</li> +<li><cite>Narodna Odbrana</cite>, Serbian patriotic society, accused of responsibility for murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, i: 112.</li> +<li><cite>Narodni Savet</cite>z, Bulgarian patriotic organization, vi: 341.</li> +<li>Narrows, at Dardanelles, defenses of bombarded by Allies, Mar. 5, '15, iv: 45.</li> +<li>Narva, captured by Germans, Mar. 5, '18, i: 393.</li> +<li>Nasarie, taken by British, '15, iii: 181.</li> +<li>Nasmith, Lieut.-Com., captain of British submarine <cite>E-11</cite> in Sea of Marmora, iv: 210.</li> +<li>Nasrullah Khan, instigator of Habibullah Khan's assassination, vi: 80.</li> +<li>National Allied Relief Committee, vii: 87; + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see also</em> War relief.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>National anthems, words and histories of, xi: 325-332.</li> +<li>National Council of Austrian Women, peace appeals, '17, vi: 314.</li> +<li>National Guard, + <ul class="index"> + <li>U. S., federalized, Aug. 5, '17, i: 390;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> U. S., Army.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>National Volunteers, Irish organization enlisted to aid British, vi: 57.</li> +<li>National War Work Council, + <ul class="index"> + <li>of American Y. M. C. A., formation, vii: 262;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Y. M. C. A.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Nationalism, + <ul class="index"> + <li>problems of, i: 23;</li> + <li>development in Europe since 1648, i: 26;</li> + <li>factor in racial unification, v: <em>Intro. viii</em>;</li> + <li>growth during 19th century, v: <em>Intro. ix</em>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under name of country.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Nations of the world, political positions in 1871, i: 44-60.</li> +<li>Naumann, Friedrich, author of <cite>Mittel Europa</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>statement of German war aims, vi: 258;</li> + <li>views on trench frontiers, viii: 126.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Nautilus</cite>, submarine invented by Robert Fulton, 1800, iv: 202. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></p></li> + +<li>Naval Batteries, U. S., on Western Front, v: 306, viii: 42-45.</li> +<li>Naval power, + <ul class="index"> + <li>influence on result of War, i: 13;</li> + <li>function as protector of supply routes, i: 15;</li> + <li>development as adjunct to colonization, i: 28.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Naval raids, German bombardment of English coast towns, iv: 244-246.</li> +<li>Naval stations, British, around the world, i: 15.</li> +<li>Navarino, battle of, 1827, i: 34.</li> +<li>Navies, <em>see</em> under each country.</li> +<li>Navigation, freedom of, for Allies, + <ul class="index"> + <li>over German waterways, Peace Treaty provisions, <a href="#Page_247">xii: 247-253</a>;</li> + <li>Elbe, Oder, Niemen, and Danube internationalized under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_248">xii: 248</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>"Navy Hut," American "Y" center at Brest, vii: 302.</li> +<li>Nazareth, captured by British, Sept. 21, '18, iii: 198.</li> +<li>N-C Flying Boats, + <ul class="index"> + <li>development and description, viii: 236-240;</li> + <li><cite>N-C-4</cite> first airplane to cross Atlantic, iv: 288, viii: 240.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Near East, + <ul class="index"> + <li>European rivalries in, i: 38;</li> + <li>German policy, i: 80, 207, ii: 89;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Balkans;</li> + <li>Germany, Foreign policy.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>"Near victories," of the War, ii: 206.</li> +<li><cite>Nebraskan, S. S.</cite>, American steamer attacked by German submarine, May 25, '15, i: 320.</li> +<li>Neibaur, Pvt. Thomas C., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 399.</li> +<li><cite>Nembo</cite>, Italian destroyer, battle with Austrian U-boat, Oct. 16, '16, iv: 369.</li> +<li>Nesle, occupied by French cavalry Mar., '17, iii: 68.</li> +<li>Netherlands, + <ul class="index"> + <li>international position in '14, i: 61;</li> + <li>refuses to cede Dutch Flanders to Belgium, vi: 89;</li> + <li>strength of army, '14, vi: 375, 378;</li> + <li>maintains armed neutrality, vi: 375-377;</li> + <li>neutrality condemned by British press, vi: 376;</li> + <li>effect of submarine warfare on, vi: 377-378;</li> + <li>merchant marine seized by Allies, Mar., '18, vi: 378;</li> + <li>claims Scheldt and <del>Maestricht</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads Maestricht">Maastricht</ins> area, '18, vi: 378;</li> + <li>generous host to Belgian refugees, vii: 168-175;</li> + <li>war-time increase in shipping, <a href="#Page_101">xii: 101</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>"Netherlands Overseas Trust," vi: 377.</li> +<li>Neufchateau, training area for 26th and 42nd Divs., v: 6.</li> +<li>Neutrals, + <ul class="index"> + <li>increase in shipping, <a href="#Page_100">xii: 100</a>;</li> + <li>trade with Germany, <a href="#Page_100">xii: 100</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Neuve Chapelle, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by British, Mar. 9—10, '15, i: 378, iii: 41;</li> + <li>faulty British generalship at, iii: 375.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Neuve Eglise, captured by British, Sept. 2, '18, i: 397.</li> +<li>Newbolt, Sir Henry, account of Smith-Dorrien's battle at Le Cateau, Aug. 26, '14, ii: 176-182.</li> +<li>New Guinea, German, captured by Australians, '14, vi: 38.</li> +<li><cite>New Mexico</cite>, U. S. battleship, propelled by electricity, iv: 322.</li> +<li>New Zealand, + <ul class="index"> + <li>war casualties, iii: 404, 405;</li> + <li>strength of army, iii: 405;</li> + <li>area and population, vi: 37;</li> + <li>loyalty to Great Britain, vi: 46;</li> + <li>war cost, Aug., '14—Mar., '19, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Conference delegates, <a href="#Page_179">xii: 179</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>New Zealand</cite>, British cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv 241;</li> + <li>in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Niblack, Rear-Adm. Albert P., biography, ix: 295.</li> +<li>Nicaragua, delegate to Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>.</li> +<li>Nicholas, Grand Duke, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Commander-in-Chief of Russian armies, iii: 119;</li> + <li>removed as Commander-in-Chief and sent to Caucasus, Sept., '15, iii: 140, 262;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 229-231.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Nicholas, King of Montenegro, + <ul class="index"> + <li>surrenders to Austrians, Feb., '16, vi: 359;</li> + <li>deposed, vi: 366.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Nicholas II, Czar of Russia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>takes personal command of army, Sept., '15, iii: 140, vi: 141;</li> + <li>influence of Rasputin over court, vi: 141;</li> + <li>issues undated order for dismissal of Duma, '17, vi: 144;</li> + <li>abdicates, Mar. 15, '17, vi: 156;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 374-376.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Nicholson</cite> U. S. destroyer, captures German submarine, iv: 350.</li> +<li>Niemen, Russian Army of the, invades East Prussia, iii: 110.</li> +<li>Niemen River, internationalized by Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_248">xii: 248</a>.</li> +<li>Nietzsche, Friedrich, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German apostle of gospel of force, i: 67, ii: 2;</li> + <li>striking quotations from, i: 179-180.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Nieuport, captured by Germans, Oct. 24, '14, i: 376.</li> +<li>Nieuport scout planes, viii: 192.</li> +<li>Nightingale, Florence, pioneer army nurse, vii: 11.</li> +<li><cite>1914</cite>, by Viscount French, account of military operations of year, summary with extracts, ii: 159-174.</li> +<li>Nish, captured by Bulgars, Nov. 5, '15, i: 382, iii: 158; retaken by Allies, Oct. 13, '18, iii: 213.</li> +<li>Nish-Salonika Railroad, cut by Bulgarians, iii: 158.</li> +<li>Nitrogen, asphyxiating properties, viii: 166.</li> +<li>Nitti, Francesco S., Italian minister, opposes policy of aggrandizement, vi: 366.</li> +<li>Nivelle, Gen. Robert, + <ul class="index"> + <li>succeeds Joffre as French Commander-in-Chief, ii: <em>Intro. xx</em>, iii: 62;</li> + <li>in supreme command of Allied forces on Western Front, '16, ii: 54;</li> + <li>plans campaign of '17, ii: 54;</li> + <li>defends Verdun, '16, iii: 54, 61, 310;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 167-168.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Nixon, Gen. Sir John, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands British troops in Mesopotamia, iii: 182;</li> + <li>responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364, 367.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>"No Man's Land," definition, v: 17.</li> +<li>Nolan, Brig.-Gen. D. E., + <ul class="index"> + <li>Chief of Intelligence (G-2), G. H. Q., A. E. F., Sept., '17, v: 101;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 221.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Nonsard, captured by 1st Div., Sept. 12, '18, v: 211.</li> +<li>Norman Compensating Foresight, use in range-finding, viii: 211.</li> +<li>North German Confederation, formation, i: 43, ii: 1.</li> +<li>North German Lloyd Line, tonnage and capital, i: 264.</li> +<li>North Pacific Islands, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German, acquired by Japan, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>North Sea, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Allied mine barrage, iv: <em>Intro. xi</em>, 324-330, viii: 274;</li> + <li>problem of belligerents in, iv: 86, 91;</li> + <li>German naval raids, iv: 136.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Northern Pacific, S. S.</cite>, speed record as transport, v: 358.</li> +<li>Norway, pro-Ally sympathies, vi: 394.</li> +<li>Noske, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>suppresses Berlin Spartacides, vi: 289;</li> + <li>overthrows Munich Soviet, vi: 300-301.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Nottingham</cite>, British cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sunk, Aug. 19, '16, i: 386;</li> + <li>in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Nouart, captured by 89th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 264.</li> +<li>Novo Georgievsk, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russian attack at, Oct., '14, iii: 126;</li> + <li>captured by Germans, Aug., '15, iii: 138.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Noyon, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by French, Aug. 28, '18, i: 397, ii: 158;</li> + <li>occupied by French, March 18, '17, iii: 68;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Montdidier-Noyon defensive.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Nugent, Gen., commander of 36th Ulster Div., iii: 377.</li> +<li><cite>Nur-el-Bahr</cite>, British cruiser sunk off Sollum, Nov. 6, '15, ii: 190.</li> +<li><cite>Nürnberg</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German cruiser in battle off Coronel, iv: 65;</li> + <li>sunk in battle of Falkland Islands, iv: 70, 74.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Nurses, + <ul class="index"> + <li>U. S. Army Nurse Corps, vii: 203;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Red Cross;</li> + <li>War relief.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Oin" id="Oin">O</a></li> +<li><cite>O Patria, O Rei, O Povo</cite>, Portuguese national hymn, xi: 329.</li> +<li>Obrenovatz, captured by Austrians, Oct. 18, '15, i: 382.</li> +<li>O'Brien, Lieut. Pat, escape from German prison, x: 257.</li> +<li>Observation balloons, <em>see</em> Aeronautics.</li> +<li><cite>Ocean</cite>, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31, 35, 48.</li> +<li>Oches, taken by 77th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266.</li> +<li>Oder River, internationalized by Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_248">xii: 248</a>. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></p></li> + +<li>Odessa, importance as military base, iii: 161.</li> +<li>Ogons Wood, captured by A. E. F., Oct. 5, '18, v: 230, 237, 239.</li> +<li><cite>Oh, How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning</cite>, American soldiers' song, xi: 337.</li> +<li>O'Kelly, J. T., Irish representative to Peace Conference, vi: 65.</li> +<li>Okuma, Count, + <ul class="index"> + <li>influence on Japanese foreign policy, vi: 384;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 87.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>"Old Dutch Cleansers," nickname for 9.2-in. British howitzers, v: 308.</li> +<li>Old Hickory (30th) Division, <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>O'Leary, Jeremiah, pro-German propagandist in U. S., x: 345.</li> +<li>O'Leary, Sgt. Michael, wins Victoria Cross, x: 71.</li> +<li>Oman, + <ul class="index"> + <li>acquired by Allies, '13, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Omsk, capital of All-Russian Government, vi: 191.</li> +<li><cite>Onslow</cite>, British destroyer at battle of Jutland, iv: 121.</li> +<li>"Open Door" policy in China, i: 57; + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see also</em> China.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Opium Convention, Jan. 23, '12, put into force by Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_232">xii: 232</a>.</li> +<li>Opium War, against China, 1840, i: 38.</li> +<li>"Oppy Line," captured by British in Arras battle, iii: 72.</li> +<li>Optical glasses, for A. E. F., viii: 326.</li> +<li>Orange Free State, + <ul class="index"> + <li>becomes part of Union of South Africa, 1899, vi: 47;</li> + <li>opposition to Great Britain, vi: 50-52;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> South Africa, Union of.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Orders in Council, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British, establish blockade of Germany, i: 312, 318, ii: 16, 21;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Germany, Blockade of.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Orientator, for testing aviators, viii: 356-358.</li> +<li>Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Italian statesman, forms coalition cabinet, Oct., '17, vi: 129;</li> + <li>foreign policy, vi: 362, 366;</li> + <li>demands Fiume for Italy, vi: 368;</li> + <li>withdraws from Peace Conference on Fiume crisis, vi: 368;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 85-87.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Orly, U. S., aircraft factory at, v: 313.</li> +<li>Ornes, captured by Germans, '16, iii: 48.</li> +<li>Orphans, <em>see</em> War relief.</li> +<li>Orsova, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Rumanians, Sept. 7, '16, i: 386, iii: 218;</li> + <li>evacuated by Rumanians, Nov. 24, '16, i: 389, iii: 222.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Orsova Railway, captured by Germans in Wallachian campaign, iii: 221.</li> +<li>O'Ryan, Maj.-Gen. John F., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander, 27th Div., v: 196, 281;</li> + <li>account of history of 27th Div., v: 281-300.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>O'Shea, Corp. Thomas E., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393.</li> +<li>Ossowetz, + <ul class="index"> + <li>besieged by Germans, iii: 118, 130;</li> + <li>captured, Aug., '15, iii: 138.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ostend, + <ul class="index"> + <li>seat of Belgian government moved to, Oct. 5, '14, i: 376;</li> + <li>occupied by Germans, Oct. 13, '14, i: 376, iii: 38;</li> + <li>raided by British May, '18, iv: 279;</li> + <li>evacuated by Germans, xi: 52.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ostrovo, Lake, Allied counter-attack against Bulgars at, Sept., '16, iii: 208.</li> +<li><cite>Otranto</cite>, British auxiliary cruiser in battle off Coronel, iv: 65.</li> +<li>Ourcq River, + <ul class="index"> + <li>crossed by 42nd Div. in pursuit of Germans, July, '18, v: 50, 187;</li> + <li>course and topography of region, v: 133;</li> + <li>A. E. F. fighting at, commended by Gen. Degoutte, v: 192.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Over There</cite>, American soldier song, xi: 336.</li> +<li>Over-There Theater League, organization and activities, vii: 277, 339-342.</li> +<li>Ovillers, captured by Allies in Somme battle, iii: 58.</li> +<li>Oxygen, for gas victims, iii: 320.</li> +<li>Oxygen helmets as defense against poison gas, viii: 173.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Pin" id="Pin">P</a></li> +<li>Paderewski, Ignace Jan, + <ul class="index"> + <li>returns to Poland as popular hero, vi: 220;</li> + <li>becomes Prime Minister, vi: 223;</li> + <li>defeated for presidency, vi: 225;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 95-98.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Paës, Dr. Sidonio, President of Portugal, assassinated, Dec., '18, vi: 374.</li> +<li>Paget, Sir Ralph, Chairman, International Sanitary Commission for Serbian typhus relief, iii: 398.</li> +<li>Painlevé, Paul, succeeds Ribot as French premier, '17, vi: 105.</li> +<li>"Pal" regiments, British recruiting device, vi: 6.</li> +<li>Palestine, + <ul class="index"> + <li>strategic importance, ii: <em>Intro. xviii, xxi</em>, 87-90;</li> + <li>conquered by Gen. Allenby, ii: <em>Intro. xx</em>, 92-94, 218, iii: 192-200, 322-326;</li> + <li>capture of Gaza, Mar. 26—27, '17, ii: 92, iii: 192;</li> + <li>capture of Jerusalem, Dec. 11, '17, ii: 92, iii: 193-196; + <ul class="index"> + <li>description of Allenby's entry, iii: 322-326;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>British and Turkish manpower, ii: 93, iii: 200;</li> + <li>destruction of Turkish army, Sept., '18, ii: 94, 218, iii: 198;</li> + <li>Damascus captured, Oct. 1, '18, iii: 199;</li> + <li>Aleppo captured, Oct. 25, '18, iii: 200;</li> + <li>bibliography, iii: 200;</li> + <li>disposition under secret treaties, '16—'17, vi: 334;</li> + <li>Y. M. C. A. in, vii: 322;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Palmer, Frederick, + <ul class="index"> + <li>comment on Marne fighting, July, '18, v: 158;</li> + <li>tribute to 1st Div., v: 234.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Pan-Germanism, <em>see</em> Germany.</li> +<li>Pan-Slavism, aspirations, i: 244; + <ul class="index"> + <li>"Greater Serbia" propaganda, i: 244;</li> + <li>fight for control of Ukraine by Russia, vi: 241;</li> + <li>Russia aims at annexation of Ruthenia, '14, vi: 241;</li> + <li>Bulgaria's attitude toward, vi: 340;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Slavs.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Panama, + <ul class="index"> + <li>declares war on Germany, Apr, 7. '17, i: 389;</li> + <li>Peace Conference delegate, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Panama Canal, U. S. gains control of, i: 84.</li> +<li>Pannes, captured by 42nd Div., v: 211.</li> +<li><cite>Panther</cite>, German gunboat sent to Agadir, July, '11, i: 104, 203.</li> +<li>Paolucci, Dr., helps Lieut.-Col. Rossetti to sink Austrian warship <cite>Viribus Unitis</cite>, x: 297-303.</li> +<li>Papacy, relation to Italian government, i: 61.</li> +<li>Papeete, bombarded by German fleet, Sept. 22, '14, iv: 62.</li> +<li>Papen, Capt. Franz von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German Military Attaché in U. S., dismissed for unneutral conduct, i: 276;</li> + <li>share in passport frauds, i: 314;</li> + <li>activities as arch-spy in U. S., x: 328-329.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Parachutes, use by military balloonists, viii: 260-263.</li> +<li>Parades, + <ul class="index"> + <li>first American troops in Paris, July 4, '17, v: 107;</li> + <li>Allied troops on Bastille Day in Paris, July 14, '18, v: 147;</li> + <li>27th Div. in New York City, Mar. 25, '19, v: 299.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Parajd, captured by Rumanians, Oct. 5, '16, i: 388.</li> +<li>Paravane, protective device against submarine mine, iv: 313.</li> +<li>Paris, + <ul class="index"> + <li>air raids on, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Jan. 29—30, '16, i: 384;</li> + <li>Mar. 11, '18, i: 395;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>German advance on, '14, ii: 6, iii: 28, vi: 97;</li> + <li>bombarded by long-range gun from St. Gobain Forest, ii: 154, iii: 88, viii: 45-47;</li> + <li>welcome to Gen. Pershing, June 13, '17, v: 97;</li> + <li>German drive on, May 27—Aug. 6, '18, battles in Marne salient, v: 129-139, 141, 147;</li> + <li>parade of Allies, July 14, '18, v: 147;</li> + <li>panic in, during German drive, '18, v: 378;</li> + <li>May Day rioting, May, '19, vi: 111.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Paris Conference, 1856, guarantees Turkish power in Europe, i: 39.</li> +<li>"Paris Group," organization of, Medical Department, A. E. F., v: 346.</li> +<li>Pasha Dagh, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Australian objective in Gallipoli attack, iii: 170;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Gallipoli Campaign.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Pashitch, Nicholas, Premier of Serbia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>negotiations with Italy for settling Adriatic rivalry, vi: 362;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 120.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Passchendaele Ridge, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by British, Oct.—Nov., '17, ii: 56, 79;</li> + <li>recaptured by Germans, Apr., '18, iii: 377.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Passenheim, Russians defeated at, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375, iii: 116.</li> +<li>Passport frauds, German activities in U. S., i: 314, x: 333. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></p></li> + +<li>Patriotic songs, xi: 332-335.</li> +<li>Patrol boats, work in combating submarines, iv: 292.</li> +<li>Patrolling, training A. E. F. in, v: 117.</li> +<li>Patrols, German system of, in the Vosges, v: 26.</li> +<li>Patterson, Miss Hannah J., awarded D. S. M. for work on Woman's Committee, Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_125">xii: 125</a>.</li> +<li>Pau, Gen. Paul, commands French forces invading Alsace, Aug. 14, '14, iii: 16.</li> +<li>Peace Conference, Paris, + <ul class="index"> + <li>U. S. delegates sail for, Dec. 4, '18, i: 400;</li> + <li>conciliatory attitude of Austrian delegates, vi: 321;</li> + <li>negotiation with Hungarian Soviet, Apr., '19, vi: 326;</li> + <li>Fiume crisis, vi: 366-370, <a href="#Page_159">xii: 159</a>;</li> + <li>prestige of Japanese delegation, vi: 388;</li> + <li>dispute over Teschen district, vi: 400;</li> + <li>inside story of, by Thos. W. Lamont, financial adviser to U. S. delegation, <a href="#Page_149">xii: 149-163</a>;</li> + <li>complexity of task, <a href="#Page_149">xii: 149</a>;</li> + <li>rapidity of work, <a href="#Page_149">xii: 149</a>;</li> + <li>open diplomacy, <a href="#Page_149">xii: 149</a>;</li> + <li>Supreme Council, members and method of evolving Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_150">xii: 150-153</a>;</li> + <li>"Big Four," <a href="#Page_150">xii: 150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">xii: 152</a>;</li> + <li>"Big Three," <a href="#Page_150">xii: 150</a>;</li> + <li>Conference procedure, <a href="#Page_156">xii: 156</a>;</li> + <li>commissions, <a href="#Page_156">xii: 156</a>;</li> + <li>delays, <a href="#Page_156">xii: 156</a>;</li> + <li>language difficulties, <a href="#Page_157">xii: 157</a>;</li> + <li>Reparations Commission, organization and work, <a href="#Page_158">xii: 158</a>, <a href="#Page_219">xii: 219-221</a>;</li> + <li>Shantung controversy, <a href="#Page_160">xii: 160</a>;</li> + <li>Germans excluded from negotiation, <a href="#Page_161">xii: 161</a>;</li> + <li>Belgian demands, <a href="#Page_161">xii: 161</a>;</li> + <li>signing of Peace Treaty with Germany, ceremonies, <a href="#Page_165">xii: 165-169</a>;</li> + <li>list of delegates, <a href="#Page_179">xii: 179-182</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Peace Treaty with Germany, Versailles, '19.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Peace moves, + <ul class="index"> + <li>President Wilson asks belligerents to state war aims, Dec. 18, '16, i: 335;</li> + <li>response to Wilson's note, i: 336;</li> + <li>Wilson's "Peace without victory" speech, i: 336;</li> + <li>Pope Benedict's appeal, Aug. 15, '17, i: 390, ix: 405;</li> + <li>Germany accepts Pope's offer, Sept. 21, '17, i: 390;</li> + <li>text of letter from Emperor Charles of Austria-Hungary to Prince Sixtus making secret offer of peace, Mar., '17, ii: 63;</li> + <li>German attempts in '16 and '17 fail, ii: 270, 316, vi: 263;</li> + <li>German moves condemned by Ludendorff, ii: 303;</li> + <li>Kaiser orders proposals through Queen of Holland, ii: 331;</li> + <li>Russian Provisional Government urges Allies to revise peace aims, May, '17, vi: 161;</li> + <li>German Socialists demand peace without annexations, '15, vi: 258;</li> + <li>Bethmann-Hollweg proposes peace of understanding, '16—'17, vi: 262;</li> + <li>German popular demand for "peace without annexations or indemnities," vi: 266-268;</li> + <li>Emperor Charles forces offer by Teutonic allies, Dec. 12, '16, vi: 313;</li> + <li>demonstrations in Sofia, vi: 346;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Armistice;</li> + <li>and under each country.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Peace Treaty with Germany, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Versailles, '19, criticism by British liberal press, vi: 22;</li> + <li>terms presented to Germans, May 7, '19, vi: 302, <a href="#Page_161">xii: 161</a>;</li> + <li>condemned by German press, vi: 302-304;</li> + <li>Germany consents to sign, June 22, '19, vi: 304, <a href="#Page_163">xii: 163</a>;</li> + <li>how drafted, described by Thos. W. Lamont, financial adviser to U. S. delegation, <a href="#Page_149">xii: 149-161</a>;</li> + <li>text, work of technicians, <a href="#Page_150">xii: 150</a>;</li> + <li>French demands, <a href="#Page_153">xii: 153</a>;</li> + <li>evolution of Covenant of League of Nations, <a href="#Page_155">xii: 155</a>;</li> + <li>Belgian demands, <a href="#Page_161">xii: 161</a>;</li> + <li>ceremonies of signing, <a href="#Page_165">xii: 165-169</a>;</li> + <li>analysis by Geo. W. Wickersham, <a href="#Page_170">xii: 170-178</a>;</li> + <li>signed June 28, '19, <a href="#Page_179">xii: 179</a>;</li> + <li>text in full, <a href="#Page_179">xii: 179-263</a>;</li> + <li>preamble, giving list of nations allied against Germany, and their delegates to Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_179">xii: 179-182</a>;</li> + <li>League of Nations, text of Covenant, <a href="#Page_182">xii: 182-185</a>;</li> + <li>boundaries of Germany, <a href="#Page_186">xii: 186</a>;</li> + <li>provisions concerning Luxemburg, <a href="#Page_189">xii: 189</a>;</li> + <li>demolition of German fortifications, <a href="#Page_189">xii: 189</a>, <a href="#Page_205">xii: 205</a>, <a href="#Page_211">xii: 211</a>, <a href="#Page_214">xii: 214</a>;</li> + <li>Sarre Basin settlement, <a href="#Page_189">xii: 189-194</a>;</li> + <li>Alsace-Lorraine, provisions for return to France, <a href="#Page_194">xii: 194-197</a>;</li> + <li>Germany acknowledges independence of Austria, <a href="#Page_197">xii: 197</a>;</li> + <li>provisions for independence of Czechoslovak State, <a href="#Page_197">xii: 197</a>;</li> + <li>independence and boundaries of Poland, <a href="#Page_198">xii: 198-200</a>;</li> + <li>plebiscite for East Prussia, <a href="#Page_200">xii: 200</a>;</li> + <li>provisions concerning Memel, <a href="#Page_203">xii: 203</a>;</li> + <li>Danzig made free city, <a href="#Page_203">xii: 203</a>;</li> + <li>plebiscite provisions for Schleswig, <a href="#Page_204">xii: 204</a>;</li> + <li>Heligoland, destruction of fortifications on, <a href="#Page_205">xii: 205</a>;</li> + <li>provisions concerning Russo-German relations, <a href="#Page_205">xii: 205</a>;</li> + <li>Brest-Litovsk Treaties abrogated, <a href="#Page_205">xii: 205</a>;</li> + <li>German colonies surrendered to Allies, <a href="#Page_206">xii: 206</a>;</li> + <li>German rights in China surrendered, <a href="#Page_206">xii: 206</a>;</li> + <li>German rights in Siam surrendered, <a href="#Page_208">xii: 208</a>;</li> + <li>German rights in Liberia surrendered, <a href="#Page_208">xii: 208</a>;</li> + <li>German rights in Morocco surrendered, <a href="#Page_208">xii: 208</a>;</li> + <li>German rights in Egypt surrendered, <a href="#Page_208">xii: 208</a>;</li> + <li>Shantung (Kiau-Chau) transferred to Japan, <a href="#Page_209">xii: 209</a>;</li> + <li>reduction of German army and military equipment, <a href="#Page_209">xii: 209-212</a>;</li> + <li>universal military service abolished in Germany, <a href="#Page_211">xii: 211</a>;</li> + <li>new German army, table of organization for, <a href="#Page_212">xii: 212</a>;</li> + <li>German navy, surrender and reduction, <a href="#Page_212">xii: 212-214</a>;</li> + <li>German wireless stations, regulation by Allies, <a href="#Page_214">xii: 214</a>;</li> + <li>German military air service abolished, <a href="#Page_214">xii: 214</a>;</li> + <li>existing German air service surrendered to Allies, <a href="#Page_215">xii: 215</a>;</li> + <li>Interallied Commissions of Control to supervise execution of military terms, <a href="#Page_215">xii: 215</a>;</li> + <li>repatriation of prisoners of war, <a href="#Page_216">xii: 216</a>;</li> + <li>war graves, care of, <a href="#Page_217">xii: 217</a>;</li> + <li>punishment of Germans guilty of war crimes, <a href="#Page_217">xii: 217</a>;</li> + <li>reparation terms imposed on Germany, <a href="#Page_217">xii: 217-225</a>;</li> + <li>Reparation Commission, formation and functions, <a href="#Page_219">xii: 219-221</a>;</li> + <li>shipping, restitution for Allied shipping sunk, <a href="#Page_222">xii: 222</a>;</li> + <li>reconstruction, German obligations, <a href="#Page_223">xii: 223</a>;</li> + <li>coal, German deliveries to France, Belgium, Italy, <a href="#Page_224">xii: 224</a>;</li> + <li>dyestuffs, German deliveries to Allies, <a href="#Page_224">xii: 224</a>;</li> + <li>submarine cables, German, surrendered to Allies, <a href="#Page_225">xii: 225</a>;</li> + <li>trophies of war, return of, to France by Germany, <a href="#Page_225">xii: 225</a>;</li> + <li>Koran of Caliph Othman, return of, by Germany to King of Hedjaz, <a href="#Page_225">xii: 225</a>;</li> + <li>Sultan Mkwawa, skull of, return by Germany to Great Britain, <a href="#Page_225">xii: 225</a>;</li> + <li>Louvain, University of, restoration by Germany of books destroyed, <a href="#Page_225">xii: 225</a>;</li> + <li>art objects, carried by Germans from Belgium, restoration of, <a href="#Page_225">xii: 225</a>;</li> + <li>gold, restriction on German export of, <a href="#Page_226">xii: 226</a>;</li> + <li>Armies of Occupation, Allied, in Germany, expense to be borne by Germany, <a href="#Page_226">xii: 226</a>;</li> + <li>ceded territories, share in German national debt, <a href="#Page_226">xii: 226</a>;</li> + <li>Alsace-Lorraine, exempt from share in German national debt, <a href="#Page_226">xii: 226</a>;</li> + <li>Poland, share in German national debt, <a href="#Page_227">xii: 227</a>;</li> + <li>international concessions, surrender by Germany of rights in, <a href="#Page_228">xii: 228</a>;</li> + <li>gold, deliveries of, by Germany to Allies, <a href="#Page_228">xii: 228</a>;</li> + <li>customs duties, regulations imposed on Germany, <a href="#Page_229">xii: 229</a>;</li> + <li>privileges for Allied shipping to be granted by Germany, <a href="#Page_230">xii: 230</a>;</li> + <li>trade competition, Germany to suppress unfair methods, <a href="#Page_230">xii: 230</a>;</li> + <li>Allied nationals, treatment of, by Germany, <a href="#Page_230">xii: 230</a>;</li> + <li>pre-War treaties between Allies and Germany revived, <a href="#Page_231">xii: 231</a>;</li> + <li>treaties among Teutonic allies abrogated, <a href="#Page_232">xii: 232</a>;</li> + <li>treaties between Germany and Russia abrogated, <a href="#Page_232">xii: 232</a>;</li> + <li>treaties between Germany and Rumania abrogated, <a href="#Page_232">xii: 232</a>;</li> + <li>Opium Convention, Jan, 23, '12, put into force, <a href="#Page_232">xii: 232</a>;</li> + <li>debts, between German and Allied nationals, methods of payment, <a href="#Page_232">xii: 232-236</a>;</li> + <li>property rights of Allied nationals confiscated by Germany, methods of restitution, <a href="#Page_236">xii: 236-240</a>;</li> + <li>contracts, between German and Allied nationals, status and methods of discharge, <a href="#Page_240">xii: 240-243</a>;</li> + <li>Mixed Arbitral Tribunal, establishment and functions, <a href="#Page_243">xii: 243</a>;</li> + <li>literary rights, provisions for re-establishment of, <a href="#Page_244">xii: 244-246</a>; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></p></li> + + <li>artistic rights, provisions for re-establishment of, <a href="#Page_244">xii: 244-246</a>;</li> + <li>industrial rights, provisions for re-establishment of, <a href="#Page_244">xii: 244-246</a>;</li> + <li>ceded territories, social insurance funds of, to be transferred to Allies by Germany, <a href="#Page_246">xii: 246</a>;</li> + <li>aerial navigation, rules for, <a href="#Page_246">xii: 246</a>;</li> + <li>freedom of transit, for Allied goods and nationals through Germany, <a href="#Page_247">xii: 247</a>, <a href="#Page_253">xii: 253</a>;</li> + <li>ports, Allied, discrimination against, by Germany forbidden, <a href="#Page_247">xii: 247</a>;</li> + <li>navigation, Allied, over German waterways, <a href="#Page_247">xii: 247-253</a>;</li> + <li>Elbe, internationalized, <a href="#Page_248">xii: 248</a>;</li> + <li>Oder, internationalized, <a href="#Page_248">xii: 248</a>;</li> + <li>Niemen, internationalized, <a href="#Page_248">xii: 248</a>;</li> + <li>Danube, internationalized, <a href="#Page_248">xii: 248</a>;</li> + <li>Rhine, international control and rules for navigation, <a href="#Page_250">xii: 250-253</a>;</li> + <li>use of northern German ports by Czechoslovak State, <a href="#Page_253">xii: 253</a>;</li> + <li>German railways, provisions relating to, <a href="#Page_253">xii: 253</a>;</li> + <li>Kiel Canal, rules of navigation through, <a href="#Page_255">xii: 255</a>;</li> + <li>labor, international organization for improving conditions of, <a href="#Page_255">xii: 255-261</a>;</li> + <li>guarantees for execution, exacted from Germany, <a href="#Page_261">xii: 261</a>;</li> + <li>Armies of Occupation, conditions for withdrawal, <a href="#Page_261">xii: 261</a>;</li> + <li>Savoy, neutralized zone of, provisions concerning, <a href="#Page_262">xii: 262</a>;</li> + <li>German Christian missions, continuity guaranteed, <a href="#Page_263">xii: 263</a>;</li> + <li>prize courts, provision concerning decisions of, <a href="#Page_263">xii: 263</a>;</li> + <li>signed, June 28, '19, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264</a>;</li> + <li>ratified by Germany, July 10, '19, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264</a>;</li> + <li>ratified by Great Britain, July 25—31, '19, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264</a>;</li> + <li>ratified by King of Italy, Oct. 7, '19, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264</a>;</li> + <li>ratified by France, Oct. 13, '19, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264</a>;</li> + <li>ratified by Japan, Oct. 27, '19, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264</a>;</li> + <li>U. S. Senate opposition to, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264-278</a>;</li> + <li>Fall amendments to, defeated in U. S. Senate, Oct. 2, '19, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264</a>;</li> + <li>original Lodge reservations defeated in U. S. Senate, Nov. 19, '19, <a href="#Page_265">xii: 265-266</a>;</li> + <li>original Lodge reservations, text, <a href="#Page_265">xii: 265</a>;</li> + <li>defeated in U. S. Senate for second time, Mar. 19, '20, <a href="#Page_266">xii: 266-269</a>;</li> + <li>Pres. Wilson's opinion on Lodge reservations, <a href="#Page_267">xii: 267</a>;</li> + <li>revised Lodge reservations, text, <a href="#Page_269">xii: 269</a>;</li> + <li>efforts of Congress to declare peace by joint resolution in substitution for, <a href="#Page_271">xii: 271-278</a>;</li> + <li>Knox Resolution, <a href="#Page_273">xii: 273</a>, <a href="#Page_277">xii: 277</a>;</li> + <li>President Wilson's message vetoing Knox Resolution, <a href="#Page_278">xii: 278</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Pearce, Padraic, Provisional President of Irish Republic, vi: 60, ix: 53.</li> +<li>Peck, Pvt. Archie A., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400.</li> +<li>Penang harbor, attacked by <cite>Emden</cite>, Oct. 28, '14, iv: 178.</li> +<li>People's Relief Committee, for Jewish relief, formation, vii: 354.</li> +<li>Pepper Hill, at Verdun, attacked by Germans, Apr. 18, '16, iii: 52, 304.</li> +<li>Periscope, description, viii: 165, xi: 245.</li> +<li>Perkins, Pvt. Michael J., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 391.</li> +<li>Permanent Blind Relief War Fund, organization and activities, vii: 255-259.</li> +<li>Péronne, + <ul class="index"> + <li>French objective in Somme battle, iii: 55;</li> + <li>captured by British, Mar. 18, '17, iii: 68.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Péronne-Ham sector, Allied drive on, Sept., '18, ii: 158.</li> +<li>Pershing, Gen. John J., + <ul class="index"> + <li>offers A. E. F. to Foch, Mar. 28, '18, v: 30, 120, 380, ix: 153;</li> + <li>sails for Europe, May, '17, v: 97;</li> + <li>reception in England, June, '17, v: 97;</li> + <li>reception in France, June, '17, v: 97;</li> + <li>reasons for selection of American Army zone, '18, v: 110;</li> + <li>farewell speech to 1st Div., Chaumont-en-Vixen, Apr., '18, v: 121;</li> + <li>urges attack with A. E. F., July, '18, v: 158;</li> + <li>extract from report on Aisne-Marne Offensive, July, '18, v: 182;</li> + <li>assumes tactical command of American forces in battle area, v: 192, 384, ix: 205;</li> + <li>extract from report on St. Mihiel attack, v: 212;</li> + <li>starts Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 213;</li> + <li>extract from report on preparation for Meuse-Argonne attack, v: 218;</li> + <li>divides A. E. F. combat units into two Armies, Oct. 9, '18, v: 246, 390;</li> + <li>personal message to each soldier in A. E. F., v: 353;</li> + <li>official report on A. E. F., v: 373-404;</li> + <li>appeal to War Dept. for troops, Dec., '17, v: 373;</li> + <li>insists on independent American Army in France, v: 385;</li> + <li>Alsatian ancestry, ix: 166;</li> + <li>origin of name, ix: 166;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 199-210.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Pershing Stadium, vii: 313.</li> +<li>Persia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>divided into " spheres of influence" by Anglo-Russian agreement, '07, i: 104, vi: 335;</li> + <li>sympathy with Turkey, vi: 330;</li> + <li>pro-German sentiment, vi: 336-337;</li> + <li>Great Britain in control, '19, vi: 338.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Persia, S. S.</cite>, British merchantman, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sunk in Mediterranean, Dec. 30, '15, i: 384;</li> + <li>eye-witness account, iv: 224.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Peru, + <ul class="index"> + <li>dispute with Chile over Tacna-Arica district, vi: 390;</li> + <li>delegate to Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Pétain, Marshal Henri Philippe, + <ul class="index"> + <li>defender of Verdun, ii: 189, iii: 50, 54, 304, xi: 22;</li> + <li>eulogy of, by Gen. Malleterre, ii: 220;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 164-166.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Peter I, King of Serbia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>accompanies his nation in retreat, iii: 281, 284;</li> + <li>reënters Belgrade, Dec. 15, '14, iii: 397;</li> + <li>foreign policy, vi: 355;</li> + <li>biography, ix. 398-399.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Petrograd, + <ul class="index"> + <li>food shortage in, vi: 141;</li> + <li>workmen's delegates on War Industrial Committee arrested, vi: 143;</li> + <li>during the Revolution, vi: 144-153.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Petroseny, captured by Rumanians, Sept. 1, '16, i: 386.</li> +<li>Peuvillers, captured by 128th Inf. Regt., Nov. 10, '18, v: 272.</li> +<li>Peyton, Maj.-Gen., British commander in western Egypt, iii: 191.</li> +<li>Pflanzer, Gen. von, Austrian commander in Bukovina, iii: 132.</li> +<li>Philippines, acquired by U. S., i: 56.</li> +<li>Phillipeville, bombarded by <cite>Goeben</cite>, Aug. 4, '14, iv: 14.</li> +<li>Phonotelemeter, description of, viii: 20.</li> +<li>Phosgene (Carbonyl chloride), + <ul class="index"> + <li>use in chemical warfare, v: 321, viii: 168-170;</li> + <li>manufacture of, at U. S. Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 184.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Photography in war, + <ul class="index"> + <li>work of U. S. Signal Corps, v: 319;</li> + <li>use in artillery range-finding, viii: 14;</li> + <li>value of aerial photography, viii: 226, 331;</li> + <li>types of aerial cameras, viii: 228, 332-334;</li> + <li>De Ram automatic camera for aerial photography, viii: 228, 333;</li> + <li>work of U. S. aerial photographers, viii: 228, 235;</li> + <li>personnel of Photographic Section, U. S. Air Service, viii: 234;</li> + <li>future, viii: 234;</li> + <li>making pictorial history of War, viii: 329-331;</li> + <li>production of photographic supplies by U. S., viii: 355;</li> + <li>mobile developing laboratories, viii: 335;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Aerial photography.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Piave River, Italian stand at, after Caporetto rout, ii: 58, 250, iii: 248.</li> +<li>Picardy Front, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German choice for final drive, '18, ii: 69;</li> + <li>advantages of, for German offensive, '18, ii: 69.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Pichon, Stephen, French Foreign Minister, speech before Chamber of Deputies on secret Entente agreements of '16—'17, vi: 334.</li> +<li>Pigeons, war uses, v: 239, 319, viii: 328.</li> +<li>Pike, Lieut.-Col. Emory J., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400.</li> +<li>Pill-boxes, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description, iii: 79, viii: 130;</li> + <li>battle tactics in use of, viii: 130-133.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Pilsudski, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Gen. Joseph, leads Polish troops against Russia, vi: 202;</li> + <li>jailed by Germans, vi: 214;</li> + <li>assumes dictatorship of Poland, vi: 219;</li> + <li>dictatorship not recognized by Allies, vi: 222;</li> + <li>Minister of Foreign Affairs in Paderewski cabinet, vi: 223;</li> + <li>becomes president of Polish Republic, vi: 225;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 92-95.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Pirot, occupied by Bulgars, Oct. 28, '15, i: 382. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></p></li> + +<li>Pistols, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Schwarzlose automatic pistol, mechanism, viii: 90;</li> + <li>use as military weapon, viii: 116-117.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>"Place in the sun," + <ul class="index"> + <li>speech by Kaiser, '01, i: 95;</li> + <li>definition of phrase, ii: 27;</li> + <li>German control of Balkans as means of attaining, ii: 27.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Plava, captured by Italians June 10, '15, i: 380, iii: 244.</li> +<li><cite>Players, The</cite>, poem by Francis Bickley, ix: 290.</li> +<li>Pleinchamps Farm, captured by 28th Div., Oct. 4, '18, v: 239.</li> +<li>Ploechti, captured by Germans, Dec. 6, '16, iii: 222.</li> +<li>Plumer, Gen. Sir Herbert, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander of British Second Army, ii: 214;</li> + <li>a great military chief, iii: 375;</li> + <li>offensive in Flanders, Sept., '18, v: 213.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Plunkett, Rear-Adm. Chas. P., commander of U. S. Naval Railway Batteries on Western Front, v: 306, viii: 45.</li> +<li>Plunkett, Sir Horace, Irish leader, chairman of Irish Convention, '18, vi: 62.</li> +<li>Plymouth, England, U. S. subchaser base, iv: 359.</li> +<li>Poincaré, Raymond, + <ul class="index"> + <li>President of French Republic, biography, ix: 14-19;</li> + <li>bibliography, ix: 19.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Points d'Appui</cite>, definition, v: 13.</li> +<li>Pola, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Italian naval raid on, Nov. 2, '16, iv: 369;</li> + <li>Italians sink Austrian dreadnought at, May 14, '18, iv: 372;</li> + <li>Austrian dreadnought <cite>Viribus Unitis</cite> blown up by Italians at, Nov. 1, '18, x: 297-303.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Poland, + <ul class="index"> + <li>topography, iii: 106-108;</li> + <li>German invasion of, and unsuccessful attacks on Warsaw,</li> + <li>Sept., '14—Feb., '15, iii: 116-118, 124-127, 128-132;</li> + <li>Austrian invasion of, iii: 118-120;</li> + <li>conquered by Austro-German forces, July—Sept., '15, iii: 137-141, vi: 311;</li> + <li>battle of the Salients, July, '15, iii: 138;</li> + <li>Warsaw captured by Germans, Aug. 4, '15, iii: 138;</li> + <li>civilian deaths due to war-time privation, iii: 406;</li> + <li>early history and pre-War condition, vi: 201;</li> + <li>Russian promise of autonomy, '14, vi: 201;</li> + <li>Austrian Poles support Central Powers, vi: 202;</li> + <li>Poles under Pilsudski fight against Russia, vi: 202;</li> + <li>war-time destitution in, vi: 204-210;</li> + <li>German reforms in, vi: 208;</li> + <li>German policy, vi: 210-213;</li> + <li>Germany promises reëstablishment of Polish Kingdom, Nov. 5, '16, vi: 210;</li> + <li>Germany demands Polish troops, vi: 213;</li> + <li>freed by Russian Revolution, vi: 213;</li> + <li>Germany sets up Regency, vi: 214;</li> + <li>denied representation at Brest-Litovsk by Germany, vi: 214;</li> + <li>revolt against Teuton domination, '18, vi: 216;</li> + <li>capture of Lemberg from Ruthenians, Nov. 5, '18, vi: 217;</li> + <li>proclamation of Republic, vi: 218-219;</li> + <li>Pilsudski becomes dictator, Nov., '18, vi: 219;</li> + <li>Germans expelled, Dec., '18, vi: 220;</li> + <li>political struggle between classes, vi: 220;</li> + <li>Conservatives support Paderewski, vi: 220;</li> + <li>Warsaw Revolt against Pilsudski fails, vi: 220-222;</li> + <li>war against Bolsheviki, vi: 222-224;</li> + <li>war with Ukraine over Cholm, vi: 222, 248;</li> + <li>dispute with Czechs over Teschen, vi: 222, 400;</li> + <li>compromise cabinet of Paderewski and Pilsudski, Feb. 9, '19, vi: 223;</li> + <li>Provisional Government recognized by Allies, Feb., '19, vi: 225;</li> + <li>Pilsudski elected President, vi: 225;</li> + <li>claims for Danzig, vi: 225;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty provisions for independence and boundaries of, vi: 226, <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18-200</a>;</li> + <li>American war relief for Jews in, vii: 356-358, 360-363, 375;</li> + <li>value of property loss, <a href="#Page_26">xii: 26</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Conference delegates, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>;</li> + <li>share in German national debt, Peace Treaty provisions, <a href="#Page_227">xii: 227</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Political parties, <em>see</em> under countries.</li> +<li><cite>Pommern</cite>, German battleship torpedoed by British submarine <cite>E-9</cite>, July 2, '15, iv: 208.</li> +<li>Pont-à-Mousson, on Toul-St. Mihiel sector, v: 65, 116, 119.</li> +<li>Pontoons, viii: 299-300.</li> +<li><cite>Pontoporros</cite>, auxiliary to German raider <cite>Emden</cite>, iv: 172.</li> +<li>Pope, <em>see</em> Benedict XV.</li> +<li>Pope, Corp. Thomas A., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397;</li> +<li>Poperinghe line, British-American line of defense in Flanders, v: 287, 289.</li> +<li>Population, + <ul class="index"> + <li>decrease in births due to War, iii: 406;</li> + <li>effects of War on, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Port Arthur, + <ul class="index"> + <li>seized by Russia from China, i: 20;</li> + <li>acquired by Japan, i: 20;</li> + <li>11-in. siege guns first used by Japanese at, viii: 34.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ports, French, + <ul class="index"> + <li>selected for A. E. F. use, '18, v: 110;</li> + <li>Allied, Peace Treaty provisions against discrimination by Germany, <a href="#Page_247">xii: 247</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Portugal, + <ul class="index"> + <li>international position in '14, i: 62;</li> + <li>rout of army before German offensive, Apr., '18, ii: 153, iii: 91, vi: 374;</li> + <li>war casualties, iii: 404, v: 364;</li> + <li>prisoners of war, iii: 404;</li> + <li>internal strife, vi: 372-375;</li> + <li>enters War as British ally, vi: 373;</li> + <li>President Paës assassinated, Dec. '18, vi: 374;</li> + <li>Royalist uprising suppressed, '19, vi: 375;</li> + <li>money equivalent of man-power lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Conference delegates, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Posen, + <ul class="index"> + <li>revolt of Polish population against Germany, vi: 225;</li> + <li>awarded to Poland by Peace Conference, vi: 226.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Potash, German boycott of U. S., <a href="#Page_98">xii: 98</a>.</li> +<li>Potatoes, + <ul class="index"> + <li>world production by countries, <a href="#Page_47">xii: 47</a>;</li> + <li>as food, <a href="#Page_47">xii: 47</a>;</li> + <li>German system of drying and crushing, <a href="#Page_47">xii: 47</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Potsdam Conference of German war leaders, + <ul class="index"> + <li>July 5, '14, i: 136;</li> + <li>decision for war, i: 249.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Potts, Pvt. Frederick, wins Victoria Cross at Gallipoli, x: 138.</li> +<li>Powder, <em>see</em> Ammunition.</li> +<li>Power plants, built by A. E. F. Engineer Corps, v: 333.</li> +<li>Pozières, captured by British in Somme battle, iii: 58.</li> +<li>Prague, meeting of Czechoslovak representatives at, Apr. 2, '18, vi: 398.</li> +<li>Prauthory, Haute-Marne, headquarters, 32nd Div., Feb., '18, v: 119.</li> +<li><cite>President Lincoln</cite>, U. S. transport, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sunk, May 31, '18, i: 395, iv: 337;</li> + <li>eye-witness account, iv: 340.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Press: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Austria-Hungary, + <ul class="index"> + <li><cite>Tageblatt</cite> demands war, '14, vi: 306;</li> + <li>Hungarian journals support war, vi: 307;</li> + <li><cite>Pester Lloyd</cite> for war, '14, vi: 308;</li> + <li><cite>Oesterreichische Rundschau</cite> attacks Italy, '15, vi: 310;</li> + <li><cite>Vossische Zeitung</cite> on strikes, Jan., '18, vi: 314;</li> + <li><cite>Arbeiter Zeitung</cite>, radical organ, vi: 315;</li> + <li><cite>Arbeiter Zeitung</cite> on peace terms, vi: 322;</li> + <li><cite>Has Haroda</cite> on Czech loyalty, '14, vi: 396.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Bulgaria, + <ul class="index"> + <li>statement against Russia by <cite>Kambana</cite>, June, '15, vi: 342.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Germany, + <ul class="index"> + <li> <cite>Militärische Rundschau</cite> advocates immediate war, '14, vi: 249;</li> + <li>Socialist organ <cite>Vorwärts</cite> supports Kaiser, vi: 249;</li> + <li><cite>Liller Kriegszeitung</cite> preaches hate of England, vi: 252;</li> + <li>optimistic attitude of <cite>Frankfurter Zeitung</cite>, Nov., '14, vi: 253;</li> + <li>Maximilian Harden ridicules in <cite>Zukunft</cite> talk of German starvation, vi: 254;</li> + <li>alarm over prospects of starvation, '15, vi: 255;</li> + <li>submarine warfare urged, vi: 256, 265;</li> + <li>on German successes, '15, vi: 258;</li> + <li><cite>Vorwärts</cite> demands statement of peace aims, vi: 258;</li> + <li><cite>Frankfurter Zeitung</cite> on seriousness of Allied blockade, '15—'16, vi: 261;</li> + <li><cite>Vorwärts</cite> on food shortage, vi: 261;</li> + <li>demand war to finish, '17, vi: 264;</li> + <li>gospel of hate against England, vi: 264-265;</li> + <li><cite>Taglische Rundschau</cite> on German demoralization, Dec., '18, vi: 284;</li> + <li><cite>Vorwärts</cite> on industrial unrest, Dec., '18, vi: 286;</li> + <li>comments on Ebert as President, vi: 293;</li> + <li>on peace terms, vi: 302-304;</li> + <li>Maximilian Harden on peace terms, vi: 303.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Great Britain, + <ul class="index"> + <li>condemns Dutch neutrality, vi: 376.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Italy, + <ul class="index"> + <li><cite>Corriere della Sera</cite> and <cite>Secolo</cite> advocate conciliation with Jugoslavs, vi: 362.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Serbia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>expressions of hatred for Austria-Hungary by <cite>Politika</cite>, <cite>Mali Journal</cite>, <cite>Balkan</cite>, <cite>Zastava,</cite> vi: 356;</li> + <li><cite>Samouprava</cite> denounces Italian treaty, '15, vi: 361.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Turkey, + <ul class="index"> + <li> <cite>Ikdam</cite>for war, vi: 330;</li> + <li><cite>Tanine</cite>on Dardanelles expedition vi: 330;</li> + <li><cite>Hillal</cite>acclaims victory, '15, vi: 331.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>United States, + <ul class="index"> + <li>attitude on U. S. neutrality, i: 308;</li> + <li>on <cite>Lusitania</cite> sinking, i: 319;</li> + <li>on <cite>Arabic</cite> torpedoing, i: 322;</li> + <li>on German indemnity, <a href="#Page_24">xii: 24</a>. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Pressel, Dr. Wilhelm von, builds first spur of Bagdad railway, 1871, ii: 291.</li> +<li>Pressure gauges, on airplanes, viii: 220.</li> +<li>"Preventive arrests," for suppressing pacifist agitation in Germany, vi: 262.</li> +<li>Prices, + <ul class="index"> + <li>analysis of, by Prof. Irving Fisher, <a href="#Page_vii">xii: <em>Intro. vii-xvii</em></a>;</li> + <li>high cost of living as result of War, <a href="#Page_vii">xii: <em>Intro. vii</em></a>, <a href="#Page_143">xii: 143</a>;</li> + <li>index numbers, <a href="#Page_vii">xii: <em>Intro. vii</em></a>;</li> + <li>rise in U. S., '13—'19, <a href="#Page_vii">xii: <em>Intro. vii-viii</em></a>;</li> + <li>influence of unsecured paper money on, <a href="#Page_viii">xii: <em>Intro. viii</em></a>;</li> + <li>chart of price movements in U. S. and England since 1780, xii: <em>Intro. viii</em>;</li> + <li>before and after great wars of history, <a href="#Page_ix">xii: <em>Intro. ix</em></a>;</li> + <li>percent. rise in warring countries, <a href="#Page_x">xii: <em>Intro. x</em></a>;</li> + <li>present high level not due to scarcity, <a href="#Page_x">xii: <em>Intro. x</em></a>;</li> + <li>inflation as cause of high prices,<a href="#Page_xii"> xii: <em>Intro. xii</em></a>, <a href="#Page_27">xii: 27</a>;</li> + <li>countries arranged in order of high prices, <a href="#Page_xii">xii: <em>Intro. xii-xiii</em></a>;</li> + <li>extent of currency inflation, <a href="#Page_xiii">xii: <em>Intro. xiii</em></a>;</li> + <li>high cost of living as breeder of Bolshevism, <a href="#Page_xiii">xii: <em>Intro. xiii-xiv</em></a>;</li> + <li>purchasing power of wages, '13—'18, <a href="#Page_xiv">xii: <em>Intro. xiv</em></a>;</li> + <li>remedies for high cost of living, <a href="#Page_xiv">xii: <em>Intro. xiv-xv</em></a>;</li> + <li>standardized dollar as remedy for fluctuation in, <a href="#Page_xv">xii: <em>Intro. xv</em></a>;</li> + <li>effect of wars on, <a href="#Page_27">xii: 27</a>;</li> + <li>reduced production as cause of high prices, <a href="#Page_27">xii: 27</a>, <a href="#Page_38">xii: 38-40</a>;</li> + <li>"fair price" lists, <a href="#Page_54">xii: 54</a>;</li> + <li>rise in U. S., '14—'18, <a href="#Page_56">xii: 56-59</a>;</li> + <li>present, compared with Civil War days, <a href="#Page_57">xii: 57</a>, <a href="#Page_75">xii: 75</a>;</li> + <li>effects of government control in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_59">xii: 59</a>;</li> + <li>government control in U. S., <a href="#Page_59">xii: 59</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Cost of living, under name of country.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Prilep, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Bulgars, Nov. 17, '15, i: 382;</li> + <li>occupied by Allies, Sept. 26, '18, i: 397.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Primers, composition and explosive properties, viii: 6.</li> +<li><cite>Prince George</cite>, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33.</li> +<li>Prince, Norman, member Lafayette Escadrille, death, iii: 391.</li> +<li>Princes' Island, conference of Russian factions at, fails, vi: 188.</li> +<li><cite>Princess Royal</cite>, British cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Battle of Jutland, iv: 108;</li> + <li>in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Principles of War</cite>, treatise by Marshal Foch, ii: 80, 104, ix: 152.</li> +<li><cite>Prinz Eitel Friedrich</cite>, German raider, + <ul class="index"> + <li>puts into Hampton Roads for repairs, Mar. 10, '15, i: 378;</li> + <li>interned by U. S., Apr. 7, '15, i: 378.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Priority system, among U. S. industries during War, <a href="#Page_73">xii: 73-75</a>.</li> +<li>Pripet marshes, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russian offensive against Austria, June, '16, ii: 42;</li> + <li>description, iii: 108.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Prisoners of war, + <ul class="index"> + <li>classified by countries, iii: 404;</li> + <li>work of Swiss Red Cross for, vi: 380;</li> + <li>work of American Y. M. C. A. for, vii: 302-310;</li> + <li>Crown Princess of Sweden's work for, vii: 308;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty provisions for repatriation of, <a href="#Page_216">xii: 216</a>.</li> + <li>Austria-Hungary, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Serbs, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description of, iii: 395;</li> + <li>humane treatment by Serbs, iii: 400;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>total lost in War, iii: 404.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>French, + <ul class="index"> + <li>diary describing life in German prison, iii: 300;</li> + <li>total lost in War, iii: 404.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>German, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured in Somme battle, iii: 60;</li> + <li>in battle of Cambrai, iii: 82;</li> + <li>in St. Mihiel drive, iii: 99, v: 71, 207;</li> + <li>during Allied drive, July—Nov., '18, iii: 103;</li> + <li>total in War, iii: 404;</li> + <li>at Cantigny, v: 33;</li> + <li>taken by A. E. F. in Marne salient, July, '18, v: 56;</li> + <li>first capture by A. E. F., v: 113;</li> + <li>clothed by U. S. Salvage Service, v: 331;</li> + <li>captured in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 394;</li> + <li>total captured by A. E. F., <a href="#Page_288">xii: 288</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Russian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sufferings of, in German prison camp, iii: 300;</li> + <li>total lost in War, iii: 404.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Turkish, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by British in Palestine campaign, ii: 94, iii: 199;</li> + <li>total lost in War, iii: 404.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>United States, + <ul class="index"> + <li>first captured by Germans, iii: 84;</li> + <li>total lost in War, iii: 404;</li> + <li>work of American Red Cross for, vii: 37-39, 71.</li> + <li><em>See also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>under battle or campaign;</li> + <li>countries.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Prize courts, Peace Treaty provision for decisions of, <a href="#Page_263">xii: 263</a>.</li> +<li>Profiteering, <a href="#Page_55">xii: 55</a>; + <ul class="index"> + <li>U. S. meat-packers' profits before and during War, <a href="#Page_56">xii: 56</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Prohibition, + <ul class="index"> + <li>U. S. war-time act passed, July 7, '17, i: 390;</li> + <li>Russian government forbids sale of vodka, iii: 265, vi: 135;</li> + <li>voluntary abstention urged in England by Lloyd George, '14, vi: 2-3;</li> + <li>use of vodka substitutes in Russia, vi: 138;</li> + <li>imposed by Bela Kun's government in Hungary, vi: 325.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Propaganda, <em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Allies;</li> + <li>Germany.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Property rights, of Allied nationals confiscated by Germany, Peace Treaty provisions for restitution of, <a href="#Page_236">xii: 236-240</a>.</li> +<li>Protopopoff, Russian Minister of Interior, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in German employ, ii: 59, vi: 143;</li> + <li>causes Rumanian entry into War for German interest, ii: 59;</li> + <li>gains power at court through Rasputin, vi: 143;</li> + <li>reactionary policy, vi: 143;</li> + <li>surrenders to Duma during Revolution, March, '17, vi: 153.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Provence II</cite>, French cruiser sunk by U-boat, Feb. 26, '16, iv: 376.</li> +<li>Pruitt, Corp. John H., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 390.</li> +<li>Prussia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>war with Denmark, 1864, i: <em>Intro. vii</em>, 41;</li> + <li>autocratic form of government, i: 29;</li> + <li>assumes leadership of German states under Bismarck, i: 40;</li> + <li>population in 1860, i: 40;</li> + <li>Seven Weeks' War against Austria, 1866, i: 41;</li> + <li>representation in Imperial Bundesrat, ii: 71;</li> + <li>traditional policy of force, i: 150;</li> + <li>controlling share in government of German Empire, i: 156;</li> + <li>King of, powers as German Emperor, i: 156;</li> + <li>relations with Great Britain, stages in evolution of, i: 168;</li> + <li>Prussianization of Germany, i: 258;</li> + <li>plan of imperial development, ii: 1;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Germany.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Przasnyz, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Germans, Feb. 24, '15, i: 378, iii: 131;</li> + <li>recaptured by Russians, Feb. 27, '15, i: 378.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Przemysl, + <ul class="index"> + <li>invested by Russians, Sept. 16, '14, i: 376, iii: 123-124;</li> + <li>Russians forced to raise siege, Oct. 12, '14, i: 376, iii: 125;</li> + <li>reinvested by Russians, Nov. 12, '14, i: 376, iii: 127, xi: 16;</li> + <li>captured by Russians, Mar. 22—23, '15, i: 378, iii: 134, 292-293, xi: 16;</li> + <li>number of Austrians surrendering, i: 378, iii: 134, 293;</li> + <li>recaptured by Austro-German forces, June 1—2, '15, i: 380, ii: 234, iii: 136.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Pskov, captured by Germans, Feb. 24, '18, i: 393.</li> +<li>Psychological tests, for gauging intelligence of army recruits, vii: 216, viii: 349-351.</li> +<li>Psycho-physiological tests, for determining fitness of recruits for specific duties, viii: 351-356.</li> +<li>Putnik, Field-Marshal, Commander-in-Chief of Serbian army, iii: 150.</li> +<li>Pys, evacuated by Germans, Feb. 24, '17, iii: 64.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Qin" id="Qin">Q</a></li> +<li>"Q" ships, British decoys for U-boats, iv: 296.</li> +<li>Quebec, + <ul class="index"> + <li>not enthusiastic for War, vi: 26;</li> + <li>failure of recruiting among French-Canadians, vi: 30;</li> + <li>move for secession from Dominion, vi: 33, 36;</li> + <li>Draft Boards defeat conscription by blanket exemptions, vi: 36;</li> + <li>draft riots, vi: 36;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Canada. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Queen</cite>, British battleship at Dardanelles, iv: 33.</li> +<li><cite>Queen Elizabeth</cite>, British dreadnought at Dardanelles, ii: <em>Intro. xv</em>, iv: 31.</li> +<li><cite>Queen Mary</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British cruiser blown up at Jutland, iv: 110, 258;</li> + <li>in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Queenstown, Ireland, base for U. S. destroyer and subchaser detachment, iv: 357.</li> +<li>Quennemont Farm, strong point on Hindenburg Line, v: 290.</li> +<li>Quien, Gaston, betrayer of Edith Cavell, x: 352.</li> +<li>Quinn, Jim, citation for D. S. C., July 18, '18, v: 171.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Rin" id="Rin">R</a></li> +<li><cite>R-34</cite>, British dirigible, + <ul class="index"> + <li>crosses Atlantic, viii: 245;</li> + <li>similarity to Zeppelin, viii: 254.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Races, European rivalries, i: 21.</li> +<li>Rada, Central Council of Ukraine, formed after Russian revolution, vi: 243.</li> +<li>Radio, <em>see</em> Wireless.</li> +<li>Radoslavov, Vassil, Bulgarian Premier, + <ul class="index"> + <li>heads patriotic organization, <cite>Narodni Savet</cite>z, vi: 341;</li> + <li>statement of Bulgarian war demands, vi: 341;</li> + <li>German sympathies, vi: 343;</li> + <li>resigns, June 17, '18, vi: 346.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Raemakers, Louis, Dutch cartoonist of the War, ix: 190.</li> +<li>Rafa, Turks defeated by British at, Jan., '17, iii: 192.</li> +<li>Raids, + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Air raids;</li> + <li>Naval raids.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Raikes, Lieut.-Com. Robert H. T., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander of British submarine <cite>E-54</cite>,</li> + <li>battle with German U-boats, iv: 212.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Railroads, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German ambition for Calais-Persia route, ii: 2;</li> + <li>Russian military, iii: 105;</li> + <li>Petrograd-Berlin, iii: 111;</li> + <li>Transylvanian, cut by Rumanians, iii: 218;</li> + <li>Orsova, taken by Germans in Wallachian campaign, iii: 221;</li> + <li>Cernavoda-Constanza, captured by Teuton allies, Oct., '16, iii, 221;</li> + <li>in Trentino, iii: 230;</li> + <li>in Isonzo sector, iii: 239;</li> + <li>in Uganda, iii: 255;</li> + <li>in Transcaucasia, iii: 260;</li> + <li>number of troop trains needed to move a U. S. division, v: 20;</li> + <li>French, available for A. E. F. use, v: 110;</li> + <li>St. Mihiel-Metz, cut, Sept. 12, '18, v: 206;</li> + <li>German lines of communication in occupied territory, v: 215;</li> + <li>Mézières-Sedan, key to German lines of communication on Western Front, v: 216, 387;</li> + <li>built by Engineer Corps, A. E. F., in France, v: 333, 334, 403, <a href="#Page_283">xii: 283</a>;</li> + <li>equipment sent to France from U. S., v: 403, <a href="#Page_95">xii: 95</a>, <a href="#Page_286">xii: 286</a>;</li> + <li>war functions, viii: 283;</li> + <li>collapse of Russian system, under war stress, viii: 283;</li> + <li>work of German railroads during War, viii: 283-285;</li> + <li>narrow-gauge, at the front, viii: 302;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Bagdad Railway.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Railway Artillery Reserve, + <ul class="index"> + <li>U. S., formation, v: 305;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 305;</li> + <li>engagements on Western Front, v: 306-308;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> U. S. Army, Artillery.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Rainbow (42nd) Division, <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>Rambucourt, on Toul sector, v: 116.</li> +<li>Ramscappelle, German success at, Oct. 30, '14, iii: 40.</li> +<li><cite>Ramsey</cite>, British patrol boat, sunk by German auxiliary cruiser <cite>Meteor</cite>, iv, 197.</li> +<li>Ramsgate, bombarded by German destroyers, Nov. 25, '16, i: 389.</li> +<li>Range-finder, telescopic, structure and use of, viii: 9.</li> +<li>Range-finding, <em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Artillery;</li> + <li>Hydrophones;</li> + <li>Microphone;</li> + <li>Phonotelemeter.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Rapallo Conference, iii: 84.</li> +<li>Rappes, Bois des, captured by 3rd Div., Oct., '18, v: 85.</li> +<li>Rasputin, Gregory, + <ul class="index"> + <li>influence over Czarina and Russian court, vi: 141;</li> + <li>assassinated, '16, vi: 141;</li> + <li>influence places Protopopov in power, vi: 143;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 345-347.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ravaruska, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russian success in battle of, Sept. 4—10, '14, iii: 122;</li> + <li>captured by Austro-German forces, June 20, '15, iii: 136.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Rawlinson, Gen., commander of British Fourth Army, ii: 214, iii: 371.</li> +<li>Raynal, Major, defender of Fort Vaux, iii: 55, 313.</li> +<li>Read, Maj.-Gen. George W., commander, + <ul class="index"> + <li>30th Div., June, '18, v: 146;</li> + <li>commands 2nd Corps, v: 290, 382, 394;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 223-224.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Read, Lieut.-Com., pilots <cite>N-C-4</cite>, first airplane across Atlantic, viii: 240.</li> +<li>Rebais, Germans beaten back at, in first Marne battle, iii: 32.</li> +<li>Reconstruction of devastated war areas, German obligations under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_223">xii: 223</a>.</li> +<li>Reconstruction of disabled, + <ul class="index"> + <li>American help for vocational training of French disabled, vii: 79, 92-95;</li> + <li>program of European belligerents, vii: 175;</li> + <li>in U. S. Army, vii: 175-186, 210-216, 222, 233-239;</li> + <li>importance of first aid, vii: 178;</li> + <li>treatment of shell-shock, vii: 179;</li> + <li>percent. of injured returned to service, vii: 180;</li> + <li>system of vocational training for U. S. service men, vii: 180-182, 210-216, 236-239;</li> + <li>educational personnel for training of U. S. service men, vii: 180, 185;</li> + <li>care of blinded U. S. service men, vii: 182, 213;</li> + <li>correcting speech defects in U. S. military hospitals, vii: 182, 213;</li> + <li>work of U. S. dental officers, vii: 210;</li> + <li>in civilian industries, vii: 240-245;</li> + <li>mechanical treatments for injured limbs, viii: 381-384;</li> + <li>artificial arms for war cripples, viii: 384-388;</li> + <li>artificial legs for war cripples, viii: 388-390;</li> + <li>remaking shell-torn faces, viii: 390;</li> + <li>artificial eyes for war blind, viii: 391;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Medical science;</li> + <li>Surgery.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Recouly, Raymond, + <ul class="index"> + <li>account of first Marne battle, ii: 182-186;</li> + <li>account of Verdun battle, ii: 186-189.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Recreation, for service men, <em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Entertainment;</li> + <li>Sports.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Recruiting, <em>see</em> under country.</li> +<li>Red Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Russia, organized by Trotzky, vi: 185;</li> + <li>in Munich, raised by Munich Soviet, vi: 300;</li> + <li>in Hungary, under Communist Government, vi: 326.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Red Cross: + <ul class="index"> + <li>American, + <ul class="index"> + <li>relief work in Italy, ii: 250, vii: 42, 82;</li> + <li>Henry P. Davison, Chairman of War Council, vii: 1;</li> + <li>war-time activities, summary, vii: 1;</li> + <li>amount of contributions to, vii: 1;</li> + <li>increase in membership, vii: 1;</li> + <li>personnel in France, vii: 1;</li> + <li>Clara Barton, mother of, vii: 12;</li> + <li>peace time activities, vii: 14;</li> + <li>war organization, vii: 15-27;</li> + <li>raising war funds, vii: 15-27;</li> + <li>total relief expenditures, vii: 27;</li> + <li>range of activities, vii: 29;</li> + <li>location of base hospitals, vii: 30;</li> + <li>location of ambulance companies, vii: 30-31;</li> + <li>sanitary service, vii: 31-32;</li> + <li>nursing personnel, vii: 33;</li> + <li>canteen service, vii: 33, 42, 47-49, 54, 57;</li> + <li>auxiliary activities for service men's comfort, vii: 34;</li> + <li>recruiting services of nation's womanhood, vii: 34;</li> + <li>home service work, vii: 35;</li> + <li>services abroad, vii: 35-40;</li> + <li>hospital work in France, vii: 37, 45;</li> + <li>work for American prisoners in Germany, vii: 37-39, 71;</li> + <li>relief activities in England, vii: 40, 45;</li> + <li>with the Navy, vii: 41;</li> + <li>relief work among belligerents during U. S. neutrality, vii: 43-46;</li> + <li>hospital work in Germany, vii: 45;</li> + <li>hospital work in Austria-Hungary, vii: 45;</li> + <li>relief for Serbia, vii: 45, 84;</li> + <li>stories of overseas service with fighting men, vii: 47-72;</li> + <li>work for wounded, vii: 49-54, 56, 60-64;</li> + <li>ambulance service at the front, vii: 49-51;</li> + <li>tales of wounded, vii: 51-54;</li> + <li>hotels for service men in Paris, vii: 54;</li> + <li>supplying delicacies to wounded, vii: 56;</li> + <li>huts, vii: 59;</li> + <li>entertainment, vii: 60;</li> + <li>as bureau of information, vii: 62-64; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></p></li> + + <li>helping doughboys shop in France, vii: 64;</li> + <li>department store for overseas service men, vii: 66;</li> + <li>production of surgical dressings, vii: 67;</li> + <li>production of nitrous oxide, vii: 68;</li> + <li>baths and laundries behind the lines, vii: 70;</li> + <li>Children's Bureau, activities for welfare of child war sufferers, vii: 72, 76-79, xi: 85-90;</li> + <li>relief among Allied civilians, vii: 73-85;</li> + <li>relief among French refugees, vii: 73;</li> + <li>fight against tuberculosis in France, vii: 75;</li> + <li>education of French disabled, vii: 79;</li> + <li>relief for Belgian refugees, vii: 82;</li> + <li>relief in Rumania, vii: 84;</li> + <li>work in Palestine, vii: 84;</li> + <li>Institute for the Blind, vii: 259;</li> + <li>letters of appreciation from refugee children, xi: 60;</li> + <li>Junior American Red Cross, activities, xi: 90-93;</li> + <li>help by Boy Scouts, xi: 108;</li> + <li>letter from "Chinese citizen boy," xi: 179.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>International, in Switzerland, vi: 380; + <ul class="index"> + <li>World League of, vii: 3;</li> + <li>history of development, vii: 4-14;</li> + <li>Florence Nightingale, first field nurse, vii: 11;</li> + <li>U. S. becomes member, vii: 14.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Red Cross Nurse</cite>, poem by Edith Thomas, vii: 279.</li> +<li>"Red Monday," during Russian Revolution, Mar. 12, '17, vi: 150.</li> +<li>"Red Week," rioting during, in Italy, June, '14, vi: 114.</li> +<li>"Reds," <em>see</em> Bolshevism.</li> +<li>Reeves, Col. Ira L., mlitary superintendent, A. E. F. University at Beaune, vii: 283.</li> +<li>Refrigerating plants, constructed by A. E. F. in France, v: 403.</li> +<li>Refugees, <em>see</em> War relief.</li> +<li>Regan, 2nd Lieut. Patrick, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395.</li> +<li>Reichstag, German, + <ul class="index"> + <li>limitations as legislative body, i: 71;</li> + <li>composition and powers, i: 156.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Reims (Rheims), + <ul class="index"> + <li>abandoned by Allies, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>re-occupied by French, Sept. 15, '14, i: 376;</li> + <li>Cathedral bombarded by Germans, iii: 74, vi: 97;</li> + <li>attacked by Crown Prince, June, '18, iii: 95;</li> + <li>description of surrounding country, v: 43;</li> + <li>gateway between Germany and France, v: 215.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Reiter's Morganlied</cite>, German air, xi: 335.</li> +<li>Relief, <em>see</em> War relief.</li> +<li>Religion, + <ul class="index"> + <li>diversity of, obstacle to world federation, i: 25;</li> + <li>work of Y. M. C. A. with troops overseas, vii: 283-285.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Remington self-loading rifle, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description, viii: 89;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Rifles.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Remonville, + <ul class="index"> + <li>location, v: 217;</li> + <li>captured by 89th Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 262.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Remounts, + <ul class="index"> + <li>construction of depots for, by A. E. F., v: 333;</li> + <li>procuring of, for A. E. F., v: 399.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Renault tank, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description, viii: 156;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Tanks.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Rennenkampf, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander of Russian forces invading East Prussia, '14, ii: 24, 227, iii: 110;</li> + <li>driven out of East Prussia by Hindenburg, ii: 25, 229, iii: 116;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's account of retreat, ii: 355;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>East Prussia;</li> + <li>Tannenberg, battle of.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Renner, Dr., + <ul class="index"> + <li>becomes Austrian Chancellor, '19, vi: 319;</li> + <li>Bolshevik uprising against, vi: 321;</li> + <li>conciliatory attitude at Peace Conference, vi: 321.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Renwick, George, description of Munich under Red Terror, vi: 301.</li> +<li>Repair shops, U. S. Ordnance, in France, v: 350.</li> +<li>Reparation, by Germany, Peace Treaty provisions, <a href="#Page_217">xii: 217-225</a>.</li> +<li>Reparation Commission, formation and functions, <a href="#Page_158">xii: 158</a>, <a href="#Page_219">xii: 219-221</a>.</li> +<li>Repatriés, returned French exiles, xi: 75.</li> +<li>Repington, Colonel, + <ul class="index"> + <li>military correspondent of <cite>London Times</cite>,</li> + <li>exposes British shell shortage, May, '15, ii: 174.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Replacement system, plan for A. E. F., '17, v: 102, 399.</li> +<li>Respirators, + <ul class="index"> + <li>number issued by U. S. Army, v: 324;</li> + <li>utility as defense against poison gas, viii: 174-178;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Chemical warfare.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Responsibility for the War, <em>see</em> Germany, Responsibility for War.</li> +<li>Retreats, famous examples of, in history, iii: 280.</li> +<li><cite>Return, The</cite>, poem by John Freeman, ix: 331.</li> +<li>Reval, seized by Germans, Feb. 24, '18, i: 393.</li> +<li>Reventlow, Count Ernst Zu, condemnation of democratic rule in Germany, vi: 284.</li> +<li>Reville, taken by 5th Div., Nov. 8, '18, v: 272.</li> +<li>Revolver, use as military weapon, viii: 117.</li> +<li>Reynolds, Col. C. R., Chief Surgeon, Second Army, v: 346.</li> +<li>Rheims, <em>see</em> Reims.</li> +<li>Rhine River, + <ul class="index"> + <li>French strategy in regard to, ii: 8;</li> + <li>German fortifications on, Peace Treaty provisions concerning, <a href="#Page_189">xii: 189</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty provisions for international control and navigation, <a href="#Page_250">xii: 250-253</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ribot, Alexandre, succeeds Briand as French Premier, '17, vi: 103.</li> +<li>Rice, Brig.-Gen. John H., Chief Ordnance Officer, A. E. F., v: 350.</li> +<li>Richthofen, Capt. Baron Manfred Freiherr von, career as aviator, x: 253-255.</li> +<li>Rickenbacker, Capt. Eddie, career as aviator, x: 259-264.</li> +<li>Rieka, Slav name of Fiume, vi: 365.</li> +<li>Rifles, + <ul class="index"> + <li>type used by A. E. F., description and reasons for adoption, v: 347, viii: 96, 102-105;</li> + <li>U. S. production figures, v: 347, <a href="#Page_284">xii: 284</a>;</li> + <li>types, viii: 84, 88-105;</li> + <li>Browning automatic, viii: 84;</li> + <li>automatic, difference from machine-gun, viii: 88;</li> + <li>importance of rapid fire, viii: 88;</li> + <li>self-loading, compared with machine-gun, viii: 88;</li> + <li>principal self-loading types, viii: 89-91;</li> + <li>Remington, viii: 89;</li> + <li>Sjorgen, viii: 89;</li> + <li>Winchester, viii: 89;</li> + <li>rifle fire and artillery compared, viii: 92;</li> + <li>range of military rifle, viii: 92;</li> + <li>"danger zone" in rifle fire, viii: 93;</li> + <li>advantages of sharp-nosed bullet, viii: 93;</li> + <li>comparison to gas engine, viii: 94;</li> + <li>British service rifles, description, viii: 95;</li> + <li>Lee type, viii: 95;</li> + <li>Enfield-M type, viii: 95;</li> + <li>French service rifle, description, viii: 95;</li> + <li>German Mauser, description, viii: 95;</li> + <li>sighting devices, viii: 96-102;</li> + <li>definition of "bore," viii: 111;</li> + <li>definition and purpose of "rifling," viii: 111.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Rifle lights, viii: 75.</li> +<li>"Rifling" of gun, definition and purpose, viii: 111-112.</li> +<li>Riga, occupied by Germans, Sept. 3, '17, i: 390, iii: 147, iv: 136.</li> +<li>Riga, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Gulf of, description, iv: 136-137;</li> + <li>German naval operations in, '15—'17, iv: 137-138;</li> + <li>battle of, and capture of dominating islands by Germans, Oct. 12—18, '17, iv: 137-138.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Rintelen, Capt. Franz von, German agent in U. S., i: 315.</li> +<li>Ritchings, Lieut.-Col. Arthur, rise from constable to lieutenant-colonel, x: 378.</li> +<li><cite>River Clyde</cite>, British transport at Gallipoli, iii: 168, iv: 39.</li> +<li>Riviera, A. E. F. leave area, Y. M. C. A. work in, vii: 269.</li> +<li>Rizzo, Commander Luigi, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sinks Austrian battleships in motor-boat attack, iv: 370;</li> + <li>sinks Austrian battleships, <cite>Wien</cite> and <cite>Monarch</cite>, in Trieste harbor, x: 290.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Road to France, The</cite>, poem by Daniel M. Henderson, vi: 131.</li> +<li>Roads, construction by A. E. F. in France, v: 334, 403.</li> +<li>Robb, 1st Lieut. George S., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 402.</li> +<li>Robeck, Vice-Adm. de, succeeds Vice-Adm. Carden in command of Allied fleet at Gallipoli, iv: 32.</li> +<li>Roberts, Lieut. E. M., record as aviator, x: 249-252.</li> +<li>Roberts, Corp. Harold W., American tank driver, wins Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 402, xi: 386.</li> +<li>Robertson, Gen. Sir William, + <ul class="index"> + <li>appointed British Chief of General Staff, ii: <em>Intro. xviii</em>;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 184-186.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Rockenbach, Brig.-Gen. Samuel D., commander U. S. Tank Corps, v: 314. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></p></li> + +<li>Rockwell, Kiffin, member of Lafayette Escadrille, killed in Vosges, iii: 391.</li> +<li>Rodman, Admiral, biography, ix: 293-295.</li> +<li>Rodzianko, Michael V., President of Russian Duma, vi: 150.</li> +<li>Rogers, Maj.-Gen. H. L., Chief Quartermaster of A. E. F., v: 332.</li> +<li>Rohrbach, Paul, German publicist, on Anglo-German rivalry, vi: 251.</li> +<li>Romagne, captured by 32nd Div., Oct. 14, '18. v: 250.</li> +<li>Romagne-sous-Montfaucon, American cemetery at, v: 403.</li> +<li>Romani, Turks defeated by British at, Aug., '16, iii: 192.</li> +<li>Romanoffs, + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Nicholas II;</li> + <li>Russia, Royal family.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Romorantin, U. S., aircraft plant at, v: 313.</li> +<li>Ronchères, captured by 3rd Div., July 28, '18, v: 188.</li> +<li>Roosevelt, Capt. Archie, war record, x: 238.</li> +<li>Roosevelt, Capt. Kermit, war record, x: 241.</li> +<li>Roosevelt, Lieut. Quentin, + <ul class="index"> + <li>record as aviator, x: 241-249;</li> + <li>killed in air fight, x: 245-249.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Roosevelt, Theodore, + <ul class="index"> + <li>fight against "big business," i: 293;</li> + <li>against U. S. neutrality, i: 299;</li> + <li>temperament contrasted with that of Pres. Wilson, i: 299;</li> + <li>probable course of action if President during War, i: 302;</li> + <li>pro-German sentiments in '14, i: 309;</li> + <li>statement on <cite>Lusitania</cite> sinking, i: 320;</li> + <li>statement on universal military training, Nov., '15, i: 326;</li> + <li>attacks Pres. Wilson's note asking belligerents for statement of war aims, i: 337.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Roosevelt, Lieut.-Col. Theodore, Jr., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands 26th Inf. at Cantigny, May 28, '18, v: 126;</li> + <li>at Sedan, Nov. 7, '18, v: 269;</li> + <li>war record, x: 241.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Roosevelt, Mrs. Theodore, Jr., + <ul class="index"> + <li>"Y" worker in Bordeaux, vii: 267;</li> + <li>in charge of Aix-les-Bains leave area, vii: 269.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Root-Takahira agreement, '08, i: 57.</li> +<li>Rosenwald, Julius, member, Advisory Commission of U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_116">xii: 116</a>.</li> +<li>Rossetti, Lieut.-Col. R., + <ul class="index"> + <li>sinks Austrian warship <cite>Viribus Unitis</cite> in Pola harbor, x: 297-303.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Rosyth, + <ul class="index"> + <li>advance base for British battle cruisers, iv: 91, 94;</li> + <li>meeting place for arranging surrender of German fleet, iv: 384.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Roulers, German base in France, ii: 86.</li> +<li>Rowlatt, Justice, author of "Black Cobra Bill" of India, '18, vi: 78.</li> +<li>Royal Air Force, British, <em>see</em> Great Britain, Air Service.</li> +<li><cite>Royal Edward</cite>, British transport sunk, Aug. 13, '15, i: 381.</li> +<li>Royal families, <em>see</em> country.</li> +<li>Roye, captured by Allies, Aug. 27, '18, i: 397, ii: 157.</li> +<li>Rozyshche, captured by Russians, June, '16, iii: 144.</li> +<li>Rue, training area for 27th Div., '18, v: 286.</li> +<li>Ruggles orientator, for testing aviators, viii: 356-358.</li> +<li>Ruhleben, German prison camp, American "Y" work at, vii: 303.</li> +<li><cite>Rule Britannia</cite>, British patriotic song, xi: 333.</li> +<li>Rumania, + <ul class="index"> + <li>gains independence from Turkey, i: 92;</li> + <li>intervention in Second Balkan War, '13, i: 206;</li> + <li>declares war on Austria-Hungary, Aug. 27, '16, i: 386;</li> + <li>Germany declares war on, Aug. 28, '16, i: 386;</li> + <li>Turkey declares war on, Aug. 29, '16, i: 386;</li> + <li>Bulgaria declares war on, Sept. 1, '16, i: 386;</li> + <li>reasons for entry into War, ii: 59, iii: 214, vi: 348-349;</li> + <li>betrayed by Russia, ii: 59, iii: 221, vi: 349;</li> + <li>natural resources, ii: 59;</li> + <li>invades Transylvania, ii: 60, iii: 217, vi: 313, xi: 28;</li> + <li>conquered by Teuton forces under Mackensen and Falkenhayn, ii: 60, iii: 218-224, vi: 349, xi: 29;</li> + <li>topography, iii, 214;</li> + <li>failure of Allied support, iii: 214;</li> + <li>army, training and equipment, iii: 215;</li> + <li>strategy of campaigns, iii: 216;</li> + <li>Bucharest captured by Germans, Dec. 6, '16, iii: 222;</li> + <li>government moved to Jassy, Nov., '16, iii: 223, vi: 349;</li> + <li>prisoners of war, iii: 404;</li> + <li>total casualties, iii: 404, vi: 353, <a href="#Page_289">xii: 289</a>;</li> + <li>civilian deaths from disease and famine, iii: 405;</li> + <li>attacks Hungarian republic, '19, vi: 326;</li> + <li>race problems, vi: 348;</li> + <li>policy of neutrality, vi: 348;</li> + <li>secret treaty with Allies as war price, iii: 349;</li> + <li>suffering under Teuton invasion, vi: 349, 353;</li> + <li>struggle with Russian Bolsheviki in Bessarabia, vi: 350-352;</li> + <li>signs peace treaty with Central Powers, May 7, '17, vi: 352;</li> + <li>peace terms imposed by Germany, vi: 352;</li> + <li>conditions after armistice, Nov., '18, vi: 353;</li> + <li>royal family, ix: 399-402;</li> + <li>debt to U. S., <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18</a>;</li> + <li>money equivalent of man-power lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>value of property loss, <a href="#Page_26">xii: 26</a>;</li> + <li>war cost, Aug., '16—Oct., '18, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>rise in national debt, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Conference delegates, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>;</li> + <li>former treaties with Germany abrogated by Treaty of Versailles, <a href="#Page_232">xii: 232</a>;</li> + <li>area, '19, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>population, '19, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Rumania</cite>, poem by George Edward Woodberry, vi: 347.</li> +<li>Rumanian National Hymn, xi: 329.</li> +<li>Rumanian Relief Committee of America, vii: 109.</li> +<li>Rumeli Medjidieh Battery, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Fort at Gallipoli, iv: 45;</li> + <li>bombarded by Allied fleet, iv: 45.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Rupel, Greek fortress, seized by Bulgars, May, '16, iii: 207.</li> +<li><cite>Rupert Brooke</cite>, poem by Moray Dalton, vii: 285.</li> +<li>Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria, army commands, iii: 10, 61.</li> +<li>Ruroede, Carl, leader in German passport frauds in U. S., x: 333.</li> +<li>Russell, Bertrand, British philosopher, + <ul class="index"> + <li>dismissed from Cambridge University for supporting conscientious objectors, vi: 8;</li> + <li>on effects of War, vi: 11.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Russell</cite>, British battleship sunk in Mediterranean, Apr. 27, '16, i: 385.</li> +<li>Russia: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>mobilization, July 31, '14, i: 375, iii: 264;</li> + <li>German estimate of effectiveness, ii: 4;</li> + <li>man-power available, ii: 27;</li> + <li>lack of resources to equip manpower, ii: 27-28;</li> + <li>shortage of ammunition, ii: 231, iii: 264;</li> + <li>machine-gun equipment, ii: 232;</li> + <li>artillery equipment deficient, ii: 232;</li> + <li>collapse of, v: 113, vi: 157, 164; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Ludendorff on, ii: 340;</li> + <li>Gen. Denikin's report, iii: 146, 267-270;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>organization and strength, iii: 104;</li> + <li>weaknesses, iii: 105;</li> + <li>Czar takes personal command, Sept. 8, '16, iii: 140;</li> + <li>leading commanders pledge support to Republican Government, Mar., '17, iii: 145;</li> + <li>vice in, iii: 267;</li> + <li>causes of demoralization, iii: 268;</li> + <li>balloting substituted for fighting, iii: 268;</li> + <li>desertions, iii: 269, vi: 157, 164;</li> + <li>Bolshevist propaganda in, iii: 269, vi: 157, 164;</li> + <li>Cossack cavalry, strength, vi: 146;</li> + <li>fraternization with enemy, vi: 157, 161;</li> + <li>Kerensky abolishes death penalty, vi: 157;</li> + <li>Red Army raised by Trotzky, vi: 185;</li> + <li>for military operations, <em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russian Front;</li> + <li>battle or campaign.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Casualties, + <ul class="index"> + <li>total in War, iii: 404;</li> + <li>civilian deaths from disease and famine, iii: 406;</li> + <li>money equivalent of man-power lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>battle deaths, <a href="#Page_288">xii: 288</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Coal, production, '13—'17, <a href="#Page_48">xii: 48</a>.</li> + <li>Cost of living, percent. rise during War, <em>Intro. x.</em></li> + <li>Declarations of war, + <ul class="index"> + <li>pledge of aid to Serbia against Austria, July 27, '14, i: 114;</li> + <li>by Germany against, Aug. 1, '14, i: 115, 139, 375;</li> + <li>by Austria against, Aug. 6, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>on Bulgaria by, Oct. 19, '15, i: 382;</li> + <li>on Turkey by, Oct. 30, '14, i: 376;</li> + <li>reception by populace, iii: 264, vi: 134-135;</li> + <li>ultimatum to Bulgaria, Oct. 4, '15, vi: 343.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Food, + <ul class="index"> + <li>shortage, vi: 141, 144, 145;</li> + <li>potato crop, <a href="#Page_47">xii: 47</a>.</li> + </ul> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></p></li> + + <li>Foreign policy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Asiatic expansion, i: 20;</li> + <li>seizure of Port Arthur from China, i: 20;</li> + <li>gains freedom of action in Black Sea, 1871, i: 47;</li> + <li>world position in '14, i: 62;</li> + <li>ambitions in Near East checked by Congress of Berlin, i: 93;</li> + <li>German influence, i: 95, 240;</li> + <li>Entente Cordiale with France, 1891, i: 98;</li> + <li>member of Triple Entente, i: 98, 103, 106;</li> + <li>settlement of Persian question with Great Britain, '07, i: 104;</li> + <li>Franco-Russian treaty of July, '12, i: 107;</li> + <li>Balkan policy, i: 114;</li> + <li>pledge of aid to Serbia against Austria, July 27, '14, i: 114;</li> + <li>negotiations in attempt to prevent the War, i: 126-129;</li> + <li>hatred of Germany, i: 242;</li> + <li>German view of, i: 242;</li> + <li>betrayal of Rumania by German agents in Government, ii: 59, iii: 221, vi: 349;</li> + <li>imperialistic ambitions, vi: 132;</li> + <li>treachery of Government exposed by Milyukov, Nov., '16, vi: 142;</li> + <li>secret treaties made public by Trotzky, vi: 183;</li> + <li>Soviet Government makes peace with Germany, vi: 183-185;</li> + <li>relations of Soviet with Allies, vi: 187-188;</li> + <li>hostility to Ukrainian nationalistic aspirations, vi: 241;</li> + <li>treaty with Japan, '16, vi: 386;</li> + <li>for relations with Finland, <em>see</em> Finland.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Industries, + <ul class="index"> + <li>inadequate for war needs, ii: 27-28;</li> + <li>hampered by lack of port facilities, iii: 161;</li> + <li>chaotic condition during War, <a href="#Page_82">xii: 82</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Internal politics, + <ul class="index"> + <li>war enthusiasm, Aug., '14, iii: 264, vi: 134-135;</li> + <li>prohibition of vodka, iii: 265, vi: 135;</li> + <li>revolutionary outbreaks before War, vi: 132-134;</li> + <li>Socialists oppose War, vi: 134;</li> + <li>attack of Duma on War Office for inefficiency, Aug., '15, vi: 136;</li> + <li>Minister of War Sukhomlinov arrested and disgraced, vi: 136;</li> + <li>request for new ministry refused by Czar, '15, vi: 136;</li> + <li>Duma dissolved, Sept., '15, vi: 136;</li> + <li>peace sentiment, '15, vi: 138;</li> + <li>Lenin advocates defeat of Russia, vi: 140;</li> + <li>Stürmer succeeds Goremykin as Prime Minister, vi: 140;</li> + <li>Duma reconvenes, Feb. 22, '16, vi: 140;</li> + <li>attack of Socialist Cheidze on Government, vi: 140;</li> + <li>influence of Rasputin at Court, vi: 141;</li> + <li>Rasputin murdered, vi: 141;</li> + <li>Stürmer becomes Foreign Minister, July, '16, vi: 142;</li> + <li>Stürmer dismissed under accusations of corruption and treachery, vi: 142;</li> + <li>repressive policy of Protopopov, Minister of Interior, '17, vi: 143;</li> + <li>Golytsin succeeds to Premiership, '17, vi: 143;</li> + <li>threats of revolt in Duma, Feb., '17, vi: 144;</li> + <li>Revolution starts in Petrograd, Mar., '17, vi: 145;</li> + <li>Duma disobeys Czar's order of dismissal, Mar., '17, vi: 146;</li> + <li>leaders and policies at start of Revolution, vi: 148;</li> + <li>revolutionary scenes in Petrograd, Mar. 11—15, '17, vi: 148-156;</li> + <li>Czar disregards appeals for liberal ministry, vi: 150, 151;</li> + <li>Red Monday, Mar. 12, '17, vi: 150-153;</li> + <li>arrest of ministers of old régime, vi: 153;</li> + <li>reform <em>vs.</em> revolution, Mar., '17, vi: 153-157;</li> + <li>Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates formed, Mar. 12, '17, vi: 155;</li> + <li>Provisional Government under Prince Lvov formed by Duma, Mar. 14, '17, vi: 155;</li> + <li>Czar abdicates, Mar. 15, '17, vi: 156;</li> + <li>struggle between Provisional Government and Soviet on war policy, vi: 158-160;</li> + <li>fall of Liberal ministry and formation of coalition cabinet, vi: 160;</li> + <li>peasant societies, vi: 160;</li> + <li>statement of policy by coalition Government, vi: 161;</li> + <li>Bolshevist uprising suppressed, July, '17, vi: 161-165;</li> + <li>Kerensky becomes virtual dictator, vi: 165;</li> + <li>rivalry between Kerensky and Kornilov for power, vi: 167-171;</li> + <li>Moscow Conference, vi: 167;</li> + <li>Kornilov rebellion fails, vi: 169;</li> + <li>Kerensky declares Russia a Republic, Sept. 15, '17, vi: 171;</li> + <li>Bolshevist revolution overthrows Kerensky, Nov., '17, vi: 171-181;</li> + <li>Lenin becomes President of Council of People's Commissaries, vi: 181;</li> + <li>Trotzky becomes Commissary of Foreign Affairs, vi: 181;</li> + <li>Bolshevist program, vi: 181;</li> + <li>opposition of middle classes to Bolshevik rule, vi: 181;</li> + <li>Constituent Assembly dissolved by Bolsheviki, Jan., '18, vi: 185;</li> + <li>Congress of Soviets substituted for Constituent Assembly, vi: 185;</li> + <li>reign of terror under Bolshevist régime, vi: 187.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Navy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Black Sea fleet bombards Bosphorus forts, iv: 49;</li> + <li>strength of Black Sea fleet, iv: 50;</li> + <li>development, iv: 364;</li> + <li>strength of Baltic fleet, iv: 364;</li> + <li>war record, iv: 364-366;</li> + <li>part in Revolution, iv: 366, vi: 164.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Peace negotiations, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Brest-Litovsk Treaty ends war with Central Powers, Mar., '18, ii: 63, 273, vi: 183;</li> + <li>armistice with Germany signed, Dec. 6, '17, v: 113;</li> + <li>movement for peace by radicals and conservatives, '15, vi: 138;</li> + <li>Soviet demands immediate Socialist peace conference, vi: 161;</li> + <li>nature of Bolshevik peace propaganda, vi: 171-175;</li> + <li>Versailles Treaty, provisions on, Russo-German relations, <a href="#Page_205">xii: 205</a>;</li> + <li>treaties with Germany abrogated by Versailles Treaty, <a href="#Page_232">xii: 232</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Prisoners of war, iii: 404.</li> + <li>Railroads, + <ul class="index"> + <li>military, iii: 105;</li> + <li>Petrograd-Berlin line, iii: 111;</li> + <li>importance of Warsaw as junction, iii: 138;</li> + <li>Brest-Litovsk line, military importance, iii: 138;</li> + <li>collapse under war stress, viii: 283.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Royal family, xi: 145-149; + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see also</em> Nicholas II.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>War cost, + <ul class="index"> + <li>currency inflation by Bolsheviki, <a href="#Page_xiii">xii: <em>Intro. xiii</em></a>;</li> + <li>financial position at start of War, <a href="#Page_1">xii: 1</a>;</li> + <li>loans floated in U. S., Aug., '14—Jan., '17, <a href="#Page_2">xii: 2</a>;</li> + <li>debt to U. S., <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18</a>;</li> + <li>money equivalent of man-power lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>value of property loss, <a href="#Page_26">xii: 26</a>;</li> + <li>average daily cost, <a href="#Page_106">xii: 106</a>;</li> + <li>total cost, Aug., '14—Oct., '17, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>taxation, <a href="#Page_109">xii: 109</a>;</li> + <li>loans, <a href="#Page_113">xii: 113</a>;</li> + <li>rise in national debt, <a href="#Page_113">xii: 113-114</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Russian Front, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German analysis of strength and strategic importance, Aug., '14, ii: 12-16;</li> + <li>strategic plans of Russia and Central Powers, ii: 22, iii: 109-110; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Gen. Gourko's explanation, ii: 225;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Russian invasion of Galicia, '14—'15, ii: 22-24, 26, iii: 118-124, 127, 132-134;</li> + <li>Lemberg captured by Russians, Sept. 3, '14, ii: 23, iii: 121;</li> + <li>operations in East Prussia, '14, ii: 24, iii: 110-116; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Gen. Gourko's account, ii: 227-229;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's account, ii: 353-357;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>battle of Tannenberg, Aug., '14, ii: 24, iii: 112-116;</li> + <li>campaigns in Poland, ii: 25, 26, 229, iii: 116-120, 124-127, 128-132, 137-141; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Ludendorff's account,ii: 361-365;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Przemysl, siege and capture by Russians, ii: 26, iii: 123, 125, 127, 134, 292, xi: 16;</li> + <li>successful Teuton counter-offensive in Galicia under Mackensen, May, '15, ii: 26, 233, iii: 135-137, 294-296, vi: 258, 311; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Ludendorff's account, ii: 360;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Warsaw, German attacks on and capture, ii: 26, iii: 128-130, 131, 138;</li> + <li>Brusiloff's offensive in Galicia, '16, ii: 42-44, 235, iii: 141-145;</li> + <li>Russian collapse, '17, ii: 54, iii: 146, v: 113, vi: 157, 164; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Ludendorff on, ii: 340;</li> + <li>Gen. Denikin's report, iii: 267-270;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>campaigns in Caucasus and Armenia, ii: 91-92, iii: 260-263, vi: 331, xi: 29;</li> + <li>capture of Erzerum, Feb. 16, '16, ii: 91, iii: 262-263;</li> + <li>effect of invasion of East Prussia on first Marne battle, ii: 227;</li> + <li>reasons for weakness of Russian fortresses, ii: 230;</li> + <li>Przemysl recaptured by Teuton forces, June 1—2, '15, ii: 234, iii: 136; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></p></li> + + <li>Lemberg recaptured by Austrians, June 22, '15, ii: 234, iii: 137;</li> + <li>topography, iii: 106-109;</li> + <li>last Russian offensive in Galicia, July, '17, iii: 146;</li> + <li>battle experiences on, iii: 316;</li> + <li>activities of A. E. F. against Bolsheviki, v: 394, vi: 187, 193;</li> + <li>description of Russian trenches, viii: 123;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>East Prussia;</li> + <li>Galicia;</li> + <li>Mazurian Lakes;</li> + <li>Poland.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Russky, Gen., commander of Russian forces invading Galicia, iii: 119.</li> +<li>Ruthenians, + <ul class="index"> + <li>clash with Poles for control of eastern Galicia, vi: 217, 248;</li> + <li>cultural freedom under Austrian rule, vi: 241;</li> + <li>attempts at forced Russification during Russian occupation of Galicia, vi: 243.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ryan, Michael J., Irish-American delegate to Peace Conference vi: 66.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Sin" id="Sin">S</a></li> +<li>Saarbrücken, British air raid on, Oct. 25, '17, i: 392.</li> +<li>Saarburg, occupied by French, Aug. 17, '14, i: 375.</li> +<li>"Sacred Egoism," Italian foreign policy of, vi: 120.</li> +<li>"Sacred Way, The," highway to Verdun, iii: 50.</li> +<li>Sag paste, developed by U. S. Chemical Warfare Service as protection against mustard gas, v: 324.</li> +<li>Saïd Pasha Zagloul, Egyptian Nationalist leader, vi: 70.</li> +<li>Sailly-Saillisel, objective in Somme battle, '16, iii: 58.</li> +<li>St. Benoit, captured by 42nd Div., Sept. 13, '18, v: 211.</li> +<li>St. Dunstan's Home for British blind, vii: 259.</li> +<li>St. Etienne, captured by 71st Brig., Oct. 8, '18, v: 257.</li> +<li>St. Gobain, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German defensive system captured by Allies in last drive, '18, ii: 214, xi: 52;</li> + <li>Germans bombard Paris from Forest of, iii: 88, viii: 45-47.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>St. Louis</cite>, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33.</li> +<li>St. Maurice Ridge, captured by 27th Div., v: 296.</li> +<li>St. Mihiel, + <ul class="index"> + <li>occupied by Germans, Sept. 26, '14, i: 376, iii: 37, v: 199;</li> + <li>recaptured and salient wiped out by A. E. F., Sept. 12—15, '18, ii: 84, iii: 99, v: 65-72, 199-212, xi: 46; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Pershing's report, v: 384-386;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>strategic importance of A. E. F. operations, ii: 84, v: 200, 208, 384, 385-386;</li> + <li>strength of A. E. F, and French troops attacking, Sept., '18, iii: 99, v: 203, 385, 386;</li> + <li>German prisoners captured in operations against, Sept., '18, iii: 99, v: 71, 207, 208, 212, 386;</li> + <li>German artillery captured at, Sept., '18, iii: 99, v: 71, 207, 212, 386;</li> + <li>Allied casualties in reduction of salient, iii: 99, v: 71, 212, 386;</li> + <li>topography of salient, v: 65, 199;</li> + <li>list and disposition of A. E. F. and French divisions in drive against, Sept., '18, v: 65, 202, 386;</li> + <li>strength of German troops defending sector, Sept., '18, v: 201, 208;</li> + <li>strength and activities of Allied air service in drive against, Sept., '18, v: 206, 309, 386;</li> + <li>effect of victory on A. E. F. morale, v: 386.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>St. Nazaire, debarkation and embarkation port for A. E. F., v: 339, 396.</li> +<li>St. Pierremont, captured by 77th Div., Nov. 3, '18, v: 265.</li> +<li>St. Quentin, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German base in France, ii: 86;</li> + <li>Germans break through British lines at, Mar., '18, ii: 70-74, 150-151, 190-197, iii: 86-91; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Philip Gibbs's account, iii:381-390;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>unsuccessful French attacks on, Mar., '17, iii: 68;</li> + <li>captured by British, iii: 101.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>St. Quentin Canal, part of Hindenburg Line defenses, v: 292, 301.</li> +<li>St. Remy, captured by 26th Div. in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. 12, '18, v: 69, 212.</li> +<li>Saionji, Marquis, Japanese statesman, + <ul class="index"> + <li>causes fall of Terauchi Cabinet, vi: 388;</li> + <li>personal sketch, ix: 92.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sakharoff, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russian commander on Galician Front, iii: 142;</li> + <li>sent to defend Rumania against German invasion, '16, iii: 221, 223.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Salandra, Antonio, Italian Premier, + <ul class="index"> + <li>pro-Ally policy brings Italy into war against Germany, ii: 236-239, vi: 123-126;</li> + <li>Cabinet of, forced to resign, June, '16, vi: 127.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Salonika Campaign, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Maj.-Gen. Maurice on general military aspects of, ii: <em>Intro. xix</em>;</li> + <li>Allies fail to defend Rumania, ii: 62;</li> + <li>Allies' reasons for undertaking, iii: 201-202;</li> + <li>attitude of Greece on Allied occupation of Greek territory, iii: 202, 206;</li> + <li>strategy and military operations, iii: 202-213;</li> + <li>Allies land first troops, Oct. 3, '15, iii: 202;</li> + <li>Allied strength, Oct., '15, iii: 202;</li> + <li>Allies driven by Bulgars across Greek frontier, Oct.—Nov., '15, iii: 204-205;</li> + <li>Uskub captured by Bulgars, Oct. 9, '15, iii: 204;</li> + <li>Allies fortify Salonika position, iii: 205;</li> + <li>Bulgars occupy Greek territory, May, '16, iii: 207;</li> + <li>Gen. Sarrail proclaims martial law in Salonika, iii: 207;</li> + <li>Allies increase forces, May—Aug., '16, iii: 207;</li> + <li>Monastir captured by Allies, Nov. 19, '16, iii: 208-210;</li> + <li>Gen. d'Esperey succeeds Gen. Sarrail in command of Allied armies, iii: 212;</li> + <li>Allied and Bulgarian strengths, Sept., '18, iii: 212;</li> + <li>final Allied offensive crushes Bulgaria and forces surrender, Sept.—Oct., '18, iii: 212-213.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Salvage service, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British, activities of, ii: 131;</li> + <li>A. E. F., activities of, v: 331, viii: 345-348;</li> + <li>general functions, xi: 308-313.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Salvation Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>war work, vii: 379-400;</li> + <li>tales of experiences in war service, vii: 379-393;</li> + <li>"Ma" Burdick, soldiers' friend, vii: 384;</li> + <li>care of soldiers' graves in France, vii: 391;</li> + <li>home service, vii: 393;</li> + <li>huts and hostel service, vii: 395;</li> + <li>clothing bureau, vii: 397;</li> + <li>work with A. E. F., vii: 397;</li> + <li>as soldiers' forwarding agency, vii: 399;</li> + <li>employment bureaus, vii: 399;</li> + <li>finances, vii: 400.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Samoa, German, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by New Zealanders, vi: 38;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Samogneux, captured by Germans, Feb. 23, '16, iii: 48.</li> +<li><cite>Samouprava</cite>, Serbian journal, denounces terms of Italian secret treaty with Allies, vi: 361.</li> +<li>Sampler, Sgt. Samuel H., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397.</li> +<li>Samsonoff, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander of Russian forces invading East Prussia, defeated and killed in battle of Tannenberg, Aug., '14, ii: 24, 228, iii: 111-116;</li> + <li>Gen. Gourko's account of fate, ii: 228;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's account of fate, ii: 355;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Tannenberg, battle of.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>San, battle of the, May 15—17, '15, iii: 136.</li> +<li><cite>San Diego</cite>, U. S. cruiser sunk by mine, iv: 216.</li> +<li><cite>San Francisco</cite>, U. S. cruiser used in laying North Sea mine barrage, iv: 326.</li> +<li>San Giovanni di Medua, concentration of Serbian refugees at, iii: 284.</li> +<li>Sanders, Gen. Liman von, head of German Mission in Turkey, iii: 164.</li> +<li>Sandlin, Pvt. Willie, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397.</li> +<li>Sanitation, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Red Cross Sanitary Service, vii: 31-32;</li> + <li>Division of Sanitation, U. S. Army Medical Corps, war-time activities, vii: 191, 253;</li> + <li>prevention of infectious diseases among troops, viii: 392-397;</li> + <li>making drinking water safe for army, viii: 394-396;</li> + <li>taught by movies in war zone, xi: 89;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Disease;</li> + <li>Infection.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sanniyat, British repulsed at, in attempt to relieve Kut-el-Amara, iii: 185.</li> +<li>Santos-Dumont, development of aircraft by, xi: 221-223.</li> +<li>Sapieha, Prince Eustace, attempted <span lang="fr">coup d'état</span> against Pilsudski fails, vi: 222.</li> +<li>Sarajevo, <em>see</em> Serajevo.</li> +<li>Sarrail, Gen., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commands a French Army at first Marne battle, ii: 184;</li> + <li>defender of Verdun, '14, ii: 188, iii: 303;</li> + <li>commander of French forces at Salonika, iii: 62, 202.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sarre, battle of the, Aug. 18, '14, iii: 18. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></p></li> + +<li>Sarre Basin, Peace Treaty provisions concerning, <a href="#Page_189">xii: 189-194</a>.</li> +<li>Save River, Austrians cross in invading Serbia, Aug. 12, '14, iii: 151.</li> +<li>Savoy, neutralized zone of, Peace Treaty provisions concerning, <a href="#Page_262">xii: 262</a>.</li> +<li>Sawelson, Sgt. William, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400.</li> +<li>Saxony, Spartacide revolt in, Feb., '19, vi: 299.</li> +<li>Sayville wireless station, taken over by U. S. Govt., July 8, '15, i: 381.</li> +<li>Sazonov, Serge, + <ul class="index"> + <li>resigns as Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, July 23, '16, vi: 142;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 98-99.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Scandinavia, neutrality, vi: 392.</li> +<li>Scapa Flow, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British naval base, iv: 93;</li> + <li>German warships interned at, iv: 143.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Scarborough, bombarded by Germans, Dec. 16, '14, i: 376, iv: 245.</li> +<li>Scarpe sector, British drive on, Aug., '18, ii: 158.</li> +<li><cite>Scharnhorst</cite>, German cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in battle off Coronel, iv: 65, 66;</li> + <li>sunk in battle of Falkland Islands, iv: 70, 72, xi: 308; + <ul class="index"> + <li>eye-witness account, iv: 82.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Scheidemann, Philip, + <ul class="index"> + <li>leader of German Social-Democratic majority, vi: <em>Intro. xii</em>;</li> + <li>member of Ebert Government, Nov., '18, vi: 277;</li> + <li>elected Chancellor, Feb., '19, vi: 292;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 135-138.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Scheldt River, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Belgian claims to Dutch territory at mouth of, vi: 89;</li> + <li>strategic position, vi: 375.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Schleswig, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Danish attitude toward, vi: 393;</li> + <li>plebiscite provisions of Peace Treaty for, vi: 394, <a href="#Page_204">xii: 204</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Schlieffen, Gen. Count von, author of plan of German campaigns, Aug., '14, ii: 345.</li> +<li>Schmidt, Adm., German commander in battle of Riga Gulf, iv: 366.</li> +<li>Scholz, Walter, accomplice in German plot to blow up Allied ships, x: 371.</li> +<li>School, + <ul class="index"> + <li>of the soldier, xi: 159;</li> + <li>of the squad, xi: 161.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Schools, general educational program, + <ul class="index"> + <li>for A. E. F. at army centers and European universities, v: 106, vii: 281-283, 290;</li> + <li>for children in war zones, xi: 65-66;</li> + <li>U. S. Army training schools, <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Schwab, Charles M., biography and war service, ix: 332-334.</li> +<li>Science, in the War, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Field-Marshal Haig's tribute, ii: 124;</li> + <li>displaces importance of military strategy, viii: <em>Intro. vii.</em></li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Scots Wha Hae wi' Wallace Bled</cite>, Scottish national song, xi: 331.</li> +<li>Scottish Women's Hospitals for Home and Foreign Service, vii: 101.</li> +<li>"Scrap of paper," Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg's statement on Belgian neutrality, i: 146.</li> +<li>Seaplanes, <em>see</em> Aeronautics.</li> +<li>Sea Scouts, British, coast guard duty, xi: 94.</li> +<li>Sea tanks, Italian, description, iv: 272.</li> +<li>Sebastopol, importance as seaport, ii: 28.</li> +<li>Secours National, + <ul class="index"> + <li>American Committee of the, organization and activities, vii: 105;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> War relief.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sector, defined, v: 14.</li> +<li>Sedan, + <ul class="index"> + <li>key-point in German lines of supply, ii: 87;</li> + <li>A. E. F. advance on, Nov., '18, iii: 103, v: 92, 269, 391, xi: 53;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Mézières-Sedan railroad.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sedd-el-Bahr, + <ul class="index"> + <li>fort on Gallipoli, ii: 30, iv: 24, 42;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Gallipoli Campaign.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Seeadler</cite>, career as German raider, iv: 198.</li> +<li><cite>Seed-Time</cite>, poem by Josephine Preston Peabody, vii: 283.</li> +<li>Seeger, Alan, poet-soldier, x: 142.</li> +<li>Seibert, Sgt. Lloyd M., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 402.</li> +<li>Seicheprey, German raid on A. E. F. lines at, Apr. 20, '18, v: 28, 122, xi: 43.</li> +<li>Seitz, Karl, Austrian president, advocates union with Germany, vi: 322.</li> +<li>Seleucia, ruins of ancient Greek capital, in Mesopotamia, iii: 331.</li> +<li>"Self-determination," not recognized in Europe before War, i: 16.</li> +<li>Seligman, Prof. Edwin R. A., on the cost of the War, <a href="#Page_105">xii: 105-114</a>.</li> +<li>Selivanoff, Gen., commands Russians besieging Przemysl, iii: 132.</li> +<li>Selle, battle of the, Aug. 19, '14, iii: 18.</li> +<li>Semenoff, Gen., Cossack commander under Kolchak, vi: 192.</li> +<li>Semmer, Marcelle, French heroine, story of, x: 181.</li> +<li><cite>Send Out the Army</cite>, British soldiers' song, xi: 337.</li> +<li>Senegalese, description as fighters, x: 116.</li> +<li>Senlis, German atrocities at, iii: 334-337.</li> +<li>Senussi, Moslem league, invades Egypt, Nov., '15, iii: 190.</li> +<li>Septsarges Wood, fighting at, in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept. 26, '18, v: 224.</li> +<li>Serajevo, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Archduke Francis Ferdinand and consort murdered at, i: 111, vi: 306, xi: 4;</li> + <li>attacked by Serbians, Sept., '14, iii: 153.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Serapeum, Turkish attack near, in advance on Suez, iii: 190.</li> +<li>Serbia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Balkan ambitions in conflict with Austrian interests, i: 110, vi: 306, 354-357, 363;</li> + <li>Austria charges with responsibility for murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, i: 112, 246;</li> + <li>Austrian ultimatum to, July 23, '14, i: 112, 375;</li> + <li>conciliatory reply to Austrian ultimatum, i: 113;</li> + <li>Russian pledge of aid against Austria, July 27, '14, i: 114;</li> + <li>Austria declares war on, July 28, '14, i: 115, 243, 375;</li> + <li>Austrian reasons for war against, i: 243, ii: 27, 33;</li> + <li>anti-Austrian societies, i: 244;</li> + <li>declares war on Germany, Aug. 9, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li>Bulgaria declares war on, Oct. 14, '15, i: 382;</li> + <li>conquest of, by Teutonic allies, ii: 32-36, iii: 148-160, 281-286, 393-400, vi: 357-358, xi: 18;</li> + <li>Allies refuse aid against conquest by Central Powers, ii: 35, iii: 156, 393, 400;</li> + <li>Allies prevent attack by, on Bulgaria, ii: 36, iii: 156;</li> + <li>unprepared for war, iii: 148, vii: 146;</li> + <li>lack of artillery and ammunition, iii: 148, 393;</li> + <li>size, organization, and fighting qualities of army, iii: 148, vii: 144;</li> + <li>topography, iii: 150;</li> + <li>generalship during War, iii: 150;</li> + <li>typhus epidemics, iii: 155, 398-400, vi: 357, vii: 148;</li> + <li>retreat into Albania, '15, iii: 158-160, 281-286, 400, vi: 357-358, vii: 151-158;</li> + <li>army and government take refuge at Corfu, iii: 160, 286;</li> + <li>effect of defeat on Allied cause, iii: 160;</li> + <li>casualties during retreat into Albania, iii: 284, vi: 358;</li> + <li>American and Allied relief work in, iii: 398, vii: 109, 144-168;</li> + <li>prisoners of war, iii: 404;</li> + <li>total war casualties, iii: 404, <a href="#Page_288">xii: 288</a>;</li> + <li>early history, vi: 354;</li> + <li>Austrophile policy, vi: 355;</li> + <li>Russophile policy, vi: 355;</li> + <li>anti-Austrian expressions by press, vi: 356;</li> + <li>clash with Italy over Fiume and eastern Adriatic coast, vi: 360-363, 364-370;</li> + <li>statement of war aims, vi: 363;</li> + <li>letters of appreciation for American relief, vii: 158-166;</li> + <li>debt to U. S., <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18</a>;</li> + <li>money equivalent of man-power lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>value of property loss, <a href="#Page_26">xii: 26</a>;</li> + <li>war cost, July, '14—Oct., '18, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>rise in national debt, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>;</li> + <li>delegates to Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Jugoslavs.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Serbia</cite>, poem by Florence Earle Coates, vi: 353.</li> +<li>Sergy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by 42nd Div., July, '18, v: 59, 188;</li> + <li>Gen. Degoutte commends A. E. F. for services at, v: 192.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Serieux Farm, captured by 181st Brig., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229.</li> +<li>Seringes-et-Nesles, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by 42nd Div., v: 59, 188;</li> + <li>Gen. Degoutte commends A. E. F. for services at, v: 192.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Serre, evacuated by Germans, Feb. 24, '17, iii: 64.</li> +<li>Services of Supply (S. O. S.), <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>Seven Weeks' War, between Prussia and Austria, 1866, i: 41.</li> +<li><cite>Severn</cite>, British monitor, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in attack on German cruiser <cite>Königsberg</cite>, iv: 195, 282;</li> + <li>description, iv: 281.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Seydlit</cite>z, German cruiser in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></p></li> + +<li>Shabatz, Austrians cross into Serbia at, Aug., '14, iii: 151.</li> +<li>Shantung, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Germany gains forced concessions in, 1897, i: 82;</li> + <li>Japan's desire for, iv: 367, vi: 382, 385;</li> + <li>Japanese demands for, at Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_160">xii: 160</a>;</li> + <li>German rights in, transferred to Japan by Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_209">xii: 209</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Kiau-Chau.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Shell-shock, treatment, vii: 179, viii: 368-369.</li> +<li>Shells, <em>see</em> Ammunition.</li> +<li>Shipping, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British position on status of armed merchantmen, i: 282;</li> + <li>German position on status of armed merchantmen, i: 282;</li> + <li>U. S. position on status of armed merchantmen, i: 283;</li> + <li>controversy between U. S. and Great Britain on seizure of neutral cargoes, i: 312, 318, 339;</li> + <li>list of American ships attacked by German U-boats, i: 356;</li> + <li>list of ships sunk with loss of American lives, i: 357;</li> + <li>list of sinkings by German raider <cite>Emden</cite>, iv: 189;</li> + <li>tales of heroic captains of merchant ships, x: 322-324;</li> + <li>value of tonnage sunk, <a href="#Page_26">xii: 26</a>;</li> + <li>statistics on world tonnage, Aug., '14—Dec., '17, <a href="#Page_91">xii: 91</a>;</li> + <li>statistics on losses, Aug., 14—Dec., '17, <a href="#Page_92">xii: 92</a>;</li> + <li>neutral, chartered by U. S. for war service, <a href="#Page_98">xii: 98</a>;</li> + <li>war-time increase in neutral, <a href="#Page_100">xii: 100</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty provisions for replacement by Germany of Allied shipping destroyed, <a href="#Page_222">xii: 222</a>;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty provisions on privileges to be granted to Allied shipping by Germany, <a href="#Page_230">xii: 230</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Germany, Blockade of; Submarine Warfare.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>"Shock" troops, German, viii: 144.</li> +<li>Shotgun, use in modern warfare, viii: 114-116.</li> +<li>Shrapnel, + <ul class="index"> + <li>compared with high explosive shell, ii: 287, viii: 8;</li> + <li>invention, viii: 72;</li> + <li>description, viii: 72;</li> + <li>manufacture, viii: 72-74;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Ammunition.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Siam, + <ul class="index"> + <li>delegates to Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>;</li> + <li>German rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_208">xii: 208</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Siberia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russian expansion in, i: 20;</li> + <li>early history, vi: 189;</li> + <li>relations with Russia, vi: 189;</li> + <li>movement for autonomy, vi: 189;</li> + <li>Bolsheviki suppress Duma, vi: 189;</li> + <li>anti-Bolshevik elements form All-Russian Government at Omsk, vi: 191;</li> + <li>"Coöperatives," nature of, vi: 191;</li> + <li>Gen. Horvath sets up bourgeois government at Harbin, vi: 192;</li> + <li>Czecho-Slovak prisoners in, form anti-Bolshevik army, vi: 192;</li> + <li>Vladivostok captured by Czecho-Slovaks, June, '18, vi: 192;</li> + <li>unofficial Allied intervention, vi: 192;</li> + <li>intervention in, by U. S. troops, vi: 192-193;</li> + <li>reactionary factions gain control, vi: 193;</li> + <li>Kolchak makes himself dictator, vi: 194;</li> + <li>anarchy and civil war, vi: 194;</li> + <li>Japanese policy in regard to, vi: 386;</li> + <li>American Y.M.C.A. in, vii: 293.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sibert, Maj.-Gen. William L., commander of first American forces in France, June, '17, v: 106.</li> +<li>Sidi Ahmed, heads Moslem forces invading Egypt, Nov., '15, iii: 190.</li> +<li>Sidi Barrani, occupied by British, Feb., '16, iii: 191.</li> +<li>Siebs, Paul, share in German plot to blow up ships at sea, x: 373.</li> +<li>Siegfried Line, <em>see</em> Hindenburg Line.</li> +<li>Signalling, + <ul class="index"> + <li>means of, viii: 322;</li> + <li>work of U. S. Army Signal Corps in France, viii: 322-329;</li> + <li>use of pigeons in, viii: 328;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> U. S. Army, Signal Corps.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Silesia, Upper, awarded to Poland by Peace Conference pending plebiscite, vi: 226.</li> +<li>Silistria, retaken by Bulgaria, vi: 344.</li> +<li>Silver, rise in value, due to War, <a href="#Page_32">xii: 32</a>.</li> +<li>Sims, Adm. William Snowden, biography, ix: 291-293.</li> +<li>Sinai Desert, Turkish advance through, against Suez, iii: 191.</li> +<li>Sinn Fein, <em>see</em> Ireland.</li> +<li><cite>Sirius</cite>, British cruiser in Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 262.</li> +<li>Siwa, captured by British, Feb. 5, '17, iii: 191.</li> +<li>Sixtus, Prince, of Bourbon-Parma, letter of Emperor Charles to, making peace offer to Allies, Mar., '17, ii: 63, vi: 315.</li> +<li>Sjorgen self-loading rifle, description, viii: 89.</li> +<li>Skinker, Capt. Alexander R., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397.</li> +<li>Skobelev, Minister of Labor in Prince Lvov's coalition cabinet, vi: 160.</li> +<li>Skoda howitzers, viii: 22; + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see also</em> Artillery.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Skoropadski, Gen., Cossack dictator in Ukraine, vi: 247.</li> +<li>Slack, Pvt. Clayton K., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.</li> +<li>Slang, soldiers', expressions of, xi: 362.</li> +<li>Slavs, + <ul class="index"> + <li>distribution and culture, i: 238;</li> + <li>in Austro-Hungarian empire, vi: 306-307;</li> + <li>antagonism to Latins, vi: 359;</li> + <li>antagonism to Teutons, vi: 360;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Jugoslavs;</li> + <li>Pan-Slavism;</li> + <li>Russia;</li> + <li>Serbia.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Slovaks, <em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Bohemia;</li> + <li>Czechoslovakia.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Smile, Smile, Smile</cite>, American soldiers' song, xi: 335.</li> +<li>Smith, Lieut.-Col. Frederick E., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400.</li> +<li>Smith, Maj.-Gen. W. R., commander, 36th Div., July, '18, v: 196.</li> +<li>Smith-Dorrien, Gen. Sir Horace, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander of British Second Corps, ii: 162, 174;</li> + <li>Viscount French's criticism of, for fighting Le Cateau battle, Aug. 26, '14, ii: 162-164, 174;</li> + <li>Sir Henry Newbolt's account of stand at Le Cateau, ii: 174-182;</li> + <li>Viscount French's praise of, for stand at Le Cateau, iii: 28.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Smoke screen, uses in naval warfare, iv: 311.</li> +<li>Smoke shells, use in covering infantry advance, ii: 126.</li> +<li>Smokeless powder, <em>see</em> Ammunition.</li> +<li>Smuggling of war supplies into Germany, <a href="#Page_100">xii: 100</a>.</li> +<li>Smuts, Gen. Jan Christaan, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sent by Peace Conference on mission to Hungary, vi: 326;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 187-190;</li> + <li>advocate of League of Nations, ix: 190, <a href="#Page_155">xii: 155</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sneezing gas, use in chemical warfare, viii: 171.</li> +<li>Snowden, Philip, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British Labor Party leader, indorses Bolshevist peace aims, vi: 12;</li> + <li>defeated in Parliamentary elections, '18, vi: 17.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Socialism, + <ul class="index"> + <li>fallacy of, i: <em>Intro. xi</em>;</li> + <li>Socialists, <em>see</em> under country.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Soissons, + <ul class="index"> + <li>occupied by Germans, May 29, '18, ii: 154, iii: 93;</li> + <li>Allied drive against, in Aisne-Marne counter-offensive, July 18—21, '18, v: 130, 158-183;</li> + <li>recaptured by French, Aug. 2, '18, v: 188.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Soldau, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Russians, Aug., '14, iii: 111;</li> + <li>recaptured by Germans, Aug., '14, iii: 114.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Soldier, The</cite>, poem by Rupert Brooke, x: <em>facing p</em>. 1.</li> +<li>Soldiers' and Workmen's Councils, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Germany, rise, vi: 280, 283;</li> + <li>dissolution ordered by Central Council of Delegates, Dec., '18, vi: 283.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Soldiers' Committees, in Russia, cause of army demoralization, iii: 268.</li> +<li>Soldiers' Councils, of Austria, + <ul class="index"> + <li>vote against soviet form of government, Apr. 10, '19, vi: 320;</li> + <li>seize control of Vienna, Apr. 18, '19, vi: 321.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Soldier's creed, xi: 170.</li> +<li>Soldiers' songs, xi: 335-339. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></p></li> + +<li>Somme, battles of: + <ul class="index"> + <li>July—Sept., '16, ii: 44-47, 148, iii: 55-62, 63, 64, xi: 24; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Allies' aims, ii: 44, iii: 55;</li> + <li>battle line at start, ii: 46;</li> + <li>results, iii: 56, 61, 63; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Haig's report, ii: 46-47;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>loss of German morale, ii: 47;</li> + <li>effect on battle of Verdun, ii: 47, iii: 61, 63, 314;</li> + <li>British artillery at, ii: 126;</li> + <li>Foch in command of French, ii: 148;</li> + <li>Inter-Allied Conference decides on unified offensive, Mar., '16, iii: 55;</li> + <li>Allied man-power, iii: 55;</li> + <li>amount of ammunition used, iii: 56;</li> + <li>description of initial bombardment by John Buchan, July 1, '16, iii: 57;</li> + <li>Allies' first objectives, iii: 58;</li> + <li>Maurepas captured by French, iii: 58;</li> + <li>Pozières captured by British, iii: 59;</li> + <li>Thiepval stormed by British, iii: 59;</li> + <li>Combles evacuated by Germans, iii: 59;</li> + <li>works of tanks at, iii: 59, 64;</li> + <li>Germans captured, iii: 60;</li> + <li>extent of battle area, iii: 61;</li> + <li>casualties, German and Allied, iii: 61;</li> + <li>a "blood-bath" for Germans, iii: 63;</li> + <li>effect on Germany, iii: 63;</li> + <li>importance, iii: 63.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Mar.—Apr., '18, ii: 70-74, 150-151, 190-197, iii: 86-91; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Philip Gibbs's account of German break through British lines, iii: 381-390;</li> + <li>German method of attack, iii: 88;</li> + <li>Albert captured by Germans, iii: 89;</li> + <li>results in establishment of Allied unity of command under Foch, iii: 89;</li> + <li>British casualties, iii: 390.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sommerance, captured by 1st Div., Oct. 11, '18, v: 248.</li> +<li>Sommerville sector, held by Americans, '17, v: 111.</li> +<li><cite>Song of the Dardanelles</cite>, poem by D'Annunzio, ix: 343.</li> +<li>Sonnino, Baron Sidney, + <ul class="index"> + <li>advocates Italy's entry into War on side of Allies, ii: 236, vi: 120, 123;</li> + <li>becomes Italian Foreign Minister, vi: 120;</li> + <li>insists on fulfillment of secret treaty with Allies, vi: 362, 366;</li> + <li>policy at Peace Conference, vi: 369;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 82-85.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sothern, E. H., helps organize Over-There Theater League, vii: 339.</li> +<li>Souchez, captured by French, Sept. 26, '15, iii: 46.</li> +<li>Souchon, Adm., Commander of German cruisers <cite>Goeben</cite> and <cite>Breslau</cite>, iv: 14.</li> +<li>South Africa, Union of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>forces under Gen. Botha conquer German Southwest Africa, '14—'15, iii: 253-255, vi: 50;</li> + <li>strength of army, iii: 405;</li> + <li>war casualties, iii: 405;</li> + <li>formation after Boer War, vi: 47;</li> + <li>British policy in, vi: 47;</li> + <li>political parties and policies, vi: 47-49;</li> + <li>Gen. Botha leader of loyal Afrikander Party, vi: 47;</li> + <li>Unionists, vi: 47;</li> + <li>Gen. Hertzog organizes Nationalist Party, vi: 47-49;</li> + <li>Nationalists oppose participation in War, vi: 49;</li> + <li>Boer rebellion under Maritz and De Wet suppressed by Botha, '14, vi: 49-50;</li> + <li>parliamentary elections of '15 show strong anti-British sentiment, vi: 50-52;</li> + <li>Nationalists' attitude prevents conscription, vi: 52;</li> + <li>Nationalists send delegation to Peace Conference to plead for independence, vi: 52;</li> + <li>war cost, Aug., '14—Mar., '19, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>rise in public debt, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>;</li> + <li>delegates to Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_179">xii: 179</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>South Pacific Islands, German, + <ul class="index"> + <li>acquired by Australia, '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Southwest Africa, German, + <ul class="index"> + <li>conquered by Allies, iii: 253-255, vi: 50;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Soviet, <em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Bavaria;</li> + <li>Bolshevism;</li> + <li>Hungary;</li> + <li>Russia;</li> + <li>Saxony;</li> + <li>Spartacides.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Spad biplane, viii: 194.</li> +<li>Spahis, description, xi: 189.</li> +<li>Spain, + <ul class="index"> + <li>as a naval power, i: 28;</li> + <li>loss of colonial empire, i: 35;</li> + <li>international position in '14, i: 62;</li> + <li>policy of neutrality during War, vi: 370;</li> + <li>growing dislike for Germans, vi: 371;</li> + <li>war-time prosperity, vi: 372;</li> + <li>German propaganda in, <a href="#Page_101">xii: 101</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Spartacides, German, + <ul class="index"> + <li>beginnings, vi: 260;</li> + <li>leaders, vi: 278;</li> + <li>excluded by Ebert from Provisional Government, Nov., '18, vi: 278;</li> + <li>urge social revolution, vi: 279;</li> + <li>allied with Russian Bolsheviki, vi: 280-281;</li> + <li>program rejected by Central Council of Delegates, Dec., '18, vi: 283;</li> + <li>plan revolution against government of Majority Socialists, vi: 283;</li> + <li>insurrection of Jan., '19, vi: 287-290;</li> + <li>Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg killed, vi: 289;</li> + <li>defeated in elections for National Assembly, Jan., '19, vi: 290;</li> + <li>instigate labor strikes, vi: 294;</li> + <li>establish Soviet in Munich, Feb., '19, vi: 298, 300-301;</li> + <li>establish Soviet in Leipzig, Feb., '19, vi: 299;</li> + <li>second Berlin insurrection suppressed by Noske, Mar., '19, vi: 299-300;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Germany, Internal politics.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Spee, Adm. Count Maximilian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander of German Far East Squadron, strategy of operations, iv: 59-62;</li> + <li>defeats British in battle off Coronel, Nov. 1, '14, iv: 64-69;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 306-309.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sperry gyro-compass, viii: 348.</li> +<li>Spheres of influence, of Great Powers, i: 18.</li> +<li>Spies, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German, in United States, x: 326-348, 350;</li> + <li>in England, x: 348;</li> + <li>the "spy mill," x: 355;</li> + <li>disclosure of tank secret by Mata-Hari, x: 360;</li> + <li>dynamiting of Canadian railroad bridge, x: 368;</li> + <li>plot to blow up Allied ships, x: 369-377;</li> + <li>within French lines, x: 379.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Spires of Oxford</cite>, poem by Winifred M. Letts, xi: 210.</li> +<li>Spitaals-Bosschen, captured by 91st Div., Oct. 31, '18, v: 279.</li> +<li>Sports, in A. E. F., + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Winchester Camp, vii: 288;</li> + <li>in Army of Occupation, vii: 293;</li> + <li>general athletic program under Y. M. C. A., vii: 313-317.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Springfield rifle, + <ul class="index"> + <li>standard arm of U. S. troops before War, v: 347;</li> + <li>reason for abandonment during War and adoption of British type, v: 347, viii: 96;</li> + <li>comparison of new U. S. type with, viii: 102-105;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Rifles.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Spruce, use in aircraft construction, viii: 308.</li> +<li><cite>Srpska Narodna Himna</cite>, Serbian national anthem, xi: 328.</li> +<li>Stage Women's War Relief, organization and activities, vii: 343-349.</li> +<li>Stanislau, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Austrians, Feb., '15, iii: 132;</li> + <li>recaptured by Russians, Mar., '15, iii: 132;</li> + <li>recaptured by Austrians, June, '15, iii: 136.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Star shells, iv: 334, viii: 334.</li> +<li><cite>Star-spangled Banner</cite>, American national anthem, xi: 325.</li> +<li>Stark, Col. Alexander, Chief Surgeon, First Army, v: 346.</li> +<li>Stefanik, Gen., member of Czechoslovak provisional government, vi: 399.</li> +<li>Stenay, captured by 90th Div., Nov. 10, '18, v: 272.</li> +<li>Stern, Lieut.-Col. Sir A. G., share in development of tanks, viii: 155.</li> +<li>Stock Exchange, New York, effect of War on, <a href="#Page_32">xii: 32</a>.</li> +<li>Stokes, Anson Phelps, Secretary of Yale University, educational survey of A. E. F., vii: 281.</li> +<li>Stokes mortar, use as "artillery of accompaniment," viii: 141.</li> +<li>Stone, Lieut.-Com. A. J., inventor of "Y" gun for launching depth bombs, iv: 332.</li> +<li>Stonne, captured by 77th Div., Nov. 5, '18, v: 268.</li> +<li>Storage tanks built by A. E. F. Engineers in France, v: 334.</li> +<li><cite>Storstad, S. S.</cite>, Belgian relief ship sunk by U-boat, Mar. 8, '17, iv: 229.</li> +<li><cite>Strassburg</cite>, German cruiser in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240.</li> +<li>Strategy, of the War, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Maj.-Gen. Maurice on, ii: <em>Intro. vii-xxiv</em>;</li> + <li>Allied miscalculation of German strength, Aug., '14, ii: <em>Intro. vii</em>;</li> + <li>British policy of combined land and naval attack, ii: <em>Intro. viii</em>;</li> + <li>factors in formation of British military policy, ii: <em>Intro. viii</em>;</li> + <li>importance of Eastern and Western theaters of war compared, ii: <em>Intro. x-xxiii</em>, 11-14, 87-90; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Field-Marshal French's opinion, ii: 171-172;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Lloyd George favors aggressive campaign against Austria, ii: <em>Intro. x, xx</em>;</li> + <li>comparative advantages for Allies of Dardanelles and Austrian campaigns, ii: <em>Intro. xii</em>;</li> + <li>advantageous position of Central Powers, ii: <em>Intro. xiii</em>;</li> + <li>comparison of, in World War with that of Civil War, ii: <em>Intro. xiii</em>;</li> + <li>value of Mesopotamian campaign, ii: <em>Intro. xvi</em>, 87-90;</li> + <li>reasons for British campaign in Palestine, ii: <em>Intro. xviii, xxi</em>, 87-90;</li> + <li>British position in secondary theaters of war, '17, ii: <em>Intro. xix</em>;</li> + <li>advisability of Salonika expedition, ii: <em>Intro. xix</em>;</li> + <li>Allies' problem, ii: <em>Intro. xxi</em>;</li> + <li>Allies at strategical advantage, Aug., '18, ii: <em>Intro. xxiii</em>;</li> + <li>general German war plans, '14, ii: 1-6, iv: 4-6, viii: 133;</li> + <li>French plans, '14, ii: 6-11; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></p></li> + + <li>German mistake in attacking France instead of Russia first, Aug., '14, ii: 11-16;</li> + <li>probable results of a vigorous German offensive against Russia in '14, ii: 13;</li> + <li>economic strategy, Allied blockade and German U-boat warfare, ii: 16-22;</li> + <li>absence of unified Allied plan prior to '16, ii: 40;</li> + <li>German battle positions compared with Allied, ii: 41;</li> + <li>Allied plan for overcoming German advantage of position, ii: 41;</li> + <li>German plans for '17, ii: 53;</li> + <li>Allied plans for '17, ii: 54;</li> + <li>reasons for German offensive of '18 and choice of front, ii: 63-69, 288;</li> + <li>object of war, ii: 68;</li> + <li>choice of Picardy front by Germans for final drive, '18, ii: 69;</li> + <li>importance of Amiens, ii: 69;</li> + <li>German operations in final drive, spring, '18, ii: 70-80, 97;</li> + <li>Foch's defense against German drive, spring, '18, ii: 76, 77;</li> + <li>theories of Foch on, ii: 80-82, 103-110, 137;</li> + <li>destruction of opposing army the essential, ii: 80;</li> + <li>of Foch, in Allied counter-offensive, July—Nov., '18, ii: 82-87, 97, v: 213;</li> + <li>Allied, in Turkey, ii: 87-94;</li> + <li>causes for failure of German war plans, ii: 99;</li> + <li>German in '14, compared with that in wars of 1866 and 1870, ii: 115;</li> + <li>necessity of frontal attacks on Western Front, ii: 116;</li> + <li>Field-Marshal Haig's theories on, ii: 118-120;</li> + <li>war of position on Western Front, ii: 148;</li> + <li>task of Allied reserves during German offensive, '18, ii: 151;</li> + <li>Russian war plans, explained by Chief of Staff Gen. Gourko, ii: 225;</li> + <li>Germans defeated in open warfare, '18, ii: 288-290;</li> + <li>importance of Bagdad railway, ii: 290;</li> + <li>defined, iv: 1;</li> + <li>relation of naval, to land, iv: 2;</li> + <li>offensive defined, iv: 4;</li> + <li>essentials of naval, iv: 4;</li> + <li>criticism of Allied lack of action in Mediterranean, iv: 13;</li> + <li>British and German aims in North Sea, iv: 86;</li> + <li>Lord Fisher's criticism of British, iv: 140;</li> + <li>German alternatives, '17—'18, v: 3;</li> + <li>old-fashioned studies useless in present War, v: 40;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>campaign, engagement, or front;</li> + <li>Foch;</li> + <li>Germany;</li> + <li>Tactics.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Strauss, Rear-Adm. Joseph, in command of U. S. mine laying operations, iv: 328.</li> +<li>Stretchers, improved types, viii: 377.</li> +<li>Strong, Maj.-Gen. Frederick S., commander 40th Div., Aug., '18, v: 197.</li> +<li>Strong, Dr. Richard P., in charge of U. S. typhus relief in Serbia, iii: 398, vii: 148.</li> +<li>Strumnitza, French headquarters established at, Oct., '15, iii: 204.</li> +<li>Stryj, captured by Germans June 1, '15, iii: 136.</li> +<li>Strypa River, crossed by Russians June 8, '16, iii: 144.</li> +<li>Sturdee, Vice-Adm. Sir Frederick, British commander at Battle of Falklands, iv: 69, ix: 308.</li> +<li>Stürgkh, Carl, Austrian Premier, killed, Oct. 21, '14, vi: 312.</li> +<li>Stürmer, Boris, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russian cabinet member, German agent, ii: 59;</li> + <li>succeeds Goremykin as Premier, vi: 140;</li> + <li>becomes Foreign Minister, vi: 142;</li> + <li>dismissed from office under charges of treason, vi: 142.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Stuttgart, bombed by French airmen, Sept. 22, '15, i: 382; Oct. 1, '17, i: 392.</li> +<li>Sub-chaser <cite>No. 28</cite>, experiences when disabled at sea, iv: 352-354.</li> +<li>Sublime Porte, name for Turkish Foreign Office, i: 90.</li> +<li>Submarines, + <ul class="index"> + <li>development and early history, iv: 201-205, xi: 241-245;</li> + <li>voyage of German commerce submarine <cite>Deutschland</cite> across Atlantic, iv: 214, x: 271-274;</li> + <li>life aboard, iv: 235-239;</li> + <li>greatest achievement of War, viii: <em>Intro. viii</em>;</li> + <li>description, viii: 264-266;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> name of submarine.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Submarine warfare, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Lansing's proposal for regulation of, i: 281, 327;</li> + <li>comment of London <cite>Times</cite> on Lansing proposal, i: 282;</li> + <li>German protest against U. S. position on armed merchantmen, i: 282;</li> + <li>Germany announces blockade of Great Britain, effective Feb. 18, '15, i: 314, 358, ii: 21, iv: 217, vi: 256;</li> + <li>controversy between U. S. and Germany over, i: 317-326, 328-335, 339, iv: 223; + <ul class="index"> + <li>chronological summary, with list of ships sunk, Aug., '14—Apr., '16, i: 357-361;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>President Wilson's "Strict accountability" note, i: 317;</li> + <li>American ship <cite>William P. Frye</cite> sunk, Jan. 28, '15, i: 319;</li> + <li><cite>Falaba</cite> sunk, Mar. 28, '15, i: 319, 358, iv: 218;</li> + <li>American tanker <cite>Gulflight</cite> torpedoed, May 1, '15, i: 319, 358, iv: 218;</li> + <li>German warning to neutrals to keep off Allied ships, May 1, '15, i: 319;</li> + <li><cite>Lusitania</cite> sunk, May 7, '15, i: 319, 358, iv: 220; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Lord Mersey's official report, i: 362-365;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>controversy between U. S. and Germany on <cite>Lusitania</cite> sinking, i: 320, 323, 325, 326, 327, 358-361;</li> + <li>American steamer <cite>Nebraskan</cite> attacked, May 25, '15, i: 320;</li> + <li><cite>Arabic</cite> sunk, Aug. 19, '15, i: 323, 360, iv: 223;</li> + <li>Germany pledges to warn before sinking, i: 325, 361;</li> + <li><cite>Hesperian</cite> torpedoed, Sept. 4, '15, i: 325;</li> + <li>controversy between U. S. and Austria-Hungary over sinking of <cite>Ancona</cite>, Nov. 8, '15, i: 326, 361, iv: 223;</li> + <li>Germany to sink armed merchantmen without warning, Mar. 1, '16, i: 327;</li> + <li>British passenger steamer <cite>Sussex</cite> sunk, Mar. 24, '16, i: 328, 361, iv: 223, xi: 20; + <ul class="index"> + <li>survivor's description, x: 281-288;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>U. S. threatens to sever relations with Germany over <cite>Sussex</cite> sinking, i: 329-331, 361;</li> + <li>German apology for <cite>Sussex</cite> sinking, i: 333;</li> + <li>activities of <cite>U-53</cite> off U. S. coast, Oct., '16, i: 334;</li> + <li>freighter <cite>Marina</cite> sunk, Oct. 28, '16, i: 334;</li> + <li><cite>Arabia</cite> sunk, Nov. 6, '16, i: 334;</li> + <li>Germany declares unrestricted warfare, Feb. 1, '17, i: 339, 344, ii: 22, 272, iv: 223, vi: 265, xi: 35; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Ludendorff's account of decision, ii: 306-307;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Bethmann-Hollweg's statement of reasons for unrestricted warfare, i: 344;</li> + <li>U. S. severs diplomatic relations with Germany over, Feb. 3, '17, i: 344-345;</li> + <li>U. S. merchantmen ordered armed, i: 347;</li> + <li>American steamer <cite>Algonquin</cite> sunk without warning, Mar. 2, '17, i: 348;</li> + <li>influence of unrestricted warfare in forcing U. S. into War, i, 348, 368, ii: 53;</li> + <li>President Wilson's speech before Congress, stating case against Germany and asking for declaration of war, Apr. 2, '17, i: 348-355;</li> + <li>list of American ships attacked, i: 356;</li> + <li>list of ships sunk with loss of American lives, i: 357;</li> + <li><cite>Persia</cite> sunk, Dec. 30, '15, i: 361, iv: 224;</li> + <li>effectiveness, ii: <em>Intro. xvii</em>, 22, 54, iv: 239;</li> + <li>German purpose in, ii: 22, 53, iv: 7-8, 140;</li> + <li>British drive against German submarine bases, '17, ii: 56;</li> + <li>Ludendorff on failure of ruthlessness, ii: 308;</li> + <li>efforts to sink U. S. troopships, ii: 318;</li> + <li>methods of combating, iv: <em>Intro. xi</em>, 284-287, 304-317, 324-334, viii: 17-20, 266-282, 343-344, xi: 239;</li> + <li>North Sea mine barrage, iv, <em>Intro. xi</em>, 324-330, viii: 274;</li> + <li><cite>Aboukir</cite>, <cite>Cressy</cite>, and <cite>Hogue</cite> sunk by <cite>U-9</cite>, Sept. 22, '14, iv: 205, x: 274-280;</li> + <li>exploits of British submarine <cite>E-9</cite>, iv: 207;</li> + <li>exploits of British submarines in Dardanelles, iv: 209-212;</li> + <li><cite>Laconia</cite> sunk, Feb. 25, '17, iv: 225;</li> + <li>Belgian Relief ship <cite>Storstad</cite> torpedoed, Mar. 8, '17, iv: 229;</li> + <li><cite>Alnwick Castle</cite> sunk without warning, Mar. 19, '17, iv: 230;</li> + <li>hospital ships sunk without warning, iv: 232;</li> + <li><cite>Belgian Prince</cite> sunk July 31, '17, iv: 232;</li> + <li>use of air- and sea-planes for detecting U-boats, iv: 284-287;</li> + <li>net traps, iv: 305-307, 308, viii: 274;</li> + <li>torpedoes, description and method of use by U-boats, iv: 307, viii: 266, xi: 245-248;</li> + <li>depth-bombs as anti-submarine weapon, iv: 307, 312, 317, 330-332, viii: 281-282, xi: 239;</li> + <li>nets across British Channel, iv: 307, viii: 274;</li> + <li>use and description of sound-detecting devices for locating U-boats, iv: 308-310, viii: 17-20, 279-281;</li> + <li>zigzagging, iv: 310;</li> + <li>smoke screen, iv: 311;</li> + <li>camouflaging ships, iv, 311, viii: 343; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></p></li> + + <li>arming merchant ships, iv: 314, viii: 278;</li> + <li>U. S. transport <cite>Tuscania</cite> torpedoed, iv: 336;</li> + <li>U. S. transport <cite>Covington</cite> sunk, July, '17, iv: 337;</li> + <li>U. S. transport <cite>Mount Vernon</cite> torpedoed, Sept. 5, '17, iv: 337;</li> + <li>U. S. transport <cite>Antilles</cite> torpedoed, Oct. 17, '17, iv: 337;</li> + <li>U. S. transport <cite>Finland</cite> torpedoed, Oct. 27, '17, iv: 337;</li> + <li>U. S. transport <cite>President Lincoln</cite> sunk, May 31, '18, iv: 337, 340;</li> + <li>U. S. destroyer <cite>Cassin</cite> torpedoed, iv: 343;</li> + <li>U. S. destroyer <cite>Jacob Jones</cite> sunk, Dec. 6, '17, iv: 346;</li> + <li>Italian cruisers <cite>Amalfi</cite> and <cite>Garibaldi</cite> sunk, iv: 369;</li> + <li>French cruiser <cite>Léon Gambetta</cite> sunk by Austrian U-boat, iv: 373;</li> + <li>French cruiser <cite>Provence II</cite> sunk, Feb. 26, '16, iv: 376;</li> + <li>French battleship <cite>Danton</cite> sunk, Mar. 19, '17, iv: 376;</li> + <li>French anti-submarine campaign, iv: 378;</li> + <li>first attack on American convoy, June 22, '17, v: 107;</li> + <li>effect on British food supply, vi: 10;</li> + <li>effectiveness of destroyers in combating, viii: <em>Intro. viii</em>;</li> + <li>fantastic proposals for fighting U-boats, viii: 266-274, 276-278;</li> + <li>account of experiences by survivor of a rammed U-boat, x: 295-297;</li> + <li>value of tonnage sunk, <a href="#Page_26">xii: 26</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Germany, Blockade of;</li> + <li>Shipping.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sudanese, defeated by British, May, '16, iii: 191.</li> +<li>Suez Canal, + <ul class="index"> + <li>neutralized, 1888, i: 16;</li> + <li>construction of, by French, 1869, i: 48;</li> + <li>Great Britain gains control, 1875, i: 48;</li> + <li>importance, ii: 27;</li> + <li>German designs on, ii: 27;</li> + <li>Turkish operations against, ii: 31, iii: 189-192.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Suffolk</cite>, Adm. Craddock's flagship in West Atlantic, iv: 63.</li> +<li><cite>Suffren</cite>, French battleship, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Gallipoli, iv: 31;</li> + <li>mysterious disappearance, iv: 376.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sugar, + <ul class="index"> + <li>shortage in England, <a href="#Page_34">xii: 34</a>;</li> + <li>method of war-time distribution in U. S., <a href="#Page_46">xii: 46</a>;</li> + <li>war-time shortage, <a href="#Page_138">xii: 138</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sugar Equalization Board, U. S., functions, <a href="#Page_46">xii: 46</a>.</li> +<li>Sukhomlinov, Russian Minister of War, arrested and disgraced, '15, vi: 136.</li> +<li>Summerall, Maj.-Gen. Charles P., + <ul class="index"> + <li>placed in command of Fifth Corps, Oct. 12, '18, v: 83, 250, 391;</li> + <li>as brigadier-general commands 1st Div. at Soissons, July, '18, v: 167;</li> + <li>at St. Mihiel, Sept., 318, v: 202;</li> + <li>tribute to, by Frederick Palmer, v: 235;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 391.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sunshine (40th) Division, <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>Supplies, lines of, to field armies, ii: 69.</li> +<li>Support, line of, definition and description, v: 12.</li> +<li>Supreme Naval Council, Allied, formed, Dec. 4, '17, i: 393.</li> +<li>Supreme War Council, Allied, formed, Nov. 9, '17, i: 392, iii: 84.</li> +<li>Surgery, + <ul class="index"> + <li>early history, vii: 4-6;</li> + <li>in U. S. Army, vii: 219-224;</li> + <li>use of X-ray in war surgery, vii: 221, viii: 373-376;</li> + <li>war-time evolution in methods, viii: 361-365;</li> + <li>treatment of head wounds, viii: 365;</li> + <li>treatment of face wounds, viii: 366;</li> + <li>treatment of body wounds, viii: 366;</li> + <li>treatment of blood vessel lesions, viii: 366;</li> + <li>treatment of nerve-cord lesions, viii: 366;</li> + <li>treatment of fractures, viii: 367;</li> + <li>new method of amputation, viii: 367;</li> + <li>prevention of gas gangrene, viii: 367;</li> + <li>prevention of tetanus infection, viii: 367;</li> + <li>Carrel-Dakin treatment, viii: 369-372, xi: 289;</li> + <li>artificial arms, viii: 384-388;</li> + <li>artificial legs, viii: 388-390;</li> + <li>use of ambrine in treatment of burns, viii: 390;</li> + <li>reconstructing mutilated faces, viii: 390;</li> + <li>artificial eyes for war blind, viii: 391;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Infection;</li> + <li>Medical Science;</li> + <li>Reconstruction of disabled;</li> + <li>U. S. Army, Medical Service.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Surveillance, line of, definition and description, v: 12.</li> +<li><cite>Sussex</cite>, British passenger steamer, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sunk by U-boat, Mar. 24, '16, i: 328, 361, iv: 223, xi: 20; + <ul class="index"> + <li>survivor's description, x: 281-288;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>U. S. threatens to sever diplomatic relations with Germany over sinking of, i: 329-331, 361;</li> + <li>German apology for sinking, i: 333.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Suvla Bay, at Gallipoli, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Allied landing at, Aug. 7, '15, i: 381, iii: 173;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Gallipoli Campaign.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Suwalki, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russians cross into East Prussia near, iii: 111;</li> + <li>captured by Germans, iii: 116;</li> + <li>evacuated by Germans, Oct. 9, '14, iii: 118.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Schwarzlose automatic pistol, description, viii: 90.</li> +<li>Sweden, + <ul class="index"> + <li>international position in, '14, i: 62;</li> + <li>policy of neutrality, vi: 394;</li> + <li>relations with Finland, vi: 395;</li> + <li>Crown Princess of, work for war prisoners, vii: 395.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Swierzynski, Joseph, + <ul class="index"> + <li>forms Polish cabinet, vi: 219;</li> + <li>declares Poland republic, vi: 219.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Swift</cite>, British destroyer, account of night battle with German destroyers, x: 293-295.</li> +<li>Swift, Maj.-Gen. Eben, commands 82nd Div., June, '18, v: 143.</li> +<li><cite>Swiftsure</cite>, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33.</li> +<li>Swinton, Maj.-Gen. E. D., + <ul class="index"> + <li>on development and war functions of tanks, ii: 273-290;</li> + <li>conceives idea of tank as war weapon, Oct., '14, ii: 276, viii: 155, xi: 256.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Switch position, defined, v: 16.</li> +<li>Switzerland, + <ul class="index"> + <li>system of citizen army, i: <em>Intro. xii</em>;</li> + <li>international position, '14, i: 62;</li> + <li>policy of armed neutrality during War, i: 140, vi: 379;</li> + <li>antagonism between French and German elements, vi: 379-380;</li> + <li>implication of Intelligence Dept. of General Staff in unneutral conduct, vi: 380;</li> + <li>Foreign Minister Hoffman forced out of office by neutralist sentiment, vi: 380;</li> + <li>Gustave Ador heads Foreign Office, vi: 380;</li> + <li>Red Cross activities, vi: 380;</li> + <li>Geneva designated as seat of League of Nations, vi: 382, <a href="#Page_183">xii: 183</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Sydney</cite>, Australian cruiser, destroys German raider <cite>Emden</cite>, Nov. 9, '14, iv: 185-190.</li> +<li>Synchronizers, for timing machine-gun fire through airplane propeller blades, viii: 86, 190-192, 208-210, 214.</li> +<li>Syria, + <ul class="index"> + <li>placed under French control by secret treaties of '16—'17, vi: 334;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Tin" id="Tin">T</a></li> +<li>Tachometer, aero engine revolution counter, viii: 218.</li> +<li>Tactics, + <ul class="index"> + <li>battle of maneuver and of line compared by Foch, ii: 108;</li> + <li>new French plan of defense, June, '18, ii: 208;</li> + <li>trench warfare and "war of movement," compared by German military critic, ii: 259;</li> + <li>German method of attack by infiltration, iii: 386, v: 17-19;</li> + <li>French trench defensive organization, v: 12-17;</li> + <li>parallel of resistance, v: 12;</li> + <li>line of resistance, v: 12;</li> + <li>line of surveillance, v: 12;</li> + <li>line of support, v: 12;</li> + <li>center of resistance, v: 14;</li> + <li>adaptation of American divisional organization to French scheme of defense, v: 19-21;</li> + <li>elements of limitation in offensives, v: 23;</li> + <li>American patrolling activities, v: 27, 117;</li> + <li>use of gas-projector batteries by Germans, v: 28;</li> + <li>value of villages in stabilized warfare, v: 31;</li> + <li>method of overcoming machine-gun nests, v: 39;</li> + <li>von Hutier's method of surprise attack, v: 41, viii: 143-145;</li> + <li>Gen. Gouraud's system of defense against attack by infiltration, v: 46, 155, viii: 146-148;</li> + <li>A. E. F. training for open warfare, v: 114;</li> + <li>new German tactics in drive of Mar., '18, v: 161;</li> + <li>use of masked machine-gun fire in defensive, v: 287;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Strategy; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Trench warfare;</li> + <li>battle or campaign.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Taft, William Howard, statement on U. S. action on <cite>Lusitania</cite> sinking, i: 320.</li> +<li>Tagliamento River, + <ul class="index"> + <li>reached by Austro-Germans in invasion of Italy, Nov., '17, ii: 58, iii: 248;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Italian Front.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tailly, captured by 89th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 264. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></p></li> + +<li>Talaat Bey, Turkish Minister of Interior, responsibility for Armenian massacres, vi: 332.</li> +<li>Talley, Sgt. Edward R., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.</li> +<li><cite>Tanine</cite>, Turkish newspaper, comment on Dardanelles expedition, vi: 330.</li> +<li>Tanks, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Field-Marshal Haig on effectiveness, ii: 123-124;</li> + <li>use in Allied counter-offensive, July 18, '18, ii: 210, 281;</li> + <li>development, description, and battle uses, v: 314, viii: 140-143, 148-161, xi: 251-264; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Maj.-Gen. Swinton on, ii: 273-290;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>German opinion of value, ii: 273-274;</li> + <li>invention suggested by American farm tractors, ii: 274, xi: 256;</li> + <li>purpose in development of, ii: 275, viii: 140-141, xi: 253-256;</li> + <li>Maj.-Gen. Swinton conceives idea for, ii: 276, viii: 155, xi: 256;</li> + <li>fore-runners of idea, ii: 276;</li> + <li>British experimentation, '15—'16, ii: 277, viii: 155, xi: 257;</li> + <li>origin of word "tank," ii: 277;</li> + <li>first quantity production begun by British, Feb., '16, ii: 277;</li> + <li>first use in action at battle of the Somme, Sept., '16, ii: 277, iii: 59, viii: 141, xi: 251-253;</li> + <li>successful surprise attack at battle of Cambrai, Nov. 20, '17, ii: 280, 283, iii: 80, viii: 142,156; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Philip Gibbs's description, iii: 337-340;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>use in Allied retreat, Mar.—June, '18, ii: 280;</li> + <li>British "Whippets," ii: 280, viii: 148, xi: 262;</li> + <li>use in Allied attack at Hamel, July 4, '18, ii: 281, 282;</li> + <li>lead in Allied surprise attack at Amiens, Aug. 8, '18, ii: 281;</li> + <li>use by Allies in second battle of Cambrai, Sept. 27—Oct. 10, '18, ii: 281;</li> + <li>first time manned by Americans, Sept. 29, '18, ii: 281;</li> + <li>development by French, ii: 282, viii: 152-155, xi: 257;</li> + <li>German type, ii: 282, viii: 159;</li> + <li>effectiveness compared with field artillery, ii: 283;</li> + <li>saving of war material in use, ii: 284;</li> + <li>casualty rate among troops attacking with, ii: 284;</li> + <li>in drive against Soissons, July, '18, v: 177;</li> + <li>number in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept. 26, '18, v: 223, 388;</li> + <li>number of U. S. tanks in France, v: 350;</li> + <li>value as infantry support, viii: 141-143;</li> + <li>tank <em>vs.</em> machine gun, viii: 150-151;</li> + <li>decisive factor in smashing German trench system, viii: 150-152, xi: 261;</li> + <li>uses in peace times, viii: 151;</li> + <li>French invention for crushing barbed-wire entanglements, viii: 153;</li> + <li>Boirault machine, viii: 153;</li> + <li>French electric tank, viii: 155;</li> + <li>French "baby" Renaults, viii: 156, xi: 260;</li> + <li>British and French types compared, viii: 156;</li> + <li>U. S. types, viii: 158;</li> + <li>requirements for successful tank, viii: 158;</li> + <li>future possibilities, viii: 160;</li> + <li>account of an American tank-man, x: 58-62;</li> + <li>German method of defense against, xi: 264;</li> + <li>account of battle between, xi: 265-266;</li> + <li>sensation of riding in, xi: 269-270;</li> + <li>for U. S. Tank Corps, <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tannay, captured by 78th Div., Nov. 5, '18, v: 268.</li> +<li>Tannenberg, battle of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Hindenburg crushes Russian armies invading East Prussia, Aug., '18, ii: 24-25, iii: 112-116.</li> + <li>Gen. Gourko's account, ii: 228-229;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's comments on,ii: 353-354;</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tardenois salient, + <ul class="index"> + <li>strategic aspects, with description of terrain, ii: 210-212, v: 42-43, 58;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Marne, battles of, July, '18.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tarnopol, captured by Russians, Sept. 27, '14, iii: 120.</li> +<li>Tatarli, captured by Allies, Oct., 15, iii: 204.</li> +<li>Taube airplanes, record flights by, viii: 206.</li> +<li>Taxation, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in paying for cost of War, <a href="#Page_108">xii: 108-114</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under each country.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tchitcherin, Russian Soviet Commissary for Foreign Affairs, vi: 187.</li> +<li>Tear gas, + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Chemical warfare;</li> + <li>Chlorpicrin;</li> + <li>Zylyl bromide.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Teleferica, Italian aerial cableway in the Alps, viii: 303-306.</li> +<li>Telegraphy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>development and use of wireless, in the War, viii: 315-318, 320-322;</li> + <li>U. S. Army system in France, viii: 323, 325.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Telephones, + <ul class="index"> + <li>development and use of wireless, in the War, viii: 316-320;</li> + <li>U. S. Army system in France, viii: 323-326.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Terauchi, Count, Japanese Prime Minister, + <ul class="index"> + <li>militarist policy, vi: 386-388;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 90.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tereschenko, Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs in Prince Lvov's coalition cabinet, vi: 160.</li> +<li>Teschen, dispute between Poland and Czechoslovakia for possession of, vi: 400.</li> +<li>Tetanus, causes and treatment of, in army, vii: 253, viii: 367, xi: 287.</li> +<li>Teutonic Allies, <em>see</em> Central Powers.</li> +<li>Thann, captured by French, Aug. 7, '14, iii: 16.</li> +<li>Theatricals, for service men, <em>see</em> Entertainment.</li> +<li>Thenault, Capt., French commander of Lafayette Escadrille, iii: 391.</li> +<li><cite>There Will Come Soft Rains</cite>, poem by Sara Teasdale, ix: 274.</li> +<li><cite>These Be the Days That Call for Men</cite>, poem by John Trotwood Moore, iii: <em>Intro. x.</em></li> +<li><cite>Thetis</cite>, British cruiser blown up at Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 262, 264.</li> +<li>"They shall not pass," French watchword at Verdun, ii: 189, iii: 304, xi: 21.</li> +<li>Thiaucourt, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by 2nd Div., Sept. 12, '18, v: 68, 206, 210;</li> + <li>American cemetery at, v: 400.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Thiaumont, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Germans, June 23, '16, i: 386, iii: 55, 313;</li> + <li>recaptured by French, Oct. 24, '16, i: 388, iii: 61.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Thiepval, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Allied objective in Somme battle, iii: 58;</li> + <li>stormed by British, Sept, 26, '16, iii: 59.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Thomas, Albert, French Socialist leader, on French labor during War, ii: 373-382.</li> +<li>Thomas, J. H., British labor leader, conference with Lloyd George on strike by "Triple Alliance," vi: 22.</li> +<li>Thrasher, Leon, U. S. citizen killed in sinking of <cite>Falaba</cite> by U-boat, Mar. 28, '15, i: 319.</li> +<li>Three Emperors' League, 1872, i: 95.</li> +<li><cite>Thuringen</cite>, German battleship, crew first to mutiny, Oct. 31, '18, iv: 381.</li> +<li><cite>Tiger</cite>, British cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>hit at battle of Jutland, iv: 108;</li> + <li>in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tilsit, occupied by Russians, Aug. 24, '14, iii: 111.</li> +<li>Timber, war uses, viii: 306-309.</li> +<li>Tirailleurs, description, xi: 191.</li> +<li>Tirgu-jiuly, Rumanians defeated at, by Germans, iii: 221.</li> +<li>Tirpitz, Adm. Alfred von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>share in developing German navy, iv: 363, ix: 301;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 298-306;</li> + <li>submarine policy, ix: 302.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tisza, Count Stephan, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Hungarian Premier, attitude on War, vi: 306;</li> + <li>political opposition to, '16, vi: 311;</li> + <li>Rumanian policy assailed in Parliament, vi: 313;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 144-147.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>T. N. T., <em>see</em> Trinitrotoluol.</li> +<li>Togoland, + <ul class="index"> + <li>conquered by Allies, Aug.,'14, iii: 252;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>"Tommy Atkins," nickname for British soldier, origin, vi: 230; + <ul class="index"> + <li>description as fighting-man, xi: 181-189.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Torcy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>location, v: 37, 133;</li> + <li>Gen. Degoutte's commendation of A. E. F. fighting at, v: 192;</li> + <li>captured by First Corps, July 18, '18, v: 383.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Torpedoes, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description and use, iv: 307, viii: 266, xi: 245-258;</li> + <li>device for launching from air, iv: 335.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Toul, + <ul class="index"> + <li>headquarters of First Army, Aug., '18, v: 193;</li> + <li>important fortified city, v: 199.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Toul sector, taken over by A. E. F., Jan. 19, '18, v: 115.</li> +<li>Tours, + <ul class="index"> + <li>A. E. F. Air Service Training School at, v: 313;</li> + <li>headquarters of S. O. S., v: 332.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Towers, Commander, in command of N-C flying boats on trans-Atlantic flight, viii: 240.</li> +<li>Townshend, Gen. Sir Charles, + <ul class="index"> + <li>besieged in Kut-el-Amara by Turks, iii: 183, 318-320, xi: 29;</li> + <li>forced to surrender Apr. 29, '16, iii: 183, 319, xi: 29;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 194.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tracer bullets, viii: 211.</li> +<li>Tractors, artillery, + <ul class="index"> + <li>U. S., number in use in France, v: 350;</li> + <li>supplant horses, viii: 40. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Transloy-Loupart line, captured by British, Mar.,'17, iii: 66.</li> +<li>Transports, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Ludendorff's account of German efforts to sink U. S. troopships, ii: 317-318;</li> + <li>account by Adm. Gleaves of first expedition of U. S. troops to France, June,'17, iv: 157-162;</li> + <li>list of ships carrying U. S. troops across Atlantic for first time, June,'17, iv: 160;</li> + <li>equipment and escort of, by U. S. Navy, iv: 160, 165;</li> + <li>transportation of A. E. F. overseas, with statistics on number of troops carried and number and nationality of troopships and convoys used, iv: 162-165 , v: 285, 379, <a href="#Page_94">xii: 94-95</a>, <a href="#Page_283">xii: 283</a>;</li> + <li>British, statistics on troops carried, iv: 239;</li> + <li>U. S., attacked by submarines, accounts of, iv: 335-343.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Transvaal, <em>see</em> South Africa, Union of.</li> +<li>Transylvania, + <ul class="index"> + <li>invasion of, by Rumanians, Aug.,'16, ii: 60, iii: 217-218;</li> + <li>desire for possession cause of Rumania's entry into War, iii: 214, vi: 349;</li> + <li>topography of frontier, iii: 214;</li> + <li>Rumanians defeated and expelled from, by Falkenhayn, Sept.—Oct.,'16, iii: 220;</li> + <li>attitude of inhabitants to Rumanian invasion, vi: 313.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Trawlers, + <ul class="index"> + <li>use in patrol and minesweeping, iv: 292;</li> + <li>battle with submarine, iv: 294.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Treaties, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Allied agreement not to make separate peace, i: 146;</li> + <li>treaty of Brest-Litovsk between Russia and Germany, Mar.,' 18, ii: 63, 273, vi: 183, 268;</li> + <li>Quadruple Treaty (Treaty of London) between Italy and Allies, price for Italian participation in War, Apr., '15, vi: 122, 361;</li> + <li>Trotzky publishes Russian secret treaties, vi: 183, ix: 118;</li> + <li>secret agreements among Allies for partition of Turkey, '16—'17, vi: 334;</li> + <li>agreement between Rumania and Allies as price for Rumanian entry into War, '16, vi: 349;</li> + <li>treaty of Bucharest between Rumania and Central Powers, May,'17, vi: 352;</li> + <li>pre-War agreements between Germany and Allies revived by Treaty of Versailles, <a href="#Page_231">xii: 231</a>;</li> + <li>agreements among Central Powers abrogated by Treaty of Versailles, <a href="#Page_232">xii: 232</a>;</li> + <li>treaties between Germany and Rumania abrogated by Treaty of Versailles, <a href="#Page_232">xii: 232</a>;</li> + <li>treaties between Germany and Russia abrogated by Treaty of Versailles, <a href="#Page_232">xii: 232</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Alliances;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty with Germany, Versailles, '19.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Trebizond, captured by Russians, Apr. 18,'16, ii: 92, iii: 263.</li> +<li>Treitschke, Heinrich von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German historian, exposition of Kultur, i: 66;</li> + <li>theory of supremacy of State, i: 148;</li> + <li>biography, i: 174;</li> + <li>philosophy compared with Carlyle's, i: 175;</li> + <li>theory of German greatness, i: 175;</li> + <li>hatred for England, i: 175;</li> + <li>summary of political philosophy, i: 177;</li> + <li>American student's recollection of, i: 178.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Trench Duty</cite>, poem by Siegfried Sassoon, ix: 282.</li> +<li>Trench feet, viii: 396.</li> +<li>Trench warfare, + <ul class="index"> + <li>adoption by Germans after retreat from Marne, Sept., '14, ii: <em>Intro. vii</em>, 11, iii: 37, viii: 134, xi: 12, 253;</li> + <li>opposed by Field-Marshal French, ii: 171;</li> + <li>compared with "war of movement" by German military critic, ii: 259;</li> + <li>description of German trench system, ii: 275, viii: 124-130;</li> + <li>use of barbed wire as defensive barrier, ii: 276, viii: 136, 152;</li> + <li>value of tanks in, ii: 276, viii: 140-143, 150, 161;</li> + <li>use of machine guns in, ii: 288, viii: 134-136;</li> + <li>life in, iii: 286, x: 65-71, xi: 171-173;</li> + <li>French defensive system, v: 12-17;</li> + <li>night fighting, viii: 74;</li> + <li>reasons for adoption in place of open warfare, viii: 123;</li> + <li>kinds of trenches, viii: 123;</li> + <li>description of Russian trenches, viii: 123;</li> + <li>disadvantages of trenches as defensive system, viii: 129;</li> + <li>"pill-boxes," viii: 130-132;</li> + <li>use of artillery in, viii: 132-133, 136-141;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Barbed wire;</li> + <li>Machine gun;</li> + <li>Tanks.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Trentino, <em>see</em> Italian Front.</li> +<li>Trepov, Russian Premier, forced to resign, '17, vi: 143.</li> +<li>Treves, + <ul class="index"> + <li>bombed by French airmen, Sept. 13, '15, i: 382;</li> + <li>Oct. 1, '17, i: 392.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Trevier</cite>, Belgian relief ship sunk by U-boat, iv: 230.</li> +<li>Trieste, + <ul class="index"> + <li>unsuccessful Italian offensives against,' 16—'17, ii: 52, 246, iii: 246, xi: 26;</li> + <li>promised by Allies to Italy as war prize, vi: 122, 361;</li> + <li>American troops landed at, to preserve peace between Italians and Jugoslavs, vi: 366;</li> + <li>sinking of Austrian battleships <cite>Wien</cite> and <cite>Monarch</cite> in harbor of, by Italians, x: 290.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Trinitrotoluol (T. N. T.), + <ul class="index"> + <li>composition and explosive properties, viii: 6;</li> + <li>American output of, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Triple Alliance, of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>formation, 1882, i: 95;</li> + <li>terms, i: 95;</li> + <li>military strength, i: 95;</li> + <li>solidity of union between Germany and Austria, i: 208;</li> + <li>Italian position in, i: 255;</li> + <li>French estimate of, ii: 4;</li> + <li>repudiated by Italy, ii: 48, vi: 115;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Foreign policy, under name of country.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Triple Entente, of France, Russia, and Great Britain, formation, i: 98, 106; + <ul class="index"> + <li>not a treaty-bound alliance, i: 103, 218;</li> + <li>Franco-Russian treaty of July,'12, i: 107;</li> + <li>Anglo-French agreement for united action against "third power," Nov., '12, i: 107, 220;</li> + <li>attitude to outbreak of War, i: 129;</li> + <li>agreement not to make separate peace, Aug. 4,'14, i: 146;</li> + <li>German estimate of military effectiveness, ii: 2;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Foreign policy, under name of country.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tripoli, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Turkish territory in north Africa, seized by Italy, i: 109;</li> + <li>town in Syria, captured by Allies, Oct.,'18, iii: 199.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tritton, Sir William, share in developing tank as fighting machine, viii: 155, xi: 257.</li> +<li><cite>Triumph</cite>, British battleship. + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Gallipoli, iv: 31;</li> + <li>sunk by U-boat, May 26, '15, iv: 50.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Trois Fontaines, conference between Marshal Foch and Secretary Baker at, Oct. 4, '18, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>.</li> +<li>Tronsol Farm, captured by 182nd Brig., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229.</li> +<li>Trophies of War, Peace Treaty provisions for return of, by Germany, to France, <a href="#Page_225">xii: 225</a>.</li> +<li>Trotzky, Leon, + <ul class="index"> + <li>becomes Commissary of Foreign Affairs of Soviet Russia, Nov., '17, vi: 181;</li> + <li>publishes Russian secret treaties, vi: 183;</li> + <li>as Minister of War raises Red Army, vi: 185;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 116-119;</li> + <li>bibliography, ix: 119.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Troubridge, Adm., + <ul class="index"> + <li>takes charge of Serb refugees at Medua, iii: 284;</li> + <li>in command of British naval forces in Mediterranean, Aug., '14, iv: 13.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Trugny Wood, evacuated by Germans, July 24, '18, v: 186.</li> +<li>Tsing Tau, <em>see</em> Kiau-Chau.</li> +<li>Tuilerie Farm, captured by 42nd Div., Oct., 15, '18, v: 252.</li> +<li>Turkestan, Republic of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>established, Jan., '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Turkey: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Germanization under von der Goltz, i: 207;</li> + <li>organization, iii: 164;</li> + <li>Liman von Sanders appointed to reorganize, vi: 330;</li> + <li>for military operations, <em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Caucasus;</li> + <li>Gallipoli Campaign;</li> + <li>Mesopotamian Campaign;</li> + <li>Palestine;</li> + <li>Suez Canal.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Casualties, + <ul class="index"> + <li>total in War, iii: 404;</li> + <li>money equivalent of manpower lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>battle deaths, <a href="#Page_288">xii: 288</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Declarations of war, + <ul class="index"> + <li>renewal of age-old struggle between Europe and Asia, i: 11;</li> + <li>by Russia against, Oct. 30, '14, i: 376;</li> + <li>by France and Great Britain against, Nov. 5, '14, i: 378;</li> + <li>Holy War declared against Allies, Nov. 17, '14, i: 376, ii: 31, vi: 330, xi: 14;</li> + <li>by Italy against, Aug. 21, '15, i: 381;</li> + <li>on Rumania, Aug. 29, '16, i: 386; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></p></li> + + <li>diplomatic relations with U. S. severed, Apr. 20, '17, i: 390;</li> + <li>strategic victory for Germany, ii: <em>Intro. viii</em>, 27-28;</li> + <li>welcomed by Russia, vi: 134;</li> + <li>welcomed by Turkish press, vi: 330.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Foreign relations, + <ul class="index"> + <li>extraterritorial rights for foreigners withdrawn, i: 18;</li> + <li>continuance as European Power assured by Paris Conference, 1856, i: 39;</li> + <li>international position, '14, i: 63;</li> + <li>subjugation and misrule of Christian races, i: 89-93, iv: 17-18;</li> + <li>settlement of Congress of Berlin, 1878, i: 93;</li> + <li>pre-War relations with Germany, i: 98, 207, vi: 328-330;</li> + <li>strategic importance as Germanic ally, ii: <em>Intro. viii</em>, 27-28, 87-90;</li> + <li>Dardanelles closed, Sept.,'14, ii: 28;</li> + <li>escape of German cruisers <cite>Goeben</cite> and <cite>Breslau</cite> into Turkish waters and their purchase by Turkey, iv: 14-17, vi: 330;</li> + <li>Allied agreements for partition, vi: 334;</li> + <li>Demotika ceded to Bulgaria, vi: 344;</li> + <li>dispute with Bulgaria, '18, vi: 345.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Internal affairs, + <ul class="index"> + <li>form of government, i: 90;</li> + <li>constitution proclaimed, 1839, i: 92;</li> + <li>Young Turk revolution, '08, i: 109;</li> + <li>Armenian massacres, iii: 405, vi: 331-333;</li> + <li>war sentiment, vi: 330;</li> + <li>Arab revolt, '16, vi: 333.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Navy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>purchase of German cruisers <cite>Goeben</cite> and <cite>Breslau</cite>, iv: 16-17, vi: 330;</li> + <li>strength, iv: 50.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Peace negotiations, capitulation, and armistice with Allies, Oct. 31, '18, ii: 94, vi: 334.</li> + <li>Prisoners of war, iii: 404.</li> + <li>War cost, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Nov., '14—Oct., '19, <a href="#Page_107">xii: 107</a>;</li> + <li>rise in national debt, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Turner, Corp. Harold L., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397.</li> +<li>Turner, 1st Lieut. William S., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393.</li> +<li>Turner, William Thomas, captain of torpedoed <cite>Lusitania</cite>, i: 362.</li> +<li><cite>Turtle</cite>, submarine used in American Revolution, iv: 201.</li> +<li><cite>Tuscania</cite>, U. S. transport torpedoed, Feb. 5, '18, i: 393, iv: 336.</li> +<li>Tutrakan, captured by Bulgarians, Sept. 6, '16, iii: 218.</li> +<li>Typhoid, + <ul class="index"> + <li>U. S. Army statistics, vii: 195;</li> + <li>immunization against, vii: 246, 253, viii: 393;</li> + <li>manufacture of anti-typhoid vaccine, viii: 393.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Typhus, epidemic of, in Serbia, iii: 155, 398-400, vi: 357, vii: 148.</li> +<li><cite>Tyulen</cite>, Russian submarine, captures Turkish transport in Black Sea, iv: 366.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Uin" id="Uin">U</a></li> +<li><cite>U-9</cite>, German submarine, sinks British cruisers <cite>Aboukir</cite>, <cite>Cressy</cite>, <cite>Hogue</cite>, Sept. 22, '14, iv: 205.</li> +<li><cite>U-15</cite>, first German submarine sunk in War, iv: 305.</li> +<li><cite>U-29</cite>, German submarine, rammed by British battleship <cite>Dreadnought</cite>, Mar., '15, iv: 305.</li> +<li><cite>U-53</cite>, German submarine, activities off U. S. coast, Oct., '16, i: 334, iv: 216.</li> +<li><cite>U-58</cite>, German submarine, captured by U. S. destroyers <cite>Fanning</cite> and <cite>Nicholson</cite>, iv: 349.</li> +<li><cite>U-117</cite>, German submarine, activities off U. S. coast, '18, iv: 216.</li> +<li>U-boats, + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Submarines;</li> + <li>Submarine warfare.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Udine, + <ul class="index"> + <li>bombed by Austrian airmen, Nov. 19, '15, i: 382;</li> + <li>captured by Austro-Germans, Oct., '17, iii: 247.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Uhlans, German cavalry, description, xi: 196.</li> +<li>Ukraine, + <ul class="index"> + <li>early history, vi: 239-241;</li> + <li>pre-War movement for independence, vi: 241-243;</li> + <li>Russian attempts at suppression of nationalist feeling, vi: 243;</li> + <li>autonomy proclaimed, June 24, '17, vi: 243;</li> + <li>movement for establishment of federal Russia, vi: 244;</li> + <li>struggle with Bolsheviki, vi: 244-246, 248;</li> + <li>conclusion of separate peace with Germans at Brest-Litovsk, vi: 246-247;</li> + <li>revolt against German domination, '18, vi: 247-248;</li> + <li>war with Poland for possession of Cholm, vi: 248;</li> + <li>population and area, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ulianov, Vladimir, <em>see</em> Lenin, Nicolai.</li> +<li>Ulster, <em>see</em> Ireland.</li> +<li>Uniforms, military, + <ul class="index"> + <li>invisibility of French, ii: 286;</li> + <li>invisibility of German, ii: 286; + <ul class="index"> + <li>description by Richard Harding Davis, iii: 272.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>United Kingdom, <em>see</em> Great Britain.</li> +<li>United States: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>morale, i: 369, v: <em>Intro. xii</em>, 9, 71-72;</li> + <li>National Army ordered mobilized, Aug. 13, '17, i: 390;</li> + <li>strength in France, Mar., '18, ii: 66, v: 380;</li> + <li>nearing end of offensive force at Armistice, ii: 98;</li> + <li>A. E. F. put at disposal of Foch by Pershing, Mar. 28, '18, ii: 152, v: 120, 380;</li> + <li>transportation overseas, + <ul class="index"> + <li>with statistics on rate and means of, iv: 10-12, v: 106, 128, 284, <a href="#Page_94">xii: 94-95</a>, <a href="#Page_283">xii: 283</a>; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Ludendorff's comment on, ii: 317;</li> + <li>Adm. Gleaves' account of first convoy across Atlantic, iv: 157-165;</li> + <li>Pershing's report, v: 373-379;</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Ludendorff's opinion of fighting qualities, ii: 326;</li> + <li>first contingent arrives in France, June 26, '17, iii: 83, iv: 162, v: 106;</li> + <li>first shot fired against Germans, Oct. 23, '17, iii: 84, v: 112;</li> + <li>first American prisoners captured by Germans, Nov. 3, '17, iii: 84, v: 112;</li> + <li>on Italian Front, iii: 249, v: 394;</li> + <li>total strength, iii: 403, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280-282</a>;</li> + <li>strength overseas, iii: 403, 405, v: 128, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280-282</a>, <a href="#Page_287">xii: 287</a>;</li> + <li>combat value, v: 4;</li> + <li>training in France, v: 6-12, 100, 102-106, 107-108, 111-113, 114-119, 233, 312, 314, 325, 327, xi: 171-173, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Pershing's report on arrangements with French and British, v: 373-378;</li> + </ul></li> + <li><em>see also</em> under each Division;</li> + <li>living conditions in France, v: 8;</li> + <li>first divisions enter front lines, Jan., '18, v: 10;</li> + <li>supplies for, + <ul class="index"> + <li>with statistics on quantity consumed and methods of procurement, v: 11, 110, 115, 285, 328-332, 396-398, 400, <a href="#Page_283">xii: 283-284</a>,</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under U. S. Army, Services of Supply;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>size and organization of division, v: 19-21, 108, <a href="#Page_282">xii: 282</a>, <a href="#Page_287">xii: 287</a>;</li> + <li>size and organization of regiment, v: 20, 108, 281, xi: 163;</li> + <li>adaptation of American divisional organization to French system of trench warfare, v: 21;</li> + <li>offensive spirit, v: 22, 26, 29;</li> + <li>patrolling activities at the front, v: 27, 117;</li> + <li>distribution of A. E. F. divisions in battle area, June, '18, v: 41, 141-147;</li> + <li>combat units in France organized into First Army under tactical command of Pershing, Aug., '18, v: 64, 192, 384;</li> + <li>Pershing arrives overseas, June, '17, v: 97;</li> + <li>General Staff, A. E. F., organization and personnel, v: 98-102;</li> + <li>training of officers, with statistics, v: 100, 102-104, 108, 312, 325, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280</a>, <a href="#Page_282">xii: 282</a>;</li> + <li>general educational program for A. E. F. at army centers and European universities, v: 106, vii: 281-283, 290;</li> + <li>organization of corps, v: 109;</li> + <li>number and distribution of A. E. F. combat divisions, Sept., '18, v: 197;</li> + <li>number and distribution of A. E. F. combat divisions, Nov. 1, '18, v: 253;</li> + <li>divisions serving in Allied armies, v: 254, 279, 373-379, 393;</li> + <li>American soldier's attitude towards British soldier, v: 288;</li> + <li>air service training schools, in U. S. and overseas, v: 312, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>;</li> + <li>tank schools, v: 314;</li> + <li>gas warfare training, v: 325, 327;</li> + <li>statistics on health and disease in v: 344, 402, vii: 179, 193-195,</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under U. S. Army, Medical Service;</li> + <li>rifle equipment, description and reasons for adoption of type, v: 347, viii: 96, 102-105;</li> + <li>Pershing's message to each member of A. E. F., v: 353;</li> + <li>list of A. E. F. divisions, with histories, v: 354-372;</li> + <li>replacement (depot) divisions, v: 368-372, 399;</li> + <li>Pershing's official report on A. E. F. operations, v: 373-404; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></p></li> + + <li>on Russian Front against Bolsheviki, v: 394, vi: 187, 193;</li> + <li>return of A. E. F. to U. S., v: 395;</li> + <li>procuring of remounts, v: 399;</li> + <li>A. E. F. mail service, v: 402;</li> + <li>system of keeping records of A. E. F., v: 402;</li> + <li>military justice in, v: 403;</li> + <li>punishments in, v: 403;</li> + <li>intelligence tests for recruits, vii: 216, viii: 349-351;</li> + <li>training camps in U. S., number and system of instruction, xi: 155-165, <a href="#Page_282">xii: 282</a>;</li> + <li>soldier's equipment, xi: 167-168;</li> + <li>pay, xi: 168;</li> + <li>cantonment construction, <a href="#Page_125">xii: 125</a>, <a href="#Page_282">xii: 282</a>;</li> + <li>statistics on participation in War, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280-289</a>;</li> + <li>total battles fought by A. E. F., <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280</a>, <a href="#Page_287">xii: 287</a>;</li> + <li>total days in battle, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280</a>, <a href="#Page_287">xii: 287</a>;</li> + <li>number of troops in battle, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280</a>, <a href="#Page_287">xii: 287</a>;</li> + <li>total of ordnance and prisoners captured, <a href="#Page_288">xii: 288</a>;</li> + <li>for branches and units, <em>see</em> below;</li> + <li>for detail of military operations, <em>see</em> name of battle or campaign.</li> + <li>Adjutant General's Department, functions, v: 402.</li> + <li>Air Service, + <ul class="index"> + <li>record in France, v: 309-313, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285-286</a>;</li> + <li>losses, v: 309;</li> + <li>number of enemy planes and balloons shot down by, v: 309;</li> + <li>strength at the front, Nov. 11, '18, v: 309, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285-286</a>;</li> + <li>strength and activities of balloon companies, v: 311-312;</li> + <li>growth, v: 312, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>;</li> + <li>total personnel, v: 312, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>;</li> + <li>training schools, v: 312, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>;</li> + <li>dependence on Allies, Pershing's report, v: 401;</li> + <li>types of aerial navigating instruments, viii: 217-221;</li> + <li>work of aerial photographers, viii: 228-235;</li> + <li>airplane production, <a href="#Page_285">xii: 285</a>;</li> + <li>types of aero squadrons, <a href="#Page_286">xii: 286</a>;</li> + <li>for N-C flying boats and dirigibles, <em>see</em> U. S., Navy.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Artillery, + <ul class="index"> + <li>first shot of War fired by A. E. F., Oct.27, '17, i: 392, iii: 84, v: 112;</li> + <li>dependence of A. E. F. on French and British for, v: 111, 348, 401, <a href="#Page_284">xii: 284</a>;</li> + <li>heavy artillery (Coast Artillery Corps), battle activities in France, v: 303-308;</li> + <li>organization and units of Railway Artillery Reserve, v: 305;</li> + <li>Naval Batteries on Western Front, v: 306, viii: 42-45;</li> + <li>anti-aircraft batteries, v: 308;</li> + <li>trench mortar battalions, v: 308;</li> + <li>number of cannon and trench mortars at the front, Nov. 11, '18, v: 350;</li> + <li>description of types of field guns, viii: 22-28;</li> + <li>description of types of heavy guns, viii: 36-42;</li> + <li>description of prospective 121-mile range gun, viii: 48-51;</li> + <li>production figures, <a href="#Page_284">xii: 284</a>;</li> + <li>captured by A. E. F., <a href="#Page_288">xii: 288</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Chemical Warfare Service, + <ul class="index"> + <li>organization and activities, v: 321-327, viii: 179-187; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Pershing's report, v: 401;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>poison gases used, v: 321-322;</li> + <li>experimentation and development, v: 323-324;</li> + <li>gas masks and other defense equipment issued to A. E. F., v: 324;</li> + <li>gas shell production, v: 325, viii: 186;</li> + <li>gas defense training, v: 325;</li> + <li>duties of gas officer, v: 325;</li> + <li>deloading and examination of unexploded German shells, v: 325-326;</li> + <li>use of poison gas by artillery and infantry, v: 326;</li> + <li>activities of A. E. F. gas troops, v: 327;</li> + <li>invention of Lewisite, deadliest poison gas, viii: 172;</li> + <li>poison gas production at Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 179-187;</li> + <li>daily output compared with German, French, British, viii: 179.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Dental Corps, organization and activities, vii: 209-210.</li> + <li>Engineer Corps, + <ul class="index"> + <li>heroic stand by A. E. F. engineer troops against German break through British lines, Mar., '18, iii: 89, v: 123;</li> + <li>organization and activities overseas, v: 332-336, 399-400, <a href="#Page_283">xii: 283</a>, <a href="#Page_287">xii: 287</a>;</li> + <li>construction of barracks, v: 332, 400;</li> + <li>construction of hospitals, v: 332, 400;</li> + <li>construction of docks, v: 332, 400, <a href="#Page_283">xii: 283</a>;</li> + <li>railroad construction, v: 333, 334, 400, <a href="#Page_283">xii: 283</a>;</li> + <li>insuring clean water supply for A. E. F., v: 333;</li> + <li>construction of refrigerating plants, v: 333, 400;</li> + <li>construction of bakeries, v: 333, 400;</li> + <li>activities of Forestry Division, v: 334, 400, <a href="#Page_287">xii: 287</a>;</li> + <li>work with combat troops, v: 335;</li> + <li>Pershing's tribute to, v: 336;</li> + <li>road construction in France, v: 400.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Graves Registration Service, <em>see</em> U. S. Army, Quartermaster Corps.</li> + <li>Inspector General's Department, functions of, v: 402-403.</li> + <li>Judge Advocate General's Department, functions of, v: 403.</li> + <li>Medical Service, + <ul class="index"> + <li>war-time organization and activities, v: 336-347, 402, vii: 175-239, 245-254;</li> + <li>field hospitals and medical work at the front, v: 337-338, vii: 178, 230-233, 249-254;</li> + <li>evacuation hospitals, v: 338, vii: 178, 251;</li> + <li>hospital trains, v: 339, vii: 199, 251, viii: 380;</li> + <li>hospital construction in France, 340-342;</li> + <li>A. E. F. base hospitals, v: 340, 400;</li> + <li>"Hospital Centers," v: 341, 400;</li> + <li>capacity of A. E. F. hospitals, v: 342;</li> + <li>statistics on patients treated in A. E. F. hospitals, v: 342, 352, 402;</li> + <li>statistics on personnel, v: 343-344, vii: 177, 201-203;</li> + <li>statistics on disease and wounded, v: 344, 402, vii: 179, 193-196, 208-209;</li> + <li>procurement of supplies for use overseas, v: 344, vii: 222-224;</li> + <li>volunteer organizations co-operating with, v: 344, vii: 187-189, 219, <em>see also</em> Red Cross;</li> + <li>organization in France, v: 345-346;</li> + <li>letter of commendation from Pershing, v: 346;</li> + <li>total number of hospital patients treated during War, v: 352;</li> + <li>number of hospitals and patients treated in U. S., v: 352, vii: 201;</li> + <li>venereal disease, statistics on, and methods of combating, v: 402, vii: 208-209;</li> + <li>physical reconstruction of disabled and mutilated, vii: 175-176, 180-186, 210-216, 233-239,</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Reconstruction of disabled;</li> + <li>war-time mobilization of medical profession of U. S., vii: 187-189, 203, 219-222;</li> + <li>Medical Reserve Corps and Volunteer Medical Service Corps, vii: 187, 203;</li> + <li>work of women physicians, vii: 188;</li> + <li>system of war-time organization, vii: 191, 203;</li> + <li>activities of Division of Sanitation, vii: 191-196;</li> + <li>construction of hospitals in U. S., vii: 196-198;</li> + <li>number of patients returned from overseas for treatment in U. S., vii: 200;</li> + <li>army nurses, number and organization, vii: 203;</li> + <li>work of Division of Laboratories and Infectious Diseases in control of communicable diseases, vii: 203-209;</li> + <li>functions of Division of Medicine, vii: 216-219;</li> + <li>testing mentality of recruits, vii: 216, viii: 349-351;</li> + <li>classification of soldiers by vocations, vii: 216-217;</li> + <li>physical examination of drafted men, vii: 217, <a href="#Page_281">xii: 281</a>;</li> + <li>treatment of special diseases and injuries, vii: 218, 222;</li> + <li>training of personnel, vii: 222, 225.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Military Police, <em>see</em> U. S. Army, Provost Marshal General's Department.</li> + <li>Motor Transport Corps, organization and functions, v: 328, 351, 401.</li> + <li>Nurse Corps, organization and personnel, vii: 203. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></p></li> + + <li>Ordnance Department, + <ul class="index"> + <li>functions and war-time activities, v.: 347-351, 401 <a href="#Page_284">xii: 284-285</a>;</li> + <li>size of personnel at start of War, v: 347;</li> + <li>reasons for adoption of type of rifle used by A. E. F., v: 347, viii: 96, 102;</li> + <li>rifle production figures, v: 347, <a href="#Page_284">xii: 284</a>;</li> + <li>statistics of ammunition and explosive production, v: 350, <a href="#Page_284">xii: 284-285</a>;</li> + <li>artillery production figures, v: 350, <a href="#Page_284">xii: 284</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under U. S. Army, Artillery;</li> + <li>machine-gun production, v: 350, <a href="#Page_284">xii: 284</a>;</li> + <li>number of tanks sent to the front, v: 350;</li> + <li>mobile repair shops, v: 350, viii: 294-298;</li> + <li>supply bases and workshops, v: 350;</li> + <li>strength of A. E. F. personnel, v: 350;</li> + <li>letter of praise from Pershing, v: 351.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Provost Marshal General's Department, functions, v: 403.</li> + <li>Quartermaster Corps, + <ul class="index"> + <li>organization and functions, v: 328-332, 400, <a href="#Page_283">xii: 283</a>;</li> + <li>growth of personnel in France, June, '17—Dec., '18, v: 328;</li> + <li>scope of duties, v: 328, 400;</li> + <li>methods of procuring supplies, v: 328;</li> + <li>supply depots in France, v: 329-330;</li> + <li>amount of bread consumed by A. E. F., v: 330;</li> + <li>statistics on oil and fuel for A. E. F., v: 331;</li> + <li>Salvage Service, activities of, v: 331, 400, viii: 345-348;</li> + <li>delousing facilities for A. E. F., v: 331;</li> + <li>acquisition of burial grounds for A. E. F. dead and care of graves (Graves Registration Service), v: 331, 400;</li> + <li>A. E. F. expenditures, v: 332;</li> + <li>statistics on issue of blankets and clothing, <a href="#Page_283">xii: 283</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Salvage Service, <em>see</em> U. S. Army, Quartermaster Corps.</li> + <li>Services of Supply (S. O. S.), + <ul class="index"> + <li>establishment and functions, iii: 83, v: 328-352; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Pershing's report on, iii: 396-401;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>coördination of procurement and distribution of supplies for A. E. F., v: 396-397;</li> + <li>purchasing activities overseas, v: 397;</li> + <li>reclassification system for A. E. F., v: 399;</li> + <li>personnel, Nov. 11, '18 v: 401;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under U. S. Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Engineer Corps,</li> + <li>Motor Transport Corps,</li> + <li>Ordnance Department,</li> + <li>Quartermaster Corps,</li> + <li>Transportation Corps.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Signal Corps, + <ul class="index"> + <li>activities in France, v: 317-320, 401, viii: 322-331, xi: 303-308, <a href="#Page_283">xii: 283</a>, <a href="#Page_286">xii: 286-287</a>;</li> + <li>A. E. F. telephone and telegraph system at the front and behind the lines, + <ul class="index"> + <li>with statistics on number of exchanges, miles of wire, etc., v: 317, 318, 320, 401, viii: 322-326, <a href="#Page_283">xii: 283</a>, <a href="#Page_287">xii: 287</a>;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>statistics on personnel, v: 317;</li> + <li>American women operators with A. E. F., v: 317;</li> + <li>organization of field signal battalions, v: 317;</li> + <li>devices for communication used at the front, v: 318, viii: 322;</li> + <li>"listening-in" and detection of enemy codes, v: 319;</li> + <li>work of Photographic Division in making moving-pictures of War, v: 319-320, viii: 329-331;</li> + <li>laying of cable across English Channel, v: 320, 401;</li> + <li>supplying A. E. F. with field glasses, viii: 326;</li> + <li>supplying A. E. F. with wrist-watches, viii: 327;</li> + <li>use of pigeons as messengers, viii: 328-329.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Tank Corps, + <ul class="index"> + <li>man British tanks in action for first time, Sept. 29, '18, ii: 281;</li> + <li>organization, v: 314;</li> + <li>tank schools overseas, v: 314;</li> + <li>American tanks in action, v: 315-316, 401;</li> + <li>number of tanks sent to the front, v: 350;</li> + <li>dependence on French and British, v: 401.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Transportation Corps, functions, v: 400.</li> + <li>Veterinary Corps, activities, vii: 225-227.</li> + <li>First Army, formation, Aug. 10, '18, v: 64, 192-195, 384; + <ul class="index"> + <li>reorganized and divided into First and Second Armies, Oct. 9, '18, v: 83, 246, 274;</li> + <li>drive against and reduction of St. Mihiel salient, Sept. 12—15, <em>see</em> St. Mihiel;</li> + <li>Meuse-Argonne drive, <em>see</em> Meuse-Argonne Offensive.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Second Army, formation, Oct., '18, v: 83, 246, 274; + <ul class="index"> + <li>operations in direction of Briey Iron Basin and Metz, v: 274-279, 390, 393;</li> + <li>casualties, v: 279.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Third Army (Army of Occupation), + <ul class="index"> + <li>formation, Nov. 14, '18, v: 280, 395;</li> + <li>occupation of Coblenz bridgehead, v: 394-395.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>First Corps, + <ul class="index"> + <li>operations in Allied counter-offensive in Marne salient, July, '18, v: 56, 383; + <ul class="index"> + <li>commendations from Pershing and Degoutte, v: 191-192;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>shifted to Toul sector, Aug. 13, '18, v: 62;</li> + <li>in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. 12—15, '18, v: 65, 202, 386;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.—Nov., '18, v: 74, 78, 90, 91, 92, 220, 388, 390, 391;</li> + <li>reaches heights opposite Sedan, Nov. 6, '18, v: 92;</li> + <li>formation, Jan., '18, v: 109.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Second Corps, + <ul class="index"> + <li>breaks through Hindenburg Line in co-operation with British, Sept.—Oct., '18, v: 87, 393;</li> + <li>prisoners captured, v: 87, 393;</li> + <li>formation, v: 382.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Third Corps, + <ul class="index"> + <li>operations in valley of the Vesle in Allied counter-offensive, Aug., '18, v: 62, 383; + <ul class="index"> + <li>commendations from Pershing and Degoutte, v: 191-192;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>transferred to Verdun region, Sept., '18, v: 62, 384;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.—Nov., '18, v: 74, 78, 90, 219, 260, 388, 390, 391;</li> + <li>in Army of Occupation, v: 395.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Fourth Corps, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 202, 206, 386;</li> + <li>co-operation in Meuse-Argonne attack, Sept., '18, v: 220;</li> + <li>forms part of Second Army, v: 275;</li> + <li>in Army of Occupation, v: 395.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Fifth Corps, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 69, 202, 386;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.—Nov., '18, v: 74, 90, 92, 219, 388, 390, 391.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Sixth Corps, part of Second Army, v: 275.</li> + <li>Seventh Corps, in Army of Occupation, v: 395.</li> + <li>1st Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>training in France, v: 6-12, 106-108, 111-117;</li> + <li>transferred from Lorraine to relieve French on Montdidier front, Apr., '18, v: 29, 121, 380;</li> + <li>captures Cantigny, May 28, '18, v: 31-34, 124-128, 380;</li> + <li>in drive on Soissons flank in Allied counter-offensive on Marne salient, July 18—22, '18, v: 53-56, 130, 158-182, 382; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Pershing's commendation, v: 191;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>casualties during operations in Marne salient, July, '18, v: 55, 181;</li> + <li>captures Berzy-le-Sec, July 21, '18, v: 55, 180, 383;</li> + <li>in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. 12—15, '18, v: 65-70, 202, 211, 386;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.—Nov., '18, v: 74, 80-81, 83, 88, 91-92, 231, 234, 237, 240-246, 248-250, 268-270;</li> + <li>relieved in Meuse-Argonne by 42nd Div., Oct. 12, '18, v: 83, 248;</li> + <li>record march for relief of 80th Div. and advance on Sedan, Nov. 5—7, '18, v: 91, 92, 269;</li> + <li>arrival and organization in France, v: 106-108, 109;</li> + <li>enters front-line trenches for first time, Oct., '17, v: 111;</li> + <li>artillery unit fires first shot of War for A. E. F., Oct. 23, '17, v: 112;</li> + <li>casualties in Cantigny sector, Apr. 25—July 7, '18, v: 128, 141;</li> + <li>in support of French in Montdidier-Noyon defensive, June, '18, v: 129, 139; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></p></li> + + <li>makes first capture of German guns by A. E. F., July 18, '18, v: 174;</li> + <li>casualties in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 211;</li> + <li>tribute to bravery from a German colonel, v: 246;</li> + <li>captures Sommerance, Oct. 11, '18, v:248;</li> + <li>casualties in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.—Oct., '18, v: 248;</li> + <li>citation for record in Meuse-Argonne by Pershing, v: 248;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 355;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 355;</li> + <li>total casualties, v: 355;</li> + <li>prisoners and war material captured, v: 355;</li> + <li>in Army of Occupation, v: 395.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>2nd Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>training in France, v: 6-12, 119;</li> + <li>goes into front line position on Marne salient, June 4, '18, v: 37, 132, 136;</li> + <li>in battle of Belleau Wood, June 6—26, '18, v: 39, 129, 135-139, 192, 382; + <ul class="index"> + <li>account of Marines in action, x: 1-10;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>captures Bouresches, June 6, '18, v: 39, 138, x: 8-9;</li> + <li>in Allied counter-offensive on Marne salient, July 18—22, '18, v: 55, 130, 158-182, 382; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Pershing's commendation, v: 191;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>captures Vierzy, July 18, '18, v: 55, 174;</li> + <li>in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. 12—15, '18, v: 65-70, 202, 210, 386;</li> + <li>operations in Champagne as part of Gouraud's French Fourth Army, Oct. 1—6, '18, v: 79, 241, 254-258, 393;</li> + <li>captures Blanc Mont, Oct. 5, '18, v: 79, 241, 257, 393;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Nov., '18, v: 88, 90, 92, 95, 262-270, 274, 391;</li> + <li>capture of and drive through Landres-St. George, Nov. 1, '18, v: 90, 262-263;</li> + <li>arrival and organization in France, v: 108;</li> + <li>captures Vaux, July 1, '18, v: 138, 382;</li> + <li>casualties in Marne offensive, July, '18, v: 179;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured in Marne offensive, v: 179;</li> + <li>captures Beaumont, v: 266;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 355;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 355;</li> + <li>total casualties, v: 355;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 355;</li> + <li>in Army of Occupation, v: 395.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>3rd Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>repulses German attempts to cross Marne at Château-Thierry, May 31—June 3, '18, v: 35, 132-135, 381, xi: 43;</li> + <li>in second battle of the Marne, July 15—29, '18, v: 52-53, 56, 143, 148-153, 183-186, 187-188, 382, 383, x: 381-387; + <ul class="index"> + <li>tributes of Pershing and Degoutte, v: 191-192;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>stand of 38th Inf. Regt. against German attempts to cross Marne, July 15, '18, v: 2, 150-153, x: 381-387;</li> + <li>captures <del>Jaulognne</del> +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads Jaulognne">Jaulgonne</ins> and Chartèves during second Marne battle, July, '18, v: 56, 383;</li> + <li>in reserve in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 202, 211;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.—Oct., '18, v: 74, 80-81, 83, 85, 231, 233-234, 237, 239, 241, 245, 247-248, 250-252, 389;</li> + <li>arrival in France, v: 128;</li> + <li>occupies Château-Thierry, July 21, '18, v, 184;</li> + <li>casualties during battles in Marne salient, June—July, '18, v: 188;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 356;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 356;</li> + <li>total casualties, v: 356;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 356;</li> + <li>in Army of Occupation, v: 395.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>4th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Aisne-Marne Allied counter-offensive, July 18—Aug. 12, '18, v: 60, 61-62, 130, 168, 183, 184, 191, 383;</li> + <li>in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 69, 202, 212, 386;</li> + <li>reaches Vesle River in pursuit of Germans, Aug., '18, v: 62, 191;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.—Oct., '18, v: 74, 78, 219, 220, 224, 226, 228, 236, 239, 245, 246, 248, 250, 252, 388;</li> + <li>arrival in France, v: 128;</li> + <li>training in France, v: 143;</li> + <li>casualties during Aisne-Marne offensive, July—Aug., '18, v: 191;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 356;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 356;</li> + <li>total casualties, v: 356;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 356;</li> + <li>in Army of Occupation, v: 395.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>5th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 202, 210, 386;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.—Nov., '18, v: 85, 90, 92-95, 248, 250, 262, 264, 270-272, 391;</li> + <li>captures Cléry-le-Grand, Nov. i, '18, v: 90, 262;</li> + <li>captures Cléry-le-Petit and Doulcon, Nov. 2, '18, v: 92, 264;</li> + <li>forces crossing of Meuse in Meuse-Argonne battle, Nov. 3—5, '18, v: 92-94, 264, 270;</li> + <li>captures Mouzay, Nov. 9, '18, v: 94, 272;</li> + <li>captures Dun-sur-Meuse, Nov. 5, '18, v: 94, 271, 391;</li> + <li>arrival and training in France, v: 128;</li> + <li>enters trenches in the Vosges, June, '18, v: 128, 381;</li> + <li>casualties in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 210;</li> + <li>captures Cunel and clears Bois de la Pultière, Oct. 14, '18, v: 250;</li> + <li>position at Armistice, Nov. 11, '18, v: 272;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 357;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 357;</li> + <li>total casualties, v: 357;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 357;</li> + <li>in Army of Occupation, v: 395.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>6th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>arrival and training overseas, v: 197;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 357;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 357;</li> + <li>casualties, v: 357.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>7th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>arrival and training in France, v: 198;</li> + <li>starts first offensive as part of Second Army, Nov. 10, '18, v: 277, 279;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 357;</li> + <li>casualties, v: 357;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 358.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>8th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>summary of history, v: 368;</li> + <li>in Siberia, v: 368;</li> + <li>in Germany, v: 368;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 368.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>26th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>arrival and training in France, v: 6-12, 108, 117-118;</li> + <li>raided by Germans at Seicheprey, Apr. 20, '18, v: 28, 122;</li> + <li>goes into position on Marne sector, July 9, '18, v: 46, 138;</li> + <li>in second battle of the Marne, July 15—24, '18, v: 56, 58, 130, 155, 168, 183, 184-186, x: 76-78; + <ul class="index"> + <li>tributes from Pershing and Degoutte, v: 191-192;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 202, 211, 386;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.—Nov., '18, v: 86-87, 220, 252, 270-272, x: 78-79;</li> + <li>goes into Toul sector, Apr., '18, v: 120;</li> + <li>casualties in second Marne battle, July, '18, v: 186;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 358;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 358;</li> + <li>total casualties, v: 358;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 358.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>27th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>organization and training in U. S., v: 196, 281-284, 358;</li> + <li>arrival and training in France, v: 196, 284-286;</li> + <li>war record, v: 358, 393; + <ul class="index"> + <li>by Maj.-Gen. O'Ryan, v: 281-300;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>with Gen. Byng's Third British Army, July, '18, v: 286;</li> + <li>operations with British in Flanders, July—Aug., '18, v: 286-290;</li> + <li>breaks through Hindenburg Line with British Fourth Army, Sept.—Oct., '18, v: 290-297, 393;</li> + <li>casualties in assault of Hindenburg Line, v: 295;</li> + <li>return to U. S., v: 299;</li> + <li>commendation from Field-Marshal Haig, v: 299;</li> + <li>total casualties, v: 358;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 358. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> + <li>28th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in second battle of the Marne and pursuit of Germans across Vesle River, July—Aug., '18, v: 53, 56, 60, 62, 130, 153-154, 183-184, 188, 190, 383;</li> + <li>praise by Pershing and Degoutte, v: 191-192;</li> + <li>drives Germans from the Vesle to the Aisne, Aug.—Sept., '18, v: 62, 260, 383-384;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.—Oct., '18, v: 74, 78, 218, 220-221, 225, 227, 229, 231, 237-239, 241, 243, 388;</li> + <li>arrival in France, v: 128;</li> + <li>training in France, v: 143;</li> + <li>sent to Marne sector as reserve to French army defending road to Paris, June, '18, v: 143, 153;</li> + <li>casualties in second Marne battle, July 15—21, '18, v: 184;</li> + <li>captures Aprémont, Sept. 28, '18, v: 229;</li> + <li>captures Le Chêne Tondu, Oct. 4, '18, v: 239;</li> + <li>captures Châtel Chehery, Oct. 7, '18, v: 243;</li> + <li>operations as part of Second Army in direction of Metz and Briey, Nov., '18, v: 274-279;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 358;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 359;</li> + <li>total casualties, v: 359;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 359.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>29th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive,</li> + <li>Sept.—Oct. '18, v: 74, 86, 244, 246, 252;</li> + <li>captures Etraye ridge, Oct. 23, '18, v: 86, 252;</li> + <li>organization and arrival in France, v: 146, 359;</li> + <li>casualties in Meuse-Argonne battles, v: 253;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 359;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 359;</li> + <li>total casualties, v: 359;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 359.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>30th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>arrival and training in France, v: 146, 300;</li> + <li>with British in Belgium, July—Aug., '18, v: 286, 300;</li> + <li>summary of organization, v: 300, 359;</li> + <li>breaks through St. Quentin Tunnel sector of Hindenburg Line, Sept.—Oct., '18, v: 301-303, 393; casualties, v: 359;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 360;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 360.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>31st Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>history, v: 368;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 368.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>32nd Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>drives Germans to Vesle in Allied counter-offensive on Marne salient, July—Aug., '18, v: 60-61, 62, 130, 188-190, 383; + <ul class="index"> + <li>praise by Pershing and Degoutte, v: 191-192;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>captures Cierges, July 31, '18, v: 60, 188;</li> + <li>captures Fismes, Aug. 6, '18, v: 61, 189;</li> + <li>captures Juvigny, Aug. 30, '18, v: 62, 258-259, 384;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.—Oct., '18, v: 74, 80, 83-85, 231, 237, 240-241, 245, 247-248, 250, 252, 389;</li> + <li>captures Gesnes, Oct. 5, '18, v: 81, 240;</li> + <li>captures Bantheville, Oct. 18, '18, v: 84-85, 252;</li> + <li>arrival in France, v: 119, 360;</li> + <li>casualties in Marne offensive, July—Aug., '18, v: 190;</li> + <li>captures Romagne, Oct. 14, '18, v: 250;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 360;</li> + <li>units composing, casualties, v: 360;</li> + <li>in Army of Occupation, 360, 395.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>33rd Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.—Oct., '18, v: 74, 78, 83, 219, 224-225, 228, 230, 234, 236, 244, 246, 388;</li> + <li>arrival and training in France under British, v: 144, 260;</li> + <li>attack on Hamel with Australians, July 4, '18, v: 144, 260;</li> + <li>with British in attack near Amiens, Aug., '18, v: 260;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 360;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 360;</li> + <li>casualties, v: 360;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 360.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>34th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>summary of history, v: 368;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 369.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>35th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in First Army reserve in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 66, 203;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 74, 220, 225, 227, 229, 231, 388;</li> + <li>arrival and training in France, v: 128, 197;</li> + <li>captures Charpentry and Baulny, Sept. 27, '18, v: 227;</li> + <li>unsuccessful attack on Exermont, Sept. 29, '18, v: 231;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 361;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 361;</li> + <li>casualties, v: 361;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 361.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>36th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>arrival in France, v: 196;</li> + <li>operations with French Fourth Army in Champagne, Oct., '18, v: 254, 257-258, 393;</li> + <li>casualties in Champagne, v: 258;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 361;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 361;</li> + <li>total casualties, v: 361;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 361.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>37th Division, in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 74, 78-79, 219, 224, 227, 229-231, 388; + <ul class="index"> + <li>operations in Belgium, Oct.—Nov., '18, v: 83, 279-280, 393;</li> + <li>arrival in France, v: 145;</li> + <li>casualties in Belgian campaign, v: 280;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 361;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 362;</li> + <li>total casualties, v: 362;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 362.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>38th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>organization and summary of history, v: 369;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 369.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>39th Division (5th Depot), + <ul class="index"> + <li>organization and summary of history, v: 198, 369;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 369.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>40th Division (6th Depot), + <ul class="index"> + <li>organization and summary of history, v: 197, 369;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 370.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>41st Division (1st Depot), + <ul class="index"> + <li>organization and summary of history, v: 109, 370;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 370.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>42nd Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>arrival and training in France, v: 6-12, 21, 109, 118, 142;</li> + <li>in the Vosges (Baccarat) sector, v: 21, 28, 118, 142;</li> + <li>joins French Fourth Army in Champagne defensive, July, '18, v: 44-51, 129-130, 142-143, 155-158;</li> + <li>in Allied counter-offensive on Marne salient, July 25—Aug. 2, '18, v: 56, 58-61, 130, 186-189, 383; + <ul class="index"> + <li>praise by Pershing and Degoutte, v: 191-192;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>takes Forêt de Fère and crosses Ourcq in pursuit of Germans, July 26—28, '18, v: 58-59, 187, 383;</li> + <li>captures Sergy, Seringes-et-Nesles, and Hill 212, July 28, '18, v: 59, 188;</li> + <li>in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 202, 211, 386;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.—Nov., '18, v: 83-84, 88, 91-92, 220, 248, 250-252, 262, 269, 390;</li> + <li>capture of Côte de Châtillon, Oct. 14—16, '18, v: 84, 250-252;</li> + <li>reaches heights opposite Sedan, Nov. 6, '18, v: 92, 269;</li> + <li>casualties in Marne offensive, July—Aug., '18, v: 189;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 362;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 362;</li> + <li>total casualties, v: 362;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 362;</li> + <li>in Army of Occupation, v: 395.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>76th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>summary of history, v: 196, 370;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 370.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>77th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>drives Germans from the Vesle to the Aisne after second Marne battle, Aug.—Sept., '18, v: 62, 190, 260, 383-384;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept. 26—Nov. 11, '18, v: 74, 78-79, 81, 85, 88, 90-92, 95, 220, 225, 227, 229, 231-234, 239, 241-243, 246-247, 250, 252, 262-266, 268-270, 388, 391, <a href="#Page_288">xii: 288</a>;</li> + <li>outflanks German positions at Champigneulle in Meuse-Argonne drive, Nov. 1—2, '18, v: 88, 263;</li> + <li>arrival and training in France, v: 141;</li> + <li>isolation and rescue of "Lost Battalion," Oct. 2—7, '18, v: 231, 239, 241-243;</li> + <li>capture of St. Juvin, Oct. 12, '18, v: 250;</li> + <li>attack on Grand Pré, Oct. 16, '18, v: 252;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 362;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 363;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 363;</li> + <li>casualties, v: 363. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> + <li>78th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>as reserve in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 202, 210;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.—Nov., '18, v: 85, 91, 220, 252, 262, 264, 266, 268, 391;</li> + <li>captures Briquenay, Nov. 2, '18, v: 91, 264;</li> + <li>arrival and training in France, v: 144;</li> + <li>casualties in Meuse-Argonne drive, v: 268;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 363;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 363;</li> + <li>total casualties, v: 363;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 363.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>79th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.—Nov., '18, v: 74, 78-80, 219, 224-226, 228, 230-231, 262, 265, 270-272, 388;</li> + <li>captures stronghold of Montfaucon, Sept. 27, '18, v: 78-79, 225;</li> + <li>organization and arrival in France, v: 196, 363;</li> + <li>captures Nantillois, Sept. 28, '18, v: 228;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 363, casualties, v: 363;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 364;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 364.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>80th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.—Nov., '18, v: 74, 78, 83, 88, 91, 219, 224, 226-227, 230, 234, 237, 239, 241, 245-246, 248, 262-268, 388, 391;</li> + <li>captures Buzancy, Nov. 2, '18, v: 91, 264;</li> + <li>arrival and training in France, v: 144;</li> + <li>battle for Brieulles-sur-Meuse, Sept. 27—28, '18, v: 226-227;</li> + <li>capture of Bois des Ogons, Oct. 4—5, '18, v: 237, 239;</li> + <li>repulsed in attacks on Madeleine Farm, Oct. 6, '18, v: 241;</li> + <li>Madeleine Farm captured, Oct. 9, '18, v: 245;</li> + <li>unsuccessful attacks on Cunel, Oct. 10—11, '18, v: 246, 248;</li> + <li>captures Beaumont with 2nd Div., Nov. 5, '18, v: 266;</li> + <li>casualties in Meuse-Argonne drive, v: 268;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 364;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 364;</li> + <li>total casualties, v: 364;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 364.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>81st Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>arrival and training in France, v: 197;</li> + <li>operations in direction of Briey and Metz as part of Second Army, v: 274-278;</li> + <li>captures Grimancourt, Nov. 10, '18, v: 277;</li> + <li>position at Armistice, Nov. 11, '18, v: 278;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 364;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 364;</li> + <li>casualties, v: 364;</li> + <li>prisoners captured, v: 364.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>82nd Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. '18, v: 65, 68, 71, 202, 208, 386;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.—Oct., '18,</li> + <li>v: 74, 83, 241-242, 246-248, 251-252, 390;</li> + <li>arrival and training in France, v: 143;</li> + <li>composite character, v: 143;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 143, 365;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 365;</li> + <li>casualties, v: 365;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 365.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>83rd Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>summary of history, v: 146, 371, 399;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 371.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>84th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>summary of history, v: 198, 371, 399;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 371.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>85th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>summary of history, v: 197, 371;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 371.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>86th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>summary of history, v: 372;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 372.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>87th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>summary of history, v: 198, 372;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 372.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>88th Division, summary of history, v: 198, 365; + <ul class="index"> + <li>units composing, v: 365;</li> + <li>casualties, v: 365.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>89th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 70, 202, 210, 386;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.—Nov., '18, v: 90, 92, 95, 220, 252, 262, 264, 266, 268, 270, 274, 391;</li> + <li>organization and arrival in France, v: 146, 365;</li> + <li>in Army of Occupation, v: 274, 366, 395;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 365;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 366;</li> + <li>casualties, v: 366;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 366.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>90th Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 202, 208-210, 386;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.—Nov., '18, v: 90, 92, 95, 220, 252, 262, 264, 272, 274, 391;</li> + <li>arrival and training in France, v: 196;</li> + <li>casualties in St. Mihiel drive, v: 210;</li> + <li>captures Stenay, Nov. 10, '18, v: 272;</li> + <li>in Army of Occupation, v: 274, 366, 395;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 366;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 366;</li> + <li>total casualties, v: 366;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 366.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>91st Division, + <ul class="index"> + <li>as reserve in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 66, 203;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.—Oct., '18, v: 74, 78, 220, 225, 227, 229, 231, 232, 246, 388;</li> + <li>transferred to Belgium under French Sixth Army, Oct., '18, v: 83, 279, 393;</li> + <li>operations in Belgium, Oct.—Nov., '18, v: 83, 279, 393;</li> + <li>organization and arrival in France, v: 196, 366;</li> + <li>captures Spitaals-Bosschen, Oct. 31, '18, v: 279;</li> + <li>captures Audenarde, Nov. 2, '18, v: 279;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 366;</li> + <li>units composing, 367;</li> + <li>casualties, v: 367;</li> + <li>prisoners and guns captured, v: 367.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>92nd Division (colored), + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 74, 233;</li> + <li>organization and arrival in France, v: 145, 367;</li> + <li>summary of history, v: 367;</li> + <li>units composing, v: 367;</li> + <li>casualties, v: 367.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>93rd Division (colored), summary of history, v: 367; + <ul class="index"> + <li>units composing, v: 367;</li> + <li>casualties, v: 368.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Casualties, in submarine warfare during neutrality, i: 357; + <ul class="index"> + <li>first time in War, Nov., '17, i: 392, v: 113;</li> + <li>total in War, iii: 404;</li> + <li>total dead, iii: 404, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280</a>;</li> + <li>number wounded, iii: 404, v: 344, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280</a>;</li> + <li>prisoners or missing, iii: 404;</li> + <li>in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 71, 212, 386;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept. 26—Nov. 11, '18, v: 393, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280</a>;</li> + <li>on Russian Front, v: 394;</li> + <li>total deaths overseas, classified according to cause, v: 402;</li> + <li>battle deaths, v: 402, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280</a>, <a href="#Page_289">xii: 289</a>;</li> + <li>deaths from disease, v: 402, vii: 179, 195, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280</a>;</li> + <li>money equivalent of manpower lost, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> U. S. Army, Medical Service.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Coal, production, '13—'17, <a href="#Page_47">xii: 47</a>; + <ul class="index"> + <li>war-time shortage, <a href="#Page_48">xii: 48</a>;</li> + <li>conservation measures under Fuel Administration, <a href="#Page_48">xii: 48-50</a>;</li> + <li>extent of mining operations, <a href="#Page_50">xii: 50</a>;</li> + <li>production compared with other staples, <a href="#Page_50">xii: 50</a>;</li> + <li>waste in use, <a href="#Page_51">xii: 51</a>;</li> + <li>Fuel Administration priority list, <a href="#Page_75">xii: 75</a>;</li> + <li>production for '18—'19, <a href="#Page_146">xii: 146</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Conscription, Franklin Lane on lessons taught by, i: 370; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Conscription Act passed, Apr. 28—May 18, '17, i: 390, iii: 83, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280-281</a>;</li> + <li>health statistics of drafted men, vii: 217, <a href="#Page_281">xii: 281-282</a>;</li> + <li>total number of registrants, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280-281</a>;</li> + <li>number inducted into service, <a href="#Page_280">xii: 280-281</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Cost of living, + <ul class="index"> + <li>high prices most striking economic effect of War, <a href="#Page_vii">xii: <em>Intro. vii</em></a>;</li> + <li>"index numbers" as measure of price changes, <a href="#Page_vii">xii: <em>Intro. vii</em></a>;</li> + <li>comparison of index numbers, '13—'19, <a href="#Page_vii">xii: <em>Intro. vii-viii</em></a>;</li> + <li>chart of price movements in U. S. and England since 1780, <a href="#Page_viii">xii: <em>Intro. viii-x</em></a>;</li> + <li>rise in, '14—'18, <a href="#Page_x">xii: <em>Intro. x</em></a>, <a href="#Page_56">xii: 56-59</a>;</li> + <li>existing high prices not due to scarcity, <a href="#Page_x">xii: <em>Intro. x-xi</em></a>;</li> + <li>currency inflation, <a href="#Page_xiii">xii: <em>Intro. xiii</em></a>, <a href="#Page_143">xii: 143</a>; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></p></li> + + <li>chart showing relation of, to money in circulation, '14—'18, <a href="#Page_xiii">xii: <em>Intro. xiii</em></a>;</li> + <li>high prices as breeder of Bolshevism, <a href="#Page_xiii">xii: <em>Intro. xiii-xiv</em></a>;</li> + <li>purchasing power of wages, '13—'18, <a href="#Page_xiv">xii: <em>Intro. xiv</em></a>;</li> + <li>remedies proposed for reducing high cost of living, <a href="#Page_xiv">xii: <em>Intro. xiv-xv</em></a>, <a href="#Page_147">xii: 147</a>;</li> + <li>standardized dollar as remedy for fluctuations in, <a href="#Page_xv">xii: <em>Intro. xv</em></a>;</li> + <li>scarcity as cause of high prices, <a href="#Page_39">xii: 39</a>, <a href="#Page_142">xii: 142</a>;</li> + <li>"fair price" lists, <a href="#Page_54">xii: 54</a>;</li> + <li>profiteering, <a href="#Page_55">xii: 55</a>, <a href="#Page_143">xii: 143</a>;</li> + <li>meat-packers' profits before and during War, <a href="#Page_56">xii: 56</a>;</li> + <li>present, compared with Civil War prices, <a href="#Page_57">xii: 57</a>, <a href="#Page_75">xii: 75</a>;</li> + <li>rise in clothing prices, <a href="#Page_58">xii: 58</a>, <a href="#Page_142">xii: 142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">xii: 145</a>;</li> + <li>government price-fixing, <a href="#Page_59">xii: 59</a>;</li> + <li>monthly price changes, '12—'18, <a href="#Page_60">xii: 60</a>;</li> + <li>analysis of, by Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_142">xii: 142-148</a>;</li> + <li>relation between wages and prices in estimating, <a href="#Page_142">xii: 142</a>;</li> + <li>housing problem, <a href="#Page_142">xii: 142</a>;</li> + <li>curtailed production since Armistice, <a href="#Page_142">xii: 142</a>;</li> + <li>food consumption statistics, <a href="#Page_142">xii: 142</a>;</li> + <li>influence of War on prices, <a href="#Page_143">xii: 143</a>;</li> + <li>food supply statistics, '18—'19, <a href="#Page_143">xii: 143-144</a>;</li> + <li>reasons for high food prices, <a href="#Page_144">xii: 144</a>;</li> + <li>reduction in shoe output for '19, <a href="#Page_146">xii: 146</a>;</li> + <li>coal production, '18—'19, <a href="#Page_146">xii: 146</a>;</li> + <li>reduction in iron and steel production, '19, <a href="#Page_147">xii: 147</a>;</li> + <li>reasons for high cost of living, summarized by Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_147">xii: 147</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Prices;</li> + <li>U. S., Food.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Council of National Defense, + <ul class="index"> + <li>activities of General Medical Board of, vii: 187-189;</li> + <li>creation by Congress, '16, <a href="#Page_115">xii: 115</a>;</li> + <li>duties, <a href="#Page_116">xii: 116</a>;</li> + <li>members, <a href="#Page_116">xii: 116</a>;</li> + <li>Advisory Commission of, pre-War activities, <a href="#Page_117">xii: 117</a>;</li> + <li>committees, <a href="#Page_122">xii: 122</a>;</li> + <li>distinguished membership of committees, <a href="#Page_122">xii: 122</a>;</li> + <li>non-partisanship of, <a href="#Page_124">xii: 124</a>;</li> + <li>expenses, <a href="#Page_124">xii: 124</a>;</li> + <li>work of Field Division, <a href="#Page_124">xii: 124</a>;</li> + <li>results of activities, <a href="#Page_124">xii: 124</a>;</li> + <li>War Industries Board established, <a href="#Page_125">xii: 125</a>;</li> + <li>cantonment construction, <a href="#Page_125">xii: 125</a>;</li> + <li>share in victory, <a href="#Page_126">xii: 126</a>;</li> + <li>analysis of causes of and remedies for high cost of living,<a href="#Page_142">xii: 142-148</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Declarations of war, + <ul class="index"> + <li>transition from neutral to belligerent, i: 300-308;</li> + <li>impelling causes for, i: 301, 341, 348, 368, ii: 53;</li> + <li>effect of '16 Presidential campaign on, i: 305;</li> + <li>diplomatic relations with Germany severed, Feb. 3, '17, i: 344-345, 389;</li> + <li>text of President Wilson's speech before Congress asking for declaration of war with Germany, Apr. 2, '17, i: 348-355;</li> + <li>text of declaration of war with Germany, Apr. 6, '17, i: 355;</li> + <li>Franklin Lane on effects of entry into War on American life, i: 366-373;</li> + <li>diplomatic relations with Austria-Hungary severed, Apr. 8, '17, i: 389;</li> + <li>diplomatic relations with Turkey severed, Apr. 20, '17, i: 390;</li> + <li>declaration of war on Austria-Hungary, Dec. 7, '17, i: 393;</li> + <li>effect on final result of War, ii: 220, iii: 83; + <ul class="index"> + <li>a German military critic's view, ii: 273;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Ludendorff's comments on, ii: 341;</li> + <li>effect on French, ii: 387;</li> + <li>effect on British, vi: 11;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under Submarine warfare.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Employment Service, war-time activities, <a href="#Page_67">xii: 67</a>.</li> + <li>Food, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Herbert Hoover appointed Food Administrator, May 19, '17, i: 390;</li> + <li>position of U. S. as producer, '17, <a href="#Page_35">xii: 35</a>;</li> + <li>wheat production <em>vs.</em> consumption, 1890—1914, <a href="#Page_35">xii: 35</a>;</li> + <li>corn production <em>vs.</em> consumption, 1890—1914, <a href="#Page_35">xii: 35</a>;</li> + <li>voluntary rationing, <a href="#Page_35">xii: 35</a>;</li> + <li>exports to Europe before and during War, <a href="#Page_36">xii: 36</a>, <a href="#Page_135">xii: 135</a>;</li> + <li>conservation, <a href="#Page_37">xii: 37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">xii: 40</a>, <a href="#Page_141">xii: 141</a>;</li> + <li>war-time increase in production, statistics, <a href="#Page_37">xii: 37</a>;</li> + <li>increased production more important than conservation, <a href="#Page_38">xii: 38</a>;</li> + <li>crop acreage, '10—'18, <a href="#Page_38">xii: 38</a>;</li> + <li>crop yields, '10—'18, <a href="#Page_39">xii: 39</a>;</li> + <li>Hoover's report on European relief, <a href="#Page_42">xii: 42</a>;</li> + <li>war-time government control, <a href="#Page_46">xii: 46</a>, <a href="#Page_59">xii: 59</a>, <a href="#Page_140">xii: 140</a>;</li> + <li>Sugar Equalization Board, functions, <a href="#Page_46">xii: 46</a>;</li> + <li>war-time sugar distribution, <a href="#Page_46">xii: 46</a>;</li> + <li>potato crop, <a href="#Page_47">xii: 47</a>;</li> + <li>"fair price" lists, <a href="#Page_54">xii: 54</a>;</li> + <li>functions of Food Administration, <a href="#Page_59">xii: 59</a>, <a href="#Page_140">xii: 140</a>;</li> + <li>statistics on quantity and prices, June, '18—June, '19, <a href="#Page_61">xii: 61-65</a>;</li> + <li>price comparisons, '13—'19, <a href="#Page_64">xii: 64</a>;</li> + <li>wheat exports to Allies, July 1, '17—July 1, '18, <a href="#Page_141">xii: 141</a>;</li> + <li>consumption statistics, <a href="#Page_142">xii: 142</a>;</li> + <li>production statistics, '18—'19, <a href="#Page_143">xii: 143</a>;</li> + <li>wheat production, '18—'19, <a href="#Page_143">xii: 143</a>;</li> + <li>meat production, '18—'19, <a href="#Page_144">xii: 144</a>;</li> + <li>corn crop, '18, <a href="#Page_144">xii: 144</a>;</li> + <li>reasons for high prices, <a href="#Page_144">xii: 144</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under U. S., Cost of living.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Food Administration, <em>see</em> under U. S., Food.</li> + <li>Foreign relations, + <ul class="index"> + <li>policy of isolation, i: 50;</li> + <li>abandonment of policy of isolation, i: 52-58;</li> + <li>early relations with China and Japan, i: 53;</li> + <li>African interests, i: 54;</li> + <li>Congo policy, i: 54;</li> + <li>armed expeditions sent beyond borders, 1836—1861, i: 54;</li> + <li>intervention in Cuba, i: 56;</li> + <li>"open door" policy in China, i: 57;</li> + <li>Root-Takahira agreement, '08, i: 57;</li> + <li>Lansing-Ishii Note, '17, i: 58;</li> + <li>policy in Venezuelan controversy with Germany, '02, i: 86;</li> + <li>participation in European conferences, i: 86;</li> + <li>participation in Algeciras Conference, '06, i: 86;</li> + <li>German plans for subjugation of U. S., i: 87-88;</li> + <li>arbitration treaties, i: 103;</li> + <li>emergence from War as World Power, i: 371;</li> + <li>after-War mission, i: 372.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Fuel Administration, <em>see</em> under U. S., Coal.</li> + <li>German-owned property, extent, <a href="#Page_33">xii: 33-34</a>.</li> + <li>Industries during War, + <ul class="index"> + <li>regulations for conservation of leather by War Industries Board, <a href="#Page_53">xii: 53</a>;</li> + <li>duties and powers of War Industries Board, <a href="#Page_72">xii: 72</a>;</li> + <li>priority system, <a href="#Page_73">xii: 73-75</a>;</li> + <li>distribution of war contracts, <a href="#Page_74">xii: 74</a>;</li> + <li>response to war needs, <a href="#Page_115">xii: 115</a>;</li> + <li>creation of Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_115">xii: 115</a>;</li> + <li>duties of Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_116">xii: 116</a>;</li> + <li>pre-War movement for industrial preparedness, <a href="#Page_117">xii: 117</a>;</li> + <li>pre-War activities of Advisory Commission, Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_118">xii: 118</a>;</li> + <li>committees of Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_122">xii: 122</a>;</li> + <li>organization and personnel of War Industries Board, <a href="#Page_125">xii: 125</a>;</li> + <li>share in final victory, <a href="#Page_126">xii: 126</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under U. S., Council of National Defense, Labor.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Labor, + <ul class="index"> + <li>women in war industries, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>war-time safeguards for workers, <a href="#Page_66">xii: 66</a>;</li> + <li>organizing for war production, <a href="#Page_67">xii: 67</a>;</li> + <li>Employment Service of Department of Labor, war-time activities, <a href="#Page_67">xii: 67</a>;</li> + <li>war-time strikes, <a href="#Page_68">xii: 68</a>;</li> + <li>importance in winning War, <a href="#Page_68">xii: 68-69</a>;</li> + <li>size of working population, <a href="#Page_71">xii: 71</a>;</li> + <li>immigration as source of labor supply, <a href="#Page_71">xii: 71</a>;</li> + <li>war-time dislocation, <a href="#Page_71">xii: 71</a>;</li> + <li>Mediation Commission for settling labor unrest, <a href="#Page_71">xii: 71</a>;</li> + <li>activities of Advisory Labor Council, <a href="#Page_71">xii: 71</a>;</li> + <li>Gen. Crowder's "Work or fight" order, <a href="#Page_72">xii: 72</a>;</li> + <li>women as railway workers during War, <a href="#Page_84">xii: 84</a>;</li> + <li>settlement of war-time disputes in shipyards, <a href="#Page_94">xii: 94</a>;</li> + <li>attitude to War, <a href="#Page_121">xii: 121</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Marine Corps, strength, Nov. 11, '18, iii: 403; + <ul class="index"> + <li>in battle of Belleau Wood, June 6—26, '18, v: 39, 130, 135-139, 382, x: 1-10;</li> + <li>capture of Bouresches, June 6, '18, v: 39, 138, x: 8-9;</li> + <li>in second battle of the Marne, July 18—19, '18, v: 55, 130, 159, 167-170, 174-175, 178-179;</li> + <li>capture of Vierzy, July 18, '18, v: 55, 174-175;</li> + <li>in Champagne as part of Gouraud's French Fourth Army, Oct., '18, v: 79, 241, 255-257; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></p></li> + + <li>capture of Blanc Mont, Oct. 5, '18, v: 79-80, 241, 257;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Nov., '18, v: 95, 262-263, 266, 270, 274;</li> + <li>arrival in France, v: 106, 108;</li> + <li>incorporated in 2nd Div., v: 108;</li> + <li>not in Château-Thierry battle of May 31—June 3, '18, as popularly supposed, v: 130, 135;</li> + <li>casualties at Belleau Wood, June, '18, v: 139;</li> + <li>name of Belleau Wood changed by French to <span lang="fr">Bois de la Brigade de Marine</span>, v: 139;</li> + <li>casualties in second Marne battle, July, '18, v: 179;</li> + <li>in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. '18, v: 210;</li> + <li>in drive through Landres-St. George, Nov. 1, '18, v: 262-263;</li> + <li>force crossing of Meuse, Nov. 10, '18, v: 270, 274;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under U. S. Army, 2nd Division.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Navy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Rear-Adm. Mayo on war-time accomplishments of, iv: <em>Intro. vii-xiii</em>;</li> + <li>supplying guns and gun crews for merchant ships, iv: <em>Intro. viii</em>, 314;</li> + <li>laying of North Sea mine barrage, iv: <em>Intro. xi</em>, 324-330;</li> + <li>anti-submarine coast patrol, iv: <em>Intro. xii</em>;</li> + <li>Naval gunners on Western Front, iv: <em>Intro. xii</em>, 323, v: 306, viii: 42-45;</li> + <li>transportation of A. E. F. to France, iv: <em>Intro. xii</em>, <a href="#Page_94">xii: 94-95</a>, <a href="#Page_283">xii: 283</a>; + <ul class="index"> + <li>account of first expedition across Atlantic, June, '17, by Adm. Gleaves, iv: 157-165;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>lessons of the War, iv: <em>Intro. xiii</em>;</li> + <li>destroyer flotilla on anti-submarine patrol duty in war zone, iv: 157, 315-317, 343;</li> + <li>development of depth bomb by, iv: 307, 330;</li> + <li>strength of personnel before War and at armistice, iv: 317;</li> + <li>training of new personnel, iv: 317;</li> + <li>war-time expansion in ships and equipment, iv: 318-319;</li> + <li>repair of damaged interned German liners, iv: 319-321;</li> + <li>laying of oil pipe line across Scotland, iv: 322;</li> + <li>invention of "Y" gun for discharge of depth bombs, iv: 331;</li> + <li>development of aerial bombs for use by seaplanes against U-boats, iv: 332;</li> + <li>development of star shells for illuminating enemy positions in dark, iv: 334;</li> + <li>invention of torpedo plane, iv: 335;</li> + <li>adventures of transports in war zone, iv: 335-343;</li> + <li>capture of German submarine <cite>U-58</cite>, Nov. 18, '17, iv: 349;</li> + <li>Secretary Daniels' report on activities in European waters, iv: 356-359;</li> + <li>co-operation with British, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Secretary Daniels on, iv: 356;</li> + <li>tributes by Sir Eric Geddes and Adm. Beatty, iv: 359-361;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>development and description of N-C flying boats, viii: 236-240;</li> + <li><cite>N-C-4</cite> first airplane to cross Atlantic, viii: 240;</li> + <li>types of dirigibles used by, viii: 245, 255-257.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Neutrality, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Dr. Eliot's summary of reasons for pro- and anti-German feeling, i: 270-273;</li> + <li>von Jagow's defense against anti-German criticisms, i: 273;</li> + <li>Maximilian Harden's views on, i: 274;</li> + <li>German protest against U. S. position on armed merchantmen, i: 282;</li> + <li>position on status of armed merchantmen, i: 283;</li> + <li>French opinion of, i: 287;</li> + <li>unpopular with all belligerents, i: 288;</li> + <li>British opinion of, i: 289;</li> + <li>Gabriel Hanotaux's views on, i: 290;</li> + <li>conflict of sympathies, i: 297;</li> + <li>psychology of, i: 297;</li> + <li>increasing pro-Ally sentiment, i: 299;</li> + <li>attitudes of Wilson and Roosevelt compared, i: 299, 302;</li> + <li>German violations against, i: 300;</li> + <li>transition from neutral to belligerent, i: 300-308;</li> + <li>effect of '16 Presidential campaign on, i: 305;</li> + <li>attitude of press, i: 309;</li> + <li>Austro-Hungarian protest of unfairness of, i: 309;</li> + <li>Maximilian Harden's views on American war prosperity, i: 310;</li> + <li>Bryan's statement on, Jan. 20, '15, i: 311;</li> + <li>controversy with Great Britain over British seizure of neutral cargoes, i: 312, 318, 339;</li> + <li>controversy with Germany on submarine warfare, i: 317-326, 328-335, 339; + <ul class="index"> + <li>chronological summary with list of ships sunk, i: 357-361;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>President Wilson's "Strict accountability" note to Germany, i: 317;</li> + <li>President Wilson's "Too proud to fight" statement, i: 320, v: 372;</li> + <li>controversy with Germany on <cite>Lusitania</cite> sinking, i: 320, 323, 325, 326, 327, 358-361;</li> + <li>statements of Taft and Roosevelt on <cite>Lusitania</cite> sinking, i: 320;</li> + <li>note to Germany on "Freedom of the seas," July 21, '15, i: 322;</li> + <li>attitude of press on torpedoing of <cite>Arabic</cite>, i: 323;</li> + <li>controversy with Austria-Hungary on torpedoing of <cite>Ancona</cite>, i: 326, 361;</li> + <li>McLemore Resolution warning Americans not to travel on belligerent ships, i: 327;</li> + <li>McLemore Resolution defeated, i: 328;</li> + <li>note threatening severance of diplomatic relations with Germany over sinking of <cite>Sussex</cite>, Apr. 18, '16, i: 329-331;</li> + <li>issues of '16 Presidential campaign, i: 334;</li> + <li>controversy with Great Britain over British seizure of neutral mail, i: 335;</li> + <li>President Wilson asks belligerents to state war aims, Dec. 18, '16, i: 336;</li> + <li>Lansing's statement of problems of, i: 339;</li> + <li>diplomatic relations with Germany severed, Feb. 3, '17, i: 344-345, 389;</li> + <li>President Wilson orders U. S. merchantmen armed, i: 347;</li> + <li>American casualties from submarine warfare during, i: 357;</li> + <li>President Wilson issues proclamation of, Aug. 4, '14, i: 375;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Germany, Blockade of;</li> + <li>Submarine warfare.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Peace Conference, + <ul class="index"> + <li>delegates sail for, Dec. 4, '18, i: 400;</li> + <li>list of delegates, <a href="#Page_179">xii: 179</a>;</li> + <li>for work of delegates at, <em>see</em> Peace Conference;</li> + <li><em>also</em> under name of delegate.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Peace Treaty, + <ul class="index"> + <li>fight against, in Senate, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264-278</a>;</li> + <li>Fall amendments to, defeated, Oct. 2, '19, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264</a>;</li> + <li>ratification with original Lodge reservations defeated, Nov. 19, '19, <a href="#Page_265">xii: 265-266</a>;</li> + <li>text of original Lodge reservations, <a href="#Page_265">xii: 265</a>;</li> + <li>defeated in Senate for second time, Mar. 19, '20, <a href="#Page_266">xii: 266-269</a>;</li> + <li>President Wilson's opinion of Lodge reservations, <a href="#Page_267">xii: 267</a>;</li> + <li>text of revised Lodge reservations, <a href="#Page_269">xii: 269</a>;</li> + <li>efforts to declare peace by Congressional resolution, <a href="#Page_271">xii: 271-278</a>;</li> + <li>text of peace resolution introduced in House of Representatives, Apr. 1, '20, <a href="#Page_271">xii: 271</a>;</li> + <li>Knox resolution declaring peace with Germany passed by Congress, May 15—21, '20, <a href="#Page_273">xii: 273-277</a>;</li> + <li>text of original Knox resolution proposing separate peace with Germany and successors of Austria-Hungary, <a href="#Page_273">xii: 273</a>;</li> + <li>text of amended Knox resolution, <a href="#Page_277">xii: 277</a>;</li> + <li>President Wilson vetoes Knox resolution, <a href="#Page_277">xii: 277</a>;</li> + <li>text of President Wilson's veto message, <a href="#Page_278">xii: 278</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Population, + <ul class="index"> + <li>European immigration, i: 37;</li> + <li>German immigration in 1882 and 1910, i: 75;</li> + <li>size, characteristics, and distribution of German element in, i: 79, 277-279;</li> + <li>ratio of increase in urban and rural, 1890—1910, <a href="#Page_35">xii: 35</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Press, + <ul class="index"> + <li>attitude on neutrality, i: 309;</li> + <li>attitude on <cite>Lusitania</cite> sinking, i: 320;</li> + <li>attitude on torpedoing of <cite>Arabic</cite>, i: 323;</li> + <li>views on German indemnity, <a href="#Page_24">xii: 24</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Prisoners of war, first captured by Germans, Nov. 3, '17, iii: 84, v: 112; + <ul class="index"> + <li>total lost in War, iii: 404.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Railroads, war-time operation under government control, <a href="#Page_87">xii: 87-90</a>; + <ul class="index"> + <li>reasons for government control, <a href="#Page_88">xii: 88</a>;</li> + <li>defects in management, <a href="#Page_89">xii: 89</a>;</li> + <li>equipment sent to France, <a href="#Page_95">xii: 95</a>;</li> + <li>pledge of maximum war-time service by, <a href="#Page_121">xii: 121</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Shipping, war-time building program, with statistics, <a href="#Page_92">xii: 92-94</a>; + <ul class="index"> + <li>war losses, <a href="#Page_94">xii: 94</a>;</li> + <li>neutral tonnage chartered for war service, <a href="#Page_98">xii: 98</a>; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></p></li> + + <li>war-time cargo fleet, statistics on tonnage and shipments, <a href="#Page_283">xii: 283</a>, <a href="#Page_286">xii: 286</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Trade, with Germany through neutrals, ii: 21; + <ul class="index"> + <li>increase in exports, '12—'17, <a href="#Page_1">xii: 1</a>;</li> + <li>luxury imports, <a href="#Page_8">xii: 8-9</a>;</li> + <li>decrease in luxury imports, '14—'18, <a href="#Page_58">xii: 58</a>;</li> + <li>hostility to trade with Germany, <a href="#Page_99">xii: 99</a>;</li> + <li>War Trade Board export license system, <a href="#Page_99">xii: 99</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>War cost, currency inflation, <a href="#Page_xiii">xii: <em>Intro. xiii</em></a>, <a href="#Page_28">xii: 28-31</a>, <a href="#Page_143">xii: 143</a>; + <ul class="index"> + <li>loans floated in U. S. by foreign countries, Aug., '14—Jan., '17, <a href="#Page_2">xii: 2</a>;</li> + <li>sources and amounts of war-time taxation, <a href="#Page_2">xii: 2-9</a>, <a href="#Page_109">xii: 109-111</a>;</li> + <li>income taxes, with comparison of rates in England and France, <a href="#Page_2">xii: 2-6</a>;</li> + <li>criticisms of war tax law, <a href="#Page_5">xii: 5-6</a>;</li> + <li>President Wilson's tax program, <a href="#Page_6">xii: 6-7</a>;</li> + <li>luxury taxes, <a href="#Page_7">xii: 7-9</a>;</li> + <li>war-time prosperity, <a href="#Page_9">xii: 9-10</a>;</li> + <li>loans in early U. S. history, <a href="#Page_10">xii: 10</a>;</li> + <li>Liberty Loans, floating of, with statistics on amounts raised and number of subscribers, <a href="#Page_10">xii: 10-16</a>, <a href="#Page_113">xii: 113</a>, <a href="#Page_126">xii: 126-135</a>;</li> + <li>repayment of loans made to Allies, <a href="#Page_11">xii: 11</a>;</li> + <li>Liberty Loan subscriptions by Federal Reserve Districts, <a href="#Page_12">xii: 12</a>;</li> + <li>Liberty Loan subscriptions in New York City, <a href="#Page_12">xii: 12</a>;</li> + <li>comparison of war debt with pre-War national debt, <a href="#Page_16">xii: 16</a>, <a href="#Page_113">xii: 113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>;</li> + <li>hourly war expenditures, <a href="#Page_16">xii: 16</a>;</li> + <li>comparison of war cost with previous expenditures, <a href="#Page_16">xii: 16</a>;</li> + <li>distribution of war expenditures, <a href="#Page_16">xii: 16</a>;</li> + <li>amount of loans to Allies, <a href="#Page_16">xii: 16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18</a>, <a href="#Page_31">xii: 31</a>;</li> + <li>short-term certificates of indebtedness, <a href="#Page_16">xii: 16</a>;</li> + <li>War Savings Stamps, amount raised by, <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18</a>, <a href="#Page_134">xii: 134</a>;</li> + <li>problem of liquidating national debt, <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18</a>;</li> + <li>accumulation of Europe's gold supply in U. S., <a href="#Page_29">xii: 29</a>;</li> + <li>credit expansion, <a href="#Page_30">xii: 30</a>;</li> + <li>pre-War cash reserves, <a href="#Page_30">xii: 30</a>;</li> + <li>transition from debtor to creditor nation, with statistics, <a href="#Page_31">xii: 31</a>;</li> + <li>daily, monthly, and total war cost, Apr., 17—June, '19, <a href="#Page_106">xii: 106-108</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>War Industries Board, <em>see</em> under U. S., Industries during War.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Uruguay, + <ul class="index"> + <li>failure of soviet plot in, vi: 392;</li> + <li>delegate to Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_180">xii: 180</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Uskub, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Bulgarians, Oct., '15, i: 382, iii: 158, 204;</li> + <li>recaptured by Allies, Sept., '18, iii: 213.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Vin" id="Vin">V</a></li> +<li><cite>V-187</cite>, German destroyer sunk at battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240.</li> +<li>Vaccine, + <ul class="index"> + <li>manufacture of anti-typhoid, viii: 393;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Disease.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Vacuum tubes, in wireless telephony, viii: 318-320.</li> +<li>Valenciennes, Germans use as gateway into France, v: 215.</li> +<li>Valley, Count Arco, assassin of Kurt Eisner, vi: 298.</li> +<li>Van, occupied by Russians, May 23, '15, iii: 262.</li> +<li>Van Iersal, Sgt. Louis, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 389.</li> +<li>Vanquois, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 225.</li> +<li>Varennes, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 225.</li> +<li>Vaux, + <ul class="index"> + <li>town in Marne salient, location, v: 133;</li> + <li>captured by 2nd Div., July 1, '18, v: 138, 382.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Vaux, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Fort, at Verdun, captured by Germans, June 7, '16, i: 385, iii: 54, 313;</li> + <li>evacuated by Germans, Nov. 2, '16, i: 388, iii: 62;</li> + <li>German efforts at capture repulsed, Mar., '16, ii: 189, iii: 52, 306; + <ul class="index"> + <li>description by French officer participating in defense, iii: 327-329;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Major Raynal, defender of, awarded Legion of Honor, iii: 313;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Verdun.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Veles, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Bulgarians, Oct. 28—29, '15, i: 382, iii: 158, 204;</li> + <li>recaptured by Allies, Sept. 26, '18, i: 397.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Velocity of projectiles, viii: 111.</li> +<li>Vencheres Wood, captured by 179th Inf. Brig., Sept. 13, '18, v: 209.</li> +<li>Vendieres, captured by A. E. F., Sept. 14, '18, v: 210.</li> +<li>Venereal diseases, statistics on, and methods of combating in U. S. Army, v: 402, vii: 208-209.</li> +<li>Venezuela, pro-German attitude during War, vi: 392.</li> +<li><cite>Vengeance</cite>, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31.</li> +<li>Venizelos, Eleutherios, + <ul class="index"> + <li>pro-Ally policy during Greek neutrality, iii: 202;</li> + <li>establishes revolutionary government in Crete, Sept., '16, iii: 210;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 76-82;</li> + <li>bibliography, ix: 81.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Verdun, + <ul class="index"> + <li>strategic value and reasons for German campaigns against, i: 268, ii: 6, 13, 36-39, 188, 189, iii: 46, 302, v: 199, 215, xi: 21;</li> + <li>effect of battle of the Somme on German offensive against, ii: 47, iii: 61, 63, 314;</li> + <li>eliminated by Germans as scene of '18 offensive, ii: 67;</li> + <li>battles of, Feb., '16—Sept., '17, ii: 186-189, iii: 46-55, 61-62, 79, 302-315, 327-329, viii: 289-291, xi: 21-22;</li> + <li>comparison of German attack, Feb., '16, with tactics at first battle of the Marne, ii: 186;</li> + <li>"They shall not pass," French watchword of defense at, ii: 189, iii: 304, xi: 21;</li> + <li>Pétain commands defenders, Feb.—May, '16, ii: 189, iii: 50, 304;</li> + <li>Germans capture Fort Douaumont, Feb. 25, '16, ii: 189, iii: 48, 304-305;</li> + <li>German attacks on Fort Vaux repulsed, Mar., '16, ii: 189, iii: 52, 306,; + <ul class="index"> + <li>described by French officer taking part in defense, iii: 327-329;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>German Crown Prince in command of attacking forces, iii: 47, 48, 303;</li> + <li>use of motor transports in defense of, iii: 50, viii: 289-291;</li> + <li>battles for Dead Man's Hill (Le Mort Homme), Mar.—May, '16, iii: 51, 53-54, 306-307, 308, 310-313;</li> + <li>Cumières captured and lost by Germans, May, '16, iii: 54, 312;</li> + <li>Gen. Nivelle appointed to command of French defenders, May, '16, iii: 54, 310;</li> + <li>Fort Vaux captured by Germans, June 7, '16, iii: 54, 313;</li> + <li>German efforts to capture Fort Souville defeated, iii: 55;</li> + <li>Thiaumont captured by Germans, June 23—24, '16, and recaptured by French, iii: 55, 313;</li> + <li>Nivelle's surprise attack, Oct., '16, iii: 61;</li> + <li>Fort Douaumont recaptured by French, Oct., '16, iii: 61;</li> + <li>Fort Vaux evacuated by Germans, Nov. 2, '16, iii: 62;</li> + <li>Gen. Mangin succeeds Nivelle as French commander at, Dec., '16, iii: 62;</li> + <li>Mangin launches successful offensive, Dec., '16, iii: 62;</li> + <li>final French victories regain all important positions, Aug.—Sept., '17, iii: 79;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's comment on German blunder at, iii: 302;</li> + <li>description of intensity of fighting at, by French participant, iii: 308;</li> + <li>Major Raynal, defender of Fort Vaux, awarded Legion of Honor, iii: 313;</li> + <li>freed from threat of further German attacks by suppression of St. Mihiel salient, Sept., '18, v: 208.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Verrieres, captured by 78th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266.</li> +<li>Versailles Treaty, <em>see</em> Peace Treaty with Germany.</li> +<li>Very, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 225.</li> +<li>Very pistol, use in signalling, v: 319.</li> +<li>Vesle River, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Germans driven across, in Allied counter-offensive on Marne salient, July—Aug., '18, v: 60-62, 188-191, 383;</li> + <li>Germans driven from, to the Aisne, Aug.—Sept., '18, v: 62, 260, 383-384.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Vesnitch, Dr. M. R., Serbian diplomat, statement of Jugoslav attitude toward Italian aggrandizement, vi: 366.</li> +<li>Veterinary, treatment of sick and injured animals in War, vii: 225-227, viii: 397-399.</li> +<li>Vickers machine-gun, + <ul class="index"> + <li>use on airplanes, viii: 87;</li> + <li>U. S. production figures, <a href="#Page_284">xii: 284</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Victor Emanuel, King of Italy, biography, ix: 395-398.</li> +<li>Victory Way, in New York City, <a href="#Page_133">xii: 133</a>.</li> +<li>Vienna, + <ul class="index"> + <li>war-time privation in, vi: 312;</li> + <li>riots, '18, vi: 316;</li> + <li>after-War distress, vi: 318;</li> + <li>Bolshevik uprising suppressed, Apr., '19, vi: 320-321. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Vierstaat Ridge, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by British and 27th Div., A. E. F., Sept. 1—2, '18, v: 290.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Vierzy, captured by 2nd Div., July 18, '18, v: 55, 174.</li> +<li>Vigneulles, + <ul class="index"> + <li>junction of 1st and 26th Divs. at, closes St. Mihiel salient,</li> + <li>Sept., '18, v: 69, 211, 212.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ville-devant-Chaumont, captured by 26th Div., Nov. 10, '18, v: 272.</li> +<li>Villepigue, Corp. John C., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.</li> +<li>Villers Wood, captured by A. E. F., Sept. 15, '18, v: 210.</li> +<li>Villers-Cotterets, concentration of Allied forces near, for Marne counter-offensive, July, '18, ii: 154, v: 161.</li> +<li>Villers-devant-Dun, captured by 90th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 92, 264.</li> +<li>Villers-sous-Preney, captured by A. E. F., Sept. 14, '18, v: 210.</li> +<li>Vilna, captured by Germans, Sept., '15, iii: 141.</li> +<li>Vilosnes-sur-Meuse captured by 60th Inf., Nov. 5, '18, v: 94, 271.</li> +<li>Vimy Ridge, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by Canadians, Apr. 9, '17, iii: 70, 343-349;</li> + <li>strategic importance, iii: 343;</li> + <li>London <cite>Times'</cite> account of battle, iii: 346-348;</li> + <li>decorations for gallantry at, iii: 349.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Vindictive</cite>, British cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Zeebrugge raid, iv: 262;</li> + <li>sunk in Ostend Channel, iv: 279;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Zeebrugge Raid.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Viribus Unitis</cite>, Austrian battleship sunk by Italians in Pola harbor, May 15, '18, i: 395, x: 297-303.</li> +<li><cite>Vive La France!</cite> poem by Charlotte H. Crawford, vi: 94.</li> +<li>Viviani, René, French statesman, biography, ix: 19-21.</li> +<li>Vladivostok, + <ul class="index"> + <li>seized by Czechoslovak troops, June, '18, vi: 192;</li> + <li>Allies send troops to, vi: 193;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Siberia.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Vocational training, + <ul class="index"> + <li>for war cripples, American help for French disabled, vii: 79, 92-95;</li> + <li>for American disabled, vii: 180-182, 210-216, 236-239;</li> + <li>modern attitude on, viii: 387;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Reconstruction of disabled.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Vodka, + <ul class="index"> + <li>war-time prohibition of, in Russia, iii: 265, vi: 135;</li> + <li>use of harmful substitutes for, vi: 138.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Voisin bombing planes, viii: 223.</li> +<li>Voldemaras, Prof., forms first independent Lithuanian cabinet, vi: 236.</li> +<li>Vologodsky, Peter, head of liberal Siberian government at Omsk, vi: 191.</li> +<li>Voormezeele, captured by 30th Div., Aug. 31—Sept. 1, '18, v: 300.</li> +<li>Vosges Mountains, + <ul class="index"> + <li>military importance, ii: 6;</li> + <li>place in scheme of general French strategy, ii: 9;</li> + <li>French occupy passes of, Aug., '14, iii: 16;</li> + <li>French offensive in, Dec., '15, iii: 46;</li> + <li>as training area for A. E. F., v: 118, 197, <em>see also</em> under each Division.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Win" id="Win">W</a></li> +<li>Waalker, Sgt. Reider, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393.</li> +<li><cite>Wacht am Rhine, Die</cite>, German national song, xi: 332.</li> +<li>Wales, Prince of, personal sketch, ix: 395, xi: 150-152.</li> +<li>Walker, Col. William H., head of U. S. poison-gas plant at Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 181.</li> +<li>Wallace, Gen., British commander in western Egypt, iii: 191.</li> +<li>Wallachia, German offensive in, iii: 221.</li> +<li>Walsh, Frank P., + <ul class="index"> + <li>member of Irish-American delegation to Peace Conference, vi: 66;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 337-339.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>War, + <ul class="index"> + <li>as a simple art, iii: 137;</li> + <li>definition of, iv: 1;</li> + <li>desirability, v: <em>Intro. x</em>;</li> + <li>extent of modern, v: <em>Intro. x</em>;</li> + <li>German policy of, <em>see</em> Germany, Kultur, Militarism.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>War Babies' Cradle, organization and relief activities of, vii: 107, xi: 56.</li> +<li>War Committee (or Council) of British Cabinet, + <ul class="index"> + <li>members, Nov., '14, ii: 198;</li> + <li>responsibility for Gallipoli disaster, ii: 200;</li> + <li>responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>War Industries Board, U. S., <em>see</em> U. S., Industries during War.</li> +<li>War relief: + <ul class="index"> + <li>American, + <ul class="index"> + <li>plan of <cite>Stars and Stripes</cite> for adoption of French orphans, vii: 72, xi: 80;</li> + <li>Children's Bureau of American Red Cross, relief activities for Allied children, vii: 72, 76-79, xi: 85-90;</li> + <li>vocational training for French war cripples, vii: 79, 92-95;</li> + <li>beginnings of American relief work, vii: 85;</li> + <li>Herbert Hoover's activities, vii: 85, 119, <a href="#Page_136">xii: 136</a>, <a href="#Page_141">xii: 141</a>;</li> + <li>Lafayette Fund, vii: 85;</li> + <li>Committee of Mercy, vii: 87;</li> + <li>American Women's War Relief Fund, vii: 87, 91;</li> + <li>National Allied Relief Committee, vii: 87-90;</li> + <li>John Moffat's activities in early development of, vii: 87;</li> + <li>American Committee for Relief of Belgian Prisoners in Germany, vii: 88, 96;</li> + <li>Allied Home for Munition Workers, vii: 88, 108;</li> + <li>French Heroes Lafayette Memorial Fund, vii: 90, 110-116;</li> + <li>benefit bazaars, vii: 90;</li> + <li>"Hero Land" bazaar, vii: 90;</li> + <li>American Fund for French Wounded, vii: 91, xi: 85;</li> + <li>American Committee for Devastated France, vii: 92;</li> + <li>American Committee for Armenian and Syrian Relief, vii: 92;</li> + <li>War Relief Clearing House for France and Her Allies, vii: 95;</li> + <li>Le Bien-Être du Blessé, vii: 96;</li> + <li>French Tuberculosis War Victims' Fund, vii: 97;</li> + <li>American Committee of the Charities of the Queen of the Belgians, vii: 98;</li> + <li>for war blind, Permanent Blind Relief War Fund, vii: 99, 255-260;</li> + <li>Franco-American Committee for the Protection of Children of the Frontier, vii: 101, xi: 85;</li> + <li>American Committee of the Secours National, vii: 105;</li> + <li>Committee for Fatherless Children of France, vii: 105, xi: 84;</li> + <li>aid for French victims of shell-shock and nervous derangements, vii: 106;</li> + <li>War Babies' Cradle, vii: 107, xi: 56;</li> + <li>relief work of American alumni of École des Beaux Arts, vii: 108;</li> + <li>relief for Serbia, vii: 109, 144-168;</li> + <li>relief for Rumania, vii: 109;</li> + <li>Commission for Relief in Belgium, organization and activities, vii: 116-144;</li> + <li>Millard Shaler, early organizer of Belgian relief, vii: 119;</li> + <li>Stage Women's War Relief, vii: 343-349;</li> + <li>for Jewish war sufferers, vii: 349-376;</li> + <li>Free Milk for France fund, vii: 376-379;</li> + <li>American Relief Administration for feeding newly liberated peoples, <a href="#Page_141">xii: 141</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Belgian, Charities of the Queen of the Belgians, vii: 98.</li> + <li>British, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Serbia, iii: 398;</li> + <li>Association of Highland Societies of Edinburgh, vii: 95;</li> + <li>British and Canadian Patriotic Fund, vii: 99;</li> + <li>British American War Relief Fund, vii: 99;</li> + <li>Scottish Women's Hospitals for Home and Foreign Service, vii: 101;</li> + <li>Chelsea War Refugees Fund for Belgian refugees in England, vii: 106;</li> + <li>London Volunteer Motor Corps, vii: 107;</li> + <li>St. Dunstan's Home for blind, vii: 259.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Dutch, for Belgian refugees and interned soldiers, vii: 168-175.</li> + <li>French, + <ul class="index"> + <li>vocational training for disabled, vii: 92-95;</li> + <li>Le Bien-être du Blessé, vii: 96;</li> + <li>Secours National, vii: 105;</li> + <li>Committee for Fatherless Children of France, vii: 105, xi: 84;</li> + <li>relief for victims of shell-shock and nervous derangement, vii: 106;</li> + <li>War Babies' Cradle, vii: 107, xi: 56.</li> + <li><em>See also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Knights of Columbus;</li> + <li>Red Cross;</li> + <li>Salvation Army;</li> + <li>Young Men's Christian Association.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>War Risk Insurance, Bureau of, for U. S. fighting men, vii: 176.</li> +<li>War Savings Stamps, U. S., amount sold, <a href="#Page_18">xii: 18</a>, <a href="#Page_134">xii: 134</a>.</li> +<li>War terms and soldier slang, definitions of, xi: 359-362. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></p></li> + +<li>War Trade Board, U. S., <em>see</em> U. S., Trade.</li> +<li>War Zone, <em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Germany, Blockade of;</li> + <li>Submarine warfare.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Warburg, Felix M., treasurer American Jewish Relief Committee, vii: 354.</li> +<li>Ward, Pvt. Calvin, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396.</li> +<li>Warehouses, + <ul class="index"> + <li>location of great A. E. F. supply depots in France, v: 330;</li> + <li>construction of, by A. E. F. in France, v: 333, 400.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Warfare, + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Strategy;</li> + <li>Tactics;</li> + <li>Trench warfare.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Warneford, Flight Sub-Lieut. R. A. J., brings down first Zeppelin, ii: 269, x: 223.</li> +<li><cite>Warrior</cite>, British cruiser sunk at Jutland, iv: 260.</li> +<li>Warsaw, German attacks on and capture of, Aug. 5, '15, i: 381, ii: 26, iii: 128-130, 131, 138.</li> +<li><cite>Warspite</cite>, British warship at battle of Jutland, iv: 260.</li> +<li>Washington Inn, for American officers in London, vii: 288.</li> +<li><cite>Wasted</cite>, poem, xi: 100.</li> +<li>Watches, for A. E. F., viii: 327.</li> +<li>Water supply, + <ul class="index"> + <li>for A. E. F., construction of facilities for, v: 333;</li> + <li>modern methods for making safe for use of armies, viii: 394-396.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>We Are Fred Karno's Army</cite>, British soldiers' song, xi: 338.</li> +<li><cite>Wearing of the Green</cite>, Irish patriotic air, xi: 334.</li> +<li>Weather forecasting, importance of, in war, xi: 296-303.</li> +<li>Weddigen, Lieut.-Com. Otto, commander of <cite>U-9</cite>, sinks British cruisers <cite>Aboukir, Cressy</cite>, and <cite>Hogue</cite>, iv: 205, x: 274-280.</li> +<li>Wedell, Hans von, leader in German passport frauds in U. S., x: 333.</li> +<li>Weimar, meeting place of German National Assembly, Feb., '19, vi: 291.</li> +<li>Wekerle, Dr., + <ul class="index"> + <li>succeeds Count Tisza as Premier of Hungary, vi: 314;</li> + <li>suppresses Jugoslav congress at Agram, Mar., '18, vi: 363.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Welland Canal, German plot for destruction of, i: 318.</li> +<li>Wellborn, Col., director of U. S. Tank Corps, v: 314.</li> +<li>Wemyss, Sir Rosslyn, succeeds Jellicoe as British First Sea Lord, Dec. 26, '17, i: 393.</li> +<li>West, Sgt. Chester H., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 402.</li> +<li>West Prussia, award to Poland by Peace Conference, vi: 226.</li> +<li>Western Front, + <ul class="index"> + <li>establishment by Germans of trench lines from North Sea to Swiss border following first Marne battle, Sept., '14, ii: <em>Intro. vii</em>, 11, iii: 37, viii: 134, xi: 12, 253;</li> + <li>relative importance compared with Eastern theatre of war, ii: 11-14, 87-89; + <ul class="index"> + <li>opinion of Field-Marshal French, ii: 171;</li> + <li>Gen. Maurice on, ii: <em>Intro. x-xxiv</em>;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>the <em>vital</em> front, ii: <em>Intro. xxiii</em>;</li> + <li>Allied retreat to the Marne, Aug.—Sept., '18, ii: 9, 166, 183, iii: 20-30;</li> + <li>German "strategic" retreat to Hindenburg Line, '17, ii: 53, iii: 66-70;</li> + <li>reasons for German offensive of Mar.—July, '18, ii: 65-67;</li> + <li>German strength, Mar., '18, ii: 65, 75, iii: 383, v: 120;</li> + <li>Allied strength Mar., '18, ii: 66;</li> + <li>choice of sector by Germans for great offensive of Mar., '18, ii: 67-69, 311, iii: 86;</li> + <li>great German offensive begun, Mar. 21, '18, ii: 70, 150, iii: 86, 359, v: 23, 120, 130, 380, vi: 270; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Ludendorff's account, iii: 308-316;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>break through Allied line and rout of British Fifth Army near St. Quentin in great German drive, Mar., '18, ii: 70-74, 150-152, 190-197, iii: 86-91, v: 373; + <ul class="index"> + <li>account by Philip Gibbs, iii: 381-390;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>German drive against Channel ports, Apr., '18, ii: 75, 153, iii: 91, 359-363;</li> + <li>German casualties in offensive of Mar.—Apr., '18, ii, 75;</li> + <li>German drive to the Marne, May—July, '18, ii: 76-79, 154, 320, iii: 92-96, v: 35, 41-53, 129, 130;</li> + <li>Allied counter-offensive and retreat of Germans out of France and Belgium, July 18—Nov. 11, '18, ii: 80-87, 154, 156-159, iii: 96-104, v: 72, 192, 213; + <ul class="index"> + <li>résume by Gen. Malleterre, ii: 209-216;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's account, ii: 324-326;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's account, ii: 331-340;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>battle line, July 18, '18, ii: 82;</li> + <li>German bases in France captured in Allied counter-offensive, July—Nov., '18, ii: 86;</li> + <li>campaigns on, first phase, maneuvering for position, ii: 112;</li> + <li>second phase, war of attrition, ii: 112;</li> + <li>third phase, final stroke, ii: 113;</li> + <li>necessity for frontal attack on, ii: 116;</li> + <li>Foch's analysis of weakness of German position, July, '18, ii: 154;</li> + <li>Allied and German man-power, Oct., '18, ii: 159;</li> + <li>British man-power, Aug., '18, ii: 214;</li> + <li>British shell supply, Aug., '18, ii: 214;</li> + <li>military situation, Nov., '18, ii: 215;</li> + <li>general topography, iii: 2;</li> + <li>battle line, Jan., '15, iii: 41;</li> + <li>German prisoners and guns captured by Allies, July—Nov., '18, iii: 104;</li> + <li>A. E. F. deciding factor in last campaigns on, v: 23-25;</li> + <li>first American sector established, Aug., '18, v: 64, 192-193, 384;</li> + <li>American front, Nov. 11, '18, v: 95;</li> + <li>five major German offensives on, v: 96;</li> + <li>effect of Russian withdrawal from War on, v: 113;</li> + <li>German lines of defense and communications, v: 214-216;</li> + <li>for details of engagements or sectors, <em>see</em> name of battle, campaign, or sector.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Wet, Gen. Christian de, leader of Boer rebellion against British, '14, vi: 50.</li> +<li>Wettig, Carl, discloses German plot to blow up ships, x: 374.</li> +<li>Wexford, Ireland, U. S. naval air station at, iv: 357.</li> +<li>Wheat, + <ul class="index"> + <li>production and imports by Germany, ii: 17;</li> + <li>government price-fixing in U. S., <a href="#Page_59">xii: 59</a>;</li> + <li>U. S. exports to Allies, July, '17—July,'18, <a href="#Page_141">xii: 141</a>;</li> + <li>statistics on production in U. S., '18—'19, <a href="#Page_143">xii: 143</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Food.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Where Do We Go From Here, Boys?</cite>, American soldiers' song, xi: 337.</li> +<li>Whiddy Island, Ireland, U. S. naval air station at, iv: 357.</li> +<li>Whippets, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British baby tanks, ii: 280, viii: 148, xi: 262;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Tanks.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Whitby, bombarded by German fleet, Dec. 16, '14, i: 376, iv: 245.</li> +<li>White Russia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Republic of, established, May, '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Whittlesey, Major Charles W., commander of "Lost Battalion," isolation and rescue in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct. 2—7, '18, v: 231, 239, 241, 242, 243; + <ul class="index"> + <li>gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Why Did We Join the Army?</cite>, British soldiers' song, xi: 337.</li> +<li>Wickersham, Geo. W., analysis of Peace Treaty with Germany, <a href="#Page_170">xii: 170-178</a>.</li> +<li>Wickersham, 2nd Lieut. J. Hunter, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401.</li> +<li><cite>Wien</cite>, Austrian battleship torpedoed by Italians in Trieste harbor, i: 393, x: 290.</li> +<li>Wieringen, German Crown Prince's home at, after flight from Germany, vi: 278.</li> +<li>Wilhelm, Kaiser, <em>see</em> William II.</li> +<li>Wilhelmina, Queen of Netherlands, biography, ix: 401-405.</li> +<li>Wilhelmshaven, revolt of German navy at, Oct. 31, '18, iv: 381.</li> +<li>Willard, Daniel, chairman of Advisory Commission, U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_116">xii: 116</a>.</li> +<li>William I, becomes first German Emperor, Jan. 18, 1871, i: 44.</li> +<li>William II, of Germany, + <ul class="index"> + <li>abdicates throne, Nov. 9, '18, i: 399, ii: 340, vi: 273;</li> + <li>conception of powers as Emperor, i: 73;</li> + <li>becomes Emperor, 1888, i: 97, 185, ix: 358;</li> + <li>arrogance, i: 97;</li> + <li>visits Turkey, i: 98, 207;</li> + <li>famous speech at Tangier, Mar., '05, i: 99;</li> + <li>complicity in Austrian ultimatum to Serbia, July, '14, i: 133-136, 252;</li> + <li>interview in London <cite>Daily Telegraph</cite> declaring friendship for England, Oct. 28, '18, i: 186;</li> + <li>advice to troops to be "terrible as Huns," i: 186;</li> + <li>reprimanded by Reichstag and Bundesrat for <cite>Daily Telegraph</cite> interview, i: 189;</li> + <li>Lloyd George's opinion of, i: 189;</li> + <li>Kruger telegram supporting cause of Boers against Great Britain, Jan. 3, 1898, i: 192; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></p></li> + + <li>statement about "sharpness of German sword," ii: 161;</li> + <li>Ludendorff's estimate of weakness, ii: 317;</li> + <li>Supreme War Lord, ii: 331;</li> + <li>author of phrase "Yellow peril," vi: 248;</li> + <li>retirement to Amerongen after abdication, Nov., '18, vi: 277;</li> + <li>biography and sketch of personality, ix: 355-367, xi: 139-141;</li> + <li>bibliography, ix: 367;</li> + <li>Peace Treaty provisions for trial for war guilt, <a href="#Page_217">xii: 217</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>William of Wied, becomes ruler of Albania, i: 206.</li> +<li><cite>William P. Frye</cite>, American ship sunk by Germans, Jan. 28, '15, i: 319, 378.</li> +<li>Wilson, Adm. Henry B., biography, ix: 295-296.</li> +<li>Wilson, Gen., British representative on Inter-Allied General Staff, iii: 84.</li> +<li>Wilson, Major, develops idea of tank as fighting machine, viii: 155.</li> +<li>Wilson, William B., U. S. Secretary of Labor, on anti-war spirit of laboring classes, <a href="#Page_65">xii: 65</a>.</li> +<li>Wilson, Woodrow, + <ul class="index"> + <li>assumes leadership of liberal Democrats, i: 295;</li> + <li>temperament contrasted with Roosevelt's, i: 299;</li> + <li>"Strict accountability" note to Germany on U-boat warfare, i: 317;</li> + <li>"Too proud to fight" statement, i: 320, v: 372, ix: 62;</li> + <li>opposition to McLemore Resolution, i: 327;</li> + <li>note to belligerents to state war aims, Dec. 18,. '16, i: 336;</li> + <li>"Peace without victory" speech, Jan., '17, i: 337, ix: 64;</li> + <li>speech before Congress asking for declaration of war with Germany, Apr. 2, '17, i: 348-355;</li> + <li>effects of diplomacy, ii: 390;</li> + <li>position in Fiume dispute, vi: 369;</li> + <li>biography and personal sketch, ix: 55-69, xi: 131-135;</li> + <li>"Fourteen Points," ix: 67, <a href="#Page_163">xii: 163-165</a>;</li> + <li>bibliography, ix: 69;</li> + <li>stricken ill during tour for ratification of Peace Treaty, Sept., '19, <a href="#Page_264">xii: 264</a>;</li> + <li>opinion of Lodge reservations, <a href="#Page_267">xii: 267</a>;</li> + <li>message vetoing Knox Resolution, <a href="#Page_278">xii: 278</a>;</li> + <li>for relations with belligerents during neutrality, + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see</em> Germany, Blockade of;</li> + <li>Submarine warfare;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>for work at Peace Conference, <em>see</em> Peace Conference.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Winchester self-loading rifle, description, viii: 89.</li> +<li>Windhoek, captured by British, May 12, '15, i: 380, iii: 255.</li> +<li>Wire entanglements, <em>see</em> Barbed wire.</li> +<li>Wireless, + <ul class="index"> + <li>use by A. E. F. Signal Corps, v: 317, 318-319;</li> + <li>development under war needs, viii: 315;</li> + <li>apparatus for generation and transmission of radio waves, viii: 315-318;</li> + <li>Goldschmidt alternator, viii: 316;</li> + <li>Alexanderson alternator, viii: 316-318;</li> + <li>use of vacuum tubes in wireless telephony, viii: 318-320;</li> + <li>types of aerials, viii: 320;</li> + <li>U. S. Navy wireless stations, location and method of operation, viii: 320-322.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Wisloka River, battle between Germans and Russians on banks of, May, '15, iii: 136.</li> +<li>Woevre River, Germans driven into plains of, by A. E. F. advance in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Nov., '18, v: 94.</li> +<li>Wold, Pvt. Nels, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397.</li> +<li><cite>Wolf</cite>, seaplane-carrier German raider, activities, iv: 198.</li> +<li>Women in War, + <ul class="index"> + <li>French munition workers, ii: 376;</li> + <li>Pershing's tribute, v: 404;</li> + <li>as Y. M. C. A. workers in Europe, vii: 267-271;</li> + <li>Russian Battalion of Death, x: 183-185, xi: 205-210;</li> + <li>British, in war industries, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li>American, in war industries, <a href="#Page_26">xii: 26</a>, <a href="#Page_84">xii: 84-85</a>;</li> + <li>British, as farm laborers, <a href="#Page_40">xii: 40</a>;</li> + <li>effects of entry into industries on social organization, <a href="#Page_83">xii: 83-84</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Nurses;</li> + <li>Red Cross;</li> + <li>Salvation Army;</li> + <li>War relief;</li> + <li>Young Men's Christian Association.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Wood, Maj.-Gen. Leonard, + <ul class="index"> + <li>on lessons of the War, iii: <em>Intro. vii-x</em>;</li> + <li>in command of 89th Div., during training period, v: 146, 365.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Woodfill, 1st Lieut. Samuel, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 391.</li> +<li>World empires, + <ul class="index"> + <li>development toward, before War, i: 23;</li> + <li>rivalry of ambitions for, i: 25.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>World federation, + <ul class="index"> + <li>ideal of, i: 25;</li> + <li>religious diversity an obstacle to, i: 25.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>World League of Red Cross Societies, organization and objects, vii: 3.</li> +<li>World War, + <ul class="index"> + <li>results, + <ul class="index"> + <li>summary by Dr. Eliot, i: <em>Intro. ix-xiv</em>;</li> + <li>Dr. Manning on spiritual, vii: <em>Intro. ix</em>;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>areas involved, i: 9;</li> + <li>effect on population, <a href="#Page_25">xii: 25</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Causes of War;</li> + <li>Cost of War;</li> + <li>Germany, Responsibility for War.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Wounded, <em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Ambulance;</li> + <li>Carrel-Dakin treatment;</li> + <li>Hospitals;</li> + <li>Infection;</li> + <li>Medical Science;</li> + <li>Reconstruction of disabled;</li> + <li>Surgery;</li> + <li>U. S. Army, Medical Service.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Wright, Maj.-Gen. William M., + <ul class="index"> + <li>commander of 35th Div., v: 128, 361;</li> + <li>commander of 89th Div., v: 146, 365;</li> + <li>commander of Seventh Corps, v: 395;</li> + <li>biography, ix: 221-223.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Württemberg, Duke of, in command of German Northern Armies, iii: 61.</li> +<li>Wynne, Mrs. Hilda, experiences as ambulance driver, vii: 105, x: 186-188.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Xin" id="Xin">X</a></li> +<li>Xivray, location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199.</li> +<li>X-ray, use in war surgery, vii: 221, viii: 373-376.</li> +<li>Xylyl bromide (tear gas), use in chemical warfare, viii: 170.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Yin" id="Yin">Y</a></li> +<li>"Y" gun, for launching depth bombs, iv: 331.</li> +<li>Yachts, converted, work in anti-submarine patrol, iv: 292.</li> +<li>Yakutsk Republic, + <ul class="index"> + <li>established, May, '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>;</li> + <li>area and population, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Yankee (26th) Division, <em>see</em> U. S., Army.</li> +<li>Yarmouth, bombarded by German raiders, Nov. 3, '14, iv: 244.</li> +<li>Yemen, Imamate of, established, '18, <a href="#Page_279">xii: 279</a>.</li> +<li>York, Sgt. Alvin C., + <ul class="index"> + <li>account of exploits as fighter, x: 13-18;</li> + <li>gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Young, Lt.-Com. E. Hilton, account of Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 269-279.</li> +<li>Young, Lieut. I. E. R., account of air battle against German raiders over London, x: 215.</li> +<li>Young Men's Christian Association: + <ul class="index"> + <li>American, organization for war work and program of activities, vii: 261-266; + <ul class="index"> + <li>recognition by War Department as welfare agency, vii: 262;</li> + <li>personnel, number and character, vii: 266;</li> + <li>casualties in overseas service, vii: 267;</li> + <li>women's work with, overseas, vii: 267-271;</li> + <li>Work in A. E. F. leave areas, vii: 269;</li> + <li>at the front with combat troops, vii: 271-277;</li> + <li>award of Distinguished Service Crosses to workers, vii: 272;</li> + <li>with the "Lost Battalion," vii: 273;</li> + <li>huts used as targets by Germans, vii: 274;</li> + <li>awards of <span lang="fr">Croix de Guerre</span> to workers, vii: 275, 313;</li> + <li>hotels for service men, vii: 277;</li> + <li>entertainment for service men, vii: 277-279;</li> + <li>educational work for A. E. F., vii: 280-283, 290;</li> + <li>religious activities among troops, vii: 283-285;</li> + <li>activities for A. E. F. in United Kingdom, vii: 286-290;</li> + <li>Eagle Hut in London, vii: 288, 300; in Italy, vii: 290;</li> + <li>with Army of Occupation, vii: 291-293;</li> + <li>with A. E. F. in Russia and Siberia, vii: 293-298;</li> + <li>Navy service, vii: 298-302;</li> + <li>Navy Hut at Brest, vii: 302;</li> + <li>work among prisoners of war, Allied and Teuton, vii: 302-310;</li> + <li>care of American war prisoners in Germany, vii: 309;</li> + <li><span lang="fr">Foyers du Soldats</span> for French soldiers, vii: 310-313; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></p></li> + + <li><span lang="fr">Foyers du Marin</span> for French sailors, vii: 313;</li> + <li>athletics for A. E. F., vii: 313-317;</li> + <li>work for Russian army and civilians, vii: 318-319.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>British, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Egypt, vii: 321, 322;</li> + <li>at Gallipoli, vii: 321;</li> + <li>in Sudan, vii: 322;</li> + <li>in Palestine and Jerusalem, vii: 322-323;</li> + <li>in Mesopotamia, vii: 324.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Indian, welfare work in India, vii: 327.</li> + <li>International, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Egypt, vii: 322;</li> + <li>in Mesopotamia, vii: 324-327.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Young Turks, force constitutional government in Turkey, '08, i: 109.</li> +<li>Ypres, battles of: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Oct.—Nov., '14, ii: 144, iii: 41; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Field-Marshal French's account, ii: 170-171.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Apr., '15, first use of gas in warfare by Germans, ii: 222, iii: 42, 288, 320, xi: 316.</li> + <li>July—Oct., '17, iii: 78-79; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Haig's account of use of artillery in, ii: 128.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Apr., '18, ii: 153; + <ul class="index"> + <li>description by Philip Gibbs, iii: 360-363.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Yser, battles of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Oct., '14, ii: 220, iii: 40;</li> + <li>July, '17, iii: 77-78.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Yudenitch, Gen., Russian commander, campaign against and capture of Erzerum, iii: 262-263.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Zin" id="Zin">Z</a></li> +<li>Zabern incident, i: 72.</li> +<li>Zeebrugge Raid, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British exploit in blocking German submarine base on Belgian coast, Apr., '18, iv: 261-279;</li> + <li>ships participating, iv: 262;</li> + <li>official Admiralty report, iv: 262-265;</li> + <li>Capt. Carpenter's account, iv: 266-268;</li> + <li>British casualties, iv: 268;</li> + <li>account of Lieut.-Com. Young of <cite>Vindictive</cite>, iv: 269-279.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Zemstvos, Russian, congress of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>prohibited by Protopopov, vi: 143;</li> + <li>succeeded by local "soviets," vi: 164;</li> + <li>war-time activities, <a href="#Page_82">xii: 82</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Zemtchug</cite>, Russian cruiser sunk by German raider <cite>Emden</cite>, Oct. 28, '14, iv: 179.</li> +<li>Zeppelin, Count Ferdinand von, inventor of Zeppelin dirigible airships, biography, ix: 250-252.</li> +<li>Zeppelins, + <ul class="index"> + <li>description of structural features, with discussion of utility during war and peace, ii: 262-269, viii: 241-254;</li> + <li>raids on England, ii: 266, iii: 41, viii: 246, <em>see also</em> Air raids;</li> + <li>exploit of Sub-Lieut. Warneford in bringing down first Zeppelin of War, ii: 269, x: 223-225;</li> + <li>development in construction, '14—'18, viii: 241;</li> + <li>compared with airplanes, viii: 241-245;</li> + <li>flight of <cite>L-59</cite> to Egypt, viii: 243.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Zigzagging, as defense against U-boat attack, iv: 310.</li> +<li>Zimmermann, Dr. Alfred F. M., German Foreign Secretary, + <ul class="index"> + <li>attempt to force from Ambassador Gerard guarantees for German-owned property in U. S., i: 345;</li> + <li>text of note attempting to involve Mexico and Japan in war against U. S., i: 347.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Zouaves, description, xi: 189. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></p></li> + +</ul> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<h2>I.—PORTRAITS</h2> + +<table style="width:75%;" border="1" summary="index"> +<tr> +<th><a href="#Ailp">A</a></th> +<th><a href="#Bilp">B</a></th> +<th><a href="#Cilp">C</a></th> +<th><a href="#Dilp">D</a></th> +<th><a href="#Eilp">E</a></th> +<th><a href="#Filp">F</a></th> +<th><a href="#Gilp">G</a></th> +<th><a href="#Hilp">H</a></th> +<th><a href="#Iilp">I</a></th> +<th><a href="#Jilp">J</a></th> +<th><a href="#Kilp">K</a></th> +<th><a href="#Lilp">L</a></th> +<th><a href="#Milp">M</a></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<th><a href="#Nilp">N</a></th> +<th><a href="#Oilp">O</a></th> +<th><a href="#Pilp">P</a></th> +<td></td> +<th><a href="#Rilp">R</a></th> +<th><a href="#Silp">S</a></th> +<th><a href="#Tilp">T</a></th> +<th><a href="#Uilp">U</a></th> +<th><a href="#Vilp">V</a></th> +<th><a href="#Wilp">W</a></th> +<th><a href="#Xilp">X</a></th> +<th><a href="#Yilp">Y</a></th> +<th><a href="#Zilp">Z</a></th> +</tr> +</table> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Ailp" id="Ailp">A</a></li> +<li>Adams, Sgt, Harry J., x: 42.</li> +<li>Ador, Gustave, President of Switzerland, with President Poincaré of France, <a href="#Page_154">xii: 154</a>.</li> +<li>Ahmed, Sultan, Shah of Persia, i: 104.</li> +<li>Albert, King of the Belgians, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at the front, ii: 5;</li> + <li>with Queen Elizabeth, ii: 157, vii: 140;</li> + <li>inspecting British tank, ii: 278;</li> + <li>equestrian statue, iii: 379;</li> + <li>portrait studies, vii: 121, ix: 386;</li> + <li>symbolic painting of (in color), ix: <em>facing p.</em> 386;</li> + <li>entry into Bruges, ix: 390;</li> + <li>inspecting U. S. sailors, xi: 129.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Albert, Prince, of England, xi: 150; + <ul class="index"> + <li>as aviator, xi: 151.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Alexander, King of Greece, iii: 206.</li> +<li>Alexander I, Czar of Russia, i: 35.</li> +<li>Alexander, Prince Regent of Serbia, vi: 357, vii: 147.</li> +<li>Alexander, Maj.-Gen. Robert, v: 221.</li> +<li>Alexandra, + <ul class="index"> + <li>former Czarina of Russia, ix: 377;</li> + <li>with royal family, xi: 146.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Alexandra, Dowager Queen of England, ix: 394.</li> +<li>Alexandrina Irene, Princess, daughter of German Crown Prince, xi: 149.</li> +<li>Alexis, Czarevitch, of Russia, ii: 227, xi: 145, 146; + <ul class="index"> + <li>last photograph, 148 xi:.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Alfonso, King of Spain, with son, vi: 371.</li> +<li>Allen, B. S., vii: 115.</li> +<li>Allen, Maj.-Gen. Henry T., v: 201.</li> +<li>Allenby, Gen. Sir Edmund H. H., ii: 89, 177, ix: 197; + <ul class="index"> + <li>entering Jerusalem, iii: 323.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Allied Food Council, members of, ix: 322.</li> +<li>Ames, Winthrop, vii: 340.</li> +<li>Anastasia, Grand-Duchess, of Russia, xi: 146.</li> +<li>Andrews, Brig.-Gen. Avery D., v: 93.</li> +<li>Aonzo, Lieut., iv: 365.</li> +<li>Aosta, Duke of, iii: 240.</li> +<li>Armenian Patriarch, of Jerusalem, vi.: 332.</li> +<li>Arnim, Count von, ii: 222.</li> +<li>Arnim, Gen. Sixt von, iii: 88.</li> +<li>Arthur, Julia, vii: 344.</li> +<li>Asquith, Herbert H., ix: 31.</li> +<li>Astor, Mrs. Vincent, as Y. M. C. A. canteen worker, vii: 270.</li> +<li>Atkinson, Sgt. Ralph M., x: 61.</li> +<li>Averescu, Gen., iii: 216.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Bilp" id="Bilp">B</a></li> +<li>Bailey, Maj.-Gen. C. J., v: 275.</li> +<li>Bain, H. F., vii: 115.</li> +<li>Baker, Newton D., v: 375, ix: 324; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Gen. Pershing, v: 39;</li> + <li>with members of Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_117">xii: 117</a>;</li> + <li>drawing first draft number, <a href="#Page_289">xii: 289</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Baldwin, Dr. E. R., vii: 69.</li> +<li>Balfour, Arthur James, ix: 41; + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_160">xii: 160</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Barker, Col. William, vii: 391.</li> +<li>Barton, Clara, vii: 12.</li> +<li>Baruch, Bernard M., <a href="#Page_119">xii: 119</a>; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with members of U.S. Council of National Defense, cii: 119.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bates, Blanche, vii: 344.</li> +<li>Bauer, Gustav, vi: 304.</li> +<li>Beatty, Adm. Sir David, iv: 102, ix: 284; + <ul class="index"> + <li>coming on board U. S. battleship <cite>New York</cite>, iv: 11;</li> + <li>with King George, ix: 149.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Belgian royal children, xi: 130.</li> +<li>Bell, Maj.-Gen. George, Jr., v: 219.</li> +<li>Belrose, L., vii: 115.</li> +<li>Benedict XV, Pope, i: 164.</li> +<li>Benson, Adm., + <ul class="index"> + <li>with members of Navy War Council, iv: <em>Intro. xi</em>;</li> + <li>with Secretary Daniels and Sir Eric Geddes, iv: 357.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Benson, 1st Lieut. Philip, x: 210.</li> +<li>Berchtold, Count, i: 137, ix: 143.</li> +<li>Bergmann, Gen., ix: 267.</li> +<li>Bernhardi, Gen, Frederick von, i: 169.</li> +<li>Bernstorff, Count Johann von, ix: 134, x: 327.</li> +<li>Bertle, Sir Francis L., ii: 131.</li> +<li>Bethel, Brig.-Gen. Walter A., v: 38.</li> +<li>Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von, iii: 2, vi: 265, ix: 123; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Kaiser and leading German generals, i: 130.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bigelow, member of Lafayette Escadrille, x: 197.</li> +<li>Biggs, Dr. H. M., vii: 69.</li> +<li>Binkley, Sgt. David U., x: 97.</li> +<li>Birdwood, Lieut.-Gen. Sir William, iii: 375.</li> +<li>Bishop, Col. William A., x: 216, 219.</li> +<li>Bismarck, Prince Otto von, i: 43; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Napoleon III, i: 44;</li> + <li>at Congress of Berlin, i: 49;</li> + <li>at proclamation of German Empire, i: 55;</li> + <li>dictating surrender of French in Franco-Prussian War, i: 163;</li> + <li>dictating terms of peace to French after Franco-Prussian War, i: 212.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bissing, Gen. von, ii: 99.</li> +<li>Bliss, Gen, Tasker H., v: 110; + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_160">xii: 160</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bohlen, Krupp von, i: 135.</li> +<li>Bonstelle, Jessie, vii: 344.</li> +<li>Booth, Miss Evangeline, vii: 392.</li> +<li>Boothby, George, vii: 335.</li> +<li>Borden, Sir Robert, vi: 25.</li> +<li>Botchkareva, Marie, x: 184.</li> +<li>Botha, Gen. Louis, vi: 49, ix: 192.</li> +<li>Brent, Bishop, xi: 250.</li> +<li>Breshkovsky, Catherine, vi: 150, ix: 348.</li> +<li>Briand, Aristide, ii: 386; + <ul class="index"> + <li>presiding at first Allied Conference, Mar., '16, i: 398.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Brockdorff-Rantzau, Count, ix: 137, <a href="#Page_169">xii: 169</a>.</li> +<li>Brown, Brig.-Gen. Preston, v: 86.</li> +<li>Brunswick, Duke and Duchess of, i: 168.</li> +<li>Brusiloff, Gen. Alexei, iii: 143, ix: 233.</li> +<li>Bullard, Lieut.-Gen. Robert Lee, ix: 220; + <ul class="index"> + <li>in color, v: <em>facing p.</em> 396;</li> + <li>with staff, x: 17.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bülow, Prince Bernhard von, ix: 129.</li> +<li>Bunch, Maj. Henry E., x: 83.</li> +<li>Bundy, Maj.-Gen. Omar, v: 249, ix: 226.</li> +<li>Bunsen, Sir Maurice de, i: 126.</li> +<li>Burdick, "Mother," vii: 385.</li> +<li>Burr, Sgt. George E. (in color), x: <em>facing p.</em> 102.</li> +<li>Butterfield, Sgt. William M., x: 343.</li> +<li>Byng, Sir Julian, iii: 338.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Cilp" id="Cilp">C</a></li> +<li>Cadorna, Gen. Luigi, iii: 229, 231, 233, ix: 228.</li> +<li>Caillaux, M., vi: 104.</li> +<li>Cambon, Jules, i: 128.</li> +<li>Cambon, Paul, ii: 384.</li> +<li>Cameron, Pvt. Charles, x: 144.</li> +<li>Campbell, Capt. Douglass (in color), x: <em>facing p.</em> 152.</li> +<li>Canterbury, Archbishop of, vii: 299.</li> +<li>Carden, Vice-Adm., iii: 174.</li> +<li>Carney, Pvt. Fred, x: 53.</li> +<li>Carpenter, Capt., iv: 266, 267.</li> +<li>Carpentier, Georges, as airman, x: 207.</li> +<li>Carranza, Gen. Venustiano, i: 320.</li> +<li>Carrel, Dr. Alexis, ix: 311, xi: 289.</li> +<li>Carson, Sir Edward, vi: 66, ix: 51.</li> +<li>Carty, Col., x: 48.</li> +<li>Casement, Sir Roger, vi: 56, ix: 54; + <ul class="index"> + <li>on trial for treason, vi: 57.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Castelnau, Gen. de, with Gen. d'Esperey, ii: 141.</li> +<li>Castlereagh, Lord, i: 29.</li> +<li>Cavour, Count Camillo, i: 43.</li> +<li>Cecil, Lord Robert, <a href="#Page_207">xii: 207</a>.</li> +<li>Chamberlain, Austen, ii: 90.</li> +<li>Chapman, Victor, x: 170.</li> +<li>Charles I, Emperor of Austria-Hungary, ii: 65, ix: 373; + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Warsaw, iii: 140. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Charles Theodore, Prince, son of King Albert of Belgium, xi: 130.</li> +<li>Churchill, Winston Spencer, vi: 10; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with wife, ix: 45.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Churchill, Mrs. Winston Spencer, ix: 45.</li> +<li>Clarkson, Grosvenor B., with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_117">xii: 117</a>.</li> +<li>Clausewitz, Carl von, i: 166.</li> +<li>Clayburgh, Mme., vii: 344.</li> +<li>Clemenceau, Georges, + <ul class="index"> + <li>near the front, iii: 35;</li> + <li>decorating a priest, iii: 85;</li> + <li>portrait study, ix: 3;</li> + <li>leaving Peace Conference, ix: 6;</li> + <li>in his study, ix: 11;</li> + <li>in uniform of a poilu, ix: 12;</li> + <li>visiting a liberated French village, xi: 126;</li> + <li>at Somme battle front, xi: 127;</li> + <li>presiding at Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_160">xii: 160</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Clementel, French Minister of Commerce, <a href="#Page_106">xii: 106</a>.</li> +<li>Clifford, Rev. J. H., x: 33.</li> +<li>Coffin, Howard E., with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_117">xii: 117</a>.</li> +<li>Colmar, Mayor of, i: 328.</li> +<li>Commission for Relief in Belgium, members of, vii: 115.</li> +<li>Connaught, Duke of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>with King George, i: 124;</li> + <li>inspecting troops, vi: 33;</li> + <li>with Archbishop of Canterbury at a Y. M. C. A. hut, vii: 299.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Conner, Brig.-Gen. Fox, v: 104.</li> +<li>Constantine, former King of Greece, iii: 203; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with family, ix: 381.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Council of National Defense, U. S., with Advisory Commission, members of, <a href="#Page_117">xii: 117</a>.</li> +<li>Cozens, W. J., vii: 115.</li> +<li>Cradock, Adm. Sir Christopher, iv: 63.</li> +<li>Craig, Capt., vi: 66.</li> +<li>Craig, Brig.-Gen. Malin, v: 80.</li> +<li>Crile, Dr. George W., vii: 68.</li> +<li>Cronkhite, Maj.-Gen. Adelbert (in color), v: <em>facing p.</em> 146.</li> +<li>Currie, Lieut.-Gen. Sir Arthur, 377, vi: 28; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Pershing, iii: 346.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Czar of Russia, <em>see</em> Nicholas II.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Dilp" id="Dilp">D</a></li> +<li>D'Amade, Gen., ii: 163.</li> +<li>Daniels, Josephus, + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Franklin Roosevelt, i: 359;</li> + <li>with members of Navy War Council, iv: <em>Intro. xi</em>;</li> + <li>with Sir Eric Geddes and Adm. Benson, iv: 357;</li> + <li>portrait study, x: 327;</li> + <li>with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_117">xii: 117</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Danilo Alexander, Prince, of Montenegro, iii: 153.</li> +<li>D'Annunzio, Gabriele, vi: 121.</li> +<li>Dasch, Pvt. Carl W., x: 50.</li> +<li>Davis, Brig.-Gen. Robt. C., v: 291.</li> +<li>Davison, Henry P., vii: 3, 17.</li> +<li>Dawson, Sgt. Clarence W., x: 310.</li> +<li>De La Ray, Gen., vi: 49.</li> +<li>Derby, Dr. Richard, x: 242.</li> +<li>Dernburg, Dr. Bernhard, vi: 297.</li> +<li>D'Esperey, Gen., with Gen. Castelnau, ii: 141.</li> +<li>Devereaux, Pvt. Harold J., x: 134.</li> +<li>De Wet, Gen. Christian, vi: 49.</li> +<li>Diaz, Gen., ii: 367.</li> +<li>Dickman, Maj.-Gen. Joseph T., v: 52.</li> +<li>Disraeli, Benjamin, i: 50.</li> +<li>Djavid Bey, ii: 28.</li> +<li>Djevad Bey, Col., iii: 356.</li> +<li>Dmitrieff, Gen. Radko, iii: 136.</li> +<li>Dougherty, Color Sgt. Hardy C, x: 110.</li> +<li>Doumergue, French Minister of Colonies, vi: 104, <a href="#Page_106">xii: 106</a>.</li> +<li>Drummond, Sir Eric, <a href="#Page_202">xii: 202</a>.</li> +<li>Dubail, Gen. and Madame, xi: 47.</li> +<li>Duffy, Father, vii: 335.</li> +<li>Dugan, Maj.-Gen. Thomas B., v: 226.</li> +<li>Dumba, Dr. Constantin, x: 328.</li> +<li>Dunant, Henri, vii: 10.</li> +<li>Duncan, Maj.-Gen. George B., v: 10.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Eilp" id="Eilp">E</a></li> +<li>Earle, Rear-Adm., with members of Navy War Council, iv: <em>Intro. xi.</em></li> +<li>Ebert, Friedrich, ix: 136; + <ul class="index"> + <li>delivering speech of acceptance to election as German President, vi: 293.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Edward VII, of England, + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Kaiser, i: 188;</li> + <li>with son (present King George V) and grandson (present Prince of Wales), ii: 3.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Edwards, Maj.-Gen. Clarence R., v: 253; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Gen. Liggett, v: 66.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Eggeman, Judge, vii: 335.</li> +<li>Eggers, Sgt., x: 105.</li> +<li>Einem, Gen. von, with Kaiser and other leading German generals, i: 130.</li> +<li>Eisner, Kurt, vi: 289.</li> +<li>Eitel, Prince, of Prussia, i: 168.</li> +<li>Eitel Friedrich, Princess, of Prussia, i: 168.</li> +<li>Elena, Queen of Italy, xi: 142.</li> +<li>Elizabeth, Queen of Belgium, ii: 157, vii: 140, ix: 389; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with her children, xi: 130.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ellis, Pvt. M. B., x: 119.</li> +<li>Eltinge, Brig.-Gen. Leroy, x: 283.</li> +<li>Ely, Maj.-Gen. Hanson E., v: 123.</li> +<li>Enver Pasha, iii: 262, ix: 271.</li> +<li>Erzberger, Mathias, meeting with Foch to arrange armistice, v: 392.</li> +<li>Eugene, Archduke, of Austria, with staff, i: 139.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Filp" id="Filp">F</a></li> +<li>Falkenhayn, Gen. Erich von, iii: 223, ix: 262; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with other leading German generals, i: 130.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Fallow, Capt. Thomas H., x: 161.</li> +<li>Feng Kuo-Chang, Gen., i: 58.</li> +<li>Ferdinand, former Czar of Bulgaria, iii: 156, 211, ix: 379.</li> +<li>Ferdinand, King of Rumania, 221, ix: 400; + <ul class="index"> + <li>decorating troops, iii: 219.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ferguson, Sgt. Dugald E., x: 77.</li> +<li>Ferguson, Elsie, vii: 341.</li> +<li>Fernandez, Bijou, vii: 344.</li> +<li>Fisher, Adm. Lord John, ix: 289.</li> +<li>Fiske, Brig.-Gen. Harold B., v: 103.</li> +<li>Fitzgerald, John, vii: 335.</li> +<li>Flagler, Maj.-Gen. Clement A. F., v: 209.</li> +<li>Foch, Marshal Ferdinand, ii: 139, ix: 148, xi: 47, 136; + <ul class="index"> + <li>inspecting Rhine fortifications with Gen. Mangin, ii: 86;</li> + <li>reviewing guards at St. Germain-en-Laye, ii: 142;</li> + <li>meeting German armistice delegates, v: 392;</li> + <li>an early portrait, ix: 151.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Forstner, Lieut. von, i: 73.</li> +<li>Foulois, Brig.-Gen Benjamin D., v: 310.</li> +<li>Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, of Austria, i: 111; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with family, i: 3;</li> + <li>shortly before assassination, i: 113;</li> + <li>with Kaiser, vi: 360.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Francis Joseph I, late Emperor of Austria-Hungary, ix: 371.</li> +<li>Frederick, Archduke, of Austria, ii: 24.</li> +<li>Frederick, King of Denmark, vi: 393.</li> +<li>Frederick the Great, i: 22.</li> +<li>Frederick III, German Emperor, i: 183.</li> +<li>Frederick William, former Crown Prince of Prussia and of Germany, + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Crown Princess, i: 117;</li> + <li>with leading German generals, i: 130;</li> + <li>with members of royal family, i: 168;</li> + <li>bestowing decorations, ii: 38;</li> + <li>portrait studies, ii: 311, 339,</li> + <li>with one of his children ix: 368;</li> + <li>on Verdun front, iii: 48, 307;</li> + <li>with staff, iii: 304;</li> + <li>with father and son, vi: 263.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Frederick William III, King of Prussia, i: 34.</li> +<li>French, Field-Marshal Viscount John, iii: 24, ix: 178, xi: 360.</li> +<li>French cabinet, members of, '13, vi: 304.</li> +<li>Freytag-Loringhoven, Baron von, ii: 255.</li> +<li>Fritz, Pvt. Albert, x: 80.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Gilp" id="Gilp">G</a></li> +<li>Galliéni, Gen. Joseph Simon, ix: 162.</li> +<li>Galopin, Gen., xi: 47.</li> +<li>Garfield, Harry A., <a href="#Page_49">xii: 49</a>.</li> +<li>Garibaldi, Capt., x: 64.</li> +<li>Garibaldi, Gen., x: 64.</li> +<li>Gasette, Miss Grace, vii: 190.</li> +<li>Gaultney, Corp. Walter E. (in color), x: <em>facing p.</em> 200.</li> +<li>Gay, G. I., vii: 115.</li> +<li>Geddes, Sir Eric, ix: 314; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Josephus Daniels and Adm. Benson, iv: 357.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>George, Prince, of England, xi: 151.</li> +<li>George V, King of England, + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Duke of Connaught, i: 124;</li> + <li>with father (Edward VII) and Prince of Wales, ii: 3;</li> + <li>aboard U. S. battleship <cite>New York</cite>, iv: 11, 85;</li> + <li>with Adm. Beatty, iv: 149;</li> + <li>inspecting gun on a U. S. battleship, iv: 346;</li> + <li>decorating a U. S. soldier, v: 383;</li> + <li>bust presented to American Y. M. C. A. in London, vii: 286;</li> + <li>with Lloyd George, ix: 29;</li> + <li>portrait study, ix: 393;</li> + <li>at baseball game between U. S. service teams in London, xi: 153;</li> + <li>on tour of inspection, xi: 314. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Gerard, James W.,i: 322; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with embassy staff in Berlin, i: 303.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>German Crown Princess, + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Crown Prince, i: 117;</li> + <li>with members of royal family, i: 168;</li> + <li>with daughter and German Empress, xi: 149.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gibbons, Cardinal James, vii: <em>Intro. vi.</em></li> +<li>Gibson, Harvey D., vii: 103.</li> +<li>Gibson, Hugh, vi: 88, vii: 115.</li> +<li>Gifford, Walter S., with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_117">xii: 117</a>.</li> +<li>Giovanna, Princess, of Italy, xi: 144.</li> +<li>Gleaves, Vice-Adm. Albert, iv: 159.</li> +<li>Glossop, Capt. John C. T., iv: 186.</li> +<li>Godfrey, Dr. Hollis, with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_117">xii: 117</a>.</li> +<li>Goltz, Field-Marshal Baron von der, ix: 269.</li> +<li>Gompers, Samuel P., <a href="#Page_87">xii: 87</a>.</li> +<li>Gordon, Maj.-Gen. Walter H., v: 223.</li> +<li>Gorgas, Surgeon-General William C., vii: 192.</li> +<li>Gori, Lieut., with Commander Rizzo and Lieut. Aonzo, iv: 365.</li> +<li>Gortchakoff, Prince, i: 181.</li> +<li>Goschen, Sir Edward, i: 125.</li> +<li>Gough, Lieut.-Gen. Sir Hubert de la Poer, iii: 376.</li> +<li>Gouraud, Gen. Henri, ii: 122, 210, iii: 229, v: 44.</li> +<li>Gourko, Gen. Basil, ii: 226.</li> +<li>Graham, Sgt. Clyde, x: 166.</li> +<li>Grayson, Rear-Adm., <em>Intro. xvii.</em></li> +<li>Greek delegates to Paris Peace Conference, ix: 80.</li> +<li>Greek royal family, ix: 381.</li> +<li>Grey, Sir Edward, ix: 36.</li> +<li>Griffin, Rear-Adm., with members of Navy War Council, iv: <em>Intro. xi.</em></li> +<li>Grismer, Mrs. Joseph, vii: 344.</li> +<li>Grouitch, Madame Slavko, vii: 145.</li> +<li>Guendele, Gen. von, with German armistice delegates, meeting Foch, v: 392.</li> +<li>Gustav, King of Sweden, vi: 395.</li> +<li>Guynemer, Capt. Georges, x: 203.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Hilp" id="Hilp">H</a></li> +<li>Haakon VII, King of Norway, i: 133.</li> +<li>Haan, Maj.-Gen. William G., v: 24.</li> +<li>Haeseler, Gen. von, with Kaiser and leading German generals, i: 130.</li> +<li>Haig, Field-Marshal Sir Douglas, ii: 113, 114, iii: 374, ix: 182.</li> +<li>Haldane, Lord, i: 108.</li> +<li>Hall, Capt. James Norman, x: 201.</li> +<li>Hamill, Dr. Samuel M., vii: 69.</li> +<li>Hamilton, Gen. Sir Ian, ii: 30, iii: 162.</li> +<li>Harbord, Maj.-Gen. James G. (in color), v: <em>facing p.</em> 36.</li> +<li>Harden, Maximilian, vi: 303.</li> +<li>Hartman, Sgt. William A., x: 167.</li> +<li>Hartz, Gen. William W., v: 255.</li> +<li>Hay, Maj.-Gen. William H., v: 279.</li> +<li>Helfferich, Dr. Karl, iii: 2, ix: 354.</li> +<li>Helmick, Maj.-Gen. Eli, v: 268.</li> +<li>Heming, Violet, vii: 344.</li> +<li>Henderson, Arthur, ix: 48.</li> +<li>Herren, Sgt. William, x: 323.</li> +<li>Hertling, Count von, i: 273; + <ul class="index"> + <li>addressing Prussian Chamber of Deputies, vi: 259.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hill, R. F., vii: 115.</li> +<li>Hindenburg, Field-Marshal Paul von, ii: 207, 361, iii: 113, vi: 291, ix: 243; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Kaiser and other leading German generals, i: 130;</li> + <li>with Ludendorff, ii: 299;</li> + <li>with Ludendorff, ii: 325;</li> + <li>wooden statue of, ix: 248;</li> + <li>with Kaiser and Ludendorff, ix: 364.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hinds, Maj.-Gen. Ernest, v: 320.</li> +<li>Hines, Maj.-Gen. John L., v: 182.</li> +<li>Hines, Walker D., <a href="#Page_90">xii: 90</a>.</li> +<li>Hinkle, member of Lafayette Escadrille, x: 197.</li> +<li>Hohenberg, Duchess of, i: 111; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with husband, Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria, and family, i: 3;</li> + <li>with husband, shortly before assassination, i: 113.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Holt, Dr. L. Emmett, vii: 69.</li> +<li>Honnold, W. L., vii: 115.</li> +<li>Hood, Rear-Adm. Horace, iv: 120.</li> +<li>Hoover, Sgt. Charles S., x: 126.</li> +<li>Hoover, Herbert C., vii: 115, 122, ix: 317.</li> +<li>Horton, Lieut.-Com. Max K., iv: 207.</li> +<li>House, Col. Edward M., ix: 74; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Mrs. House, ix: 71;</li> + <li>at Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_160">xii: 160</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Houston, David F., with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_117">xii: 117</a>.</li> +<li>Howe, Capt. Maurice W., x: 312.</li> +<li>Howze, Maj.-Gen. Robert L., v: 185.</li> +<li>Hsaün Tung, ex-Emperor of China, i: 17.</li> +<li>Hughes, Sir Sam, vi: 35.</li> +<li>Hughes, William Morris, vi: 39.</li> +<li>Hurley, Edward N., with Charles M. Schwab, ix: 336.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Iilp" id="Iilp">I</a></li> +<li>Ingenohl, Vice-Adm., iv: 68.</li> +<li>Ireland, Maj.-Gen. Merritt A., vii: 194.</li> +<li>Ishii, Viscount, ix: 89.</li> +<li>Italian royal children, xi: 142.</li> +<li>Italian War Mission to United States, members of, vi: 118.</li> +<li>Ivanoff, Gen., iii: 127.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Jilp" id="Jilp">J</a></li> +<li>Jagow, Gottliev von, iii: 2, ix: 127.</li> +<li>Janeway, Dr. Theodore C., vii: 250.</li> +<li>Janis, Elsie, vii: 294.</li> +<li>Jellicoe, Adm. Sir John, v: 100, ix: 276.</li> +<li>Joan of Arc (in color), i: <em>frontispiece</em>.</li> +<li>Joffre, Marshal Joseph Jacques César, + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Gen. Nivelle, ii: 12;</li> + <li>in trenches with Kitchener, ii: 164;</li> + <li>examining German prisoners, ii: 173;</li> + <li>at Verdun, iii: 50;</li> + <li>with Gen. Pershing, v: 57;</li> + <li>painting in color, ix: <em>facing p.</em> 154;</li> + <li>decorating French officer, ix: 158;</li> + <li>at West Point, ix: 160;</li> + <li>at Lafayette statue in Brooklyn, xi: 7;</li> + <li>portrait studies, xi: 11, 268;</li> + <li>with other leading French generals and Pershing, xi: 47.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Jones, R. H., vii: 115.</li> +<li>Jutta, Princess, of Montenegro, iii: 153.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Kilp" id="Kilp">K</a></li> +<li>Kaiser, <em>see</em> William II.</li> +<li>Karolyi, Count, ix: 146.</li> +<li>Kei Hara, vi: 387.</li> +<li>Kenney, Maj., with Maj. Whittlesey, v: 238.</li> +<li>Kerensky, Alexander Feodorovitch, vi: 145, ix: 105.</li> +<li>Key, Francis Scott, xi: 325.</li> +<li>Kitchener, Field-Marshal Earl Horatio Herbert, ii: 165, 203, ix: 169, 171; + <ul class="index"> + <li>in trenches with Joffre, ii: 164.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Klotz, Louis, at Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_160">xii: 160</a>.</li> +<li>Kluck, Gen. Alexander von, i: 377, ii: 9; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Kaiser and group of German generals, i: 130;</li> + <li>with staff, ix: 267.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Koenig, Capt. Paul, iv: 214.</li> +<li>Kolchak, Adm. Aleksandr Vasiliyevich, ix: 240.</li> +<li>Korniloff, Gen., ii: 235, vi: 168.</li> +<li>Korth, Sgt. Herman (in color), x: <em>facing p.</em> 254.</li> +<li>Krauss, Gen. F. M. C., with Archduke Eugene of Austria, i: 139.</li> +<li>Kreger, Brig.-Gen. Edward A., v: 230.</li> +<li>Krobatin, Austrian Minister of War, with Archduke Eugene, i: 139.</li> +<li>Kropotkin, Prince Peter, vi: 136.</li> +<li>Kruger, Oom Paul, i: 192.</li> +<li>Krupp, Alfred, i: 160.</li> +<li>Krupp, Bertha, ix: 353.</li> +<li>Krupp von Bohlen, i: 135.</li> +<li>Kuhl, Gen. von, ix: 267.</li> +<li>Kuhn, Maj.-Gen. Joseph E., v: 224.</li> +<li>Kuropatkin, Gen., iii: 269.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Lilp" id="Lilp">L</a></li> +<li>Lafayette, Marquis de, xi: 6.</li> +<li>Lafayette Escadrille, members, x: 197, 200.</li> +<li>Lane, Franklin K., with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_117">xii: 117</a>.</li> +<li>Langfitt, Maj.-Gen. W. C., v: 343.</li> +<li>Langham, Pvt. George W., x: 99.</li> +<li>Lansing, Robert, at Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_160">xii: 160</a>.</li> +<li>Lassiter, Maj.-Gen. William, v: 145.</li> +<li>Latham, Sgt., x: 105.</li> +<li>Lathrop, Mrs. Benjamin G., vii: 94.</li> +<li>Laurier, Sir Wilfred, vi: 26.</li> +<li>Law, Andrew Bonar, + <ul class="index"> + <li>conferring with French cabinet members, <a href="#Page_106">xii: 106</a>;</li> + <li>at Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_160">xii: 160</a>. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Le Jeune, Maj.-Gen. John A., v: 256.</li> +<li>Leman, Gen., i: 144.</li> +<li>Lenihan, Brig.-Gen. Michael J., vii: 335.</li> +<li>Lenin, Nicolai, ix: 111.</li> +<li>Leonard, Benny, viii: 108.</li> +<li>Leopold, Crown Prince of Belgium, xi: 130, 145.</li> +<li>Leopold, Prince, of Bavaria, + <ul class="index"> + <li>with group of German generals, i: 130;</li> + <li>in Warsaw, iii: 140.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lepley, Sgt. James B., x: 251.</li> +<li>Lewis, Sgt. Stacy A., x: 302.</li> +<li>Lichnowsky, Prince Karl Maximilian, i: 196, ix: 132.</li> +<li>Liebknecht, Karl, ix: 139.</li> +<li>Liggett, Lieut.-Gen. Hunter, ix: 219; + <ul class="index"> + <li>in color, v: <em>facing p.</em> 108;</li> + <li>with Maj.-Gen. Edwards,v: 66.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lincoln, Tribitsch, x: 345.</li> +<li>Lipton, Sir Thomas, with Duchess of Westminster and her Red Cross nurses on board the yacht <cite>Erin</cite>, vii: 136.</li> +<li>Li Yuan-Hung, Gen., i: 57.</li> +<li>Lloyd George, David, + <ul class="index"> + <li>addressing a crowd, vi: 5;</li> + <li>return to London from Peace Conference, vi: 21;</li> + <li>portrait studies, ix: 22, <a href="#Page_151">xii: 151</a>;</li> + <li>with King George, ix: 29;</li> + <li>at Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_160">xii: 160</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lloyd George, Mrs. David, ix: 24.</li> +<li>Lloyd George, Miss, xi: 121.</li> +<li>Lodge, Senator Henry Cabot, <a href="#Page_239">xii: 239</a>.</li> +<li>Lohvitsky, Gen., vi: 144.</li> +<li>Londonderry, Lord, vi: 66.</li> +<li>Lovett, Judge Robert S., vii: 90.</li> +<li>Ludendorff, Gen. Erich von, + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Kaiser and group of German generals, i: 130;</li> + <li>with Hindenburg, ii: 299, 325;</li> + <li>portrait study, ix: 251;</li> + <li>with wife, ix: 253;</li> + <li>with Kaiser and Hindenburg, ix: 364.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lufberry, Maj. Raoul, x: 192, 197, xi: 228, 229.</li> +<li>Luke, Lieut. Frank, x: 212.</li> +<li>Luxemburg, Rosa, vi: 281.</li> +<li>Lvoff (Lvov), Prince George E., vi: 159, ix: 101.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Milp" id="Milp">M</a></li> +<li>MacArthur, Maj.-Gen. Douglas, v: <em>Intro. viii</em>, ix: 213.</li> +<li>MacDonald, Ramsay, vi: 3.</li> +<li>Mackensen, Field-Marshal August Anton Ludwig von, iii: 137, 222, ix: 258; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Kaiser and group of leading German generals, i: 130.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mafalda, Princess, of Italy, xi: 144.</li> +<li>Maja Vajiravudth, King of Siam, vi: 80.</li> +<li>Malvy, M., vi: 104.</li> +<li>Mangin, Gen., inspecting Rhine fortifications with Foch, ii: 86.</li> +<li>Manning, Corp. Sidney E., x: 122.</li> +<li>Manning, Rev. Dr. William T., vii: <em>Intro. viii.</em></li> +<li>Mapes, L. D., vii: 115.</li> +<li>March, Gen. Peyton C., ix: 211.</li> +<li>Maria, Princess, of Italy, xi: 144.</li> +<li>Marie, Grand-Duchess, of Russia, xi: 146.</li> +<li>Marie, Queen of Rumania, vii: 111, ix: 402.</li> +<li>Marie Adelaide, Grand-Duchess of Luxemburg, i: 78, ix: 383.</li> +<li>Marie José, Princess, of Belgium, xi: 130, 144.</li> +<li>Marlborough, Duchess of, vii: 131.</li> +<li>Marshall, Lieut.-Gen. Sir William R., iii: 333.</li> +<li>Martin, Dr. Franklin, ith members of U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_117">xii: 117</a>.</li> +<li>Mary, Princess, of England, xi: 150.</li> +<li>Mary, Queen of England, ix: 394.</li> +<li>Maude, Gen. Sir Frederick Stanley, iii: 184, ix: 195.</li> +<li>Maudhuy, Gen. de, ii: 144.</li> +<li>Maurice, Maj.-Gen. Sir Frederick B., ii: <em>Intro. ix.</em></li> +<li>Max, Burgomaster, of Brussels, iii: 272.</li> +<li>Max, Prince, of Baden, vi: 302.</li> +<li>Mayhew, 2nd Lieut. Carl C., x: 136.</li> +<li>Mayo, Adm. Henry Thomas, iv: <em>Intro. ix</em>, ix: 297.</li> +<li>McAdoo, Eleanor, xi: 133.</li> +<li>McAdoo, William G., ix: 330, <em>Intro. xi.</em></li> +<li>McAlexander, Brig.-Gen. Ulysses G., v: 389, ix: 217.</li> +<li>McAndrew, Maj.-Gen. James W., v: 101, ix: 215.</li> +<li>McGlachlin, Maj.-Gen. Edward F., v: 228.</li> +<li>McGowan, Rear-Adm., with members of Navy War Council, iv: <em>Intro. xi.</em></li> +<li>McIntrye, Miss Gladys and Irene, + <ul class="index"> + <li>being decorated for distinguished service at the front, vii: 395;</li> + <li>collecting funds for Salvation Army, vii: 398.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>McKaig, Corp. F. H., x: 300.</li> +<li>McKeogh, Lieut. Arthur, x: 140.</li> +<li>McRae, Maj.-Gen. James H., v: 251.</li> +<li>Meissner, Maj. James A., x: 231.</li> +<li>Menoher, Maj.-Gen. Charles J., v: 190.</li> +<li>Mercier, Cardinal Désiré, i: 235, ix: 342; + <ul class="index"> + <li>in color, ix: <em>facing p.</em> 340.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Metternich, Count von, i: 34.</li> +<li>Michaelis, Georg, ii: 302.</li> +<li>Millerand, Alexandre, i: 333, ii: 388.</li> +<li>Milyukov, Paul, v: 158.</li> +<li>Minkiewicz, Secretary of Provisions for Poland, vii: 355.</li> +<li>Mishich, Gen. Voivode, with staff, ii: 35.</li> +<li>Mitchel, Col., vii: 335.</li> +<li>Moffat, John, vii: 86.</li> +<li>Mohammed V, Sultan of Turkey, iii: 357.</li> +<li>Moltke, Field-Marshal von, i: 48, 55.</li> +<li>Moltke, Lieut.-Gen. Helmuth von, ix: 265; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Kaiser and leading German generals, i: 130.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Montenegro, royal family, iii: 153.</li> +<li>Moore, Mast.-Sig.-Elect. E. J. (in color), x: <em>facing p.</em> 304.</li> +<li>Morgan, Miss Anne, vii: 93.</li> +<li>Morgan, John Pierpont, <em>Intro. xiv.</em></li> +<li>Mosley, Brig.-Gen. George V. H., v: 341.</li> +<li>Mueller, Commander Karl von, iv: 168, 173.</li> +<li>Muir, Maj.-Gen. Charles H., v: 205.</li> +<li>Münsterberg, Prof. Hugo, vi: 268.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Nilp" id="Nilp">N</a></li> +<li>Napoleon I, Emperor of France, ii: 88; + <ul class="index"> + <li>retreating after Waterloo, i: 7.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Napoleon III, Emperor of France, i: 36, 44.</li> +<li>Nash, J. A., vii: 115.</li> +<li>Nellmond, Earl Edler von, with Archduke Eugene of Austria and staff, i: 139.</li> +<li>Netherlands, royal family, vii: 172.</li> +<li>Neville, Gen., decorating colors of 6th Marine Regt., x: 199.</li> +<li>Nicholas, Grand-Duke, Nicolaevitch, + <ul class="index"> + <li>of Russia, with Czar, iii: 112, vi: 154;</li> + <li>portrait studies, iii: 115, ix: 230.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Nicholas, former King of Montenegro, i: 114 .</li> +<li>Nicholas II, former Czar of Russia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Grand-Duke Nicholas, iii: 112, vi: 154;</li> + <li>inspecting Red Cross workers, vii: 359;</li> + <li>portrait study, ix: 375;</li> + <li>with royal family, xi: 146;</li> + <li>last photograph, xi: 148.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Nightingale, Florence, vii: 11.</li> +<li>Nivelle, Gen., with Marshal Joffre, ii: 12.</li> +<li>Nolan, Brig.-Gen. Dennis E., v: 105.</li> +<li>Northcliffe, Lord, vi: 12.</li> +<li>Nourey Bey, Capt., iii: 356.</li> +<li>Nugent, Sgt. John F., x: 23.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Oilp" id="Oilp">O</a></li> +<li>Oberndorff, Count von, German armistice delegate, meeting with Foch, v: 392.</li> +<li>O'Brien, Corp. John J. (in color), x: <em>facing p.</em> 354.</li> +<li>O'Brien, Lieut. Pat, x: 256.</li> +<li>Okuma, Count, i: 19, vi: 385; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with wife, ix: 88.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Olga, Grand-Duchess, of Russia, xi: 146.</li> +<li>O'Neil, Peggy, vii: 342.</li> +<li>Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele, ix: 86.</li> +<li>O'Ryan, Maj.-Gen. John F., v: 282.</li> +<li>Oscar, Prince, of Prussia, i: 168, vi: 221.</li> +<li>Oshima, Gen., vi: 385.</li> +<li>Owen, H., vii: 115.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Pilp" id="Pilp">P</a></li> +<li>Paderewski, Ignace, ix: 97; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Polish Mission in New York, vi: 206.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Painlevé, Paul, iii: 83.</li> +<li>Palmer, Rear-Adm., with members of Navy War Council, iv: <em>Intro. xi.</em> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></p></li> + +<li>Papen, Capt. Franz von, x: 328.</li> +<li>Parrish, Sgt. Grady, x: 25.</li> +<li>Pashitch, N., iii: 151.</li> +<li>Passard, Jean, xi: 74.</li> +<li>Patriquin, Jean, vii: 344.</li> +<li>Pelltier, Gen., xi: 47.</li> +<li>Pendleton, Lieut. George H., x: 154.</li> +<li>Pershing, Gen. John J., + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Gen. Currie, iii: 346;</li> + <li>painting in color, v: <em>frontispiece</em>;</li> + <li>with Secretary of War Baker, v: 39;</li> + <li>with Joffre, v: 57, ix: 208;</li> + <li>with Marshal Pétain, v: 98;</li> + <li>at tomb of Lafayette, v: 99;</li> + <li>with U. S. nurses in France, vii: 78;</li> + <li>portrait study, ix: 200;</li> + <li>on Mexican border, ix: 206;</li> + <li>with group of French generals, xi: 47;</li> + <li>as a boy, xi: 123;</li> + <li>in the field, xi: 124.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Pétain, Marshal Henri Philipp, + <ul class="index"> + <li>ii: 149, iii: 52 ix: 165;</li> + <li>on Verdun front, iii: 186;</li> + <li>with Pershing, v: 99.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Peter, King of Serbia, iii: 149.</li> +<li>Pichon, Stephen, <a href="#Page_233">xii: 233</a>; + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_160">xii: 160</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Pilsudski, Gen. Joseph, ix: 93, 95.</li> +<li>Pius X, Pope, i: 27.</li> +<li>Plumer, Gen. Sir Herbert. C. O., ii: 162.</li> +<li>Poincaré, Raymond, + <ul class="index"> + <li>visiting the front, ii: 218;</li> + <li>portrait study, ix: 15;</li> + <li>with President Ador of Switzerland, <a href="#Page_154">xii: 154</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Poincaré, Mme. Raymond, ix: 16.</li> +<li>Poland, W. B., vii: 15.</li> +<li>Polish Military Mission to U. S., vi: 206.</li> +<li>Politis, Nicholas, ix: 80.</li> +<li>Popes, <em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Benedict XV;</li> + <li>Pius X.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Porro, Gen., iii: 229.</li> +<li>Prince, Norman, x: 170.</li> +<li>Princip, slayer of Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand, arrest following crime, i: 5.</li> +<li>Pringle, Capt., with Vice-Adm. Wemyss, iv: 323.</li> +<li>Prussian royal family, i: 168.</li> +<li>Puryear, 1st Lieut. George W., x: 179.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Rilp" id="Rilp">R</a></li> +<li>Rasputin, ix: 346; + <ul class="index"> + <li>surrounded by female admirers, vi: 142.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Rathenau, Dr. Walter, vi: 275.</li> +<li>Rawlinson, Gen. Sir Henry, ii: 171, iii: 88.</li> +<li>Read, Maj.-Gen. George W., ix: 224.</li> +<li>Reading, Lord Rufus, <a href="#Page_110">xii: 110</a>.</li> +<li>Rennenkampf, Gen., ii: 25, iii: 110.</li> +<li>Rickard, E., vii: 115.</li> +<li>Rickenbacker, Capt. " Eddie," with mother and sister, x: 260.</li> +<li>Rizzo, Com., with Lieuts. Aonzo and Gori, iv: 365.</li> +<li>Robeck, Vice-Adm. de, iv: 35.</li> +<li>Roberts, Field-Marshal Earl, i: 315, iii: 371, vi: 2.</li> +<li>Robertson, Gen. Sir William R., iii: 373, ix: 185.</li> +<li>Rockenbach, Brig.-Gen. Samuel D., v: 315.</li> +<li>Rodman, Rear-Adm. Hugh, + <ul class="index"> + <li>welcoming King George on U. S. battleship <cite>New York</cite>, iv: 11;</li> + <li>with Adm. Sims on <cite>New York</cite>, iv: 95;</li> + <li>portrait study, ix: 294.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Romanos, Athos, ix: 80.</li> +<li>Roosevelt, Capt. Archie, x: 245.</li> +<li>Roosevelt, Franklin D., + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Josephus Daniels, i: 359;</li> + <li>with members of Navy War Council, iv: <em>Intro. xi.</em></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Roosevelt, Capt. Kermit, x: 243.</li> +<li>Roosevelt, Lieut. Quentin, x: 244.</li> +<li>Roosevelt, Theodore, x: 239; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Kaiser at military maneuvers, i: 161;</li> + <li>with family, x: 240;</li> + <li>reviewing Boy Scouts at Sagamore Hill, xi: 114;</li> + <li>with grandchild, xi: 400.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Roosevelt, Lieut.-Col. Theodore Jr., x: 241, 247.</li> +<li>Root, Elihu, in Moscow, vi: 166.</li> +<li>Rosenfelt, Henry H., vii: 350.</li> +<li>Rosenwald, Julius, + <ul class="index"> + <li>with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_117">xii: 117</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Rubinstein, Madam Ida, vii: 374.</li> +<li>Ruprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria, ii: 217, iii: 382; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Kaiser and leading German generals, i: 130.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Russell, Brig.-Gen. Edgar, v: 318.</li> +<li>Russell, Col. F. F., vii: 69.</li> +<li>Russian Princesses, as war nurses, xi: 147.</li> +<li>Russian royal family, xi: 146; + <ul class="index"> + <li>last photograph, xi: 148.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Russian War Mission to United States, members of, vi: 174.</li> +<li>Russky, Gen., iii: 105.</li> +<li>Ryan, John D., <a href="#Page_125">xii: 125</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Silp" id="Silp">S</a></li> +<li>Salisbury, Lord, i: 56.</li> +<li>Samsonoff, Gen., ii: 223, iii: 111.</li> +<li>Sanders, Gen. Liman von, vi: 286.</li> +<li>Sarrail, Gen., iii: 207.</li> +<li>Sazonov, Serge, i: 119, vi: 141.</li> +<li>Scheidemann, Philipp, ix: 136; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with members of cabinet, ix: 137.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Schurz, Carl, i: 53.</li> +<li>Schwab, Charles M., ix: 333; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Edward N. Hurley, ix: 336.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Seeger, Alan, x: 142.</li> +<li>Sengier, E., vii: 115.</li> +<li>Shaler, M. K., vii: 115.</li> +<li>Sherman, Corp. Whitney D., x: 66.</li> +<li>Shimamura, Adm., vi: 385.</li> +<li>Sims, Adm. William S., i: 391; + <ul class="index"> + <li>in color, iv: <em>frontispiece</em>;</li> + <li>on board battleship <cite>New York</cite> with Adm. Rodman, iv: 95;</li> + <li>with family, ix: 292.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Skinner, Mrs. Otis, vii: 344.</li> +<li>Smith, Brig.-Gen. Harry A., v: 45.</li> +<li>Smith, Margaret, vii: 344.</li> +<li>Smith, Capt. Richard T., x: 69.</li> +<li>Smith, Maj.-Gen. William R., v: 207.</li> +<li>Smith-Dorrien, Gen. Sir Horace, ii: 175.</li> +<li>Smuts, Gen. Jan Christiaan, iii: 256, ix: 188.</li> +<li>Snow, Maj. William A., x: 320.</li> +<li>Sonnino, Baron Sidney, ix: 83.</li> +<li>Sothern, E. H., vii: 340.</li> +<li>Soukhomlinoff, Gen., iii: 122.</li> +<li>Sparks, Rear-Adm., + <ul class="index"> + <li>with members of Navy War Council, iv: <em>Intro. xi.</em></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sparrows, Com., + <ul class="index"> + <li>with members of Navy War Council, iv: <em>Intro. xi.</em></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Spee, Adm. Count von, iv: 60, ix: 307.</li> +<li>Stage Women's War Relief Committee, members of, vii: 344.</li> +<li>Stebbins, Miss Katherine, vii: 276.</li> +<li>Steidl, Sgt. August, x: 93.</li> +<li>Stein, Corp. Fred C., x: 182.</li> +<li>Stewart, Lieut.-Col. John W., x: 163.</li> +<li>Stowers, Sgt. Joseph H., x: 90.</li> +<li>Sturdee, Vice-Adm. Sir Frederick C. D., iv: 79.</li> +<li>Sturgis, Maj.-Gen. Samuel D., v: 194.</li> +<li>Sultans, of Turkey, iii: 357, vi: 331.</li> +<li>Summerall, Maj.-Gen. Charles P., v: 85.</li> +<li>Sutherland, Duchess of, at her hospital in France, vii: 109.</li> +<li>Swinton, Maj.-Gen., ii: 274.</li> +<li>Symington, 1st Lieut. James M., x: 88.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Tilp" id="Tilp">T</a></li> +<li>Taft, William Howard, <a href="#Page_175">xii: 175</a>.</li> +<li>Talbot, Dr. F. B., vii: 69.</li> +<li>Talleyrand, i: 32.</li> +<li>Tardieu, André, i: 286; + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_160">xii: 160</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tatiana, Grand-Duchess, of Russia, xi: 146.</li> +<li>Taylor, Rear-Adm., with members of Navy War Council, iv: <em>Intro. xi.</em></li> +<li>Terauchi, Count, ix: 91.</li> +<li>Thaw, Maj. William, x: 197.</li> +<li>Thenault, Capt., x: 197.</li> +<li>Tirpitz, Adm. Alfred von, ii: 261, iv: 2, 221, ix: 299; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Kaiser and leading German generals, i: 130.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Townshend, Gen., iii: 365.</li> +<li>Treitschke, Prof. Heinrich von, i: 174.</li> +<li>Trotzky, Leon, ii: 232, ix: 111.</li> +<li>Turkish Crown Prince, iii: 356.</li> +<li>Turkish Sultans, iii: 357, vi: 331.</li> +<li>Turner, Lieut. Benjamin E., x: 159.</li> +<li>Turner, Pvt. Robert I., x: 159.</li> +<li>Tyrwhitt, Commodore, 1v: 259; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with officers of <cite>Arethusa</cite>, iv: 251.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Uilp" id="Uilp">U</a></li> +<li>Uehara, Gen., vi: 385.</li> +<li>Umberto, Crown Prince, of Italy, xi: 143.</li> +<li>Usher, Rear-Adm. Nathaniel R., iv: 320.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Vilp" id="Vilp">V</a></li> +<li>Venizelos, Eleutherios, iii: 202, ix: 77, 80.</li> +<li>Victor Emanuel, King of Italy, iii: 229, vi: 122, ix: 396; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with Prince of Wales, xi: 152.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Victoria, former Empress of Germany, i: 187, ix: 366, xi: 149.</li> +<li>Vincent, Mrs. Walter, vii: 344.</li> +<li>Viviani, René, ii: 161, vi: 104, ix: 20.</li> +</ul> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></p> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Wilp" id="Wilp">W</a></li> +<li>Wadehouse, British Commissioner, at Cyprus, i: 176.</li> +<li>Wales, Prince of, xi: 149; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with father and grandfather, ii: 3;</li> + <li>at age of sixteen, xi: 150;</li> + <li>with King of Italy; xi: 152.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Walker, Brig.-Gen. Meriweather I., v: 353.</li> +<li>Wallace, Maj.-Gen., iii: 372.</li> +<li>Walsh, Frank P., ix: 338.</li> +<li>Walsh, Sgt. Patrick, x: 101.</li> +<li>Watson, Lieut.-Col. George L., x: 151.</li> +<li>Watts, Capt., with members of Navy War Council, iv: <em>Intro. xi.</em></li> +<li>Weddigen, Lieut.-Com. Otto, iv: 305.</li> +<li>Weigel, Maj.-Gen. William (in color), v: <em>facing p.</em> 308.</li> +<li>Welch, Dr. W. H., vii: 69.</li> +<li>Wemyss, Adm. Sir Rosslyn, + <ul class="index"> + <li>on board a U. S. battleship, iv: 323;</li> + <li>meeting German armistice delegates, v: 392.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Westminster, Duchess of, with her nurses, vii: 136.</li> +<li>Weygand, Gen., meeting German armistice delegates, v: 392.</li> +<li>Wharton, Mrs. Edith, vii: 100.</li> +<li>Wheeler, Margaret, vii: 344.</li> +<li>White, Henry, <a href="#Page_167">xii: 167</a>; + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_160">xii: 160</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>White, J. B., vii: 115.</li> +<li>Whitlock, Brand, vi: 83, x: 175; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with wife, vii: 117.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Whittlesey, Maj. Charles, with Maj. Kenney, v: 238.</li> +<li>Wilhelmina, Queen of Netherlands, ix: 404; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with heir and Prince Consort, vii: 172.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Willard, Daniel, <a href="#Page_122">xii: 122</a>; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_117">xii: 117</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>William I, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Emperor of Germany, portrait study, i: 45;</li> + <li>entry into Versailles, 1871, i: 46;</li> + <li>being proclaimed German Emperor, 1871, i: 55;</li> + <li>triumphal return to Berlin after Franco-Prussian War, i: 150.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>William II, + <ul class="index"> + <li>former Emperor of Germany, at age of nineteen, i: 70;</li> + <li>entering Jerusalem, 1898, i: 97;</li> + <li>with leading German generals, i: 130;</li> + <li>with Theodore Roosevelt, watching military maneuvers, i: 161;</li> + <li>in coronation robes, i: 185;</li> + <li>with Edward VII of England, i: 188;</li> + <li>statue as monk in Metz Cathedral, i: 211;</li> + <li>watching troop movements in France, i: 217;</li> + <li>parading with sons in Berlin, ii: 258;</li> + <li>on way to memorial service with family, ii: 261;</li> + <li>portrait studies, ii: 306, ix: 359;</li> + <li>on visit to the front, ii: 330;</li> + <li>with Gen. von Einem, iii: 117;</li> + <li>on Eastern Front, vi: 221, ix: 356;</li> + <li>with Crown Prince and grandson, vi: 263;</li> + <li>with six sons, vi: 298;</li> + <li>with Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, vi: 360;</li> + <li>with Hindenburg and Ludendorff, ix: 364;</li> + <li>in conversation with a German officer, ix: 365;</li> + <li>with the Empress, ix: 366;</li> + <li>at age of six, xi: 140;</li> + <li>at age of sixteen, xi: 141.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Wilson, Gen. Sir Henry, ii: 71.</li> +<li>Wilson, William B., + <ul class="index"> + <li>with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, <a href="#Page_117">xii: 117</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Wilson, Woodrow, + <ul class="index"> + <li>addressing Congress, i: 329;</li> + <li>portrait studies (in color), ix: <em>frontispiece</em>, 57, 59, xi: 132, <a href="#Page_181">xii: 181</a>;</li> + <li>delivering speech of acceptance of renomination for Presidency, '16, ix: 61;</li> + <li>delivering second inaugural address, ix: 65;</li> + <li>marching with service men, xi: 134;</li> + <li>with Adm. Grayson in Brussels, <a href="#Page_xii">xii: <em>Intro. xvii</em></a>;</li> + <li>on board <cite>George Washington</cite> on way to Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_187">xii: 187</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Wilson, Mrs. Woodrow, ix: 63; + <ul class="index"> + <li>on board <cite>George Washington</cite> on way to France, <a href="#Page_187">xii: 187</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Wines, Sgt. Pearl J., x: 236.</li> +<li>Winn, Maj.-Gen. Frank L., v: 187.</li> +<li>Winterfeld, Gen. von, German armistice delegate, meeting with Foch, v: 392.</li> +<li>Witenmeyer, Maj.-Gen. Edmund, v: 215.</li> +<li>Wood, Maj.-Gen. Leonard, iii: <em>Intro. ix</em>; + <ul class="index"> + <li>at West Point with Joffre, ix: 160.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Woyrsch, Gen. von, iii: 140.</li> +<li>Wright, Maj.-Gen. William M., v: 127, ix: 222.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Xilp" id="Xilp">X</a></li> +<li>Xenia, Princess, of Montenegro, iii: 153.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Yilp" id="Yilp">Y</a></li> +<li>Yankoff, Gen., vi: 341.</li> +<li>Yanushkevitch, Gen., ii: 231.</li> +<li>Yolanda, Princess, of Italy, xi: 143.</li> +<li>York, Sgt. Alvin C., x: 14, 15.</li> +<li>Yuan Shih-k'ai, i: 57.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Zilp" id="Zilp">Z</a></li> +<li>Zeppelin, Count von, ii: 263.</li> +</ul> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>II.—GENERAL</h2> + +<table style="width:75%;" border="1" summary="index"> +<tr> +<th><a href="#Ailg">A</a></th> +<th><a href="#Bilg">B</a></th> +<th><a href="#Cilg">C</a></th> +<th><a href="#Dilg">D</a></th> +<th><a href="#Eilg">E</a></th> +<th><a href="#Filg">F</a></th> +<th><a href="#Gilg">G</a></th> +<th><a href="#Hilg">H</a></th> +<th><a href="#Iilg">I</a></th> +<th><a href="#Jilg">J</a></th> +<th><a href="#Kilg">K</a></th> +<th><a href="#Lilg">L</a></th> +<th><a href="#Milg">M</a></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<th><a href="#Nilg">N</a></th> +<th><a href="#Oilg">O</a></th> +<th><a href="#Pilg">P</a></th> +<th><a href="#Qilg">Q</a></th> +<th><a href="#Rilg">R</a></th> +<th><a href="#Silg">S</a></th> +<th><a href="#Tilg">T</a></th> +<th><a href="#Uilg">U</a></th> +<th><a href="#Vilg">V</a></th> +<th><a href="#Wilg">W</a></th> +<th><a href="#Xilg">X</a></th> +<th><a href="#Yilg">Y</a></th> +<th><a href="#Zilg">Z</a></th> +</tr> +</table> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Ailg" id="Ailg">A</a></li> +<li><cite>Aboukir</cite>, British cruiser, iv: 206.</li> +<li>Aden, harbor of, vi: 330.</li> +<li>Aerial photographs, being assembled to form map of enemy country, viii: 235.</li> +<li>Aeronautics: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Airplanes, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Wright-Martin reconnaissance plane, ii: 124;</li> + <li>directing artillery fire, ii: 129;</li> + <li>in Palestine (in color), ii: <em>facing p.</em> 220;</li> + <li>target as seen from height, ii: 354;</li> + <li>Italian fighting plane, iii: 243;</li> + <li>British airplanes in mass formation, iii: 383;</li> + <li>attacking submarine, iv: 83, 198, 285;</li> + <li>mechanism for launching from deck of battleship, iv: 141;</li> + <li>construction of, viii: 218; + <ul class="index"> + <li>in color, iv: <em>facing p.</em> 286;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>torpedo-plane, iv: 306;</li> + <li>aviator "true-ing" plane, v: 311;</li> + <li>assembling Liberty planes in France, v: 313;</li> + <li>British flyer dropping wreath on comrade's grave inside German lines, vii: 188;</li> + <li>aviator dropping bombs,viii: 219;</li> + <li>in color, viii: <em>frontispiece</em>;</li> + <li>plane starting flight (in color), viii: <em>facing p.</em> 188;</li> + <li>Spad plane, viii: 190;</li> + <li>Richthofen's "Traveling Circus," viii: 191;</li> + <li>De Haviland-4, viii: 192, xi: 217;</li> + <li>machine-gun mountings on, viii: 193, 209, 211;</li> + <li>German armored plane, showing detail of construction, viii: 195;</li> + <li>German night bomber, viii: 202;</li> + <li>German hydroplane, viii: 203;</li> + <li>Handley-Page bomber, viii: 204, 220;</li> + <li>manufacture of propellers, viii: 205, 239;</li> + <li>Leoning monoplane, viii: 207;</li> + <li>Curtis triplane, viii: 210;</li> + <li>British seaplanes, viii: 213, 237;</li> + <li>camouflaged carrier-ship for, viii: 215;</li> + <li>bomb-carrying devices on, viii: 219, 224, 227;</li> + <li>German Albatross, viii: 222;</li> + <li>Caproni triplane, viii: 223;</li> + <li>Martin bomber, viii: 234;</li> + <li>a U. S. two-seater (in color), viii: <em>facing p.</em> 348;</li> + <li>airplane ambulance, viii: 368;</li> + <li>A. E. F. hangar in France, x: 124;</li> + <li>an air duel, x: 204;</li> + <li>in battle formation, x: 217, 228;</li> + <li>Burgess tractor, x: 392;</li> + <li>patrolling over A. E. F. sector, xi: 138;</li> + <li>Curtiss biplane, xi: 215;</li> + <li>Wright warplane, xi: 218;</li> + <li>inspection before flight, xi: 220;</li> + <li>testing engine before installation, xi: 221;</li> + <li>circling above U. S. battleship <cite>Connecticut</cite>, xi: 223;</li> + <li>U. S. pursuit plane, xi: 225;</li> + <li>skeleton of airplane body, xi: 227;</li> + <li>planes used for carrying Pershing's mail, xi: 348.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Balloons, French sausage type, iii: 305, viii: 260; + <ul class="index"> + <li>operating with naval convoy, iv: 289;</li> + <li>uses of hydrogen vs. helium for inflation of, viii: 244;</li> + <li>U. S. sausage type, viii: 258;</li> + <li>French spherical type, viii: 261;</li> + <li>cable reel of kite balloon, viii: 262. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> + <li>Dirigibles, Zeppelin being guided by lighthouse, ii: 265; + <ul class="index"> + <li>interior of a Zeppelin, ii: 269;</li> + <li>British dirigible convoying U. S. troopship, iv: 291;</li> + <li>French type, viii: 242;</li> + <li>repairing a French type, viii: 245;</li> + <li>early type of Zeppelin, viii: 247;</li> + <li>Zeppelin <cite>L-49</cite> shot down by French, viii: 249;</li> + <li>interior of British <cite>R-34</cite>, viii: 251;</li> + <li>fuel tanks on Zeppelin <cite>L-49</cite>, viii: 253;</li> + <li><cite>R-34</cite> being filled with gas at Mineola, viii: 255;</li> + <li>U. S. type, viii: 256;</li> + <li>pilot's gondola on a Zeppelin, x: 226;</li> + <li>Zeppelin <cite>L-15</cite> sinking, x: 361.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Aeroplanes, + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see</em> Aeronautics, Airplanes.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Africa, + <ul class="index"> + <li>battle scene in, iii: 251;</li> + <li>scene in German East Africa, iii: 255;</li> + <li>natives, vi: 48.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Agadir, i: 106.</li> +<li>Airplanes, <em>see</em> Aeronautics.</li> +<li>Air raids, + <ul class="index"> + <li>funeral of English victims, ii: 300;</li> + <li>London school children seeking shelter under desks, vii: 361;</li> + <li>protection of French works of art against, x: 364.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Airships, <em>see</em> Aeronautics, Balloons, Dirigibles.</li> +<li>Aisne River, + <ul class="index"> + <li>A. E. F. advance trenches near, v: 259;</li> + <li>airplane view of French hospital on, vii: 63.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Albatross airplane, viii: 222.</li> +<li>Albert, + <ul class="index"> + <li>ruins of, in color, i: <em>facing p.</em> 300;</li> + <li>ruins of Church of Notre Dame, xi: 23.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Algeciras Conference, i: 99.</li> +<li><cite>Alnwick Castle</cite>, British liner, iv: 231.</li> +<li>Alpini, iii: 228.</li> +<li>Alps, + <ul class="index"> + <li>scene on Austro-Italian border, ii: 237;</li> + <li>Austrian stronghold on, ii: 241.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Alsace, + <ul class="index"> + <li>a valley in, iii: 21;</li> + <li>forest behind trenches, iii: 47;</li> + <li>American troops entering, May 27, '18, v: 267.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Alsace-Lorraine, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German lookout tower, i: 221;</li> + <li>reunion with France symbolized, ii: 391.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ambulances, + <ul class="index"> + <li>group of American drivers and cars, vii: 31, 213;</li> + <li>French, mounted on auto trucks, vii: 202;</li> + <li>American, at Verdun, vii: 207, 251;</li> + <li>improvised British, in Mesopotamia, vii: 260;</li> + <li>gathering wounded after battle, vii: 400, xi: 209;</li> + <li>dog-drawn, viii: 378;</li> + <li>woman driver, x: 186;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>under country, Army;</li> + <li>Hospitals;</li> + <li>Wounded.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>"America," painting by René Mal, v: 50.</li> +<li>American Fund for French Wounded, + <ul class="index"> + <li>a Paris fête for, vii: 59;</li> + <li>distributing clothing to refugees, vii: 102;</li> + <li>surgical dressing department, vii: 221;</li> + <li>packing kits for soldiers, vii: 246.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>American Jewish War Relief, bureau of information, vii: 351.</li> +<li>Amerongen, former German Kaiser's residence at, after abdication, ix: 358.</li> +<li><cite>Amethyst</cite>, British cruiser, iv: 255.</li> +<li>Amherst College, Army Training Corps at drill, xi: 170.</li> +<li>Amiens, protecting art treasures from German bombardment, ii: 68.</li> +<li>Amsterdam, a food riot, vi: 377.</li> +<li><cite>Anglia</cite>, British hospital ship, vii: 253.</li> +<li>Annapolis, U. S. Naval Academy students, xi: 165.</li> +<li>Anti-aircraft guns, v: 11, viii: 10, 13, 16, xi: 188.</li> +<li>Antwerp, + <ul class="index"> + <li>town hall, ii: 169;</li> + <li>barbed-wire entanglements in streets, ii: 345;</li> + <li>Red Cross trains at, vii: 118.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Arabic</cite>, sinking of, iv: 224.</li> +<li>Arabs, + <ul class="index"> + <li>iii: 332;</li> + <li>gun dance, iii: 368.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Arethusa</cite>, British destroyer, officers of, iv: 251.</li> +<li>Argonne Forest, + <ul class="index"> + <li>territory lying before A. E. F. to advance through, v: 75;</li> + <li>U. S. infantrymen advancing through, v: 82, 247;</li> + <li>inside German trenches, v: 214;</li> + <li>A. E. F. officers' headquarters, v: 217;</li> + <li>captured German dugout, v: 235;</li> + <li>men of 77th Div. in, v: 244;</li> + <li>concealed German artillery, xi: 53.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Arkansas</cite>, U. S. battleship, + <ul class="index"> + <li>close-up, showing gun fire, iv: 361;</li> + <li>cleared for action, iv: 392.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Armenians, murdered by Turks, vii: 96.</li> +<li>Armentières, British clearing ruins of, i: 240.</li> +<li>Armies, + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see</em> name of country;</li> + <li><em>also</em> Battle scenes.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Armistice, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German delegates passing through French lines on way to meet Foch, ii: 390, <a href="#Page_251">xii: 251</a>;</li> + <li>first meeting of Allied and German delegates, v: 392;</li> + <li>Paris celebration, vi: 107.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Armor, breast-plate for soldier as protection against bullet, viii: 68.</li> +<li>Armor plate, forging of, viii: 62, <a href="#Page_70">xii: 70</a>.</li> +<li>Arras, + <ul class="index"> + <li>town hall, ii: 85;</li> + <li>ruins of Cathedral, ii: 351, iii: 67;</li> + <li>ruins of, iii: 279.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Artificial hands and arms for war cripples, + <ul class="index"> + <li>eating with mechanical hands, vii: 234;</li> + <li>doing farm work, vii: 235;</li> + <li>doing carpenter work, viii: 383;</li> + <li>manufacture of artificial arms and legs, viii: 385;</li> + <li>doing mechanical work, xi: 290.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Artillery, + <ul class="index"> + <li>manufacturing 16-in. guns at Watervliet Arsenal, i: 304;</li> + <li>line of howitzer fire, ii: 129, iii: 159;</li> + <li>heavy guns on way to front, ii: 147;</li> + <li>ricochet and non-ricochet shells, i: 333;</li> + <li>disappearing gun, v: 307;</li> + <li>mortar battery, viii: 3;</li> + <li>railway-mount guns, viii: 29, xi: 278;</li> + <li>big gun in position for action, viii: 31;</li> + <li>8-in. howitzer with caterpillar mount, viii: 40;</li> + <li>tractor for hauling, viii: 42;</li> + <li>breech-block and bore of big gun, viii: 44;</li> + <li>construction of long-range gun, viii: 47, 55;</li> + <li>field guns, old and new types, viii: 56;</li> + <li>manufacture of shells, viii: 73;</li> + <li>path of shrapnel fire, viii: 74;</li> + <li>huge naval gun, xi: 273;</li> + <li>shrapnel exploding, xi: 275;</li> + <li>heavy shells on way to front, xi: 279;</li> + <li>camouflaged gun and gunners, xi: 292, 293;</li> + <li>construction of howitzers, <a href="#Page_73">xii: 73</a>;</li> + <li>of different belligerents, <em>see</em> name of country;</li> + <li>in action, <em>see</em> Battle scenes;</li> + <li><em>also</em> Shells.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Assouan, vi: 78.</li> +<li>Astronomical instruments, Chinese, carried by Germans from Peking, vi: 255.</li> +<li><cite>Asturias</cite>, hospital ship, i: 293.</li> +<li>Athens, war-time crowds, iii: 155.</li> +<li>Australia, army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>embarking for overseas, ii: 201, vi: 38, 40;</li> + <li>landing at Gallipoli, iii: 167, iv: 40;</li> + <li>charging at Gallipoli, iii: 353.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Austria-Hungary, army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>reservists in New York reporting for service, i: 281;</li> + <li>Alpine defenses, ii: 241;</li> + <li>artillery captured by Italians, ii: 287;</li> + <li>cavalry entering Polish village, iii: 123;</li> + <li>in Carpathian trenches, iii: 142;</li> + <li>on Isonzo front overlooking Italian positions, iii: 236;</li> + <li>resting, vi: 211;</li> + <li>at field mass, vi: 308;</li> + <li>in Tyrol stronghold, vi: 309;</li> + <li>siege gun, viii: 26.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Auteuil, + <ul class="index"> + <li>tent hospital at, vii: 205, 206;</li> + <li>hospital workers serving coffee to convalescents, vii: 243.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Ayesha</cite>, schooner used by crew of <cite>Emden</cite> to escape in, iv: 191.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Bilg" id="Bilg">B</a></li> +<li><cite>B-2</cite>, British submarine, iv: 58.</li> +<li>Badges and medals of American Red Cross (in color), vii: <em>facing p.</em> 50.</li> +<li>Badonville, raid on German trenches near, v: 232.</li> +<li>Bagdad, + <ul class="index"> + <li>iii: 186;</li> + <li>Arabs in, iii: 332.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bairnsfather, Capt. Bruce, + <ul class="index"> + <li>cartoons by, ii: 116, iii: 22, 23, 26.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Balloons, <em>see</em> Aeronautics.</li> +<li><cite>Baltic</cite>, life-boats, iv: 234.</li> +<li><cite>Baltimore</cite>, U. S. cruiser, iv: 329.</li> +<li>Barbed-wire, + <ul class="index"> + <li>as trench protection, ii: 284;</li> + <li>entanglements of, in Antwerp streets, ii: 345;</li> + <li>in Tsing-Tau defenses, iv: 61;</li> + <li>cutting device, viii: 154;</li> + <li>cutting entanglements by hand, xi: 254.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Barcy, battlefield of, iii: 25.</li> +<li>Baseball, + <ul class="index"> + <li>U. S. army men playing, vii: 315;</li> + <li>King George at game between U. S. Army and Navy teams in London, xi: 153.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Battalion of Death, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Russian women's, iii: 125, vi: 162, xi: 206, 208;</li> + <li>Polish women's, vi: 218.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Battle scenes, + <ul class="index"> + <li>charge by Prussian cuirassiers in Franco-Prussian War, i: 214;</li> + <li>French soldiers in the Vosges charging on skis, i: 216;</li> + <li>Belgians behind street barricades repulsing Germans, i: 312;</li> + <li>French machine gunners at Mancourt, ii: 43;</li> + <li>night bombardment by artillery, ii: 102;</li> + <li>airplane view during action on Western Front, ii: 105;</li> + <li>the dead after battle in Flanders, ii: 117; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></p></li> + + <li>British charge at Montaubon, ii: 121;</li> + <li>holes shot by shell fire, ii: 133, v: 236;</li> + <li>fight for Kemmel Hill, ii: 152;</li> + <li>poilus charging, ii: 185;</li> + <li>Allied dead on battlefield, ii: 194;</li> + <li>Highlanders attacking near Ypres, ii: 213;</li> + <li>Belgians on skirmish duty, ii: 347;</li> + <li>killed and debris on Marne battlefield, iii: 27, 94;</li> + <li>Germans crossing Marne River, iii: 32;</li> + <li>flash-light photograph at night, iii: 44;</li> + <li>British charging during battle of the Somme, iii: 57;</li> + <li>German charge at Chemin des Dames, iii: 73;</li> + <li>British bombardment of Passchendaele Ridge, iii: 78;</li> + <li>in Meuse-Argonne, iii: 101;</li> + <li>on Russo-German front, iii: 119;</li> + <li>in African jungle, iii: 251;</li> + <li>fight for Erzerum, iii: 263;</li> + <li>heap of Serbian dead, iii: 283;</li> + <li>cavalry charge, iii: 289;</li> + <li>killed German outposts, iii: 291;</li> + <li>directing battle by telephone, iii: 314;</li> + <li>Australians charging at Gallipoli, iii: 353;</li> + <li>at Messines Ridge, iii: 360;</li> + <li>battle wreckage, iii: 361, vi: 367, xi: 302, 309;</li> + <li>British blowing up ammunition dumps, iii: 384;</li> + <li>wounded awaiting transportation, iii: 385;</li> + <li>Scots on outpost duty, iii: 389;</li> + <li>naval action, iv: 17;</li> + <li>warship struck by torpedo, iv: 55;</li> + <li>British landing party at Zeebrugge, iv: 265;</li> + <li>U. S. Marines at Belleau Wood, v: 137;</li> + <li>Russian retreat from Galicia, vi: 180;</li> + <li>Russians charging through barbed wire, vi: 186;</li> + <li>Italian killed, vi: 310;</li> + <li>vision of Christ on battlefield, vii: 5;</li> + <li>ambulance men gathering wounded, vii: 400, xi: 209;</li> + <li>effect of howitzer fire on fort, viii: 135;</li> + <li>British Rifle Brigade at Neuve Chapelle, x: 11;</li> + <li>liquid fire attack, x: 19;</li> + <li>attack with grenades, x: 21;</li> + <li>night naval attack at Dardanelles, x: 36;</li> + <li>British meeting Turk attack at Gallipoli, x: 39;</li> + <li>charge of London Scottish at Messines, x: 45;</li> + <li>tanks advancing, x: 59;</li> + <li>Italians hard pressed by enemy, x: 63;</li> + <li>winning a Victoria Cross, x: 72;</li> + <li>British artillery in action, x: 107, 129;</li> + <li>Highlanders fighting through Loos, x: 157;</li> + <li>long-range bombardment of Austrian positions by Italians, x: 359;</li> + <li>hand-to-hand fight on destroyer <cite>Broke</cite>, x: 370;</li> + <li>Gurkhas capturing German trench, xi: 192;</li> + <li>tanks in action, xi: 252, 256, 263;</li> + <li>shrapnel explosion, xi: 275;</li> + <li>gas attack, xi: 319;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Dead;</li> + <li>Wounded.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Battleship in process of construction (in color), iv: <em>facing p.</em> 126.</li> +<li><cite>Bayern</cite>, German battleship, iv: 389.</li> +<li>Beersheba, iii: 199.</li> +<li>Belgium, + <ul class="index"> + <li>triumphant, symbolic painting (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 380.</li> + <li>Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>cavalry troops after defense of Liége, i: 208;</li> + <li>at mess with French soldiers, i: 241;</li> + <li>behind street barricade fighting Germans, i: 312;</li> + <li>cavalryman, ii: 160;</li> + <li>scouting, ii: 286;</li> + <li>on skirmish duty, ii: 347;</li> + <li>a "fighting priest" in trenches, iii: 15;</li> + <li>cavalry in trenches, iii: 19;</li> + <li>a sentry, iii: 285;</li> + <li>snipers, iii: 287;</li> + <li>anti-aircraft gun, viii: 13;</li> + <li>field gun, viii: 24.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Neutrality, facsimile of signatures to Treaty of 1839 guaranteeing, i: 147.</li> + <li>Relief, + <ul class="index"> + <li>supply ship on way from U. S., vii: 120;</li> + <li>relief packages, vii: 126;</li> + <li>making cradles for babies, vii: 141;</li> + <li>warehouse full of supplies, vii: 143;</li> + <li>relief workers in New York packing clothing for, vii: 165;</li> + <li>home return of refugees (in color), ix: <em>facing p.</em> 368;</li> + <li>Queen Elizabeth medal for workers, ix: 391.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Benet-Mercier machine gun, viii: 82.</li> +<li>Berlin, + <ul class="index"> + <li>victorious entry of William I, 1871, i: 150;</li> + <li>royal palace, i: 158;</li> + <li>soldiers leaving for the front, i: 191;</li> + <li>wreckage after food riots, vi: 256;</li> + <li>a public square, Nov., '18, vi: 257;</li> + <li>Brandenburger Gate, vi: 272;</li> + <li>Reichstag Building, vi: 277, xi: 3;</li> + <li>proclamation of German Republic, Nov. 8, '18, vi: 277;</li> + <li>barricaded streets during revolution, vi: 279;</li> + <li>transporting food by tram, vi: 282;</li> + <li>Spartacan demonstration, Feb., '19, vi: 290;</li> + <li>fighting between government troops and radicals, vi: 299;</li> + <li>demonstrations against Peace Treaty, vi: 301, <a href="#Page_214">xii: 214</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Berlin, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Congress of, 1878, i: 49;</li> + <li>British caricature of, i: 51.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bethlehem, Pa., a steel plant at, <a href="#Page_67">xii: 67</a>.</li> +<li>Bethune, airplane view of, ii: 127.</li> +<li>Bibles, for U. S. service men, vii: 284.</li> +<li>"Big Bertha," German long-range gun, + <ul class="index"> + <li>fragment of shell used in bombarding Paris, viii: 46, 48, 58, 63, xi: 272;</li> + <li>diagram of shell, viii: 53;</li> + <li>prepared base for, viii: 61.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Black Watch Regiment, British, x: 56.</li> +<li>Blind, + <ul class="index"> + <li>learning modelling in clay, vii: 256;</li> + <li>benefit entertainment in New York for aid of, vii: 258;</li> + <li>learning basketry, vii: 259.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Blücher</cite>, German cruiser, iv: 247; + <ul class="index"> + <li>sinking of, in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 249.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Blue Cross, care of horses wounded in battle, vii: 227, 228.</li> +<li>"Blue Devils," French, iii: 49, v: 151.</li> +<li>Bolsheviki, + <ul class="index"> + <li>agitator addressing troops, vi: 165;</li> + <li>Madrid demonstration, vi: 372.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bombs, + <ul class="index"> + <li>bomb-room in a British fuse factory, ii: 119;</li> + <li>illuminating bombs exploding, v: 133;</li> + <li>aviator dropping (in color), viii: <em>frontispiece</em>;</li> + <li>apparatus for, on German plane, viii: 219;</li> + <li>devices for carrying, on airplanes, viii: 224, 227;</li> + <li>French women manufacturing, xi: 283;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Depth charge.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bosphorus, i: 12, iii: 369.</li> +<li>Bouillonville, street scene, v: 160.</li> +<li><cite>Bouvet</cite>, French battleship, iv: 48.</li> +<li>Boy Scouts, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Red Cross men of future (in color), xi: <em>frontispiece</em>;</li> + <li>daily good turn (in color), xi: <em>facing p.</em> 96;</li> + <li>pledging allegiance to flag, xi: 97;</li> + <li>at salute, xi: 98;</li> + <li>wounded scout, xi: 99;</li> + <li>as war gardeners, xi: 101, 115, 116;</li> + <li>on visit to White House, xi: 102;</li> + <li>bridging stream, xi: 103;</li> + <li>learning coöperation, xi: 104;</li> + <li>camping, xi: 105;</li> + <li>as town cleaners, xi: 106;</li> + <li>as wireless operators, xi: 107;</li> + <li>in hiking outfit, xi: 108;</li> + <li>Third Liberty Loan poster, xi: 109;</li> + <li>field map making, xi: 110;</li> + <li>signalling (in color), xi: <em>facing p.</em> 224;</li> + <li>signalling, xi: 111;</li> + <li>encampment, xi: 112;</li> + <li>emergency coast guards, xi: 113;</li> + <li>on review before Theodore Roosevelt, xi: 114;</li> + <li>as wood cutters, xi: 117;</li> + <li>listening to scoutmaster around the camp-fire (in color), xi: <em>facing p.</em> 118.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Brandenburger Gate, Berlin, vi: 272.</li> +<li>Bread tickets, German, vi: 261.</li> +<li>Brest, debarkation of A. E. F., v: 3.</li> +<li>Breton peasant, v: 160.</li> +<li>Breton-Pretot machine, for cutting barbed wire, viii: 153.</li> +<li>Brialmont type of fort, ii: 350.</li> +<li><cite>Britannia</cite>, British tank in U. S., viii: 137, 138, 142.</li> +<li>Brown University, Army Training Corps, xi: 163.</li> +<li>Browning machine-gun, + <ul class="index"> + <li>light type, viii: 85;</li> + <li>heavy type, viii: 85.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bruges, + <ul class="index"> + <li>airplane view, viii: 232;</li> + <li>entry of King Albert into, ix: 390.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Brussels, + <ul class="index"> + <li>town hall, i: 140;</li> + <li>bird's-eye view, i: 201;</li> + <li>during German occupation, i: 253;</li> + <li>Senate chamber used as church by Germans, i: 311;</li> + <li>German soldiers visiting Art Museum, ii: 344;</li> + <li>Palace of Justice, iii: 271;</li> + <li>King Albert's palace, ix: 387.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bucharest, + <ul class="index"> + <li>royal palace, ii: 62;</li> + <li>bird's-eye view, vi: 352.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Buckingham Palace, London, i: 127; + <ul class="index"> + <li>on night of declaration of war, i: 138.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Budapest, the quay, vi: 325.</li> +<li>Bulgaria, + <ul class="index"> + <li>mountain village, vi: 339;</li> + <li>peasant women, vi: 340;</li> + <li>army, supply train behind the lines, vi: 343.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Bullets, + <ul class="index"> + <li>diagram showing path of, viii: 93;</li> + <li>types of, used by airmen, viii: 212.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Burgess tractor, in flight, x: 392.</li> +<li>Burmese troops, vi: 6. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></p></li> + +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Cilg" id="Cilg">C</a></li> +<li>Cambrai, Canadians in, iii: 80.</li> +<li>Camels, + <ul class="index"> + <li>as cavalry mounts, iii: 192;</li> + <li>caravan resting, iii: 367;</li> + <li>use by British in Egyptian campaign, vi: 68;</li> + <li>for carrying wounded, vi: 71;</li> + <li>as transport train in Asia Minor, vi: 333.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cameroons, + <ul class="index"> + <li>battle scene, iii: 251;</li> + <li>native market, vi: 52.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Camouflage, + <ul class="index"> + <li>concealed British guns, ii: 123, 128;</li> + <li>wooden cannon, vi: 238;</li> + <li>screened railroad tracks, vi: 247, viii: 337;</li> + <li>over roadway, vi: 368;</li> + <li>example of need for, viii: 338;</li> + <li>soldier disguised by, viii: 339, 342;</li> + <li>for railway-mount guns, viii: 343, 347;</li> + <li><cite>Mauretania</cite> in "dazzle" paint, viii: 344;</li> + <li>protected gun and gunners, xi: 292;</li> + <li>camouflaged mortar, xi: 293.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Canada, + <ul class="index"> + <li>army recruiting by phonograph, i: 314;</li> + <li>veterans of second battle of Ypres, i: 379;</li> + <li>being reviewed by Field-Marshal Haig, ii: 114;</li> + <li>forestry unit, ii: 130;</li> + <li>presentation of colors, ii: 342;</li> + <li>going over top at Vimy Ridge, iii: 69;</li> + <li>in Cambrai, iii: 80;</li> + <li>in Flanders, iii: 345;</li> + <li>on hike, iii: 346;</li> + <li>artillery at the front, iii: 348;</li> + <li>90th Winnipeg Rifles, vi: 24;</li> + <li>1st Battalion, vi: 29;</li> + <li>guarding International Bridge, Niagara Falls, vi: 31, 34;</li> + <li>encamped at Toronto, viii: 305;</li> + <li>digging trenches, viii: 140.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Canteens, + <ul class="index"> + <li>for service men, scenes in, vii: 7, 56, 268, 270, 394; + <ul class="index"> + <li>in color, vii: <em>facing p.</em> 96;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Red Cross automobile canteen, vii: 248;</li> + <li>group of Y. M. C. A. women workers, vii: 269.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cantigny, + <ul class="index"> + <li>men of 1st Div., A. E. F., advancing at, ii: 271;</li> + <li>French flame throwers after the attack, v: 32;</li> + <li>French sappers at ruins of, v: 33;</li> + <li>French and American veterans of, v: 125.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cape Town, + <ul class="index"> + <li>parade to aid recruiting, i: 383;</li> + <li>bird's-eye view, vi: 50.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Caproni triplane, viii: 223.</li> +<li>Carbon monoxide producer, viii: 187.</li> +<li>Carrel-Dakin treatment ward in a war hospital, xi: 288.</li> +<li>Cartoons: + <ul class="index"> + <li>American, civilization obscured by war, i: 87; + <ul class="index"> + <li>burning of American manufacturing plants, i: 275;</li> + <li>response to Europe's appeal for aid, i: 276;</li> + <li>on preparedness, i: 280, 297, 335, iv: 315;</li> + <li>German submarine warfare, i: 300, iv: 227;</li> + <li>responsibility of rulers for war, i: 314;</li> + <li>futility of diplomacy, i: 325, 326;</li> + <li>German hatred of U. S., i: 330;</li> + <li>barbarian's contempt for warring Europe, i: 335;</li> + <li>war debt for future generations, ii: 297;</li> + <li>German intrigue with Mexico, ii: 341;</li> + <li>disregard of international law by belligerents, iv: 230;</li> + <li>Iron Cross, v: 23;</li> + <li>Red Cross, vii: 28;</li> + <li>effect of U. S. loans to Allies, <a href="#Page_10">xii: 10</a>;</li> + <li>Europe's dependence on American food supply, <a href="#Page_144">xii: 144</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Austrian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>conception of hatred, i: 149;</li> + <li>Zeppelin attacks on England, i: 302.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Belgian, on German brutality, vii: 129.</li> + <li>British, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Kaiser's project of Mittel-Europa, i: 10;</li> + <li>Bismarck's resignation from Chancellorship, from <cite>Punch</cite>, i: 74;</li> + <li>German hypocrisy, <cite>Punch</cite>, Sept. 9, '14, i: 90;</li> + <li>U. S. indifference to German outrages, <cite>Punch</cite>, Sept. 23, '14, i: 91;</li> + <li>Kaiser as protector of Islam, <cite>Punch</cite>, Apr. 5, '15, i: 100;</li> + <li>Germany's naval aspirations, <cite>Punch</cite>, July 12, '05, i: 105;</li> + <li>German advances to Holland, <cite>Punch</cite>, Jan. 11, '11, i: 118;</li> + <li>French desire to revenge 1870, i: 121;</li> + <li>French alarm over Austrian defeat, 1866, from <cite>Punch</cite>, i: 123;</li> + <li>frightfulness of war, i: 195;</li> + <li>Kaiser's Eastern policy, <cite>Punch</cite>, May 10, 1890, i: 203;</li> + <li>German use of frightfulness, <cite>Punch</cite>, Feb. 17, '15, i: 284;</li> + <li>Kaiser world's enemy, <cite>Punch</cite>, Aug. 19, '14, i: 294;</li> + <li>U. S. protests at British maritime acts, <cite>Punch</cite>, Jan. 6, '15, i: 298;</li> + <li>Kaiser's attitude on peace, <cite>Punch</cite>, Sept. 23, '18, i: 316;</li> + <li>U. S. relations with Germany, <cite>Punch</cite>, Apr. 21, '15, i: 324;</li> + <li>German atrocities, i: 351;</li> + <li>Capt. Bruce Bairnsfather's caricatures of life at the front, ii: 116, iii: 22, 23, 26;</li> + <li>Belgium's defiance of Germany, <cite>Punch</cite>, Oct. 21, '14, iii: 9, Aug. 12, '14, iii: 275;</li> + <li>German military failures, <cite>Punch</cite>, Nov. 4, '14, iii: 29;</li> + <li>Kaiser outcast from civilization, Feb. 19, '15, iii: 299;</li> + <li>Kaiser's plan for invasion of England, <cite>Punch</cite>, Oct. 28, '14, iv: 3;</li> + <li>German alliance with Austria and Bulgaria, iv: 6;</li> + <li>Germany's attempted blockade of England, <cite>Punch</cite>, Feb. 17, '15, iv: 9;</li> + <li>loyalty of India, <cite>Punch</cite>, Sept. 9 '14, x: 341.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Dutch, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Raemaekers' conception of Kultur, i: 222;</li> + <li>Reims Cathedral as temple of war, i: 231;</li> + <li>Germany's decline in strength, '17, i: 307;</li> + <li>Raemaekers on German deportation of Belgian workmen, i: 363;</li> + <li>Flemish "prosperity," Raemaekers' view of, vi: 85;</li> + <li>Raemaekers' conception of Kaiser haunted by sins, vi: 285.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>French, "They shall not pass," i: 230.</li> + <li>German, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British policy with regard to Asiatics, i: 54;</li> + <li>Hague Temple of Peace, i: 94;</li> + <li>British difficulties with India, i: 101;</li> + <li>caricature of Sir Edward Grey, i: 198;</li> + <li>influences forcing U. S. into war, i: 289;</li> + <li>injustice of U. S. war against Germany, i: 290;</li> + <li>Japanese menace against U. S., i: 290;</li> + <li>on Allied Somme offensive, '16, i: 301;</li> + <li>U. S. munition trade, i: 307;</li> + <li>British advances to Bulgaria, i: 310;</li> + <li>Dr. Karl Helfferich, i: 318;</li> + <li>U. S. difficulties with Mexico, i: 323;</li> + <li>mailed fist, ii: <em>Intro. xix</em>;</li> + <li>on British censorship, ii: 101;</li> + <li>on British slackers, ii: 180;</li> + <li>on spy scare in England, ii: 260;</li> + <li>on U. S. neutrality, ii: 304;</li> + <li>British failure to accomplish war aims, iv: 192;</li> + <li>on submarine success, iv: 217;</li> + <li>British indifference to American submarine losses, iv: 229;</li> + <li>frightfulness of war, iv: 232;</li> + <li>use of works of art as defense, v: 13.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Italian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>extent of British Empire, i: 122;</li> + <li>on U. S. entry into war, i: 299;</li> + <li>on Italian neutrality, ii: 359;</li> + <li>Germany's invasion of Belgium, iii: 274.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Japanese, German reverses, iv: 175.</li> + <li>Norwegian, German conception of freedom of the sea, i: 357.</li> + <li>Unidentified, intervention of Powers to save Turkey, 1878, i: 41.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cartridges, kinds, viii: 60.</li> +<li>Casement, Sir Roger, German passport of, ix: 52.</li> +<li>Castle, Vernon, flying, xi: 214.</li> +<li>Catapult, + <ul class="index"> + <li>used for launching airplanes, iv: 141;</li> + <li>use in hauling grenades, viii: 119.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cavell, Edith, + <ul class="index"> + <li>funeral procession entering Westminster Abbey, x: 177;</li> + <li>Norwich memorial to, x: 180.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Chamber of Deputies, French, xi: 2.</li> +<li>Chasseur Alpin, in color, ii: <em>frontispiece</em>.</li> +<li>Château-Thierry, + <ul class="index"> + <li>river front, ii: 82;</li> + <li>bird's-eye view, ii: 156, v: 34: x. 4;</li> + <li>ruins of, ii: 272;</li> + <li>street barricade, v: 61;</li> + <li>company of 26th Div. going out of action at, v: 153.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Chaumont, Pershing's headquarters at, vii: 317.</li> +<li>Chavaniac, Château of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Lafayette's birthplace, vii: 110, xi: 6;</li> + <li>interior view, vii: 113.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Chemical warfare, + <ul class="index"> + <li>gas mask adjusted for use, v: 140;</li> + <li>filling tanks with phosgene, v: 322;</li> + <li>filling shells with mustard gas, v: 323, viii: 165;</li> + <li>testing an American gas mask, v: 325;</li> + <li>American "Model 1919" gas mask, v: 326;</li> + <li>gas training for American troops, viii: 121;</li> + <li>poison gas in iron drums, viii: 163;</li> + <li>effect of gas on leather gloves, viii: 167;</li> + <li>filling shells with phosgene, viii: 169;</li> + <li>frozen cube of mustard gas, viii: 172;</li> + <li>early types of gas masks, viii: 174, 175;</li> + <li>French "Model M-2" gas mask, viii: 175; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></p></li> + + <li>American "Model K. T." gas mask, viii: 176;</li> + <li>types of gas masks used by different belligerents, viii: 177;</li> + <li>diagram of gas mask, viii: 178;</li> + <li>views of U. S. poison gas plant at Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187;</li> + <li>gas masks for horses, xi: 315;</li> + <li>Germans under gas attack, xi: 317;</li> + <li>a gas attack before invention of masks, xi: 319.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Chemin des Dames, soldiers exploring captured territory, ii: 78.</li> +<li>Children in war: + <ul class="index"> + <li>American, + <ul class="index"> + <li>cultivating war garden, ii: 17;</li> + <li>new commander-in-chief (in color), xi: <em>facing p.</em> 368.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Armenian, refugees from Turkey at Salonika, vii: 369.</li> + <li>Belgian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>greeting British relief worker, vii: 134;</li> + <li>wounded, vii: 242;</li> + <li>under care of Red Cross, xi: 85;</li> + <li>refugees in France, xi: 86.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>British, + <ul class="index"> + <li>London school-children in air raid drill, vii: 361;</li> + <li>as war gardeners, xi: 364, 367.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>French, + <ul class="index"> + <li>making friends with American soldiers, v: 164, xi: 81;</li> + <li>outfitted with clothing by American Fund for French Wounded, vii: 102;</li> + <li>cared for by Red Cross, vii: 200, 201, 368;</li> + <li>war nurseries, vii: 211, 217;</li> + <li>going to school with gas masks, vii: 352;</li> + <li>being photographed with mothers by Germans for identification, xi: 59;</li> + <li>school in war zone, xi: 66;</li> + <li>little soldier asleep, xi: 70;</li> + <li>repatriated war refugees, xi: 75;</li> + <li>seeking safety in cellars, xi: 76;</li> + <li>offering prayers of thanksgiving, xi: 78;</li> + <li>treasuring presents of toys, xi: 79;</li> + <li>American Red Cross worker with little refugee, xi: 87;</li> + <li>Red Cross sketches used in educational campaign for proper care of, xi: 87-90;</li> + <li>refugees at La Jonchère Sanatorium, xi: 91;</li> + <li>playing at war, xi: 120, 374, 376, 379, 381, 383, 385;</li> + <li>posing for doughboy (in color), xi: <em>facing p.</em> 270;</li> + <li>tribute to marching U.S. soldiers (in color), xi: <em>facing p.</em> 324;</li> + <li>school-girls waiting to welcome Gen. Pétain, <a href="#Page_114">xii: 114</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>German, day home for soldiers' children in Berlin, xi: 64.</li> + <li>Italian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>group of war refugees, xi: 67;</li> + <li>young hero, xi: 68;</li> + <li>in underground Venetian school, xi: 69;</li> + <li>refugees in London, xi: 92.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Russian, Archangel school-children, xi: 379.</li> + <li>Serbian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>war orphans, vii: 148;</li> + <li>the little sergeant, xi: 71;</li> + <li>war sufferers, xi: 73.</li> + <li><em>See also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Boy Scouts;</li> + <li>Refugees.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Christmas card for Kaiser from Uncle Sam (in color), xi: <em>facing p.</em> 248.</li> +<li><cite>City of Portland</cite>, U. S. motor ship, launching of, <a href="#Page_96">xii: 96</a>.</li> +<li>Clemenceau, Georges, + <ul class="index"> + <li>boyhood home, ix: 4;</li> + <li>scene of attempted assassination, ix: 9;</li> + <li>pen with which signed Peace Treaty, ix: 13.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cleveland, view of docks and shipping, <a href="#Page_148">xii: 148</a>.</li> +<li>Colmar, iii: 66.</li> +<li>Cologne, bridge across Rhine at, i: 157.</li> +<li>Colt machine-gun, viii: 80; + <ul class="index"> + <li>mounted on motor cycle, viii: 81;</li> + <li>use against air craft, viii: 83.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Committee of Mercy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>caring for Belgian children, vii: 134;</li> + <li>helping refugees from Louvain, vii: 137.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Congress, U. S., President Wilson addressing, i: 329.</li> +<li><cite>Connecticut</cite>, U. S. battleship, xi: 222.</li> +<li>Constantinople, + <ul class="index"> + <li>general view, i: 60, iii: 369, vi: 345;</li> + <li>Galata Bridge, iii: 165;</li> + <li>Golden Horn, iv: 29, vi: 337;</li> + <li>Mosque of St. Sophia, vi: 232;</li> + <li>Imperial Treasury, vi: 233.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Constanza, harbor of, i: 199.</li> +<li>Convoy system, Allied, iv: 7.</li> +<li>Copenhagen, bird's-eye view, i: 132.</li> +<li>Cornell University, machine-gun squad, xi: 157.</li> +<li><cite>Cornwallis</cite>, British, battleship in action at Dardanelles, iv: 42.</li> +<li>Cossack troops, ii: 233, iii: 130, vi: 195.</li> +<li>Cracow, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Florian Gate, vi: 203;</li> + <li>Cathedral, vi: 204.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Craonne, ruins of French church after bombardment, i: 396.</li> +<li>Crillon, Hotel, headquarters of American peace delegation at Paris, <a href="#Page_245">xii: 245</a>.</li> +<li>Culebra Cut, Panama Canal, i: 85.</li> +<li>Curtis triplane, viii: 210.</li> +<li>Curtiss biplane, xi: 215.</li> +<li>Cyprus, scene during ceremonies of British annexation of, i: 176.</li> +<li>Czechoslovak girls in native dress, vi: 398.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Dilg" id="Dilg">D</a></li> +<li><cite>Daffodil</cite>, British ferry boat, after Zeebrugge raid, iv: 270.</li> +<li><cite>Danton</cite>, French battleship, iv: 377.</li> +<li>Danube River, iii: 217.</li> +<li>Danzig, vi: 296.</li> +<li>Dardanelles, iv: 21, vi: 329; + <ul class="index"> + <li>night bombardment at, by British warships, x: 36.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dartmouth College, student regiment at drill, xi: 157.</li> +<li>De Haviland-4 airplane, viii: 192, xi: 217.</li> +<li>De Wet, Gen., surrender to Gen. Botha, iii: 254.</li> +<li>Dead, + <ul class="index"> + <li>after a battle in Flanders, ii: 117;</li> + <li>field strewn with Allied dead, ii: 194;</li> + <li>poilu saluting grave of comrade (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 100;</li> + <li>Serbians killed in defending Belgrade, iii: 283;</li> + <li>German outposts killed on Galician front, iii: 291;</li> + <li>loading trawlers with the killed in Gallipoli fighting for burial at sea, iv: 52;</li> + <li>Italians killed in front of Austrian positions, vi: 310;</li> + <li>Armenians murdered by Turks, vii: 96;</li> + <li>gravestones for A. E. F. buried in France, x: 115;</li> + <li>cartload of, from battlefield, x: 349.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Decorations, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German Crown Prince bestowing Iron Cross, ii: 39;</li> + <li>first recipients of Croix de Guerre, iii: 12;</li> + <li>Clemenceau decorating a priest, iii: 85;</li> + <li>Rumanian King decorating troops, iii: 219;</li> + <li>Gen. Helmick awarding D. S. C. to colored troops, v: 268;</li> + <li>King George of England decorating U. S. soldier, v: 383;</li> + <li>badges and medals of American Red Cross (in color), vii: <em>facing p.</em> 50;</li> + <li>Salvation Army girls being decorated by Gen. Edwards, vii: 395;</li> + <li>Marshal Joffre decorating officers, ix: 158;</li> + <li>honoring French war heroes (in color), x: <em>frontispiece</em>;</li> + <li>Gen. Neville decorating colors of 6th U. S. Marine Regt., x: 199.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Delhi, vi: 74.</li> +<li>Depth charge exploding, iv: 198, x: 307.</li> +<li>Detroit, automobiles ready for shipment, <a href="#Page_17">xii: 17</a>.</li> +<li><cite>Deutschland</cite>, German merchant submarine, iv: 215, xi: 236; + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Baltimore, x: 270;</li> + <li>returning to Bremen, x: 273.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dinant, + <ul class="index"> + <li>fortress and town of, i: 143, ii: 349;</li> + <li>a château near, iii: 13.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dixmude, destruction of (in color), i: <em>facing p.</em> 198.</li> +<li>Dogs in war, + <ul class="index"> + <li>drawing Belgian artillery, ii: 196;</li> + <li>searching for Germans, iii: 18;</li> + <li>as Red Cross workers, vii: 156, 222;</li> + <li>pulling ambulance, viii: 378;</li> + <li>French war dogs, xi: 341;</li> + <li>Dutch war dogs pulling machine gun, xi: 343;</li> + <li>training French war dogs, xi: 345;</li> + <li>Italian despatch dogs, xi: 347;</li> + <li>Italian war dogs carrying supplies to Front, xi: 363.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Douaumont, Fort, view from air, viii: 228.</li> +<li>Dublin, + <ul class="index"> + <li>ruins of Sinn Fein Rebellion, '16, vi: 55, 61;</li> + <li>street fighting, '16, vi: 58.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Duma, Russian, meeting-place, vi: 173.</li> +<li>Dynamos, carried away by Germans from French and Belgian factories, vi: 250.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Eilg" id="Eilg">E</a></li> +<li>Eagle Hut, American Y. M. C. A. honor for service men in London, vii: 264, 288, 320.</li> +<li>Eagle Hut, Y. M. C. A. house for service men in Bryant Park, New York City, vii: 265.</li> +<li>East Africa, German, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Hindu shop, vi: 51;</li> + <li>native troops, vi: 253;</li> + <li>rural scene, vi: 254. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Echternach, vi: 92.</li> +<li>Egypt, + <ul class="index"> + <li>supply depot, vi: 67;</li> + <li>native troops, vi: 69;</li> + <li>laborers in France, vi: 70;</li> + <li>northern, vi: 81.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ehrenbreitstein, German fortress at, i: 156.</li> +<li>Eiffel Tower, equipped with searchlight, ii: 267.</li> +<li><cite>Emden</cite>, German cruiser, iv: 171; + <ul class="index"> + <li>before the war, iv: 173;</li> + <li>ashore on Keeling Island, Nov. 9, '14, iv: 182.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Enfield rifle, viii: 98, 100, 103, 104.</li> +<li>Erzerum, + <ul class="index"> + <li>fight for, iii: 263;</li> + <li>general view of, iii: 268.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Essey, ruins of, v: 156.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Filg" id="Filg">F</a></li> +<li><cite>Falaba</cite>, sinking of, by U-boat, x: 287.</li> +<li>"Fantom of Death," xi: 395.</li> +<li>Fère-en-Tardenois, ruins of, ii: 323.</li> +<li><cite>Feuta</cite>, Austrian cruiser, iv: 283.</li> +<li>Fismes, Hôtel de Ville, ruins of, v: 191.</li> +<li>Fiume, vi: 315.</li> +<li>Flanders, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German trenches, ii: 109;</li> + <li>the killed after a battle, ii: 117;</li> + <li>French and Belgian ammunition trains on way to front, ii: 193;</li> + <li>German artillery in, iii: 36.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Flirey, ruins of, v: 151.</li> +<li><cite>Florida</cite>, U. S. battleship, guns of, iv: 350.</li> +<li>Food conservation, + <ul class="index"> + <li>drying fruits and vegetables, <a href="#Page_52">xii: 52</a>;</li> + <li>municipal canning station, <a href="#Page_61">xii: 61</a>;</li> + <li>a community conference on, <a href="#Page_140">xii: 140</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ford baby tank, xi: 262.</li> +<li>Foreign Legion, vi: 229, x: 28, xi: 194.</li> +<li>France: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Army, advancing in the Vosges on skis, i: 216; + <ul class="index"> + <li>at mess with Belgian troops, i: 241;</li> + <li>on guard on Swiss border, i: 259;</li> + <li>Chasseur Alpin ("Blue Devils"), iii: 49, v: 151; + <ul class="index"> + <li>in color, ii: <em>frontispiece</em>;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>machine gunners at Mancourt, ii: 43;</li> + <li>scouts on the Meuse, ii: 45;</li> + <li>sappers at work, ii: 73;</li> + <li>poilu on guard in Alsace (in color), ii: <em>facing p.</em> 136;</li> + <li>receiving instructions before going into trenches, ii: 153;</li> + <li>poilus charging, ii: 185;</li> + <li>grenadiers at Chemin des Dames, ii: 215;</li> + <li>on march with American soldiers, ii: 219;</li> + <li>soldiers' wives waiting in line to get government allowance, ii: 378;</li> + <li>poilu (in color), iii: <em>frontispiece</em>;</li> + <li>first recipients of Croix de Guerre, iii: 12;</li> + <li>Clemenceau decorating a priest, iii: 85;</li> + <li>field kitchen, iii: 311;</li> + <li>flame throwers at Cantigny, v: 32;</li> + <li>sappers at Cantigny, v: 33;</li> + <li>wounded poilu being supported by doughboy, v: 50;</li> + <li>sketches of poilu types, v: 156;</li> + <li>supply train on way to front, v: 302;</li> + <li>wounded soldier being brought in by American comrade, v: 386;</li> + <li>North African trooper (in color), vi: <em>facing p.</em> 378;</li> + <li>wounded soldiers in Switzerland, vi: 381;</li> + <li>types of infantry equipment, viii: 71;</li> + <li>soldiers watching bombardment in the Vosges (in color), viii: <em>facing p.</em> 122;</li> + <li>testing fitness of soldiers, viii: 352, 353;</li> + <li>Marshal Joffre decorating officers, ix: 158;</li> + <li>decorating war heroes (in color), x: <em>frontispiece</em>;</li> + <li>brave wounded, x: 112;</li> + <li>spahis, x: 117;</li> + <li>group of airmen, x: 207;</li> + <li>soldiers resting, x: 367, xi: 190;</li> + <li>cavalry on march, xi: 49;</li> + <li>sappers with tools, xi: 312;</li> + <li>war-dogs, xi: 341, 345;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Battle scenes.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Artillery, + <ul class="index"> + <li>on Champagne front, ii: 66;</li> + <li>heavy guns on way to front, ii: iii, v: 349;</li> + <li>bringing shells to advanced positions, iii: 59;</li> + <li>big railway-mount guns, iii: 65, v: 166, viii: 35;</li> + <li>famous "75's," iii: 93;</li> + <li>supply of shells, iii: 312;</li> + <li>155-mm. guns, v: 172;</li> + <li>biggest gun used in war, viii: 52;</li> + <li>a big shell, viii: 57.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Industry, + <ul class="index"> + <li>ruined machinery of a manufacturing plant, ii: 77;</li> + <li>dynamos carried away by Germans, vi: 250.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Navy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>warship taking on provisions, iv: 177;</li> + <li>device for detection of U-boats, iv: 308;</li> + <li>battleships in battle order, iv: 374;</li> + <li>naval guns on Western Front, viii: 341, 343;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> name of war vessel.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Parliament, Chamber of Deputies, xi: 2.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>"France Aroused," sculpture, i: 142.</li> +<li>Free Milk for France, + <ul class="index"> + <li>poster, vii: 377;</li> + <li>American girls raising funds for, vii: 378.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Freiburg, vi: 288.</li> +<li>Fryatt, Capt. Charles, + <ul class="index"> + <li>body being escorted through Dover streets, x: 267;</li> + <li>funeral cortege entering St. Paul's Cathedral, London, x: 268;</li> + <li>grave, x: 269.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Furious</cite>, British floating aerodrome, iv: 287.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Gilg" id="Gilg">G</a></li> +<li>Galicia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>oil wells, iii: 144;</li> + <li>ruined oil fields, iii: 265;</li> + <li>German soldiers marching through, xi: 17.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gallipoli, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British troops landing, iii: 167, iv: 37, 40;</li> + <li>wounded Anzacs, iii: 169, 172;</li> + <li>Anzac trenches, iii: 170, 171, 342;</li> + <li>Sedd-ul Bahr fortress, iii: 341;</li> + <li>Anzac camp, iii: 351;</li> + <li>Australians charging, iii: 353;</li> + <li>loading trawlers with Allied dead for burial at sea, iii: 354;</li> + <li>bombardment of fortifications by Allied warships, iv: 38;</li> + <li>signaling by heliograph at, vi: 228;</li> + <li>British meeting Turkish attack, x: 39;</li> + <li>scene behind Anzac lines, xi: 15.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Gas masks, types of, v: 326, viii: 174, 175, 176, 177, 178.</li> +<li>Geneva, interior of Victoria Hall, <a href="#Page_172">xii: 172</a>.</li> +<li><cite>George Washington</cite>, U. S. transport, + <ul class="index"> + <li>used by President Wilson for trip to France for Peace Conference, <a href="#Page_162">xii: 162</a>;</li> + <li>starting on first trip across with the President, <a href="#Page_187">xii: 187</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Germany: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Southwest African cavalry, i: 11;</li> + <li>Southwest African camel corps, i: 96;</li> + <li>machine-gun abandoned in Belgium, i: 237;</li> + <li>reservists reporting to colors, i: 248;</li> + <li>soldiers bivouacked in ballroom, i: 252;</li> + <li>infantry marching to Ostend, i: 349;</li> + <li>firing from behind defensive shelter, ii: 29;</li> + <li>signal corps at work, ii: 100;</li> + <li>in trenches in Flanders, ii: 109;</li> + <li>in underground quarters, ii: 256;</li> + <li>soldier surrendering, ii: 295, v: 48;</li> + <li>group of airmen, ii: 336;</li> + <li>at mess on Eastern Front, ii: 362;</li> + <li>in Poland, iii: 108, vi: 207;</li> + <li>entrenched machine-gun battery, iii: 131;</li> + <li>staff officers observing bombardment, iii: 134;</li> + <li>field telephone station, iii. 295;</li> + <li>struggling through Serbian mud, iii: 399;</li> + <li>in trenches in Argonne, v: 214;</li> + <li>in a Russian forest, vi: 212;</li> + <li>building trenches, vi: 245;</li> + <li>war booty, vi: 250;</li> + <li>soldier harvesting, vi: 251;</li> + <li>East African troops, vi: 253;</li> + <li>pay-day, vi: 267;</li> + <li>wounded being gathered by ambulance men, vii: 208;</li> + <li>plan of underground village for troops, viii: 126;</li> + <li>first line trench shelters at Pleimont, viii: 131;</li> + <li>"pill-boxes," viii: 132;</li> + <li>officer's underground bed-room, viii: 133;</li> + <li>a trench, viii: 134;</li> + <li>infantry resting, xi: 10, 199;</li> + <li>in Galicia, xi: 17;</li> + <li>bridging a river, xi: 27;</li> + <li>entering bombarded Russian town, xi: 34;</li> + <li>Uhlans, xi: 196;</li> + <li>troops returning to rear, xi: 197;</li> + <li>troops on church parade, xi: 201;</li> + <li>entering Lemberg, xi: 203;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Battle scenes.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Artillery, + <ul class="index"> + <li>anti-aircraft gun, ii: 364;</li> + <li>in Flanders, iii: 36;</li> + <li>howitzers, iii: 128, viii: 32;</li> + <li>observation tower, viii: 15;</li> + <li>fragment of long-range shell used in bombarding Paris, viii: 46, 48, 58, 63, xi: 272;</li> + <li>diagram of long-range shell, viii: 53;</li> + <li>prepared position for "Big Bertha," viii: 61.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>National Assembly, in session, vi: 274.</li> + <li>Navy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>naval base at Kiel, ii: 56;</li> + <li>battle cruisers, iv: 146;</li> + <li>submarine dry-dock in Kiel Canal, iv: 202;</li> + <li>coat of arms on captured U-boat, iv: 212;</li> + <li>interior of a U-boat, iv: 237;</li> + <li>officers and men of captured U-boat, iv: 238;</li> + <li>captured U-boats in Brooklyn Navy Yard, iv: 297;</li> + <li>surrender of fleet to Allies at Scapa Flow, iv: 381, 382, 383, 386, 390;</li> + <li>naval gun captured on Western Front, viii: 30;</li> + <li>details of U-boats, viii: 265, 267;</li> + <li>aboard a torpedo boat, x: 278;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Submarines;</li> + <li><em>also</em> name of vessel.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Reichstag Building, vi: 277, xi: 3.</li> + <li>Ship-building yard, ii: 19. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Gibraltar, Rock of, ii: <em>Intro. xiv.</em></li> +<li><cite>Gloucester Castle</cite>, British hospital ship, iv: 233.</li> +<li><cite>Goeben</cite>, German cruiser, v: 15.</li> +<li>Gold $5,000,000 in kegs on way from U. S. to Europe, i: 269.</li> +<li>Golden Horn, Constantinople, iv: 29, vi: 337.</li> +<li>Grand Pré, ruins of, v: 263.</li> +<li>"Gratitude March," Polish school-boy's tribute to American children, xi: 390, 392.</li> +<li>Great Britain: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in German East Africa, i: 14, iii: 252;</li> + <li>New Guinea colonials, i: 81;</li> + <li>railroad construction in France, ii: 44, v: 296;</li> + <li>machine-gun unit on Western Front, ii: 125;</li> + <li>regiment of Highlanders, ii: 172;</li> + <li>motor lorries on way to front, ii: 192, iii: 5;</li> + <li>street barricade against Germans in a French town, ii: 289;</li> + <li>assisting in recruiting, ii: 310;</li> + <li>descending Mount of Olives in Palestine (in color), ii: <em>facing p.</em> 332;</li> + <li>cavalry in trenches, ii: 19;</li> + <li>on Italian Front, iii: 241;</li> + <li>in Cameroons, iii: 251;</li> + <li>supply train, iii: 317;</li> + <li>advance medical station in Palestine, iii: 326;</li> + <li>cavalry resting, iii: 362;</li> + <li>wounded awaiting transportation, iii: 385, vii: 196, 238;</li> + <li>bringing up pontoons for use at front, iii: 387;</li> + <li>"Die Hards," iii: 388;</li> + <li>Scots on outpost duty, iii: 389;</li> + <li>on Salonika Front, iii: 397;</li> + <li>going over the top, flash-light photo, v: 293;</li> + <li>recruiting posters, vi: 6, 63, vii: 129, xi: 334;</li> + <li>in trenches, vi: 62;</li> + <li>on march (in color), vi: <em>facing p.</em> 130;</li> + <li>supplies at Salonika, vi: 225;</li> + <li>bandaging wounded on Western Front, vii: 97;</li> + <li>"Tommy" making friends with Belgian children, vii: 134;</li> + <li>Sudanese troops in Egypt, vii: 323;</li> + <li>entering Bagdad, vii: 326;</li> + <li>troop train in France, vii: 388;</li> + <li>field oven viii: 291;</li> + <li>Rifle Brigade fighting way through Neuve Chapelle, x: 11;</li> + <li>charge of London Scottish at Messines, x: 45;</li> + <li>Black Watch Regiment, x: 56;</li> + <li>Scots fighting through Loos, x: 157;</li> + <li>soldiers with captured souvenirs, xi: 182;</li> + <li>cavalry camp, xi: 184;</li> + <li>smiling Tommies going to battle, xi: 185;</li> + <li>wounded soldiers at Neuve Chapelle, xi: 187;</li> + <li>awaiting inspection, xi: 297;</li> + <li>Highlander with doughboy, xi: 361;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Australia;</li> + <li>Battle scenes;</li> + <li>Canada;</li> + <li>India;</li> + <li>New Zealand;</li> + <li>South Africa.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Artillery, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in action, ii: 128, 132, x: 107, 129;</li> + <li>returning from front, ii: 158;</li> + <li>big guns on way to front, vi: 65;</li> + <li>hauling big gun into position, vi: 90;</li> + <li>howitzer, viii: 33.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Navy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>on board a battleship, iv: 25;</li> + <li>on board a monitor, iv: 26;</li> + <li>gun and gun crew of monitor, iv: 34, 281;</li> + <li>mine-sweepers, iv: 51;</li> + <li>patrol boat on duty, iv: 73;</li> + <li>veterans of battle of Jutland, iv: 122, 155;</li> + <li>recruiting poster, iv: 139;</li> + <li>battle cruisers, iv: 151;</li> + <li>heroes of Zeebrugge raid, iv: 155;</li> + <li>submarine officer watching for target, iv: 236;</li> + <li>monitor in action, iv: 282;</li> + <li>destroyer on patrol duty, iv: 295;</li> + <li>treating wounded in Mesopotamia, vii: 327;</li> + <li>shell of super gun, viii: 4;</li> + <li>Grand Fleet, xi: 32;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> name of war vessel.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Parliament, Houses of, xi: 2.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Greek reservists in U. S. reporting for duty, i: 261.</li> +<li>Grenades, + <ul class="index"> + <li>filling, viii: 171;</li> + <li>throwing, x: 21.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Grosser Kurfürst</cite>, German battleship surrendered at Scapa Flow, iv: 389.</li> +<li>Gurkhas, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at English entertainment, vi: 17;</li> + <li>at battle front, x: 87;</li> + <li>capturing German trench, xi: 192;</li> + <li>pipers, xi: 333.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Hilg" id="Hilg">H</a></li> +<li>Hague, Peace Palace at, i: 102.</li> +<li>Hamburg, river front, vi: 269.</li> +<li><cite>Hamidieh</cite>, Turkish cruiser, officers and crew, iv: 46.</li> +<li>Handley-Page bombing plane, viii: 204, 220.</li> +<li>Heligoland, + <ul class="index"> + <li>harbor of, iv: 241;</li> + <li>street scene, iv: 242.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Heliograph, signalling by, vi: 228.</li> +<li>Helmets, + <ul class="index"> + <li>manufacture of, viii: 65;</li> + <li>use by war photographers, viii: 67;</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Helsingfors, + <ul class="index"> + <li>market scene, vi: 197;</li> + <li>general view, vi: 199.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hermannstadt, iii: 220.</li> +<li>Herzegovina, town scene, vi: 361.</li> +<li><cite>Hindenburg</cite>, German battleship, iv: 385, 389.</li> +<li>Hindenburg Line, tunnel entrance, v: 294.</li> +<li>Hindu Maharajah, vi: 79.</li> +<li>Hindu shop in East Africa, vi: 51.</li> +<li>Hochoffen Company's smelters, Lübeck, Germany, i: 364.</li> +<li>Hohenzollern, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Castle, i: 33;</li> + <li>coat of arms, i: 153.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>"Home from France," in color, iii: <em>facing p.</em> 348.</li> +<li>Horses, treatment of, wounded in battle, vii: 227, 228.</li> +<li>Hospitals: + <ul class="index"> + <li>American, + <ul class="index"> + <li>reading to sick and wounded, v: 339;</li> + <li>an evacuation hospital, v: 345;</li> + <li>at Neuilly, vii: 38, 77, 199;</li> + <li>on board battleship, vii: 41;</li> + <li>hospital trains, vii: 58, 107, 252, viii: 380;</li> + <li>Walter Reed Hospital, Washington, vii: 64;</li> + <li>tent hospital at Auteuil, vii: 205, 206, 243;</li> + <li>Debarkation Hospital No. 5, New York City, vii: 347;</li> + <li>gassed soldier at a field hospital, vii: 354;</li> + <li>hospital ship <cite>Mercy</cite>, viii: 370, 371, 374.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>British, + <ul class="index"> + <li>American women's, in London, vii: 30;</li> + <li>bombarded by Germans, vii: 82;</li> + <li>home of Duke of Westminster as, vii: 89;</li> + <li>on Astor estate at Cliveden, vii: 106, 281;</li> + <li>Prince of Wales Hospital at Tottenham, vii: 108;</li> + <li>Duchess of Sutherland's, in France, vii: 109;</li> + <li>University College, Oxford, turned into, vii: 198;</li> + <li>hospital trains, vii: 241, viii: 379;</li> + <li>hospital ships, vii: 253, 396.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Dutch, German wounded being cared for at Maastricht, vii: 174.</li> + <li>French, + <ul class="index"> + <li>barges converted as, vii: 49, 236, 244;</li> + <li>near Soissons, airplane view, vii: 63;</li> + <li>box-car converted into, vii: 239.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>German, hospital train, vii: 220.</li> + <li>Rumanian, anti-typus bath and disinfectant train, vii: 212.</li> + <li>Russian, scenes in, vii: 363, xi: 147.</li> + <li>Salonikan, bombarded by Germans, vii: 159.</li> + <li>Swiss, for treatment of tubercular patients, at Leysin, vii: 247.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Howitzers, + <ul class="index"> + <li>path of trajectory and effect of fire, ii: 129, iii: 159, viii: 135;</li> + <li>German, iii: 128, viii: 32;</li> + <li>British, viii: 33;</li> + <li>8-in., with caterpillar mount, viii: 40;</li> + <li>construction of, <a href="#Page_73">xii: 73</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Hungary, celebrating establishment of Republic, vi: 323.</li> +<li>Hydrophones, for detection of U-boats, viii: 17, 19.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Iilg" id="Iilg">I</a></li> +<li><cite>Indefatigable</cite>, British battle cruiser, iv: 148.</li> +<li>India, army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>behind the lines in France, i: 219;</li> + <li>sepoys, iii: 182;</li> + <li>at a listening post in the desert, iii: 190;</li> + <li>Gurkhas at English entertainment, vi: 17;</li> + <li>detachment standing at attention, vi: 73;</li> + <li>in desert trenches, vi: 75;</li> + <li>Hindu servants of British officers, vi: 77;</li> + <li>Gurkhas at battle front, x: 86;</li> + <li>Gurkhas capturing German trench, xi: 192;</li> + <li>Gurkha pipers, xi: 333.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Indians, American, in U. S. Army, xi: 176, 177. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></p></li> + +<li><cite>Inflexible</cite>, British battleship, iv: 44.</li> +<li>International Bridge, Niagara Falls, vi: 31, 34.</li> +<li><cite>Invincible</cite>, British battle cruiser, iv: 72, 145.</li> +<li>Ireland, + <ul class="index"> + <li>recruiting scene, vi: 54;</li> + <li>ruins of Dublin Rebellion, '16, vi: 55, 61;</li> + <li>street fighting in Dublin, '16, vi: 58.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Iris</cite>, British ferry boat, returning after Zeebrugge raid, iv: 270.</li> +<li>Isonzo valley, iii: 238.</li> +<li>Italy: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>group of Italian and U. S. airmen, i: 257;</li> + <li>at Mass before battle, ii: 50;</li> + <li>machine gunners at front, ii: 95, 238;</li> + <li>in trenches, prepared to repulse attack, ii: 150;</li> + <li>mountain sentinel, ii: 237, vi: 318;</li> + <li>in first line trenches overlooking Austrian position, ii: 243;</li> + <li>Arditi shock troops in action, ii: 247;</li> + <li>climbing to mountain positions, ii: 251, iii: 242;</li> + <li>first line troops under bombardment, ii: 253;</li> + <li>digging trenches in the Alps, iii: 225;</li> + <li>Alpini, iii: 228;</li> + <li>an outpost visited by Cadorna, iii: 233;</li> + <li>sharpshooters on Mount Nero, iii: 237;</li> + <li>entrenched, vi: 115;</li> + <li>mobilization, vi: 125;</li> + <li>recruits, vi: 126;</li> + <li>directing artillery fire from a mountain crag, vi: 307;</li> + <li>in mountain dugout, vi: 314;</li> + <li>hard pressed in battle, x: 63;</li> + <li>fording mountain torrent, xi: 28.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Artillery, + <ul class="index"> + <li>big guns, ii: 249, iii: 245;</li> + <li>hoisting guns up mountain, viii: 5;</li> + <li>anti-aircraft, viii: 10, 16;</li> + <li>a gun used against Austrian offensive, viii: 38;</li> + <li>long-range bombardment, x: 359;</li> + <li>artillery crossing mountains, xi: 40.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Declaration of war, + <ul class="index"> + <li>symbolized (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 230;</li> + <li>crowds celebrating, vi: 116;</li> + <li>anti-German demonstration in Rome, vi: 117.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Navy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>motor boat sinking Austrian battleship, iv: 370;</li> + <li>sea tank breaking through enemy harbor defense, iv: 371;</li> + <li>mine layer, iv: 372.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Jilg" id="Jilg">J</a></li> +<li>Japan, + <ul class="index"> + <li>artillery advancing on Tsing Tao, ii: 358;</li> + <li>torpedo boats off Yokohama harbor, iv: 169;</li> + <li>state procession, vi: 383.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Jason</cite>, in Plymouth harbor, vii: 135.</li> +<li>Jerusalem, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Kaiser's entry, 1898, i: 97;</li> + <li>British tank in streets of (in color), ii: <em>facing p.</em> 280;</li> + <li>walls (in color), ii: <em>facing p.</em> 370;</li> + <li>surrender of, iii: 195;</li> + <li>Gen. Allenby's entry, iii: 323.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Jutland, + <ul class="index"> + <li>battle of, British veterans of, iv: 122, 155;</li> + <li>British warships shelling German cruiser, iv: 130;</li> + <li>night action, iv: 132.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Juvigny, German machine gun nests at, v: 261.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Kilg" id="Kilg">K</a></li> +<li>Kemmel Hill, + <ul class="index"> + <li>fight for, ii: 152;</li> + <li>French post on, v: 289.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kiel, + <ul class="index"> + <li>harbor of, ii: 56;</li> + <li>U-boat dry dock in Canal, iv: 202.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Kiev, + <ul class="index"> + <li>street scene, vi: 240;</li> + <li>history museum, vi: 244.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Knights of Columbus, + <ul class="index"> + <li>serving members of "Lost Battalion" after rescue, vii: 329;</li> + <li>group of secretaries at Lafayette Monument, Paris, vii: 330;</li> + <li>providing music for troops on leave, vii: 332;</li> + <li>hut on Broadway, New York City, vii: 333;</li> + <li>group of workers in battle area, vii: 335;</li> + <li>helping wounded, vii: 336;</li> + <li>in Verdun, vii: 337;</li> + <li>in the Argonne, vii: 338.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Knitting, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Central Park, New York, vii: 123;</li> + <li>New York firemen doing their bit, vii: 125.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Königgrätz, + <ul class="index"> + <li>defeat of Austrians by Prussians in battle of, i: 42;</li> + <li>occupation by Prussians, 1866, i: 47.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Königsberg, iii: 290.</li> +<li>Kremlin, the, Moscow, ii: 234.</li> +<li><cite>Kronprinz Wilhelm</cite>, German sea raider, iv: 196.</li> +<li>Krupp works, Essen, ii: 106.</li> +<li>Kut-el-Amara, + <ul class="index"> + <li>native bazaar, iii: 181;</li> + <li>banks of Tigris at, iii: 183;</li> + <li>group of venerable inhabitants, iii: 318.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Lilg" id="Lilg">L</a></li> +<li><cite>L-15</cite>, German Zeppelin, sinking, x: 361.</li> +<li><cite>L-49</cite>, Zeppelin, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured by French, viii: 249;</li> + <li>fuel tanks on, viii: 253.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lafayette, Marquis de, + <ul class="index"> + <li>tomb, Pershing's visit to, v: 99;</li> + <li>birthplace, vii: 110, xi: 7;</li> + <li>Paris Monument, vii: 330;</li> + <li>Brooklyn Monument, xi: 7.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lafayette Fund, soldier's kit, vii: 88.</li> +<li>Laundry, on wheels for army, viii: 288.</li> +<li>Le Mans, Y. W. C. A. hostess house at, vii: 272.</li> +<li><cite>Leipzig</cite>, German cruiser, iv: 75.</li> +<li>Lemberg, iii: 121, vi: 160; + <ul class="index"> + <li>German troops entering, xi: 203.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Leoning monoplane, viii: 207.</li> +<li><cite>Leviathan</cite>, U.S. transport, + <ul class="index"> + <li>bringing home 27th Div., v: 298;</li> + <li>entering N.Y. harbor, vii: 382.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lewis machine-gun, v: 240, viii: 86.</li> +<li>Liberty Bell, vi: 227.</li> +<li>Liberty Loan, posters, x: 339, 353, xi: 109, <a href="#Page_7">xii: 7</a>, <a href="#Page_14">xii: 14</a>, <a href="#Page_128">xii: 128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">xii: 131</a>.</li> +<li>Liberty Motor, viii: 194, 197, 198, 199.</li> +<li>Liége, + <ul class="index"> + <li>bird's-eye view, i: 336;</li> + <li>Meuse bridge, iii: 6.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ligny, battle of, in Franco-Prussian War, i: 65.</li> +<li>Lille, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German troops in, i: 172;</li> + <li>airplane view of, viii: 231.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Lion</cite>, flagship of Adm. Beatty, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at battle of Jutland, iv: 147;</li> + <li>after battle off Dogger Bank, iv: 252.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Liquid fire, x: 19.</li> +<li>Lisbon, celebrating declaration of war, vi: 374.</li> +<li>Locomotives, U. S., + <ul class="index"> + <li>ready for shipment overseas, v: 195;</li> + <li>building of (in color), viii: <em>facing p.</em> 282;</li> + <li>being assembled in France x: 391.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Locust Point, ruins of fire suspected of German incendiary origin, i: 279.</li> +<li>London, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Buckingham Palace and Queen Victoria's monument, i: 127;</li> + <li>scene in front of Buckingham Palace on night of declaration of war, i: 138;</li> + <li>crowd in front of Royal Exchange listening to King's reading of war proclamation, i: 145;</li> + <li>night illumination for search of German air raiders, i: 151;</li> + <li>mass meeting to urge internment of Germans, ii: 259;</li> + <li>view from Westminster Abbey, vi: 4;</li> + <li>anti-conscription demonstration, vi: 7;</li> + <li>recruiting scene, vi: 8;</li> + <li>Lord Mayor's Show, vi: 9;</li> + <li>Tower of, vi: 11;</li> + <li>anti-German riot, x: 334.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>London Scottish, charging at Messines, x: 45.</li> +<li>"Lost Battalion," members of, being fed at Knights of Columbus field kitchen, vii: 329.</li> +<li>Louvain, + <ul class="index"> + <li>ruins of Library, i: 239;</li> + <li>refugees from, vii: <em>Intro. xii.</em></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Lucy-le-Bocage, ruins of, v: 134.</li> +<li>Luresnes, American Cemetery at, vii: 224.</li> +<li><cite>Lusitania</cite>, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sinking of, i: 291;</li> + <li>float representing sinking, i: 296;</li> + <li>facsimile of German warning against sailing on, i: 319;</li> + <li>attempt to save passengers while sinking, iv: 219;</li> + <li>popular German postcard depicting torpedoing, iv: 221;</li> + <li>German medal celebrating destruction, iv: 222;</li> + <li>appeal to revenge sinking of (in color), iv: <em>facing p.</em> 222;</li> + <li>funeral procession of victims, iv: 225;</li> + <li>on last voyage, iv: 226, xi: 20.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Luxemburg, City of, vi: 93.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Milg" id="Milg">M</a></li> +<li>Machine-guns, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Lewis, v: 240, viii: 86;</li> + <li>Colt, viii: 80, 81, 83;</li> + <li>Benet-Mercier, viii: 82;</li> + <li>German, viii: 85;</li> + <li>Browning, viii: 85;</li> + <li>on airplanes, viii: 193, 209, 211.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Madrid, Bolshevik demonstration, vi: 372.</li> +<li>Mainz, vi: 295.</li> +<li><cite>Mainz</cite>, German cruiser, sinking off Heligoland, iv: 243.</li> +<li><cite>Majestic</cite>, British battleship, ii: 204.</li> +<li>Matines, Cathedral, vi: 102.</li> +<li>Malingering, tests for detection of, viii: 359, 363.</li> +<li>Malmaison, Fort, German defenses at, ii: 41.</li> +<li>Mancourt, French machine gunners repulsing German attacks, ii: 43.</li> +<li>Marines, U. S., <em>see</em> U. S., Marines. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></p></li> + +<li><cite>Markgraf</cite>, German battleship surrendered at Scapa Flow, iv: 389.</li> +<li>Marne, battles of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>dead and debris on battlefield, iii: 25, 94;</li> + <li>Germans forcing crossing of river, iii: 32;</li> + <li>French celebrating anniversary of, iii: 34.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Marne River, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Château-Thierry, ii: 82, x: 4;</li> + <li>Allied airplanes flying over, ii: 83;</li> + <li>Germans crossing, iii: 32;</li> + <li>U. S. troops resting near, v: 42.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Marseillaise</cite>, singing of, xi: 327.</li> +<li>Marseilles, arrival of Russian troops at, i: 251.</li> +<li>Martin bombing plane, viii: 234.</li> +<li>Mascots, + <ul class="index"> + <li>lion mascots of Maj. Lufberry, xi: 229;</li> + <li>baboon mascot of Royal Engineers, xi: 230.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Masks, for shell-torn faces, viii: 389, 391.</li> +<li>Maubeuge, ruin of fort at, ii: 11.</li> +<li>Maude, Gen., grave of, iii: 187.</li> +<li>McPherson, Fort, U. S. army student officers at, v: 301.</li> +<li>Melbourne, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Australian army embarking for Gallipoli, ii: 201;</li> + <li>Alexandra Gardens, vi: 43.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Mercy</cite>, U. S. hospital ship, + <ul class="index"> + <li>view of a ward, viii: 370;</li> + <li>operating room, viii: 371;</li> + <li>X-ray apparatus, viii: 374.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mesopotamia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>New Zealanders digging trenches, ii: 91;</li> + <li>bridge across Tigris, iii: 319;</li> + <li>native silver-smiths, iii: 330;</li> + <li>camel caravan, iii: 367;</li> + <li>bridge across Narin River destroyed by Turks, vi: 222.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Messines, battle of, iii: 360.</li> +<li>Metz, i: 332.</li> +<li>Meuse River, + <ul class="index"> + <li>ruins of bridge destroyed by Germans, i: 313;</li> + <li>at Verdun, ii: 37, iii: 61, 303;</li> + <li>French scouts reconnoitering on, ii: 45;</li> + <li>at Liége, iii: 6;</li> + <li>near Dinant, iii: 13;</li> + <li>passing through country north of Verdun, iii: 309;</li> + <li>wreckage on banks, iii: 328.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Milan, pro-war demonstration, vi: 119, 124.</li> +<li>Mine-field, viii: 273, 275.</li> +<li>Mine-layers, iv: 200, 329, 372; + <ul class="index"> + <li>plan of German mine-laying submarine, viii: 267.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mine-laying, iv: 324, 326, 331.</li> +<li>Mines, iv: 325, 327; + <ul class="index"> + <li>floating, xi: 247.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Mine-sweepers, iv: 51, 260.</li> +<li>Mobile repair shop, viii: 295.</li> +<li><cite>Moltke</cite>, German battle cruiser, with crew, iv: 257.</li> +<li>Monastir, vi: 355.</li> +<li>Monitors, <em>see</em> Great Britain, Navy.</li> +<li>Mortars, viii: 3, xi: 293.</li> +<li>Moscow, + <ul class="index"> + <li>the kremlin, ii: 234;</li> + <li>Red Square, vi: 167.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Moselle River, v: 81.</li> +<li>"Mothers of France," in color, vi: <em>frontispiece</em>.</li> +<li>Motor truck, equipped with apparatus for crossing trenches, viii: 292.</li> +<li>Motor boats, construction of, in New Jersey shipyard, <a href="#Page_102">xii: 102</a>.</li> +<li>Mouilly, battlefield near, in St. Mihiel salient, v: 204.</li> +<li>Mülhausen, street scene, ii: 183.</li> +<li>Murat, Prince, palace of, President Wilson's Paris residence during Peace Conference, ix: 67, 68.</li> +<li>Mustard gas, + <ul class="index"> + <li>filling shells with, v: 323, viii: 165;</li> + <li>frozen cube of, viii: 172.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Nilg" id="Nilg">N</a></li> +<li>Nancy, bird's-eye view, ii: 140.</li> +<li>Napoleon, tomb of, x: 233.</li> +<li><cite>Nautilus</cite>, Fulton's submarine, iv: 203.</li> +<li>Naval scenes, general, + <ul class="index"> + <li>firing a salvo, iv: 77;</li> + <li>lookout in crow's nest, iv: 163;</li> + <li>destroyer on patrol, iv: 193;</li> + <li>torpedo boat on patrol, x: 284;</li> + <li>target practice, xi: 281;</li> + <li>winter patrol, xi: 298;</li> + <li>battleship in rough sea, xi: 300;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under name of country, Navy;</li> + <li><em>also</em> particular references such as Submarines;</li> + <li>etc.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>N-C-I</cite>, U. S. seaplane, viii: 238.</li> +<li><cite>Nebraska</cite>, U. S. battleship, crew preparing to sow mine field, iv: 326.</li> +<li>Netherlands, + <ul class="index"> + <li>mobilized soldiers reading war news, i: 263;</li> + <li>military maneuvers, ii: 181;</li> + <li>troops at machine-gun practice, vi: 376;</li> + <li>war refugees in, vii: 169;</li> + <li>Red Cross volunteers, vi: 170.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Neufmaisons, street scene, v: 54.</li> +<li>Neuilly, American hospital at, vii: 38, 77, 199.</li> +<li>New Guinea, + <ul class="index"> + <li>native troops in British service, i: 81;</li> + <li>native women as plantation workers, i: 82.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>New York, + <ul class="index"> + <li>parade of German-Americans, '14, i: 272;</li> + <li>Austrian reservists reporting at consulate at outbreak of war, i: 281;</li> + <li>display of flags on Armistice Day, Nov. 11, '18, iii: 401;</li> + <li>Victory Parade, iv: 138;</li> + <li>Red Cross Parade, vii: 2;</li> + <li>women of Motor Corps of America parading, vii: 57;</li> + <li>Victory Way, <a href="#Page_133">xii: 133</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>New York</cite>, U. S. battleship, + <ul class="index"> + <li>visited by King George and Adm. Beatty, iv: 11, 85, 345;</li> + <li>airplane view, iv: 358;</li> + <li>in a storm, iv: 395.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>New Zealand, army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>digging trenches in Mesopotamia, ii: 91;</li> + <li>in Egypt, vi: 46.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>North Carolina</cite>, U. S. battleship, crew visiting Pyramids, iv: 353.</li> +<li><cite>North Dakota</cite>, U. S. battleship, iv: 344.</li> +<li>North Sea Allied patrol, x: 285, 294.</li> +<li>Notre Dame, Church of, at Albert, after German bombardment, xi: 23.</li> +<li>Noyon, French entering, '18, iii: 102.</li> +<li>Nurses, + <ul class="index"> + <li>French (in color), vii: <em>frontispiece</em>;</li> + <li>reading to convalescent, vii: 21;</li> + <li>Japanese, vii: 44;</li> + <li>British, vii: 52;</li> + <li>Red Cross, treating Allied wounded, vii: 65;</li> + <li>reading last rites over the dead, vii: 76;</li> + <li>Polish, recruited in America, vii: 353;</li> + <li>Russian, vii: 362;</li> + <li>French Sister of Mercy (in color), x: <em>facing p.</em> 48;</li> + <li>writing letters for wounded, x: 380;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Red Cross.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Oilg" id="Oilg">O</a></li> +<li>Observation tower, German collapsible type, viii: 15.</li> +<li>Oglethorpe, Fort, U. S. army student officers at, ii: 319.</li> +<li>Olives, Mount of (in color), ii. <em>facing p.</em> 332.</li> +<li>Oppressed nations, representatives of, at Independence Hall, Philadelphia, vi: 227.</li> +<li>Ostend, + <ul class="index"> + <li>esplanade, ii: 224;</li> + <li>bird's-eye view of harbor, iv: 275;</li> + <li>British cruiser <cite>Vindictive</cite> being sunk at, iv: 276.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Pilg" id="Pilg">P</a></li> +<li>Palestine, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British troops with captured Turkish plane, ii: 93;</li> + <li>Mount of Olives (in color), ii: <em>facing p.</em> 332;</li> + <li>native market, iii: 194;</li> + <li>dressing-station for British wounded, iii: 326;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> name of towns in, as Jerusalem, etc.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Parachute, French type, viii: 263.</li> +<li>Parades, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German-Americans in New York, '14, i: 272;</li> + <li>in Cape Town, to help recruiting, i: 383;</li> + <li>in London, recruits passing Whitehall, i: 387;</li> + <li>A. E. F. in Paris, July 4, '17, ii: <em>Intro. xxiv</em>;</li> + <li>in Petrograd celebrating capture of Lemberg, ii: 230;</li> + <li>in Berlin, on birthday of Kaiser, ii: 258;</li> + <li>in New York, Victory parade, iv: 138;</li> + <li>recruits at Chicago, v: 377;</li> + <li>Lord Mayor's Show, London, vi: 9;</li> + <li>women's, in London, '15, vi: 18;</li> + <li>Dominion Day in Winnipeg, vi: 27;</li> + <li>Anzac Day in Sydney, '18, vi: 44;</li> + <li>Allies in Vladivostok, vi: 193;</li> + <li>Red Cross in New York, vii: 2;</li> + <li>women of American Motor Corps, in New York, vii: 57;</li> + <li>Russian troops in Paris on Bastille Day, x: 376;</li> + <li>U. S. troops in Paris, July 4, '19, x: 389.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Paris, + <ul class="index"> + <li>group of Americans stranded in, by outbreak of war, i: 277;</li> + <li>congestion at railroad station on declaration of war, i: 278;</li> + <li>interior of American embassy, i: 288;</li> + <li>Allied conference at French Foreign Ministry, March, '16, i: 398;</li> + <li>Eiffel Tower, ii: 267;</li> + <li>crowd outside Bank of France on outbreak of War, ii: 382;</li> + <li>bird's-eye view, v: 379, <a href="#Page_258">xii: 258</a>;</li> + <li>on watch for enemy with searchlights, vi: 97;</li> + <li>Bois de Boulogne, vi: 100;</li> + <li>Armistice celebration, vi: 107;</li> + <li>Joan of Arc anniversary celebration, vi: 108;</li> + <li>Bourse, vi: 109;</li> + <li>May Day riots, May 1, '19, vi: 111;</li> + <li>poor getting coal allotment, vi: 112;</li> + <li>theatre turned into relief warehouse, vii: 114; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></p></li> + + <li>crowd in Place de la Concorde to greet President Wilson, <a href="#Page_164">xii: 164</a>;</li> + <li>crowd at Place de l'Etoile welcoming Wilson, <a href="#Page_193">xii: 193</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Parliament, British, Houses of, xi: 2.</li> +<li>Passchendaele Ridge, British bombardment of, iii: 78.</li> +<li>Peace Treaty, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Clemenceau's pen in signing, ix: 13;</li> + <li>table and chair used in signing, <a href="#Page_157">xii: 157</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Pegasus</cite>, British airplane carrier, iv: 81.</li> +<li><cite>Pennsylvania</cite>, U. S. battleship, airplane view of, iv: 360.</li> +<li>Periscope, land use, ii: 179.</li> +<li>Permanent Blind Relief War Fund, Italian fiesta for, at New York Public Library, vii: 258.</li> +<li>Persia, Christian inhabitants, vi: 336.</li> +<li>Petrograd, + <ul class="index"> + <li>celebrating capture of Lembery, ii: 230;</li> + <li>war-time crowds, vi: 137;</li> + <li>burning, vi: 146;</li> + <li>celebrating Kerensky revolution, vi: 152;</li> + <li>along the Canal, vi: 155;</li> + <li>view from St. Isaac's Cathedral, vi: 163;</li> + <li>street orators, vi: 165, 172;</li> + <li>Tauris Palace, vi: 173;</li> + <li>crowds awaiting food rations, vii: 372, 373.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Phosgene, filling shells with, viii: 169.</li> +<li>Pigeons, as military messengers, viii: 327, 328.</li> +<li>Pill-boxes, viii: 132, xi: 253.</li> +<li>Place de la Concorde, Paris, welcoming President Wilson, <a href="#Page_164">xii: 164</a>.</li> +<li>Place de l'Etoile, Paris crowds welcoming President Wilson, <a href="#Page_193">xii: 193</a>.</li> +<li>Plymouth, England, harbor, vii: 135.</li> +<li>"Poilu," in color, iii: <em>frontispiece</em>.</li> +<li>Pola, harbor, iv: 369, vi: 312.</li> +<li>Poland, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German trenches in, iii: 108;</li> + <li>troops in Warsaw, vi: 205;</li> + <li>Women's Battalion of Death, vi: 218;</li> + <li>unloading food supplies from U. S. in Warsaw, vii: 355;</li> + <li>shipping kosher meat for Jewish war sufferers in, vii: 357.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Pontoons, iii: 387.</li> +<li>Pope's palace, interior of, ix: 406.</li> +<li>Port Said, i: 16, iii: 200.</li> +<li>Posters: + <ul class="index"> + <li>American, + <ul class="index"> + <li>for Navy recruiting, iv: 316;</li> + <li>for Marine recruiting, v: 131, x: 316;</li> + <li>for Red Cross, vii: 20, 21, 23, 26, 132, xi: 285;</li> + <li>for Free Milk for France fund, vii: 377;</li> + <li>for Liberty Loans, x: 339, 353, xi: 109, <a href="#Page_7">xii: 7</a>, <a href="#Page_14">xii: 14</a>, <a href="#Page_128">xii: 128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">xii: 131</a>;</li> + <li>War Savings Stamps, prize poster, x: 346.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>British, + <ul class="index"> + <li>recruiting, vi: 6, 63, vii: 129, xi: 334;</li> + <li>for Women's Land Army, vi: 13;</li> + <li>for Belgian relief, vii: 128.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>French, + <ul class="index"> + <li>War Loan, vi: 96, 98;</li> + <li>for soldiers' relief, vi: 99, 103;</li> + <li>war exposition, vi: 113.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Italian, War Loan, vi: 327.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Potsdam, throne room of royal palace at, i: 159.</li> +<li>Prague, vi: 397.</li> +<li><cite>Prinz Eitel Friedrich</cite>, German sea raider, iv: 196.</li> +<li>Prisoners of war: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Austrian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Italy ii: 97;</li> + <li>in Serbia, iii: 154;</li> + <li>captured by Russians, iii: 293, vi: 182.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Belgian, snipers on way to execution by Germans, i: 236.</li> + <li>British, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Göttingen, iii: 301;</li> + <li>condition on being released from German prison camp, vii: 39.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>German, + <ul class="index"> + <li>captured in first Marne battle, ii: 143, 173;</li> + <li>on way to prison camp, ii: 328;</li> + <li>serving as stretcher bearers, ii: 334;</li> + <li>captured at Verdun, iii: 315;</li> + <li>U-boat crew captured by Americans, iv: 238;</li> + <li>captured by Russians, vi: 177;</li> + <li>being searched for concealed weapons, vi: 284;</li> + <li>group under British guard, vii: 104;</li> + <li>in prison camp, vii: 303;</li> + <li>at Fort McPherson, x: 373.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Russian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>having mess, vi: 139;</li> + <li>as street laborers, vi: 184, 217.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Serbian, on way to Austria, vii: 154.</li> + <li>Turkish, on march, vi: 232.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Propaganda, + <ul class="index"> + <li>dropped by British in German lines, ii: 320;</li> + <li>device for releasing from aircraft, ii: 321.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Prussian Chamber of Deputies in session, vi: 259.</li> +<li>Przemysl, vi: 135.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Qilg" id="Qilg">Q</a></li> +<li><cite>Queen Elizabeth</cite>, British super-dreadnought, iii: 175, iv: 31.</li> +<li>Queen Elizabeth Medal, Belgian, ix: 391.</li> +<li>Quirinal Palace, Rome, vi: 128.</li> +<li><cite>Quistconck</cite>, launching of, at Hog Island, <a href="#Page_26">xii: 26</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Rilg" id="Rilg">R</a></li> +<li><cite>R-34</cite>, British dirigible, viii: 251, 255.</li> +<li>Raemaekers, Louis, cartoons by, i: 222, 363, vi: 85, 285.</li> +<li>Raines Foundation Schools, London, converting crates into baby cradles, vii: 141.</li> +<li>Ramsgate, after an air raid, ii: 268.</li> +<li>Red Cross: + <ul class="index"> + <li>American, + <ul class="index"> + <li>New York parade, vii: 2;</li> + <li>a large flag, vii: 13;</li> + <li>national headquarters, Washington, vii: 18;</li> + <li>posters, vii: 20, 21, 23, 26, 132, xi: 285;</li> + <li>reading to convalescents, vii: 21, 204;</li> + <li>Kaiser's trophy donated to, vii: 25;</li> + <li>rolling kitchens, vii: 33;</li> + <li>knitting for soldiers, vii: 34;</li> + <li>Paris headquarters, vii: 36;</li> + <li>sightseeing with convalescent U. S. soldiers in London, vii: 40;</li> + <li>hospital ship <cite>Red Cross</cite>, vii: 45;</li> + <li>medal and badges of (in color), vii: <em>facing p.</em> 50;</li> + <li>preparing Christmas packages for A. E. F., vii: 55, 279;</li> + <li>hospital train, vii: 58;</li> + <li>advance station in France, vii: 61;</li> + <li>sightseeing with U. S. sailors on leave in London, vii: 62;</li> + <li>distributing cigarettes to Russian wounded, vii: 79;</li> + <li>field canteen in France (in color), vii: <em>facing p.</em> 96;</li> + <li>looking after Belgian refugees in Paris, vii: 112;</li> + <li>worker among refugees (in color), vii: <em>facing p.</em> 158;</li> + <li>supplies at Brest, vii: 171;</li> + <li>making bandages (in color), vii: <em>facing p.</em> 198;</li> + <li>caring for French children, vii: 200, 201;</li> + <li>distributing gifts to French children, vii: 229;</li> + <li>caring for wounded Belgian boy, vii: 242;</li> + <li>coffee and cakes for convalescent A. E. F. at Auteuil Hospital, vii: 243;</li> + <li>loading supplies for overseas (in color), vii: <em>facing p.</em> 250, 350;</li> + <li>mailing letters for departing soldiers, vii: 297;</li> + <li>in Italy, in colors, vii: <em>facing p.</em> 300;</li> + <li>canteen at Trieste, vii: 301;</li> + <li>Red Cross men in the making, in colors, xi: <em>frontispiece</em>;</li> + <li>nurse visiting poor of Marseilles, xi: 83;</li> + <li>nurse bathing Belgian baby, xi: 85;</li> + <li>educational cartoons for child welfare in France, xi: 87-90.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Belgian, hospital trains, vii: 118.</li> + <li>British, + <ul class="index"> + <li>serving food to Germans, vii: 7;</li> + <li>wounded soldiers at Gift House, vii: 70;</li> + <li>in Mesopotamia, vii: 260.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Dutch, volunteers, vii: 170.</li> + <li>French, + <ul class="index"> + <li>canteen, vii: 48;</li> + <li>barge hospitals on the Seine, vii: 49, 236;</li> + <li>giving refreshments to soldiers on troop train, vii: 226;</li> + <li>hospital train, vii: 239;</li> + <li>motor canteen, vii: 248;</li> + <li>caring for wounded children, vii: 368.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Japanese, nurses assisting at operation, vii: 44.</li> + <li>Russian, group of nurses, vii: 362.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Red Cross</cite>, hospital ship, vii: 45.</li> +<li>Refugees of war: + <ul class="index"> + <li>American, tourists fleeing from war zone, i: 271.</li> + <li>Belgian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>wives seeking news of deported husbands, i: 177;</li> + <li>fleeing before German invasion, i: 355, 356;</li> + <li>gathered in front of town hall, Antwerp, ii: 169;</li> + <li>fleeing from Antwerp, iii: 17, xi: 60;</li> + <li>Germans deporting women, vi: 86;</li> + <li>fleeing from Louvain, vii: <em>facing p.</em> 1;</li> + <li>assisted at Paris railroad station by Red Cross, vii: 112;</li> + <li>relief bundles for, vii: 126;</li> + <li>two aged refugees from Louvain, vii: 137;</li> + <li>finding food and shelter in Holland, vii: 169;</li> + <li>returning home (in color), ix: <em>facing p.</em> 368;</li> + <li>children in France, xi: 86.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>French, + <ul class="index"> + <li>under escort of German guards, i: 205, x: 351;</li> + <li>going into Holland, i: 224;</li> + <li>fleeing out of war zone, i: 270, xi: 57, 58;</li> + <li>on road to Amiens, ii: 151;</li> + <li>in Marne district, iii: 298; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></p></li> + + <li>among ruins of Termonde, vii: 74;</li> + <li>getting clothing in Paris from American Fund for French Wounded, vii: 102;</li> + <li>old peasant woman among ruins of home, vii: 150;</li> + <li>Red Cross relief worker among (in color), vii: <em>facing p.</em> 158;</li> + <li>from Château-Thierry, vii: 312;</li> + <li>children found at Château-Thierry by Allied soldiers, xi: 61;</li> + <li>child seeking safety in barn, xi: 65;</li> + <li>repatriated French children, xi: 75;</li> + <li>children at La Jonchère Sanatorium, xi: 91;</li> + <li>arriving in Paris with the family goat, xi: 178.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>German, from East Prussia, arriving in Berlin, Aug., '14, ii: 23.</li> + <li>Italian, children, xi: 67, 69.</li> + <li>Rumanian, vi: 350.</li> + <li>Salonikan, vii: 163, 164, 166, 369, 371.</li> + <li>Serbian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>tramping along railway tracks, vii: 158;</li> + <li>finding shelter in caves, vii: 160;</li> + <li>destitute children, xi: 73.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Reichstag Building, Berlin, vi: 277, xi: 3.</li> +<li>Reims (Rheims), + <ul class="index"> + <li>Cathedral, i: 76;</li> + <li>Cathedral being bombarded by Germans, i: 225, 245;</li> + <li>bird's-eye view, ii: 155;</li> + <li>ruins of, ii: 211.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Renault tank, viii: 159, xi: 260.</li> +<li>"Reunited," home return of soldier (in color), xi: <em>facing p.</em> 188.</li> +<li>Rifle Brigade, British, fighting way through Neuve Chapelle, x: 11.</li> +<li>Rifles, + <ul class="index"> + <li>diagram showing path of bullet, viii: 93;</li> + <li>U. S. types, viii: 98, 99, 100, 103, 104;</li> + <li>German anti-tank, viii: 139.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Riga castle, iii: 146.</li> +<li>Rio de Janeiro, vi: 391.</li> +<li>Riva, Porta San Marco, ii: 49.</li> +<li>Road construction behind the lines in France, v: 398.</li> +<li>Romagne, A. E. F. cemetery at, v: 233.</li> +<li>Rome, + <ul class="index"> + <li>anti-German demonstration, vi: 117;</li> + <li>crowds celebrating King's birthday, vi: 127;</li> + <li>Quirinal Palace, vi: 128.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Roosevelt, Quentin, + <ul class="index"> + <li>entrance card into École de Tir Aerien, x: 242;</li> + <li>record card at École de Tir Aerien, x: 245.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Roosevelt, Theodore, Sagamore Hill home, x: 248.</li> +<li>Rotterdam, harbor, vii: 139.</li> +<li>Ruggles orientator, machine for testing aviation applicants, viii: 357.</li> +<li>Rumania, artillery detachment passing in review before King Ferdinand, vi: 351.</li> +<li>Russia: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>marching through Marseilles, i: 251;</li> + <li>entering burning town in Eastern Galicia, ii: 26;</li> + <li>Cossack troops, ii: 233, iii: 130, vi: 195;</li> + <li>field guns, ii: 352, vi: 170;</li> + <li>outposts encountering Germans, ii: 356;</li> + <li>women's Battalion of Death, iii: 125, vi: 162, xi: 206, 208;</li> + <li>reserves on march, iii: 266;</li> + <li>at field Mass, iii: 270, vi: 144;</li> + <li>military funeral, vi: 133;</li> + <li>troops in panic, vi: 143;</li> + <li>reservists mobilizing, vi: 149;</li> + <li>greeting news of Czar's overthrow, vi: 157;</li> + <li>on way to front without rifles, vi: 176;</li> + <li>artillery retreating, vi: 209;</li> + <li>attacking with hand grenades, vi: 213;</li> + <li>riflemen, vi: 215;</li> + <li>an impromptu orchestra, vii: 152;</li> + <li>trenches on Eastern Front, viii: 127;</li> + <li>on parade in Paris, x: 376.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>General scenes, + <ul class="index"> + <li>rural district, vi: 138;</li> + <li>children's procession demanding education, vi: 147;</li> + <li>group of radicals, vi: 178;</li> + <li>winter scene, vi: 191;</li> + <li>peasant gathering herbs, vii: 367.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Silg" id="Silg">S</a></li> +<li><cite>S-126</cite>, German destroyer, torpedoing of, by British submarine, iv: 208.</li> +<li>Sagamore Hill, Roosevelt home at, x: 248.</li> +<li>St. Mark's, Venice, vi: 320.</li> +<li>St. Mihiel sector, + <ul class="index"> + <li>" dead acres," iii: 98;</li> + <li>trenches, iii: 99;</li> + <li>tank in action at Mont Sec, v: 202;</li> + <li>battleground near Mouilly, v: 204.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>St. Nazaire, first A. E. F. camp at, v: 107.</li> +<li>St. Paul's Cathedral, London, U. S. flag in, x: 30.</li> +<li>St. Quentin, Germans in, xi: 51.</li> +<li>St. Sophia, Mosque of, vi: 232.</li> +<li>Salonika, + <ul class="index"> + <li>withdrawal of Greek troops, iii: 205;</li> + <li>Greek troops camping in Turkish cemetery, iii: 209;</li> + <li>Alexander's Arch, iii: 394;</li> + <li>British supplies, vi: 225;</li> + <li>war refugees, vii: 163, 164, 166, 369, 371;</li> + <li>rag-picker, xi: 62;</li> + <li>water-boy, xi: 63.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Salonika Front, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sandbag bridge, iii: 210;</li> + <li>British labor battalion at work, iii: 397.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Salvation Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>the " doughnut girl," vii: 380;</li> + <li>at the front with British, vii: 381;</li> + <li>soft drink bar for service men, vii: 384;</li> + <li>women workers cooking doughnuts near front lines, vii: 386, x: 189;</li> + <li>women workers being decorated by Gen. Edwards, vii: 395;</li> + <li>collecting funds in New York, vii: 398;</li> + <li>hut in Union Square, New York City, vii: 399.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Scarborough, England, after a German naval raid, iv: 244.</li> +<li>Scheldt River, pontoon bridge across, ii: 167.</li> +<li>Sea Scouts, British, boy signalmen, xi: 96.</li> +<li>Searchlight, mounted on motor truck, viii: 76.</li> +<li>Sedan, view of, v: 94.</li> +<li>Sedd-ul Bahr fortress, after Allied bombardment, iii: 341, iv: 49.</li> +<li>Senegalese soldier (in color), vi: <em>facing p.</em> 270.</li> +<li>Senlis, Cathedral, iii: 335.</li> +<li>Sepoys, iii: 182.</li> +<li>Serajevo, view of, i: 4.</li> +<li>Serbia: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>group of officers, i: 244, vi: 357;</li> + <li>type of soldier, ii: 33;</li> + <li>outposts on guard, iii: 282;</li> + <li>abandoned artillery, iii: 395;</li> + <li>artillery on way to front, iii: 396;</li> + <li>troops on march, vi: 246;</li> + <li>in camp, vi: 356;</li> + <li>artillery in action, vi: 358;</li> + <li>campaigning in winter, vii: 157;</li> + <li>lack of equipment, vii: 161.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>General, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Germans struggling through Serbian mud, iii: 399;</li> + <li>relief boxes for, vii: 114;</li> + <li>war medal, vii: 146;</li> + <li>packing clothing for war sufferers of, at Bush Terminal, Brooklyn, vii: 165;</li> + <li>monument to mark where Serbs reëntered their country after exile, vii: 167;</li> + <li>group of peasants, vii: 370;</li> + <li>selling wood in market place, xi: 72.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Seydlit</cite>z, German battleship surrendered at Scapa Flow, iv: 389.</li> +<li>Shells, + <ul class="index"> + <li>path of howitzer fire, ii: 129, iii: 159;</li> + <li>French, iii: 312, viii: 57;</li> + <li>ricochet and non-ricochet, iv: 333;</li> + <li>fragments of German, used in long-range bombardment of Paris, viii: 46, 48, 58, 63, xi: 272;</li> + <li>line of flight of German, used in bombardment of Paris, viii: 49;</li> + <li>path of trajectory of 120-mile range U. S. gun, viii: 50;</li> + <li>construction of German, used in long-range bombardment of Paris, viii: 53;</li> + <li>manufacture of, viii: 73;</li> + <li>path of shrapnel fire, viii: 74;</li> + <li>shrapnel exploding, xi: 275;</li> + <li>heavy shells on way to front, xi: 279.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sherman, Fort, U. S. soldiers on parade, xi: 36.</li> +<li>Shrapnel, + <ul class="index"> + <li>line of flight, viii: 74;</li> + <li>exploding, xi: 275.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Siberia, station on trans-Siberian railroad, vi: 190.</li> +<li>Sirens, for warning of German air raids, viii: 216.</li> +<li>Sister of Mercy (in color), x: <em>facing p.</em> 48.</li> +<li>Smoke screens, ii: 198, iv: 57, viii: 269, 325, xi: 402.</li> +<li>Soissons, ruins of Cathedral, iii: 92.</li> +<li>Somme, + <ul class="index"> + <li>battlefield of, ii: 146, iii: 56;</li> + <li>British charging during battle of, iii: 57;</li> + <li>front visited by Clemenceau, xi: 127.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sound horns, for detection of airplanes, viii: 18.</li> +<li>Sound-mirror, for detection of airplanes, viii: 21.</li> +<li>South Africa, Union of, troops embarking for Gallipoli, iii: 176.</li> +<li>Southwest Africa, German, native village, vi: 260.</li> +<li>Spad airplane, viii: 190. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></p></li> + +<li>Spahis, x: 117.</li> +<li>Spies, German, + <ul class="index"> + <li>English mob attacking shop of suspect, i: 227;</li> + <li>under French guard, x: 332.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Springfield rifle, viii: 98, 99, 103, 105.</li> +<li>Stage Women's War Relief, + <ul class="index"> + <li>supplying service men with newspapers, vii: 345;</li> + <li>Service House in New York, vii: 346;</li> + <li>theatricals at New York Debarkation Hospital, vii: 347.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Stamboul</cite>, Turkish transport struck by torpedo, iv: 209.</li> +<li>Stanford University, cadets at trench drill, xi: 167.</li> +<li><cite>Star-spangled Banner</cite>, singing of, by U. S. service men, xi: 331.</li> +<li>Stelvio Pass, in the Alps, xi: 42.</li> +<li>Stockholm, bird's-eye view, i: 134.</li> +<li>Strassburg, i: 306.</li> +<li>Strassburg statue, Paris, vi: 105.</li> +<li>Stretchers, + <ul class="index"> + <li>types, v: 338, viii: 377;</li> + <li>struck by shell, vii: 51.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Submarines, + <ul class="index"> + <li>rising to surface, iv: 56;</li> + <li>anti-submarine patrol, iv: 193, 379, xi: 30;</li> + <li>German dry-dock for, in Kiel Canal, iv: 202;</li> + <li>development of Holland submarines, 1895—1915, iv: 204;</li> + <li>British submarine sinking German destroyer, iv: 208;</li> + <li>interior, showing torpedo tubes and mechanisms, iv: 210, 237;</li> + <li>coat of arms on captured U-boat, iv: 212;</li> + <li>U-boat being sunk by destroyer, iv: 213;</li> + <li>salvaging torpedoed merchantmen, iv: 218;</li> + <li>use of decoys to lure freighters, iv: 254, 276;</li> + <li>captured U-boats at Brooklyn Navy Yard, iv: 297;</li> + <li>U. S. types, iv: 299, viii: 280, xi: 240;</li> + <li>details of German U-boats, viii: 265, 267;</li> + <li>use of nets for trapping, viii: 268, 270, 272, xi: 238;</li> + <li>use of hinged plates on sides of ships for protection against, viii: 271;</li> + <li>mine fields for destruction of, viii: 273, 275;</li> + <li>detail of periscope, viii: 277, 282;</li> + <li>crew's quarters on board U-boat, x: 275;</li> + <li>British type, x: 296;</li> + <li>torpedoed ship settling into water, xi: 19;</li> + <li>U-boat submerged, xi: 234;</li> + <li>U-boat on surface, xi: 235;</li> + <li>close-up view of conning-tower, xi: 242;</li> + <li>submerged, with conning-tower and periscope projecting, xi: 244;</li> + <li>placing torpedo in tube, xi: 246.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sudanese troops, in Egypt, vii: 323.</li> +<li>Suez Canal, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British supply depot on, vi: 223;</li> + <li>launching of first British seaplane on, vi: 224.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Suffolk Coast</cite>, disguised British warship, iv: 301, 303.</li> +<li><cite>Suffren</cite>, French battleship, iv: 22.</li> +<li>Surgical dressing, + <ul class="index"> + <li>making of, by volunteer women workers (in color), vii: <em>facing p.</em> 198;</li> + <li>warehouse of, vii: 219.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Sussex</cite>, Channel ferryboat, torpedoed by U-boat, x: 281.</li> +<li>Sweden, food riots, <a href="#Page_46">xii: 46</a>.</li> +<li>Switzerland, medal cast in honor of President Wilson, ix: 69.</li> +<li>Sydney, Australia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>town hall, vi: 37;</li> + <li>recruiting scene, vi: 41.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Tilg" id="Tilg">T</a></li> +<li>Tanks, + <ul class="index"> + <li>early type, ii: 276;</li> + <li>camouflaged, ii: 276;</li> + <li>in action, ii: 279, v: 157, xi: 252, 256, 263;</li> + <li>sketch drawing, iii: 339;</li> + <li>dragging camouflaged gun, v: 316;</li> + <li>German anti-tank rifle, viii: 139;</li> + <li>framework of first tank, viii: 156;</li> + <li>" baby" tank, xi: 270.</li> + <li>British, + <ul class="index"> + <li>being inspected by King Albert, ii: 278;</li> + <li>in Jerusalem (in color), ii: <em>facing p.</em> 280;</li> + <li>approaching Gaza, ii: 282;</li> + <li>replica of first tank used, vii: 300;</li> + <li><cite>Britannia</cite> in U. S., viii: 137, 138, 142;</li> + <li>a whippet, viii: 140;</li> + <li>in action, viii: 149, x: 59;</li> + <li>tank gun, viii: 150.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>French, + <ul class="index"> + <li>St. Chamond type, ii: 275;</li> + <li>" baby" tanks, ii: 281, viii: 158; + <ul class="index"> + <li>exterior view of Renault tank, xi: 260;</li> + <li>interior view of Renault tank, viii 159;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>supporting advancing U. S. troops, v: 193;</li> + <li>tractors for transporting Renaults, viii: 141;</li> + <li>interior views, viii: 144, 145, 147; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Renault, viii: 159;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>predecessor of tank, viii: 155;</li> + <li>in action, viii: 157;</li> + <li>Renault type, xi: 260; + <ul class="index"> + <li>interior view, viii: 159.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> + <li>German, + <ul class="index"> + <li>overturned, viii: 160;</li> + <li>miniature one-man tank, viii: 161.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>U. S., + <ul class="index"> + <li>supporting infantry attack, v: 181;</li> + <li>going over the top at St. Mihiel, v: 202;</li> + <li>tank troops training, v: 287;</li> + <li>largest in world, viii: 146;</li> + <li>first, xi: 258;</li> + <li>Ford " baby" tank, xi: 262.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Targets, + <ul class="index"> + <li>range-finding on U. S. battleship, viii: 11;</li> + <li>for long-range, viii: 94;</li> + <li>for rapid fire, viii: 95;</li> + <li>for 200 and 300 yards, viii: 97;</li> + <li>for mid-range, viii: 101;</li> + <li>spotting disk, viii: 101.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tauris Palace, Petrograd, vi: 173.</li> +<li>Teleferica, cableways used by Italians to cross chasms, viii: 304.</li> +<li>Telegraph, + <ul class="index"> + <li>field headquarters station, i: 353;</li> + <li>linesman repairing wires under fire, x: 148.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Telephone in war, + <ul class="index"> + <li>first unit of U. S. women operators, ii: 309;</li> + <li>German field telephone, iii: 295;</li> + <li>central at French army headquarters, viii: 323;</li> + <li>" listening in," x: 394.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Termonde, ruins of, i: 340, 341.</li> +<li>Thiaucourt, street scene, v: 162.</li> +<li><cite>Thomas</cite>, U. S. transport, at Vladivostok, vi: 188.</li> +<li>Tigris, iii: 319.</li> +<li><em>Tipperary</em> (in color), vi: <em>facing p.</em> 130.</li> +<li>Tokyo, celebrating capture of Kiau Chau, vi: 384.</li> +<li>Torpedo, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at moment of discharge, iv: 16, 400, x: 330;</li> + <li>torpedo tubes being turned on target, iv: 153;</li> + <li>destroyer dodging, iv: 188;</li> + <li>torpedo tubes on submarine, iv: 210;</li> + <li>being placed in position on submarine, xi: 246.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Torpedoplane, iv: 306.</li> +<li>Toul, Cathedral corner, v: 160.</li> +<li>Tower of London, vi: 11.</li> +<li>Tractors, + <ul class="index"> + <li>for hauling artillery, viii: 42;</li> + <li>for transporting tanks, viii: 141;</li> + <li>tractor motor truck, viii: 290;</li> + <li>use in plowing, <a href="#Page_76">xii: 76</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Treaty of 1839, facsimile of signatures to, guaranteeing Belgian neutrality, i: 147.</li> +<li>Trench stoves, captured from Germans, vi: 87.</li> +<li>Trenches, + <ul class="index"> + <li>construction of, i: 360;</li> + <li>barbed-wire entrance to, ii: 284;</li> + <li>soldiers in entrance to dugout, v: 76;</li> + <li>diagram of, showing method of attack in reducing forts, viii: 125;</li> + <li>hallway of underground dwelling, viii: 129;</li> + <li>machinery used in digging, viii: 130;</li> + <li>communicating, viii: 330;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> under name of country, Army.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Trent, river front, vi: 130.</li> +<li>Trieste, + <ul class="index"> + <li>water front, ii: 52;</li> + <li>market scene, ii: 245.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Troopship, religious service on board, iv: 228.</li> +<li>Trudeau Sanitarium, French children under Red Cross care at, vii: 200.</li> +<li>Tsing Tau, + <ul class="index"> + <li>wireless station wrecked by Japanese fire, iii: 259;</li> + <li>barbed-wire entanglements outside walls of, iv: 61.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Turkey, army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>leaving for the front, ii: 31;</li> + <li>infantry at attention, iii: 166;</li> + <li>artillery on way to Suez Canal, iii: 189;</li> + <li>putting up hospital tents, vii: 365.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Tyrol, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Italians advancing, iii: 242;</li> + <li>Austrian stronghold, vi: 309.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Uilg" id="Uilg">U</a></li> +<li><cite>U-58</cite>, German submarine captured by U. S. destroyer, iv: 349.</li> +<li><cite>U-65</cite>, German submarine, ii: 20.</li> +<li><cite>U-105</cite>, German submarine, interior of, iv: 237.</li> +<li>Uhlans, German, in Belgium, xi: 196.</li> +<li>Ukrainian peasants, vi: 242.</li> +<li>United States: + <ul class="index"> + <li>Agriculture, in war time, <a href="#Page_84">xii: 84</a>, <a href="#Page_137">xii: 137</a>, <a href="#Page_147">xii: 147</a>.</li> + <li>Army, + <ul class="index"> + <li>setting-up exercises, i: 308, 365;</li> + <li>training for trench warfare, i: 338;</li> + <li>equipment, i: 352; + <ul class="index"> + <li>with cost of each item, xi: 169;</li> + </ul></li> + <li>field headquarters telegraph station, i: 353;</li> + <li>student officers in training, i: 367, v: 285;</li> + <li>on Mexican border, i: 368;</li> + <li>Signal Corps men at work, i: 372, v: 319;</li> + <li>marching in Paris, July 4, '17, ii: <em>Intro. xxiv</em>;</li> + <li>on march over French roads, ii: 219;</li> + <li>advancing at Cantigny, ii: 271, x: 75;</li> + <li>on regimental parade, ii: 305; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></p></li> + + <li>first unit of women telephone operators, ii: 309;</li> + <li>recruits drilling, ii: 313;</li> + <li>military lecture, ii: 315;</li> + <li>first troops reaching France, ii: 316, iii: 81, iv: 158, 162;</li> + <li>student officers at Fort Oglethorpe, ii: 319;</li> + <li>return from France (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 348;</li> + <li>debarking at Brest, v: 3;</li> + <li>machine gunners at rest, v: 20;</li> + <li>resting after march, v: 26;</li> + <li>an infantry-man, v: 30;</li> + <li>resting near Marne front, v: 42;</li> + <li>supporting wounded poilu, v: 50;</li> + <li>on way to front, v: 60, 63, 381;</li> + <li>marching through ruined town, v: 68;</li> + <li>territory to advance through in Meuse-Argonne region, v: 75;</li> + <li>advancing through Argonne forest, v: 82, 247;</li> + <li>officer's dugout, v: 89;</li> + <li>first camp in France, v: 107;</li> + <li>graves of first killed in France, v: 111;</li> + <li>hand grenade practice, v: 112;</li> + <li>boxing match for recreation, v: 114, vii: 314;</li> + <li>veterans of Cantigny, v: 125;</li> + <li>motorized machine-gun unit, v: 142;</li> + <li>infantry in firing trenches, v: 144;</li> + <li>washing day, v: 149;</li> + <li>sketches of A. E. F. types, v: 151;</li> + <li>troops coming out of action at Château-Thierry, v: 153;</li> + <li>passing through Thiaucourt, v: 162;</li> + <li>making friends with French children, v: 164;</li> + <li>advancing over open field, v: 169;</li> + <li>infantry advancing with tank protection, v: 181, 193;</li> + <li>billeted in French farmhouse, v: 189;</li> + <li>M. P. quarters, v: 200;</li> + <li>officers' quarters in the Argonne, v: 217;</li> + <li>advancing near Badonville, v: 232;</li> + <li>A. E. F. cemetery at Romagne, Argonne, v: 233;</li> + <li>men of 77th Div. in the Argonne, v: 244;</li> + <li>A. E. F. positions on the Aisne, v: 259;</li> + <li>marching into Alsace, v: 267, <a href="#Page_288">xii: 288</a>;</li> + <li>negro troops being decorated, v: 268;</li> + <li>N. Y. National Guardsmen in training at Camp Wadsworth, v: 283;</li> + <li>a tank unit in training, v: 287;</li> + <li>27th Div. returning home on <cite>Leviathan</cite>, v: 298;</li> + <li>student officers at Fort McPherson, v: 301;</li> + <li>aviator " true-ing" plane, v: 311;</li> + <li>assembling Liberty planes in France, v: 313;</li> + <li>supplies for A. E. F. on Brest docks, v: 329;</li> + <li>field of auto trucks, v: 333;</li> + <li>salvage unit at work, v: 334, viii: 346;</li> + <li>assembling locomotives in France, v: 335;</li> + <li>reveille (in color), v: <em>facing p.</em> 354;</li> + <li>parade and inspection (in color), v: <em>facing p.</em> 358;</li> + <li>visitors' day at camp (in color), v: <em>facing p.</em> 362;</li> + <li>taps (in color), v: <em>facing p.</em> 366;</li> + <li>soldier saluting grave of poilu, v: 374;</li> + <li>off duty, v: 376;</li> + <li>Chicago recruits on way to training camp, v: 377;</li> + <li>bringing in wounded French soldier, v: 386;</li> + <li>in a bombarded village, v: 387;</li> + <li>in Genoa, v: 394;</li> + <li>group of ambulances and drivers, vii: 31;</li> + <li>convalescent soldiers sightseeing in London, vii: 40;</li> + <li>medical officers treating wounded on field, vii: 46;</li> + <li>hospital trains, vii: 58, 107, 252, viii: 380;</li> + <li>type of Scotch member, vii: 176;</li> + <li>type of Scandinavian member, vii: 177;</li> + <li>type of negro member, vii: 178;</li> + <li>type of English member, vii: 179;</li> + <li>type of Armenian member, vii: 180;</li> + <li>type of Greek member, vii: 181;</li> + <li>type of Irish member, vii: 183;</li> + <li>type of Italian member, vii: 184;</li> + <li>type of Jewish member, vii: 185;</li> + <li>in line for inoculation at training camp, vii: 195;</li> + <li>dental officers at work, vii: 210, 223;</li> + <li>convalescing wounded soldiers in workshop, vii: 214;</li> + <li>A. E. F. cemetery at Luresnes, vii: 224;</li> + <li>entertainment for wounded, vii: 231, 347;</li> + <li>wounded soldier under operation, vii: 257;</li> + <li>class of illiterate recruits being taught, vii: 280;</li> + <li>42nd Div. on march, vii: 292;</li> + <li>playing ball, vii: 315;</li> + <li>soldier-students at Eagle Hut, London, vii: 320;</li> + <li>type of Polish member, vii: 356;</li> + <li>wounded arriving in New York, vii: 390;</li> + <li>types of rifles, viii: 98, 99, 100, 103, 105;</li> + <li>bayonet practice, viii: 106, 107, 108, 109, xi: 162, 166;</li> + <li>gas training, viii: 121;</li> + <li>motorized kitchen, viii: 287;</li> + <li>in Vaux, x: 7;</li> + <li>machine gunners in action, x: 103;</li> + <li>gravestones of A. E. F. dead, x: 115;</li> + <li>bugler, x: 386;</li> + <li>parading in Paris, July 4, '19, x: 389;</li> + <li>charging drill, x: 398;</li> + <li>National Army men in camp in winter, xi: 5;</li> + <li>on march at Fort Sherman, xi: 36;</li> + <li>training to go " Over the top," xi: 38;</li> + <li>French soldiers instructing Americans, xi: 44;</li> + <li>National Army draftees arriving at camp, xi: 156;</li> + <li>recruits learning manual of arms, xi: 160;</li> + <li>army mule getting hair-cut, xi: 164;</li> + <li>cavalry stunts, xi: 171;</li> + <li>type of American Indian in, xi: 177;</li> + <li>firing practice, xi: 304;</li> + <li>repairing telephone lines in France, xi: 305;</li> + <li>field telephoning, xi: 307;</li> + <li>operating sawmill behind the lines in France, xi: 311;</li> + <li>group singing, xi: 336, 338;</li> + <li>drilling awkward squad, <a href="#Page_104">xii: 104</a>;</li> + <li>Secretary Baker drawing draft numbers, <a href="#Page_289">xii: 289</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Artillery, coast defense guns, i: 346, v: 307, viii: 27, 41; + <ul class="index"> + <li>mountain-guns, i: 371, viii: 25;</li> + <li>guns which took part in second Marne battle, iii: 95;</li> + <li>A. E. F. battery on way to front, v: 64;</li> + <li>heavy French gun manned by U. S. Coast Artillery gunners in action in France, v: 166;</li> + <li>Marine gunners with field piece, v: 171;</li> + <li>French guns for A. E. F. use, v: 172;</li> + <li>storing shells, v: 173;</li> + <li>gun which fired last shot of war, v: 276;</li> + <li>at practice, v: 304, xi: 162;</li> + <li>naval gun on caterpillar mount for use on Western Front, v: 306;</li> + <li>training artillery officers, viii: 9;</li> + <li>telescopic sight on field guns, viii: 12;</li> + <li>3-in. gun, viii: 23;</li> + <li>6-in. railway-mount gun, viii: 37;</li> + <li>16-in. railway-mount howitzer, viii: 39;</li> + <li>path of shell flight of proposed 121-mile range gun, viii: 50;</li> + <li>sketch of 121-mile range gun, viii: 51;</li> + <li>range-finding, x: 132;</li> + <li>type of heavy railway-mount gun, xi: 276.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Congress, President Wilson addressing, on relations with Germany, i: 329.</li> + <li>Declaration of war on Germany, facsimile copy, ii: 55.</li> + <li>Flag, + <ul class="index"> + <li>presented to President Wilson by Frenchwomen, i: 394;</li> + <li>used by American ambulance workers in Franco-Prussian War, vii: 319;</li> + <li>in St. Paul's Cathedral, London, x: 30;</li> + <li>original Star-spangled Banner, xi: 330.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Marines, + <ul class="index"> + <li>embarking for overseas, ii: 223;</li> + <li>operating anti-aircraft gun on warship, iv: 338;</li> + <li>operating anti-aircraft machine gun on land, v: 11;</li> + <li>recruiting poster, v: 131, x: 316;</li> + <li>in Belleau Woods, v: 137;</li> + <li>with 3-in. field artillery, v: 171;</li> + <li>storing ammunition in dugout, v: 173;</li> + <li>advancing with hand grenades, v: 176;</li> + <li>in artillery contest, v: 304;</li> + <li>in bayonet drill, viii: 108;</li> + <li>scene of first stand against Germans, x: 3;</li> + <li>Gen. Neville decorating colors of 6th Regt., x: 199;</li> + <li>advancing to Belleau Woods, xi: 45.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Navy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>members of War Council, iv: <em>Intro. xi</em>;</li> + <li>sailors in Victory Parade, New York City, iv: 138;</li> + <li>battleships of Atlantic fleet, iv: 161, 336;</li> + <li>submarine chaser, iv: 293;</li> + <li>types of submarines, iv: 299, viii: 280, xi: 240;</li> + <li>recruiting poster, iv: 316;</li> + <li>recruits learning to make knots, iv: 318;</li> + <li>returning from torpedo practice, iv: 321;</li> + <li>mine-laying, iv: 324, 325, 326, 327, 331, 332;</li> + <li>taps, iv: 334;</li> + <li>sailors dancing on board ship (in color), iv: <em>facing p.</em> 334;</li> + <li>anti-aircraft guns on board ship manned by marines, iv: 338;</li> + <li>sailors washing clothes, iv: 339;</li> + <li>sailors in " crow's nest," iv: 342;</li> + <li>supply ship taking on cargo for A. E. F., iv: 347; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></p></li> + + <li>naval militiamen off for service, iv: 351;</li> + <li>sailor's Christmas box from home (in color), iv: <em>facing p.</em> 366;</li> + <li>patrol boat in French waters, iv: 378;</li> + <li>signalling practice, iv: 402;</li> + <li>battleship taking on provisions, v: 330;</li> + <li>students at naval radio school at Harvard University, viii: 318;</li> + <li>fleet on high seas, xi: 30;</li> + <li>strong man of Norfolk Training Station, xi: 158;</li> + <li>dreadnaughts saluting President Wilson, <a href="#Page_227">xii: 227</a>;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> name of vessels.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Ship-building, + <ul class="index"> + <li>at Camden, N. J., <a href="#Page_30">xii: 30</a>;</li> + <li>at Seattle, Wash., <a href="#Page_93">xii: 93</a>;</li> + <li>at Bayonne, N. J., <a href="#Page_102">xii: 102</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Utah</cite>, U. S. battleship, iv: 341.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Vilg" id="Vilg">V</a></li> +<li>Vaux, Fort, at Verdun, ruins of, ii: 187.</li> +<li>Vaux, + <ul class="index"> + <li>village in Marne sector, airplane view, v: 36;</li> + <li>ruins of, x: 6;</li> + <li>American troops in, x: 7.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Venice, + <ul class="index"> + <li>guarding art treasures against air attack, vi: 316;</li> + <li>Campanile of St. Mark's, vi: 319, 320.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Verdun, + <ul class="index"> + <li>views on banks of Meuse, ii: 37, iii: 61, 303;</li> + <li>German Crown Prince decorating troops at, ii: 38;</li> + <li>battlefield, ii: 39;</li> + <li>behind German lines at, ii: 46;</li> + <li>ruins of Fort Vaux, ii: 187;</li> + <li>trenches on Hill 304, ii: 188;</li> + <li>Cathedral, iii: 53;</li> + <li>main gateway, iii: 54;</li> + <li>captured German positions, iii: 315;</li> + <li>aviation camp near, viii: 233.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Versailles, + <ul class="index"> + <li>entry of King William of Prussia into, 1871, i: 46;</li> + <li>proclamation of German Empire at, 1871, i: 55;</li> + <li>Palace of, vi: 101;</li> + <li>Hall of Mirrors, <a href="#Page_157">xii: 157</a>;</li> + <li>signature of Peace Treaty, <a href="#Page_160">xii: 160</a>;</li> + <li>German press representatives at, <a href="#Page_220">xii: 220</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Victory Way, New York City, <a href="#Page_133">xii: 133</a>.</li> +<li>Vienna, Congress of, i: 31.</li> +<li><cite>Ville de Paris</cite>, French dirigible, viii: 242.</li> +<li>Vilna, vi: 235.</li> +<li>Vimy Ridge, Canadians going over top, iii: 69.</li> +<li><cite>Vindictive</cite>, British cruiser, + <ul class="index"> + <li>after Zeebrugge raid, iv: 263, 271, 273, 278;</li> + <li>officers of, iv: 267;</li> + <li>crew of, iv: 271;</li> + <li>being sunk in Ostend harbor, iv: 276.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Viribus Unitis</cite>, Austrian dreadnought, x: 298.</li> +<li>Vladivostok, + <ul class="index"> + <li>A. E. F. base at, vi: 188;</li> + <li>U. S. consulate at, vi: 192;</li> + <li>Allied troops on parade, vi: 193.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Volunteer Motor Service, members of, vii: 32.</li> +<li><cite>Von Der Tann</cite>, German battleship surrendered at Scapa Flow, iv: 389.</li> +<li>Vosges Mountains, French " Blue Devils" watching long-range bombardment (in color), viii: <em>facing p.</em> 122 in color,.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Wilg" id="Wilg">W</a></li> +<li>War Savings Stamps, prize poster, x: 346.</li> +<li>Warneford, Lieut, R. A. J., death of, x: 224.</li> +<li>Warsaw, iii: 126; + <ul class="index"> + <li>unloading American relief supplies, vii: 355.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Water, canvas pipe-line for supplying troops in the field, viii: 395.</li> +<li>Water-boy at Salonika, xi: 63.</li> +<li>Waterloo, Napoleon's retreat from, i: 7.</li> +<li>Watervliet Arsenal, U. S. gun shop, i: 304.</li> +<li>Westminster, home of Duke of, transformed into war hospital, vii: 89.</li> +<li>William II, former Emperor of Germany, residence at Amerongen, Holland, ix: 358.</li> +<li>Wilson, Woodrow, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Princeton home, ix: 60;</li> + <li>Paris residence, ix: 67, 68;</li> + <li>Swiss medal cast in honor of, ix: 69.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Wireless, + <ul class="index"> + <li>talking from airplane to ground by means of, viii: 316;</li> + <li>U. S. Naval Radio School at Harvard, viii: 318;</li> + <li>German station at Metz, viii: 319;</li> + <li>arc transmitter at Metz wireless station, viii: 321.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Wisconsin, University of, Army Training Corps on hike, xi: 172.</li> +<li>Woevre, plain of the, iii: 309.</li> +<li>Women in war industries: + <ul class="index"> + <li>American, + <ul class="index"> + <li>munition workers, <a href="#Page_3">xii: 3</a>;</li> + <li>raising hogs, <a href="#Page_54">xii: 54</a>;</li> + <li>farm workers, <a href="#Page_84">xii: 84</a>;</li> + <li>plowing with tractor, <a href="#Page_147">xii: 147</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>British, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Women's Land Army recruiting poster, vi: 13;</li> + <li>in iron foundry, vi: 15, 22;</li> + <li>as munition workers, vi: 16, 59, <a href="#Page_23">xii: 23</a>;</li> + <li>as war gardeners, vi: 19, <a href="#Page_41">xii: 41</a>;</li> + <li>building roads, <a href="#Page_20">xii: 20</a>.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Canadian, making shell fuses, vi: 32.</li> + <li>French, + <ul class="index"> + <li>as farm laborers, ii: 375, iii: 276;</li> + <li>as munition workers, xi: 283.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Unidentified, + <ul class="index"> + <li>girl munition worker, ii: 327;</li> + <li>as railroad workers, vii: 296.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>For women in war activities, <em>see</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>American Fund for French wounded;</li> + <li>Canteens;</li> + <li>Nurses;</li> + <li>Red Cross;</li> + <li>Salvation Army;</li> + <li>Young Men's Christian Association.</li> + </ul></li> + </ul></li> +<li>" Workshop for Working Girls," established by Edith Wharton in France, vii: 101.</li> +<li>Wounded: + <ul class="index"> + <li>American, + <ul class="index"> + <li>loading on ambulance train for transportation to debarkation point, vii: 58;</li> + <li>visited by Red Cross worker on train, vii: 107;</li> + <li>wounded Scotch member, vii: 176;</li> + <li>wounded Scandinavian member, vii: 177;</li> + <li>wounded negro member, vii: 178;</li> + <li>wounded English member, vii: 179;</li> + <li>wounded Armenian member, vii: 180;</li> + <li>wounded Greek member, vii: 181;</li> + <li>wounded Irish member, vii: 183;</li> + <li>wounded Italian members, vii: 184;</li> + <li>wounded Jewish members, vii: 185;</li> + <li>being carried to first aid station, vii: 218;</li> + <li>at entertainment for, vii: 231;</li> + <li>in hospital car, vii: 252;</li> + <li>being helped by Knights of Columbus, vii: 336, 338;</li> + <li>at Debarkation Hospital No. 5, New York City, vii: 347;</li> + <li>wounded Polish member, vii: 356;</li> + <li>arriving at New York, vii: 390;</li> + <li>being carried on airplane ambulance, viii: 368;</li> + <li>on board hospital ship <cite>Mercy</cite>, viii: 370.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>British, + <ul class="index"> + <li>being served food in France (in color), ii: <em>facing p.</em> 190;</li> + <li>wounded Anzacs, iii: 169, 172;</li> + <li>at advance dressing-station in Palestine, iii: 326;</li> + <li>after a battle in Flanders, iii: 385;</li> + <li>being carried to dressing-station on Western Front, vii: 50;</li> + <li>being treated at dressing-station behind the lines, vii: 65, 97;</li> + <li>making souvenirs at Red Cross Gift House, London, vii: 70;</li> + <li>at home of Duke of Westminster, vii: 89;</li> + <li>at Prince of Wales Hospital, Tottenham, vii: 108;</li> + <li>awaiting first aid, vii: 196;</li> + <li>being carried by French soldiers to dressing-station, vii: 232;</li> + <li>awaiting transportation, vii: 238;</li> + <li>method of transporting in Mesopotamia, vii: 260;</li> + <li>Canadians at home of Lady Astor, vii: 281;</li> + <li>at Neuve Chapelle, xi: 187.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>French, + <ul class="index"> + <li>first recipients of Croix de Guerre, iii: 12;</li> + <li>being supported by American soldier, v: 50;</li> + <li>being brought in by American soldiers, v: 386;</li> + <li>being greeted in Switzerland, vi: 381;</li> + <li>being removed from field, vii: 8;</li> + <li>receiving first aid on field, vii: 53;</li> + <li>at a fête for, vii: 59;</li> + <li>being treated at dressing-station behind the lines, vii: 65;</li> + <li>at Verdun, vii: 66;</li> + <li>promenading with their nurses, vii: 98;</li> + <li>in a hospital train, vii: 239;</li> + <li>resting, x: 112.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>German, + <ul class="index"> + <li>being treated by A. E. F. medical officers, vii: 46;</li> + <li>too seriously wounded to be transported, vii: 80;</li> + <li>being brought in on improvised stretcher, vii: 88;</li> + <li>being nursed by Dutch nuns at Red Cross Hospital, Maastricht, vii: 174;</li> + <li>getting a smoke from British Tommy, vii: 186;</li> + <li>being removed from field, vii: 208;</li> + <li>awaiting transportation, vii: 238.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Italian, being cared for by American Red Cross workers (in color), vii: <em>facing p.</em> 300, <em>facing p.</em> 374.</li> + <li>Russian, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in Siberian hospital, vii: 79; + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></p></li> + + <li>too seriously wounded to be transported, vii: 80;</li> + <li>Cossack officer, vii: 363.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Unclassified, + <ul class="index"> + <li>being helped by comrades, vi: 237;</li> + <li>being attended by medical unit men on field, vii: 182;</li> + <li>blind learning modelling, vii: 256;</li> + <li>blind learning basket-making, vii: 259;</li> + <li>being visited in hospitals by Y. M. C. A. workers, vii: 289, 311;</li> + <li>being brought to surface from dugout by windlass, vii: 304;</li> + <li>moved by means of trench trolley, vii: 306;</li> + <li>awaiting the stretcher bearers, vii: 309;</li> + <li>on board hospital ship, vii: 396;</li> + <li>being picked up by ambulance men, vii: 400.</li> + </ul></li> + <li><em>See also</em> + <ul class="index"> + <li>Ambulances;</li> + <li>Battle scenes;</li> + <li>Dead;</li> + <li>Hospitals;</li> + </ul></li> + <li><em>also</em> Army under country.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Wright warplane, xi: 218.</li> +<li>Wright-Martin reconnaissance airplane, ii: 124.</li> +<li><cite>Wyoming</cite>, U. S. battleship, iv: 397, x: 336.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Xilg" id="Xilg">X</a></li> +<li>X-ray, + <ul class="index"> + <li>apparatus on U. S. hospital ship <cite>Mercy</cite>, viii: 374;</li> + <li>use by custom inspectors to detect smuggling, <a href="#Page_99">xii: 99</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Yilg" id="Yilg">Y</a></li> +<li>"Y" gun, for launching depth bombs, iv: 332.</li> +<li>Yarmouth, England, after German air raid, ii: 257.</li> +<li>Young Men's Christian Association: + <ul class="index"> + <li>American, + <ul class="index"> + <li>motor kitchen, vii: 216;</li> + <li>Chicago gymnasium turned into sleeping quarters for service men, vii: 262;</li> + <li>Brooklyn hospital unit in training, vii: 263, 278;</li> + <li>Eagle Hut, London, vii: 264, 288, 320;</li> + <li>Eagle Hut, New York City, vii: 265;</li> + <li>women canteen workers, vii: 269, 270;</li> + <li>ruins of hut blown by German mine, vii: 273;</li> + <li>in zone of German bombardment, vii: 274;</li> + <li>visiting wounded in hospitals, vii: 289, 311;</li> + <li>in Italy, vii: 291;</li> + <li>baths and beds for service men, vii: 295;</li> + <li>in dugouts, vii: 307;</li> + <li>sports for service men, vii: 315.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>British, + <ul class="index"> + <li>leading party of service men sightseeing in London, vii: 285;</li> + <li>providing service men in London with over-night accommodation, vii: 287;</li> + <li>in Egypt, vii: 325.</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Canadian, at a Toronto camp, vii: 305.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Young Women's Christian Association, American, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Hostess House at Le Mans, France, vii: 272;</li> + <li>social center for negro troops, vii: 275;</li> + <li>Inter-Allied Club for Women at Le Havre, France, vii: 276;</li> + <li>vacation house for American women at Chaumont, France, vii: 317.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Ypres, + <ul class="index"> + <li>ruins of (in color), i: <em>facing p.</em> 98;</li> + <li>ruins of, ii: 145, x: 356;</li> + <li>veterans of second battle of, i: 379;</li> + <li>Highlanders attacking at, ii: 213.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Yser River, a Belgian bridge across, iii: 77.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Zilg" id="Zilg">Z</a></li> +<li>Zeebrugge raid, + <ul class="index"> + <li>British cruiser <cite>Vindictive</cite> at, iv: 263, 271, 273, 278;</li> + <li>British landing party battling, iv: 265;</li> + <li>officers and men of <cite>Vindictive</cite>, iv: 266, 267, 273;</li> + <li>British ships sunk in canal to block channel, iv: 269;</li> + <li>British ferry-boats <cite>Iris</cite> and <cite>Daffodil</cite> after taking part in, iv: 270.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Zeppelins, + <ul class="index"> + <li>being guided by lighthouse, ii: 265;</li> + <li>interior, ii: 269;</li> + <li>early type, viii: 247;</li> + <li><cite>L-49</cite> brought down by French, viii: 249;</li> + <li>fuel tanks on <cite>L-49</cite>, viii: 253;</li> + <li>pilot's gondola, x: 226;</li> + <li><cite>L-15</cite> sinking, x: 361.</li> + </ul></li> +<li><cite>Zrinyi</cite>, Austrian battleship, iv: 363. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></p></li> + +</ul> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2>MAPS</h2> + +<table style="width:75%;" border="1" summary="index"> +<tr> +<th><a href="#Amap">A</a></th> +<th><a href="#Bmap">B</a></th> +<th><a href="#Cmap">C</a></th> +<th><a href="#Dmap">D</a></th> +<th><a href="#Emap">E</a></th> +<th><a href="#Fmap">F</a></th> +<th><a href="#Gmap">G</a></th> +<th></th> +<th><a href="#Imap">I</a></th> +<th><a href="#Jmap">J</a></th> +<th><a href="#Kmap">K</a></th> +<th><a href="#Lmap">L</a></th> +<th><a href="#Mmap">M</a></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<th><a href="#Nmap">N</a></th> +<th></th> +<th><a href="#Pmap">P</a></th> +<th></th> +<th><a href="#Rmap">R</a></th> +<th><a href="#Smap">S</a></th> +<th><a href="#Tmap">T</a></th> +<th><a href="#Umap">U</a></th> +<th><a href="#Vmap">V</a></th> +<th><a href="#Wmap">W</a></th> +<th></th> +<th><a href="#Ymap">Y</a></th> +<th><a href="#Zmap">Z</a></th> +</tr> +</table> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Amap" id="Amap">A</a></li> +<li>Africa, European colonies in, iii: 253.</li> +<li>Albania, ii: 34, 61, 239; + <ul class="index"> + <li>in color, iii: <em>facing p.</em> 212.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Amiens, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German drive on, Mar., '18, ii: 191;</li> + <li>battle lines, '14—'18, ii: 312.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Armistice, Nov. 11, '18, + <ul class="index"> + <li>battle lines on all fronts in Europe (in color), ii: <em>facing p. xxiv</em>;</li> + <li>battle line on Western Front (in color), ii: <em>facing p.</em> 86, v: <em>facing p.</em> 372;</li> + <li>battle line on A. E. F. sector (in color), v: <em>facing p.</em> 72;</li> + <li>battle line on A. E. F. sector, v: 273.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Arras, area of British offensive, Apr., '17, iii: 71.</li> +<li>Arras-Neuve Chapelle sector, iii: 45.</li> +<li>Atlantic Ocean, area of German submarine blockade (in color), i: <em>facing p.</em>356; + <ul class="index"> + <li>area of German submarine blockade, ii: 21.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Austro-Italian Front, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Alpine frontier, showing fortresses and mountain passes, iii: 227;</li> + <li>the Trentino, iii: 232;</li> + <li>Isonzo district, iii: 235;</li> + <li>battle lines, showing furthest Italian and Austrian advances, with topography and rail communications (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 246;</li> + <li>north of Venice, xi: 25;</li> + <li>Italian advance on Trieste, xi: 26.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Austro-Russian Front, iii: 120, 133; + <ul class="index"> + <li>battle line, Aug. 5, '15, iii: 139.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Austro-Serbian frontier, iii: 152.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Bmap" id="Bmap">B</a></li> +<li>Bagdad Railway, route of, ii: 293.</li> +<li>Balkans, + <ul class="index"> + <li>national boundaries in '14, ii: 34;</li> + <li>territorial adjustments resulting from Balkan Wars, ii: 61;</li> + <li>southeastern, and Dardanelles, topography of, ii: 199;</li> + <li>western, and Italy, ii: 239;</li> + <li>topography, boundaries, and railroads, '14 (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 212.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Belgian Front, June, '17, iii: 40; + <ul class="index"> + <li>for particular sector or locality, <em>see</em> under name.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Belgium, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German and French frontiers, ii: 7;</li> + <li>concentration of German armies along border before invasion, Aug., '14, iii: 7;</li> + <li>and northern France, iii: 11.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Boy Scouts, distribution of, in U. S., xi: 95.</li> +<li>Bulgaria, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in '14 (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 212;</li> + <li>in '14, ii: 34,</li> + <li>boundaries before and after Balkan Wars, ii: 61.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Cmap" id="Cmap">C</a></li> +<li>Cambrai, battle of, iii: 82.</li> +<li>Cantigny, battle line near, v: 124.</li> +<li>Carpathian passes, iii: 120, 133.</li> +<li>Caucasus Front, iii: 261.</li> +<li>Château-Thierry sector, v: 136.</li> +<li>Coronel, battle of, with chart of position and movements of opposing warships, iv: 65.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Dmap" id="Dmap">D</a></li> +<li>Dardanelles, + <ul class="index"> + <li>with topography of shores, ii: 199;</li> + <li>showing mine fields, location of Allied ships sunk, and fortifications and roads on Gallipoli Peninsula, ii: 291;</li> + <li>with detail of southern Gallipoli, iii: 163;</li> + <li>with Sea of Marmora and Bosphorus, iv: 19;</li> + <li>with topography of shores, showing Turkish positions (in color), iv: <em>facing p.</em> 38.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dixmude-Ypres line, June, '17, iii: 40.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Emap" id="Emap">E</a></li> +<li>East Prussia, iii: 107, 109.</li> +<li>Europe, and Near East, + <ul class="index"> + <li>showing projected German expansion from North Sea to Persian Gulf, i: 6;</li> + <li>areas of German occupation, '16, i: 10;</li> + <li>in '14, ii: <em>Intro. xi</em>;</li> + <li>armistice lines, Nov. 11, '18 (in color), ii: <em>Intro. facing p. xxiv</em>;</li> + <li>southeastern topography, boundaries, and railroads of (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 212;</li> + <li>important battles and events of war, '14—'17, xi: 13;</li> + <li>food conditions after Armistice, Nov. 11, '18, <a href="#Page_43">xii: 43</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Fmap" id="Fmap">F</a></li> +<li>Falkland Islands, battle of, with chart of position and movements of opposing fleets, iv: 71.</li> +<li>France, + <ul class="index"> + <li>German and Belgian frontiers, ii: 7;</li> + <li>Marne-Aisne-Oise district, ii: 10;</li> + <li>northern, and Belgium, iii: 11;</li> + <li>A. E. F. supply depots and lines of communications, v: 5;</li> + <li>principal ports, v: 5;</li> + <li>for battle lines, <em>see</em> name of sector or locality;</li> + <li><em>also</em> Western Front.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Gmap" id="Gmap">G</a></li> +<li>Gallipoli, + <ul class="index"> + <li>topography, ii: 199;</li> + <li>with detail of elevations, roads, Turkish fortifications, and areas of Allied occupation, ii: 291, iii: 163;</li> + <li>and northwestern Turkey, iv: 19;</li> + <li>topography with Turkish lines and forts (in color), iv: <em>facing p.</em> 38.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Germany, + <ul class="index"> + <li>projected expansion from North Sea to Persian Gulf, i: 6;</li> + <li>Empire before war, i: 39;</li> + <li>Empire after war, i: 40;</li> + <li>Belgian and French frontiers, ii: 7;</li> + <li>Russian frontier, iii: 107, 109.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Great Britain, + <ul class="index"> + <li>showing areas of German submarine blockade around (in color), i: <em>facing p.</em> 356;</li> + <li>showing areas of German submarine blockade around, ii: 21;</li> + <li>German sea raid on coast, Dec., '14, iv: 245.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Greece, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in '14, ii: 34,</li> + <li>in '14 (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 212;</li> + <li>boundaries before and after Balkan Wars, ii: 61.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Imap" id="Imap">I</a></li> +<li>Iceland, Allied patrol areas off coast of, iv: 90.</li> +<li>Indian Ocean, showing trade routes and British possessions, iv: 179.</li> +<li>Isonzo, + <ul class="index"> + <li>region of (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 246;</li> + <li>region of, iii: 227, 235.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Italian Front, <em>see</em> Austro-Italian Front.</li> +<li>Italy, + <ul class="index"> + <li>and territories claimed under Treaty of London, ii: 239;</li> + <li>distribution of American Red Cross relief work in, vii: 83.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Jmap" id="Jmap">J</a></li> +<li>Jutland, battle of, + <ul class="index"> + <li>showing position of opposing fleets before start of engagement, iv: 103;</li> + <li>charts of movements of opposing fleets during course of battle, iv: 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 116, 117, 118, 120, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 134.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Kmap" id="Kmap">K</a></li> +<li>Keeling Island, iv: 185.</li> +<li>Kiau-Chau, iii: 258.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Lmap" id="Lmap">L</a></li> +<li>Luxemburg, ii: 7.</li> +<li>Lys salient, iii: 90.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Mmap" id="Mmap">M</a></li> +<li>Marne, first battle of, showing position of opposing armies, iii: 30, 31.</li> +<li>Marne salient, + <ul class="index"> + <li>battle lines, Jan.—June, '18, ii: 72;</li> + <li>battle lines, May 26—June 12, '18, ii: 79;</li> + <li>position of German armies, July, '18, ii: 322;</li> + <li>extent of German advance, July, '18, v: 43;</li> + <li>German retreat to the Vesle, July 18—Aug. 5, '18, v: 59;</li> + <li>battle lines, June 1—Aug. 4, '18, with position of French and A. E. F. divisions (in color), v: <em>facing p.</em> 184;</li> + <li><em>see also</em> Western Front.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Marne-Aisne-Oise district, ii: 10.</li> +<li>Mediterranean Sea, area of German submarine blockade (in color), i: <em>facing p.</em> 356.</li> +<li>Mesopotamia, iii: 179, xi: 50; + <ul class="index"> + <li>in color, <em>facing p.</em> 190.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Messines Ridge, iii: 76.</li> +<li>Meuse-Argonne, + <ul class="index"> + <li>A. E. F. advance, Sept. 26—Nov. 11, '18, with positions of divisions participating, v: 72;</li> + <li>towns and roads of district, v: 77;</li> + <li>A. E. F. advance, Sept. 26—Oct. 4, '18, with positions of divisions participating (in color), v: <em>facing p.</em> 222;</li> + <li>A. E. F. advance, Sept. 26—Nov. 1, '18, with positions of divisions participating (in color), v: <em>facing p.</em> 260;</li> + <li>battle line, Nov. 11, '18, with positions of A. E. F., French, and German divisions, v: 273. + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></p></li> + + </ul></li> +<li>Montenegro, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in '14, ii: 34, iii: <em>facing p.</em> 212;</li> + <li>before and after Balkan Wars, ii: 61.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Nmap" id="Nmap">N</a></li> +<li>Naval operations, of war, locations of (in color), iv: <em>facing p.</em> 166.</li> +<li>Neuve Chapelle-Arras sector, iii: 45.</li> +<li>North Sea, + <ul class="index"> + <li>area of German submarine blockade, in color i: <em>facing p.</em> 356;</li> + <li>area of German submarine blockade, ii: 21;</li> + <li>Allied mine barrage, German naval bases, and scenes of naval battles in (in color), iv: <em>facing p.</em> 86;</li> + <li>British cruising areas, iv: 89, 91.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Pmap" id="Pmap">P</a></li> +<li>Palestine (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 190; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Palestine, iii: 193, 197, 198, 325, xi: 50.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Rmap" id="Rmap">R</a></li> +<li>Red Cross, American, + <ul class="index"> + <li>sectional divisions of U. S., vii: 16;</li> + <li>distribution of relief work in Italy, vii: 83.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Reims (Rheims)-Soissons sector, iii: 75.</li> +<li>Riga, Gulf of, iv: 137.</li> +<li>Rumania, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in '14 (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 212;</li> + <li>in '14, ii: 34, iii: 215;</li> + <li>before and after Balkan Wars, ii: 61.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Russia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>showing territories under German and Allied control, '18, ii: 67;</li> + <li>German frontier, iii: 107, 109;</li> + <li>Austrian frontier, iii: 120, 133;</li> + <li>Russo-Teuton battle line, Aug. 5, '15, iii: 139.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Smap" id="Smap">S</a></li> +<li>St. Mihiel salient, + <ul class="index"> + <li>showing battle lines and course of A. E. F. advance against, Sept., '18, in color and giving positions of French and A.E.F. divisions, v: <em>facing p.</em> 210;</li> + <li>showing battle lines and course of A. E. F. advance against, Sept., '18, ii: 338, v: 70, 385;</li> + <li>detail of terrain, v: 69.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Salonika Front, iii: 204.</li> +<li>Scapa Flow, iv: 93.</li> +<li>Scotland, British cruising areas off coasts of, iv: 89, 90, 91.</li> +<li>Serbia, + <ul class="index"> + <li>in '14 (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 212;</li> + <li>in '14, ii: 34;</li> + <li>boundaries before and after Balkan Wars, ii: 61;</li> + <li>Austrian frontier, iii: 152;</li> + <li>encirclement by Teuton armies, iii: 157.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Sinai Peninsula, iii: 193.</li> +<li>Soissons, and region to the south, v: 178.</li> +<li>Soissons-Reims (Rheims) sector, iii: 75.</li> +<li>Somme, + <ul class="index"> + <li>first battle, '16, area of, iii: 60;</li> + <li>second battle, '18, area of, iii: 87.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Somme-Oise sector, + <ul class="index"> + <li>battle lines during Allied offensive, Aug. 8—18, '18, ii: 332.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Suez Canal, iii: 193, xi: 50.</li> +<li>Syria (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 190; + <ul class="index"> + <li>Syria, iii: 198, xi: 50.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Tmap" id="Tmap">T</a></li> +<li>Tonnenberg, battle of, showing maneuvers of opposing armies, iii: 114; + <ul class="index"> + <li><em>see also</em> East Prussia.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Transylvania, iii: 215.</li> +<li>Trentino (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 246. + <ul class="index"> + <li>Trentino, iii: 227, 232.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Trieste, Italian advance on, xi: 26.</li> +<li>Tsing Tau, iii: 258.</li> +<li>Turkey, + <ul class="index"> + <li>as part of German plan of Empire from North Sea to Persian Gulf, i: 6;</li> + <li>with reference to Balkans (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 212;</li> + <li>with reference to Balkans, ii: 34;</li> + <li>territory in Europe before and after Balkan Wars, ii: 61;</li> + <li>Dardanelles region, ii: 199, iv: 19;</li> + <li>route of Bagdad Railway, ii: 293;</li> + <li>route of British campaigns in (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 190;</li> + <li>in Asia, xi: 50.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Umap" id="Umap">U</a></li> +<li>United States, + <ul class="index"> + <li>Red Cross sectional divisions, vii: 16;</li> + <li>distribution of Boy Scouts, xi: 95.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Vmap" id="Vmap">V</a></li> +<li>Verdun, + <ul class="index"> + <li>perspective of battlefield with battle lines, Feb. 20—June 14, '16 (in color), iii: <em>facing p.</em> 50;</li> + <li>battle lines and positions of opposing armies, iii: 306.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>Vimy Ridge, iii: 344.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Wmap" id="Wmap">W</a></li> +<li>Western Front, + <ul class="index"> + <li>battle line from North Sea to Reims, Apr., '17, ii: 54;</li> + <li>battle line, Mar., '18, compared with line of furthest German advance, Sept., '14, ii: 64;</li> + <li>battle lines, Sept., '14—June, '18, ii: 72;</li> + <li>battle lines, Sept. 19—Oct. 2, '18, ii: 81;</li> + <li>battle line at Armistice, Nov. 11, '18, compared with line of furthest German advance (in color), ii: <em>facing p.</em> 86;</li> + <li>plan of German concentration, Aug., '14, iii: 7;</li> + <li>battle line, Nov. 11, '14, iii: 39;</li> + <li>battle lines, Sept., '14—Sept., '18, iii: 97;</li> + <li>German advance, Aug.—Sept., '14,</li> + <li>with positions of German armies, iii: 278;</li> + <li>battle line, July, '18, v: 5;</li> + <li>position of A. E. F. divisions at Armistice, Nov. 11, '18, v: 273;</li> + <li>battle lines, July 18, '18, and Nov. 11, '18, with dates and localities of principal operations and A. E. F. divisions participating (in color), v: <em>facing p.</em> 372;</li> + <li>for particular sectors or localities, <em>see</em> name.</li> + </ul></li> +<li>World, + <ul class="index"> + <li>areas inhabited by peoples not self-governing, i: 24;</li> + <li>sources of coal and oil supply in '14, ii: 15;</li> + <li>centers of live-stock production, <a href="#Page_36">xii: 36</a>.</li> + </ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Ymap" id="Ymap">Y</a></li> +<li>Ypres, and neighborhood, iii: 11.</li> +<li>Ypres-Dixmude line, June, '17, iii: 40.</li> +<li>Yser, battle of, iii: 43.</li> +</ul> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><a name="Zmap" id="Zmap">Z</a></li> +<li>Zeebrugge, German submarine base, iv: 262.</li> +</ul> + +<table class="transcriber" summary="Transcriber's changes"> +<tr><th colspan="3">Transcriber's changes:</th></tr> +<tr><th colspan="3">The following are believed to be typos and have been corrected.</th></tr> +<tr><th>Page</th><th>Changed from</th><th>Changed to</th></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">11</td><td>out</td><td>our</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">15</td><td>finanical</td><td>financial</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">17</td><td>the</td><td>be</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">17</td><td align="left">be</td><td>the</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">22</td><td>Reichbank</td><td>Reichsbank</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">24</td><td>statiticians</td><td>statisticians</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">24</td><td>ought to to</td><td>ought to</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">25</td><td>soliders</td><td>soldiers</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">27</td><td>Jourial</td><td>Journal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">28</td><td>bonsuses</td><td>bonuses</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">31</td><td>311,070,250</td><td>60,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">31</td><td>50,000,000</td><td>60,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">31</td><td>Canadaian</td><td>Canadian</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">41</td><td>prorable</td><td>probable</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">53</td><td>Men't</td><td>Men's</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">54</td><td>offorded</td><td>afforded</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">56</td><td>there</td><td>their</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">56</td><td>pears'</td><td>years'</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">57</td><td>everage</td><td>average</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">59</td><td>sacrifce</td><td>sacrifice</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">59</td><td>drastice</td><td>drastic</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">75</td><td>exclusivevly</td><td>exclusively</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">77</td><td>accesible</td><td>accessible</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">77</td><td>comsumpton</td><td>consumption</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">80</td><td>somethink</td><td>something</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">81</td><td>rsesources</td><td>resources</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">82</td><td>beween</td><td>between</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">98</td><td>known</td><td>know</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">101</td><td>urpassed</td><td>surpassed</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">102</td><td>negotiatd</td><td>negotiated</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">114</td><td>743,556</td><td>74,556</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">126</td><td>oversea</td><td>overseas</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">130</td><td>ito</td><td>into</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">132</td><td>ecstacy</td><td>ecstasy</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">146</td><td>show</td><td>shoe</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">184</td><td>mmber</td><td>member</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">199</td><td>Asociated</td><td>Associated</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">204</td><td>givn</td><td>given</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">205</td><td>Asociated</td><td>Associated</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">215</td><td>space</td><td>spare</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">216</td><td>nutral</td><td>neutral</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">221</td><td>patricular</td><td>particular</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">235</td><td>of</td><td>if</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">254</td><td>line</td><td>lines</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">260</td><td>case</td><td>cast</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">263</td><td>occured</td><td>occurred</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">332</td><td>Maestricht</td><td>Maastricht</td></tr> +<tr><td class="numeric">353</td><td>Jaulognne</td><td>Jaulgonne</td></tr> +</table> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Harper's Pictorial Library of the +World War, Volume XII, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HARPER'S PICTORIAL LIBRARY, VOL XII *** + +***** This file should be named 44213-h.htm or 44213-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/2/1/44213/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Martin Mayer and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at 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