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diff --git a/old/44213.txt b/old/44213.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..db3b222 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44213.txt @@ -0,0 +1,46394 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Harper's Pictorial Library of the World +War, Volume XII, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Harper's Pictorial Library of the World War, Volume XII + The Great Results of the War + +Author: Various + +Contributor: Irving Fisher + +Editor: W. L. Bevan + Hugo C. M. Wendel + +Release Date: November 17, 2013 [EBook #44213] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HARPER'S PICTORIAL LIBRARY, VOL XII *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Martin Mayer and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + HARPER'S PICTORIAL LIBRARY + OF THE WORLD WAR + + _In Twelve Volumes + Profusely Illustrated_ + + VOLUME XII + + THE GREAT RESULTS OF THE WAR + + Economics and Finance, The Peace + Treaty, The League of Nations. Index + + +[Illustration: Painting by Frank Stick A Soldier of the Soil] + + + =HARPER'S PICTORIAL LIBRARY + OF THE WORLD WAR= + + _In Twelve Volumes + Profusely Illustrated_ + + FOREWORD BY CHARLES W. ELIOT, PhD. + + _President Emeritus, Harvard University_ + + VOLUME XII + + The Great Results of the War + + _Economics and Finance, The Treaty of Versailles + and League of Nations----Index_ + + WITH INTRODUCTION BY PROFESSOR IRVING FISHER, YALE UNIVERSITY + + _Edited by_ + + DR. W. L. BEVAN, KENYON COLLEGE + _and_ + DR. HUGO C. M. WENDEL, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY + + GENERAL EDITORIAL BOARD + + PROF. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART + Harvard University + + GEN. DOUGLAS MACARTHUR, U.S.A. + Chief of Staff, 42nd Division + + ADMIRAL ALBERT GLEAVES + U.S. Navy + + PROF. W. O. STEVENS + U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis + + GEN. ULYSSES G. MCALEXANDER + U.S. Army + + JOHN GRIER HIBBEN + President of Princeton University + + J. B. W. GARDINER + Military Expert, _New York Times_ + + COMMANDER C. C. GILL, U.S.N. + Lecturer at Annapolis and aide + to Admiral Gleaves + + HENRY NOBLE MACCRACKEN + President of Vassar College + + PROF. E. R. A. SELIGMAN + Columbia University + + DR. THEODORE F. JONES + Professor of History, New York + University + + CARL SNYDER + + PROF. JOHN SPENCER BASSETT + Professor of History, Smith College + + MAJOR C. A. KING, JR. + History Department, West Point + + HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS + + NEW YORK AND LONDON + + Established 1817 + +Copyright, 1920, by Harper & Brothers Printed in the United States of +America M-U + + + + + CONTENTS OF VOLUME XII PAGE + + _Introduction_ Professor Irving Fisher vii + + PART I + + I. Economic Results of the War 1 + II. Wartime Food and Price Problems 34 + III. Industry and Labor in Wartime 65 + IV. Government Control 87 + V. The Money Cost of the War, Edwin R. A. Seligman 105 + VI. American Business in the War, Grosvenor B. Clarkson 115 + VII. The Liberty Loan Army, Guy Emerson 126 + VIII. Food and the War, Vernon Kellogg 135 + IX. The High Cost of Living, Director of the Council of 142 + National Defense + + PART II + + I. The Peace Conference at Work, Thomas W. Lamont 149 + II. Wilson's Fourteen Points 163 + III. How the Peace Treaty Was Signed 165 + IV. The Peace Treaty--Its Meaning to America, George W. 170 + Wickersham + + THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES AND THE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS + + Preamble 179 + Part I. The Covenant of the League of Nations 182 + Part II. Boundaries of Germany 186 + Part III. Political Clauses for Europe 188 + Part IV. German Rights and Interests Outside Germany 206 + Part V. Military, Naval, and Aerial Clauses 209 + Part VI. Prisoners of War and Graves 216 + Part VII. Penalties 217 + Part VIII. Reparation 217 + Part IX. Financial Clauses 226 + Part X. Economic Clauses 229 + Part XI. Aerial Navigation 246 + Part XII. Ports, Waterways, and Railways 247 + Part XIII. Labor 255 + Part XIV. Guarantees 261 + Part XV. Miscellaneous Provisions 262 + + Rejection of the Peace Treaty 264 + The Reservations Which Failed 269 + Peace by Congressional Enactment Fails 271 + The Map of Europe Remade 279 + Our Part in Winning the War 280 + + Index + Text 291 + Illustrations + I. Portraits 363 + II. General 368 + Maps 383 + + ILLUSTRATION IN COLOR + A Soldier of the Soil _Frontispiece_ + + + + +Illustrations in this volume + + + Price Movements of the United States and England from the Earliest + Index Numbers Through the First Years of the World War + + Trend of Prices Before and After the Great Wars of History + + William McAdoo + + Money and the Price Level + + John Pierpont Morgan + + President Wilson and Rear Admiral Grayson Passing the Palace of the + King in Brussels + + Women Munition Workers in the International Fuse and Arms Works + + Poster for Boy Scouts Who Worked for the Victory Loan + + Dropping the First Bomb + + A Poster Used During the Fourth Liberty Loan Campaign + + Detroit--City of Automobiles + + A Woman Doing Road Construction Work + + A Woman Operating a Multiple Spindle Drill in an English Shell + Factory + + Launching the Quistconck at Hog Island + + Ship-building at Camden, N. J. + + Diagram Showing the Effect of the War on the Prices of Stocks + + Centres of Live Stock Production Throughout the World + + Members of "The Women's Land Army" in England + + A Map Issued by the Food Administration to Show Food Conditions in + Europe After the Signing of the Armistice + + A Food Riot in Sweden + + Harry A. Garfield + + Drying Fruit and Vegetables to Save Tin and Glass + + "Back on the Farm" + + The Nations and Their Wheat Supply + + A Municipal Canning Station + + In the Heart of the Bethlehem Steel Plant + + Forging Armor Plate + + Building Howitzers + + Guns and Armaments for United States and Her Allies + + Plowing by Night + + A War Time Warning + + Women Workers in America + + Samuel P. Gompers + + Walker D. Hines + + Building a Steel Ship in Seattle, Washington + + Hog Island Ship-building Yards + + Launching the City of Portland on the Columbia River, near Portland, + Oregon + + Examining Cargoes for Contraband + + An Antidote for the Submarine Pest + + The Awkward Squad + + The Economic Conference in Paris + + Lord Reading + + While the Men Fought, Those Left Behind Bought Bonds + + French School Children Waiting to Welcome General Petain + + United States Council of National Defense and Its Advisory + Commission + + Bernard M. Baruch + + Daniel Willard + + John D. Ryan + + A Poster Used During the Fourth Liberty Loan Campaign + + A Poster for the Third Liberty Loan Campaign + + Victory Way at Night + + The Battle Scene at Home + + A Community Conference on Food-Saving + + Will There Be Enough to Go Around? + + Women Doing Night Farming + + The Ore Market--Cleveland + + David Lloyd George + + President Poincare With the Swiss President, M. Gustave Ador, + Driving to the Peace Conference in Paris + + Where the Peace Treaty Was Signed + + Awaiting the Decision of the German Peace Delegates. + + The George Washington + + Paris Crowds Greeting President Wilson + + Henry White + + Count von Brockdorff-Rantzau + + Victoria Hall at Geneva + + William Howard Taft + + Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States + + President and Mrs. Wilson Waving Good Bye + + President Wilson's Welcome in Paris + + Sir Eric Drummond + + Lord Robert Cecil + + Berlin Demonstrations Against The Peace Treaty + + German Press Representatives in Versailles + + Dreadnoughts Welcoming President Wilson Home + + M. Stephen Pichon + + Henry Cabot Lodge + + America's Peace Capitol in Paris + + The White Flags That Meant Defeat for the German Cause and Marked + the Beginning of the End of the War + + Paris in War Time + + Senator Philander C. Knox of Pennsylvania + + Male Population Registered and Not Registered + + Comparative Losses of Merchant Shipping During the War + + Production of Training Planes and Engines to the End of Each Month + + Number of Battle Aeroplanes in Each Army at the Date of the + Armistice + + Secretary of War Baker Drawing Registration Numbers + + Our Flag in Alsace + + + + +INTRODUCTION + +By PROFESSOR IRVING FISHER + +Department of Political Economy, Yale University + + +In various ways, as this volume shows, the war has profoundly affected +our economic and political life. War has ever been a disturber and +innovator, always leaving after it a different world from that which +existed previous to it. On account of our tremendously complex economic +organization--the specialization of industry among nations, and the +network of commerce--war today causes more profound changes than ever +before. There can not be a human being in the world today whose life is +not altered by the war through which we have just passed. + +In trying, now that the war is over, to _stop drifting_, and to think +our way out of the bent (or broken) remains of the _ante bellum_ life, +the world is confronted by a maze of problems and a still greater maze +of proffered solutions. + +Many of these proposals are, unfortunately, of the nature of treatment +directed not at fundamental conditions, but merely at _symptoms_. We +should be past the stage, in our social science, as we are in medicine, +where we treat symptoms without a thorough diagnosis of the fundamental +causes. + +And yet it is just this thorough diagnosis that we lack. + +What, then, are the changes brought about by the war which most deeply +affect "the body politic," and by meeting which the most far reaching +improvements can be made? + + +HIGH COST OF LIVING A VITAL QUESTION + +I can not take up, or even touch on, all of them; but to one of them I +wish to call especial attention--the High Cost of Living or, more +generally, the high level of prices, which is the most striking economic +effect of the war throughout the world. It is, as I see it, hard to +over-emphasize the need for attacking this problem of the price level as +a preliminary to attacking the other economic problems which the war has +left us. + +We need only glance at a newspaper today, or step into a corner grocery, +or fall into conversation with our neighbor in the train to have this +topic come out as foremost in interest. It is, I believe, responsible +for much more of our present uncertainty and confusion than is usually +realized. In its ramifications it is chiefly this phase of the war's +effects which, as I suggested above, touches every one of us at every +point of our lives. A member of the Federal Reserve Board has called the +price level problem _the_ central economic problem of reconstruction. + +Professor William Graham Sumner, who has inspired so many to the +scientific study of social conditions, used to say: "In taking up the +study of any social situation, divide your study into four +questions--(1) What is it? (2) Why is it? (3) What of it? (4) What are +you going to do about it?" + +Let us follow this outline, and look first at the facts of the case; +secondly at their causes; thirdly at the evils involved; and lastly at +the remedies. + + +MEASURING CHANGES IN PRICES + +We now possess a device for measuring the average change in prices. This +is what is known as an "index number." + +Thus, if one commodity has risen 4 per cent. since last month and +another, 10 per cent., the average rise of the two is midway between the +sum of 4 per cent., and 10 per cent., or 7 per cent. It is + + 4 + 10 + ------ = 7 + 2 + +If we call the price level of the two articles last month 100 per cent., +then 107 per cent. is the "index number" for the prices of the two +articles this month. The same principle, of course, applies to any +number of commodities. + +The index number of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, the +best index number we have, shows an average price level in 1918 of 196 +for wholesale prices and 168 for retail prices of food on the basis of +100 per cent. for 1913, the year before the war; showing that wholesale +prices, on the average, almost exactly doubled. The latest index number +for wholesale prices (May, 1919) is 206, and for retail (July, 1919), +190. + +A look at the history of prices shows the interesting fact that, while +prices have sometimes fallen, they have generally risen. The high cost +of living has been for centuries a source of complaint. In the 16th +century, people objected to the price of wheat, which was three to ten +times what it cost during the preceding 300 years. + + +WORTHLESS PAPER MONEY + +Where, through ignorance of monetary science, irredeemable paper money +was used, prices have sometimes gone up quite "out of sight." This was +the case with the famous assignats of the French Revolution, and the +"Continental" paper money of our own Revolution. After the Revolution a +barber in Philadelphia is said to have covered the walls of his shop +with continental paper money, calling it the cheapest wallpaper he could +get! Jokes were also heard of a housewife taking a market-basket full of +this "money" to the butcher's shop and bringing home the meat in her +purse! This money became a hissing and a byword; and, even to this day, +one of the favorite expressions for worthlessness is "not worth a +Continental." We see the same situation repeated again today with +Russian paper money. + +But our first scientific measurement of price movements began with 1782, +the beginning of Jevons' index number of wholesale prices in England. + + +COMMENTS ON FIGURE 1 + +Figure 1 shows the course of prices in England from that date, and also, +for comparison, that in the U.S. + +[Illustration: Figure 1 + +Price Movements of the United States and England from the Earliest Index +Numbers Through the First Years of the World War + +Showing, in general, a close similarity. England was on a paper basis, +1801--1820; and the United States, 1862--78. The dotted lines for these +periods show the prices as translated back into gold.] + +The conspicuous feature of these curves is their great irregularity. +Practically never are they for any length of time at all horizontal. +Sometimes, even in time of peace, a variation of over 10 per cent. is +shown in one year. The curve for the U. S. shows, at the time of the +Civil War, a very considerable rise (especially as measured in terms of +paper), followed by a decline beginning in 1873 and continuing to 1896. +The fall in the first part of this period was accentuated by the return +from a paper to a gold standard. From an index number of 100 in 1873, +the index number dropped to 51 in 1896. This decline resulted +politically in the famous Bryan "Free Silver" campaign. + +[Illustration: Figure 2 + +Trend of Prices Before and After the Great Wars of History] + +Since that time, however, the course of prices has been steadily upward. +Between 1896 and the outbreak of the war, the index number of the U. S. +rose about 50 per cent. Substantially the same increase took place in +Canada, while in the United Kingdom there was a rise of 35 per cent. +This rise before the war amounted, in the United States, to about +one-fifth of one per cent. per month. During the war, however, the rise +amounted in this country to 1-1/2 per cent. per month, and abroad to much +more--in Germany and Austria to 3 per cent. per month, and in Russia, +apparently, to 4 or 5 per cent. per month. In the light of the +excitement caused up to 1914 by the comparatively moderate increase in +this country, we can better understand the Russian economic unrest when +a far steeper ascent of prices got under way. + +The total effect can be summed up as follows: between 1914, before the +war, and November, 1918, the price level in this country (as indicated +by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics retail food index +number) rose 79 per cent.; that in England (according to the _Statist_ +index number), 133 per cent.; that in France, approximately 140 per +cent.; that in western Europe probably at least three-fold; and in +Russia perhaps ten or twenty-fold. + +The price level of the United States today is over three-fold that of +1896. Expressing the same fact in terms of the purchasing power of +money, our dollar of today is worth only 30 cents of the money in 1896, +so that as contrasted with the dollar of 1896 our dollar literally +"looks like thirty cents." + + +COMMENTS ON FIGURE 2 + +Now it is a common belief, and one which seems to be borne out by the +present situation, that war raises prices whereas peace lowers them. The +matter is, however, not so simple. Each case must be considered on its +own merits. Figure 2 shows price curves for the various wars. + +In general prices have risen during wars. But there has not been any +such uniformity of movement after wars. Moreover in most cases the price +disturbances both during and after the wars had scarcely anything to do +with the coming and going of the war. In only four of the cases on the +chart is the rise of prices during the war really and clearly due to the +war. In the Napoleonic Wars, the war of 1812, the Civil War, and the +World War the rise of prices during the war was largely due to war +inflation. + +As to the after effects on prices there are likewise only four clear +cases. The fall of paper prices relatively to gold after the Napoleonic +Wars, and the Civil War was, in each case, clearly due to resumption of +specie payments. The fall of prices in the United States after the War +of 1812 was doubtless due in large measure to the resumption of foreign +trade. In one case there was a rise of prices as an aftermath; the war +of 1871, which gave Germany a billion dollars of indemnity, created +inflation in Germany and prices rose there between 1871 and 1873 faster +than in any other country. This doubtless accentuated the crash in the +crisis of 1873. + +In the other cases in the diagram the many instances of rise of prices +after the wars were due primarily at least, to other causes, although +the cessation of war and the undue optimism and spirit of speculation +which often follow may, in several instances, have contributed to the +boom period and the crisis which so often came a few years later, viz., +that of 1857 after the Crimean War, that of 1866 after the Civil War, as +well as that of 1873 just mentioned. + +The only safe generalizations seem to be the following two: The first is +that in so far as a war has been costly, _i. e._, has strained the +economic resources of the belligerents, there has been recourse to +inflation in some form and prices have risen. Besides the examples in +the chart are those of the French Revolution, the American Colonial +wars, the American Revolution and many others. The second generalization +is that after a costly war the price level is affected up or down by the +fiscal policy of the governments concerned. + + +HIGH PRICES NOT DUE TO SCARCITY + +Most cherish the belief that high war prices today represent war +scarcity. In the case of some countries like Belgium and some +commodities like paper this is true and in such cases scarcity serves as +a partial explanation of high prices. But in the case of most countries +and most commodities there has been no general scarcity. The almost +universal rise of prices cannot be ascribed to scarcity. Prices have +risen of many goods not affected by the war or in countries remotest +from the war. + +[Illustration: Copyright by Underwood & Underwood + +William McAdoo + +Secretary of the Treasury during the World War, and Director-General of +the Railroads.] + +As Mr. O. P. Austin, statistician of the National City Bank, has said: + + "Raw silk, for example, for which the war made no special + demand and which was produced on the side of the globe opposite + that in which the hostilities were occurring, advanced from + $3.00 per pound in the country of production in 1913 to $4.50 + per pound in 1917, and over $6.00 per pound in the closing + months of the war. Manila hemp, also produced on the opposite + side of the globe and not a war requirement, advanced in the + country of production from $180 per ton in 1915 to $437 per ton + in 1918. Goat skins, from China, India, Mexico and South + America, advanced from 25 cents per pound in 1914 to over 50 + cents per pound in 1918; and yet goat skins were in no sense a + special requirement of the war. Sisal grass produced in Yucatan + advanced from $100 per ton in 1914 at the place of production + to nearly $400 per ton in 1918; and Egyptian cotton, a + high-priced product and thus not used for war purposes, jumped + from 14 cents per pound in Egypt in 1914 to 35 cents per pound + in 1918. Even the product of the diamond mines of South Africa + advanced from 60 to 100 per cent. in price per karat when + compared with prices existing in the opening months of the war. + + "The prices are in all cases those _in the markets of the + country in which the articles were produced_ and in most cases + at points on the globe far distant from that in which the war + was being waged. They are the product of countries having + plentiful supply of cheap labor and upon which there has been + no demand for men for service in the war. The advance in the + prices quoted is in no sense due to the high cost of ocean + transportation since they are those demanded and obtained in + the markets of the country of production. + + "Why is it that the product of the labor of women and children + who care for silk worms in China and Japan, of the Filipino + laborer who produces the Manila hemp, the Egyptian fellah who + grows the high grade cotton, the native workman in the diamond + mines of South Africa, the Mexican peon in the sisal field of + Yucatan, the Chinese coolie in the tin mines of Malay, or the + goatherd on the plains of China, India, Mexico or South America + has doubled in price during the war period?" + +Mr. Austin goes on to show that the scarcity or "increased demand" for +war goods has been greatly exaggerated. It is true that some 40 million +men were at one time fighting in the war. But this is less than 2-1/2 per +cent. of the world's population and it must not be forgotten that these +40 million were also consumers before the war. Their withdrawal from +industry did not really create a vacuum of even 1 per cent. of the +world's productive power; as women, boys and old men took their places +and others worked harder than in peace time. + +In addition to the 40 million soldiers, some 150 million people have +been required to work on "war work" at home but they have simply been +"switched" from other forms of production which have been +correspondingly reduced. War supplies were demanded but these also +largely "switched" the demand from former and industrial uses. Lord +D'Abernon found that in England those objects of luxury "which would +seem to be influenced not at all or only very remotely and to a very +small degree by increased cost of labor and materials," such as old +books, prints and coins, had, nevertheless, advanced, roughly speaking +50 per cent., during the war. Thus "scarcity" and especial "war demands" +do not go far toward explaining the high price level even in Europe and +not at all, I believe, in this country. + +In the United States while certain things have become scarce, including +certain foods, the general mass of goods has been actually increased as +a consequence of war. + +The raw materials used in the United States in 1918 were 16 per cent. +more than in 1913 and 2 per cent. more than in 1917. The physical volume +of trade is estimated variously to be in 1918 from 22 per cent. to 41 +per cent. above that in 1913 and 8 per cent. above that in 1917. + +President Wilson, in his address to Congress, August 8, 1919, on the +high cost of living, gave other impressive examples as to foods, +especially eggs, frozen fowls, creamery butter, salt beef, and canned +corn, showing that scarcity is not the cause of high prices. + + +HIGH PRICES DUE TO MONETARY CAUSES + +The truth is that the chief causes of the rise of prices in war time are +monetary causes. + +It is almost invariably true that the great price movements of history +are chiefly monetary. This is shown, in the first place by the fact that +countries of like monetary standards have like price movements. Thus--to +consider gold-standard countries--there has usually been a remarkable +family resemblance between the curves representing the rise and fall of +the index numbers of the United States, Canada, England, France, +Belgium, Holland, Scandinavia, Germany, Austria and Italy. Again, the +price movements in silver countries show a strong likeness, as in India +and China between 1873 and 1893. + +On the other hand, we find a great contrast between gold and silver +countries or between any countries which have different monetary +standards. In the World War the data are still too meager to enable us +to express all the relations in exact figures, but we may arrange the +different countries in the approximate order in which their prices have +risen. The order of the nations corresponds, in general, with the order +in which the currency in those nations has been inflated by paper as +well as with the order in which their monetary units have depreciated +in the foreign exchange markets. + +This order--of ascending prices and of inflated currency--is as follows, +beginning with the least rise and inflation: India, Australia, New +Zealand, United States, Canada, Japan, Sweden, Switzerland, Denmark, +Italy, Holland, England, Norway, France, Germany, Austria and Russia. + +[Illustration: Figure 3. + +Money and the Price Level + +Showing a correspondence between the quantity of money and the level of +prices. Since the middle of 1915, when the quantity of money in the +United States began to be greatly affected by the war, the +correspondence has been close, changes in the price level seeming +usually to follow changes in the quantity of money one to three months +later.] + +The ups and downs of prices correspond with the ups and downs of the +money supply. Throughout all history this has been so. For this general +statement there is sufficient evidence even where we lack the index +numbers by which to make accurate measurements. Whenever there have +been new discoveries of gold and rapid outpourings from mines, prices +have gone up with corresponding rapidity. This was observed in the 16th +century, after great quantities of the precious metals had been brought +to Europe from the Americas; and again in the 19th century, after the +Californian and Australian gold finds of the fifties; and still again, +in the same century after the South African, Alaskan and Cripple Creek +mining of the nineties. + +Likewise when other causes than mining, such as paper money issues, +produce violent changes in the quantity or quality of money, violent +changes in the price level usually follow. + + +COMMENTS ON FIGURE 3 + +The World War furnishes important examples of this. In the United States +the curve for the quantity of money in circulation and the curve for the +index number of prices run continuously parallel, the price curve +following the money curve after a lag of one to three months. It was in +August, 1915, that the quantity of money in the United States began its +rapid increase. One month later prices began to shoot upward, keeping +almost exact pace with the quantity of money. In February, 1916, money +suddenly stopped increasing, and two or three months later prices +stopped likewise. As figure 3 shows, similar striking correspondences +have continued to occur with an average lag between the money cause and +the price effect of apparently about one and three-quarters months. + +On the whole, the money in circulation in the United States rose from +three and one-third billions in 1913 to five and a half billions in +1918, and bank deposits from thirteen to twenty-five billions, both +approximately corresponding to the rise in prices. + +Taking a world-wide view, the money in circulation in the world outside +of Russia has increased during the war from fifteen billions to +forty-five billions and the bank deposits in fifteen principal countries +from twenty-seven billions to seventy-five billions. That is both money +and deposits have trebled; and prices, on the average have perhaps +trebled also. + +The Bolsheviki are a law unto themselves. They have issued eighty +billion dollars of paper money, or more than in all the rest of the +world put together. Consequently prices in Russia have doubtless reached +the sky, though no exact measure of them, since the Bolshevist regime, +is at hand. + +The increase of over thirty billions in the money of the world (outside +of Russia) is as Austin says "more, _in its face value_, than all the +gold and all the silver turned out by all the mines of all the world in +427 years since the discovery of America." + +The conclusion toward which the foregoing and other arguments lead is +that, in this war as in general in the past, the great outstanding +disturber of the price level has always been money. If this is the case, +how fruitless, except as treatments of symptoms, are price-fixing, or +campaigns aimed at profiteers! The cry of profiteering may hinder a real +solution of the difficulty by diverting attention from the real issue +and fanning and giving up an object to the spirit of revolt. Money is so +much an accepted convenience in practice that it has become a great +stumbling block in theory. Since we talk always in terms of money and +live in a money atmosphere, as it were, we become as unconscious of it +as we do of the air we breathe. + + +ASSOCIATE EVILS OF HIGH PRICES + +We have now considered the cost of living situation under the two +questions "What is it?" and "Why is it?" + +The third question, "What of it?"--_i. e._, what are the evils connected +with it--is more easily answered today, when it comes home to all of us, +that it might have been 10 years ago. + +If, for each one of us, the rise of income were to keep up exactly with +the rise in cost of living, then the high cost of living would have no +terrors; it would be merely on paper. But no such perfect adjustment +ever occurs or can occur. Outstanding contracts and understandings in +terms of money make this out of the question. The salaried men and the +wage earners suffer--that is, the cost is borne by those with relatively +"fixed" incomes. + +The truth is, the war was largely paid for, not by taxes or loans but by +the High Cost of Living. The result is that the effort to avoid +discontent of tax payers has created or rather aggravated the discontent +over high prices. Every rise in the cost of living brings new recruits +to the labor malcontents who feel victimized by society and have come to +hate society. They cite, in their indictment, the high price of +necessities and the high profits of certain great corporations both of +which they attribute, not to the aberrations of our monetary yardstick +but to deliberate plundering by "profiteers" or a social system of +"exploitation." They grow continually more suspicious and nurse an +imaginary grudge against the world. We are being threatened by more +quack remedies--revolutionary socialism, syndicalism, and Bolshevism. +Radicalism rides on the wave of high prices. + +As a matter of fact, the real wages in 1918, that is, their purchasing +power, were only 80 per cent. of the real wages of 1913. That is, while +the retail prices of food advanced 68 per cent., wages in money advanced +only 30 per cent. The real wages of 1913 were in turn less than in +earlier years. + +Lord D'Abernon, in a recent speech in the House of Lords said: "I am +convinced and cannot state too strongly my belief that 80 per cent. of +our present industrial troubles and our Bolshevism which is so great a +menace to Europe are due to this enormous displacement in the value of +money." In fact, before the war, rising costs of living were +manufacturing socialists all over the world, including Germany, and the +German Government may have weighed, as one of the expected dynastic +advantages of war, the suppression of the growing internal class +struggle which this high cost of living was bringing on apace. + + +MANY SUGGESTED REMEDIES INADEQUATE + +We are now ready for the question, "What can be done about it?" So far +as the past is concerned, comparatively little. Bygones must largely be +bygones. So far as wages and salaries are concerned, the remedy must be +to raise them rather than to lower the high cost of living. While some +kinds of work have had excessive wages during the war, this has not been +true in general, public opinion to the contrary notwithstanding. I quite +agree with Mr. Gompers that the wage level should not be lowered even +if it could be. On the contrary it should be raised to catch up with +prices, just as was done after the Civil War. But in regard to contracts +little relief for past injuries can be expected. We would best use the +past as a lesson for the future. That is what I understand by +"reconstruction." + +[Illustration: John Pierpont Morgan + +The banking house of Morgan was closely identified with international +finance throughout the World War.] + +Many impracticable plans have been proposed. Secretary Redfield +undertook to stabilize prices by arbitrarily fixing them. He failed, +necessarily. We might as well try to fix the sea level by pressing on +the ocean. The same, as I stated above, is true of a campaign against +profiteers though proposed by so high an authority as President Wilson. + + +PROPOSED REMEDY + +The plan I shall here outline has received the approval of a large +number of leading economists, business men, and organizations, +including President Hadley of Yale; a committee of economists appointed +to consider the purchasing power of money in relation to the war; Frank +A. Vanderlip, president of the National City Bank of New York; George +Foster Peabody, Federal Reserve banker of New York; John Perrin, Federal +Reserve Agent of San Francisco; Henry L. Higginson, the veteran banker +of Boston; Roger W. Babson, statistician; John Hays Hammond, mining +engineer; John V. Farwell, of Chicago; Leo S. Rowe, Assistant Secretary +of the Treasury: United States Senator, Robert L. Owen, one of the +authors of the Federal Reserve Act; Ex-Senator Shafroth; the late +Senator Newlands; Sir David Barbour, one of the originators of the +Indian gold exchange standard; the Society of Polish Engineers; the New +England Purchasing Agents' Association; and a few Chambers of Commerce. + + +WANTED--A STANDARDIZED DOLLAR + +Our dollar is now simply a fixed weight of gold--a unit of weight, +masquerading as a unit of value. It is almost as absurd to define a unit +of value, or general purchasing power, in terms of weight as to define a +unit of length in terms of weight. What good does it do us to be assured +that our dollar weighs just as much as ever? We want a dollar which will +always buy the same aggregate quantity of bread, butter, beef, bacon, +beans, sugar, clothing, fuel, and the other essential things that we +spend it for. What is needed is to stabilize or standardize the dollar +just as we have already standardized the yardstick, the pound weight, +the bushel basket, the pint cup, the horsepower, the volt, and, indeed, +all the units of commerce except the dollar. + +Money today has two great functions. It is a medium of exchange and it +is a standard of value. Gold was chosen because it was a good medium, +not because it was a good standard. And so, because our ancestors found +a good medium of exchange, we now find ourselves saddled with a bad +standard of value! + +The problem before us is to retain gold as a good medium and yet to make +it into a good standard; not to abandon the gold standard but to rectify +it; not to rid ourselves of the gold dollar but to make it conform in +purchasing power to the composite or goods-dollar. The method of +rectifying the gold standard consists in suitably varying the weight of +the gold dollar. The gold dollar is now fixed in weight and therefore +variable in purchasing power. What we need is a gold dollar fixed in +purchasing power and therefore variable in weight. I do not think that +any sane man, whether or not he accepts the theory of money which I +accept, will deny that the weight of gold in a dollar has a great deal +to do with its purchasing power. More gold will buy more goods. +Therefore more gold than 25.8 grains will, barring counteracting causes, +buy more goods than 25.8 grains itself will buy. If today the dollar, +instead of being 25.8 grains or about one-twentieth of an ounce of gold, +were an ounce or a pound or a ton of gold it would surely buy more than +it does now, which is the same thing as saying that the price level +would be lower than it is now. + +A Mexican gold dollar weighs about half as much as ours and has less +purchasing power. If Mexico should adopt the same dollar that we have +and that Canada has, no one could doubt that its purchasing power would +rise--that is, the price level in Mexico would fall. Since, then, the +heavier or the lighter the gold dollar is the more or the less is its +purchasing power, it follows that, if we add new grains of gold to the +dollar just fast enough to compensate for the loss in the purchasing +power of each grain, or vice versa take away gold to compensate for a +gain, we shall have a fully "compensated dollar," a stationary instead +of fluctuating dollar, when judged by its purchasing power. + +But how, it will be asked, is it possible, in practice, to change the +weight of the gold dollar? The feat is certainly not impossible, for it +has often been accomplished. We ourselves have changed the weight of our +gold dollar twice--once in 1834, when the gold in the dollar was reduced +7 per cent., and again in 1837, when it was increased one-tenth of 1 per +cent. If we can change it once or twice a century, we can change it once +or twice a month! + + +HOW GOLD CIRCULATES + +In actual fact, gold now circulates almost entirely through +"yellowbacks," or gold certificates. The gold itself, often not in the +form of coins at all but of "bar gold," lies in the government vaults. +The abolition of gold coin would make no material change in the present +situation. + +If gold thus circulated only in the form of paper representatives it +would evidently be possible to vary at will the weight of the gold +dollar without any such annoyance or complication as would arise from +the existence of coins. The government would simply vary the quantity of +gold bullion which it would exchange for a paper dollar--the quantity it +would give or take at a given time. As readily as a grocer can vary the +amount of sugar he will give for a dollar, the government could vary the +amount of gold it would give for a dollar. + + +CRITERION OF STANDARDIZATION + +But, it will now be asked, what criterion is to guide the government in +making these changes in the dollar's weight? Am I proposing that some +government official should be authorized to mark the dollar up or down +according to his own caprice? Most certainly not. A definite and simple +criterion for the required adjustments is at hand--the now familiar +"index number" of prices. + +If, for instance, the index number is found to be 1 per cent. above the +ideal par, this fact will indicate that the purchasing power of the +dollar has gone down; and this fact will be the signal and authorization +for an increase of 1 per cent. in the weight of the gold dollar. What is +thereby added to the purchasing power of the gold dollar will be +automatically registered in the purchasing power of its circulating +certificate. If the correction is not enough, or if it is too much, the +index number next month will tell the story. + +Absolutely perfect correction is impossible, but any imperfection will +continue to reappear and so cannot escape ultimate correction. Suppose, +for instance, that next month the index number is found to remain +unchanged at 101. Then the dollar is at once loaded an additional 1 per +cent. And if, next month, the index number is, let us say, 100-1/2 (that +is, one half of 1 per cent above par) this one-half of 1 per cent. will +call for a third addition to the dollar's weight, this time of one-half +of one per cent. And so, as long as the index number persists in +staying even a little above par, the dollar will continue to be loaded +each month, until, if necessary, it weighs an ounce--or a ton, for that +matter. But, of course, long before it can become so heavy, the +additional weight will become sufficient; so that the index number will +be pushed back to par--that is, the circulating certificate will have +its purchasing power restored. Or suppose the index number falls below +par, say 1 per cent. below. This fact will indicate that the purchasing +power of the dollar has gone up. Accordingly, the gold dollar will be +reduced in weight 1 per cent., and each month that the index number +remains below par the now too heavy dollar will be unloaded and the +purchasing power of the certificate brought down to par. + +Thus by ballast thrown overboard or taken on, our dollar is kept from +drifting far from the proper level. The result is that the price level +would oscillate only slightly. Instead of there being any great price +convulsions, such as we find throughout history, the index number would +run, say 101, 100-1/2, 101, 100, 102, 101-1/2, 100, 98, 99, 99, 99-1/2, 100, +etc., seldom getting off the line more than 1 or 2 per cent. + + +A PROBLEM CALLING FOR URGENT ACTION + +With the question now before us, it is evident that the problem of our +monetary standards has much more than theoretical significance. It is a +practical problem, and, I submit, the most pressing which the war has +left us. I do not offer the solution described above as the only answer +to the problem. It is, however, a working basis, a starting point, from +which we may be able to work out a better plan. _Some_ scientifically +sound plan is essential, or we shall be the victims of quack remedies. + +Finally, _now_ is the time to take up the matter. Public interest is now +focused on the cost of living and is very largely educated to the fact +that the high prices have a monetary basis. Furthermore, the world is +looking to us, as never before, for leadership. It is our golden +opportunity to set _world_ standards. If we adopt a stable standard of +value, it seems certain that other nations, as fast as they can +straighten out their affairs, resume specie payments, and secure again +stable pars of exchange, will follow our example. + +Let us, then, who realize the situation, act upon our knowledge; and +secure a boon for all future generations, a true standard for contracts, +a stabilized dollar. + +[Illustration: Copyright by Underwood & Underwood + +President Wilson and Rear Admiral Grayson Passing the Palace of the King +in Brussels] + + + + +The Great Results of the War + + + + +The Great Results of the War + +_PART I_ + +I--ECONOMIC RESULTS OF THE WAR + +Striking Changes Made by the European Conflict Upon the Economic Life of +the Great Nations + + +The paramount position of War Finance was brought vividly and +continuously before the whole people of the United States by the Liberty +Loan campaigns. This lesson was an old one though it was enforced by all +the improved methods of modern publicity. To Napoleon Bonaparte is +attributed the statement that three things are necessary to wage a +successful war: money, more money, and still more money. + +FINDING THE MONEY FOR WAR + +It has been well said that: + + "Perhaps the greatest surprise of the war to most people, even + to those who had studied political economy, has been the + enormous expenditure of money which a nation can incur, and the + length of time which it can go on fighting without complete + exhaustion. This should not have been in reality a surprise to + anyone who had studied past history, for all experience shows + that lack of money itself has never prevented a nation from + continuing to fight, if it were determined to fight. The + financial condition of Revolutionary France at the commencement + of Napoleon's career was wretched in the extreme, yet France + went on fighting for nearly twenty years after that. The Balkan + States can hardly be said ever to have had great financial + resources, and yet they fought, one after the other, two severe + wars, and are now fighting a third still more severe and + prolonged. The Boers in South Africa found no difficulty in + fighting the British Empire for three years with practically no + financial resources. The Mexicans recently managed to fight one + another for a good many years in the same way. Lastly, the + Southern states in our own Civil War fought for years a + desperate and losing fight and were ultimately beaten to the + ground, not so much by a lack of money, as by an actual lack of + things to live on and fight with. In fact, all history proves, + and this war proves over again, that if what the Germans call + 'the will to fight' exists lack of money will never stop a + nation's fighting, provided it possesses or can obtain its + absolutely minimum requirements of food, clothing, and + munitions of war. It was Bismarck who said: 'If you will give + me a printing press, I will find you the money.' In finding the + money required for an exhausting war a nation is driven to all + sorts of desperate financial expedients which may very + seriously affect its economic life, but if a nation wants to + continue fighting and can produce, or be induced to produce, + the things that are absolutely necessary for life and warfare, + the government will get hold of those things somehow. If it + cannot get them in any other way, ultimately it will take + them." + + +STRONG POSITION OF UNITED STATES + +When the war opened England was in the strongest position of any of the +Allies. She was the greatest creditor nation in the world. That is, she +was able to purchase goods from foreign countries on easier terms than +her associates. Russia and Italy were debtor nations and had to borrow +even before the war in order to balance their foreign accounts. So these +members of the Entente had to be assisted in making purchases abroad. +England was able for a long time to keep up her exchange rate in New +York. This was done by the shipment of gold and by inducing the holders +of American securities in England to sell or lend such securities to +their government. + +England was forced to act as the agent of other Powers who were fighting +with her. Until the United States came in, it was the greatest +industrial arsenal among the Allies. Large imports were naturally a +feature of this policy. The United States soon began to feel the result +of the changes in international credit. Exports almost doubled between +1912 and 1917, the figures being in millions, $2,399,000,000 and +$6,231,000,000, respectively. + +Another side of the United States trade account to the world is +indicated by the following classified list of loans to January, 1917: + + "Between August 1, 1914, and December 31, 1916, the loans + raised in the United States by foreign countries were estimated + to reach $2,325,900,000, of which $175,000,000 had been repaid. + The net indebtedness on January 1, 1917, was therefore + $2,150,900,000. The loans may be classified geographically as + follows: + + Europe $1,893,400,000 + Canada 270,500,000 + Latin America 157,000,000 + China 5,000,000 + -------------- + Total foreign loans $2,325,900,000 + Less amount paid, estimated 175,000,000 + -------------- + Net foreign indebtedness $2,150,900,000 + + "The loans of the belligerent countries which were floated in + the United States up to the close of 1916 are divided as + follows: + + Great Britain $908,400,000 + France 695,000,000 + Russia 160,000,000 + Germany 45,000,000[1] + Canada 270,500,000 + -------------- + Total $2,078,900,000[2] + +[1] Estimated. + +[2] Nearly $1,900,000,000 of this constituted war loans. + + +NEW PACE IN WAR FINANCE + +A new pace in war finance was set by the United States when it became a +belligerent. It had to provide for an increase of taxation ascending +from the point of $3,000,000,000 in 1917 to over $8,000,000,000 in 1918. +The largest source of estimated revenue was from taxes on excess +profits, including war profits of $3,100,000,000, and the next was from +taxes on incomes, $1,482,186,000 from individuals, and $828,000,000 from +corporations. The New York _Journal of Commerce_ shows by the following +table the difference between the old and the new system of taxation. +Exemptions under the new law were the same as under the old: $1,000 for +single persons and $2,000 for married, $200 additional allowed for each +dependent child under eighteen years of age: + + Incomes Tax Under + Old New + Law Law + $2,500 $10 $30 + 3,000 20 60 + 3,500 30 90 + 4,000 40 120 + 4,500 60 150 + 5,000 80 180 + 5,500 105 220 + 6,000 130 260 + 6,500 155 330 + 7,000 180 400 + 7,500 205 470 + 8,000 235 545 + 8,500 265 620 + 9,000 295 695 + 9,500 325 770 + 10,000 355 845 + 12,500 530 1,320 + 15,000 730 1,795 + 20,000 1,180 2,895 + 25,000 1,780 4,240 + 30,000 2,380 5,595 + 35,000 2,980 7,195 + 40,000 3,580 8,795 + 45,000 4,380 10,645 + 50,000 5,180 12,495 + 55,000 5,980 14,695 + 60,000 6,780 16,895 + 70,000 8,880 21,895 + 80,000 10,980 27,295 + 100,000 16,180 39,095 + 150,000 31,680 70,095 + 200,000 49,180 101,095 + 300,000 92,680 165,095 + 500,000 192,680 207,095 + 1,000,000 475,180 647,095 + 5,000,000 3,140,180 3,527,095 + +The following estimated yield from other sources is given by the same +authority: + + "Transportation--Freight, $75,000,000; express, $20,000,000; + passenger fares, $60,000,000; seats and berths, $5,000,000; oil + by pipe lines, $4,550,000. + + "Beverages (liquors and soft drinks), $1,137,600,000; stamp + taxes, $32,000,000; tobacco cigars, $61,364,000; cigarettes, + $165,240,000; tobacco, 104,000,000; snuff, $9,100,000; papers + and tubes, $1,500,000. + + "Special Taxes.--Capital stock, $70,000,000; brokers, + $1,765,000; theaters, etc., $2,143,000; mail order sales, + $5,000,000; bowling alleys, billiard and pool tables, + $2,200,000; shooting galleries, $400,000; riding academies, + $50,000; business license tax, $10,000,000; manufacturers of + tobacco, $69,000; manufacturers of cigars, $850,000; + manufacturers of cigarettes, $240,000; use of automobiles and + motor cycles, $72,920,000. + + "Telegraph and telephone messages, $15,000,000; insurance, + $12,000,000; admissions (theaters, circuses, etc.), + $100,000,000; club dues, $9,000,000. + + "Excise Taxes.--Automobiles, etc., $123,750,000; jewelry, + sporting goods, etc., $80,000,000; other taxes on luxuries at + 10 percent., $88,760,000; other taxes on luxuries (apparel, + etc., above certain prescribed prices), at 20 percent., + $181,095,000. + + "Gasoline, $40,000,000; yachts and pleasure boats, $1,000,000." + + "The income tax law levies on all citizens or residents of the + United States a normal tax of 12 percent. upon the amount of + income in excess of exemptions, except that on the first $4,000 + of the taxable amount the rate shall be 6 percent. The law also + increases the surtaxes all along the line. The advances by + grades compared with the percentage under the old law are: + $5,000 to $7,500 incomes, increased from 1 to 2 percent.; + $7,500 to $10,000, from 2 to 3 percent.; $10,000 to $12,500, + from 3 to 7 percent.; $12,500 to $15,000, from 4 to 7 percent.; + $15,000 to $20,000, from 5 to 10 percent.; $20,000 to $30,000, + from 8 to 15 percent.; $30,000 to $40,000, from 8 to 20 + percent.; $40,000 to $50,000, from 12 to 25 percent.; $50,000 + to $60,000, from 12 to 32 percent.; $60,000 to $70,000, from 17 + to 38 percent.; $70,000 to $80,000, from 17 to 42 percent.; + $80,000 to $90,000, from 22 to 46 percent.; $90,000 to + $100,000, from 22 to 46 percent.; $100,000 to $150,000, from + 27 to 50 percent.; $150,000 to $200,000, from 31 to 50 + percent.; $200,000 to $250,000, from 37 to 52 percent.; + $250,000 to $300,000, from 42 to 55 percent. The rate continues + to increase, but on incomes of over $5,000,000 the increase is + only from 63 percent., under former law to 65 percent." + +[Illustration: Copyright by International Film Service + +Women Munition Workers in the International Fuse and Arms Works + +Before entering the war, the United States was the great arsenal of the +Allies. After our entry, production of munitions increased, while the +man power in the industry diminished through enlistments and the draft. +Women took up the work and showed surprising ability.] + + +MEANING OF NEW TAXATION + +According to a calculation published in the New York _World_ the war +revenue bill imposed a war tax of $80 on every man, woman and child in +the United States, or approximately $400 for each family. The amount +expected to be derived from each item is given in the following table: + + Individual income tax $1,482,186,000 + Corporation income tax 894,000,000 + Excess and war profits 3,200,000,000 + Estate tax 110,000,000 + Transportation 164,550,000 + Telegraph and telephone 16,000,000 + Insurance 12,000,000 + Admissions 100,000,000 + Club dues 9,000,000 + Excise, luxury, and semi-luxury 518,305,000 + Beverages 1,137,600,000 + Stamp taxes--chiefly documentary 32,000,000 + Tobacco and products 341,204,000 + Special business and + automobile-user's Taxes 165,607,000 + -------------- + Total $8,182,452,000 + +With the operation of this tax the people of the United States found it +no longer possible to speak in terms of opprobrium of the tax-ridden +people of Europe. The American income tax has a higher rate on large +incomes than that provided for under the English system. A man in the +United States with an income of $5,000,000 is taxed nearly 50 percent., +more than in England. The New York _Tribune_ published tables printed +below comparing the income tax rates of the United States with those +existing in France and in Great Britain. + + +INCOME TAX COMPARISON + +A compilation made for the _Wall Street Journal_ shows that the United +States income tax even with the increases made in 1918 was still far +lower than the English income tax: + + "The great bulk, numerically, of incomes taxed in 1917 was in + the field reached by the lowering of the exemption in the 1917 + law.... It is a fact, however, that no one of these new + taxpayers was called on to contribute more than $40 to the + government, as the rate was only 2 percent., while all other + incomes paid a basic normal tax of 4 percent. The lowest rate + for normal tax in Great Britain is 2 shillings and 3 pence on + the pound, or 11-1/4 percent., and the exemption is only $600. The + basic normal tax under the new English law is 6 shillings on + the pound, or 30 percent., on all incomes over $25,000. + + _United States + Old Law New Law United Kingdom France + Income Rate Rate Rate (%) Rate + Am't (%) Am't (%) Unearned Earned (%)_ + $ 2,500 $10 .40 $30 1.20 11.25 8.44 1.25 + 3,000 20 .67 60 2.00 14.84 11.87 1.67 + 3,500 30 .86 90 2.57 16.24 12.96 2.07 + 4,000 46 1.00 120 3.00 18.16 14.53 2.44 + 4,500 60 1.33 150 3.33 18.75 15.00 2.86 + 5,000 80 1.60 180 3.60 18.75 15.00 3.20 + 5,500 105 1.91 220 4.00 22.50 18.75 3.48 + 6,000 130 2.16 260 4.33 22.50 18.75 3.71 + 6,500 155 2.38 330 5.08 22.50 18.75 3.90 + 7,000 180 2.57 400 5.71 22.50 18.75 4.07 + 7,500 205 2.73 470 6.27 22.50 18.75 4.21 + 8,000 235 2.93 545 6.81 26.25 22.50 4.34 + 8,500 265 3.12 620 7.29 26.25 22.50 4.53 + 9,000 295 3.28 695 7.72 26.25 22.50 4.69 + 9,500 325 3.42 770 8.11 26.25 22.50 4.84 + 10,000 355 3.55 845 8.45 26.25 22.50 4.98 + 12,500 530 4.24 1,320 10.56 30.00 26.25 5.53 + 15,000 730 4.87 1,795 11.97 32.08 32.08 6.07 + 20,000 1,180 5.90 2,895 14.48 34.06 34.06 6.99 + 25,000 1,780 7.12 4,245 16.98 35.75 35.75 7.84 + 30,000 2,380 7.93 5,595 18.65 37.29 37.29 8.41 + 35,000 2,980 8.51 7,195 20.56 38.75 38.75 8.99 + 40,000 3,580 8.95 8,795 21.99 39.84 39.84 9.43 + 45,000 4,380 9.73 10,645 23.66 40.97 40.97 9.77 + 50,000 5,180 10.36 12,495 24.99 41.88 41.88 10.05 + 55,000 5,980 10.87 14,695 26.72 42.84 42.84 10.27 + 60,000 6,780 11.30 16,895 28.16 43.65 43.65 10.45 + 70,000 8,880 12.69 21,895 31.26 44.91 44.91 10.75 + 80,000 10,980 13.72 27,295 34.12 45.86 45.86 10.96 + 100,000 16,180 16.18 39,095 39.10 47.19 47.19 11.27 + 150,000 31,680 21.12 70,095 46.73 48.96 48.96 11.68 + 200,000 49,180 24.59 101,095 50.55 49.84 49.84 11.89 + 300,000 92,680 30.89 165,095 55.03 50.73 50.73 12.09 + 500,000 192,680 38.54 297,095 59.42 51.44 51.44 12.25 + 1,000,000 475,180 47.52 647,095 64.71 51.97 51.97 12.38 + 5,000,000 3,140,000 62.80 3,527,095 70.54 52.39 52.39 12.48 + +"Actual rate, allowing for deductions, normal tax, and surtaxes, based +on taxes on incomes of heads of families. Persons with no dependents pay +more; those with more than one pay less. $2,000 is exempted for heads of +families, $1,000 for bachelors. Below $4,000, 6 per cent. is the normal +tax; above, 12 per cent. Surtaxes begin at $5,000." + + "If the new normal tax in the United States were made uniformly + 12 percent.--wiping out the 2 percent. discrimination of the + 1917 law--a single man in this country with a salary of $1,500 + a year would be called on to pay $60 in income tax, as against + an English tax of $101.25. Assuming that the normal tax were + raised to 12 percent. and the surtax and excess tax were left + as at present, an unmarried American with a salary of $10,000 + would pay $1,430.20, while the unmarried Englishman would pay + $2,250. If the Englishman derived his $10,000 income from + rentals, his tax would be increased to $2,625, while the + American tax would be reduced to $1,165--an Irish dividend on + effort. + + "According to a level where the British surtax becomes + effective, take a salary of $20,000. The English normal tax on + this would be $6,000 and the surtax $812.50 (figuring $5 to the + pound), a total of $6,812.50. At the suggested rate of 12 + percent., the American's normal tax would be $2,145.60 (rate + applying to $20,000, less $1,000 exemption and $1,120 excess + tax); the surtax would be $444 and the excess tax $1,120; a + total of $3,709.60. If the American cut non-tax-free coupons + for his income instead of working for it, his tax would be + reduced to $2,780, making it more than $600, less than one-half + the English tax. This, be it remembered, is figuring the + American normal tax at the supposititious rate of 12 percent. + + "Going abruptly to an income of $1,000,000, the American normal + tax at 12 percent., would be $119,880, against an English normal + tax of $300,000. The increase in the American normal tax would + be $79,960 over present rates. The American surtax at present + rates would be $435,300, as against a British surtax of + $217,915; total American, $555,180, English, $519,687.50. No + account is taken in this computation of any excess tax on the + American income. With an income of $3,000,000. the American + normal tax at 12 percent. would be $359,880, an increase of + $239,960 over present rates. The surtax at present rates would + be $1,680,300, a total of $2,040,180, or nearly 70 percent., + the rate on the last $1,000,000 being at 75 percent. The + corresponding British tax is, normal, $900,000, and surtax + $669,685; total, $1,569,685, or nearly 52 percent., the actual + maximum rate being 52-1/2 percent. on all excess over $50,000. + + "Expressed in tabular form, comparative results from a normal + tax of 12 percent., combined with present surtax rates and + assuming all income up to $50,000 to be earned income for a + single man, would be as follows: + + U.S. Per British Per + Income Tax Cent. Tax Cent. + + $1,500 $60.00 4.00 $101.25 6.75 + 3,000 240.00 8.00 375.00 12.50 + 5,000 480.00 9.60 750.00 15.00 + 7,500 789.40 10.52 1,406.25 18.75 + 10,000 1,430.20 14.30 2,250.00 22.50 + 15,000 2,534.80 16.90 4,812.50 32.08 + 20,000 3,709.60 18.55 6,812.50 34.06 + 30,000 6,336.00 21.12 11,187.50 37.29 + 40,000 8,956.00 22.39 15,937.50 39.84 + 50,000 11,855.20 23.71 20,937.50 40.18 + 75,000 18,605.20 24.81 34,062.50 45.42 + 100,000 26,855.20 26.80 47,187.50 47.19 + 150,000 46,355.20 30.90 73,437.50 48.96 + 250,000 92,355.20 36.94 125,937.50 50.37 + 500,000 235,355.20 47.07 257,187.50 51.44 + 700,000 359,355.20 51.33 362,187.50 51.74 + 750,000 390,355.20 52.05 388,437.50 51.79 + 1,000,000 557,855.20 55.78 519,687.50 51.97 + 3,000,000 2,042,855.20 68.09 1,569,687.50 52.32 +10,000,000 7,292,855.20 72.93 5,244,687.50 52.45 + + "With additional exemption of $1,000 for heads of families and + $200 each for dependent children, the United States figures in + the table would be reduced by $120 for the $1,000 exemption and + $24 for each child. There are similar deductions to be made in + the English figures. Furthermore, for incomes above $50,000, + deduction for the excess tax has not been figured exactly in + order to avoid long computations. This would slightly reduce + the figure on the large incomes. But for demonstrative + purposes, the table gives a fairly accurate general comparison + of the range of taxes under the proposed English law and a + tentative 12 percent. normal rate under our law. + + "It will be noticed that the rates would come together just + below $750,000. It is in the range between $5,000 and $500,000 + incomes that greatest divergence in rates occurs. The British + tax takes its largest jump between $10,000 and $15,000, where + the surtax begins to operate. The United States gradations are + erratic and irregular, showing the haphazard manner in which + the steps of the surtax were applied." + +ATTITUDE TOWARD WAR TAX BILL + +The passing of the war tax bill was not altogether easy sailing; there +was plenty of criticism from the press throughout the country. +Republican editors and congressmen wondered why the bill did not contain +a tax on cotton, and one Pennsylvania congressman thought that the tax +levy should be at the rate of three dollars a bale. Senator Smoot of +Utah attacked the bill as a bunglesome measure. + +The New York _Journal of Commerce_ called attention to the +discrimination between those whose income is in the form of services or +property and those who get it in cash: + + "Take the case, for instance, of the salaried employee of a + bank or factory who receives $5,000 a year, out of which he + pays his house rent and his usual costs of living; contrast him + with the case of a farmer who owns his land and obtains the + bulk of what he needs, both in food, fuel, and other + essentials, for himself and family in produce or in goods + obtained by trade at the neighboring village; the situation + becomes clear and shows why it is that the farming class pays + only a microscopic proportion of the income tax at the present + time." + +And the Democratic New York _World_ agreed that the farmer "is not +carrying his share of the load of war taxation," and observes: + + "An analysis of income tax returns for the fiscal year 1916, + recently published, shows that, although farmers are the most + numerous class of Americans engaged in gainful occupations, + they were at the foot of the list proportionately among income + tax payers. Outside of the notorious war profiteers, no element + of our population has advantaged so greatly by war as + agriculturists; yet in the year of which we speak only one + farmer in four hundred paid a farthing's tax upon income. In + this respect preachers and teachers showed a higher + percentage." + +There was some demand for extending the income tax downwards to cover +smaller incomes, for example, we find the Council Bluffs' _Nonpareil_ +contending: + + "The men of more moderate income should be required to pay at + least a nominal income tax. This is a common country. It + belongs to common people. And common people will esteem it a + privilege to contribute their mites. One dollar per hundred on + a thousand-dollar income would be both reasonable and just." + + +CRITICISM OF THE TAX + +The attitude of the New York press is indicated by the _Evening Sun_ and +the _Times_. The New York _Evening Sun_ (Rep.) said the committee "left +so many rough edges upon their work." In the opinion of this newspaper, +Mr. Kitchin "has given us a measure of class-taxation highly +accentuated, and yet has failed to suit the McAdoo group, the most +clear-minded adherents of the conscription-of-wealth idea. He has +produced a confused series of taxes beyond the practical power of the +ordinary busy citizen to master or comprehend, but has not combined +these into a harmonious system." The morning _Sun_ even went so far as +to remark that "nothing that the Senate could do could make the Kitchin +measure worse than it is." Yet it by no means criticized all the +features of the bill. It objected to the proposed taxes on oil producers +as discouraging the production of oil, and styled the plan to tax +distributed corporation earnings at twelve percent. and undistributed +earnings at eighteen percent. "simply a fool tax," which "will help to +lock the wheels of every great industry in this country." + +The foundation mistake of the bill, in the opinion of the New York +_Times_ (Ind. Dem.) was the "attempt to assess taxes upon the smallest +possible number of persons and businesses, leaving a great majority of +the people free from a levy direct or indirect." The _Times_ thought +that this policy was dictated by the desire "to leave the mass of voters +free from grounds of complaint against the party in power." It insisted +that there should be a consumption tax levying "upon the breakfast table +and upon the purchases of a great mass of people." Such necessities as +tea, coffee, cocoa, sugar, should bear a tax, in the opinion of this and +other newspapers. The number of those taxed was also kept comparatively +small by the retention of the old income exemption limits, namely, +$1,000 for bachelors and $2,000 for married men, with the normal tax +rate placed at only six percent. on incomes up to $5,000. + + +WILSON'S TAX PROGRAM + +An outline of what was expected from the people of the country as a +financial contribution was given by Mr. Wilson in his May (1918) address +to Congress, when he decided to ask its members to remain in Washington +and prepare a new revenue bill. Mr. Wilson's call for immediate action +in behalf of both the public and the Treasury Department was a summons +to a universal duty in language which, it is remarked, "was never before +used in a tax speech." He said in part: + + "We can not in fairness wait until the end of the fiscal year + is at hand to apprize our people of the taxes they must pay on + their earnings of the present calendar year, whose accountings + and expenditures will then be closed. + + "We can not get increased taxes unless the country knows what + they are to be and practices the necessary economy to make them + available. Definiteness, early definiteness, as to what its + tasks are to be is absolutely necessary for the successful + administration of the treasury.... + + "The present tax laws are marred, moreover, by inequities which + ought to be remedied.... + + "Only fair, equitably distributed taxation of the widest + incidence, drawing chiefly from the sources which would be + likely to demoralize credit by their very abundance, can + prevent inflation and keep our industrial system free of + speculation and waste. + +[Illustration: Poster for Boy Scouts Who Worked for the Victory Loan] + + "We shall naturally turn, therefore, I suppose, to war profits + and incomes and luxuries for the additional taxes. But the war + profits and incomes upon which the increased taxes will be + levied will be the profits and incomes of the calendar year + 1918. It would be manifestly unfair to wait until the early + months of 1919 to say what they are to be.... + + "Moreover, taxes of that sort will not be paid until the June + of next year, and the treasury must anticipate them.... + + "In the autumn a much larger sale of long-time bonds must be + effected than has yet been attempted.... + + "And how are investors to approach the purchase of bonds with + any sort of confidence or knowledge of their own affairs if + they do not know what taxes they are to pay and what economies + and adjustments of their business they must effect? I can not + assure the country of a successful administration of the + treasury in 1918 if the question of further taxation is to be + left undecided until 1919." + +Mr. Wilson's appeal for the practice of personal economy met with +widespread approval in England, as it did in the United States. The +_Economist_ considered that his manifesto to the American people on this +subject was among the greatest documents that the war has produced. +National self-sacrifice had gone far, but not far enough. To attain Mr. +Wilson's standard of individual patriotism much was still needed, the +_Economist_ says: + + "We still have a very long way to go before we can attain to + President Wilson's standard of individual patriotism. From the + outbreak of war to the end of last year the small investor in + this country has lent L118,179,000 to the government. Moreover, + in the first two months of 1917 as much as L40,000,000 was + contributed to war loans in one form or another in the shape of + small savings. That result represents a great deal of patriotic + saving, and reflects the highest credit on the committee, as + well as upon the Montagu committee, which devised so suitable a + form of investment as the 15s 6d certificate. But far more is + required. During the war loan campaign, war savings + certificates brought in L3,000,000 in a single week. That + effort was, perhaps, too great to be kept up; but it is hardly + satisfactory that, in spite of the hard work of the committee, + and an enormous growth in the number of active war savings + associations all over the country, the weekly receipts from the + 15s 6d certificates have fallen back to the L800,000 to + L900,000 level which was reached last December. This relapse + may be partially accounted for by the late increase in the cost + of living, but there can be no doubt that much more might yet + be done by the masses of people of moderate means to whom the + small certificates appeal. Nor is there any evidence that the + wealthier classes, generally speaking, have done nearly as + much, in the matter of war self denial, as they might have + done." + + +LUXURY TAXES + +When it came to a question of taxing luxuries, the difficulty was to +decide what was a luxury. The situation perplexed Congress, for we find +one congressman in Pennsylvania who held that collar buttons and cuff +buttons were a necessity, while a representative from Texas asserted +that Texas could get along without either collar buttons and cuff +buttons and still be patriotic. A congressman from Oklahoma thought that +all kinds of buttons could be done away with, adding, "Before I came to +Congress I could use nails for my suspenders." Congressman from +agricultural states considered that automobiles and gasoline were not +luxuries but were really necessities, especially for farmers. + +Many newspapers opposed anything like a luxury tax. We find the New York +_Times_ advising the imposition of taxes on tea, sugar, coffee and +cocoa. These are good revenue producers but few politicians care to +interfere with the free breakfast table. The _Wall Street Journal_ +approved of luxury taxes because they would be a means of enforcing +thrift. The Treasury's plan for imposing these taxes may be gathered +from the following condensed summary: + + "Fifty percent. on the retail price of jewelry, including + watches and clocks, except those sold to army officers. + + "Twenty percent. on automobiles, trailers and truck units, + motor cycles, bicycles automobile, motor cycle, and bicycle + tires, and musical instruments. + + "A tax on all men's suits selling for more than $30, hats over + $4, shirts over $2, pajamas over $2, hosiery over 35 cents, + shoes over $5, gloves over $2, underwear over $3, and all + neckwear and canes. + + "On women's suits over $40, coats over $30, ready-made dresses + over $35, skirts over $15, hats over $10, shoes over $6, + lingerie over $5, corsets over $5. Dress goods--silk over $1.50 + a square yard; cotton over 50 cents a square yard, and wool + over $2 per square yard. All furs, boas and fans. + + "On children's clothing--on children's suits over $15, cotton + dresses over $3, linen dresses over $5, silk and wool dresses + over $8, hats $5, shoes $4, and gloves $2. + + "On house furnishings, all ornamental lamps and fixtures, all + table linen, cutlery and silverware, china and cut glass; all + furniture in sets for which $5 or more is paid for each piece; + on curtains over $2 per yard, and on tapestries, rugs, and + carpets over $5 per square yard. + + "On all purses, pocketbooks, handbags, brushes, combs and + toilet articles, and all mirrors over $2. + + "Ten percent. on the collections from the sales of vending + machines. + + "Ten percent. on all hotel bills amounting to more than $2.50 + per person per day. Also the present 10 percent. tax on cabaret + bills is made to apply to the entire restaurant or cafe bill. + + +TAXES OF MANUFACTURER OR PRODUCER + + "Ten cents a gallon on all gasoline to be paid by the wholesale + dealers. + + "Ten percent. tax on wire leases. + + "Graduated taxes on soft drinks. Mineral now taxed 1 cent a + gallon to pay 16 cents. Chewing gum now taxed 2 percent. of + the selling price, to pay 1 cent on each 5-cent package. + + "Motion-picture shows and films: abolish the foot tax of 1/4 and + 1/2-cent a foot and substitute a tax of 5 percent. on the rentals + received by the producer, and double the tax rate on + admissions. + + "Double the present taxes on alcoholic beverages, tobacco and + cigarettes. + + "Automobiles--a license tax on passenger automobiles graduated + according to horsepower. + + "Double club membership dues. + + "Household servants, made 25 percent. of the wages of one + servant up to 100 percent. of the combined wages of four or + more. Female servants, each family exempted from tax on one + servant. All additional servants (female) from 10 to 100 + percent. on all over four." + + +LUXURIES IMPORTED + +Heavy taxes on luxuries were anticipated but until these taxes were +considered it was hardly realized how much of the consumption in America +was concerned with articles that could be considered luxuries; for +example, the country imported $6,000,000 worth of foreign cigarette +papers. Pictures, statuary and other works of art were brought into the +country to the extent of $17,000,000. Over $2,000,000 worth of ivory was +imported every year; over $2,000,000 worth of mother-of-pearl and more +than $2,500,000 worth of bulbs and roots. Higher taxes were urged by the +financial experts, so we see a writer in _Financial America_ emphasizing +the connection between the importation of luxuries and the need of +shipping: + + "America can not spare ships to bring costly garments and + furnishings thousands of miles across the sea. For the war + period these articles can be replaced at home with materials + that cost less labor and less money. The money spent for + domestic goods remains in America and maintains our working + population and our business and banking resources. + + "We lack a sufficient market for our cotton crop, owing to the + lack of ships. Americans should wear more cotton. The money + spent upon it maintains the Southern planter and his family. + Modern processes give it the appearance of silk. It serves very + well as carpets, curtains, hangings, and furniture coverings. + It should answer present needs for such fabrics. A heavier tax + on imports of these goods is indicated as a means of revenue + and war economy. + + "Imported wearing apparel of silk pays 60 percent. duty and of + wool 44 cents a pound and 60 percent. _ad valorem_. There is a + graduated rate on dress goods of these materials. Despite the + tax, America spent more on imported manufactures of silk in + 1917 than ever, the total being nearly $40,000,000. The same + was true of woolen goods, amounting to $23,000,000. + + "Our imports of woolen carpets and rugs, most of them brought + half way round the world from oriental lands, were also larger. + They cost us $3,740,000, though America is a large producer of + carpets and rugs, fine as well as coarse. These imports paid + ten cents a square foot and 40 percent. _ad valorem._ + Evidently, it was not enough. + + "We also spent $53,000,000 for imported cotton manufactures, + including cloth, laces, curtains, handkerchiefs, veils, and + wearing apparel, though America is the world's chief producer + of cotton. A higher tariff is indicated as a tax on those who + insist on the foreign product. + + + TAXES ON TOBACCO + + "America has a large tobacco industry at home. We import + tobacco in vast quantities from every producing land to satisfy + the whimsical and varying tastes of connoisseurs. Our own + tobacco is discouraged by those who smoke it under the name of + Turkish, Egyptian, Cuban, Dutch, Spanish, and other foreign + products, and pay a heavy price for the critical taste which + their vanity causes them to imagine they possess. Last year + these imports of leaf tobacco alone were valued at $26,000,000, + or $10,000,000 more than in 1915. The war tax is five cents a + pound added to eight cents paid under the internal revenue act, + or thirteen cents altogether. There is also a duty of $1.85 to + $2.50 a pound. To increase the tax would encourage the industry + in Kentucky, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, and other + states, while saving our resources in ships and keeping our + money at home. + + "In addition, America spent $7,000,000 for foreign-made cigars + and cigarettes last year. These purchases support foreign + factories, although our own factories use the same raw material + which they import. They have jumped nearly $3,000,000 in two + years. Until the war is ended, Americans should be satisfied + with cigars 'made in America.' The present war tax ranges from + one tenth of a cent to one cent on each cigar, according to + value, in addition to a duty of $4.50 a pound and 25 percent. + _ad valorem_. A higher tax would deprive the smoker of nothing + but a craving for the foreign label on his cigar box, unless he + chose to pay well for it. He can even get a Spanish name on his + American-made cigar. + + + DIAMONDS, LEATHER AND MILLINERY + + "America spent $41,000,000 in 1917 to import diamonds, pearls, + and other precious stones and imitations, not set. They paid a + war tax of only 3 percent. when made into jewelry. America + could be content with beauty less adorned to keep this + $40,000,000 at home, or those who insist on sending their money + to African mine owners and Dutch cutters should pay a larger + tax. + + "America last year had a tremendous bill for hides and skins of + $209,000,000, nearly two and a half times that of 1915. Much of + it was for the great necessities of the army. A good proportion + of the rest was unnecessary. These imports of raw material are + free of duty and there is no war tax on leather goods. + Substitutes have been devised for many of them. These should be + encouraged by a tax on the unnecessary use of leather in + furnishings, decorations, toilet articles, hand bags, trunks, + high shoes, belts, hatbands, and many small articles. + Substitutes for these will be provided quickly enough if + leather is lacking. A heavy tax would help the movement. The + tremendous military and other legitimate demands for leather + goods will keep the industry in thriving condition without so + much waste. + + "For imported millinery materials America spent nearly + $13,000,000 last year, and we also spent $3,000,000 for mere + feathers, tributes to feminine vanity that filled up many ships + needed for war use. The greater part of this stuff came 10,000 + miles from China and Japan. There are plenty of substitutes + that a high war tax would encourage, including those provided + by the American hen. + + "Our imported glassware, on which there is no war tax, cost + nearly $2,000,000. It occupies large space aboard ship, owing + to voluminous packing that is necessary. Imported china, + porcelain, earthenware, and crockery cost America nearly + $6,500,000." + +BEARING THE BURDEN + +In spite of the enormous cost of war operations, roseate views were +taken of the ability of the country to surmount the unusual +difficulties. Unprecedented taxes were being paid, heavy subscriptions +to the Liberty Loans were being collected and yet the business of the +country seemed to show a high degree of prosperity. This optimistic +outlook marks the following comment found in a circular published by the +First National Bank in Boston, after it had called attention to the +small number of failures reported throughout the country for August, +1918. No such low record had been reached since July, 1901: + + "The steps that have been taken to curtail credits have + resulted in greater conservatism, and have had a beneficent + effect, which is likely to continue for some time after the + present necessity disappears. The business foundation is + extremely sound. Figures of resources of savings banks show + that the subscriptions to the Liberty Loans have brought only + a trifling decrease in savings deposits. Evidently subscribers + are buying bonds with their current income rather than with + their savings. In other words, the Liberty Loans represent + additions to the savings of the country, and not merely + transfers of investments." + +It was prophesied that in spite of the enormous financial obligations +assumed by the United States normal conditions would soon be restored. +History shows, the circular goes on to say, that financial recovery from +devastation has been prompt and complete. Even the railway conditions at +this time were viewed optimistically. Such a competent authority as the +_Wall Street Journal_ did not anticipate the financial troubles that +soon overtook railway administration under government control. It +thought that, by the end of the year, the existing debits on current +operations would probably be wiped out: + + "Aggregate railroad earnings and expenses for July of all the + important roads in the country are in line with the individual + statements of the different roads already published in showing + large increases in both gross and net revenues. They also + indicate, so far as one month's operating results may be used + to generalize from, that the railroads are now on a + self-supporting basis, if they are not actually returning a + profit to the government on current operation. + + "Net operating income of these roads for the month of July + (1918) was $137,845,425 as compared with $92,599,620 in the + same month of 1917. In a recent statement from the + Director-General's office the compensation payable to the + railroad companies for the use of their property by the + government was estimated at $650,000,000 for the first eight + months of the year, or at the rate of $81,250,000 a month. The + net operating income of the Class 1 roads as mentioned above + exceeds this monthly rental figure by $56,595,000." + + +THE FIRST GOVERNMENT LOAN, 1789 + +Although called by other names, the United States has had issues of +Liberty Bonds on several occasions during a period of one hundred and +twenty-nine years, notably in the first years of the Republic and in the +Civil War. The first was floated in 1789, the year when the Federal +Government was established. Alexander Hamilton was Secretary of the +Treasury and on him devolved the duty of raising funds for the +government. + + "Conditions being pressing, Hamilton, in raising the necessary + money, at first did not wait even for the approval of Congress, + but went to the Bank of New York, which he had helped to found + in 1784--the second bank in the United States and the first in + New York City--to raise the first necessary money. At a meeting + of the board of directors the new secretary of the treasury + asked for a loan of $200,000. It was promptly and unanimously + granted, the money to be advanced in five installments of + $20,000 each and ten of $10,000 each, at 6 percent. On the + following day Hamilton sent to the bank the first bond ever + issued by the United States Treasury--a bond of $20,000--on + receipt of which the money was paid over, so that the United + States Treasury could show $20,000 cash on hand. In _The + Investor's Magazine_, where these facts were recently brought + to light, we are further told that the bond then issued is + still carefully preserved by the bank which bought it. Quite + unlike the now familiar Liberty Bonds of 1917 and 1918, it was + executed with an ordinary quill pen, such as was in use in + those times, and signed in ink by the secretary. With its seal + somewhat yellow with age, the bond is still in an excellent + state of preservation." + +[Illustration: Richards in the Phila. _North American_ + +Dropping the First Bomb] + + +POPULARITY OF THE LIBERTY LOANS + +America's financial reputation stood at a fairly high level after the +close of the Civil War. An era of unexampled production ensued for more +than five decades, yet there were many timorous souls who were +frightened at the thought of the United States being called upon to bear +the burden of the colossal loans. The surprising feature of the Liberty +Loans was the elasticity of the subscriptions. The subscribers for the +first three loans numbered respectively 4,500,000, 10,020,000, +17,000,000; in every case the records show over subscription. A graphic +statement of the nation's riches was presented by S. L. Frazier in the +_Northwestern Banker_, Des Moines, October, 1918: + + "Our resources are well up toward $300,000,000,000, or about + equal to the combined resources of France, England, and + Germany. Our annual production is close to $50,000,000,00, + amounts that stagger the imagination. Why it would take ten + thousand years to count the dollars representing out country's + resources counting one each second, and working day and night + and Sundays." + +The New York _Tribune_ remarked, "If any learned professor of economics +had predicted that on top of ten billions of government loans in one +year a fourth Liberty Loan would reach nearly seven billions we know +what we all would have thought." + + +HOW EUROPE WILL PAY US BACK + +An official in the National City Bank of New York, Mr. G. E. Roberts, is +quoted by the New York _Times_ as saying that the wealth-producing +equipment of the country had become greater than ever during the war. He +did not believe either that there would be any difficulty of the United +States being paid back for the money it had loaned foreign governments. + + "We are going to be peculiarly situated in our foreign + relations after the war. We have paid off the greater part of + what we owe abroad, and we have lent to foreign governments + some $7,000,000,000 or $8,000,000,000. Including all loans by + the time the war is over, probably there will be annual + interest payments coming to us amounting to $400,000,000 or + $500,000,000. How are we going to receive our pay? I am not + questioning the ability of our debtors to raise this amount + from their people. I have no doubt they can do it, but in what + manner are they going to make payment to us? They can't pay it + in gold; they haven't the gold to do it, and the total + production of gold in the world outside of the United States + wouldn't be enough to do it. We won't want them to pay it in + goods, for that would interfere seriously with our home + industries.... + + "There is only one way out, and that is by extending more + credit to them. We will have to capitalize the interest + payments and reinvest them abroad. And if we want to sell goods + to them we will have to take their bonds and stocks. In short, + we will have to play the part that England has played in the + past, of steadily increasing our foreign investments." + +While the great sums subscribed for the Fourth Loan by banks, +corporations, and individuals had a spectacular interest, observed the +New York _World_, it was the plain people who made the loan a +conspicuous success, and the twenty-one million subscribers mean in +effect the purchase of a new Liberty Bond by "every American family." + + +THE LOAN PERIODS + +There were very good reasons on the part of the government for selecting +the definite periods at which the Liberty Loans were to be issued. There +were also very good reasons derived from experience by which the +government was guided in preparing for the loans. Prior to the fourth +loan Secretary McAdoo believed that it could be made to reach fully +one-fourth of the population of the country. Preparation for it was made +through publicity on a scale hitherto unprecedented. The Washington +correspondent of the New York _Journal of Commerce_, writing on July 31, +1918, said: + + "The country will be appealed to, with new and striking film + arguments, with a great variety of poster slogans, and with a + use of the press and the platform such as has never been + witnessed before in this country. + + "There are to be nineteen days of actual campaign work. The + great task of organization and preparation is now going on. + Artists have been making posters, writers have been preparing + arguments, and printing presses in all parts of the country + have been turning out many millions of mottoes, cartoons, and + slogans." + +He added interesting data as to outstanding treasury certificates and +war expenses. The time chosen for the loan was probably as good, it +thought, as could have been selected, inasmuch as it would fall just +after the bulk of the crops had been harvested and when much of them had +been sold at good figures. + + "War expenses for July were somewhat less than for June and + May, amounting to about $1,482,000,000 as compared with + $1,512,000,000, the record for June, and $1,508,000,000 for + May, the Treasury Department announced. The outlay for July, + however, was approximately the amount estimated in advance by + the treasury, and expenses for August probably will be higher, + it was said. + + "During July the government's daily outlay was about + $48,000,000, an average of $38,000,000 daily was for ordinary + expenses of the army, navy, shipping board, and other agencies, + and $10,000,000 daily in loans to the Allies. Total ordinary + expenditures for the month were about $1,157,000,000 and loans + to the Allies $325,000,000. + + "Receipts from sale of War Savings Stamps July 3rd passed the + half-billion dollar mark, of which $200,000,000 came in this + month as a result of the campaign on Thrift Day, June 28th. + + "The government now is financing itself mainly through the sale + of certificates of indebtedness, in anticipation of the Fourth + Liberty Loan. More than $1,600,000,000 came in from this source + in July. In addition, the government received $491,000,000 from + belated income and excess profits taxes, and $97,000,000 from + miscellaneous internal revenue. Customs duties yielded only + $14,000,000. + + "Payments on the Third Liberty Loan now amount to + $3,652,000,000, leaving $524,000,000 to come in from the next + installment payment." + +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + THE LIBERTY LOANS--BY FEDERAL RESERVE DISTRICTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + FIRST LOAN SECOND LOAN THIRD LOAN FOURTH LOAN + (June, 1917-- (Oct., 1917-- (1918-- (1918-- + 3-1/2 4 4-1/4 4-1/4 + Per Cent.) Per Cent.) Per Cent.) Per Cent.) +------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Boston $332,447,600 $476,950,050 $354,537,250 $632,221,850 +New York 1,186,788,400 1,550,453,450 1,115,243,650 2,044,778,000 +Philadelphia 232,309,250 380,350,250 361,963,500 598,763,650 +Cleveland 286,148,700 486,106,800 405,051,150 702,059,800 +Richmond 109,737,100 201,212,500 186,259,050 352,688,200 +Atlanta 57,878,550 90,695,750 137,649,450 213,885,200 +Chicago 357,195,950 585,853,350 608,878,600 969,209,000 +St. Louis 86,134,700 184,280,750 199,835,900 296,388,550 +Minneapolis 70,255,500 140,932,650 180,892,100 241,028,300 +Kansas City 91,758,850 150,125,750 204,092,800 294,646,450 +Dallas 48,948,350 77,899,850 116,220,650 145,944,450 +San Francisco 175,623,900 292,671,150 287,975,000 459,000,000 +------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Total $3,035,226,850 $4,617,532,300 $4,176,516,850 $6,989,047,000 +subscriptions +------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Total quotas $2,000,000,000 $3,000,000,000 $3,000,000,000 $6,000,000,000 +Total 2,000,000,000 3,808,766,150 4,176,516,850 6,989,047,000 +allotments +Total number of 4,500,000 10,020,000 17,000,000 21,000,000 +subscribers +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + NEW YORK CITY SUBSCRIPTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Manhattan $960,417,050 $1,095,189,000 $702,577,750 $1,353,449,550 +Bronx 404,700 1,015,500 5,112,350 5,751,800 +Brooklyn 30,312,000 44,424,200 52,427,600 100,469,650 +Queens 2,202,600 4,136,150 10,137,350 17,331,900 +Richmond 679,600 1,373,700 3,386,800 5,075,750 +------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Total city $994,015,950 $1,146,139,150 $773,641,859 $1,482,078,650 +subscriptions +------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Included in the Third Loan subscription total is $17,917,750 subscribed +by the United States Treasury. War Savings Stamps subscriptions totalled +$879,330,000 up to November 20, 1918. + + +THE INDIVIDUAL INVESTOR + +Some curious facts were brought out in the effort of the Liberty +Campaign propaganda to reach the individual investor. In the large +cities the organization was remarkably successful. In the smaller +communities it was a greater difficulty. In a suburb or a small town +everybody knows everybody else and the Liberty Loan Committee had hard +work in getting subscribers. Mr. A. W. Atwood of Princeton thinks that +the occupational and vocational classification of possible investors was +not tried. Widows and maiden ladies who had inherited $50,000 or $75,000 +were not reached. Some of them who were patriotic came forward of their +own accord. The little town of Kircunkson in New York State exceeded its +quota many times and there was an item in the papers about it. The +success of the Liberty Loan in that town was due to the fact that it +contained a large sanitarium patronized by millionaires. Yet there were +no banks in the town and if their banking resources were used as a basis +their quota would have been very small indeed. + +As to the assignment of quotas Mr. Atwood makes the point that it was +sometimes based on population, sometimes based on the amount of bank +resources. He thought that in small places it would be better to post up +a list of those who had subscribed and he even thought that if the +country made the effort it could ultimately raise a loan of +$100,000,000,000, his reason being the following: + + "This country is approaching, as England has long ago, the + position of being a possessor of great accumulated wealth. One + broker after another is really nothing but a family investment + agent. That is what it amounts to. There are railroad magnates, + bankers, steel kings, copper kings and so on indefinitely. + Hundreds of firms in the New York Stock Exchange are nothing + but channels for the investment of accumulated wealth and I do + not think we realize how much there is of that in this + country." + + +LIBERTY LOANS AND THRIFT + +One of the best methods of testing the influence of Liberty Loan +activities on the thrift of the country is used by _Bradstreet's_ in its +examination of the annual report of the United States League of Building +and Loan Associations. These Associations, be it remembered, are not +patronized by capitalists but almost wholly by wage earners. During the +past fifteen years the membership of building and loan associations has +increased 150 percent. and since the war broke in 1914, the number of +members has extended 52 percent. The latest report shows a gain in +assets of 30 percent. over the amount indicated in 1914. The following +tables taken from _Bradstreet's_ give detailed items of the financial +situation of these important organizations: + +The following table gives membership and total assets of building and +loan associations for a fifteen-year period: + + Membership Assets + 1902--03 1,530,707 $577,228,014 + 1903--04 1,566,700 579,556,112 + 1904--05 1,631,046 600,342,586 + 1905--06 1,642,127 629,344,257 + 1906--07 1,699,714 673,129,198 + 1907--08 1,839,119 731,508,446 + 1908--09 1,920,257 784,175,753 + 1909--10 2,016,651 856,332,719 + 1910--11 2,169,893 931,867,175 + 1911--12 2,332,829 1,030,687,031 + 1912--13 2,518,442 1,136,949,465 + 1914--15 3,103,935 1,357,707,900 + 1915--16 3,334,899 1,484,205,875 + 1916--17 3,568,342 1,696,707,041 + 1917--18 3,838,612 1,769,142,175 + +The following table shows total membership and total assets for States +in which accurate statistics are compiled by state supervisors. The data +for other States are consolidated under the heading, "Other States," and +the figures given are estimated: + + --------------1917--18--------------- + Members Assets Increase + Pennsylvania 677,911 $324,265,393 $25,438,326 + Ohio 767,100 321,741,529 51,188,940 + New Jersey 329,063 168,215,913 13,088,951 + Massachusetts 247,725 126,695,037 13,389,130 + Illinois 246,800 113,528,525 8,050,122 + New York 199,571 86,072,829 6,442,948 + Indiana 202,409 78,112,917 5,818,661 + Nebraska 101,929 54,545,630 6,627,783 + California 42,227 35,928,447 3,134,429 + Michigan 69,041 35,659,360 4,279,888 + Kentucky 62,846 27,085,282 1,272,372 + Missouri 56,116 26,770,144 3,226,311 + Kansas 66,442 26,000,167 2,446,058 + Louisiana 47,793 25,911,928 1,362,683 + Dist. Columbia 37,075 22,399,995 255,115 + Wisconsin 50,612 19,887,368 3,013,526 + North Carolina 37,400 17,608,000 1,703,230 + Washington 46,318 14,444,177 2,366,450 + Arkansas 21,053 10,583,447 409,439 + Iowa[3] 33,035 9,638,852 ........ + Minnesota 22,020 8,979,642 626,537 + West Virginia 21,500 8,119,131 369,564 + Colorado[3] 10,200 6,688,983 ........ + Maine 14,959 6,671,239 233,961 + Oklahoma 18,142 6,554,175 2,354,175 + Rhode Island 11,499 5,938,436 577,906 + Connecticut 14,900 4,869,748 610,423 + South Dakota 5,857 3,603,836 89,286 + N. Hampshire 8,554 3,336,072 322,812 + Tennessee 5,166 3,207,754 [4]112,865 + North Dakota 5,785 2,837,118 90,308 + Texas 7,156 2,314,927 372,489 + Montana 4,239 1,849,935 209,906 + New Mexico 3,545 1,469,276 72,660 + Vermont 749 287,791 52,079 + Other States 341,875 157,319,172 10,975,756 + --------- -------------- ------------ + Total 3,838,612 $1,769,142,175 $170,514,039 + +[3] Reports issued biennially; figures of 1916 used. + +[4] Decrease. + +[Illustration: A Poster Used During the Fourth Liberty Loan Campaign] + + +THE THRIFT HABIT + +Such was the success of the Liberty Loan campaign in appealing to all +classes of private investors, that it became an interesting speculation +whether the popular thrift habit would survive war conditions. It was +the general belief in financial centers that the habit of saving had +been promoted. Perhaps no better illustration of the thrift habit could +be presented than returns made by the savings banks of Boston in +October, 1918. At that date these banks had $321,000,000 against +$319,000,000 at the same date in 1917, the previous banner total for the +end of a banking year. It was estimated by Mr. Ingalls Kimball, the New +York _Times_ annalist, that twenty million separate individuals were +saving by the method of subscribing to the Liberty Loans, and, as more +than $800,000,000 worth of War Saving stamps had been sold, it was +probable that nearly half the population of the country was saving money +in one of these new ways. As to the method of continuing to encourage +thrift, Mr. Kimball pointed out the value of the experience derived from +the Liberty Bond Campaign: + + "The thrift machine set up by the Treasury was as follows: 1. + small unit government bonds; 2. non-interest-bearing Thrift + Stamps; 3. War Savings Stamps--a short-term obligation paying + interest at maturity. + + "This was the mechanism. What was the power that actuated the + machine to such wonderful effect? 1. salesmanship, including + every modern device of advertising; 2. distribution: (a) + through retail stores; (b) through employers, by partial + payments (usually pay-roll deduction). + + "From these simple elements was built up a campaign that + induced the people to save in a new and unaccustomed way at + least twenty times as much as they had ever before saved in the + same time. None of the elements was unimportant, but + salesmanship, probably, contributed most. The selling campaigns + of the Liberty Loans and War Savings Stamps were carried on by + the largest and most effective selling organization ever put + together, under the direction of the ablest men in the United + States, and with an energy and devotion that were unimaginable. + This selling force was irresistible. Everybody bought because + everybody was asked, or begged, or told, to buy. Under the same + stimulus almost anything would have sold. + + + "SAVING AT THE SOURCE" + + "Next in importance to the direct selling effort came + distribution. For the first time in the history of finance it + has been made easy to save; for the first time the great retail + channels of distribution have been thrown open to saving; for + the first time millions of wage-earners have learned the value + and ease of 'Saving at the Source' by pay-envelope deduction of + a dollar or so a week toward a Liberty Bond." + +Mr. Kimball questioned whether or not we are to lose the benefit of the +great lesson of thrift and whether some plan could be devised to make us +keep on saving. No problem of reconstruction seemed to him more +important than this, "yet in no one of the announced conferences on +reconstruction do I find mention of it." He then goes on to say: + + "The greatest thrift lesson in the world is thrift, no matter + what its motive. A great many hundred thousand persons in this + country have found themselves this year possessed of $100 or + more in one piece for the first time in their lives; often + without realization of how they got it. Will that lesson last? + Will the wage-earner, now that loan drives are over, keep on + saving, going weekly to the bank to put in his dollar. The + answer to these questions is, unfortunately, 'no.' + + "It would be perfectly possible to continue the issue of War + Savings Stamps, and there are many advocates of this plan, but + it is doubtful if distribution could be permanently maintained + on anything like its present scale. Merchants and banks, with + rare exceptions, would scarcely continue to handle them, for + the cost is not inconsiderable, and there is no compensating + commercial gain. In the postoffices alone their continued sale + would set up competition with the present postal savings + system, which would serve no good purpose and would be highly + confusing. + + "Can the savings banks successfully undertake this great task? + I believe they could. I believe a national savings bank, + operating through commercial banks, stores, and employers all + over the United States, making its investments through a small + compact, very highly paid and very efficient and very + stringently supervised board of executives in one city, + supporting a vigorous, numerous, and far-flung selling + organization, similar in many respects to the industrial life + insurance organizations, could undertake this work and, were it + possible to act quickly enough, could keep the thrift movement + going without losing the amazing momentum which it has now + acquired." + + +SPENDING THE MONEY + +For a period of twenty-five months, from April, 1917, through April, +1919, the United States spent for war purposes more than $1,000,000 an +hour. All sorts of comparisons are used to make this figure seizable by +the imagination. For example, the whole sum, nearly $22,000,000,000, was +twenty times the whole of the pre-war debt. Indeed, it was nearly large +enough to pay the entire cost of our Government from 1791 up to the +outbreak of the European War. In addition to the actual war cost of our +own Government Congress paid to various associated governments the sum +of $8,850,000,000. As to how this enormous sum of money was spent, +two-thirds of the amount practically was spent upon the Army, and the +rate of expenditure for the Army was constantly advancing period by +period. Even after the termination of hostilities there was a very high +daily average owing to the building of ships for the Emergency Fleet +Corporation, the construction and operation of naval vessels, food, +clothing, pay and transportation of the Army. The Quartermaster's +Department had the largest proportion of expenditure. + +The amount spent about equals the value of all the gold produced in the +whole world from the discovery of America up to the outbreak of the +European War. The pay for the Army during the period of warfare was +larger than the combined salaries of all of the public school principals +and teachers in the United States for five years, from 1912 to 1916. +Some of the money spent represents permanent assets. At the end of the +war there were large stocks of clothing on hand and large supplies of +standardized trucks. There were thousands of Liberty motors and service +planes that were available for other uses. Engineer, signal and medical +equipment still continued to have a value, but if the race for +militarism is maintained it is hard to see how the quantities of war +munitions can fail to escape the scrap heap in a few years' time. + +Comparing the individual estimates of war expenditure, it is noteworthy +that the Austro-Hungarian Empire spent almost as much as the United +States. Of all the powers Germany spent the largest sum, +$39,000,000,000--one billion more than England. + + +MONEY LOANED TO ASSOCIATE NATIONS + +The following is quoted from the _Annalist_ for December, 1918: + + "Money owed to a government by the nations of the world, with + whom it is in active commercial competition, is another line of + fortifications in defense of the frontier. Let us, then + consider our debts and our debtors, and how we both propose to + pay. Our long-time loans may be scheduled as follows: + + First Loan $2,000,000,000 + Second Loan 3,808,766,000 + Third Loan 4,170,019,650 + Fourth Loan 6,989,047,000 + --------------- + $16,967,832,650 + +"The totals of each of the above loans have changed substantially since +allotment, through conversions with a correspondingly increasing charge +on the service. However, the gross amount is substantially unchanged. Of +the old loans the Treasury statement of March 31 showed the following +totals: + + Consol. 2's of 1930 $599,724,050 + 4's of 1925 118,489,900 + Panama Canal 2's, 1906 48,954,180 + Panama Canal 2's, 1908 5,947,400 + Panama Canal 3's, 1911 50,000,000 + Conversion 3's, 1946--7 28,894,500 + Postal Savings 2-1/2's, 1931--7 10,758,560 + Postal Savings 2-1/2's, 1938 302,140,000 + -------------- + $1,184,908,590 + +"The short-term loans in the shape of certificates of indebtedness and +War Savings Stamps at the present writing are as follows: + + 4-1/2% certificates, Series E $639,493,000 + 4-1/2% certificates, Series 4F 625,216,500 + 4-1/2% certificates, Series 4G 614,069,000 + ------------- + $1,878,778,500 + + "In addition to the above a series of certificates of + indebtedness, designated as TA, bearing interest at four per + cent. and maturing July 15, 1919, was issued to a small amount + in anticipation of next year's income taxes. The sale proved to + be slow, and further issuance was discontinued and a new issue + for the same purpose and of a similar maturity bearing interest + at 4-1/2% per cent. was substituted. The sale of these securities + through the agency of the Federal Reserve Banks is in the + nature of a continuous operation, and no totals so far have + been announced. + +[Illustration: Detroit--City of Automobiles + +Many thousands of standardized trucks were made in Detroit during the +war rush, the automobile having proved to be indispensable to the +fighting forces overseas.] + + "The sale of War Savings Stamps and certificates has increased + the national debt by $1,257,000,000, or within 400 million of + the maximum under the first authorization. A second series, + however, amounting to two billion dollars, has been authorized, + so that the operation will probably continue into the coming + year. The Treasury for the fiscal year 1917--18 estimated + receipts of $663,200,000 from this source and about a billion + for 1918--19. The first estimate was out of line, owing to the + difficulty in getting the plan into smooth operation. + Subsequent results have, however, justified the average of + expectations. + + "The pre-war debt, in the light of recent figures, is almost + negligible, and the outstanding certificates in anticipation of + taxes and the Fourth Liberty Loan will be redeemed in due + course by the flow of funds owing to the Government in taxes + and subscription payments. The problem of how to deal with the + eighteen-billion-dollar war debt is the vital question. How + much of this sum represents a charge on the coming generation + and how much an invaluable national asset? + + + WHAT IS OWED THE AMERICAN PEOPLE. + + "We have loaned abroad the following items: + + Great Britain $3,745,000,000 + France 2,445,000,000 + Italy 1,160,000,000 + Russia 325,000,000 + Belgium 183,520,000 + Greece 15,790,000 + Cuba 15,000,000 + Serbia 12,000,000 + Rumania 6,666,666 + Liberia 5,000,000 + Czechoslovak Republic 7,000,000 + ------------- + [5]$7,919,976,666 + + [5] Increased to $9,646,419,494 by October, 1919. + + "Here, then, are figures totaling nearly half of our war debts + that are not only self-supporting but also a double-edged + weapon in the international market. In the first place, they + represent money spent at home on American goods, from which the + American manufacturer has taken his toll of profit; and in the + second place, they have put the world in our debt to an extent + that will be difficult to pay in the exchange of goods. + + "Imports of foreign commodities or even gold will take a decade + to halve the debt, for the gold can not be spared, nor do we + wish it, and our creditors will find it difficult to increase + their exports to a point capable of bringing about a balance in + their favor. The imports from Europe are bound to be offset by + our own exports, some able economists predicting a balance of a + billion dollars in our favor for the next five years. + Regardless of the demands to be made upon us from this source, + it is probable that the peak-load of expenditure has been + reached and the period of readjustment and redemption set in. + + "Charging off, then, our loans to the Allies as an asset, let + us then consider how we may best meet the bill due the American + people. Vague discussions of the creation of a huge sinking + fund have been heard, although for some reason or other, in + history these operations have not been entirely successful. + Fortunately the bulk of our debt has an early callable date, + and the Treasury has recently come in for much applause by + advocating no more loans unless they be in the nature of a + one-to five-year currency. Experience teaches that the full + benefit and effect of war taxes are rarely felt until after the + war. England, after the Napoleonic wars, came back with a + rapidity that astonished the Exchequer itself. Taxes rolled up + in such a volume and expenses dropped with demobilization to + such an extent that the Government found itself anticipating + the callable date in national debts by market purchases, and + even then it was found convenient gradually to reduce the scale + of taxation. + + "Our experience after the Civil War was very similar to + England's, and the Treasury's surplus annually accumulated to a + point that forced the Government to buy back at high premiums + the bonds it was not privileged to call. This was true, though + to a lesser degree, with the Spanish war loan. + + "It seems as though the two operations of liquidating our own + debts and the debt of Europe to the United States dovetailed + perfectly into one gradual and stupendous task. While Europe is + paying her indebtedness to us without interfering with the + development of international trade by the sale of foreign + securities in our home market our buyers here must receive the + tools to operate with through the redemption and repurchase of + their Liberty Bonds. In this half of the deal safety, as usual, + lies in the middle course. It is hoped that taxes will be + maintained at a level that will infallibly provide funds for + fixed redemptions with a sufficient surplus to get a flying + start by purchase around the present low levels." + + +FINANCIAL STATUS OF ENGLAND IN 1914 + +One year before the war England's position in regard to the balance of +trade was most favorable. Her imports were valued at $3,210,000,000 and +her exports at $2,560,000,000. But it was usually estimated that foreign +countries owed England about $1,610,000,000 annually for interest on +capital lent for shipping freights and for banking insurance and other +commissions. The total amount owed her, therefore was $4,170,000,000 as +against $3,210,000,000 which she owed for her imports. She had therefore +a favorable balance of about $960,000,000 which was lent abroad. The +war brought an enormous decrease in tonnage, and the excess of imports +over exports attained the figure of $1,950,000,000 a year. + +Exceptional measures had to be taken to maintain the exchange rates with +the United States from whom the chief purchases were made. Large amounts +of gold were exported, but by June, 1915, there was a collapse in +American exchange. Drastic measures were used to induce the holders of +American securities in England to sell or lend those securities to the +Government. In this way exchange was kept up practically to the gold +point. This question of exchange and the position of England as the +director of the financial campaign of the Allies is illustrated from an +address given by Mr. R. H. Brand to the American Bankers Association, in +September, 1917: + + "Of course no nation could permanently tolerate such + unfavorable trade balances as those from which the Allies in + Europe are now suffering. They can only do so now and keep + their exchanges with the United States steady by borrowing + immense sums here. But the war itself is not permanent, and the + question is merely whether the present state of affairs can be + continued long enough to enable all the enemies of the Central + Powers to exert their full strength and win a final victory. + + "You will no doubt all have noticed that the credits granted + Great Britain have been greater than those granted to any other + Ally. The reasons are simple, though they are not, I think, + generally understood. We have, in the first place, the largest + war and munition program of any Ally; in the second place, as I + have shown above, we are, with the exception of the United + States, the greatest industrial arsenal among the Allies; that + necessarily involves large imports. We send a great deal of + steel from England to our Allies; we have to replace it by + steel from here. We make rifles for Russia; we have to import + the steel to make them. We send boots to Russia; we have to + import the leather needed. These examples might be multiplied + many times. Thirdly, we extend large credits in England to our + Allies, some part of which they may use anywhere in the world, + and this part may ultimately come back on the sterling exchange + in New York. Lastly, it is well known that neutrals who are + owed money by England unfortunately find it convenient to + utilize the sterling exchange in New York in order to recoup + themselves in dollars. But so also do neutrals who are owed + money by the other Allies. So long as we maintain the sterling + exchange this appears to be inevitable, and the burden of + financing both our own and our Allies' trade tends to fall on + that exchange. It is by our maintenance of this sterling + exchange that the continuance of our Allies' trade is rendered + possible. The maintenance of the sterling exchange means the + maintenance of the allied exchanges. All these factors together + exert an immense influence. If England had had only herself to + finance since the beginning of the war, and indeed even if she + had only herself to finance now, it is quite possible she would + not have needed to borrow at all abroad." + + +LOSS IN PRODUCTIVE POWER + +The extent of the withdrawal of productive power can only be judged by +figures. Of the 7,500,000 men serving in the British Army, 4,530,000 +were contributed by Great Britain, 900,000 by the British dominions and +colonies; and the remaining 1,000,000 by India and the various British +African dependencies. Production went on to a remarkable degree, but +this production was largely for war purposes. It was secured by +recruiting female labor to an unheard of extent in the munition +factories. According to the London _Economist_, the financial side of +the British administration was anything but satisfactory. It speaks of +waste and faulty methods: + + "On the financial side our record is by no means so + satisfactory. We have, it is true, poured out money like water, + but much of it has been raised by faulty methods, and the + amount of it that has been wasted is appalling to consider. In + the matter of borrowing, our methods have lately been greatly + improved; and the recommendation of the Committee on National + Expenditure, that the system of raising money by bank credits + should be checked as far as possible, is being brought within + the bounds of practical politics by the great success of the + War Savings Committee's energetic and ingenious campaign for + prompting the sale of National War Bonds. Perhaps also we may + claim some small share in that success through the adoption of + the principle so long advocated in these columns of a lower + rate for money at home combined with special terms for money + left here by foreigners. But successful borrowing, direct from + the investor, instead of in the shape of money manufactured by + banks, is a welcome, but not sufficient, improvement. We have + to raise much more money by taxation. We have also to do much + more than has yet been done to reduce the wicked waste of + public money and support the efforts of the Committee on + National Expenditure to husband the resources of the nation. A + correspondent in a provincial town in which a Tank has lately + been busy asks: 'Is it not pathetic to see widows and children + scraping together their shillings and pennies to help the + Government, while we have tens of thousands of pounds being + squandered by a profligate Ministry of Munitions!'" + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +A Woman Doing Road Construction Work + +Of the 7,500,000 men serving in the British Army, 4,530,000 were +contributed by Great Britain. Yet production was speeded up by +recruiting and training the labor of women.] + + +EQUALIZING LOANS AND TAXATION + +A thorny problem of all war finance is how to equalize as far as +possible the amount of money furnished by taxation with the amounts +borrowed. The proportion indicated in the last English war budget of +1918 was that between L842,000,000 raised by taxes and 2,000,000,000 +sterling by fresh borrowing. Besides, war experience shows that the +parliamentary estimates in each year were always far below the amount +spent. In 1917 in Great Britain the shortage was upwards of +L400,000,000. According to the London _Economist_, no effective steps +were taken to stop the profligate extravagance by which public money was +poured out through the sieves of the war spending departments into the +pockets of innumerable manufacturers, middlemen and traders, not to +mention the ever growing sums allocated to the privy purses of countless +new bodies of officials. Each year, it says, there is a new debt charge +of some L120,000,000 and each year there is a constant rise of prices in +wages that enhances the cost of governmental goods and services. + +The amount raised by taxation, L842,000,000, seems enormously large, but +as the London _Nation_ states: + + "The enormous rise of prices only makes it represent half that + amount in actual purchasing power. Before the war our + expenditure was 200 millions. If money had kept the same value, + the taxation and other public income for this year would only + have been 420 millions, a little more than twice the pre-war + level. Would that have seemed so heroic an effort for a + patriotic nation? No. It can never be repeated too often that a + really rigorous taxation, begun in 1914 and carried on till + now, would have left us in a far sounder condition both for + conducting the war and for facing the peace finance. The money + and the goods are there. We get them. But we get them by + crooked and expensive methods of borrowing which inflate + prices, oppress the poorer purchasers, put huge war loot into + the pockets of contractors and financiers, and fail to restrain + expenditure in luxuries." + + +GERMANY'S ECONOMIC PREPARATION FOR WAR + +There is much evidence to show that long before the war began financial +preparations were made in Germany for the great struggle. For a +considerable period prior to 1914, Germany and Russia had been engaged +in a contest to accumulate a gold supply. Russia, it is known, had begun +to withdraw the large balances which she kept in German, French and +English banks. In Germany the story was circulated that in 1913 the +Kaiser inquired of the governor of the Imperial Bank if the German banks +were equipped for war. Being told that they were not ready he is said to +have replied: "When I ask that question again I want a different +answer." The Imperial Bank of Germany became an active bidder at the +London gold auctions for the gold which arrived weekly from South +Africa, and its activity along these lines was shown by the increasing +of the German gold reserve in the bank vaults from $184,000,000 on +December 31, 1912, to $336,000,000, the amount it stood at a month +before the war began. In addition, the Imperial Bank collected for the +Government a sum of about thirty million dollars to be added to the same +amount said to be stored in the vaults of the Julius Thurm at Spandau, +and to be used as a war chest. Other European countries were increasing +their gold supplies, so it was not surprising that the New York markets +were called upon to export eighty-four million dollars of gold for six +months before the outbreak of the war. The entire gold production of the +world during the eighteen months ending on June 30, 1914, was +approximately $705,000,000. Of this amount, about two million dollars +was required for the arts, and one hundred and fifty million dollars +went to British India. This left about $350,000,000 to be applied to +monetary uses and the whole of this amount was absorbed by the four +great central banks of Germany, France, Russia and Austria-Hungary. + +In order to resist raids on the German gold reserve a policy of note +issuing was adopted. The situation, as forecast by Mr. C. A. Conant in +September, 1914, in the New York _Times_, can be gathered from the +following extract: + + "With the general suspension of gold payments at the central + banks of Europe, except at the Bank of England, the banks are + in a position to resist raids upon their gold and to lend their + resources, as far as sound banking policy permits, to the + struggle of their Governments to maintain national + independence. In England, while the bank is still paying gold + for notes, the policy of keeping gold in circulation has been + abandoned, and the old limit of note issue, which was L5 + ($24.40), has been lowered to 10 shillings ($2.44) and L1 + ($4.88). + + "It is not the purpose of any of the European Powers, however, + to carry on the war by issues of paper money. The suspension of + gold payments at the banks and the issue of notes for small + denominations, which are legal tender in domestic transactions, + is for the purpose of husbanding the gold stock against + needless runs and keeping it as a guaranty fund of national + solvency. It is the course which was adopted by France at the + time of the Franco-German War in 1870, but so prudently were + the affairs of the Bank of France conducted that the paper + never fell more than 2-1/2 per cent. below its value in gold. + + "A similar policy of reserve will probably be pursued by the + banks of France, Germany, and Russia in the present contest. + The Government of France has raised the maximum limit of the + note circulation of the bank by nearly $1,000,000,000, but the + increase will not be used except as additional currency may be + required, owing to the restriction in other forms of credit and + the special demand for notes in the districts where the armies + are gathered. + + "The suspension of specie payments does not convey to the + banking community quite the same doleful warning of the + unlimited issue of paper and its steady depreciation in gold + which were conveyed by specie suspension in the United States + in 1861 or by Austria-Hungary and Russia in the desperate + contest of the Napoleonic wars. Monetary science is better + understood at the present time than in those days." + + +GERMAN WAR FINANCE + +Among all the belligerent powers Germany occupied the unique position of +using the war as an excuse for not publishing national accounts. The +sole guide to her expenditure must be looked for in the credit votes +passed by the Reichstag. Using this method, it is estimated that Germany +spent about $30,000,000 a day. To cover this expenditure there was a +regular plan of national loan--in March and September. This was the +method followed in all the four years of the war. During the intervening +six months there was an issue of Treasury bills. The German people +were, apparently, schooled to these regular demands with commendable +promptness, but the Imperial Government adopted a policy of inflation in +the hope that a speedy victory would bring fruits in the shape of an +indemnity, and so the German people would avoid being called upon to +bear war burdens. Taxation was introduced only reluctantly and at a +later period, and merely for the purpose of meeting so-called normal +civil expenditure and interest on war debt. The plan followed was to +spare the middle classes as far as possible from additional taxation +charges. + + +THE LOAN BUREAU SCHEME + +The war loans have been, on paper, most successful. For example, the +seventh loan of September, 1917, yielded $3,000,000,000; the eighth loan +nearly $4,000,000,000. There was a large amount of ready money in the +country and besides this all stocks of raw material have been realized. +Large as the loans have been they have not been able to keep pace with +the increase of expenditure. Out of the total amount of $30,000,000,000 +about $20,000,000,000 have been covered by long-term loans. Of course, +owing to the peculiar situation of Germany in relation to her allies, +which were dependent upon her financial support, these loans have been +raised by the German people themselves. The German Loan Bureaus were +criticized at the beginning of the war, and German figures show that +only about ten percent. of the national loans were involved in the Loan +Bureau scheme. These Loan Bureaus, it was announced, would continue +after the declaration of peace. According to the London _Economist_, +Germany followed an easy and sure policy of war finance, although the +same authority does not hesitate to use the terms "complete financial +ruin" in connection with German post-war finance. + +The whole subject of German inflation is difficult to analyze. The +_Economist_ works out a post-war expenditure of $5,000,000,000 a year +against a revenue of a billion and a half. Its estimate of German +inflation is contained in the following passage: + + "To take note circulation alone is obviously misleading, + particularly in view of the violent efforts that have been + made, especially during the last year, to extend the use of the + check, and in other ways to limit as far as possible the use + of notes. For what these figures are worth, it may be said that + the total note circulation of the country at the end of June + (1918), including Reichsbank notes, State Bank notes, Treasury + notes, and loan notes, stood at L1,030,000,000, as compared + with L109,300,000 on July 23, 1914. Reichsbank deposits, again, + stood on June 30, at L459,100,000, as compared with L47,600,000 + on July 23, 1914, while the deposits of the eight 'great' + banks, even at the end of 1917, stood at L800,000,000, as + compared with L250,000,000 at the end of 1914, L362,000,000 at + the end of 1915, and L500,000,000 at the end of 1916." + +In this connection it is interesting to give a summary of Germany's war +expenses as reported in the London _Economist_: + + "In his comparison of German war finance with ours, the + Chancellor, in his Budget speech, made the following points: + First, that German war expenditure is now L6,250,000--almost + the same as ours--though our expenditure includes items (such + as separation allowances) which are not included in the German + figures. Second, that the whole amount of the German Votes of + Credit (L6,200 millions) has been added to their war debt, + 'because their taxation has not covered their peace expenditure + in addition to their debt charge.' Third, the total amount of + new taxation levied by them since the beginning of the war + comes to L365 millions, against our L1,044 millions. Fourth, in + a year's time they will have a deficit, comparing the revenue + with the expenditure, of L385 millions at least. 'If that were + our position,' the Chancellor added, 'I should certainly think + that bankruptcy was not far from the British Government.' + Fifth, with the exception of the war increment tax, 'scarcely + any of the additional revenue has been obtained from the + wealthier classes in Germany'." + + +GERMAN WAR PROFITS + +An extraordinary list of the gigantic war profits collected by Germany +was drawn up by A. Cheraband, the well known French critic. He estimated +that in three years Germany had spent $322.50 per head, France $444.00, +Great Britain $559.75. He presents a list of war profits made by +Germany. The "booty" he divided into movable and immovable property. In +the former category he includes the 212,000 square miles of territory +that had fallen into German clutches, and this he values at +$32,000,000,000, which, he says, is a conservative estimate. Turning to +the movable booty, he classifies it as follows: + + "_(a) Capture of 'Human Material.'_--This consists of the + 46,000,000 Allied subjects from whom the Germans obtain free + labor. + + "_(b) Capture of War Material._--Guns, rifles, munitions, + vehicles, locomotives, railway trucks, and thousands of miles + of railway. The Belgian railway system alone is worth nearly + $600,000,000. + + "_(c) Capture of Foodstuffs._--Everywhere the Germans have + stolen horses, cattle, corn, potatoes, sugar, alcohol, + foodstuffs of every kind, and crops grown by the forced labor + drawn from the 46,000,000 Allied subjects whom they have + enslaved. + + "_(d) Theft of Raw Materials._--Throughout the occupied + territories the Germans have appropriated coal, petroleum, + iron, copper, bronze, zinc, lead, etc., either in the mines or + from private individuals; textile materials, such as woolen and + cotton. In the towns of northern France alone the Germans stole + $110,000,000 worth of wool. + + "_(e) Theft of Industrial Plant._--On a methodical plan + throughout the occupied territories, the motors, engines, + machine-tools, steam and electric hammers, steel-rolling mills, + looms, models, and industrial plant of all kinds have been + carried off to Germany. + + "_(f) Thefts of Furniture._--The way in which furniture and + household goods were stolen and carried off is confessed by + implication in the following advertisement published in the + _Koelnische Zeitung_ at the beginning of April, 1917: + + "'Furniture moved from the zones of military operations in all + directions by Rettenmayer at Wiesbaden.' + + "It is impossible to estimate the money value of the goods thus + removed. + + "_(g) Seizure of Works of Art._--The works of art collected for + centuries in museums, churches, and by private individuals in + Poland, Italy, Belgium, and France have been carried off by the + Germans. + + "_(h) War Levies._--Scores of millions in money have been + secured by the Germans in the form of requisitions, fines, war + levies, war taxes, and forced loans. + + "_(i) Thefts of Coin, Jewels, and Securities._--In the occupied + regions, and especially wherever they have been obliged to + evacuate those regions, as, for instance, at Noyon, the Germans + have emptied, by order, the safes and strong boxes of private + persons and of banks and have carried off securities, jewels, + and silver. In September and October, 1917, they seized at one + stroke the deposits of Allied subjects in the Belgian banks + amounting to $120,000,000. + + "In view of the high prices of foodstuffs, coal, metals, + petroleum, war materials and machines, it is clear that the + booty thus secured by the Germans during the last three years + in the occupied territories is certainly worth several billion + dollars." + +[Illustration: A Woman Operating a Multiple Spindle Drill in an English +Shell Factory + +Photo by James M. Beck + +"Since the war broke out," said M. Barriol, a French celebrated actuary, +"no less than 1,500,000 women have been added to the ranks of wage +earners in England, an increase of fully 25 per cent."] + + +GERMAN MONEY INDEMNITY + +It became commonplace after Germany's defeat was evident that her war +cost must include the cost of the destruction she had caused her +enemies. To estimate this was no easy matter. The attitude of the +Germans on the subject was indicated by their constantly expressed hope +that trade would recommence as usual and that they would be able to +start economic relations in a favorable position. So we find the Cologne +Chamber of Commerce beginning to prepare for peace by adopting a +resolution expressing the hope that the destruction of French and +Belgian industries would allow the rapid recovery of German power. + +The _Wall Street Journal_ used this statement as a guide to the Allied +Powers for measuring the kind of indemnity that would be imposed upon +Germany. + + "One of the departments of the Government at Washington has in + its files a report of a German commission on industry after the + war. Reading this, one can understand the motive for what at + one time looked like pure vandalism. Vandalism it was, by + descendants of the Vandals, but it was a deliberate destruction + of international competitors, killing the workmen--and + workwomen--and destroying plants and machinery for the one + purpose of removing competition. A physical injury to a child + helped to weaken future competition in the world's trade; and + it was upon the power gained thereby that Germany hoped to + launch another war for world domination.... + + "A peace that gives the cold-blooded perpetrators of these + crimes an advantage over their victims would not be equitable. + If any must suffer, let it be those who are guilty, but don't + give them a start ahead of their victims. + + "In substance, that point should declare that Germany shall not + profit through the wrecking of any Allied industry. Except to + admit necessary foodstuffs, the blockade should not be lifted + until every Allied country from England to Serbia has been + industrially rebuilt. One object of the wholesale murder of + civilians was to weaken industrially the enemy countries. The + greater proportionate loss of man-power in the Allied countries + should be met by restrictions on the entry of raw materials + into Germany. Every piece of stolen machinery should be + returned before her own industries are allowed to resume." + +The soft plan of dealing with Germany's war cost was championed by +Secretary Daniels. The Springfield _Republican_ and the _New Republic_ +seemed to agree with the Manchester _Guardian_ that Germany ought to +be helped rather than punished, that the main thing was to set her on +her feet again. + + "Representative papers like the New York _Times_, Syracuse + _Post-Standard_, Buffalo _Express_, and Sacramento _Bee_ all + insist that while we might or perhaps should claim no + war-expenses from Germany, 'we must exact payment,' in the + words of the Syracuse daily, 'to the last penny for losses + suffered through illegal warfare.' Germany's submarine campaign + cost us, according to this paper's figures, 375,000 tons of + shipping and 775 civilian lives. If we take the burden of + payment for this property and these lives from the guilty + shoulders of Germany it would only be to 'pass it on to the + innocent shoulders of the American taxpayer,' which, the New + York _Times_ declares, would be 'rank injustice'." + + +FORECASTING THE TOTAL COST OF WAR + +It is interesting also to note an attempt made by one of the expert +statisticians attached to the Guaranty Trust Company of New York to +estimate the total cost of the war at the close of the four-year period. +The five main Allies possessed, before the war, $406,000,000,000 for +national work, a sum nearly four times as great as the national wealth +of the two Central Powers. In four years the seven leading belligerents +had spent $134,000,000,000. The only way to grasp the meaning of this +enormous sum is to contrast the cost of the World War with all former +wars. The total cost of wars that had taken place since the American +Revolution was $23,000,000,000; the World War costs therefore, are six +times greater. In these figures, staggering as they are, it was +comparatively easy to figure out the costs, debts and interests of +actual war expenditures. Much more complicated is the problem of +estimating the property value destroyed through military operations on +land and sea: + + +LOSS FROM DESTRUCTION OF PROPERTY + + "The total area of the war zone is 174,000 square miles, of + which the Western theater of the war, in France and Belgium, + stretches over an area of 19,500 square miles, and it contains + over 3,000 cities, villages, and hamlets, great manufacturing + and agricultural districts, of which some have been totally + annihilated and some heavily affected. The estimate by the + National Foreign Trade Council of the war losses, which + unfortunately does not go beyond 1916, is as follows: + + "'Destruction of buildings and industrial machinery in Belgium, + $1,000,000,000, and in France $700,000,000. The destruction of + agricultural buildings and implements, of raw materials, of + crops and live stock, has been estimated at a sum of + $780,000,000 in Belgium and $680,000,000 in France. Roads were + destroyed frequently by the retreating troops and have been + seriously damaged by heavy gun fire and excessive use. The + losses from destruction of railway bridges, etc., have been + estimated in Belgium at $275,000,000 and in France at + $300,000,000. + + "'In the Eastern theater of the War Germany has been invaded + only in eastern Prussia, where the agricultural population has + been seriously impaired. Heavy damage was inflicted upon + bridges, roads, and governmental property, including railroads. + The direct cost to Germany through the loss of agricultural + products, of manufacturing products, as well as in interest on + investments abroad, of earnings from shipping and banking + houses, and profits of insurance and mercantile houses engaged + in business abroad has been enormous'." + + +ECONOMIC LOSS OF MAN-POWER + +The same expert goes on to figure out the economic value of the loss of +human life: + + "Mr. M. Barriol, the celebrated actuary, gives the following + figures as the capital value of man: in the United States, + $4,100; in Great Britain, $4,140; in Germany, $3,380; in + France, $2,900; in Russia, $2,020; in Austria-Hungary, $2,020 + or an average capital value for the five foreign nations of + $2,892. + + "The number of men already lost is 8,509,000 killed and + 7,175,000 permanently wounded, or a total of 15,684,000. Thus + society has been impoverished through the death and permanent + disability of a part of its productive man-power to the extent + of $45,000,000,000. + + "The loss of men, measured in terms of the capital value of the + workers withdrawn from industry, is offset in some degree by + the enhancement of the capital value of the remaining + producers.... This loss of man-power is also partly offset by + the large contingents of women drawn into industries. In + England, out of a female population of 23,000,000, about + 6,000,000 were engaged before the outbreak of the war in + gainful occupations. Since the war broke out no less than + 1,500,000 women have been added to the ranks of wage-earners, + an increase of fully 25 per cent. Moreover, about 400,000 women + have shifted from non-essential occupations to men's work. In + the United States, approximately 1,266,000 women are now + engaged in industrial work, either directly or indirectly + necessary to carry on the war. + + +EFFECTS ON POPULATION + + "The physical and moral effects of the war, the moral strain to + which the nations have been subjected, the 'shell-shock' which + has reacted upon the population at home as well as upon the + soldiers on the battlefield, the undernourishment and + starvation of children as well as adults, all have resulted in + a lowered vitality, the ill effects of which, especially in the + countries of the Central Powers, are already seen in an + increase of the death rate, in a spread of epidemics and + diseases that have taxed the medical resources of all + countries. + + The lowered vitality of the race, which is still further + aggravated by the millions of incapacitated soldiers and the + premature and excessive employment of children and women in the + industries, will eventually make for a lower standard of + efficiency in all human activities, or a retardation of human + progress. Authoritative statements are to the effect that in + Belgium in the earlier period of the war, the deaths of women + and children far outnumbered those of men. Annual deaths among + the German civilian population have increased by a million + above the normal. + + "Besides the loss in actual population there is a loss of + potential population. Carefully compiled figures show that by + 1919 the population of Germany will be 7,500,000 less than it + would have been under ordinary circumstances. The people in + Austria in 1919 will be 8 per cent. less in numbers than in the + year before the war. Hungary will be still worse off; it will + have a population of 9 per cent. lower than in pre-war days." + + +CARNEGIE ENDOWMENT'S ESTIMATES + +The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace made public in November, +1919, an elaborate report on the cost of the World War in human life and +in property and the consequent economic losses. The chief conclusions +derived from this intensive study of all the conditions may be +summarized as follows: + + All the wars of the nineteenth century from the Napoleonic down + to the Balkan wars of 1912--1913, show a loss of life of + 4,449,300, according to the report, while the known and + presumed dead of the World War reached 9,998,771. (See Vol. + III, pp. 403-5.) The monetary value of the individuals lost to + each country is estimated, the highest value on human life + being given to the United States, where each individual's + economic worth is placed at $4,720, with England next at + $4,140; Germany third, at $3,380; France and Belgium, each + $2,900; Austria-Hungary at $2,720, and Russia, Italy, Serbia, + Greece, and the other countries at $2,020. + + With a loss of more than 4,000,000 the estimate puts Russia in + the lead in human economic loss, the total being more than + $8,000,000,000; Germany is next with $6,750,000,000; France, + $4,800,000,000; England, $3,500,000,000; Austria-Hungary, + $3,000,000,000; Italy, $2,384,000,000; Serbia, $1,500,000,000; + Turkey, almost $1,000,000,000; Rumania, $800,000,000; Belgium, + almost $800,000,000; the United States slightly more than + $500,000,000; Bulgaria, a little more than $200,000,000; + Greece, $75,000,000; Portugal, $8,300,000, and Japan, $600,000. + On this basis the total in human life lost cost the world + $33,551,276,280, and the loss to the world in civilian + population is placed at an equal figure. + + The attempt to determine property losses is the least + satisfactory, as it is the most difficult. The destruction and + devastation in the invaded areas of Belgium, France, Russian + Poland, Serbia, Italy and parts of Austria are probably + incapable of exact determination, and it may well be doubted if + the exact losses will ever be known. + + The total property loss on land is put at $29,960,000,000, + one-third of which was suffered by France alone, its loss being + given as $10,000,000,000, with Belgium next at $7,000,000,000, + and the other countries following as follows: + + Italy, $2,710,000,000; Serbia, Albania, and Montenegro, + $2,000,000,000; The British Empire and Germany, each, + $1,750,000,000; Poland, $1,500,000,000; Russia, $1,250,000,000; + Rumania, $1,000,000,000, and East Prussia, Austria, and Ukraine + together, the same amount. + +[Illustration: Copyright by Central News Service + +Launching the Quistconck at Hog Island + +According to the report of the Carnegie Endowment the cargo loss at sea +was $3,800,000,000, the total tonnage and cargo loss being +$6,800,000,000. To offset the Allied loss in shipping, ship-building in +the United States was rushed at topmost speed.] + + In the property losses on sea, that is, to shipping and cargo, + the report estimates that "the construction cost of the tonnage + loss can scarcely be estimated at less than $200 a ton, and the + monetary loss involved in the sinking of this 15,398,392 gross + tons may, therefore, be placed at about $3,000,000,000." To + this is added loss of cargo, which is estimated at $250 a ton, + giving a cargo loss of $3,800,000,000, and a total tonnage and + cargo loss of $6,800,000,000. + + Among the indirect costs of the war, loss of production is + placed at $45,000,000,000. In arriving at this figure an + average of 20,000,000 men are counted as having been withdrawn + from production during the whole period of the war, and their + average yearly productive capacity is placed at $500. War + relief is another indirect cost which totalled up to + $1,000,000,000; and the loss to the neutral nations is given as + $1,750,000,000. + + With the total direct costs of the war amounting to + $186,336,637,097 and the indirect costs to $151,612,542,560, + the stupendous total of $337,946,179,657 is reached. Finally, + the report says: + + "The figures presented in this summary are both + incomprehensible and appalling, yet even these do not take into + account the effect of the war on life, human vitality, + economic well-being, ethics, morality, or other phases of human + relationships and activities which have been disorganized and + injured. It is evident from the present disturbances in Europe + that the real costs of the war cannot be measured by the direct + money outlays of the belligerents during the five years of its + duration, but that the very breakdown of modern economic + society might be the price exacted." + + +THE WAR AS A PRODUCT OF HIGH PRICES + +All of the great wars in European history have been followed by periods +of increased production and economic expansion. Experts are convinced +that the World War will prove no exception to the world's previous +experience. Wars have been the principal influence that have determined +the course of commodities and prices. In the Napoleonic Wars the index +number rose seventy-two points in twenty years, but during the four +years between 1914 and 1918 there was a rise of one hundred and eight +points in four and a half years, a movement which Edgar Crammond, widely +known British expert in economic and financial affairs, declared to be a +movement to which there was no precedent in point of rapidity or +magnitude. In an address outlined in the New York _Journal of Commerce_ +this authority estimated the direct cost of the war to the Allies as +being roughly $145,000,000,000. The Central Powers had spent about +$60,000,000,000. The total cost in dollars he estimated at +$260,000,000,000. The upheaval caused by the war was manifested, +according to the same authority, in the rise of the cost of living and +in the universal increase of wages. Other economic consequences will be +more gradually unfolded. Prospects of fall in the price of commodities +and wages as the result of peace, he thinks, will be arrested for two +reasons: First, the vast increase in the amount of paper money; second, +the huge amount of public debts to the belligerents. He saw an +additional psychological cause in the attitude of the laboring classes +to maintain wages at a higher level than before the war and to improve +the standard of living. + +Reduced production is sufficient to account for all the economic +disturbances that were produced during the war, according to the London +_Statist_, which says: + + "It is enough to say that production is reduced almost to a + minimum, while consumption is going on at a most extravagant + rate. Those who wish to pose as economists without competent + knowledge are telling the public that all the evil is due to + this, that, and the other thing--such, for example, as + inflation, the rise in prices, the enormous loans raised, and + several other fads. It is pure moonshine. The world is + impoverished, firstly, because so much of the world's manhood + is withdrawn from production to consumption; and, secondly, + because reduction in production is so serious that very little + has been saved either by the belligerents or the neutral + countries of Europe, at all events. International trade is + really carried on by barter. It is true that money is + frequently paid. At the present time money has in some markets + to be paid because credit has been injured, and those who + possess wealth are not as willing as they used to be to trust + to mere credit." + + +QUESTIONS OF INFLATION + +The enormous advance of prices in England was synchronous with the issue +of currency notes to an excess of L700,000,000 beyond the gold reserve. +High officials in British administration ascribed this rise to the +increased consuming capacity. According to the British Board of Trade a +sovereign could purchase no more during the war time than eleven +shillings would just before the war started. A writer in the +_Fortnightly Review_, Mr. W. F. Ford, quotes Jevons' remark in his +classical book on money in explanation of the phenomenon. "A number of +bankers all trying to issue additional notes resemble a number of +merchants offering to sell corn for future delivery, and the value of +gold will be affected as the price of corn certainly is. We are too much +inclined to look upon the value of gold as a fixed datum line in +commerce, but in reality it is a very variable thing." Substitute today +the word Government for bankers and one can see the reason for the +upward rise in prices. This rise would take place apart from any +questions of war waste, profiteering, difficulties of transport by sea +or land or shortage of labor. All the countries involved have followed +the same policy of inflation. The operation is depicted in the following +passage: + + "The inevitable result of extensive note issues by a number of + Governments was that prices were irresistibly impelled upwards + in all belligerent countries--apart from any questions of war + waste, profiteering, difficulties of transport by sea or land, + or shortage of labor. Belligerent countries became + extraordinarily good markets in which to sell goods; and a + golden harvest was temptingly displayed to neutral nations, in + whose favor enormous trade balances rapidly grew up. In large + part these balances were met by payment in gold.... But just as + gold substitutes in the shape of paper money swelled the + currencies and increased prices in the belligerent countries, + so also the large quantities of gold coin sent to neutral + States in payment for goods supplied to the warring nations + swelled the currencies and increased prices in the neutral + states themselves. The withdrawal of gold set up a natural + tendency for prices to fall in the countries from which it had + been exported; but not only was this tendency overcome, but the + upward movement of prices was continued by the action of the + several Governments in placing still further issues of + inconvertible paper money on their respective markets. The net + results have been that currencies have been inflated and prices + forced up all over the world, that inconvertible paper money is + tending more and more to drive out gold from the currencies of + the states that issue it, and that the gold so driven out is + being absorbed into the currencies of the neutral nations. + Between August, 1914, and the date of her own declaration of + war, America increased the amount of her gold currency by + approximately L200,000,000 sterling. No real benefit has + accrued. + + "The currencies of the whole world have been artificially + inflated to the extent that, under the most favorable + circumstances existing in any part of the world, L5 are now + needed to do the work in circulation that before the war was + accomplished by L3. The loss to people with fixed incomes, the + disturbance of trade, the potential labor difficulties are + stupendous. And as a result of purchasing war material at + excessively high prices, the dead weight of debt incurred by + all the countries at war is very much greater than it need have + been had currencies been kept within reasonable bounds." + + +CURRENCY EXPANSION IN GREAT BRITAIN + +In Great Britain L200,000,000 worth of new paper currency was placed in +circulation and there was a considerable expansion in the use of +banknotes, silver and copper coinage. Proposals were made that the +famous English Bank Act should be repealed and that excess issues of +banknotes should be made legal on the payment of a tax. But apart from +these theories of involving the banking system there was a good deal of +adverse criticism. + + "Mr. Herbert Samuel made a masterly attack upon the vicious + system of War Finance, by which no less a sum than L196,170,000 + is added to the expenditure by bonuses and increases of wages, + which, in their turn, only force prices still higher and raise + the cost of living. Lives have been conscripted; incomes have + been conscripted; the only thing which has not been conscripted + is labor. If the Government had at an early stage of the war + had the courage to fix wages, instead of prices, the cost of + living would then have been regulated by supply and demand. By + fixing prices of commodities, after they had risen to almost + famine figures, we have the maximum of loss and inconvenience, + high wages, dear food, and a war bill that increases day by + day. Despite Mr. Bonar Law's assurance that the bill of the + year would not be so high as he expected, we have the fact that + we are spending over seven millions a day. The satire of 'the + cheap loaf' consists in its cost to the nation at large of + L45,000,000 a year. Bonuses to munition workers amount to + L40,000,000, bonuses to miners come to L20,000,000, to railway + workers L10,000,000, to potato growers L5,000,000. Is this + anything else but a system of gigantic corruption? In order + that artisans and agriculturists may be kept in good humor with + the war, they are bribed with bonuses and allowed to buy food + at prices which are partially paid by the rest of the + community. If ever there was a case of robbing Peter to pay + Paul it is here." + + +AMERICA'S EXPERIENCE WITH INFLATION + +Protests against war inflation were not confined to British specialists +in finance. What is inflation? As used by the more careful writers on +the subject today, it is taken to signify the increase of bank credits +not represented by any immediate addition to current wealth. For +example, if the Government borrows by an issue of bonds, such bonds +taken by the banks, and payment for them made in the form of bank credit +which is at once transferred to individuals who have furnished labor or +supplies, it is evident that there has been a net addition to the +purchasing power of the community not represented by any corresponding +addition to wealth whether of a saleable or available form. Mr. Delano, +a member of the Federal Reserve Board, said that the war had produced a +world inflation the like of which had never occurred before--"The usual +symptoms of such methods of inflation are the disappearance of metallic +money and the general advance in the prices of commodities." He gives +the following illustration of what has taken place in this process of +inflation: + + "Prior to our entry into the war, when the European nations + were buying heavily in the United States, they paid largely in + gold for what they bought, and as a result about a billion + dollars in gold coin came to this country in the period of two + and one-half years. The reason the European nations were able + to send us their gold was that they printed paper money for + their own use, releasing gold for us. But that gold inflation + in this country is one explanation of the general advance in + prices of all commodities, although undoubtedly it is not the + only explanation; for it must be freely admitted that prices + have been affected, first, by scarcity, occasioned by increased + demand from Europe for many articles produced by us; second, by + reason of the fact that increases in taxes and wages of labor + have entered into the cost of production and sale of all + articles and account for a share of the increased prices of + commodities." + + +CIVIL WAR INFLATION. + +The United States had large experience with inflation during the Civil +War. Some $500,000,000 were in this way added to the cost of the war +which might have been avoided. A plain statement of the real incidents +of inflation is given by Mr. A. C. Miller of the Federal Reserve Board +in his _Financial Mobilization for War_, in the following passage: + + "For let it not for a moment be overlooked that inflation, in + its effects, amounts to conscriptive taxation of the masses. It + is, indeed, one of the worst and the most unequal forms of + taxation, because it taxes men, not upon what they have or + earn, but upon what they need or consume. The only difference + for the masses between this kind of disguised and concealed + taxation and taxes which are levied and collected openly is + that in the case of the latter the government gets the revenue, + while in the former case it borrows it, and those to whom it is + eventually repaid are not those, for the most part, who have + been mulcted for it. Inflation therefore produces a situation + akin to double taxation in that the great mass of the consuming + public is hard hit by the rise of prices induced by the + degenerated borrowing policy and later has to be taxed in order + to produce the revenue requisite to sustain the interest charge + on the debt contracted and to repay the principal. The active + business and speculative classes can usually take care of + themselves in the midst of the confusion produced by inflation + and recoup themselves for their increasing outlays. Indeed + inflation frequently makes for an artificial condition of + business prosperity. That is why war times are frequently + spoken of in terms of enthusiasm by the class of business + adventurers. But it is a prosperity that is dear-bought and at + the expense of the great body of plain living people. It would + be a monstrous wrong if in financing our present war we should + pursue methods that would land us in a sea of inflation in + which the great body of the American people, who are called + upon to contribute the blood of their sons to the war, were + made the victims of a careless or iniquitous financial policy." + + +INFLATION ILLUSTRATED. + +One of the ways in which inflation was caused in the United States +during the war period was the plan adopted by the banks of financing the +loan directly by means of bank credits to the buyers. According to Mr. +Carl Snyder the banking officials roughly agree that on the first +Liberty Loan for $2,000,000,000 the banks may have loaned somewhere near +half the total and on the second loan even more. Of course, this means a +heavy expansion of bank credit. Economists are generally agreed that the +flooding of the country with paper money brings about an enormous rise +in prices. They differ chiefly in regard to the degree of inflation. The +most accepted statement of inflation is that prices vary directly as the +volume of the actual currency employed and its rate of turn over or +velocity, and inversely with the volume of trade. The effect of bank +credits is exactly that of an excessive issue of notes; that is, if they +are expanded more rapidly than the actual volume of business there is a +rise in prices, that is to say there is inflation. + +The situation of the country during the war in regard to business was +put plainly by Mr. Snyder in the following words: "Railroads cannot haul +any more goods. The government is already stepping in to shut down on +shipments on certain lines of industry. We can not get any more coal +unless labor is drafted from other industries, and as a whole we cannot +get any more labor as is evident from the fantastic wages that are now +being paid. In a word, production and therefore the actual volume of +exchange is practically at the limit and has been for a year or more. No +expansion of bank credits can put this production any higher. It +follows, therefore, as a practical fact that _any expansion of bank +loans now means inflation_--to all practical intents dollar for +dollar." Because of the introduction of a billion dollars worth of gold +into the country, prices have risen nearly one hundred percent. The +expansion of bank credits increases the cost of living and the cost of +the war will be doubled. + +Some bankers estimated that if the war lasted the expansion of bank +loans might reach $50,000,000,000. The progress of these loans was +encouraged by the cutting of the required metallic reserve under the new +Federal Reserve system and the system of book credits with the Federal +Reserve banks allowed to the banks that are members of the system. The +following is Mr. Snyder's description of the way the inflation was +encouraged. + + "Every dollar of gold may become three dollars of Federal Bank + credits and each dollar of this may in turn become the basis of + eight dollars of credits for the Central Reserve cities, ten + dollars for the smaller cities and fifteen dollars for the + country banks, which works out to a practical average of ten + dollars for all the banks in the Federal Reserve system." + +He then went on to speak of the possibilities of this inflation and +uttered a warning of the danger, because the only obstacle in the way +was the good sense and conservatism of the American banks. Some +authorities hold that a war cannot be fought without inflation. Mr. +Snyder thought that the United States with large ante-war income could +and should have tried the experiment. People want easy money and flush +times. If credit were contracted there would be tight money and a high +interest rate. Mr. McAdoo and the Administration at Washington feel +highly elated when they roll up five billion of statistics, half of +which are merely bank rolls. It seems not to matter that all this may +add two or three billion to the already swollen credit currency and that +the millions of poor people, small investors and life insurance holders +who cannot expand their income in any adequate way must pay the piper. +These are the millions who rarely have any voice in national affairs, +and all the more so because they are for the most part ignorant. It +seems an idle consequence that we may spend perhaps ten long weary years +of hard times, of falling prices, declining business and sharp distress, +paying for the orgy of inflated prices, waste and extravagance in which +we are now indulging. + +[Illustration: Photo by Paul Thompson + +Ship-building at Camden, N. J. + +One of the financial effects of the war was the transformation of the +United States from a debtor to a creditor nation. Immense private +fortunes were made. In no industry was there a greater boom than in +ship-building.] + + +CREDIT EXPANSION + +The wide expansion of credit can be studied by making a comparison of +the gold holdings of the leading nations. For example, in 1914 just +before the outbreak of the war, the amount of cash held by all the banks +of the United States was estimated at about $1,639,000,000. Of this +amount about $913,000,000 was in the form of gold or gold certificates. +Upon this basis there rested a structure of credit amounting to +$21,351,000,000. In other words the gold basis of the country's deposit +credits amounted to 4.27 percent. + +In 1916 the cash held was $1,911,000,000; about $1,140,000,000 was in +gold; and on this basis there rested a credit structure of +$28,250,000,000. + + +UNITED STATES A CREDITOR NATION + +One of the financial effects of the war was the transformation of the +United States from a debtor to a creditor nation. The reconstruction +period in finance is certain to bring about a situation described by a +writer in the _Wall Street Journal_ as one of the most interesting +developments known in financial history. Financial waste in emergency +measures was a superficial side of America's part in the World War. But +this writer considers that what happened during the war was not +altogether financial waste: + + "A great upheaval took place in the world of finance. Credit + resources were brought to the fore and nations established on a + financial basis of far-reaching importance, but of a kind that + had only a secondary place before. + + "The war has turned the United States from a debtor to a + creditor nation. Formerly we owed abroad something like + $4,000,000,000, about three-quarters of which sum we have + bought back. Moreover, Europe now owes us about + $9,000,000,000--on private account; about $2,000,000,000 in + securities; in United States Government obligations over + $7,000,000,000. The world is under obligations to us in + interest alone of between $400,000,000 and $500,000,000 a + year." + +After the United States took an active part in the war large credits and +loans were made in behalf of other countries as the following excerpt +shows: + + "A total appropriation of $7,000,000,000 has been made, + $3,000,000,000 by the Act of April 24, 1917, and $4,000,000,000 + by the Act of September 24, 1917. Under these authorizations + credits have been established in favor of the governments of + Great Britain, France, Italy, Russia, Belgium, and Serbia. + These loans, up to January 17, 1918, are given in the following + table: + + Loans and Balances +Country Credits Agreed Loans Under-Established + Upon Made Credits + +Great Britain $2,045,000,000 $1,985,000,000 $60,000,000 +France 1,285,000,000 1,225,000,000 60,000,000 +Italy 500,000,000 450,000,000 50,000,000 +Russia 325,000,000 187,729,750 137,270,250 +Belgium 77,400,000 75,400,000 2,000,000 +Serbia 6,000,000 4,200,000 1,800,000 + +Totals $4,238,400,000 $3,927,329,750 $311,070,250 + + "On the basis of the requests being made on the Treasury, it is + estimated that credits aggregating approximately $500,000,000 + per month will be required to meet the urgent war needs of the + foreign governments receiving advances from the United States. + At this rate approximately the entire appropriation authorized + by Congress will be accredited to our Allies by the close of + the present fiscal year (June 30, 1918). + + "A significant feature of the loans floated in this country in + the last three and a half years has been the fact that many + states and municipalities which formerly went to London to sell + their securities have recently been financed through the United + States. About $150,000,000 of the Canadian loans went to + provinces and municipalities, and many of the South American + obligations were contracted for municipal improvements. The + neutral nations of Europe have also sought accommodation in the + American money market. Loans have been made to the city of + Dublin, Ireland, the London Water Board, and the French cities + of Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, and Marseilles." + + +DISAPPEARANCE OF GOLD CURRENCY + +During the war gold almost ceased to be currency in all the Allied +countries. The Central Powers at the end of the struggle had +comparatively little. Of the total gold production the United States +produced about twenty-five percent., while the British Empire produced +nearly sixty-four. A writer in the _Edinburgh Review_ proposed to take +the opportunity of creating a standard price for gold. For example, if +the standard price of gold were reduced to half, the prices of all +commodities would come down in sympathy. We must take advantage of the +fact that we are working with a paper currency, and all authorities +agree that financial stability is only secured by the backing of as much +gold as possible against paper securities and emergencies. + +The plan involved an increase of the standard price. The success of the +scheme depends upon the concordant will of the United States and Great +Britain to adopt it as the following article suggests: + + "Obviously if Great Britain or any other country _alone_ + attempted to alter the standard price of gold, and therefore + the value of the present sovereign (or its equivalent), the + currency would be debased, instead of being enhanced. It would + also in effect amount to a partial repudiation of national + debt. A standard ceases to be a standard if _one_ nation can + arbitrarily alter it, but surely there can be no argument + against the creation of a new standard sanctioned by the whole + civilized world for their mutual advantage. If Great Britain + and the United States were to proclaim their desire to adopt my + scheme it is hardly likely that any country other than the + Central Powers would fail to welcome it. Spain, for instance, + has increased her gold reserve to about L80,000,000 and greatly + enhanced the value of her currency thereby. Would she fail to + grasp the happy chance of making this L120,000,000, and would + any country continue to part with its gold at L4 per ounce when + it could get L6 or L8?" + + +WAR'S EFFECT ON SILVER + +Along with all other commodities, that cinderella of +finance--silver--had a share in the general rise in prices. One of the +reasons is the enormous falling off of silver production in Mexico, +where one-third of the total world supply is produced; another is the +great demand for silver. Prior to the war, the use of silver plate by +the wealthy classes had largely fallen off; but the war, because of the +rise in wages, brought about a largely increased demand for silver to be +used in ornaments: + + "The war has brought into the market a vast number of new + buyers for ornaments, whose demand in the aggregate is + estimated to more than compensate for the falling off in the + purchases by the wealthy classes of silver plate. Wages + everywhere, not merely in England, but practically all over the + world, have advanced, and particularly in Western Europe; + moreover, immense numbers of women, and even children, are + being employed who were not employed before, and those who were + employed before have a larger income, particularly amongst the + wage earning classes, than has been the case in this country + for many years past." + +The use of silver in coinage, too, was notably increased. Gold +disappeared in countries where gold coins were used; paper money and +silver token money took its place. Another reason for the advance in +silver is connected with the demand for the metal in eastern countries. +According to the _London Statist_: + + " ... About half the annual production of silver throughout the + world is absorbed by the East, meaning principally India and + China. It has to be borne in mind that prices in the East have + advanced as well as in Europe and the two Americas, and, + consequently, more token money is required there as well as + here. Silver is the standard of value, and not token money at + all, in China; and in India, while gold is nominally the + standard of value, the rupee is the actual coin in which the + Indian natives, as distinct from mere government officials, + reckon their wealth. Now, as one result of the war, nearly all + the governments forbid the export of gold; consequently, India + requires a steadily increasing supply of silver, not merely to + do the work that silver did before the war, but, in addition, + to supply the void created by the prohibition of the export of + gold." + + +STOCK EXCHANGE WAR + +The accompanying diagram showing how military operations in Europe +affected the average prices of fifty stocks, half industrial and half +railway, was published in the _New York Times Annalist_: + + The wider black area shows the high and low average prices of + the twenty-five industrials included in the fifty, and the + white area the corresponding figures for the twenty-five rails. + The lines begin at a time when Germany was suffering severely + from her failure at Verdun and from losses in men and territory + from the great Allied Somme offensive. The subsequent rapid + decline (November to February) embraces the period of + Bethmann-Hollweg's sensational peace offensive, followed a few + weeks later by Germany's intensified submarine warfare. The + lowest point of all (December, 1917) was reached after + Germany's successful counter-thrust for Cambrai, her "peace + offensive" with the Bolsheviki at Brest-Litovsk, and the taking + over of our railroads by the government.--_Literary Digest_, + October 19, 1918. + +A further indication of how military operations reacted on Stock +Exchange quotations was shown in the decided improvement that took place +since the end of July, 1918, after the Germans were pushed back in their +drive towards Paris. The most direct way of measuring this influence is +to take the quotations for the bonds and notes of the Allied Governments +dealt in at the New York Stock Exchange since 1915: + + "The lowest quotations for these bond and note issues were + reached in 1917, when the cause of the Allies assumed a gloomy + appearance. The depression was aggravated by the general + decline of the entire securities market in the later part of + that year. Some recovery occurred by the end of last year, but + the beginning of 1918 saw them still depressed. Last March, + April, May and June, when the great German drives were in + progress, they showed little disposition to break, but after + the active participation of the American Army in the fighting + began and news came that the counter-offensive had assumed a + decided and successful phase, an assertion of strength took + place in foreign government bonds, carrying quotations 'not + only to the highest of the year, but in some instances to the + best figures attained since they first made their appearance in + the American market.' The following tabulation is presented by + _Bradstreet's_ as giving the range of prices for the most + prominent bonds and short-term notes of foreign countries + during 1917 and 1918, with the quotations for them on August + 22nd: + + /---1917----\ /---1918----\ Aug. + High Low High Low 22 + Am. For. Sec. 5s. 1919 97-7/8 90 98 94-1/2 97-1/2 + Anglo-French 5s. 1920 95 81-7/8 95 88-1/4 94-3/4 + Canada 5s. 1926 100 89 95 90-7/8 92 + Canada 5s. 1931 100-1/4 87-1/2 94 88-7/8 92-3/8 + Fr. Republic 5-1/2s. 1919 101 91-1/2 99 94 98-7/8 + U. Kingdom 5s. 1918 98-5/8 95-1/2 100 97 99-7/8 + U. Kingdom 5-1/2s. 1919 98-7/8 93-1/4 99-1/4 95-1/4 98-3/4 + U. King. 5-1/2s, new 1919 101-9/16 95-1/4 100 9-3/4 99-5/8 + U. Kingdom 5-1/2s. 1921 98-1/2 84-1/2 95-3/4 91-5/8 95-3/8 + _French Cities_ + Paris 6s. 1921 96-7/8 73-1/2 92-1/8 81-5/8 91-7/8 + Bordeaux 6s. 1919 96-7/8 74 95-1/2 84 94-7/8 + Lyons 6s. 1919 96-7/8 74 95-1/2 84 94-3/4 + Marseilles 6s. 1919 96-7/8 74 95-1/2 84 94-3/4 + _Russian Govern._[6] + External 6-1/2% 98-3/4 45 64-1/2 33 61 + External 5-1/2% 1921 98-5/8 36 60-1/2 34-1/2 57 + + [6] Curb market quotations. + +[Illustration: Diagram Showing the Effect of the War on the Prices of +Stocks + +(See explanation on page 32)] + + "British issues, as shown above, declined least of all, 'and + consequently had less ground to regain in the rise,' + _Bradstreet's_ adds: + + "The feeling of confidence in England's credit has all along + been a factor in connection with its American obligations. This + will doubtless be strengthened by the announcement made this + week that the United Kingdom secured 5 per cent. notes, due + September 1, 1918, will be paid at their maturity on that date. + There were originally $250,000,000 of these notes, which were + sold in our market in 1916; but the outstanding issue has been + reduced to about $180,000,000 by purchases in the market for + redemption. French obligations have been one of the chief + features of the advance. As will be seen from the above table, + the French Republic 5-1/2 per cents., due 1919, have risen 6 + points from the low figures of the year. The 6 per cent. notes + of the French cities, Paris, Lyons, Bordeaux, and Marseilles, + with rises of about 10 points each, are conspicuous examples of + the good effects following the checking of the German advance + and the counter-offensive launched by the Allies and the + American Army. No division of this part of the bond market has, + however, shown such a marked improvement as the Russian + external or dollar bonds, which though not listed at the Stock + Exchange, are dealt in extensively on the New York Curb + market'." + + +GERMAN PROPERTY IN AMERICA + +Until the United States entered the war with Germany it had never been +realized that an enormous share of the economic wealth of the country +was under German control. Attorney-General Palmer, in an address at +Detroit, estimated this share to be about two billion dollars in money +value, with an economic and political value far greater: + + "Furthermore, this structure was 'designed so to hold American + industry as to frustrate the organization of our resources in + case of war.' With two hundred American corporations controlled + by the financial and military power in Germany, we had a + situation that 'might easily have been fatal in America had it + not been discovered in time.' When the war began in 1914 the + structure 'had become so large and powerful and was so firmly + entrenched in the industrial life of our country that its real + commanders in Germany cherished the hope that it would prove + the make-weight which would keep America out of the war, or, + failing in that, constitute a powerful ally of the German cause + in our very midst.'" Mr. Palmer added: + + "'During the last twenty-five or thirty years Germany had built + up upon American soil a structure reaching into every part of + the country and stretching its arms across the seas to fasten + upon Porto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Hawaii, and the + Philippines. Congress has declared that all these enemy + properties shall be managed and administered by the Alien + Property Custodian with all the powers of a common law trustee, + the proceeds to be distributed after the war in such manner as + the Congress may determine. This means that the final + disposition of the properties or the funds realized from their + sale will be a topic for discussion and a subject for + settlement at the council table of the nations at which + permanent peace shall be restored to the world. + + "'This being so, it seems to me to be an important part of our + work to capture the army which Germany skilfully and craftily + planted midst the busy wheels of American industry, and to + break, never to be again repaired, the industrial and + commercial chain which Germany has stretched across the + American continent and our insular possessions. I would let + Germany understand now that her plan has dismally failed. I + would let her understand now that no matter how long she + fights, or what sacrifice she makes, or what price she pays, + however much territory she may occupy, or whatever worlds she + may conquer, there is one place which she will never soil again + with the tramp of the marching legions of her industrial army. + That is the United States of America. I would divorce utterly + and forever all German capital from American industry'." + + + + +II--WARTIME FOOD AND PRICE PROBLEMS + +Intricacies of a Perplexing and Critical Situation Which Taxed the +Ingenuity of Statesmen of All the Belligerents + +Europe was financially plunged into anarchy in August, 1914. All the +exchanges were demoralized, checks were not cashed, the five-pound note +became a worthless scrap of paper. The only thing that counted was gold +and goods. Prices advanced to prohibited levels. England, in danger of a +food famine, set up a Food Control Committee. Then the discovery was +made that the country was short of sugar. This shortage was due to the +fact that the war broke out when supplies from Cuba and elsewhere were +stopping and when the German imports had not begun. Sugar was bought to +the value of $86,000,000 from every country which had it to sell. When +the sugar merchants began to put the price up, purchasing was stopped +for the time. Later the Government managed to secure the quantity +required, because it became the only sugar importer. It also supplied +the French Government with sugar at cost price. Any further difficulties +with the sugar supply were due to freight shortage. By this system sugar +was cheaper in England than in any other belligerent country and the +Exchequer took in $34,000,000 in the way of taxes, after raising the +rate from 45c per hundred weight to $3.36 per hundred weight. + +In its control of the meat situation, the Government put itself in a +dominating position by seizing all steamers that had refrigerating +space. Enormous quantities of canned meats were imported from the United +States from the American packing firms, but the Government practically +created a state monopoly in frozen meat. This product was distributed by +it to all the other belligerents, except Russia. The purchase of wheat +was entrusted to a large importing house, which acted as an agent of the +Government. For supplying the fish market, a service of fishing boats +was maintained and a deal with Norway was made by which the whole +Norwegian fish supply was secured: + + "The British Government went into the beef business in order to + supply the troops at home and overseas with chilled meat. It + did so at an average cost of 12 cents per pound. It also + supplied all meat of this kind required by the French Army, the + Italian Army, the Belgians, and the Serbians. The amount of + meat required for the British and French armies was over 50,000 + tons per month; for the Italian Army about 10,000 tons per + month. These quantities increased proportionately with the + additions to the forces. Having created a state monopoly in the + importation and control of chilled meat, the Government had to + make provisions for domestic supplies outside the Army. The + Board of Trade arranged to sell to British firms the surplus + meat at market prices. They obtained a small commission, lower + than it hitherto received from traders. Sales to speculators + were prohibited. + + "Wheat was quite as important as sugar and beef, although there + was less risk of a world-corner. Wheat was purchased for + Government account on somewhat similar lines as beef. One of + the largest importing houses was commissioned to do all the + purchasing, while the other houses held off, and it was four + months before the corn trade, on the selling side, discovered + that purchases were made for the state. Naturally the + commission which the state paid on such transactions was + nominal. The British Government organization bought and shipped + wheat, oats, fodder, etc., for Italy. The French Government + bought their civil _ravitaillement_ wheat through the Hudson + Bay Company. Large purchases were made in Canada on behalf of + the Italian Government." + + + UNITED STATES AS FOOD PRODUCER + + "It is hard to realize that the United States was in 1917 much + less favorably situated for producing a huge food surplus than + it was thirty years before. In the interim industrialism had + made huge strides in the land, and a great urban population has + risen to eat up a large part of the surplus of food produced by + the farms. This change is indicated by a growth of the urban + population in the twenty years from 1890 to 1910 from + 22,720,223 to 42,625,383, or more than 80 per cent., while + rural population during the same period increased from + 40,227,491 to 49,348,883, or less than 25 per cent. If the same + ratios have been maintained since 1910 urban population has now + become one-half of the whole. In terms of food production + decidedly more than one-half of our population now produces a + very insignificant part of the food which it consumes, for the + rural population includes all who live in towns of less than + 2,500. The significance of the change is indicated by the + following figures of the production, export, and consumption + of typical food products. The comparison is between the average + of the five-year period ending in 1895 and that ending in 1914. + The average production of wheat per year for the former period + was 476,678,000 bushels; for the latter 697,459,000 bushels, an + increase of 46 per cent. Between these periods domestic + consumption increased from 310,107,000 to 588,592,000 bushels, + or about 90 per cent., while exports decreased from 166,571,000 + to 104,945,000 bushels, or 37 per cent. The average production + of corn for the former period was 1,602,171,000 bushels; for + the latter 2,752,372,000 bushels, or an increase of 72 per + cent. Consumption increased from 1,552,003,000 to 2,790,962,000 + bushels, or 79 per cent., while exports decreased from + 50,168,000 to 41,509,000 bushels, or 17 per cent. The figures + upon sugar, beef, pork, and other staples lead to similar + conclusions. The growth of industrial centers has given us an + increasingly urban population which has been consuming a larger + and larger part of the food surplus." + + +THE FOOD CONTROLLER + +No policy of _laissez-faire_ for handling the food situation was +possible. The need of direction was paramount and required +administrative talent of a high order. Fortunately the United States met +this demand. + +The work of Herbert M. Hoover was one of the main factors in securing +the Allied victory. This was recognized by as conservative an organ of +public opinion as the London _Economist_, which speaks of him as an +unimpeachable authority and as the organizer of the Allied victory. His +experience is a tribute to the wonderful readiness and self-sacrifice +shown by the Americans in the matter of food consumption and to the +untiring and increasing success of our fleet in combating the submarine. + +How much success in the war depended upon food supplies may be gauged +from the panicky feeling prevailing in Government quarters in England +when it was reported in the winter of 1917--18, that the American wheat +surplus had been used up. Lord Rhonda, the British Food Controller, +cabled to Mr. Hoover--"We are beaten, the war is over." Then began the +era in the United States of wheatless days and war bread. The result of +this period of national abstinence enabled the exportation to Europe of +about 150,000,000 bushels of wheat. A British member of the Allied Food +Commission said it was very remarkable to see a whole nation denying +itself of all wheat products, "not because it was short but because it +wanted to assist." This rationing was accomplished with very little +exercise of authority, and the peril of the defeat of the Allies by +famine was averted. + +[Illustration: Centres of Live Stock Production Throughout the World] + + +AMERICA'S CONTRIBUTION IN FOOD TO THE ALLIES + +Mr. Hoover in a letter to President Wilson stated that the total value +of American food shipments to Allied countries for their armies, for the +civilian population, Belgium relief and Red Cross, amounted to about +$1,400,000,000 for the fiscal year, 1918: + + "Shipments of meats, fats, and dairy products were as follows, + + Pounds. + Fiscal year, 1916--17 2,166,500,000 + Fiscal year, 1917--18 3,011,100,000 + Increase 844,600,000 + + "'Our slaughterable animals at the beginning of the last fiscal + year were not appreciably larger in number than the year + before, and particularly in hogs; they were probably less'; + so, as Mr. Hoover points out, 'the increase in shipments is due + to conservation and the extra weight of animals added by our + farmers.' Our shipments of cereal and cereal products have + been, + + Bushels. + Fiscal year, 1916--17 259,900,000 + Fiscal year, 1917--18 340,800,000 + Increase 80,900,000 + + "The total shipment of wheat from our last harvest was about + 141,000,000 bushels, with 13,900,000 of rye, a total of + 154,900,000 bushels, of prime breadstuffs. Mr. Hoover notes a + remarkable achievement in connection with the wheat shipments: + + "'Since the urgent request of the Allied Food Controllers early + in the year for a further shipment of 75,000,000 bushels from + our 1917 wheat than originally planned, we shall have shipped + to Europe, or have _en route_, nearly 85,000,000 bushels. At + the time of this request our surplus was already more than + exhausted. + + "'This accomplishment of our people in this matter stands out + even more clearly if we bear in mind that we had available in + the fiscal year 1916--17 from net carry over and a surplus over + our normal consumption about 200,000,000 bushels of wheat, + which we were able to export that year without trenching on our + home loaf. This last year, however, owing to the large failure + of the 1917 wheat crop we had available from net carry over and + production and imports only just about our normal consumption. + Therefore, our wheat shipments to Allied destinations represent + approximately savings from our own wheat bread.' + + "The effort and sacrifice made by our people to do this are + more fully appreciated when we consider that last year's wheat + crop was a small one and that the corn failed to mature + properly. Mr. Hoover concludes his letter with these words of + warm appreciation of the people who have made up the army of + which he has been the commanding general: + + "'I am sure that all the millions of our people, agricultural + as well as urban, who have contributed to these results should + feel a very definite satisfaction that, in a year of universal + food shortages in the northern hemisphere, all of these people, + joined together against Germany, have come through into sight + of the coming harvest, not only with health and strength fully + maintained, but with only temporary periods of hardship. The + European Allies have been compelled to sacrifice more than our + own people, but we have not failed to load every steamer since + the delays of the storm months of last winter. + + "'Our contributions to this end could not have been + accomplished without effort and sacrifice, and it is a matter + for further satisfaction that it has been accomplished + voluntarily and individually. It is difficult to distinguish + between various sections of our people--the homes, public + eating places, food trades, urban or agricultural + populations--in assessing credit for these results, but no one + will deny the dominant part of the American women'." + + +AGRICULTURE AND THE WAR + +The significance of the strides made in agricultural productivity by +which Mr. Hoover's food campaign was made possible and successful is +brought out in the report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1918: + + "The efforts put forth by the farmers and the agricultural + organizations to secure increased production can perhaps best + be concretely indicated in terms of planting operations. The + size of the harvest may not be the measure of the labors of the + farmers. Adverse weather conditions and unusual ravages of + insects or plant diseases may partly overcome and neutralize + the most exceptional exertions." + + +ACREAGE UNDER CULTIVATION + + "The first year of our participation in the war, 1917, + witnessed the Nation's record for acreage planted--283,000,000 + of the leading cereals, potatoes, tobacco, and cotton, as + against 261,000,000 for the preceding year, 251,000,000 for the + year prior to the outbreak of the European war, and 248,000,000 + for the five-year average, 1910--14. This is a gain of + 22,000,000 over the year preceding our entry into the war and + of 35,000,000 over the five-year average indicated. Even this + record was exceeded the second year of the war. There was + planted in 1918 for the same crops 289,000,000 acres, an + increase over the preceding record year of 5,600,000. It is + especially noteworthy that, while the acreage planted in wheat + in 1917 was slightly less than that for the record year of + 1915, it exceeded the five-year average (1910--14) by 7,000,000; + that the acreage planted in 1918 exceeded the previous record + by 3,500,000; and that the indications are that the acreage + planted during the current fall season will considerably exceed + that of any preceding fall planting." + + +YIELDS OF PRINCIPLE CEREALS + + "In each of the last two years climatic conditions over + considerable sections of the Union were adverse--in 1917 + especially for wheat and in 1918 for corn. Notwithstanding this + fact, the aggregate yield of the leading cereals in each of + these years exceeded that of any preceding year in the Nation's + history except 1915. The estimated total for 1917 was + 5,796,000,000 bushels and for 1918, 5,638,000,000 bushels, a + decrease of approximately 160,000,000 bushels. But the + conclusion would be unwarranted that the available supplies for + human food or the aggregate nutritive value will be less in + 1918 than in 1917. Fortunately, the wheat production for the + current year--918,920,000 bushels--is greatly in excess of that + for each of the preceding two years, 650,828,000 in 1917 and + 636,318,000 in 1916, and is next to the record wheat crop of + the Nation. The estimated corn crop, 2,749,000,000 bushels, + exceeds the five-year pre-war average by 17,000,000 bushels, is + 3.4 per cent. above the average in quality, and greatly + superior to that of 1917. It has been estimated that of the + large crop of last year, approximately 900,000,000 bushels were + soft. This, of course, was valuable as feed for animals, but + less so than corn of normal quality. It should be remembered, + in thinking in terms of food nutritional value, that, on the + average, only about 12 per cent. of the corn crop is annually + consumed by human beings and that not more than 26 per cent. + ever leaves the farm. It should be borne in mind also that the + stocks of corn on the farms November 1, 1918, were 118,400,000 + bushels, as against less than 35,000,000 bushels last year, and + 93,340,000 bushels, the average for the preceding five years. + It is noteworthy that the quality of each of the four great + cereals--barley, wheat, corn, and oats--ranges from 3 to 5.4 + per cent., above the average. + + "The tables printed below may facilitate the examination of + these essential facts: + + +NEED OF FOOD CONSERVATION + +Statistics have not yet been published as to the comparative food +production before the war and during the war years. Statistics of this +kind would go a long way towards settling the question whether high +prices were due to currency inflation or due to a scarcity of food. It +must be remembered that the arguments on both sides are expressed very +dogmatically. Take, for example, the following passage from an address +by Mr. Moulton: "The food problem," he says, "goes much deeper than +conserving the use of an existing stock of foodstuffs. The real food +problem is how to secure a supply of food large enough to meet the +continuous requirements of this nation and our Allies. This is more a +question of production than of consumption. That is to say, conservation +in consumption is less important than large production. There is no +possible escape from a substantial shortage of the necessities of life." + + ========================================================================= + ACREAGE OF CROPS IN THE UNITED STATES. + [Figures refer to planted acreage.] + ------------------------------------------------------------------------- + | 1918, | 1917, | | | Annual + Crop |subject to |subject to | 1916 | 1914 | average + | revision | revision | | | 1910--1914. + --------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--------------+------------- + CEREALS | | | | + Corn |113,835,000|119,755,000|105,296,000| 103,435,000| 105,240,000 + Wheat | 64,659,000| 59,045,000| 56,810,000| 54,661,000| 52,452,000 + Oats | 44,475,000| 43,572,000| 41,527,000| 38,442,000| 38,014,000 + Barley | 9,108,000| 8,835,000| 7,757,000| 7,565,000| 7,593,000 + Rye | 6,119,000| 4,480,000| 3,474,000| 2,733,000| 2,562,000 + Buckwheat 1,045,000| 1,006,000| 828,000| 792,000| 826,000 + Rice | 1,120,400| 964,000| 869,000| 694,000| 733,000 + Kafirs | 5,114,000| 5,153,000| 3,944,000| | + --------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--------------+------------- + Total |245,475,400|242,810,000|220,505,000|[7]208,322,000[7]207,420,000 + ========================================================================= + VEGETABLES | | | | + Potatoes| 4,113,000| 4,390,000| 3,565,000| 3,711,000| 3,686,000 + Sweet | 959,000| 953,000| 774,000| 603,000| 611,000 + Potatoes| | | | | + --------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--------------+------------- + Total | 5,072,000| 5,343,000| 4,339,000| 4,314,000| 4,297,000 + ========================================================================= + Tobacco | 1,452,900| 1,447,000| 1,413,000| 1,224,000| 1,209,000 + Cotton | 37,073,000| 33,841,000| 34,985,000| 36,832,000| 35,330,000 + --------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--------------+------------- + Grand |289,073,300|283,441,000|261,242,000|[7]250,692,000[7]248,256,000 + Total.| | | | | + --------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--------------+------------- + +[7] Excluding kafirs. + + PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES + [Figures are in round thousands; i. e., 000 omitted.] + + ====================================================================== + Crops | 1918 | 1917, | 1916 | 1914 | Annual + |(unrevised| Subject | | | average + | estimate | to | | |1910--1914 + | November |revision.| | | + | 1918). | | | | + -------------------+----------+---------+---------+---------+--------- + CEREALS | | | | | + Corn | bush| 2,749,198|3,159,494|2,566,927|2,672,804|2,732,457 + Wheat | do| 918,920| 650,828| 636,318| 891,017| 728,225 + Oats | do| 1,535,297|1,587,286|1,251,837|1,141,060|1,157,961 + Barley | do| 236,505| 208,975| 182,309| 194,953| 186,208 + Rye | do| 76,687| 60,145| 8,862| 42,779| 37,568 + Buckwheat | do| 18,370| 17,460| 11,662| 16,881| 17,022 + Rice | do| 41,918| 36,278| 40,861| 23,649| 24,378 + Kafirs | do| 61,182| 75,866| 53,858| | + |-----+----------+---------+---------+---------+--------- + Total | do| 5,638,077|5,796,332|4,792,634|4,983,143|4,883,819 + |======================================================== + VEGETABLES | | | | | + Potatoes | bush| 390,101| 442,536| 286,953| 409,921| 360,772 + Sweet | do| 88,114| 87,141| 70,955| 56,574| 57,117 + potatoes| | | | | | + Beans | do| 17,802| 14,967| 10,715| 11,585| + (commercial)| | | | | | + Onions, fall | do| 13,438| 12,309| 7,833| [8] | + commercial| | | | | | + crop| | | | | | + Cabbage | tons| 565| 475| 252| [8] | + (commercial)| | | | | | + FRUITS | | | | | + Peaches | bush| 40,185| 45,066| 37,505| 54,109| 43,752 + Pears | do| 10,342| 13,281| 11,874| 12,086| 11,184 + Apples | do| 197,360| 174,608| 204,582| 253,200| 197,898 + Cranberries, | bbls| 374| 255| 471| 644| + 3 States| | | | | | + MISCELLANEOUS | | | | | + Flaxseed | bush| 14,646| 8,473| 14,296| 13,749| 18,353 + Sugar beets | tons| 6,549| 5,980| 6,228| 5,585| 5,391 + Tobacco | lbs| 1,266,686|1,196,451|1,153,278|1,034,679| 991,958 + All hay | tons| 86,254| 94,930| 110,992| 88,686| 81,640 + Cotton |bales| 11,818| 11,302| 11,450| 16,135| 14,259 + Sorghum sirup|galls| 29,757| 34,175| 13,668| | + Peanuts | bush| 52,617| 56,104| 35,324| | + Broom corn, 5| tons| 52| 52| 39| | + States| | | | | | + Clover seed | bush| 1,248| 1,439| 1,706| | + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +[8] no estimate + + +The same point of view is expressed in the following extract: + + "It is not usually understood that the chief cause of the + enormously high prices of the necessities of life at the + present time is their relative scarcity. The supply of + necessities in this country has not materially increased, but + the demand for them, owing to the requirements of our Allies, + has enormously increased. We can prevent a still further + soaring of prices only by increased production of + necessities--increased production to be accomplished, let it be + repeated through a diversion of productive power from the + non-essential lines. + + "The wealthy have often been urged since the war started to + spend lavishly on luxuries and to economize on necessities in + order that the necessities will remain for consumption by the + poor. This is sheer shortsightedness; for the energy devoted to + the production of luxuries for consumption by the wealthy + would, if diverted to the production of essentials, give us a + sufficient supply of the necessities of life that all might + have them in relative abundance. The result of a policy of + spending lavishly on luxuries is an inadequate production of + necessities and hence prices so high as to cause real privation + among the masses. Those engaged in producing luxuries obviously + cannot at the same time be engaged in producing necessities." + +In a war of attrition, physical deterioration of the masses of society +in consequence of inadequate nourishment was certain to result in a +serious decline in national morale, and this was a decided factor in the +final outcome of the struggle. Food and other physical necessities would +win the war. Mr. F. A. Vanderlip used the same argument for economies: + + "Thus the diversion of productive resources to public ends + requires of each of us a voluntary or compulsory rearrangement + of individual and household budgets and radical changes in the + habits of our lives. We must encourage direct diversion by + reducing to a minimum our consumption of articles which can be + used by our soldiers. But it is even more important that we + give up the consumption of non-essential things in order that + the productive energy which they embody be devoted to the + accomplishment of the purpose in hand. The amount which we are + forced to give up or voluntarily surrender constitutes a + surplus over private consumption that measures the extent of + our ability to wage war. We are fighting a nation which + continues to be willing to reduce private consumption to the + barest subsistence minimum. Unless a large surplus is produced + we can gain no active participation in war and cannot hope for + a victorious peace. The larger the surplus the shorter the war + will be, and the nearer we are to victory." + + +GREAT BRITAIN'S FOOD DANGER + +Under the long rgime of free trade Great Britain depended upon other +countries for its food supply. To offset the submarine campaign earnest +appeals were made to make England self-supporting in this respect. The +appeals were answered and were given enthusiastic popular support. What +strides were made in England's agriculture since the war began can be +seen from a paragraph in the London _New Statesman_: + + "In 1918, as against 1916, the acreage (England and Wales) + under oats is up by 35 per cent.; that under wheat by 38 per + cent.; that under barley by 11 per cent.; that under other + grain by 69 per cent.; that under potatoes by 50 per cent. The + number of allotments (1,300,000) has increased by 140 per cent. + The Report of the Food-Production Department ... is as + satisfactory as we could wish; the number of acres under + cultivation in the United Kingdom has gone up by over four + millions in two years, all records being broken. + + "This figure ignores the great increase in gardens and + allotments, and it is estimated that, on the present scale of + consumption, this year's home harvest will be sufficient to + feed the population for forty weeks. The supply before the war + was only enough to meet a ten weeks' consumption. Breadstuffs + are not everything; and even of them one-fifth still has to be + provided. But granted that we can keep this rate of production + up, and--in spite of the drains of the Army upon our + labor--can, with the help of women and prisoners, save what we + produce, the wolf has now been driven a considerable distance + from the door. With sinkings diminishing and ship-building on + the increase, we can, we think, congratulate ourselves on the + final failure of the German attempt to starve us out." + + +ACREAGE INCREASE DUE TO WOMEN'S LABOR + + "Much of the increased cultivation has been done by women, we + are told, and Mr. Prothero, the British Minister of + Agriculture, had a cheerful picture to paint when appealing for + recruits for 'the Women's Land Army.' As reported by the London + _Morning Post_ his speech ran: + + "'Today (1918) the acreage under wheat, barley, and oats is the + highest ever recorded in the history of our agriculture. That + is one of the finest achievements of the war. In the same + period the number of allotments has been increased by 800,000, + which means something like 800,000 tons of produce raised + additionally a big saving in transport, and an improvement + socially and morally. This advance has been effected in spite + of the fact that there are 500,000 fewer laborers on the land. + It is because of that decrease of labor that the appeal is + being made for more women. I do not believe that any assembly + of British farmers will hold back men who can possibly be + spared when the alternative is our troops being driven back by + overwhelming numbers and butchered on the beach by German guns. + The promise of the harvest is not yet fulfilled, and there is + much to be done. Women's work on the land is a vital necessity. + I know the work they are asked to do is hard, bringing with it + discomforts, and, comparatively speaking, is poorly paid. Life + on the land is not luxurious, but it brings health with it, and + the women have the conviction that they are doing something in + one of the most important fields to make victory sure.'" + + +EVIDENCES OF FOOD SHORTAGE + +One of the by-products of the food situation in England was the +suffering occasioned by the scanty food supply on the canine population +of the island. The London _Times_ of June, 1918, contained the following +pathetic paragraph: + + "Considerable alarm has been caused among dog owners by the + intimation that stocks of biscuits are practically exhausted. + Not only is this the case, but the prospects of more flour + being released for their manufacture are also remote unless + some action is taken by the government to insure further + importations of low-grade flours suitable for the purpose. + + "The state of things is undoubtedly acute. Until the food + economy campaign set in early last year most households + provided enough waste to feed a dog, and where more than one + was kept butchers' offals could be had for a few pence. These + sources of supply having now vanished, much ingenuity will have + to be exercised in order to preserve the family friend and + guard from extinction. Blood, steamed until it is of a solid + consistency, fish heads, and the heads of poultry offer some + alternatives. Rice, oatmeal, and other cereal products may not + be used. + + "The whole question of dogs is engaging the closest attention + of the authorities. Admittedly the problem of reducing the + numbers is beset with difficulties, and, whatever is done, it + is extremely unlikely the one-dog owner will be disturbed, the + government recognizing the sentimental forces involved, to say + nothing of the utility value of many breeds." + +[Illustration: Members of "The Women's Land Army" in England + +Girls weeding frames in which cauliflower plants were set out to be +ready for market in the early spring. + +Copyright by Underwood & Underwood] + +But while English dogs were threatened with starvation, dogs of Germany +were having a still worse time. Numerous cable paragraphs were published +giving the price of dog flesh in various German cities. + +Indeed, from all over Germany, at the closing period of the war, the +hope of drawing upon Russian food supplies was seen to be illusory. +There was much talk of getting food from the Ukraine, but this was +probably used to keep up popular morale. The situation in the Ukraine +did not encourage German hopes. This was frankly admitted by the +_Frankfort Zeitung_: + + "The stores and warehouses in the Ukraine are almost emptied. + The peasants' stocks are depleted, while the best seed corn has + been used to feed cattle or to supply a secret still, which + nearly every household possesses. + + "The outlook for next harvest is most unpromising. The peasants + have plundered the estates, destroyed farm buildings and + machinery, and have stolen or slaughtered most of the cattle. + No labor is available for cultivation, and there are no + facilities for harvesting the next crop, while the sugar + industry is confronted with ruin, owing to the decrease of beet + cultivation." + + +FOOD CONTROL FOR NEUTRALS + +It is interesting to study the effect of the war on the food situation +of the neutral powers. In Scandinavia, there was at first a panicky +feeling of a world-wide catastrophe; then there came the realization of +an unparalleled chance for making profit. The international shortage of +tonnage made freight rates soar. Shipping shares became attractive. Then +came the submarine sinkings, and the refusal of the Allies to allow +goods to be imported into Scandinavia for the sole purpose of selling +them to the Central Powers. Imports fell off rapidly. Everything which +could be sold had been sold in the beginning of the war. The next step +was the placing of an embargo on exports by the Scandinavian +governments: + + "The index of the Swedish official list of laws, dated October + 31, 1916, forbidding exports, mentioned more than 1,100 + articles, and even that was expressly called only a help to + find the commodity looked for and did not pretend to be a + complete index. The result was, of course, that trade, compared + to former volumes, decreased very considerably, and the energy + as well as the wealth actually earned was turned towards + speculation on the local exchange. + + "To supply all the people of Scandinavia with the necessities + of life was a problem. Law upon law, one governmental decree + after the other, tried to regulate the distribution of + commodities as well as their prices. The majority of the people + were in actual need. Prices soared, and it really did not + matter to the ordinary man whether the cause of this rise in + the cost of living was a too big circulation of paper currency + or a limited supply of goods. What confronted him was the fact + itself, not theories, and he realized all too well that he + could not make 'both ends meet.' There was, generally speaking, + no doubt that under normal circumstances the laws of supply and + demand will work satisfactorily to the community and that + artificial interference was only harmful. The supply being + short, consequently the demand and the consumption must be + controlled to secure a fair distribution. Sugar cards, which + had been used in Sweden for months, and which were decreed in + Denmark to go into force January 1, 1917, were an example of + the means employed to control the distribution and to prevent + waste to supplies. + + "While on the one hand one saw new millionaires permit + themselves to indulge in the most senseless luxuries, which + incidentally added considerably to the high cost of living + under circumstances like these, the less well-to-do actually + were without many things formerly considered necessities. + Collections of money and foodstuffs were made all over + Scandinavia to help the less fortunate through the winter. The + poorer population of the cities was especially considered. It + was even difficult to get a roof over one's head. Proposals and + counter proposals to remedy the evil were forthcoming, but no + real remedy seemed to be in sight." + + +FEEDING EUROPE'S STARVING MILLIONS + +A preliminary accounting was rendered on December 1, 1919, by Herbert C. +Hoover, covering the $100,000,000 fund appropriated by Congress for the +relief of starving Europeans. From Mr. Hoover's report it appears that +in payment for relief supplied to eight European countries Mr. Hoover +decided to accept their notes bearing 5% interest. Mr. Hoover's report +stated: + + "About 88 per cent. of the relief supplies furnished were sold + under contract to the various Governments in the relief areas. + For all such sales these Governments gave their special + treasury notes in a form approved by the United States + Treasury, bearing 5 per cent. interest, due June 30, 1921, to + June 30, 1924. It was impossible to obtain reimbursement in + cash because the currency in the countries to which these + supplies were sent was impossible to convert into foreign + exchange, except in comparatively insignificant amounts. + + +POLAND THE BIGGEST DEBTOR + + "I give herewith approximate list of the notes of each + Government, which we expect to turn over to the United States + Treasury. + + Poland $57,000,000 + Czechoslovakia 6,750,000 + Armenia 10,000,000 + Russia. 5,000,000 + Esthonia 2,300,000 + Latvia 3,000,000 + Lithuania 700,000 + Finland 4,000,000 + + Total $88,750,000 + + "The remaining 12 per cent. of the supplies was donated in + assistance to private organizations set up in each country + under direction of the American Relief Administration for the + purpose of furnishing food on a charitable basis to + undernourished children. For such supplies it was, of course, + impossible to obtain reimbursement. This service has + contributed greatly to stabilizing the situation in those + countries, aside from the physical benefits to more than + 3,000,000 undernourished children, to whom the war threatened + serious and permanent injury. Certainly this service is one for + which the name of America will always be held in deepest + gratitude." + + +FOOD CONDITIONS AFTER THE ARMISTICE + +[Illustration: A Map Issued by the Food Administration to Show Food +Conditions in Europe After the Signing of the Armistice.] + +It is impossible in words to show what the food conditions were in +Europe after the armistice was signed. The United States Food +Administration issued a statement that there were 420,000,000 people in +Europe with food supplies sufficient to last only until next harvest for +a small proportion of them. Some countries had to be supplied at once; +others, it was believed, could help themselves temporarily, provided +they could be given guarantees of food for the future. Many countries +were devastated, undernourished and stripped bare of food and +agricultural equipment because of enemy occupation. A graphic picture of +the situation was presented by the Food Administration in the Hunger Map +of Europe. + + +NEW FACTORS AFTER NOVEMBER, 1918 + +An official survey of how cessation of active fighting introduced new +factors in the food situation is presented in a publication of the +Agricultural Department, July, 1919. + + "With the signing of the armistice and the cessation of active + fighting, new factors were introduced which affect the food + situation. One of these was the step taken to release shipping + as rapidly as possible, with the probable result that the + agricultural products of the more distant producing countries + will again largely appear on the markets of Europe. The + channels of trade are being reestablished and food supplies + will be sought wherever they can be secured most cheaply. + + "A provision of the armistice required the immediate evacuation + by the Germans of a large area in Belgium, France, + Alsace-Lorraine, Luxemburg, and other territory. As a result + many millions of people have been added to those that must be + aided and fed by the Allies, and a material increase in the + amount of foodstuffs to be imported has been made necessary. It + may be found, too, that Turkey, Austria, and even Germany will + have to draw on outside supplies to meet their needs. + + "The demobilization of the European armies will permit men to + return to the farms, and it may be expected that under the + stimulus of an urgent demand for food an attempt will be made + this year to increase food production in all the affected + European countries. The devastated regions will be slow in + recovering. Much time and labor will be required to construct + necessary homes and farm buildings, level the ground, remove + obstructions, and in other ways prepare for a resumption of + regular agricultural activities. But it must be remembered that + as compared with the whole of the countries concerned these + areas are small and should not affect the results in any large + way. + + "In many sections of Europe there is a shortage of horses and + other work stock, farm machinery, seeds, and fertilizers. In + these localities a normal production should not be expected, + but it is evident that under favorable conditions a material + increase over the past year will be secured. + + + CEREAL REQUIREMENTS FOR 1919 + + "The following table presents estimates of the cereal + requirements for 1919 and shows the world balance as deficit or + surplus. Figures for the cereals, except rice, represent + millions of bushels. + + ========================================================== + Import Requirements |Wheat| Rye|Barley| Oats| Corn| Rice, + | | | | | | Hulled + --------------------+-----+----+------+-----+-----+------- + EUROPE | | | | | |_Million_ + | | | | | | _pounds_ + Allies | 525| 25| 50| 150| 220| 1,945 + Neutrals | 124| 40| 30| 38| 78| 302 + |-----+----+------+-----+-----+------- + | 649| 65| 80| 188| 298| 2,247 + |-----+----+------+-----+-----+------- + Germany | 68| | 149| 3| 32| 438 + Austria-Hungary | 11| | | 2| 15| 183 + |-----+----+------+-----+-----+------- + Total Europe | 728| 65| 22| 193| 345| 2,868 + |-----+----+------+-----+-----+------- + Other countries | | | | | | 7,411 + |-----+----+------+-----+-----+------- + Grand total | | | | | | 10,279 + |===================================== + Surplus (estimated):| | | | | | + Canada | 100| | 50| 75| | + Argentina | 185| | | | 90| + Australia | 210| | | | | + India | | | | | | 18,000 + Other countries | | | | | | 7,400 + (pre-war) | | | | | | + |-----+----+------+-----+-----+------- + Total, except United| 495| | 50| 75| 90| 25,400 + States | | | | | | + |===================================== + Net deficit | 233| 65| 179| 118| 255| + |===================================== + UNITED STATES, 1918 | | | | | | + Production | 917| 89| 250|1,538|2,583| 1,123 + Consumption | 640| 32| 130|1,254|2,730| 816 + |-----+----+------+-----+-----+------- + Surplus | 277| 57| 120| 284| | 307 + Deficit | | | | | 147| + |-----+----+------+-----+-----+------- + WORLD | | | | | | + Surplus | 44| | | 166| | 14,428 + Deficit | | 8| 59| | 402| + |-----+----+------+-----+-----+------- + + NOTE.--Estimates of European crop and live-stock production, + consumption, and stocks on hand, surplus or deficiency, are based on + incomplete data, which are subject to change as more complete data + become available. + + "The figures on import requirements of the Allies and neutrals + are those estimated for 1917--18, while the estimated + requirements of Germany and Austria are pre-war net imports. + + "The rice surplus might be required in the Orient for countries + whose crops may have failed. + + MISCELLANEOUS CROP REQUIREMENTS, 1919. + + ================================================================= + Import requirements of-- | Cotton (500| Tobacco| Flaxseed + |pounds bales).| (million| (million + | | pounds).| bushels). + ----------------------------+--------------+----------+---------- + EUROPE | | | + Allies, including Japan | 8,058,000| 340| 21.6 + Neutrals | 720,000| 150| 7.9 + Germany and Austria-Hungary | 2,932,000| 355| 15.7 + (pre-war boundaries) | | | + Other countries | 1,200,00| 17| + ----------------------------+--------------+----------+---------- + Total requirements | 13,010,000| 1,022| 45.2 + |==================================== + SURPLUS (ESTIMATED) | | | + Countries, except United | 2,680,000| | 40 + States, recently reported | | | + (1918) | | | + Average, 1900--1913, for | 500,00| 650| [9]5.7 + other surplus countries | | | + |--------------+----------+---------- + Total, except United States | 3,180,000| 650| 40 + UNITED STATES | | | + Production, 1918 | 11,700,00| 1,340| 14.7 + Consumption | 6,600,000| 720| 26.7 + Surplus | 5,100,000| 620| + Deficit | | | 12 + WORLD | | | + Surplus | | 148| + Deficit | 4,730,000| | 17.2 + ----------------------------|--------------+----------+---------- + +[9] Russia + +NOTE.--The figures are based on pre-war averages, 1909--1913, which may +be considerably changed by post-war conditions. + + "The cotton table is based upon normal industrial conditions in + all the consuming countries and upon the restoration of the + spinning industry in the devastated regions. If conditions do + not reach normal, and if the industry is not restored, the + consumption of cotton will be substantially less. With + practically complete restoration, cotton consumption may well + be expected to equal the normal or pre-war times on account of + the present shortage of cotton goods in various countries. The + economies which the peoples of Europe must practice for some + years to come must be considered." + + +CENTRAL EUROPE IN DIRE WANT + +News from Europe showed everywhere acute suffering from lack of food; +even in France the country districts were badly off. A member of the +Federal Food Administration reported that bread was practically the only +food that anyone could afford. President Wilson referred to this subject +in the address with which he accompanied his announcement of the terms +signed by Germany. He definitely took a stand in favor of provisioning +the country, explaining that by use of the idle tonnage of the Central +Empires it ought presently to be possible to lift the fear of utter +misery, + + "'from their oppressed populations and set their minds and + energies free for the great and hazardous tasks of political + reconstruction which now face them on every hand. Hunger does + not breed reform; it breeds madness and all the ugly distempers + that make an ordered life impossible. + + "'For with the fall of the ancient governments which rested + like an incubus on the peoples of the Central Empires has come + political change not merely, but revolution.' + + "Putting this danger into a nutshell, the _Wall Street Journal_ + asks whether Central Europe shall have 'bread or Bolshevism?' + This strong exponent of a firm social order is of the opinion + that 'we must recognize the fact that hunger breeds anarchy, + and that the most effective weapon against Bolshevism is a loaf + of bread.' Victory has made the Allied peoples, 'through their + governments, responsible for world conditions,' in the opinion + of this paper as well as of the Montreal _Star_ quoted above, + and Food Administrator Hoover declares that 'the specter of + famine abroad now haunts the abundance of our tables at home.'" + + +TO PREVENT FAMINE IN GERMANY + +Both in England and in France there was official recognition of the need +of preventing famine conditions in Germany. It was believed that large +imports of wheat could be brought from Australia and India. The _Times_ +(London) said: + + "Mr. Hoover expects that enough wheat will be brought from + those countries to permit reduction of the percentage of + substitutes now required in bread, and thus release fodder + grain for dairy use. The change, it is said, may take place + within three months. But it will not reduce the total of + foodstuffs which we must supply. He predicts that 'our load + will be increased,' and that there will be a greater demand for + economy. + + "The available quantities of grain are sufficient. From our + great crop of wheat we can spare more than 300,000,000 bushels. + Canada, with a yield almost equal to last year's, has a + surplus. While our crop of corn shows a decline of 441,000,000 + bushels from that of a year ago, it is very near to recent + averages and of very good quality. The output of home gardens, + increased by one half, is not included in official reports, + although its value exceeds $500,000,000. Australia has on hand + the surplus of three wheat crops, India is said to have + 120,000,000 bushels for shipment, and much can be taken from + Argentina. As a rule, our war partners in Europe increased + their crops this year. England gains 30,000,000 bushels of + wheat, Italy 24,000,000, and France 35,000,000. But other crops + in France are short, and the nutritive value of the entire + yield is less than that of last year's harvest. It is well + known that the Central Powers have very little food; and no + help can come to them from the East. Before the war Russia + exported a large surplus of wheat. Many of her people are now + starving. So far as can be learned, she has no grain to sell. + Bulgaria and Rumania have the smallest crops in fifty years. + Germany and Austria can get no grain from the northern + neutrals; we are sending wheat to them. There is food enough to + supply the wants of our European friends and foes until the + next harvest if it can be carefully distributed. But if the + plans for helping those who have fought against us, as well as + our partners in the war, are carried out, the American people + must practice economy and submit to restrictions for some time + to come." + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +A Food Riot in Sweden + +News from Europe immediately following the armistice showed everywhere +acute suffering from lack of food. A member of the Federal Food +Administration reported that bread was practically the only food that +anyone could afford.] + + +SUGAR DISTRIBUTION + +Among the multiform activities of the American Food Administration, the +distribution of sugar was most difficult. America had to supply sugar to +the Allies and retain enough for the use of its own people. The matter +of the feeling of personal self-sacrifice was difficult enough but there +was the further question of how to organize and allocate distribution. +The government had to decide the amount to be distributed to sugar-using +industries. These industries had to be classified. For the manufacture +of soft drinks it was decided to allow only one-half of the sugar used +in normal times. Bakers were given a 70 percent. allotment and hotels +were permitted three pounds of sugar to every ninety meals served, +including cooking. + +The sugar resources of the country, both cane and beet-root, were +regulated by the so-called Sugar Equalization Board. The operation of +this body was explained officially in the _Literary Digest_: + + "This board is a part of the Food Administration and approved + by the President. Its purpose is to equalize the cost of + various sugars and to secure better distribution. It can also + cooperate with the Allies in the procurement of sugar for them + and in the adjustment of overseas freight rates. Through + capital supplied by the President through his special funds, it + is enabled, when desirable, to buy up all available sugars at + different prices and resell them at one fixed and even rate. + + "In other words, it provides a sort of vast storehouse of + sugar, which may be doled out where it is most needed, at a + price secure from the fluctuations otherwise inevitable in war + time." + + +KEEPING DOWN THE PRICE + +What might happen without this Sugar Equalization Board is illustrated +by the Civil War, when sugar, because of speculation, went as high as +thirty-five cents a pound. And at _that_ time there was no world +shortage of sugar. If there were no sort of sugar control today, it may +readily be believed that the consumer might have to pay sugar prices +soaring far above those Civil War levels. + + "It costs more to produce and market some sugars (such as + domestic beet sugar and Louisiana cane) than it does others, + such as Cuban cane sugar. But that is no reason why the sugar + manufacturer, whose production costs are high, should suffer, + even to the extent of being forced out of the market. Nor can + the country afford to have this happen under present war time + shortage of nearby supplies. Consequently, when it becomes + necessary, the Sugar Equalization Board through its purchasing + powers can insure fair profits to the manufacturers. Then the + Board may resell this sugar, so that it reaches the public at a + price lower than what the maximum would otherwise be." + + +POTATO ECONOMY + +In order to remedy the generally inadequate food supply, it became +necessary to treat such a standard food as the potato according to newly +devised methods by which it could be stored for permanent use and widely +distributed. In a lecture in Economics given to a class of the National +City Bank, it was stated that, since the war began, it was found +practicable so to preserve the potato by grinding and drying as to +transform it from a local and perishable commodity to one which could be +produced in almost unlimited quantities and distributed to any part of +the world: + + "The potato can be grown in almost any temperate zone area, but + theretofore nine-tenths of the world's crop of 6,000,000,000 + bushels is grown in a half-dozen countries, and almost + exclusively in Europe and North America. Germany, Russia, + Austria-Hungary, France, Great Britain, and the United States + have produced in favorable years about 5,000,000,000 bushels, + while the remainder of the world produced only 1,000,000,000. + These six countries that produced five-tenths of the world's + potato crop have only 450,000,000 peoples, while the potatoless + world has a population of over 1,200,000,000, from which it + appears that 'fully two-thirds of the population of the world + live outside of the area.' + + "Germany is by far the largest potato grower of the world, + producing about 2,000,000,000 out of a world crop of + 6,000,000,000 bushels, using them as a food for man and animals + and the production of alcohol for use in her industries, and + for the production of heat and power when necessary. Next in + line is European Russia, with an annual crop of about + 1,000,000,000 bushels; Austria-Hungary, 600,000,000; France, + 500,000,000; United States, 450,000,000, and Great Britain, + 300,000,000 bushels. + + "This new system of turning the potato into a condition in + which it can be readily distributed has, quite naturally, + developed in the country which has the largest potato + production of the world, Germany. Factories for the crushing + and drying of the potato and turning the product into flour for + man, flakes and cubes for animals, or alcohol for the chemical + industry and also as a substitute for petrol, have grown from + about a dozen a few years ago to over 400 in 1914 and 840 in + 1916, with a capacity to turn into this condensed form more + than 1,000,000,000 bushels of potatoes a year. The reduction in + weight is about 60 per cent., while the product can be + preserved almost indefinitely. + + "The value of our own potato crop in the United States last + year was approximately $540,000,000 at the place of production, + and yet the amount entering international trade was only + $4,000,000. Our potato crop averages about 90 bushels per acre, + that of European Russia 100 bushels; France 135 bushels; + Austria 150 bushels; United Kingdom 124 bushels, and Germany + 200 bushels and upward per acre, her large flavorless potato, + grown chiefly for alcohol, having reached and sometimes + exceeded 500 bushels per acre." + + +FUEL CONTROL + +The coal industry was the one basic war industry. Food and munitions +were dependent upon the coal supply. It is not necessary to elaborate +this argument; it is patent to every one. The following table gives a +view of the coal production of the most important countries: + + COAL PRODUCTION IN THE LEADING COAL-PRODUCING COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD + + ========================================================================= + Country | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917 + -------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------- + United States|570,048,125|513,525,477|531,619,487|585,372,568|621,409,629 + Great Britain|287,698,617|265,664,393|253,206,081|256,348,351|248,473,119 + Germany |278,627,497|245,482,135|235,082,000| | + Austria-Hungary59,647,957| | | 30,896,388| 28,558,719 + France | 40,843,618| 29,786,505| 19,908,000| 21,477,000| 28,960,000 + Russia | 35,500,674| | 27,820,632| 13,622,400| 13,266,760 + Belgium | 22,847,000| | 15,930,000| | + Japan | 21,315,962| 21,293,419| 20,490,747| 22,901,580| + India | 18,163,856| | 17,103,932| 17,254,309| + China | 15,432,200| | 18,000,000| | + Canada | 15,012,178| 13,637,529| 13,267,023| 14,483,395| 14,015,588 + Spain | 4,731,647| 4,424,439| 4,686,753| 5,588,594| + Holland | 2,064,608| | 2,333,000| 2,656,000| + ========================================================================= + + +THE COAL SHORTAGE + +A rapid advance in coal prices was inevitable under war conditions of +unceasing demand and diminishing supply. Says Mr. William Notz in an +article in the _Journal of Political Economy_, June, 1918: + + "The question of war-time coal prices offers many angles of + interest. Everywhere prices have increased far above pre-war + levels. Voluntary agreements on the part of producers and + dealers to limit prices and profits have failed without + exception. In all the leading coal-consuming countries of the + world maximum prices had to be fixed sooner or later by + government action. In every case the maximum mine prices are + considerably above the average scale of prices obtaining in the + years immediately prior to the war. In every country where + maximum sales prices at the mines were fixed, liberal + allowances were made for wage increases to mine workers. In + Great Britain present maximum mine prices approximate 6s. 6d. + above the average mine price which obtained during the year + ending June 30, 1914. In the United States special mine prices + have been fixed for each state, and in many cases also for + certain coal fields within a state. The f.o.b. price for + bituminous coal in Pennsylvania was in 1913 $1.11 and in 1918, + $2.60. Anthracite increased to $4.00 ($4.55 for white ash + broken). + + "In Germany the total increase in mine prices of the + Rhenish-Westphalian Coal Syndicate from the beginning of the + war to January, 1917, approximated $1.25 per ton. + + "While a certain degree of uniformity is noticeable in the rise + in price levels for coal at the mines in the countries where + maximum prices have been fixed, an entirely different picture + presents itself if we compare the maximum retail coal prices + obtaining under government regulations in different sections of + the same country. In most countries the national coal + controller has established a uniform maximum margin of profit + for all retail coal dealers, while local authorities have fixed + maximum retail coal prices for their communities. By reason of + the fact that in establishing maximum retail consumers' prices + allowances had to be made for increased handling expenses, + freight rates, middlemen's profits, war taxes, etc., retail + coal prices at the present time universally show a very heavy + increase over pre-war prices." + + +FUEL CONSERVATION MEASURES + +American Fuel Control had to grapple drastically with a situation of +shortage so dangerous that a catastrophe might have been precipitated at +any moment. Fuel Administrator Garfield issued orders for coal +conservation of a most startling and unusual character. Factories east +of the Mississippi were ordered shut down for five days beginning +January 18, 1918. Monday, furthermore, + + "was decreed a holiday for ten weeks on which offices, + factories, and stores, except drug and food stores, must use + only such fuel as is necessary to prevent damage. The order + under which these restrictions were made, according to the Fuel + Administration's statement to the press, was 'designed to + distribute with absolute impartiality the burden,' and it added + that the Fuel Administration 'counts upon the complete + patriotic cooperation of every individual, firm, and + corporation affected by the order in its enforcement.' We read + further that the government aims to carry out its plan without + 'undue interference with the ordinary course of business' and + earnestly desires to 'prevent entirely any dislocation of + industry or labor.' + + +SHUT-DOWN OF INDUSTRY TO SAVE COAL + + "Fuel Administrator Garfield hoped to save 30,000,000 tons of + coal and to give the railroads a chance to straighten out the + transportation tangle in the eastern states, according to a + Washington correspondent of the New York _Tribune_, who notes + that the measures were taken by the President and the + government heads 'as a desperate remedy.' The closing down of + the greater part of the nation's industries, trades, and + business, says the New York _Sun_, is the 'fruit of the insane, + criminal starvation of the railroads by the government for a + generation'; yet regardless of what it may cost any individual + or group of individuals, the order is to be 'greeted without + protest.' A surgeon was more welcome than an undertaker, in the + view of this daily, and a disaster of the second degree and a + temporary one is better than a disaster of the first degree and + a permanent one. If the five-day term clears the railroads and + the Monday holidays set the trains running with their former + clocklike regularity, the _Sun_ added, we can resume being the + 'busiest nation on earth, instead of being an industrial + paralytic.' While recognizing that the order struck Utica and + all cities in the designated territory 'a staggering blow,' the + _Utica Press_ holds that there is really nothing a patriotic + city could do about it save to accept the situation with as + good grace as possible, and if the result hasten the end all + will agree that it was a good investment. The Chicago _Herald_ + considered the order 'a tremendous decision' carrying with it a + 'tremendous responsibility,' and while the chief industries of + the principal part of a nation can not be stopped even for a + day without disorganization and loss, still the country is + willing to pay the price 'if it is the necessary cost of + preventing the suffering of hundreds and thousands, perhaps + millions, of individuals and of keeping certain indispensable + war and public functions going at their accustomed speed.'" + +[Illustration: Copyright by Underwood & Underwood + +=Harry A. Garfield= + +As Fuel Administrator during the war he issued orders for coal +conservation of a most startling character. Factories east of the +Mississippi were ordered shut down for five days beginning January 18, +1918. Monday was decreed a holiday for ten weeks "on which offices, +factories and stores must use only such fuel as is necessary to prevent +damage."] + + +THE GOVERNMENT'S EXPLANATION + +From Fuel Administrator Garfield's explanation of the necessity of the +order the following passage is taken: + + "The most urgent thing to be done is to send to the American + forces abroad and to the Allies the food and war supplies + which they vitally need. War munitions, food, manufactured + articles of every description, lie at our Atlantic ports in + tens of thousands of tons, while literally hundreds of ships, + waiting, loaded with war goods for our men and the Allies, can + not take the seas because their bunkers are empty of coal. The + coal to send them on their way is waiting behind the congested + freight that has jammed all the terminals. + + "It is worse than useless to bend our energies to more + manufacturing when what we have already manufactured lies at + tidewater, congesting terminal facilities, jamming the railroad + yards and side tracks for a long distance back into the + country. No power on earth can move this freight into the war + zone, where it is needed, until we supply the ships with fuel. + + "Once the docks are cleared of the valuable freight for which + our men and associates in the war now wait in vain, then again + our energies and power may be turned to manufacturing, more + efficient than ever; so that a steady and uninterrupted stream + of vital supplies may be this nation's answer to the Allies' + cry for help.... + + "This is war. Whatever the cost, we must pay it, so that in the + face of the enemy there can never be the reproach that we held + back from doing our full share. Those ships, laden with our + supplies of food for men and food for guns, must have coal and + put to sea." + + +GARFIELD'S PLAN FOR FUEL ECONOMY, 1918--19 + +After the trying experiences of the winter of 1918, the Fuel +Administration began to prepare in the following summer for another +prospective shortage in coal supply. Fortunately the following winter +was remarkably mild throughout the country. But the plans outlined by +the Fuel Administration are more than useful as a matter of record. They +may be used as a model under other conditions of fuel shortage. The +following passage from the Fuel Administration _Bulletin_ illustrates +the plan of campaign: + + "Fuel economy is being given intensive study in connection with + steam plants and industrial uses. An organization is already in + existence, provided with engineers and inspectors who will + visit every one of the two hundred and fifty thousand + steam-producing plants in the country with a view to the + improvement both of equipment and firing practice. This is + expected to save twenty million tons of coal. + + "The economical use of power in factories will be in the hands + of organized shop committees. The power loads of the public + utilities throughout the country are being studied with a view + to readjustments which will result in large saving. + + "In many cities the isolated power plants which use an extravagant + amount of coal in proportion to the power produced will be urged to + obtain more economical power from large producing stations. + + "The introduction of 'skip-stop' schedules on all the street + railways is expected to save a million tons of coal. The + consolidation of ice plants will yield a still larger tonnage. + Unnecessary outdoor lighting, including advertising signs and + display illumination, will be reduced. Hotels, office + buildings, apartment houses, and public buildings are being + asked to join in rigid economy of light and heat. + + "Every American citizen will be asked to clean his furnace, + keep it in repair, and study economical firing. Instructions + prepared by the highest authority will be furnished by the Fuel + Administration. + + "If every one joins in this movement, from the owner of an + industrial plant to the householder with his furnace and cook + stove, if indoor and outdoor lighting is reduced to the amount + absolutely needed, if houses are not overheated, the furnace + dampers properly adjusted, and the ashes sifted, it will be + possible to save from fifty to seventy-five million tons of + coal without serious inconvenience to the American people." + + +DIFFICULTIES OF FUEL CONTROL + +Some conception of the difficulties involved in the work of fuel control +was set forth officially in a paper published by the Fuel Administration +called _Fuel Problems in War Time_. The production of coal, it pointed +out, stands on a different basis from that of any other major industry +of the country. The differences are illustrated in the following +paragraphs: + + "As an illustration, consider the cotton crop with its millions + of bales. Every bale of cotton raised in the country last year + amounted to no more than the coal moved in one and one-third + days. Or take the wheat crop for comparison. We hear of the + immense preparations made during the fall months for moving the + wheat crop; yet the weight of America's enormous wheat crop of + 1917 is equaled by the coal mined and transported every eight + days. + + "Every year the miners go into the ground and dig out coal and + the railroads ship it for hundreds of miles, dragging back the + empty cars, until the amount mined equals two and one-fourth + times the earth and rock removed in digging the Panama Canal. + _It took sixteen years to dig the Panama Canal. Our miners will + dig two and one-half Panama Canals this year._ + + "In the mining of coal we are dealing with a task so gigantic + that the wonder is not why we have not increased production to + meet the demand, whatever that might be, but how, with the men + and equipment overtaxed by the multiplicity of the demands of + the war, we were able to increase the output fifty million tons + in 1917, and will be able to add a probable fifty million tons + to that high record the present year. + + "The wonder is increased when we note that every other + coal-producing country now in the war found it impossible to + maintain the pre-war production of coal. In every case the + output is less now than before the war. In England seven and + one-half per cent. less coal was produced the first year of the + war than in the previous year and five per cent. less than this + reduced output in the following year. America alone has been + able to increase its production of coal in addition to meeting + the thousands of other increases demanded by war preparation. + + +COAL AND THE STEEL SUPPLY + + "As every one knows, coal mining is very largely a matter of + coal transportation. The most difficult task involved in an + increase must fall upon the railroads. The wonderful work these + railroads are doing is brought into bold relief when we + remember that in 1914, when the great war started, the output + of bituminous coal in the United States was 423,000,000 tons, + and that in 1918 it promises to be nearly 200,000,000 tons + greater. + + "Apparently, this country today can furnish the steel required + if only it can get the necessary coal. The work of the Fuel + Administration during many months has been directed toward + increasing coal production. These efforts have borne much + fruit, miners are approaching one hundred per cent. service, + while the railroads are outdoing themselves expediting the + movement of coal cars from the mine to the consumer and back + again. + + "But war's demands mount so rapidly that even with full speed + ahead production can not make the pace. _A fuel deficit can be + averted only by the most intensive conservation._ Conservation, + economy, savings, sacrifice must fill the gap between the + possible increase of production and the greater increase of + demand. If every user of coal will join the army of fuel + conservationists, realizing that the need for steel to carry on + this war is practically unlimited and that every ton saved + means an additional five hundred pounds of steel, there is + prospect--the figures show it--that the work of the miners will + not be in vain. Our increased production, plus conservation, + the Fuel Administration believes, can furnish the coal, and + hence the steel needed for the war, and still leave none of our + people cold." + + +SIDE ISSUES OF FUEL CONTROL + +Economizing coal involved all kinds of unexpected side issues. As an +illustration of the far extended reach of the Fuel Administration there +was the example of the skip-stop plan in street railway traffic enforced +by the Federal administration. A writer in the Chicago _Engineering and +Contracting Journal_ suggested, September 4, 1918, that the Government +should adopt and extend the policy of compelling individuals and +corporations to use economic methods and machines: + + "Conceive, if you can, what could be accomplished in America in + the way of increased productivity and economy if our Federal + Government had the authority to make every individual and every + company adopt any method or device that had been proved to be + economic. No engineer acquainted with the application of the + principles of the science of management can doubt that if the + universal adoption of those principles could be forced upon + producers in general, this nation could increase its + productivity fully 25 per cent. That would alone add more than + twelve million dollars annually to the national income. But + that is not all. The application of the principles of the + science of management is only a fraction of the total enginery + at our disposal. We have literally countless labor and + material-saving machines and appliances that are scarcely used, + although many of them are generations old. Does this sound + incredible? Certainly not to any engineer who has a wide + acquaintance with the literature of engineering. + + "Take so simple a thing as the heat insulator for steam pipes + and boilers. It has been known to engineers for nearly a + century that by encasing boilers and pipes with magnesia or + other suitable insulators, practically all heat radiation and + conduction losses could be stopped. Furthermore, it has been + known to engineers that the saving in fuel thus effected would + pay an annual interest of 20 per cent. on the cost of the heat + insulator. But go into the basements of steam-heated residences + if you want to get a conception of how rarely this knowledge is + applied. The landlord may know that heat insulators would earn + a big return on their cost, but since they would earn it for + the tenant and not for himself, he does not cover the boiler + and pipes adequately, if at all. The tenant, even if he knows + the economics of heat insulating, will not spend the money for + insulators whose use he may not enjoy for more than a year or + two before he moves out. For similar reasons very few houses + have double windows, although double windows will save fully 15 + per cent. of the fuel required to heat the average house. On + these matters the Fuel Administration has power to act, and it + should act." + + +FUEL CONTROL IN GREAT BRITAIN + +Coal mining was always one of the most significant elements in British +trade. Before the war 270,000,000 tons of coal were produced in the +mines of Great Britain. Parliamentary legislation of a most radical +character dealing with the ownership and operation of coal mines was +passed. The main provision of this legislation was described in the +following passage from the London _Morning Post_: + + "Briefly, the main provisions of the bill are the following: + Under the present Finance Act the state takes 80 per cent. of + the profits in excess of those made in the two best of the last + three pre-war years, or above 9 per cent. of the capital + employed. The new scheme deprives owners of these statutory + rights. It does away altogether with the percentage standard. + Output is made the chief determining factor in the regulation + of the profits to be retained by the coal owner. The production + of a colliery working under normal conditions during the two + pre-war years, which has already been adopted under the Finance + Act for the purposes of the Excess Profits Duty, is adopted as + the standard output. If that output is maintained in any + accounting period under the new bill, the colliery owner will + be guaranteed a profit equal to the average profit made in the + standard period, whether he makes it or not. If his trading + profits in the accounting period are greater than those in the + standard period, the treasury will take its 80 per cent. of the + difference under the authority of the Finance Act, the + Controller will retain 15 per cent. of it in order to create a + fund for the compensation of the less fortunate collieries and + the administration of his department, and the coal owner will + be allowed to retain 5 per cent. of the excess. Thus a colliery + company with a profits standard of L50,000 will, if it maintain + its standard output, continue to receive L50,000; if such + company make, say, L70,000, it will be permitted, generally + speaking, to retain only 5 per cent. of the extra L20,000, that + is to say, L1,000, plus the statutory L200, or L51,200 in all; + but in no case shall the retainable profits exceed five-sixths + of the profits standard. In that illustration the scheme is to + be seen at its best, and, under the conditions, it is not + unreasonable." + +[Illustration: Photo by P. Thompson + +Drying Fruit and Vegetables to Save Tin and Glass + +Conservation became a great watchword during the World War. Mr. F. P. +Lund of the U. S. Department of Agriculture showed women how tin and +glass could be saved by drying fruit instead of canning it.] + + +OTHER FORMS OF CONSERVATION + +The War Industries Board worked out a program for clothing conservation +that showed a positive genius for detail. The most technical directions +were issued regarding clothing. Double breasted coats, for example, were +eliminated and the Board urged the wearing of sack suits only. Even the +complicated subject of handling women's attire had no terrors for the +experts employed by the Board. The characteristic features of its order +can be judged by the following extract from the directions published on +this subject: + + "All shoes, both leather and fabric, shall be restricted to + black, white, and two colors of tan (the two colors of tan to + be dark brown or tan and a medium brown or tan). + + "Patent leather shall be black only. These color regulations do + not apply to baby shoes made of fabrics. + + "Shoe-manufacturers shall not, for the next six months, + introduce, purchase, or use any new style lasts. They may + replenish to cover wastage or to meet requirements on present + lasts now in use in the manufacture of shoes. This is to be + effective at once. By new style lasts is meant any lasts which + have not actually been used for the manufacture of shoes in the + past season. + + "The use of leather as a quarter lining in oxfords and low + shoes is permitted only when used in skeleton form with fabric. + Leather linings will be permitted in evening slippers where + uppers are made of fabrics. We advocate the use of full fabric + linings for low shoes wherever possible. + + "The maximum height of women's shoes, both leather and fabric, + shall not exceed eight inches (measured from breast of heel at + side to center of top at side of finished shoes), size 4B to be + the base measure. + + "The maximum height of misses' shoes, size 1-1/2, shall not exceed + 6-1/2 inches (measured as above). + + "The maximum height of children's shoes, sizes 8-1/2-11, shall not + exceed six inches. + + "The maximum height of boys' and youths' shoes shall not exceed + 5-1/2 inches. + + "The maximum height of infants' shoes, sizes 4-8, shall not + exceed 5-1/2 inches. + + "The maximum height of button shoes for women shall not exceed + 6-1/2 inches. + + "The maximum height of all women's overgaiters shall not exceed + eight inches, measured from breast of heel at side to center of + top at side. + + "The maximum height of misses' overgaiters shall not exceed 6-1/2 + inches (measured as above)." + + +LEATHER CONSERVATION + +Germany was not the only country prepared to employ substitutes. When +the National Army in the United States was organized the _Wall Street +Journal_ predicted that on account of the large consumption of leather +for military purposes, the civilian population would be obliged to have +thinner soles and probably to use leather substitutes: + + "Price fixing on leather is still 'in the air.' It is not an + easy proposition, in view of the complexity of grades and the + variations in quality. The most practicable arrangement would + be a series of general price standards, with allowance for + deviations. Unlike other commodities, leather trading is a very + flexible affair. The trade is confident of fair price maxima in + relation to recently fixed hide quotations; possibly, in view + of higher labor and other costs, of somewhat more liberal rates + than hide prices, which have just been modified upward + somewhat. + + "Leather prices have been tending upward all round. Heavy sole + leather, which did not recede nearly as much as lighter grades + in the slump of last winter, are now nearly back to the high + point of early last fall. Union sole has advanced four cents + since May 1, and for some varieties of leather above No. 9 iron + the market is around eighty cents, against sixty-five cents + earlier this spring. + + "In leather it is a case of all-round conservation, plus + intensive effort for maximum output with government aid. Export + license-restrictions have just been tightened, and most of what + is shipped now goes to England. Neutrals must wait. In nine + months to April 1st we exported but 20,342,101 pounds of sole + leather, against 84,267,573 a year before. In March we shipped + only 490,000 pounds to other countries than England, against + 1,945,000 a year earlier. Hardly any is now moving save on + British government order. + + "Men's shoes of higher quality and price will be affected + chiefly by the requirement to carry soles as light as women's + wear. This will involve either more frequent buying or more + resort to tapping. Cheapest grades of shoes will be least + affected, being almost wholly outside the military scope. In + fact, some manufacturers of low-priced shoes have lately been + enabled to use better material than usual, thanks to army + 'leavings.' It is the urgent advice of the Government and + tanners that shoe manufacturers promptly conform to the new + program and that consumers cheerfully accept it. Meanwhile, + experiments are continuing under government direction as to + further extension of the use of composition or even of wooden + soles to help meet the increased demand and short supply + equation in leather." + + +FAIR PRICE LISTS + +[Illustration: Photo by P. Thompson + +"Back on the Farm" + +The number of slaughterable animals decreased in the United States and +in Europe during the war. The shortage of fats was helped by the +production of more animals, increasing the weight of those slaughtered, +and by changed methods of cooking, including the substitution of +vegetable oils for butter.] + +One of the plans to prevent the discontent arising from food speculation +promoted by retailers and profiteers, was the preparation of fair price +lists to protect the consumer. Every week new price lists were prepared +so as to cover new fluctuation of cost to the retailer. These lists were +given to the newspapers so that the consumer might be steadily informed +and advised as to what he ought to pay the retailers in his city or +town. It was shown how the patriotic retailer gained by the protection +that this list afforded him against the danger of unpatriotic +profiteering. The United States Food Administration explained in a +public statement the significance of the fair price lists. "They were +nothing more," it said, "than bulletins to inform the public of the +prices the retailer has to pay for certain foods, and the price he has +to sell them to the consumer. + + "Such a bulletin at one stroke does away with all the obscurity + which too often veils the price increase which takes place at + the hands of the retailer. + + "To give an example, it shows at just what price a retailer is + able to buy oatmeal and at just what price he is entitled to + sell it. If any retailer decides to set upon the food he has + for sale a higher price than that which brings him a fair + profit, he is labeling himself 'Profiteer.' And thereafter it + depends upon the public's own choice whether they shall trade + with him or not. + + "In accordance with the plans of the Food Administration such a + system of fair price lists is now in operation throughout the + country. Every week new price lists are prepared so as to cover + new fluctuations of cost to the retailer. And these + up-to-the-minute fair price lists are given to the newspapers + to print so that the consumer may be steadily informed and + advised as to what he ought to pay the retailers in his city or + town." + + +HOW FAIR PRICE LISTS ARE MADE UP + + "In theory the plan is the simplest imaginable. But it is + complicated by the size of this country and by the variety of + local food conditions which are bound to affect the price at + which the retailer can buy and sell his foodstuffs. It would be + utterly impossible to set forth one fair price list which would + _be_ fair for every spot in this country at any one time. A + grocer in Calais, Maine, may be able to buy potatoes at a lower + rate than a grocer in Snohomish, Washington. And the grocers of + Red Oak, Iowa, may have to pay a different price from either. + Obviously, each locality must determine its own fair price + list. + + "This is done by establishing in every community or county + where fair price lists are to be put out a Price Interpreting + Board, consisting of representatives of wholesale grocers, + retailers, and consumers. The County Food Administration or his + representative should act as chairman of this board. Such + boards include representatives of both 'Cash and Carry' stores + and 'Credit and Delivery' stores. These boards secure from + wholesale representatives the prices charged to the retailer + for various staple foods. With this as a basis, plus their + knowledge of local conditions, and guided by a schedule of + maximum margins submitted to them by the Food Administration at + Washington, they determine what is a reasonable profit at which + the retailer may sell to the consumer. Thus the retailer does + not have a scale of selling prices arbitrarily thrust upon him; + he helps determine them himself." + + +PROFITEERING + +The natural and inevitable results of war on living conditions with food +shortage and high prices were an unfamiliar factor in American +experience for two generations. The artificial product of war time +industry, "profiteering," was hard to be evoluted and caused resentment +against those responsible for the practice. To deal with profiteers was +no easy matter. How can profiteering be discriminated from legitimate +profit-taking? How, too, can its existence be proved, for high fixed +prices are not always an evidence of profiteering methods. The +complexities of the various trade practices lumped together under the +term profiteering are illustrated in the pamphlet on _Profiteering_, +issued by W. B. Colver, Chairman of the Federal Trade Commission, in the +form of a letter submitted on request to the U.S. Senate: + + "Survey of the petroleum field shows that the market, when + under the control of dominating factors, such as Standard Oil, + can be one of huge profits without the device of the high fixed + price. No price for the public has been fixed upon petroleum + and its products by the government. Unlike the situation in + steel, flour, and coal, there has been as yet no government + interference with the law of supply and demand except in the + instances of government purchases. Under that law large profits + may eventuate through the bidding up of prices by anxious + buyers. And, moreover, even in the absence of this element, + prices may be forced up by spreading false and misleading + information concerning the condition of supply and demand. + Reports, for instance, have been circulated that the supply of + gasoline was endangered for the purpose of maintaining the high + price of that product and the heavy profits from it. At + different stages of the oil industry different products of + petroleum have yielded the heavy profits. Kerosene was once the + chief profit producer. Gasoline followed and superseded it as + the chief producer of profits. Enormous profits are now being + made in fuel oil, with the advantage to the refiner that the + high price of that product meets no popular challenge. Gasoline + is maintained at its present high price and produces heavy + profits for the low cost refiners." + + +PROFITEERING IN THE MEAT INDUSTRY + + "Similarly, the power of dominant factors in a given industry + in maintaining high prices and harvesting unprecedented profits + is shown in a survey of the meat packing situation. Five meat + packers, Armour, Swift, Morris, Wilson, and Cudahy, and their + subsidiary and affiliated companies, have monopolistic control + of the meat industry and are reaching for like domination in + other products. Their manipulations of the market embrace every + device that is useful to them, without regard to law. Their + reward, expressed in terms of profit, reveals that four of + these concerns have pocketed in 1915, 1916, and 1917, + $140,000,000. Comparisons between their present profits and + those of the pre-war period are given below. However delicate a + definition is framed for 'profiteering,' these packers have + preyed upon the people unconscionably. They are soon to come + under further governmental regulation approved by Executive + order." + + +PROFITEERING IN THE MEAT INDUSTRY + +Some further details on the methods of securing huge profits in the meat +packing industry are given in the following: + + "An exposition of the excess profits of four of the big meat + packers (Armour, Swift, Morris, Cudahy, omitting Wilson as not + comparable) is given in the fact that their aggregate average + pre-war profit (1912, 1913, and 1914) was $19,000,000; that in + 1915 they earned $17,000,000 excess profits over the pre-war + period; in 1916, $36,000,000 more profit than in the pre-war + period; and in 1917, $68,000,000 more profit than in the + pre-war period. In the three war years from 1915 to 1917 there + their total profits have reached the astounding figure of + $140,000,000, of which $121,000,000 represents excess over + their pre-war profits. + + "These great increases in profits are not due solely to + increased volume of business. The sales of these companies in + this period increased 150 per cent., much of this increase + being due to higher prices rather than to increased volume by + weight, but the return of profit increased 400 per cent., or + two and one-half times as much as the sales. + + "The profit taken by Morris & Co. for the fiscal year ended + November 1, 1917, is equal to a rate of 18.6 per cent. on the + net worth of the company (capital and surplus) and 263.7 per + cent. on the three millions of capital stock outstanding. In + the case of the other four companies the earned rate on common + capital stock is much lower--from 27 per cent. to 47 per + cent.--but the reason for this is that these companies have + from time to time declared stock dividends and in other ways + capitalized their growing surpluses. Thus Armour in 1916 raised + its capital stock from twenty millions to one hundred millions + without receiving a dollar more of cash. If Swift, Wilson, + Cudahy, and Armour had followed the practice of Morris in not + capitalizing their surpluses (accumulated from excessive + profits), they too would now show an enormous rate of profit on + their original capital." + + +JUGGLING OF ACCOUNTS--HUGE SALARIES + +Mr. Colver gives information supported by trustworthy data on other +devious and subtle types of profiteering practices: + + "In cases where the government fixes a definite margin on + profit above costs, as in the case of flour, there is a + considerable incentive to a fictitious enhancement of costs + through account juggling. This has added to the volume of + unusual profits. Increase of cost showing on the producers' + books can be accomplished in various ways. The item of + depreciation can be padded. Officers' salaries can be + increased. Interest on investment can be included in cost. New + construction can be recorded as repairs. Fictitious valuations + on raw material can be added, and inventories can be + manipulated. + + "The Federal Trade Commission has been vigilant and untiring in + its exclusion of these practices. An instance of this practice + was afforded by the Ismert-Hincke Milling Co., of Kansas City, + Mo. This company padded its costs by heavily increasing all its + officers' salaries and by manipulating the inventory value of + flour bags on hand. As evidence of the length to which padding + can be carried, it may be added that this company even included + in its costs the gift of an automobile which it charged to + advertising expenses. This case was heard of by the commission + for the Food Administration. The commission recommended + revocation of license and the recommendation was followed. + + "Payment of extraordinary salaries and in some instances + bonuses to executives of corporations have been found by the + commission during its investigations." + + +WAR COST OF LIVING + +A complete synopsis of the cost of living situation in the United +States, during the four years' period July, 1914, to June, 1918, was +issued by the National Industrial Conference Board after a country-wide +survey. The basis taken was that of family budgets divided under five +heads: food, shelter, clothing, fuel and light, and sundries. The +average increase for the period was shown to be between 50 and 55 per +cent. The most marked advance was in clothing, 77 per cent. But the food +advance of 62 per cent. was really more important because food +represented 43 per cent. of the average expenditure, while clothing +represented only 13 per cent. Wholesale prices, the report pointed out, +are not to be relied upon in estimating the cost of living, because many +articles enter only indirectly into the family budget. Often, too, +wholesale prices are not reflected in retail prices until months later. +The estimates given by the Board were based upon the expenditures of +eleven thousand families: + + "In reaching 52.3 per cent. as the amount of increase in the + cost of living for the four years' period, the expenditures of + 11,000 families were considered. Following is a table in which + besides the 52.3 per cent. for all items entering into the + family budget, the percentage for rent, clothing, fuel, and + light, and sundries are given: + + Per Cent. Per Cent. + Per Cent. Inc. in Cost Increase + Distribution Dur'g War as Related + Budget of Family Period to to Total + Item Expenditure June, 1918 Budget + + All items. 100.0 52.3 + Food 43.1 62 26.7 + Rent 17.7 15 2.7 + Clothing 13.2 77 10.2 + Fuel and light 5.6 45 2.5 + Sundries 20.4 50 10.2 + + The figures examined prove that there was a fair similarity of + increase in the different sections of the country. The advance + in rent in the dwelling places of the average wage earner was + put down at 15 per cent. + + "A general summary is given of changes in the cost of living + among industrial workers as presented by the Railroad Wage + Commission for the period between December, 1915, and the end + of April, 1918, as follows: + + Per Cent. + For families with incomes up to $600 43 + For families with incomes from $600 to $1,000 41 + For families with incomes from $1,000 to $2,000 40 + + "By the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen the + advance in living costs between 1914 and 1917 was placed at 43 + per cent. Conditions among ship-building workers on the Pacific + coast, as arrived at by the United States Shipping Board, + indicated that between June, 1916, and February, 1918, living + costs had gone up 46 per cent. A table is given which shows + relative increase in the cost of food as measured by wholesale + and retail prices for the past six years." + + Relative Relative + Year and Month Wholesale Price of Retail + Farm Food, Price of + 1913 Products Etc. Food + Average for year 100 100 100 + January 97 99 98 + April 97 96 98 + July 101 101 100 + October 103 102 104 + 1914 + Average for year 103 103 102 + January 101 102 104 + April 103 95 97 + July 104 103 102 + October 103 107 105 + 1915 + Average for year 105 104 101 + January 102 106 103 + April 107 105 99 + July 108 104 100 + October 105 104 103 + 1916 + Average for year 122 126 114 + January 108 114 107 + April 114 117 109 + July 118 121 111 + October 136 140 121 + 1917 + Average for year 188 177 146 + January 147 150 128 + April 180 182 145 + July 198 180 146 + October 207 183 157 + 1918 + January 208 188 160 + April 217 179 154 + + +CIVIL WAR COST OF LIVING + +The Civil War years of the United States were always remembered as the +era of high prices. Yet it is interesting to know that the increase in +living cost after the United States had been in war one year was greater +than the increases in the fourth year of the Civil War. During the Civil +War prices rose from 100 to 117 per cent., but necessities were +relatively cheaper than at present because the currency was depreciated. +In January, 1864, gold was at a premium of 52 per cent. + +Emerson David Fite, assistant professor of history in Yale University, +describes "Social and Industrial Conditions During the Civil War" as +follows: + + "The situation in New York City at the end of the year 1863 is + typical of the period. Eggs had then reached 25 cents per + dozen, from 15 cents in 1861; cheese, 18 cents from 8 cents; + potatoes, $2.25 from $1.50 per bushel, and for all the + necessities of life there was an advance ranging from 60 to 75 + and in some cases even 100 per cent. Wages, on the other hand, + lagged behind; the blacksmith's increase was only from $1.75 to + $2 per day, that of common laborers from $1 to $1.25, that of + bricklayers from $1.25 to $2, and the average increase in all + the trades was about 25 per cent., or less than one-half the + increase of prices. The winter of 1863--64 and the ensuing + months were accordingly a time of unusual industrial unrest, + which increased in severity as the discrepancy between wages + and prices continued. The dollar was slowly but surely + diminishing in value, and labor engaged in a determined + struggle to force wages up, capital to keep them down. The + advantage lay with the employing classes, but labor in 1864 + recovered much of the ground that had been lost in the two + previous years, and the war closed with wages much nearer + prices than a year earlier. It was generally agreed at the time + that prices during the entire war period advanced approximately + 100 per cent. and wages from 50 to 60 per cent." + + +WHERE THE COST OF LIVES WEIGHED THE MOST + +The rapid rise in the cost of living was much more severely felt by the +classes of the population dependent upon small or less rigid incomes. In +many industries wages increased faster than average living expenses. +Figures published by the New York Labor Bureau show that the sum +distributed in wages to industrial workers was substantially doubled in +the four years of warfare. Investigation conducted by the National +Industrial Board of Boston showed that there had been an increase of 50 +to 55 per cent. in the budget of the average wage earner from July, +1914, to June, 1918. + + "The increases for the different items are given as follows: + + Food 62% + Rent 15% + Clothing 77% + Fuel and light 45% + Sundries 50% + Average increase (depending on apportionment + of these respective items in the + family budget) 50% to 55% + + In explanation of these figures the report goes on to say: + + "'In combining the percentages of increase for the respective + items, in order to determine the average increase for the + budget as a whole, food was taken as constituting 43 per cent. + of the total family expenditure, rent 18 per cent., clothing 13 + per cent., fuel and light 6 per cent., and sundries 20 per + cent. Applying the Board's percentages of increase for the + respective items to this distribution of the budget, the + average increase is 52 per cent. The distribution of budget + items just given is an average based on cost of living studies + made by several United States Government bureaus and other + agencies, covering in all 12,000 families. + + "The proportions of these major items of expenditure can be + varied within narrow limits, but no reasonable arrangement + would cause a wide change in the increase in the total cost of + living as given above. For instance, if, instead of this + average distribution of the budget, food be allocated as much + as 45 per cent., rent and clothing 15 per cent. each, fuel and + light 5 per cent., and sundries 20 per cent., the indicated + increase in the total cost of living, using the Board's + percentages of increase for the respective items, would be 54 + per cent." + + All articles of food, we are told, show a considerable increase + in price since 1914, exceptional advances being recorded in the + case of flour, lard, and cornmeal. The item of rent, says the + report, "showed such wide variation that no general average + applicable to all sections of the country could be reached," + but the 15 per cent. estimate "is apparently ample to cover the + increase in wage-earners' rents in New York, Chicago, + Philadelphia, Boston, and St. Louis, which alone include + several millions of the country's industrial population." Of + the increase in clothing prices we read: + + +INCREASED COST FOR WEARING APPAREL + + "Information secured from retail stores in cities well + distributed throughout the country indicates increases in + prices of the most common articles of wearing apparel, ranging + from 50.5 per cent. for women's dollar blouses up to 161 per + cent. for men's overalls. Striking increases occurred in the + prices of certain yard goods, where advances in cost over 1914 + prices amounted, in a number of cases, to more than 100 per + cent. + + "Men's hosiery, selling for 15 cents in 1914, cost in June, + 1918, usually not less than 25 cents, and women's hosiery, + selling for 25 cents four years ago, brought 45 cents in June + of this year. Knit underwear, the report finds, had increased + nearly 100 per cent. Women's shoes of a standard grade + increased 88.5 per cent.; men's 69 per cent. Women's kid gloves + which in 1914 cost $1 averaged more than $2 in June, 1918. + + "The report places the average rise in the total clothing + budget since 1914 at 77 per cent. This increase compares with + an increase of 51.33 per cent. between 1914 and 1917 for + families in the ship building districts of Philadelphia and an + increase of 54.21 per cent. among similar families in the ship + building district of New York, as reported by the United States + Bureau of Labor Statistics. The difference between these + increases and the Board's figure of 77 per cent. is largely + explained by the difference in the period of time covered; + clothing prices have continued to advance since 1917. Further + increases in the fall of 1918 were, moreover, clearly indicated + by the statements of retail dealers." + + +WAR PRICES AND LUXURY IMPORTS + +In spite of the contention that war-time conditions led to an increased +standard of luxurious living, statistics of imports indicated a rapid +fall in articles of luxury brought into the country. In the fiscal year, +1918, there was a material decline compared with the preceding year and +a marked decline when compared with the year before the war: + + "A recent compilation by the National City Bank shows this in + practically all imports usually classed as luxuries. That the + imports should be less than before the war was quite natural by + reason of the fact that many articles of this character + originated in European countries, some in countries with which + we are now at war, and some with our Allies who are otherwise + too busily employed. + + "In art works, for example, the value of the imports of 1918 + was only about $11,000,000 against $23,000,000 in 1917, and + $35,000,000 in the fiscal year 1914. In automobiles the value + in 1918 was about $50,000 against nearly $2,000,000 in 1913, + and more than $2,000,000 in 1912, while the average value per + machine imported in 1918 was less than one-half what it was + before the war. Decorated china imported in 1918 was about + $3,500,000 in value against practically $8,000,000 in 1914. Of + cotton laces imported in 1918 the value was about $10,000,000 + against $16,500,000 in 1917, and nearly $34,000,000 in 1914. Of + silk laces the 1918 imports were valued at little more than + one-half those of 1914. Of cotton plushes and velvets the + quantity in 1918 was less than 1,000,000 yards against more + than 3,000,000 in 1917, and practically 5,000,000 in 1914. Of + ostrich feathers, in 1918 the imports were valued at nearly + $1,000,000 against nearly $4,000,000 in 1914 and over + $6,000,000 in 1913. In precious stones the total for 1918 was + only about $32,000,000 against $47,000,000 in 1917 and + $50,000,000 in 1913; while of pearls alone the value in 1918 + was less than $2,000,000 against over $8,000,000 in 1917, and + more than $10,000,000 in 1916. + + "In articles of food usually classed as luxuries there was also + a marked fall. Cheese imported in 1918 amounted to about + 9,000,000 pounds against 15,000,000 in 1917, and 64,000,000 in + 1914. Of currants the imports of 1918 were over 5,000,000 + pounds against 25,000,000 in 1916 and 32,000,000 in 1914, and + of dates only 6,000,000 pounds in 1918 against 34,000,000 in + 1914; while olives and olive oil showed totals in 1918 of about + one-half those of the year before the war." + +[Illustration: The Nations and Their Wheat Supply + +Under the Lever Bill, which became the Food Control Law after the United +States declared war, the President was authorized to fix a reasonable +guaranteed price for wheat.] + + +GOOD EFFECTS OF PRICE CONTROL + +It became accepted on all sides that price control was the one method to +correct the inequalities of war conditions. It was necessary to prevent +the poorer classes in the population from having an inadequate +consumption of wealth. There was the political side, too. Price control +had an effect on the morale of large strata of the population. It acted +as a bulwark against the rising tide of discontent and internal +dissension incident to warfare on a democratic scale. Mr. Sydney Webb, a +well known English student of labor problems, conceded that the British +government had by its system of price control been fairly successful in +staving off any general fall in the standard of life in its people. How +the system worked is summarized by him in the following passage: + + "What has been successful in Great Britain in economizing + supplies has been a widespread appeal to the whole nation to + limit its consumption of wheaten bread (4 pounds per week), + meat (2-1/2 pounds per week), and sugar (3/4 of a pound per week) to + a prescribed maximum per person in the household; and to make + up the necessary subsistence by the use of substitutes, such as + fish, other cereals than wheat, and other vegetables than + potatoes, of which the crop throughout all Europe has largely + failed. More efficacious still has been the absolute government + monopoly of sugar, secured at the very beginning of the war, + and the drastic restriction of the total quantity allowed to be + issued from store, the aggregate reduction being thus + infallibly secured, and the retailers being left to share what + sugar they obtained among their customers. It has been found + useful, too, to make the wheaten flour go farther by compelling + all the millers to include both an increased proportion of bran + and a certain proportion of other cereals. More drastic + measures are near at hand." + + +STAY-AT-HOMES WHO MADE MONEY + +The important effort, as seen by the _Economist_, was to back up the +armies at the front by a policy of self-sacrifice at home, and it spoke +in drastic terms of the constant evidence of profiteering among certain +classes in England. The contrast in the attitudes of those at the front +and those active in business life is set forth in the following words: + + "One of the most curious and interesting psychological facts of + the war is the manner in which one man goes to the front and + becomes a hero and a _preux chevalier_, while another, just + like him in training and blood and outlook, stays at home and + works for spoils, whether in wages or profits, resenting + taxation, grumbling about his food, and seeming to think that + this war for justice was invented to increase his wealth and + comfort." + + +PRICE CONTROL IN UNITED STATES + +Although price control is a measure disapproved of by economists, +experience has shown that for certain products, such as wheat and +flour, it produced good results. In the case of bituminous coal, +Professor Anderson of Harvard said that it had probably done much harm +and little good, because the cut in price was too drastic. One good +feature of the price control system was the ability to apply it to draft +labor from non-essential industries to the production of munitions and +necessities of life. It was possible to do this by refusing coal, +copper, steel and freight cars to the non-essential industries. How the +Food Administration came to be a general price fixing body is explained +in the following article by a member of the Food Administration: + + +WHEAT AT $2.20 A BUSHEL + + "There are many evidences that price fixing has come to lodge + itself as an unwelcome factor in the program of the Food + Administration. Price fixing came to be a fact even while + avoided as a theory, and eventually it has become necessary to + face it, if not to accept it, even as a theory. What are the + evidences that price fixing is essentially involved in the + program of the Food Administration? One piece of evidence lies + in the fact that when once you have fixed the price of one + commodity the condition is bound to be reflected in other + commodities. In fixing the price of wheat Congress fixed as + well, though not so explicitly, the price of corn, and hogs, + and sugar beets. The determining and administering of these + prices it left to the Food Administration. + + "A further evidence that the Food Administration could not + avoid the onus of price fixing lies in the reasons for which + the Administration was brought into existence and the services + it was created to perform. The Food Administration is a war + agency. Its chief purpose is the feeding of warring nations, + our own nation and the Allies. All its other activities, its + conservation, its stabilization of trade processes, its + encouragement of production, are tributary to the one purpose + of segregating stocks of food for the effective prosecution of + the war. This latter purpose, in fact, takes the Food + Administration directly or indirectly into the market.... By + Section 14 of the Lever Bill, which became the Food Control + Law, the President is authorized from time to time to determine + and fix a reasonable guaranteed price for wheat and this + section itself fixed the price for the crop of 1918 at not less + than $2 per bushel at the principal interior primary markets. + Pursuant to this section the President has, by two separate + decrees, set the price of 1917 wheat and of the 1918 crop at + $2.20 per bushel. Section 11 of the law authorizes the + President to purchase and store and sell wheat and flour, + meal, beans, and potatoes. Manifestly any purchase so made by + the government would in effect fix the price. Aside from these + delegations of power no authority is given by the Food Control + Law to fix prices. And yet a study of the operations of these + provisions as well as a regard for the implications of other + functions of the Food Administration carry the conviction that + price fixing is a necessary and inescapable corollary of the + effective prosecution of the Food Administration program." + + +PRICE LEVEL, NOVEMBER, 1918 + +With the close of military operations there was noted a slight decline +in commodity prices; how far the downward tendency would reach was +considered a moot point. The apparent zenith point in prices was +attained in July, 1918, but _Bradstreet's_ prudently thought it unwise +to indulge in any prophecies regarding low prices. The increased demand +for food products among the stricken peoples of Europe would, it was +believed, prevent any considerable fall in prices. There was not much to +encourage consumers in the study of the index numbers of food +commodities. The writer in _Bradstreet's_ shows a wide range of price +movements in the following table, in which are given the index numbers +based on the prices per pound of ninety-six articles: + + 1912 + January $8.9493 + February 8.9578 + March 8.9019 + April 9.0978 + May 9.2696 + June 9.1017 + July 9.1119 + August 9.1595 + September 9.2157 + October 9.4515 + November 9.4781 + December 9.5462 + + 1913 + January 9.4935 + February 9.4592 + March 9.4052 + April 9.2976 + May 9.1394 + June 9.0721 + July 8.9522 + August 9.0115 + September 9.1006 + October 9.1526 + November 9.2252 + December 9.2290 + + 1914 + January 8.8857 + February 8.8619 + March 8.8320 + April 8.7562 + May 8.6224 + June 8.6220 + July 8.6566 + August 8.7087 + August 15 9.8495 + September 9.7572 + October 9.2416 + November 8.8620 + December 9.0354 + + 1915 + January $9.1431 + February 9.6621 + March 9.6197 + April 9.7753 + May 9.7978 + June 9.7428 + July 9.8698 + August 9.8213 + September 9.8034 + October 9.9774 + November 10.3768 + December 10.6473 + + 1916 + January 10.9163 + February 11.1415 + March 11.3760 + April 11.7598 + May 11.7485 + June 11.6887 + July 11.5294 + August 11.4414 + September 11.7803 + October 12.0699 + November 12.7992 + December 13.6628 + + 1917 + January 13.7277 + February 13.9427 + March 14.1360 + April 14.5769 + May 15.1208 + June 15.4680 + July 16.0680 + August 16.3985 + September 16.6441 + October 16.9135 + November 17.0701 + December 17.5966 + 1918 + January $17.9636 + February 18.0776 + March 18.0732 + April 18.4656 + May 18.9133 + June 19.0091 + July 19.1849 + August 19.1162 + September 19.0485 + October 19.0167 + November 18.9110 + +The groups that make up the index number are as follows: + + Nov. 1, Sept. 1, Oct. 1, Nov. 1, + 1917 1918 1918 1918 + Breadstuffs $0.2105 $0.2077 $0.2026 $0.1999 + Live stock .6785 .7400 .7100 .6960 + Provisions 4.0285 4.3264 4.5359 4.5889 + Fruits .4288 .3725 .3725 .3725 + Hides and leather 2.3900 2.2150 2.2150 2.2050 + Textiles 5.1179 5.8742 5.7554 5.7029 + Metals 1.1477 1.4233 1.3662 1.3062 + Coal and coke .0101 .0119 .0120 .0120 + Oils .9084 1.3185 1.3121 1.2734 + Naval stores .0956 .1295 .1255 .1348 + Building materials .1448 .2047 .2047 .2046 + Chemicals and drugs 1.4261 1.5153 1.5253 1.5278 + Miscellaneous .4832 .7095 .6795 .6870 + -------- -------- -------- ------- + Total $17.0701 $19.0485 $19.0167 $18.9110 + +[Illustration: Photo by P. Thompson + +A Municipal Canning Station + +In city establishments like the one shown above, food that would +otherwise go to waste in the markets was saved, and women were +instructed in the best methods of putting up fruits and vegetables for +winter use.] + + +FOOD CONDITIONS AND PRICE LEVEL, 1919 + +A clear summary of the food situation and price conditions in the +half-year succeeding the armistice is to be found in the Federal +Commission's Memorandum on food stocks and wholesale prices, June, 1919: + + "The comparative amounts of food stocks on hand June 1, 1919, + as against June 1, 1918, in the case of many important foods, + show that the stocks are considerably larger. + + "On June 1, 1918, the United States stocks were in demand for + feeding the armies of the Allies as well as the civilian + population. The fact that stocks of many important foods were + much larger on June 1, 1919, while prices were as high or + higher, apparently, means that they are being withheld + speculatively for a world demand which is not now here but + which is expected when hunger-impelled strikes secure higher + wages with which higher food prices can be paid. + + "The statistics of stocks are from the latest and last issue of + the Bureau of Markets 'Food Surveys,' June 27, 1919. We use the + quantities reported by identical firms for 1918 and 1919. + (Stocks held June 1, 1919, by other firms not reporting for + June 1, 1918, increase the actual stocks from 5 or 10 per cent. + up to 20 or 25 per cent. over the comparable stocks). The + stocks are those in warehouses and cold storage houses and in + hands of wholesale dealers. Retail stocks are not reported. The + prices are wholesale prices, furnished by the Bureau of Labor + Statistics, for the first Tuesday in June. + + COMMODITIES INCREASING IN STOCKS AND IN PRICE (WHOLESALE PRICES) + ========================================================================= + | | Quantity | | Price + |------+----------+----------+--------| |-----------+----- + | | | | | | | + Commodity Unit |June, 1919|June, 1918|Per cent| Unit of| June | June + | of | | | in- | Price | 1919 | 1918 + |quan- | | | crease | | | + | tity | | | 1919 | | | + | | | | over | | | + | | | | 1918 | | | + --------+------+----------+----------+--------+--------+-----------+----- + Wheat |Bushel|41,955,167|15,286,331| 174.5| Dollars| 2.51| 2.20 + | | | | | per bu.| 2.46| 2.17 + --------+------+----------+----------+--------+--------+-----------+----- + Wheat |Barrel| 3,942,205| 3,236,671| 21.8| Dollars| 12-12.20| 9.80 + flour | | | | |per bbl.|11.50-11.80| 9.95 + --------+------+----------+----------+--------+--------+-----------+----- + Canned |Pound |99,203,544|82,616,582| 20.1| Dollars| 2.70-2.75| 2.70 + salmon | | | | |per doz.| | + | | | | | No. 2 | | + | | | | | cans | | + --------+------+----------+----------+--------+--------+-----------+----- + Canned |Pound |81,233,023|42,352,994| 91.8| Dollars| | 1.70 + corn | | | | |per doz.| 1.75-(Mch)| 1.75 + | | | | | No. 2 | | + | | | | | cans | | + --------+------+----------+----------+--------+--------+-----------+----- + Fresh | Case | 5,975,817| 5,441,560| 9.8| Cents| .40-40-1/2| .29 + eggs | | | | |per doz.| | .30-3/4 + --------+------+----------+----------+--------+--------+-----------+----- + Butter |Pound |29,190,222|12,749,055| 129.0| Cents| .53 .41 + (creamery) | | | | per lb.| | + --------+------+----------+----------+--------+--------+-----------+----- + Salt |Pound |25,701,138|24,962,881| 3.0| Dollars| 35.00|32.00 + Beef | | | | |per bbl.| 36.00|34.00 + --------+------+----------+----------+--------+--------+-----------+----- + Frozen |Pound |10,962,670| 2,749,077| 298.8| Cents | .37-1/2| .34-1/2 + fowls | | | | | per lb.| | + ========================================================================= + + COMMODITIES INCREASING IN STOCKS AND DECREASING IN PRICE. + (Wholesale Prices.) + + ========================================================================= + | Quantity | | | Price + ---------+--------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+--------+----- + |Unit of | | | |Unit of| | + |quantity| | |Per cent| Price | June | June + Commodity| | June, 1919|June, 1918|increase| | 1919 | 1918 + ---------+--------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+--------+----- + | | | | |Dollars| 1.19 - | 1.21 + Barley | Bushel | 16,399,396| 7,916,073| 107.2|per bu.| 1.27 | 1.26 + ---------+--------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+--------+----- + Rye | Bushel | 11,613,127| 3,355,349| 246.1|Dollars| 1.53-1/2 | 1.73 + | | | | |per bu.| | + ---------+--------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+--------+----- + Buckwheat| Pound | 18,053,230| 5,523,850| 226.8|Dollars| 5.00 | 5.75 + Flour | | | | |per cwt| (Apr) | 6.25 + | | | | | | |(Apr) + ---------+--------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+--------+----- + Canned | Pound |179,101,286|88,531,024| 102.3|Dollars| 2.05 | 2.30 + Tomatoes | | | | | per |(Dec'18)| + | | | | | doz. | | + | | | | | No. 3 | | + | | | | | cans | | + ---------+--------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+--------+----- + + COMMODITIES DECREASING IN STOCKS AND IN PRICE. (Wholesale Prices) + + ======================================================================= + | | Quantity | | Price + | |----------+-----------+--------+ |------+----- + Commodity|Unit of |June, 1919| June, 1918|Per cent|Unit of| June | June + |quantity| | |decrease| Price | 1919 | 1918 + | | | | 1919- | | | + | | | | 1918 | | | + ---------+--------+----------+-----------+--------+-------+------+----- + Oats | Bushel |37,827,343| 41,763,555| 9.4| Cents | 69|73-1/2 + | | | | |per bu.| | + ---------+--------+----------+-----------+--------+-------+------+----- + Corn Meal| Pound |34,231,066|117,674,918| 70.9|Dollars| 3.90| 4.25 + | | | | |per cwt| | + ---------+--------+----------+-----------+--------+-------+------+----- + Beans | Bushel | 4,252,451| 4,408,686| 3.5|Dollars| 7.75-|12.25 + | | | | |per cwt| 8.00|12.50 + ---------+--------+----------+-----------+--------+-------+------+----- + Rice | Pound |75,134,920| 80,727,516| 6.9| Cents | 6 | 8.5 + (Blue | | | | |per lb.| 7-7/8| 8.9 + Rose- | | | | | | | + Honduras)| | | | | | 9-1/8| 8-1/2 + | | | | | [10][11] 9-5/8 + ======================================================================= + +[10] First week JUNE. + +[11] Increase in price. + + COMMODITIES DECREASING IN STOCKS AND INCREASING IN PRICE. + (Wholesale Prices) + + ========================================================================= + | | Quantity | | Price + | | | | + | |-----------+-----------+--------+ +-----+------ + | | | | | | | + Commodity |Unit of |June, 1919 |June, 1918 |Percent |Unit of|June | June + |quantity| | |decrease| Price |1919 | 1918 + | | | | 1919- | | | + | | | | 1918 | | | + ----------+--------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------+-----+------ + Corn | Bushel | 13,260,910| 27,883,361| 52.4|Dollars| 1.76| 1.50 + | | | | |per bu.| 1.77| 1.55 + ----------+--------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------+-----+------ + Sugar | Pound |207,622,237|217,632,365| 4.6| Cents | 8.82| 7.30 + | | | | |per lb.| | + ----------+--------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------+-----+------ + Cheese | Pound | 10,174,502| 15,875,236| 35.9| Cents | 31|21-1/2 + (American)| | | | |per lb.| | + ----------+--------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------+-----+------ + Dry Salt | Pound |395,940,437|488,344,838| 18.9|Dollars|58.00| 48-50 + Pork | | | | | per |58.50| + | | | | | bbl. | | + ----------+--------+-----------+-----------+--------+-------+-----+------ + Lard | Pound | 81,275,392|106,649,588| 23.8| Cents |33.80|24.15 + | | | | |per lb.|34.30|24.25 + ========================================================================= + +The following data, taken from the _Monthly Labor Review_ of July 1919, +give a survey of the retail prices of food in the United States: + + AVERAGE RETAIL PRICES AND PER CENT OF INCREASE OR DECREASE IN THE UNITED + STATES MAY 15 OF EACH SPECIFIED YEAR COMPARED WITH MAY 15, 1913 + ========================================================================+ + | | | + | | | + | | | + | | Average retail prices, May 15-- | + | +---------------------------------------+ + Article | Unit | | + | | 1913|1914|1915|1916|1917|1918|1919| + -----------------------+--------+---------+----+----+----+----+----+----| + | | _Cts.|Cts.|Cts.|Cts.|Cts.|Cts.|Cts._ + Sirloin steak | Pound | 25.7|25.9|25.7|27.8|32.2|40.0|44.4| + Round steak | do | 22.3|23.3|23.0|25.0|29.6|38.0|41.6| + Rib roast | do | 19.9|20.1|19.9|21.6|25.7|31.8|35.2| + Chuck roast | do | 16.1|17.0|16.3|17.5|21.8|27.8|29.7| + Plate beef | do | 12.1|12.5|12.3|13.1|16.6|21.9|22.5| + | | | | | | | | | + Pork chops | do | 20.9|22.2|20.9|22.9|30.6|36.7|43.0| + Bacon | do | 27.0|26.7|26.4|28.4|41.6|50.5|56.7| + Ham | do | 26.8|26.8|25.6|31.8|38.8|45.6|54.6| + Lamb | do | 19.4|19.8|21.7|23.2|29.7|36.8|39.6| + Hens | do | 22.2|22.7|21.5|24.1|29.3|37.9|43.5| + | | | | | | | | | + Salmon, canned | do | | |19.8|20.0|25.7|29.6|31.9| + Milk, fresh | | | | | | | | | + Milk, evaporated | | | | | | | | | + (unsweetened) | [12] | | | | | |15.1| | + Butter | Pound | 35.9|32.7|34.7|37.0|46.5|51.0|67.9| + Oleomargarine | do | | | | | | |40.4| + | | | | | | | | | + Nut margarine | do | | | | | | |35.3| + Cheese | do | | |23.5|24.8|33.8|33.4|42.2| + Lard | do | 15.8|15.6|15.1|20.1|27.8|32.9|38.8| + Crisco | do | | | | | | |33.9| + Eggs, strictly fresh | Dozen | 26.3|26.6|26.3|28.1|39.8|42.4|53.1| + | | | | | | | | | + Bread |Pound[13] 5.6| 6.2| 7.2| 7.0| 9.6| 9.8| 9.8| + Flour | Pound | 3.3| 3.3| 4.5| 3.9| 8.7| 6.6| 7.5| + Corn meal | do | 3.0| 3.1| 3.3| 3.3| 5.4| 7.0| 6.2| + Rolled oats | Pound | | | | | | | 8.4| + Corn flakes | [14] | | | | | | |14.1| + | | | | | | | | | + Cream of wheat | [15] | | | | | | |25.1| + Rice | Pound | | | 9.1| 9.1|10.5|12.3|13.4| + Macaroni | do | | | | | | |19.0| + Beans, navy | do | | | 7.6| 9.4|19.1|17.8|12.0| + Potatoes | do | 1.6| 1.9| 1.6| 2.5| 6.1| 2.2| 3.3| + | | | | | | | | | + Onions | do | | | 4.3| 5.1| 8.6| 5.6|10.7| + Cabbage | do | | | | | | | 9.6| + Beans, baked | |No. 2 can. | | | | |17.5| + Corn, canned | do | | | | | | |19.1| + Peas, canned | do | | | | | | |19.0| + | | | | | | | | | + Tomatoes, canned | do | | | | | | |15.8| + Sugar, granulated | Pound | 5.4|5.0 | 6.8| 8.5|10.0| 9.1|10.6| + | | | | | | | | | + Tea | do | | |54.6|54.6|55.7|63.8|69.8| + Coffee | do | | |27.9|29.9|30.2|30.1|40.5| + | | | | | | | | | + Prunes | do | | |13.7|13.3|15.3|16.5|23.2| + Raisins | do | | |12.5|12.6|14.4|15.1|16.3| + Bananas | Dozen | | | | | | |38.8| + Oranges | do | | | | | | |54.1| + | | | | | | | | | + All articles combined | | | | | | | | | + -----------------------+--------+---------+----+----+----+----+----+----+ + ========================================================================= + | | |Per cent of increase (+) or | + | | |decrease (-) May 15 of each | + | | |specified year compared with | + | | |May 15, 1913. | + | |---------------------------------------+ + Article | Unit | | + | | |1914|1915|1916|1917|1918|1919| + -----------------------+--------+---------+----+----+----+----+----+----| + | | | | | | | | | + Sirloin steak | Pound | | +1|[16]| +8| +25| +56| +73| + Round steak | do | | +4| +3| +12| +33| +70| +87| + Rib roast | do | | +1|[16]| +9| +29| +60| +77| + Chuck roast | do | | +6| +1| +9| +35| +73| +84| + Plate beef | do | | +3| +2| +8| +37| +81| +86| + | | | | | | | | | + Pork chops | do | | +6|[16]| +10| +46|+ 76|+106| + Bacon | do | | -1| -2| +5| +54|+ 87|+110| + Ham | do | |[16]| -5| +19| +45|+ 70|+104| + Lamb | do | | +2| +12| +20| +53|+ 90|+104| + Hens | do | | +2| -3| +9| +32|+ 71|+ 96| + | | | | | | | | | + Salmon, canned | do | | | | | | | | + Milk, fresh | | | | | | | | | + Milk, evaporated | | | | | | | | | + (unsweetened) | [12] | | | | | | | | + Butter | Pound | | 9 | 3| +3| +30| +42| +89| + Oleomargarine | do | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | + Nut margarine | do | | | | | | | | + Cheese | do | | | | | | | | + Lard | do | | -1| 4| +27| +76|+108|+146| + Crisco | do | | | | | | | | + Eggs, strictly fresh | Dozen | | +1|| +7| +51| +61|+102| + | | | | | | | | | + Bread |Pound[13] | +11| +29| +25| +71| +75|+ 75| + Flour | Pound | |[16]| +36| +18|+164|+100|+127| + Corn meal | do | | +3| +10| +10|+ 80|+133|+107| + Rolled oats | Pound | | | | | | | | + Corn flakes | [14] | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | + Cream of wheat | [15] | | | | | | | | + Rice | Pound | | | | | | | | + Macaroni | do | | | | | | | | + Beans, navy | do | | | | | | | | + Potatoes | do | |+ 19|[16]|+ 56|+281|+ 38|+106| + | | | | | | | | | + Onions | do | | | | | | | | + Cabbage | do | | | | | | | | + Beans, baked | |No. 2 can. | | | | | | + Corn, canned | do | | | | | | | | + Peas, canned | do | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | + Tomatoes, canned | do | | | | | | | | + Sugar, granulated | Pound | |- 7|+ 26|+ 57|+ 85|+ 69|+ 96| + | | | | | | | | | + Tea | do | | | | | | | | + Coffee | do | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | + Prunes | do | | | | | | | | + Raisins | do | | | | | | | | + Bananas | Dozen | | | | | | | | + Oranges | do | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | + All articles combined | | |+ 1|+ 3|+ 13|+ 56|+ 64|+ 91| + -----------------------+--------+---------+----+----+----+----+----+----| + +[12] 15-16 ounce can. + +[13] Baked weight. + +[14] 8-ounce package. + +[15] 28-ounce package. + +[16] No change in price. + + "The total of dry storage stocks, including those that + increased and those that decreased is as follows, all items + being reduced to pounds: + + June 1, 1919 7,875,280,040 + June 1, 1918 6,336,763,505 + + "That is the total dry storage stocks reported on June 1, 1919, + were 124 per cent. of those on June 1, 1918. + + "The total of cold storage items reported in pounds in June, + 1919, and June, 1918 (omitting apples in barrels but covering + eggs; frozen eggs; butter; cheese, frozen and cured beef; + frozen lamb and mutton; frozen, dry salt and pickled pork; + lard; and frozen poultry), was as follows: + + June 1, 1919 1,671,777,990 + June 1, 1918 1,669,826,166 + + "That is, cold storage stocks this June are 100.1 per cent. of + those last June. + + "None of the above figures include army stores nor the army + excess supply which is to be distributed by the War Department + under resolution of the House of Representatives. + + "The sum of dry storage and cold storage (except apples) for + the two periods (combining the figures already given) was as + follows: + + June 1, 1919 9,547,058,030 pounds + June 1, 1918 8,006,589,671 pounds + + "That is the total stocks reported on June 1, 1919, were 119 + per cent. of those on June 1, 1918. + + "This as noted does not include Army supplies. + + "Grouping the commodities in four classes: + + "(1) Those increasing in stocks and increasing in price. + + "(2) Those increasing in stocks and decreasing in price. + + "(3) Those decreasing in stocks and increasing in price. + + "(4) Those decreasing in stocks and decreasing in price; we + have the accompanying significant tables, which indicate that + the 'law of supply and demand' is not working. + + + + +III--INDUSTRY AND LABOR IN WARTIME + +Unprecedented Conditions and Developments Due to the World War +and How They Were Met + + +The issue of the great world conflict between autocracy and democracy +rested largely in the hands of the laboring classes behind the lines. +Mr. William B. Wilson, Secretary of Labor, placed vividly before the +public in one of his official statements the views of American labor at +the outbreak of the war: + + "During the past decade the sentiment of American labor has + crystallized against resort to arms as a means of settlement of + disputes between nations. War had come to be considered + wasteful economically, socially, and morally. Labor felt that + no national advantage gained through force of arms could offset + the human life sacrificed, the burden of taxation levied upon + successive generations to pay the cost of war, the standards of + life set back or destroyed, which had to be rebuilt slowly and + with infinite sacrifice. In short, war had come to be looked + upon as morally wrong, entirely unnecessary, a calamity that + could be avoided and must be avoided if the race was to + progress. This feeling was shared to a greater or lesser extent + by the workers of all civilized nations, and there was a + universal feeling in world labor ranks prior to the outbreak of + the European war that this sentiment, shared by many thoughtful + people outside the ranks of the wage workers in all civilized + nations, was strong enough to prevent any armed conflict which + would involve any number of peoples. This sentiment was + undoubtedly responsible for the lack of military preparedness, + in the sense that Germany prepared, among the other major + powers now engaged in the world conflict. + + "When the war clouds broke in Europe, American labor was + stunned. All its preconceived notions as to the inability of + any great nation to wage war upon another nation because the + working people would refuse either to fight or produce + munitions and supplies of war were shattered when nation after + nation quickly mobilized its armies and the organized labor + movements of each country, without exception, quickly pledged + their men and their resources to the support of their + respective governments. But the fact that America itself might + be drawn into the world conflict was still foreign to the mind + of the American workman. While American labor grieved over the + fate which had befallen its kind in Europe no sense of danger + to this country was apparent. From the beginning of this + Republic it had been our national policy to hold aloof from the + quarrels of the Old World. The splendid isolation of thousands + of miles of ocean protected us. We had no quarrel with Europe + and we asked but to be let alone. We stood upon our rights to + protect the people of continental America from invasion or + aggression as enunciated by the Monroe Doctrine, and further + than that we could not see that the European conflict embroiled + us as a nation. Let Europe settle her own family quarrel. We + were to remain the one great neutral nation of the earth. When + the time came America, untrammeled by participation in the + conflict, with no desire for American aggrandizement or + territorial expansion, would be the natural messenger of peace + to war-worried Europe." + + +SAFEGUARDS FOR WORKINGMEN + +From the moment of the declaration of war the general loyalty of the +laboring classes throughout the United States was apparent. This +attitude of loyalty found a ready response in the immediately declared +intention of the Government to safeguard the interests of the +workingmen. Congress announced its attitude toward standards of legal +protection for workers. It was printed verbatim in _Labor Laws in War +Time_, 201, p. 1, as follows: + + "WHEREAS, The entrance of the United States into the World War + appears imminent; and + + "WHEREAS, Other countries upon engaging in the conflict + permitted a serious breakdown of protective labor regulations + with the result, as shown by recent official investigations, of + early and unmistakable loss of health, output, and national + effectiveness; and + + "WHEREAS, Our own experience has already demonstrated that + accidents increase with speeding up and the employment of new + workers unaccustomed to their tasks, that over fatigue defeats + the object aimed at in lengthening working hours, and that new + occupational poisoning has accompanied the recent development + of munition manufacture; and + + "WHEREAS, The full strength of our nation is needed as never + before and we cannot afford to suffer loss of labor power + through accidents, disease, industrial poisoning, and + overfatigue; now, therefore, be it. + + "_Resolved_, That the American Association for Labor + Legislation, at this critical time, in order to promote the + success of our country in war as well as in peace, would sound + a warning against the shortsightedness and laxness at first + exemplified abroad in these matters, and would urge all + public-spirited citizens to cooperate in maintaining, for the + protection of those who serve in this time of stress the + industries of the nation (who as experience abroad has shown + are quite as important to military success as the fighting + forces), the following essential minimum requirements: + + + I. SAFETY + + "1. Maintenance of all existing standards of safeguarding + machinery and industrial processes for the prevention of + accidents. + + + II. SANITATION + + "1. Maintenance of all existing measures for the prevention of + occupational diseases. + + "2. Immediate agreement upon practicable methods for the + prevention of special occupational poisonings incident to + making and handling explosives. + + + III. HOURS + + "1. Three-shift system in continuous industries. + + "2. In non-continuous industries, maintenance of existing + standard working day as basic. + + "3. One day's rest in seven for all workers. + + + IV. WAGES + + "1. Equal pay for equal work, without discrimination as to sex. + + "2. Maintenance of existing wage rates for basic working day. + + "3. Time and one-half for all hours beyond basic working day. + + "4. Wage rates to be periodically revised to correspond with + variations in the cost of living. + + + V. CHILD LABOR + + "1. Maintenance of all existing special regulations regarding + child labor, including minimum wages, maximum hours, + prohibition of night work, prohibited employment, and + employment certificates. + + "2. Determination of specially hazardous employments to be + forbidden to children under sixteen. + + + VI. WOMAN'S WORK + + "1. Maintenance of existing special regulations regarding + woman's work, including maximum hours, prohibition of night + work, prohibited hazardous employments, and prohibited + employment immediately before and after childbirth. + + + VII. SOCIAL INSURANCE + + "1. Maintenance of existing standards of workmen's compensation + for industrial accidents and diseases. + + "2. Extension of workmen's compensation laws to embrace + occupational diseases, especially those particularly incident + to the manufacture and handling of explosives. + + "3. Immediate investigation of the sickness problem among the + workers to ascertain the advisability of establishing universal + workmen's health insurance. + + + VIII. LABOR MARKET + + "1. Extension of existing systems of public employment bureaus + to aid in the intelligent distribution of labor throughout the + country. + + IX. ADMINISTRATION OF LABOR LAWS + + "1. Increased appropriations for enlarged staffs of inspectors + to enforce labor legislation. + + "2. Representation of employees, employers, and the public on + joint councils for cooperating elsewhere with the labor + departments in drafting and enforcing necessary regulations to + put the foregoing principles into full effect." + + +ORGANIZING LABOR FOR WAR WORK + +Supplying the man power for industrial action during the war was a +really more complicated task than drafting men for military service. In +the earlier period of American participation labor was distributed more +or less according to the law of supply and demand. The unequal +distribution of workers became a grave problem. To meet this the United +States Employment Service of the Department of Labor took over the +supply of war industries with common labor, and all independent +recruiting of labor by manufacturers having a pay roll of more than a +hundred men was discontinued. + +[Illustration: In the Heart of the Bethlehem Steel Plant + +H. E. Coffin, Chairman on Industrial Preparedness of the Council of +National Defence, described the conflict as a war of munitions, of +factories, of producing powers, of sweating men and women workers. In +the plant sketched above, 26,000 men toiled and sweated during the war +to make munitions for our troops overseas.] + + "On this Board were representatives of the War, Navy, and + Agriculture Departments, the Shipping Board and the Emergency + Fleet Corporation, the War Industries Board, and the Food, + Fuel, and Railroad Administrations. Assistant Director Nathan + A. Smyth, of the United States Employment Service, was quoted + in the New York _Globe_ as saying in part: + + "'Today the war industries of the country are short about + 500,000 unskilled workers, and the coming requirements of war + production necessitate finding between 2,000,000 and 3,000,000 + more. + + "'Similarly the demand for skilled workers in war industries is + greater than the immediately available supply. Before long we + will have to take every tool maker and die-sinker in non-war + work and put him in war production.' + + "The country was divided into thirteen Federal districts, by + the regulation of labor for war industries, and each was in + charge of a superintendent of the United States Employment + Service, while the States within the several districts were in + charge of a State director. The labor problem this measure was + designed to remedy and control was pictured by Secretary of + Labor Wilson, who was quoted in the New York _Sun_ as saying in + part: + + "'The Government found itself in need of men, and on going out + to get them found itself in competition with private industry, + which was equally hard pressed. Men who had never drawn more + than a common laborer's wages found themselves at a premium in + the market, and began to ask and receive extortionate prices, + and to rove from place to place seeking still higher prices. + + "'Everywhere industry was hampered by what is known as the + turnover, or the constant shifting of itinerant labor, in some + cases the loss in efficiency running as high as 100 per cent. + This is what is perhaps best described as the evil of the + individualistic strike--the strike by the man, thousands of + him, in different yards and factories all over the country, who + is forever throwing down his tools and wandering away on the + slightest rumor of higher wages elsewhere, who by his habit of + roving never masters the details of any trade, and who in the + mass accounts for a greater loss than all the organized strikes + and walkouts in the land.'" + + +INFLUENCE OF WAR CONDITIONS + +In the United States under war conditions labor unrest did not reach the +intense form manifested in England. Nevertheless a great many strikes +were reported. Surprise was expressed that the labor adjustment +machinery of the War Department and of the Navy Department was not +appealed to. Besides there was the National War Labor Board to take up +mediation. Investigations in Bridgeport, Connecticut, showed an increase +of earnings of 81 per cent. against an increase of living prices of 61 +per cent. Yet at one time the Press reported strikes in over 350 machine +shops in New Jersey--nearly all engaged in necessary war work--as well +as trouble in many shipyards. Of course there was the explanation of +foreign propaganda or a tendency toward industrial Bolshevism. Such +explanations failed to account for the fact that American workmen as a +whole were patriotic. + +Attention was called, on the other hand, to the warm tribute given by +the Federal Fuel Administrator to the bituminous coal miners who had +brought production past the 13 million ton mark in the second week in +July, 1917, and the exceptional efforts of diligent and patriotic +workers in the shipyard. A portion of the press emphasized the +unreasonableness of striking while the laboring people enjoyed, during +war time, immunity from service and immunity from the pressure of +competition for wages. The Springfield _Republican_ protested against +applying to the workingmen exaggerated standards of economic rectitude. + + "It is easy to be harsh in one's judgment even in the case of + the strikes that occur. Why do they strike at all while the war + continues? Have they no capacity for self-sacrifice for the + country? These questions will be asked by many people whenever + war work anywhere is checked in the least degree by workmen + dropping their tools. + + "On the other hand, let us not be unjust to labor, for in the + American Army in France labor is represented by multitudes of + youth upon whose gallantry and steadiness all our hopes of + victory depend. No class here at home gives 100 per cent. + efficiency or commits itself to 100 per cent. of sacrifice in + the winning of the war. Why demand it of the wage earners or + the labor unions? + + "Simply because of its organization and its machinery of + leadership, however, labor enjoys an exceptional opportunity to + contribute to the winning of the war. This is the first great + war in history in which labor has been organized into an + economic unit, and that is the reason for some special war + problems today which were never encountered by governments in + previous wars. But there can be gains even more than losses to + the national strength by reason of this organization, if the + opportunity be accepted to promote labor's contribution. This + is a task especially for the leadership of organized labor. It + is certainly no exaggeration to say that in no way can labor be + advantaged after the war so much as by the wholehearted + acceptance of its opportunity for loyal service to the nation + during the war. Let labor splendidly do its part in bringing + victory and its future influence will expand beyond the dreams + of its prophets.... + + "Labor and victory are inseparable; nay more, the one may + command the other, and thus it may control the fate of the + world." + + +INDUSTRIAL MEANING OF WAR + +Mr. H. E. Coffin, Chairman of the Committee on Industrial Preparedness, +described the European War in its last analysis as a war of munitions, a +war of factories, of producing powers, of sweating men and women +workers. When the United States entered the war there were four main +things required of its government and its people, viz., ships, munitions +and materials of war, food and soldiers. It can be seen that three out +of these four factors are matters that belong to the economic history of +the war. Fortunately for our Government, it had the experience of +foreign countries to learn from, and learning was an essential part of +war preparation in spite of the resources in hand in the United States; +as Mr. Coffin said: + + "A close observation of the experience in foreign countries has + shown us the vital necessity for a peace time prearrangement + for conversion in all industries. Wars, as now waged, involve + every human and material resource of a belligerent nation. + Every factory and every man, woman, and child are affected. + Every sinew of industry, of transportation, and of finance must + be harnessed in the country's service. In England two years and + a half ago there were three government arsenals. Today + thousands of England's industrial plants are being operated as + government factories for the production of war materials, and + many other thousands of plants, still under private control, + are centering their energies in this same direction. + + "We have here in the United States vast resources in + manufacturing and producing equipment, but they are unorganized + and uneducated for the national service. Our observations of + the European War have taught us that it is upon organized + industry that we must base every plan of military defense. In + the event of trouble with any one of the several first-class + powers, between 80 and 90 per cent. of our industrial activity + would of necessity be centered upon the making of supplies for + the government. We have learned also that from one to two years + of time and of conscientious effort are needed to permit any + large manufacturing establishment to change over from its usual + peace-time commercial line to the quantity production of war + materials for which it has had no previous training." + +In certain respects the position of the United States was unique, not +only because of its resources but because it was to a certain extent +self-dependent as a belligerent. England was able for some time to +import large quantities of munitions and supplies from other countries. +In the case of the United States when it entered the war, munition and +food supplies had to come from its own resources. Practically all of the +war materials had to be ultimately produced in the United States. Many +observers were optimistic because they had a sanguine opinion of the +efficiency presented by American industrial democracy. But efficiency +alone could not win the war. There were certain limitations to the +sphere of efficiency. This was pointed out by Mr. H. G. Moulton in an +address on "Industrial Conscription," delivered before the Western +Economic Society, at Chicago, in 1917: + + "At this point it should be emphasized that the position of the + United States is unique, so far as the allied nations are + concerned. England, for instance, at the outbreak of the + conflict could import vast quantities of munitions and supplies + from other countries. England, therefore, had a fourth + alternative, one denied to us because the struggle is now + world-wide. All of the materials of war that we furnish must + come from the current energy of our own people. We must + ourselves produce these ships, munitions, food supplies, and + stocks in the coming months. There is no one else to do it for + us. In this connection I should like to emphasize with all the + power at my command the argument that we cannot by bond issues + shift the burdens of this war to future generations. The mere + fact that all of us--as represented by the government--borrow + from some of us--as represented by bond purchasers--does not + change the other essential fact that we, the people within this + country, must actually produce practically all the war + materials we are to have for use in the war. + + "There is also much current discussion of the wonderful gains + that may be made through increasing efficiency. It is argued + that we should make our patriotic impulses the occasion for the + universal introduction of scientific management. It of course + goes without saying that we should do all that we possibly can + to further the improvement of industrial methods; and doubtless + something may be accomplished." + +[Illustration: Forging Armor Plate + +"Every man, in the draft age at least, must work or fight," said General +Crowder. And the workers were just as important a factor in winning the +war as the fighters. In the gigantic machine sketched above, ingots of +sixty and seventy tons were pressed into plates of any size and +thickness for use on our super dreadnoughts.] + + +LABOR DISLOCATION + +It is estimated that about 35,000,000 men, women and children in the +United States do the country's work: dig its coal, raise its crops, run +its trains, build its roads, make its powder, turn out its munitions. +There was an increase each year of a million man-power through +immigration. The result of the war was that this source of supply was +cut off. What was the economic significance of this cutting off of +immigration? The immigrant was almost the only source of what we call +day labor--the men who do the building and repairing of railroads, the +mending of streets and roads, mining, and the rough work of steel mills +and other factories. Along with the cessation of immigration came the +withdrawal from labor power of two million men who were drawn into the +Army. These men, incidentally, became large consumers of goods rather +than normal producers of wealth. Some estimates were made that the +United States Government was using for war purposes about one-half of +the entire productive capacity of the country. These figures enable one +to gauge the industrial dislocation caused by the war. In matters +affecting the members of what might be called the labor army, which +still kept up the work of production, the Government laid great emphasis +on the need of securing industrial peace. + +A Mediation Commission was appointed by the President to deal with +conditions of labor unrest. This Commission made a report early in 1918, +in which it spoke of the lack of knowledge on the part of Capital as to +Labor's feelings and needs and on the part of Labor as to problems of +management. The program outlined by the Commission was as follows: + + "1. Modern large scale industry has effectually destroyed the + personal relation between employer and employee--the knowledge + and cooperation that come from personal contact. It is + therefore no longer possible to conduct industry by dealing + with employees as individuals. Some form of collective + relationship between management and men is indispensable. The + recognition of this principle by the government should form an + accepted part of the labor policy of the nation. + + "2. Law, in business as elsewhere, depends for its vitality + upon steady employment. Instead of waiting for adjustment + after grievances come to the surface there is needed the + establishment of continuous administrative machinery for the + orderly disposition of industrial issues and the avoidance of + an atmosphere of contention and the waste of disturbances. + + "3. The eight-hour day is an established policy of the country; + experience has proved justification of the principle also in + war times. Provision must of course be made for longer hours in + case of emergencies. Labor will readily meet this requirement + if its misuse is guarded against by appropriate overtime + payments. + + "4. Unified direction of the labor administration of the United + States for the period of the war should be established. At + present there is an unrelated number of separate committees, + boards, agencies, and departments having fragmentary and + conflicting jurisdiction over the labor problems raised by the + war. A single-headed administration is needed, with full power + to determine and establish the necessary administrative + structure. + + "5. When assured of sound labor conditions and effective means + for the just redress of grievances that may arise, Labor in its + turn should surrender all practices which tend to restrict + maximum efficiency. + + "6. Uncorrected evils are the great provocative to extremist + propaganda, and their correction would be in itself the best + counter-propaganda. But there is need for more affirmative + education. There has been too little publicity of an educative + sort in regard to Labor's relation to the war. The purposes of + the government and the methods by which it is pursuing them + should be brought home to the fuller understanding of Labor. + Labor has most at stake in this war, and it will eagerly devote + its all if only it be treated with confidence and + understanding, subject neither to indulgence nor neglect, but + dealt with as a part of the citizenship of the state." + + +ADVISORY LABOR COUNCIL + +In order to prevent lack of coordination in the government's handling of +the labor situation an advisory council was created to help the +Secretary of Labor to organize the new war work. The field of this +advisory council is indicated in a series of memoranda presented to him +in January, 1917. + + "1. An Adjustment Service which will have to do with the + adjustment of industrial disputes according to policies and + principles arrived at through the deliberations of the War + Labor Conference Board. + + "2. A Condition of Labor Service which will have charge of the + administration of conditions of labor within business plants. + + "3. An Information and Education Service which will devote + itself to the establishment of sound sentiment among both + employers and employees and to the establishment in individual + plants of the local machinery (_e. g._, employment management) + and policies necessary for the successful operation of a + National Labor Program. + + "4. A Woman in Industry Service which will meet the problems + connected with the more rapid introduction of women into + industry as a result of war conditions. + + "5. A Training and Dilution Service which will administer such + training and dilution policies as may be agreed upon. + + "6. A Housing and Transportation of Workers Service whose duty + it will be to provide the housing facilities to meet the + nation's needs. + + "7. A Personnel Service whose duties it shall be to assemble + and classify information concerning appropriate candidates for + positions in the war-labor administration and make + recommendations for appointment. + + "8. A Division for the Investigation of Special Problems which + would be a part of the Secretary's office force and would + conduct investigations in the placing of contracts, in priority + of labor demand, in powers of the Department, in problems of + reconstruction, and would assist in formulating the national + labor policy. + + "9. An Investigation and Inspection Service to provide the + field force of examiners and inspectors required by the other + services." + +After various stages of experience the War Industries Board secured +something more than an advisory position. This was done only after a +year of warfare. The final situation was explained by Mr. C. M. +Hitchcock in the _Journal of Political Economy_, June, 1918: + + "When on March 4th of the present year the President appointed + Bernard M. Baruch Chairman of the War Industries Board and + defined his duties he did not, as certain press reports have + implied, create an industrial dictator. His action did clear + the way for Mr. Baruch's assumption of the duties of a director + of industrial war strategy, of an industrial Chief of + Staff--for the present position of the War Industries Board in + the American Government is comparable in its relation to + national industrial policy to nothing so much as the functions + of the General Staff of the Army in its jurisdiction over + military strategy. After a year of war the direction of + industrial policy is placed in single hands, and a central + planning board is established for dealing not only with the + problems of production and purchase but with the whole attitude + of the government toward the mobilization of business resources + for the prosecution of the war. Leadership has been focused and + an administrative channel opened for the inauguration of a + studied and inferentially constructive industrial policy. + + "From the present trend of events the War Industries Board + promises to become the sole directing agency between the + government and industry. Backed by the power of the President + to commandeer, to withhold fuel, and in other ways to force the + halting into line, it can mold the country's industrial system + almost as it will--whether in organizing the nation for war or + in directing the lines along which it shall return to normal + conditions when peace comes. In a system of government such as + ours, where the responsibility for directing the war rests + almost exclusively in the hands of the President, and where his + power ultimately becomes almost absolute, the Board has been + shaped into a very potent instrument. + + "Yet powerful as it may become, subject only to the + jurisdiction of the President, it is well to remember that in a + comprehensive national war plan it cannot stand alone. Its + policies must be subject to the administration's general + strategy in the war--for instance, to the amount of munitions + in comparison with the number of men or the amount of food that + it wishes to send abroad at any given time. The munitions + program and the conversion of industry to war purposes must be + governed by the ultimate end in view. In addition, one of the + great factors in production--the labor factor--is being + administered by another government agency, and it is obvious + that priority in the labor supply must go hand in hand with + priority in materials." + + +WORK OR FIGHT + +Military men were as keen as business men in realizing the industrial +factor as a powerful contributory cause in winning the war. General +Crowder's famous "work or fight" alternative was a sufficient witness of +this fact. He said: + + "Every man, in the draft age at least, must work or fight. + + "This is not alone a war of military maneuvers. It is a deadly + contest of industries and mechanics. Germany must not be + thought of as merely possessing an army; we must think of her + as _being_ an army--an army in which every factory and loom in + the Empire is a recognized part in a complete machine running + night and day at terrific speed. We must make ourselves the + same sort of effective machine. + + "We must make vast withdrawals for the Army and immediately + close up the ranks of industry behind the gap with an + accelerating production of every useful thing in necessary + measure. How is this to be done? The answer is plain. The first + step toward the solution of the difficulty is to prohibit + engagement by able-bodied men in the field of hurtful + employment, idleness, or ineffectual employment, and thus + induce and persuade the vast wasted excess into useful fields. + + "One of the unanswerable criticisms of the draft has been that + it takes men from the farms and from all useful employments and + marches them past crowds of idlers and loafers away to the + Army. The remedy is simple--to couple the industrial basis with + other grounds for exemption and to require that any man + pleading exemption on any ground shall show that he is + contributing effectively to the industrial welfare of the + nation." + +[Illustration: Building Howitzers + +A nine-mile howitzer nearly ready for transportation. Beyond are seen +heavy armorplate turrets in the making. The small and large +manufacturers were given equal opportunity to obtain war business.] + +Industrial preparation for war was guided by the principle of priority. +This is an old principle, but it began to be applied in unheard-of ways. +When an army is to be moved all means of transport in sight are +commandeered. When an army is to be fed, civilians protest in vain +against the seizure of stores. These practices were always features in +the history of warfare. + +A novel factor in priority as applied during the present war was the +breadth of its scope. + + "When the whole industry of a nation is mobilized behind the + fighting line, it is not merely finished munitions that must be + given priority in transportation, but also the materials and + fuel for further munitions production. The food supply of the + industrial population, as well as that of the army, has a claim + to priority. So also have clothing supplies, lumber for + housing, and whatever else is essential to working efficiency. + In production it would be impossible to fix definite limits + upon the application of the priority principle. We can not much + longer permit the free flotation of the securities of foreign + enterprises, nor even of the less essential domestic + enterprises, so long as national loans or issues designed to + finance railways or industrial enterprises of prime necessity + are to be floated. Modern warfare, in involving the whole + national life, has made inevitable a control of business + practically coextensive with the economic system. + + "The application of the priority principle to transportation + and production is quite in accord with plain common sense. It + is none the less revolutionary in its social economic + implications. What it means is that necessities shall have + right of way. If we have excess productive capacity, the + unessentials and luxuries may be provided, but not otherwise. + And necessities are definable in terms that take account only + of physical requirements. There is no room in the definition + for class distinction. A new country house may seem a matter of + necessity to the man of fortune, but he will persuade no + priority board to permit shipment of building materials while + cars are needed for coal or wheat. Nor will he persuade them to + let him have lumber that could be used for ships or + workingmen's camps, or labor that could be employed to + advantage in production for more clearly national and + democratic needs." + + +WAR SUPPLIES + +The United States, following the experience of other belligerents, +adopted the policy of decentralization in the production of war +supplies. A plan was worked out under which the small and large +manufacturer were given equal opportunity to obtain war business: + + "Under the plan that has been worked out for bringing the + manufacturing resources of the country into more effective + cooperation with the government, the country is to be divided + into twenty industrial regions, with the following cities as + centers: Boston, Bridgeport, New York, Philadelphia, + Pittsburgh, Rochester, Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, Cincinnati, + Baltimore, Atlanta, Birmingham, Kansas City, St. Louis, Dallas, + Milwaukee, St. Paul, Seattle, San Francisco. The following plan + for effecting the organization is suggested by the officials in + charge: + + "1. Organize through Chambers of Commerce and other business + associations Industrial Committees with the principal + industrial center as headquarters and such subdivisions as are + recommended by the business association of each district. + + "2. Develop such organization in various classes of industry as + well as in area for greatest convenience, to get information of + all classes of products in and between regions. + + "3. Having established such region and sub-region, through the + cooperation of the best business men in each district have a + survey of the industries recorded in the hands of the section + in Washington of the War Industries Board for information to + the various procurement sections of the government. + + "4. Each region may have in Washington a representative who + through the Resources and Conversion Section of the War + Industries Board may keep in direct contact with his region and + be available to the governmental procurement divisions or the + War Industries Board for prompt action in giving data from his + region. + + "The detailed form of organization suggested for each region + (subject, of course, to modifications as desired to meet the + needs of any region) is known as the Cleveland Plan, which has + been for some time in operation. Under this plan each region is + divided into eight sub-regions, an important industrial city in + each sub-region being designated as a center. Each sub-region + has a local War Industries Commission which coordinates all + industry within its territory. Within each sub-region + manufacturing is divided into the following classes: castings, + forgings and stampings; machinery and machine products; rubber + products; clay products, chemicals, oils, and paints; textiles + and clothing, wood and leather; engineering; automotive. Other + classifications may of course be added in important lines of + industry." + +Such regional divisions were but one factor in industrial +administration. Government needs and labor shortage made imperative the +regulation of manufactures by the priority system. + +[Illustration: Guns and Armaments for United States and Her Allies + +Interior of one of the Bethlehem Steel Company's mills--among the +largest plants in the world for the production of munitions during the +War.] + + +THE PRIORITY SYSTEM + +The actual working of the priority system is shown in the following +general classification of industry for the purpose of priority +treatment: + + Ships--Including destroyers and submarine chasers. + + Aircraft. + + Munitions, Military and Naval Supplies and + Operations--Including building construction for government + needs and equipment for same. + + Fuel--For domestic consumption, and for manufacturing + necessities named herein. + + Food and Collateral Industries--(_a_) Foodstuffs for human + consumption, and plants handling same. + + (_b_) Feeding stuffs for domestic fowls and animals, and plants + handling same. + + (_c_) All tools, utensils, implements, machinery, and equipment + required for production, harvesting and distribution, milling, + preparing, canning and refining foods and feeds such as seeds + of foods, and feeds, binder twine, etc. + + (_d_) Products of collateral industries, such as fertilizer, + fertilizer ingredients, insecticides and fungicides, containers + for foods and feeds, collateral products. + + (_e_) Materials and equipment for preservation of foods, and + feeds, such as ammonia and other refrigeration supplies, + including ice. + + Clothing--For civilian population. + + Railroad--Or other necessary transportation equipment, + including water transportation. + + Public Utilities--Serving war industries, Army, Navy, and + civilian population." + +But the perplexity of applying this system to such a question as fuel +administration is shown in the following list taken from one of the +trade publications of the Administration for April, 1918: + + "The Fuel Administration has therefore arranged the following + list of preferred industries: + + Aircraft--Plants engaged exclusively in manufacturing aircraft + or supplies and equipment therefor. + + Ammunition--Plants engaged in the manufacture of ammunition for + the United States Government and the Allies. + + Arms (small)--Plants engaged in manufacturing small arms for + the United States Government and the Allies. + + Army and Navy cantonments and camps. + + Chemicals--Plants engaged exclusively in manufacturing chemicals. + + Coke plants. + + Domestic consumers. + + Electrical equipment--Plants manufacturing same. + + Electrodes--Plants producing electrodes. + + Explosives--Plants manufacturing explosives. + + Farm implements--Manufacturers exclusively of agricultural + implements and farm-operating Equipment. + + Feed--Plants producing feed. + + Ferro-alloys--Plants producing same. + + Fertilizers--Manufacturers of fertilizers. + + Fire brick--Plants producing same exclusively. + + Food--Plants manufacturing, milling, preparing, refining, + preserving, and wholesaling food for human consumption. + + Food containers--Manufacturers of tin and glass containers and + manufacturers exclusively of other food containers. + + Gas--Gas-producing plants. + + Guns (large)--Plants manufacturing same. + + Hemp, jute, and cotton bags--Plants manufacturing exclusively + hemp, jute, and cotton bags. + + Insecticides--Manufacturers exclusively of insecticides and + fungicides. + + Iron and steel--Blast furnaces and foundries. + + Laundries. + + Machine tools--Plants manufacturing machine tools. + + Mines. + + Mines--Plants engaged exclusively in manufacturing mining tools + and equipment. + + Newspapers and periodicals--Plants printing and publishing + exclusively newspapers and periodicals. + + Oil--Refineries of both mineral and vegetable oils. + + Oil production--Plants manufacturing exclusively oil-well + equipment. + + Public institutions and buildings. + + Public utilities. + + Railways--Plants manufacturing locomotives, freight cars and + rails, and other plants engaged exclusively in manufacture of + railway supplies. + + Refrigeration--Refrigeration for food and exclusive + ice-producing plants. + + Seeds--Producers or wholesalers of seeds (except flower seeds). + + Ships (bunker coal)--Not including pleasure craft. + + Ships--Plants engaged exclusively in building ships (not + including pleasure craft) or in manufacturing exclusively + supplies and equipment therefor. + + Soap--Manufacturers of soap. + + Steel--Steel plants and rolling mills. + + Tanners--Tanning plants, save for patent leather. + + Tanning extracts--Plants manufacturing tanning extracts. + + Tin plate--Manufacturers of tin plate. + + Twine (binder) and rope--Plants producing exclusively binder + twine and rope. + + +CIVIL WAR CONDITIONS + +During the war period labor was much better off than during the Civil +War epoch. The New York _World_ presented the following table from the +_Merchants' Magazine_ of December, 1864, showing the rise of prices +during the Civil War era: + + + _1862_ _1864_ + + Copper, 100 lbs $22.00 @ $25.00 $41.00 @ $42.00 + Coal, ton 4.50 @ 5.00 9.00 @ 10.00 + Iron, pig 21.00 @ 25.00 48.00 @ 49.00 + Lead, 100 lbs 6.50 @ 6.75 11.75 @ 12.00 + Nails, 100 lbs 3.25 @ 3.75 6.00 @ 6.25 + Ashes, pot bbl 5.50 @ 5.75 8.75 @ 8.87 + Dry cod, cwt 3.37 @ 4.25 6.50 @ 7.00 + Flour, bbl 4.50 @ 5.60 7.30 @ 7.35 + Corn, 100 bush 58.50 @ 60.00 131.00 @ 134.00 + Hay, 100 lbs .80 @ .85 1.35 @ 1.40 + Wheat, bush 1.30 @ 1.45 1.63 @ 1.65 + Hemp, cwt 10.00 @ 11.25 14.00 @ 16.12 + Barley, bush .85 @ 1.00 1.35 @ 1.50 + Oats, bush .37 @ .39 .90 @ .91 + Hops, 100 lbs 14.00 @ 20.00 26.00 @ 33.00 + Clover seed, 100 lbs 7.50 @ 7.75 12.50 @ 13.50 + Lime, bbl .60 @ .65 1.25 @ 1.35 + Oil, whale, gal .25 @ .35 .58 @ .60 + Oil, coal, gal .48 @ .57 1.10 @ 1.12 + Pork, bbl 13.25 @ 13.75 21.75 @ 23.50 + Beef, bbl 5.50 @ 8.00 10.00 @ 15.00 + Lard, 100 lbs 7.50 @ 8.25 13.59 @ 14.00 + Whisky, 100 gals 25.00 @ 25.50 89.00 @ 91.00 + Tallow, 100 lbs 8.75 @ 9.00 12.62 @ 12.75 + Whalebone, 100 lbs 68.00 @ 70.00 150.00 @ 155.00 + Wool, fleece, 100 lbs 52.00 @ 53.00 78.00 @ 82.00 + Wool, pl'd, 100 lbs 44.00 @ 45.00 70.00 @ 75.00 + Butter, 100 lbs 16.00 @ 21.00 36.00 @ 37.00 + Cheese, 100 lbs 5.00 @ 7.00 15.00 @ 18.00 + + "Wheat flour, one of the prime necessities, 'was at no time + during the Civil War above $7.35 per barrel, which is somewhat + less than four cents per pound,' while at the present time it + is seven cents per pound, 'or close to 100 per cent. higher + than the top notch of the '60s.' Lard has already advanced + about 100 per cent., while its greatest advance during the + Civil War was 75 per cent. + + "'The present-day advance in the price of clothing in general + has not been proportionate with the advance of foodstuffs, + though it has been considerable, especially as to the cheaper + grades. Cotton shirts that sold for 48 cents in 1913 are now + bringing 90 cents to $1. Cheap hosiery has also about doubled + in value. Suits that formerly sold for $15 are now bringing + $17, which is about 10 per cent. advance. Cotton goods during + the Civil War were exceptionally high, owing to the difficulty + of procuring the staple. After the stocks on hand at the + beginning of the war were exhausted, New England mills shut + down because of inability to get supplies. In 1864 raw cotton + ruled at 72 cents per pound, while at one time it touched + $1.90. Cotton goods of all kinds were therefore extraordinarily + high.' + +[Illustration: Plowing by Night + +The number of men drawn from Great Britain into the army and navy during +the war was about 5,000,000. This meant extraordinary efforts of +production were necessary on the part of those who were left behind. By +means of a motor tractor and an acetylene gas generator, the owner of +the farm shown above was able to run day and night shifts. + +Copyright Underwood & Underwood] + + "The public spirit manifested at present is much more admirable + than that displayed in the '60s, as shown by the following + first-hand description of life in those days, as compared with + what we see on every hand today. Said the New York + _Independent_ of June 25, 1864: + + "'Who at the North would ever think of war if he had not a + friend in the army or did not read the newspapers? Go into + Broadway and we will show you what is meant by the word + "extravagance." Ask Stewart about the demand for camel's-hair + shawls and he will say "monstrous." Ask Tiffany what kind of + diamonds and pearls are called for. He will answer "the + prodigious, as near hen's-egg size as possible, price no + object." What kind of carpetings are now wanted? None but + "extra." Brussels and velvets are now used from basement to + garret. Ingrains and three-plys won't do at all. + + "'Call a moment at a carriage repository. In reply to your + first question you will be told, "Never such a demand before, + sir." And as for horses, the medium-priced $500 kind are all + out of the market. A good pair of fast ones, "all right," will + go for $1,000 sooner than a basket of strawberries will sell + for four cents. Those a "little extra" will bring $1,500 to + $2,000, while the "superb" 2.40 sort will bring any price among + the high numbers.'" + + +GREAT BRITAIN'S PRODUCTIVE POWER + +To appreciate what industrial mobilization meant in England the best +method is to start with the figures on national production taken from +the British census of 1907, the last accessible for the peace period: + + In 1907 the British people are + estimated to have produced + goods to the total amount of, + roughly $10,000,000,000 + + The nation consumed during that + year in personal consumption 7,050,000,000 + + It spent on capital purposes at + home: + + (_a_) On betterment of its national + plant 950,000,000 + + (_b_) On maintenance of its national + plant 900,000,000 + + It used up goods to the value of + (in keeping up and probably increasing + its stocks of material + on hand) 325,000,000 + + It exported goods in the form of + loans to foreign countries of + about 500,000,000 + +By 1914 the British Empire had probably advanced its income to at least +$12,500,000,000; and the surplus of goods which it had to export as +loans to foreign countries seems to have increased from about +$500,000,000 to $1,000,000,000. What happened in war-time? First of all +there was an unprecedented manufacture of munitions and war supplies. +This production was needed not only for Great Britain, but also for her +Allies. Seven-tenths of what was produced in Great Britain in the year +1907 was immediately used up in the form of personal consumption by its +population; accordingly war industrial activities meant either that +British production must be increased or British consumption reduced, or +that more goods must be bought from foreign countries through the sale +of British liquid capital assets. + +First of all, consumption was cut down; in detail, this was accomplished +in the following ways: 1. By cutting down all normal additions to +England's national plant, _i. e._, by building no more houses, +factories, railways, roads, etc., except for purely war purposes. This +expenditure in 1907 amounted to about $950,000,000. 2. By cutting down +and ceasing as far as possible to spend money on the maintenance of this +national plant, except the minimum required to keep it running. This +expenditure in 1907 amounted to $900,000,000. 3. Most important of all, +by cutting down civil personal expenditure. This was so far the largest +item of consumption that it was here that the most important savings +were made. + + +A WHOLE POPULATION AT WORK + +In England the total number of "occupied males" between the ages of 18 +and 44, _i. e._, roughly, the conscription age was, in 1911, 7,200,000. +The number of men from the United Kingdom in the Army and Navy amounted +to over 5,000,000; therefore, out of every seven of these men, on the +average five were soldiers or sailors. These men were lost from the +productive capacity of the nation. It is obvious that if English +production remained the same, or increased, it must have been the result +of extraordinary efforts on the part of the small percentage of occupied +males of fighting age left, on the part of all the other males occupied +or formerly occupied, and on the part of all females. + +Mr. R. H. Brand, in discussing the situation in 1918, said: + + "Notwithstanding the great difficulties, I think it is probable + that our production is quite as great as before. Measured in + money, and owing to the rise of prices, it would probably be + much greater. This is due to the fact that the whole + population, practically speaking, has been working, and working + intensely. Millions of women who have not worked before are + working now. No one is idle. Every acre of land or garden that + can be used is being used. Methods of production have been + speeded up, labor-saving machinery in industry and agriculture + multiplied. In every direction the wheels have been turning + faster. + + "But, perhaps more important still, the _character_ of our + production has entirely changed--almost our entire industry is + producing for war purposes. Ordinary civil needs are no longer + considered. We have of course to produce what is essential for + life, but beyond that all our energies are directed to war + production. The government has of necessity compelled the whole + of British industry to produce for war and to produce what it + is told to produce, because in no other way could our own + armies and our Allies have been supplied. No man is free to do + what he likes with his labor and capital, with his ships, or + with his steel. He has to do what he is told to do. By this + means production for war purposes has enormously increased, and + civil consumption has enormously decreased, because the goods + for the civil population were no longer produced and one cannot + buy what isn't there. Instead of gramophones, the gramophone + company makes fuses; instead of cloth for ordinary clothes, the + woolen factory makes khaki; instead of motor cars, the + motor-car maker makes shells. + + + BRITISH INDUSTRY ON WAR BASIS. + + "Apart from selling our liquid capital assets in return for + foreign goods, and apart from borrowing from foreign countries + for the same purpose, our power to provide our own army and + navy with all they want and have any surplus over for our + Allies has indeed depended entirely on our extraordinary + efforts in production--not in normal production, but in war + production--and also on the extent to which we have been able + to reduce our civil consumption of all kinds. I put production + first because, while economy in consumption is exceedingly + important, increased productive capacity devoted to war + material, in my opinion, is still more important. Our increased + productivity has, as I say, been devoted entirely to war + requirements. We have had to turn over our whole industry from + a peace to a war basis. We have both voluntarily and + compulsorily cut off the production of goods which are + unnecessary for war purposes. Many trades have been actually + shut down and the labor taken from them and handed over to war + industries. Labor itself has been subjected to restrictions + which would have been wholly impossible before the war. Labor + may not leave its employment without government leave; salaries + and wages may not be increased without government approval. + Measures for the control of industry which were unheard of and, + in fact, absolutely impossible before the war have been imposed + upon all industry. + + "Fixed prices had been placed on the most important materials; + the government now has the absolute control of the use of + steel, copper, lead, wool, leather, and other materials for + which the war demand is insatiable, and also of all materials + manufactured therefrom. No use may be made of most of these + materials for any purpose whatever without a certificate being + first obtained, no buildings of any kind may be erected without + leave of the Ministry of Munitions. The whole of industry may + now be said to be directed according to the requirements of the + government, its regulation is an enormous task. In the head + office of the Ministry of Munitions alone there are more than + 10,000 people. + +Mr. R. H. Brand, who is responsible for these statements and used them +in an address to the American Bankers' Association, showed how these +regulations had resulted in a decline of British imports from peace +conditions of 55,000,000 tons annually to war conditions of 20,000,000 +tons. The imports were nearly all foodstuffs. England exported large +amounts of munitions and supplies to her Allies. In the year 1916 alone +we supplied them with 9,000,000 pairs of boots, 100,000,000 sand bags, +40,000,000 yards of jute, millions of socks and blankets, and in +addition several thousand tons of leather; also cloth, foodstuffs of +every kind, portable houses, tools, hospital equipment and so on. + + +LABOR POWER IN ENGLAND + +Mr. Lloyd George became the man naturally selected to be Prime Minister +because of his success in directing one of the chief war industries--the +work of munitions. In May, 1915, when he was made head of the newly +created Department of Munitions, the problem before him was no easy one. +The Central Empires were able to turn out 250,000 shells a day, while +the British rate of production was 2,500 high-explosive shells a day, +and 13,000 shrapnel shells. Lloyd George selected a large technical +staff; the work was decentralized as much as possible, and special +committees were formed for the purpose of organizing the work in each +district. The question of raw materials had to be handled and this was +not always easy because there were unscrupulous suppliers trying to make +a corner in their goods. New machinery had to be made for the +manufacture of large shells; all the big machine works were taken under +direct control by the Government. Old factories had to be equipped and +altered and twenty-six large plants had to be created. To provide the +labor power, workmen were recruited by voluntary methods. A hundred +thousand were in this way got together by July, 1915, most of whom were +experts in machinery and ship-building. The result is pictured in the +following extract by a French expert, Jules Destree: + + "On the 20th of December, 1915, Mr. Lloyd George, in a speech + delivered in the House of Commons, summarized the results of + the first six months of his tenure of office. We will take a + few points. + + "Orders placed before the formation of the department were + delivered with an increase of 16 per cent. on previous + deliveries. The number of new orders placed increased by 80 per + cent. + + "The state regulation of the metal market resulted in a saving + of from 15 to 20 million pounds sterling. + + "The present output of shells for a single week is three times + as great as the entire output for May, 1915, which means that + the rate of production is twelve times as great. + + "The enormous quantity of shells consumed during the offensive + of September, 1915, was made good in a month. The time will + soon come when a week will suffice. + + "The output of machine guns is five times as great; that of + hand grenades is increased forty fold. + + "The production of heavy artillery has been accelerated, and + the heaviest guns of the early days of the war are now among + the lightest. + + "An explosive factory in the south of England, which on October + 15, 1915, started to fill bombs at the rate of 500 a week with + a staff of 60, was in March, 1916, turning out 15,000 a week + with a staff of 250. + + "An entirely new factory which started work at the end of + October, 1915, with one filling shed and six girl fillers and + an output of 270 a week, was in March, 1916, employing 175 + girls and handling 15,000 bombs a week. + + "The Ministry of Munitions has built, or is building, housing + accommodation for 60,000 workers, and canteens and mess rooms + in munition works now give accommodation for 500,000 workers a + day. + + "All the workmen were assigned either to the works already in + existence--which in many cases were short of hands and unable + for this reason to fulfill their contracts--or else they were + allotted to the new factories. + + "But in view of influence wielded by the labor unions, various + provisions were inserted in the Munitions Act. They related to + the settlement of labor disputes and to the prohibition of + strikes and lockouts the grounds for which had not been + submitted to the Board of Trade. + + "To obviate such disputes, which were generally called forth by + the excessive profits accruing to the employers and the demands + of the wage-earners, the system of 'controlled establishments' + was instituted. Every establishment engaged on munition work + was placed, so far as the regulation of profits and salaries + was concerned, under direct government control. Any + modification in the rate of wages had to be submitted to the + Ministry of Munitions, which had power to refer the question to + an arbitration board specially set up by the act. + + "To complete this rapid survey it must be added that a + department was created by the Ministry of Munitions, under the + control of an undersecretary, whose special business it was to + examine war inventions." + + +INDUSTRIAL DISLOCATION IN FRANCE + +When war was declared in 1914, the result in France was a complete +disorganization. It must be remembered that workingmen from the age of +19 to 45 were called to the colors. This meant that the labor supply was +reduced by about three-fourths. The revival of trade was very slow until +the beginning of 1915. When it began to be realized that the war would +be a long one, and when the consumption of ammunition and war materials +was beyond all previous records, the Government was forced to prepare a +program for industrial warfare. It was a hard task because much of +industrial France was under enemy occupation. Munition work had to be +undertaken in neighborhoods largely agricultural. Everything was +lacking: labor, coal, raw material and transportation. As it became +evident that the stoppage of industrial work was a serious mistake, an +attempt was made to revive industries not connected with munitions, such +as paper manufacture, glove and silk making. The operations undertaken +by the Government are described in the following passage from M. R. +Blanchard's article in the _North American Review_ (1917): + + "The first was to take men out of the army and send them to + industrial work. This was done with great caution during the + winter of 1914--15. The proportion of the men thus taken + increased more and more during the year 1915 and reached its + fullest extent in 1916. The specialists in steel work were the + first to be taken out of the trenches; these were far from + being sufficient, and common workmen were added to them. Then + chemists and workmen trained in the manufacture of explosives + were recalled; electric engineers were sent back to the + hydro-electric plants; miners above thirty-five years of age + who belonged to the territorial regiments were sent to the + mines; paper-makers and cardboard-makers who could be employed + in the preparation of explosives were put to work; + cabinet-makers were put to manufacturing rifle stocks; + wood-cutters were brought back from the front in order to see + that there was no waste in providing the enormous amount of + wood needed in the army. All this recalling of mobilized men + was effected at first according to the need, and without + method. By degrees it became clear that the output would be + greater if these soldier-workmen were assigned to the plants or + factories where they were working before the war. As it would + have been unwise to take too large a number of men out of the + fighting units, hundreds of thousands were taken from the + auxiliary troops of the interior, men who through lack of + physical ability to fight were employed in sedentary tasks. + Thus in 1915 and 1916 auxiliaries were swept away to become + workmen, foremen, secretaries, bookkeepers, accountants, etc. + Finally the administration decided to draw from the oldest + classes of men still under the military law. These were called + in 1915 and sent to the factories--men born in 1868, either + bachelors or married men without children. + + "Another draft was made on the civil population. To make up for + the absence of male help, women were called upon for a great + number of occupations. Along with the women the refugees were + to do their part. After a rather long period of unsettled life + these refugees took again to regular occupations, some working + in the fields as agricultural hands, others in factories. Today + it is difficult to find unemployed people among them. + + "The alien population for France is also large, considerable + numbers of Italians, Spaniards, and Portuguese being employed + in the southeastern region. A newer element was provided by + natives from French colonies, namely, Morocco and Algeria. + Since the war started large numbers of Greeks and Armenians had + been imported into France; and during the last two years + something like 200,000 Chinamen had been brought to France for + unskilled work. The last resource was the enemy itself. There + were in France more than 250,000 German prisoners engaged in + various work and receiving a salary for it." + +Germany's industrial mobilization was picturesquely described by the +head of the General Electric Co., Dr. Walter Rathenau, who was appointed +at the beginning of the war to superintend the supplying of the German +War Office with raw materials. He told the officials at the War Office +that Germany was provided with more war materials only for a limited +number of months. Accurate statistics were prepared in a short time on +the power of production in various German industries. Then all the raw +material was put where it could be commandeered. The flow of products +was restricted, so that the raw material and also half manufactured +products could be automatically diverted to articles needed by the Army. +New methods were discovered and developed. Where former technical means +were insufficient substitutes had to be found. Where it was prescribed +that this or that article was to be made out of copper or aluminum, it +was permitted to make it out of something else. All the laboring power +of the country, including men from 16 to 60, were enrolled and +controlled from the central organization called the War Office, +described by General Groener as follows: + + "The new War Office represents Germany as a colossal firm which + includes all production of every kind and is indifferent to the + kind of coat, civil or military, which its employes wear. The + new measures are intended to mobilize all effective labor, + whereas up to the present we have only mobilized the army and + industry. The whole war is becoming more and more a question of + labor, and in order to give the army a firm basis for its + operations the domestic army must also be mobilized. All the + labor, women's as well as men's, must be extracted from the + population, so far as possible voluntarily. But if voluntary + enlistment does not suffice we shall not be able to avoid the + introduction of compulsion." + + +THE GERMAN NATION IN ARMS + +Sixteen months after this war organization was effected, General +Ludendorff said that when the great spring offensive of 1918 opened the +Germans were superior to the Allies in every form of war supplies. There +was a speeding up all round; the output of shells and cannon was double. +This meant the doubling of the coal and iron production, and could be +done only by increasing the workers necessary to double the output of +basic war materials. Adequate food had to be supplied to the workers; +there was what is known as the Hindenburg "Fat Fund" to which +contributions were sent in from German peasantry and agriculturists. +General Groener, the head of the German War Office, outlined +optimistically the future of German war industrial production as quoted +in the New York _Times_ of December 14, 1916: + +[Illustration: Photo by P. Thompson + +A War Time Warning + +Dairy production among the Allies decreased 30 per cent. during the war. +The lard supply was also decreased. Kitchen economy in fats was never +more important. Fats were so scarce in Germany during the latter part of +1917 that a "Hindenburg Fat Fund" was organized to which contributions +were sent in from German peasantry and agriculturists.] + + "German locomotives are running to the Taurus in Asia Minor; we + are operating practically all the Serbian railways with German + rolling stock; we have thousands of cars in Transylvania and + Rumania, to say nothing of other occupied territories. After + the transportation problem, we are taking measures to double + the production of the auxiliary raw materials and semi-finished + products. As one example, we are doubling our efforts for the + manufacture of nitres from the nitrogen of the air. Not only of + the basic raw materials, coal and iron, but of auxiliary raw + materials we have no lack. + + "The brains of our chemists and technicians are supplying the + missing imports, and will continue to do so. Only when we have + accomplished all this will we proceed to the last step of + doubling the production of shells and cannon. Such a war is not + to be won by looking ahead from month to month, but only by + thinking of the distant future. After we have doubled the + pyramid, we shall proceed to treble it. + + "By spring we shall be going full steam ahead. After that our + production will increase from month to month; and we have the + labor and raw materials for keeping up the pace indefinitely. + + "The male working forces available between the ages of + seventeen and sixty, as provided by the Auxiliary Service Law, + will cover our requirements into the distant future, but + ultimately, aside from the children, aged and sick, every man + and woman will be enlisted for home defense, if necessary. The + home army will be the whole nation. + + "What we are engaging on is not alone the progressive + mobilization of all the nation's physical strength and material + resources, but the mobilization of the nation's brains. An army + corps of professors, scientists, chemists, engineers, + technicians, and other specialists is already working with the + Kriegstaat. Our idea is to be eminently scientific and + practical--no theorizing. We are working to show results. + + "We are cooperating closely with the war industries of Turkey, + Bulgaria, and Austria. It means doubling and trebling their + ammunition supply, too. + + "The military successes achieved in Rumania, which synchronize + with the birth of patriotic auxiliary service, are an advantage + that cannot be overestimated. The Danube means everything to + us. Last year we had to beg Rumania for her oil and grain and + pay our good money for it too. Now we don't need to beg costly + favors of Rumania. + + "Lloyd George does not scare us. We have, however, not time for + busying ourselves with politics; we have more important things + to do--supplying Hindenburg with the means of victory." + + +RUSSIA'S INDUSTRIAL MOBILIZATION + +In Russia industrial mobilization was badly managed. Cattle were taken +to the front in herds. Often driven on foot, they were slaughtered on +the spot where the meat was needed for the soldiers. The hides were +thrown aside to rot. As a result of this wasting of hides, the supply of +leather for military uses and for shoes for both the Army and the +civilian population was soon utterly inadequate. Horses were +requisitioned in the most unintelligent way, the result being that +agricultural production decreased and with the lack of transportation +facilities the Army horses could not be supplied with food. They died by +the tens of thousands. + +Gross mismanagement marked the war handling of the Russian railway +system. The rolling stock was allowed to deteriorate. Locomotives and +cars were put aside permanently when they needed slight repairs. They +could not be repaired because the railway machine shops had been +converted into munition factories. There was an appalling shortage of +manufactured goods for the civilian population, because the entire +output of many manufacturing concerns was taken over for the Army. It +was almost impossible to get clothing, boots and articles of wearing +apparel. So great was the dearth of cloth at the end of the third year +of the war that one was struck by the contrast between the lines in +front of the bakeries formed in the early morning hours and the groups +of women gathered at eight in the evening before the shops which sold +cloth to stand all through the night in line for the opening of the shop +in the morning. + +A bright spot in Russian war administration was the work of the +Municipal and Provincial Councils. The members of these bodies did +valiant service in preventing the growing disorganization of the +economic life of their country. Their activities are described by Prof. +Harper of Chicago University, an actual eye witness of Russian +conditions during the war, in the following passage: + + "So these organizations entered upon a campaign of 'saving' and + 'production.' They saved the hides that were being thrown away, + collected the discarded boots at the front and repaired them, + and took over the task of supplying the underwear for the whole + army--mobilizing the village cooperative societies to fill the + large orders. And they did much to organize the refugees from + the invaded districts for productive work. In a word, these men + saw that the war was going to extend into years, and they + realized that only foresight and organization of productive + resources would make it possible for Russia to withstand + economically the burdens of a protracted struggle. + + "The attitude of the governmental authorities (the bureaucratic + departments) toward the work of these non-bureaucratic, but + public, institutions (the Unions of the Municipal and + Provincial Councils) was one of suspicion and antagonism, and + difficulties were put in their way with the deliberate intent + to block their activities. The institutions were suspected of + pursuing political aims. Only when it became clear that the + ruling group in the bureaucracy was consciously allowing the + country to drift into a state of anarchy in order to bring + Russia out of the war did these leaders venture to risk + revolutionary methods of action. + + "The president of the All-Russian Union of Provincial Councils, + the Zemstvo, was Prince Lvoff, the first Prime Minister of the + new Russia after the revolution of March, 1917. In the monthly + reports of the work of the All-Russian Union of Zemstva, Prince + Lvoff, repeatedly issued warnings of the impending economic + collapse of the country. But neither he nor Kerensky was able + to liquidate the heritage received from the old regime in time + to stave off the series of economic and financial crises of + which the Bolsheviki availed themselves." + + +FOREBODINGS OF RUSSIA'S COLLAPSE + +But it was not only foreign observers who were able to detect the +prevailing rottenness in Russia's economic status. The following passage +from an address made by A. I. Konovalov, a member of the Moscow Stock +Exchange, shows that Russian business men were keenly alive to the +dangers of the situation as early as April, 1917: + + "The old regime has seemingly done everything deliberately to + destroy and demoralize the trade-industrial apparatus it took + years to build up. As a result the usual course of the + country's economic life was stopped, and at the same time, + through the peculiarly enforced system of regulations, a wide + field for all sorts of abuses and speculations was opened. We + must frankly acknowledge that from these abuses and + speculations a system of oppression grew up which has called + forth fully merited reproach, distrust, and hostile feelings + towards the representatives of the trade-industrial class. + + "At the same time there can be no doubt but that under present + circumstances, lacking most of the necessaries of existence, + with the factories and mills forced to cut down their + production due to lack of raw material and fuel, with the + demoralization of the transportation system, and being + compelled, despite all these obstacles, to meet the numerous + requirements at the front--there is no other way out but + government control of private industrial and mercantile + enterprises, and the cooperation of the democratic masses of + the population in the matter of regulating the trade-industrial + life of the country. In addition to fair distribution it should + be the task of all the committees, which are to become parts of + the Ministry, also to regulate the prices. + + "Closely connected with this question there is another one + which I personally consider of tremendous importance. I have in + mind the question of limiting the profits of all mercantile and + industrial establishments. Undoubtedly a properly worked-out + solution of this question would have the tendency to check the + unwarranted growth of prices that would appease the masses. The + normal effect of a decree limiting profits is of tremendous + importance, not only in that it would soften the feeling of + ill-will towards the trade-industrial class, but also because + it would afford the government a new, convincing proof that the + commercial and industrial class is ready to make all possible + sacrifices for the common good, a proof which would paralyze + the voicing of any new demands on the part of the masses. + + "Now, these are the main ideas, the fundamental points of view + which the trade-industrial class should consider as a starting + point in its efforts to win the confidence of the population + and to safeguard that important position which it ought to + occupy in the life of the country. + + "The situation is becoming all the more difficult because of + the ever-increasing famine due to the shortage of means of + production as well as of all the necessaries of life; this + famine will be felt very acutely, not only on account of the + lack of these goods, but also because of the overabundance of + paper money." + + +LABOR TRADITIONS UPSET + +All kinds of economic theories and all varieties of economic experiences +have been overturned by the abnormal industrialism of the war. The world +really passed into a _terra incognita_. Even the firmest foundations of +trade unionism have been shaken. There was no more firmly established +fact before the war than the inability of women to secure a level of +wages equal to that of the male wage earner. Such theories have passed +to the limbo of forgotten things. Prejudice and tradition have given +away before the actual test of facts. Women have taken the place of men +called away to war service in practically all the fields of industrial +activity. Apart from theory, biological and otherwise, it is now seen +that the old exclusion of women from skilled industry was largely the +result of trade union regulation. But the woman war-worker was found in +fields untouched by trade unionism. There was the woman bank clerk as +well as the woman engineer. + +There was much discussion, mostly pessimistic, as to what would happen +if the woman labor supply should permanently take the place of man labor +after the war was over. The best solution was thought to be the placing +of the woman worker under a regime of trade unionism. How far such +prognostications went is illustrated in the following quotation from +Miss Mary Stocks in the London _Athenaeum_. + + "It has been presupposed that the war will end decisively + before the armies engaged are reduced to inappreciable numbers + of able-bodied men. It has been presupposed that the return of + peace will find British industry based upon the old system of + private ownership of capital and haphazard production in + response to the effective demand of individuals. It presupposes + no change of heart on the part of employers, government or + trade unions. But, in view of possible, if not probable + dangers, the most urgent stress should be laid upon what is an + undoubted palliative, if not a fundamental cure for such + prospective economic ills; that is, the strenuous promotion and + public encouragement of trade unionism among women. What women, + by reason of underlying social and economic causes, are not + able to do for themselves, the moral and financial support of + the public must do for them, and such support should be + regarded not merely as an interference in the old struggle + between capital and labor, but as an attempt to ward off a + national danger. + + "The root of the evil is the old incompatibility between male + and female labor in the skilled and semi-skilled grades of + industry. That incompatibility has arisen partly from + fallacious theorizing of the 'wages-fund' type, but largely + from the fact that the industrial woman, in spite of the uphill + and often successful trade union work which has been + accomplished, mainly from above, during the past forty years, + is regarded by her male colleague as nature's blackleg. And in + spite of the short-sighted policy of hostility to women members + displayed by a few trade unions, it is fairly clear that it is + not the woman trade unionist that the man is afraid of, but the + woman blackleg; not the well-paid woman, but the sweated woman. + Now there are three ways of dealing with a blackleg: he may be + elbowed out of the industrial world altogether; he may be + penned up, as women have been penned up, in the lowest and most + undesirable grades; or he may be turned into a trade unionist. + As far as women are concerned, the first two are closed by + national expediency, humanity and justice. The third lies open; + and in view of the peculiar economic rocks which loom vaguely + ahead of us, it may be said without exaggeration that one woman + trade-union leader is worth a hundred welfare workers." + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +Women Workers in America + +A field of winter lettuce, with the cloches, or glass bells, which made +it possible during the war to raise plants in cold weather.] + + +WOMEN WORKERS IN AMERICA + +As a result of the labor dislocation due to the operation of the +American Draft Law, a large number of women were employed in railway +work. The experience of the United States Railroad Administration in the +matter of women employes was summarized in a paper read by Miss Pauline +Goldmark, manager of the women's service section of the Railroad +Administration, at a conference at the Academy of Political Science, in +1918: + + "The number of women employed on the railroads of the United + States had been 60,000 at the beginning of the year, and + reached approximately 100,000 by October 1st. The greatest + number are in the clerical and semi-clerical occupations. Of + the 81,000 employed July 1st, 61,000 were working as clerks of + all kinds, stenographers, accountants, comptometer operators, + etc. In this class appear women ticket sellers and bureau of + information clerks, who served the public for the first time; + they were found well fitted for this type of work, and special + instruction agencies were opened by the government in various + states to train them in the intricacies of tariffs and routes. + + "The next largest group of 4,000, it is not surprising to + learn, appears in women's time-honored occupation of cleaning. + Women have long been cleaning stations, offices, etc., but now + they are employed in the yards to clean coaches and Pullmans, + both inside and outside; and in the roundhouses, doing the + heavier work of wiping locomotives; 800 were so employed. In + personal service, including work in dining rooms and kitchens, + as matrons and janitresses, 2,000 were found. In the railroad + shops, women entered the greatest variety of new occupations. + Three thousand were employed, ranging at one end of the scale + from common laborers, at the other end of the scale of skilled + mechanics earning the machinists' or carmen's rate of pay. + + "Many women were employed a year and a half ago, before the + railroads were put under Federal control, because they could be + obtained for less pay than men. They were, for instance, + engaged as common laborers at 20c to 22c an hour, at a time + when men were receiving 28c to 30c for the same class of + labor. With rare exceptions where adjustments are still + necessary, the wage orders have absolutely stopped this + undercutting of men's wages by women. + + +WORK UNSUITABLE FOR WOMEN + + "Soon after women began to be largely employed it became + apparent that some of their work was neither profitable nor + appropriate. The use of women as section laborers, for + instance, in a gang of men working along the tracks at a + distance from any house or station was judged to be unsuitable. + This was also found to be the case where women were employed as + truckers in depots and warehouses on account of the + extraordinary physical exertion required of them. In view of + the wages now paid it was believed possible to secure men and + to transfer the women to some class of work suitable to their + strength and with proper regard to their health. The railroads + were accordingly asked to discontinue their employment in both + these positions. + + "Comparisons with other industries can probably best be made in + respect to the women employed in the shops. They are operating + a number of machines such as bolt-threaders, nut-tappers, drill + presses, for which no great skill or experience is needed, and + which is classed as 'helpers' work,' and rated at the specified + pay of 45c an hour. They are also employed for highly skilled + work. A number have succeeded as electric welders and + oxy-acetylene-burners. They have been found well adapted for + work on the air-brake equipment and are cleaning, testing, and + making minor repairs on triple valves. In some places they are + now working in a separate group on the lighter-weight valves, + weighing not more than forty pounds. After a period of + training they are giving satisfaction without the help of any + man operator. + + "A remarkably fine type of woman is now to be seen in many of + the shops, who enjoys the greater freedom of her work as + compared with factory routine, although in many cases the + discomfort, the dirt, and exposure are far greater. It remains + to be seen whether the women will remain in these jobs to any + great extent. The railroads will, of course, recognize the + seniority rights of all their employees returning from military + service, but as far as the new employees are concerned, women + will have the same privileges as other new employees in + retaining their positions or being assigned to other jobs. + There can be no doubt that in the clerical and semi-clerical + positions they have proved their worth, and will to a great + extent be retained." + + +ALIEN LABOR FOR WAR PURPOSES + +The man in the fighting line was only one factor in the prosecution of +warlike operations. The success of strategy and tactics was dependent +upon the organization of the man in the labor line not only at home but +also in the territory behind the miles of trenches in France. For this +purpose Chinese labor was drafted by both the British and the French +Government. Large numbers of British ships sailed with crews practically +consisting of Chinese sailors. The sentiment in favor of Chinese +exclusion had to give way before imperative needs for labor power. There +were tens of thousands of Chinamen in the service of the Allies. In the +_Sunset Magazine_, Mr. G. C. Hodges calls attention to the fact that the +break between the Chinese Republic and Germany was precipitated largely +by the Allied drafting of China's manpower. Even in its beginnings he +says, the French and British mobilization of Chinese labor caused a +diplomatic battle royal. The significance of Chinese labor behind the +battle front is described in the following words: + + "They are a war factor. His Britannic Majesty's Chinese Labor + Corps now behind the battle line in France is almost as large + as the total Chinese population in the United States. The + French Republic has recruited a force of similar dimensions, + bringing Chinese manpower overseas for non-combatant and + industrial work. Even teeming Russia, before its tragic + collapse, had drawn upon thousands of Chinese for work as far + west as the Ural mines. In 1914 there were but 7,000 in this + rich country, but a fourfold increase brought the total to + 30,000. All told, 200,000 Chinese are 'carrying on' in the war + zone, laboring behind the lines, in munition works and + factories, manning ships. + + "Though the pages of no White Book say it, the break between + the Chinese Republic and Germany was precipitated largely by + the Allied drafting of China's manpower. Even in its + beginnings, the French and British mobilization of Chinese + labor caused a diplomatic battle royal." + + +ECONOMIC VALUE OF AMERICAN ARMY TO FRENCH INDUSTRY + +Permanent economic improvements were one result of the presence in +France of the American Expeditionary Force. An industrial movement was +created that will probably continue long after the war is over. In +various French seaports, docks had to be constructed to handle the +enormous tonnage of supplies needed for the American troops. A letter in +the New York _Journal of Commerce_ gives a picture of the transformation +in the transport system in France made in order to handle with speed and +certainty the various supplies on which the American Army depended: + + "Our project comprises nearly 1,000 miles of railroad + construction, but not continuous. France already controls on + her lines such facilities that she has been able to support her + great military burden and not break. Their local development in + the way of sidings and so forth is chiefly in the big towns, + and small engines and cars are used. To meet our larger needs, + it is necessary to establish terminals outside the towns for + the change of engines and for our great storage warehouses. Our + great railway construction in France, apart from a few cut-off + lines, is in the way of storage yards. We have practically the + use of two trunk-line tracks. The French run over them, too, + for there is a tremendous civil population to be supported. The + French are necessarily supreme, and we simply have the right to + run over their railroads subject to their rules. + + "The French have an arrangement with their railroads by which a + piece of track that is put in for military purposes is paid for + by the French Government. If the civil requirements of the + railroad grow up to the use of that particular piece of track, + then the government is reimbursed by the railroad. We are in + the same position toward these railroads as the French + Government. At the end of the war the improvements which we + make will be surveyed. If they are useful to the railroads our + expenditures will be reimbursed. If not, we are at liberty to + take up the stuff and clear the ground. Two days ago a + semi-official statement was made to the Paris press, reading: + + "'Americans, in full agreement with the French authorities, + are making every effort to carry out, by their own means, the + debarkation of their troops in ports, their provisioning as + well as their transportation over our railroads. Sidings, large + stations, and establishments of every kind are being + constructed by the most modern and expeditious processes. One + of the warehouses has an area of about 4,000 acres, and it has + a cold-storage plant capable of holding several thousand tons + of meat. Aviation training camps and repair shops, considerable + in size and with the most improved machinery, are being erected + on every side.'" + + +FRENCH INDUSTRIAL EXHAUSTION + +A realistic picture of the industrial exhaustion of France at the close +of the war was given by M. Tardieu, General Commissioner for +Franco-American war affairs. The war expenses of 120,000,000,000 francs +was only a fractional part of the whole loss. Another 50,000,000,000 +would have to be raised to secure raw material destroyed during the war. +M. Tardieu presented in detail the various items indicating to what +extent France had suffered economic disability and paralysis: + + "The territories which have been under German occupation for + four years were the wealthiest part of France. Their area did + not exceed six per cent. of the whole country. They paid, + however, 25 per cent. of the sum total of our taxes. These + territories are now in a state of ruin even worse than we had + anticipated. Of cities and villages nothing remains but ruins; + 350,000 homes have been destroyed. To build them up again--I am + referring to the building proper, without the furnishings--600 + million days of work will be necessary, involving, together + with building material, an outlay of 10,000,000,000 francs. As + regards personal property of every description either destroyed + by battle or stolen by the Germans, there stands an additional + loss of at least 4,000,000,000 francs. This valuation of lost + personal property does not include--as definite figures are + lacking as yet--the countless war contributions and fines by + the enemy, amounting also to billions. I need hardly say that, + in those wealthy lands, no agricultural resources are left. The + losses in horses and in cattle, bovine and ovine species, hogs, + goats, amount to 1,510,000 head--in agricultural equipment to + 454,000 machines or carts--the two items worth together + 6,000,000,000 francs. + + "As regards industries, the disaster is even more complete. Those + districts occupied by the Germans, and whose machinery has been + methodically destroyed or taken away by the enemy, were, + industrially speaking, the very heart of France, the very backbone + of our production, as shown in the following startling figures: In + 1913 the wool output of our invaded regions amounted to 94 per + cent. of the total. French production and corresponding figures + were: For flax from the spinning mills, 90 per cent.; iron ore, 90 + per cent.; pig iron, 83 per cent.; steel, 70 per cent.; sugar, 70 + per cent.; cotton, 60 per cent.; coal, 55 per cent.; electric + power, 45 per cent. Of all that--plants, machinery, mines--nothing + is left. Everything has been carried away or destroyed by the + enemy. So complete is the destruction that, in the case of our + great coal mines in the north, two years of work will be needed + before a single ton of coal can be extracted and ten years before + the output is brought back to the figures of 1913. + +[Illustration: Samuel P. Gompers + +President of the American Federation of Labor. + +Copyright Underwood & Underwood] + + +THE WORK OF REBUILDING + + "All that must be rebuilt, and to carry out that kind of + reconstruction only, there will be a need of over 2,000,000 + tons of pig iron, nearly 4,000,000 tons of steel--not to + mention the replenishing of stocks and of raw materials which + must of necessity be supplied to the plants during the first + year of resumed activity. If we take into account these + different items, we reach as regards industrial needs a total + of 25,000,000,000 francs. To resurrect these regions, to + reconstruct these factories, raw materials are not now + sufficient; we need means of transportation. The enemy has + destroyed our railroad tracks, our railroad equipment, and our + rolling stock, which, in the first month of the war, in 1914, + reduced by 50,000 cars, has undergone the wear and tear of + fifty months of war. + + "Our merchant fleet, on the other hand, has lost more than a + million tons through submarine warfare. Our shipyards during + the last four years have not built any ships. For they have + produced for us and for our Allies cannon, ammunition, and + tanks. Here, again, for this item alone of means of + transportation we must figure on an expense of 2,500,000,000 + francs. This makes, if I sum up these different items, a need + of raw material which represents in cost, at the present rate + of prices in France, not less than 50,000,000,000 francs." + + + + +IV--GOVERNMENT CONTROL + +Wartime Nationalization of Railways and Shipping--Ship-building at +High Speed--Trade Licensing, Etc. + + +On April 5, 1917, the day before war was declared, Franklin K. Lane, +Secretary of the Interior, introduced and had passed by the Council of +National Defense the following resolution: + + _Resolved_, That Commissioner Willard be requested to call upon + the railroads to organize their business so as to lead to the + greatest expedition in the movement of freight. + +Acting in accordance with this resolution, the principal railroad +executives of the country met in Washington on April 11, 1917, and +resolved that during the war they would coordinate their operations in a +continental railway system, merging during such period all their merely +individual and competitive activities in the effort to produce a maximum +of national transportation efficiency. The direction of the continental +railway system thus organized was placed by the railroads in the hands +of the executive committee of the Special Committee on National Defense +of the American Railway Association. This executive committee was also +known as the Railroads' War Board. + +Under this resolution the railroads of the United States continued to be +operated under private ownership and private management until December +28, 1917. + +On that date President Wilson, exercising his war-time prerogative, took +control of the railways of the country and appointed W. G. McAdoo +Director General. + +2. Congress in January passed a railroad-control bill. + +3. On April 11, 1918, President Wilson issued a proclamation taking over +for the Government the property of coastwise shipping lines. + +4. On May 24th, Director General McAdoo placed in charge of each +railroad property a federal manager whose duty it was to report to the +regional director. + +5. On June 29th, the Railroad Administration relinquished from federal +control nearly 2,000 short-line railroads whose control by the +Administration was regarded as not "needful or desirable." + +During the first six months after the United States entered the war +statistics showed that the railways not only handled far more traffic +than in any earlier six months of their history but also as much as in +any entire year prior to 1907. It will be remembered that the years 1906 +and 1907 marked the climax of a long period of rapid increase of +railroad business which resulted in the longest and most acute +congestion of traffic and shortage that had ever been known prior to the +war period. The grounds offered by the Government for taking over the +railway systems during the war might be explained as the resultant of +the findings of the Interstate Commerce Commission on December 5th, in +which it was stated that the claim of the roads for higher rates could +not be granted. + + "From the standpoint of the Government three principal reasons + are seen for the taking over of the lines: + + "1. The avoidance of obstructions to transportation due to the + routing and division of freight, intended to give a fair share + to each line in a given territory. + + "2. The abolition of preferences to given shippers and kinds of + freight, and the centralization of control over priority in + shipment. + + "3. The practical termination of rate controversies and labor + discussions as between private individuals and the placing of + the roads on a semi-military basis. + + "The railroads themselves have received the announcement of the + President's action with much greater equanimity than could have + been expected. They undoubtedly see in the step the following + advantages: + + "1. Assurance of a moderate if not generous income in a period + of great uncertainty and difficulty, during which they have + been caught between the upper and nether millstones of fixed + rates and advancing costs and wages. + + "2. Termination of the danger that threatened them from the + continually maturing obligations which ordinarily they would + have little trouble in refinancing, but which, under existing + conditions, can scarcely be provided for on any basis. + + "3. Provision of means for betterment and improvement at a time + when such provision can be had practically only through + government orders designed to place such requirements ahead of + those of private concerns." + + +OBJECTS OF GOVERNMENT CONTROL + +This experiment in government control was discussed and explained by the +Director General after six months' experience in the following statement +issued by him on June 15, 1918: + + "The policy of the United States Railroad Administration has + been informed and shaped by a desire to accomplish the + following purposes, which are named in what I conceive to be + the order of their importance: + + "_First_, the winning of the war, which includes the prompt + movement of the men and the material that the Government + requires. To this everything else must be subordinated. + + "_Second_, the service of the public, which is the purpose for + which the railways were built and given the privileges accorded + them. This implies the maintenance and improvement of the + railroad properties so that adequate transportation facilities + will be provided at the lowest cost, the object of the + Government being to furnish service rather than to make money. + + "_Third_, the promotion of a spirit of sympathy and a better + understanding between the administration of the railways and + their two million employees, as well as their one hundred + million patrons, which latter class includes every individual + in the nation, since transportation has become a prime and + universal necessity of civilized existence. + + "_Fourth_, the application of sound economies, including: + + (_a_) The elimination of superfluous expenditures. + + (_b_) The payment of a fair and living wage for services + rendered and a just and prompt compensation for injuries + received. + + (_c_) The purchase of material and equipment at the lowest + prices consistent with a reasonable, but not an excessive, + profit to the producer. + + (_d_) The adoption of standardized equipment and the + introduction of approved devices that will save life and labor. + + (_e_) The routing of freight and passenger traffic with due + regard to the fact that a straight line is the shortest + distance between two points. + + (_f_) The intensive employment of all equipment and a careful + record and scientific study of the results obtained, with a + view to determining the comparative efficiency secured. + + "The development of this policy will, of course, require time. + The task to which the Railroad Administration has addressed + itself is an immense one. It is as yet too early to judge of + the results obtained, but I believe that great progress has + been made toward the goal of our ideals." + + +GOVERNMENT CONTROL CRITICISED + +The defects of the Government administration of the railways have been +the subject of both criticism and apology. A diagnosis published by the +_Engineering News Record_ of New York states that the whole difficulty +is ascribed to the employment of bankers in high places of railway +management. Railroads, it was asserted, cannot be run by men of the +banking type of mind. The article continues: + + "Here was, and is, an agency with daily influence on the life + of every member of the community, performing a service + essential to the nation's life. Yet it has few friends among + the people at large; more now than formerly, however, due to + the number of those whose pity has been excited at the + railroads' plight. The first of the railroads' plagues was the + type of management--manipulation, it would better be + called--which regarded the properties not as carriers but as + media for stock-jobbing operations. Consolidations with the + addition of water, and reconsolidations, with still more water, + were the order of the day; while those operating the properties + danced riotously over their territories waving insolently the + flag of 'The Public Be Damned.' Rebates, car-withholding + tyrannies, all manner of schemes were worked to aid the + favored few, while the purchasing methods honeycombed the + organization with rottenness. + + "Then came the day for the people to have their say, and one + national and forty-eight State commissions began to bedevil the + carriers. What the stock-jobbers and the grafters had failed to + do the people in their vengeance helped to complete. The public + at large, which under intelligent management of the properties + would have been the railroads' best friend, had been alienated. + As a result we have had the drift into bankruptcy which has + been railroad history during the past decade. Instances need + not be cited. Each one can supply them from his own + neighborhood. Probably the mention of the New Haven will + furnish sufficient nausea to carry the right impression. + + "And that _debacle_ we attribute to the banking type of mind, + that type of mind that places personal profit ahead of all + other considerations. The engineering type of mind, we hold, + would have analyzed the purpose of the railroads--would have + seen that service to the public at large, and not to any + private interest, was the prime object, would have erected that + as the railroads' ideal and builded a machine for its + attainment." + + +BRITISH RAILWAY MANAGEMENT + +Like American railways the railway system of Great Britain was under +private control prior to the war, but the experiment of Government +direction began to be applied as soon as the war was declared. +Government control did not mean Government ownership. The lines remained +the property of the companies. They retained the management of their own +concerns subject to the instructions of an executive committee appointed +by the Government and the whole machinery of administration went on as +before. At the beginning the sole purpose was to facilitate the movement +of troops, but as the war developed the scope of the railway executive +committee became greatly extended. Working in cooperation with the +acting chairman were twelve general managers of leading British lines. +Under the central body were groups of committees, each made up of +railway experts. The War Office and the Director General of Transport +were in touch with the Central Committee. A writer in the _Railway Age +Gazette_ for December, 1917, explains the arrangements as follows: + + "Under the terms on which the railways were taken over for the + period of the war the Government guaranteed to the proprietors + of the railways that their net revenue should be the same as in + 1913, except when the net receipts for the first half of 1914 + were less than the first half of 1913; in that case the sum + payable was to be reduced in the same proportion. The entire + Government traffic--men and freight--was to be carried without + any direct charge being made for it or any accounts rendered. + This plan was considered satisfactory by both sides. In the + majority of cases there had been a reduction of earnings in the + first half of 1914 over the previous half-year, and companies + were contemplating a still further reduction. The interests of + their shareholders being assured, they were able to devote + themselves to the work of economical and efficient + distribution, quite apart from the usual financial problems. + The one weak side of this agreement was that it made no + allowance to cover increased interest payments on account of + new investments and new capital expenditure since the war + began. This point was afterward met by an arrangement that the + government should pay interest at 4 per cent. on all new + capital invested by the railways since August 4, 1914, on new + lines, branches, terminals, equipment, or other facilities put + into use since January 1, 1913. + + "The conclusion of the financial agreement between the + Government and the companies automatically brought about a + great economy in the system of railway accounts. The reports of + the companies were cut down to a bare minimum, and in many + cases even these reduced reports were not sent to the + shareholders unless they specially asked for them." + + +RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION IN CANADA + +A definite proposal to nationalize the railway systems of the Dominion +of Canada was made during the war. Canada has nearly one-sixth of the +railway mileage of the United States, although it has less than +one-fourteenth of the population. Canada has three trans-continental +systems. There is sufficient trade in the Dominion for two good systems. +A royal commission appointed to inquire into the subject reported that +the net returns of the railways were so low as to prove that more +railways had been built than could be justified on commercial grounds. +Large subsidies had been granted by the Government. In the case of the +Grand Trunk Pacific this public subsidy amounted to nearly two-thirds of +the total investment; in the case of the Canadian Northern to nearly +three-quarters. The Canadian Pacific was reported as the strongest +railway in Canada, economically built and well managed. The other +companies, such as the Canadian Northern and the Grand Trunk Pacific, +were facing heavy annual deficits. + +[Illustration: Walker D. Hines + +He succeeded William McAdoo as Director-General of Railroads after the +signing of the armistice. + +Copyright Underwood & Underwood] + +The commissioners recommended heroic measures. They did not consider +that operation by a Minister directly responsible to Parliament would be +in the public interest. It would not secure better service nor lower +rates. What the commissioners did recommend was to transfer the three +companies to a new body, a board of trustees to be incorporated as the +Dominion Railway Company and that the Canadian Northern, the Canadian +Pacific and the Grand Trunk Pacific be transferred to this body. The +Government-owned Intercolonial and Transcontinental Railways stretching +from Halifax to Winnipeg were to be transferred to the Dominion Company. +Under the scheme worked out by the commission, the Government would +assume responsibility to the Dominion Railway Company for the interest +on existing securities of the transferred companies. As to the +composition of the board of trustees, the commissioner recommended that +they be five; three railway members, one member selected on the ground +of business and financial experience and one as especially possessing +the confidence of the railway employees. The commissioners laid stress +on the importance of the board being non-political, permanent and +self-perpetuating, and in this connection pointed to the experience of +the Australian state railways. + + +FRENCH RAILWAYS IN WARTIME + +The great strain on a country's railway system caused by war was +illustrated by the French mobilization. Four thousand seven hundred and +fifty trains were required. After mobilization was over the Army still +had a permanent need of railways for two purposes: for its +communications in the rear, and for its movements from place to place. +To bring supplies to one Army corps trainloads aggregating 200 tons a +day were required. + +Mr. G. Blanchon in _New Warfare_ explained the situation as follows: + + "The preparation of railways for war uses is not confined to + the planning of the system itself. It extends to the provision + and adaptation of stations, to the duplication of the lines, to + the defence of bridges and other structures, to the provision + of rolling-stock. Considerable extension may be looked for in + all these directions. However important the motor-car and the + aeroplane may be in military transport, it is probable that the + railways will always be the most satisfactory means of + conveying heavy material. + + "The railway carriage itself can be adapted for military uses. + We have tank cars, cold-storage cars, hospital trains; above + all, we have armored trains and truck gun-carriages. + + "Railways will perhaps render more effective service than ever + in the matter of bringing to the required spot huge guns too + heavy to be transported in any other way. These will be fired + without leaving the rails. The truck gun-carriage is so + arranged as to withstand the recoil; this result is obtained by + placing on the ground, once the carriage is stationary, + supports which take the load off the wheels. The recoil is + transferred to the ground so that the rails do not suffer. + + "Whether the object is to organize a supply line, to transfer + reinforcements, or to carry heavy material to its destination, + it may be of service to provide for the absence of normal lines + by laying down rails along the road. Both the Germans and + ourselves have done this very frequently. A narrow gauge of + sixty centimeters is generally used. A team of skilled sappers + takes about three hours to lay down about one kilometer of + railway." + + +AMERICA'S SHIPPING PREPARATION + +The two great means of transport--railways and ships--furnished in this +war the greatest examples of modified state socialism which America had +yet seen. As to the general way in which they were controlled these two +services show a fairly close family resemblance, though the forms of +organization were technically quite different. The larger railroads and +the larger ships were taken possession of by the Government and were +operated by the same people, in general, who operated them before, but +under orders of the Railroad Administration and the Shipping Board +respectively. New ships and new railroad equipment were built on plans +made under federal direction, and in both cases the output was being +largely standardized. The heads of the Shipping Board and the Emergency +Fleet Corporation were men drawn from private business, while the +regional directors of the railroad regions and the federal managers of +the separate roads were railroad men, usually managing their own roads, +under the government's direction. Thus in both cases private enterprise +furnished the traditions and training of the personnel that made this +experiment in socialism. + +Besides the points of likeness there were differences between the two +services. In the case of ship-building, the industry was virtually +re-created, so great was the expansion and the revolution in methods. In +the case of railroads the emphasis was, as has been seen, on the task of +utilizing an existing and limited plant to its utmost capacity for war +purposes. + + +WAR'S EFFECT ON SHIPPING + +The following table, taken from a pamphlet distributed by the Emergency +Fleet Corporation six months before the conclusion of the war, gives a +perspicuous view of the shipping situation at the opening of military +operations in the United States: + + + THE WAR AND WORLD SHIPPING + + Gross Tons + World's shipping (except German and + Austrian) August 1, 1914 42,574,537 + Additional ships built, August, 1914- + December 31, 1917 6,621,003 + German and Austrian interned ships + available for use of Allies 875,000 + ---------- + Total 50,070,540 + + + Losses since 1914. + + Due to ordinary causes. 1,600,000 + Due to mines, raiders + and submarines: + Allies 8,900,119[17] + Norway 1,031,778 + Other neutrals 400,000 + + Total 11,931,897 + ---------- + Balance actual tonnage available 38,138,643 + + Net decrease since 1914 4,435,894 + + Add 2 tons constantly required to + maintain each man in France + (1,500,000 men x 2) 3,000,000 + + Shortage for merchant traffic, at least 7,435,894 + +[17] To October, 1917. + +Another table gives a view of the rates between the building and sinking +of ships among the Allied, neutral, and British nations from the +beginning of the war to April, 1918: + + "The world's shipping suffered a net loss of 2,632,279 tons + from the beginning of the war to April 1, 1918, the greater + part of this having occurred since the beginning of the + unrestricted submarine warfare which brought America into the + war. This loss is partly due to England's having increased her + naval building at the expense of merchant tonnage. While naval + construction must not be neglected, some building capacity can + be turned back to merchant ship-building in case of extreme + need. However, in April, 1918, Great Britain and the United + States built 40,000 tons more shipping than was lost, and + American construction is still rapidly increasing." + + +AMERICA'S SHIP-BUILDING PROGRAM + +American ship-building was planned on grandiose lines, partly to make +good the losses by submarine, partly to provide transportation for +American troops to Europe, and partly for propaganda purposes in +friendly and in enemy countries. The American program was an ambitious +one. Inflated figures were offered for popular consumption and +undoubtedly they were consumed and had their influence in securing a +successful close to the struggle. While reports were coming from Great +Britain telling of constant labor troubles on the Clyde and other +ship-building localities, every item of news from Washington spoke of +the marvelous achievements of American ship-building. One message read +after eight months of the war had passed: "For the first time in history +America has outdistanced England in her ship-building output." + +Foreign critics called attention to the fact that American figures of +ship-building (1918) had a different basis of valuation from those of +other countries. In one case there were vessels completed and entered +for service, and in another there were vessels launched. The situation +is presented by the London _Economist_: + + "British shipping, still in magnitude far beyond that of any of + the Allies, is declining; it is still being sunk faster than it + is being replaced. American shipping, on the other hand, is + rapidly expanding, and has already turned the scale against the + U-boats. The American Army in France as it is reinforced must + become more and more dependent upon American ships for + transport and supply. Up to the end of July the net loss in + British shipping due to enemy action and marine risks since + August, 1914, had been 3,851,537 gross tons. During the current + year to July 31 we have lost 583,600 gross tons more than we + have built. British sea power, the power to use the sea as + measured in merchant shipping, is wasting. On the other hand, + the net gain since August, 1914, in Allied and neutral + shipping--to which the United States have largely + contributed--was nearly 1,100,000 tons at the end of June this + year, and was showing a very remarkable rate of expansion. + Thanks chiefly to the United States, the Allied and neutral + monthly gain now more than offsets the British loss. The + critical corner has been turned. To those whose eyes look + beyond the war, and who already anticipate a great American + mercantile marine in competition with depleted British lines, + we would point out that after all its losses British merchant + shipping still amounts to over 14,000,000 tons gross, and that + America's ocean-going tonnage built and completing--exclusive + of captures--is as yet little more than 4,000,000. What the + relative positions will be a year hence--or two years hence, + should the war last so long--we do not venture to predict." + + +THE FOURTH OF JULY SPLASH + +Reports of the Shipping Board's activity led to expectations of an +unprecedented number of ships to be launched, fitted and ready for +transport and trade purposes within a very short interval. Much +enthusiasm was created by the Fourth of July splash, 1918, when, +according to the New York _Tribune_, in twelve hours steel and wooden +ships hit the water in clouds of smoke and spray, at the rate of one +every seven minutes. The era of Mr. Jefferson Brick had undoubtedly +returned, for the _Tribune_ went on to expatiate in poetical exuberance +that the shores of "Puget Sound, San Francisco Bay, Columbia river, the +Gulf of Mexico, the Delaware, Chesapeake Bay, New York Bay, and all the +coast of New England and the Great Lakes were laved by the backwash of +the great ships of the Liberty Fleet rushing to their proper element." +The Bureau of Navigation estimated that by the end of June, 1918, 1,622 +ships of 1,430,793 gross tons would be launched--more than double the +output of German yards in times of peace. One article refers to the +actual event as follows: + +[Illustration: Copyright by Charles Phillip Norton + +Building a Steel Ship in Seattle, Washington + +American ship-building during the war was planned on a gigantic scale to +make good the losses by submarines and to provide transportation for +American troops to Europe. The _West Lianga_, shown above, an 8,800-ton +cargo carrier was launched within 55 working days and delivered, ready +for cargo, in 67 days.] + + AMERICAN LOSSES--NEW TONNAGE BUILT + + "At San Francisco on July 4th, Mr. Charles M. Schwab, + Director-General of the Emergency Fleet Corporation, said to + the shipworkers: 'If you stand up to your job, we'll make the + Kaiser take his medicine lying down.' Mr. Schwab also ventured + the statement that this Fourth of July shows the greatest + record of launchings for a single day in the world's history, + and added: + + "'Every time we launch a cargo or troopship or tanker we add to + the certainty that German submarines can not win this war. + Already we have the U-boats on the run, and if we keep up the + pace we will have them beaten by next year. And when we achieve + this victory it will be you who will deserve the credit. + + "'In 1915 all the shipyards in America turned out 215,602 + dead-weight tons of shipping. The next year our output jumped + to 520,847 tons. In 1917 the hot pace continued until we very + nearly doubled the output of the previous year, completing a + total of 901,223. I am confident now that if we pull together + and every man stays on the job, we will produce more than + 3,000,000 dead-weight tons in 1918--the greatest output of any + nation in the world in a single year.' + + "Premier Lloyd George sent a cable to President Wilson on the + launching of the ships, in which he extended 'heartfelt + congratulations on this magnificent performance,' and in an + Independence-day speech Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels + said in part: + + "'We are launching this day far more tonnage than that of all + the American vessels sunk by submarines since the war began. We + are launching today more than the Germans sank of the ships of + all nations in the last month for which we have the official + figures. The recent enemy submarine activities off our coast + resulted in the loss of 25,411 dead-weight tons of American + shipping. During this same time 130,000 gross tons of shipping + were built. + + "'To give some idea of the tonnage situation with reference to + American shipping, it may be of interest to know that the total + tonnage of American vessels lost prior to the entry of the + United States into the war was 67,815. The total American + tonnage sunk since the entry of the United States into the war + is 284,408, or a total of 352,223 tons sunk during the whole + period of the European War. As against this loss, the gross + tonnage of merchant ships built in the United States since the + commencement of the European War is 2,722,563 tons, 1,736,664 + gross tons of which have been built since the entry of the + United States into the war. In addition to the tonnage thus + built 650,000 tons of German shipping have been taken over. + This does not include the tonnage acquired of Dutch, Japanese, + and other vessels. It will be of further interest to know that + today there will be launched in the great shipyards of this + country over 400,000 dead-weight tons. These figures are in + addition to those previously given.'" + + +A SHIP-BUILDING CAPACITY OF OVER 1,500,000 TONS A YEAR + +The war program of the Shipping Board implied a multiplication by three +of existing outputs. This increased output signified the possibility of +labor difficulties, and in order to prevent these an agreement was +reached between representatives of the labor unions, the Navy +Department, the Shipping Board and the Emergency Fleet Corporation, to +the effect that all disputes concerning wages, hours or conditions in +shipyards in ship-building plants should be determined by a committee of +three, one representing the corporation, one nominated by the President +and the third selected by Mr. Samuel Gompers. When this agreement was +entered into the United States reported a ship-building capacity of over +one and one-half million gross tons a year. Two years previously the +ship-building capacity was only five hundred thousand tons, but +according to the London _Economist_, a rate of four million gross tons a +year would have to be supplied if the American Army was to have +sufficient means of transport. + +When this forecast was made on both sides of the Atlantic, it was +realized that so far as the marine situation was concerned the war had +become simply a question of ship-building against the submarine. +Military operations intervened to prevent a full test of our +ship-building strength, but there was full confidence in the United +States that American ship-building would by increased production make +the German submarine program an inconsiderable factor in the question of +terminating the war. + + +TRANSPORTING THE AMERICAN ARMY + +When there came a demand for an increase of man-power to be sent to the +battle front few appreciated what this effort meant in its effect on +increased shipping activities. Half a million American soldiers crossed +the Atlantic in the first thirteen months of the war, after our entrance +into the war, and a million and a half in the last six months of the +war. The shipment across the Atlantic was at first anything but rapid. +There were only a few American and British troop ships chartered +directly from their owners. Then the former German liners were brought +into service and with this addition embarkations greatly increased. + +[Illustration: Hog Island Ship-building Yards + +The expenditure of millions of dollars and the labor of thousands of +workmen transformed in a short time a tract of marsh lands near +Philadelphia into one of the greatest ship yards in the world.] + +Early in 1918 increased shipping facilities were arranged for with the +British Government. The results of this arrangement became visible in +the growth of troop movements for March, 1918. Then there came the great +German drive; after this every ship that could be secured was pressed +into service. More British troop ships were used. Accordingly, in May, +1918, more than twice as many men were carried as in April. The June +record was greater than that of May and before the first of July one +million had been embarked. During the summer the number carried was more +than 10,000 men per day. This record has only been excelled by the +achievement in bringing back the same men to the shores of the United +States.[18] + +[18] For complete official figures of the troop movement overseas, see +Volume IV. + +In addition to the transatlantic fleet there was an American +cross-channel fleet carrying men and cargo from England to France. This +fleet consisted of more than a third of a million tons by the end of +1918. One-fourth of these vessels were Swedish or Norwegian, while the +rest were American. This fleet comprised large numbers of small wood and +steel vessels built by the Emergency Fleet Corporation at the yards of +the Great Lakes and along the coast. + + +ACCELERATED SHIPPING + +The Emergency Fleet Corporation turned over nearly a million tons of new +ships for military purposes, and besides Scandinavian and Japanese +tonnage was chartered. By doing this and by taking over lake steamers +the large tonnage figures were secured, but it must be remembered that +the Allies were largely concerned in the American troop movement. Of +every 100 men who went over, 49 went in British ships, 45 in American, +three in Italian, two in French and one in Russian shipping under +British control. Moreover, a way was found to increase the loading of +transports by as much as 50 per cent. + +The duration of the voyage round trip was considerably decreased. In the +spring of 1917 the average turn around for troop ships was 52 days. Some +of the fast ships averaged under 30. The _Leviathan_, for example, +landed the equivalent of a German division in France each month. Most of +the cargo ships were American and these ships carried thousands of +articles of the most varied sort. Nearly one-half of all the cargoes +consisted of food and clothing. Then came the engineering and ordnance +supplies. A large number of locomotives were shipped, set up on their +own wheels so that they could be unloaded on the tracks in France and +run off in a few hours under their own steam. These locomotives were of +the hundred-ton type. Shipments of this type had never been made before. +When the armistice was signed the Army was prepared to ship these set-up +locomotives at the rate of 200 a month. The actual record shows that +1,791 were sent to France on transports. + +Nearly 27,000 standard-gauge freight cars were shipped abroad, and motor +trucks to the number of 47,000; rails and fittings were sent to France +aggregating in all 423,000 tons. Moreover, the Army shipped nearly +70,000 horses and mules. The increase in the shipping of cargo from the +United States was consistently maintained from the start of the war, and +at its cessation it was undergoing marked acceleration. + + +BRITISH SHIP-BUILDING + +Ship-building in England was taken over by the government early in the +war. This plan was described by many as an example of a blundering +surrender to Socialism and a concession to bureaucratic tendencies. +These critics pointed to the fact that in 1914 British shipping tonnage +had reached the figure of 19 million tons, an increase of over 10 +millions in 15 years; and this was done in spite of subsidized +competition from abroad and lack of reasonable encouragement at home. +The policy of government interference was regarded as simply a method of +discouraging English initiative in this industry. A writer in the London +_Outlook_, Mr. E. T. Good, described the project in a most unfavorable +light: + + "On top of foreign subsidized competition our people are to be + subjected to Government competition at home, and their whole + position and prospects rendered uncertain, if not impossible. + This new government undertaking can have nothing but a + chilling, blighting effect upon our splendid ship-building and + engineering trades, and it will not give us one additional ton + of shipping. The government policy--or lack of policy--is such + that no one knows what to expect next. There is no certainty. + There is no continuity of policy. There is no encouragement. + There is no common justice for British enterprise. Whilst + Germany, France, Italy and other nations are preparing large + subsidization schemes for their shipping and ship-building + trades, our government excessively penalizes our industries and + enterprises, and gives no hint of any fair dealing in the + future. Before the war German subsidized liners were permitted + to come into our harbors and take on board British passengers + at 'blackleg' rates, and without paying even a due share for + the upkeep of our ports and lights. Now our government, whilst + paying neutral shipowners--our future rivals--freights up to as + much as 500 per cent. above the Bluebook rates paid to our own + vessels, is taxing our shipping people up to the eyes--doing + all that it can to render it difficult, if not impossible, for + our companies to increase their fleets and maintain British + supremacy after the war." + +[Illustration: Copyright by Underwood & Underwood + +Launching the City of Portland on the Columbia River, near Portland, +Oregon + +Most of the cargo ships that carried supplies to our troops after we +entered the war were American owned, and carried thousands of articles +of the most varied sort. The _City of Portland_, shown above, was a +three hundred foot wooden motor vessel.] + +It must be remembered that Great Britain's shipping problem was a matter +of extreme complexity. There were first of all the submarine sinkings. +There was the lack of labour for ship-building. There was, besides, the +fact that the tonnage available for ordinary imports was considerably +lessened by the commandeering of merchant ships for the carriage of +government material. The following statement of the problem was +presented by the British Premier himself in August, 1917: + + "In addition to this, the Shipping Controller has taken steps + for the quickening of ship-building. The tonnage built in this + country during peace times is, I think, on an average + something a little under 2,000,000. In 1915 the ship-building + came to 688,000 tons. In 1916 it was 538,000 tons. In this year + a little over a million tons, nearly 1,100,000 tons, will be + built in this country and 330,000 tons will be acquired abroad, + so that this year the tonnage which we shall acquire will be + 1,900,000. This is purely mercantile marine. Bear in mind the + condition under which the tonnage is built. It is the fourth + year of the war. There is a difficulty in labor and great + difficulty in material. You require steel for guns and shells + for the Navy, because the ship-building program of the Navy has + gone up considerably in the course of the present year. In + spite of that fact the ship-building of the country in this + year will not be very far from what it was in the days of + peace. + + "Even now we have not got enough tonnage for all essential + purposes. We have got to provide tonnage for France, Italy and + Russia, as well as for ourselves, and we need more ships + instead of fewer ships. And I am not going to pretend that + there will not be at best a rate of diminution of our shipping + which will embarrass us in the struggle, and therefore it is + essential, not merely that this country should build, but that + the only other countries which have a great ship-building + capacity should also build. If the United States of America + puts forth the whole of her capacity, and I have no doubt, from + what I hear, that she is preparing to do it in her own thorough + and enterprising way, I have no doubt at all that we shall have + sufficient tonnage not merely for this year but for the whole + of 1918 and, if necessary, for 1919 as well, because America + can expand very considerably her ship-building capacity if the + real need ever arises for her to do so." + + +BRITISH BUREAUCRATIC METHODS + +On the whole it must be allowed that after the results were published +there was a great disappointment, particularly as the government had put +forth roseate plans for ship-building on a large scale. At the beginning +of the war there were 16 million tons gross of steamers of more than 600 +tons each. A large part of this total was used in the service of the +Navy; and the balance, available for the carriage of food, materials and +exports, was lost during the submarine campaign. The government seemed +to show no ability to replace it. Sometimes it is contended that the +responsibility was to be charged up to the labor organizations. +According to the _Economist_ the situation was due to bureaucratic +methods of control. + +In a debate in Parliament the whole subject was ventilated: + + "From every quarter members with first-hand knowledge of + ship-building got up to tell the same story of + over-centralization, fussy control, conflicting orders, leading + all to the same result--discouragement of masters and men. Mr. + Mackinder, speaking for a Glasgow constituency, and Sir Walter + Runciman, speaking as a ship-owner--two men whose views on + economics are the poles apart--were in agreement here. The + fault, they declared, lay, not in the want of patriotism or the + inherent vice of the British workman, or even in the lethargy + of the British employer, but in the third and predominant + member of the ship-building partnership, the British + Government. Keeping the direction in its own hands, the + Government started with a preconceived theory of the standard + ship--a theory that might be of great value to a builder of + revolutionary ideas laying the foundations of a prosperity to + be enjoyed twenty years hence, but is of considerably less + value to a nation that is losing steamers at the rate of + fifteen or twenty a week, and wants new steamers now. When the + standard ship was first proposed, builders pointed out that in + practice each had a standard ship of his own, and they could + build most quickly by confining themselves to their own + familiar types. Mr. Macnamara told them that they were + Solomons, wise after the event, but that is less than fair. + They were wise from the beginning, and their predictions have + come true." + + +TRADE POLICY AS A WAR WEAPON + +The building of ships under Government supervision and control was only +one side of Allied war shipping administration. Seaborne trade was +rigidly directed as a potent arm in bringing Germany's war power to +ruin. The industrial and economic effect of the marine blockade was +fully conceded by a number of German and Austrian newspapers. + +_The Frankfurter Zeitung_ said: + + "If the final peace does not return to us what our enemies have + taken and destroyed in the outside world, if it does not + restore to us freedom in our work and our spirit of enterprise + in the world, then the German people is crippled for an + immeasurable period. We demand restoration for all violation of + the law and for all acts of destruction. We demand + indemnification for all damages done, and we meet the plan of + differentiation with the demand for the most-favored-nation + treatment and equal rights; the plan of exclusion with the + demand for the open door and free seas; and the threat of a + blockade of raw materials with the demand for the delivery of + raw materials." + +A true picture of the situation is given in the following passage from +the Vienna _Arbeiter Zeitung_: + + "Even if Hindenburg's genius and German bravery won a complete + victory on land, even if the English Army fell into our hands + to the last man, and France was disarmed and had to submit to + Germany's terms, even then England and America could not be + compelled to the capitulation that the Pan-German word-heroes + prophesy daily. Even then they would blockade our coasts and + the war would continue at sea. And even if they could not or + would not do that, even if peace was concluded and all the + battles ended, they would still have a terrible weapon to use + against us. Our domestic economy can not exist permanently + without the wheat, the copper, and the cotton from America, the + nickel from Canada, the cotton from Egypt and India, the + phosphates from the North African coasts, the rubber from the + English tropical colonies, Indian jute, and the oilplants of + the South Sea Islands. + + "There will be a scarcity of all these things after the war and + there will be great competition for them. If England and + America do not deliver to us these raw materials after the war, + then we as conquerors are conquered." + + +GERMANY'S POTASH BOYCOTT + +Before we entered the war Germany viewed with great concern the effect +of the economic weight of the United States if added to the side of her +antagonists. She felt that if this country remained neutral she could +depend on us for raw materials. To be sure, German ingenuity had +produced ten thousand substitutes, due to the skill of German chemists, +ranging from bacteria fats to synthetic rubber. But even the War Office +in Berlin was under no illusion on this point. "We need copper and no +stripping of palace roofs, no raiding of door knockers or kitchen pans +can make up for the deficiency." Even the vision of economic +self-sufficiency in Central Europe had rifts in it. Raw material was so +important that, in the boot and shoe industry 1,400 factories in the +German Empire were amalgamated into 300. In the silk industry the spools +were reduced from 45,000 to 2,500. Out of 1,700 spinning and weaving +mills, only 70 were running at high pressure. + +The plan, as outlined by German experts, to force the United States to +supply raw material was to cut off potash exports and certain +manufactured goods. "If America will sell us no cotton," was the threat +of the Berlin _Deutsche-Zeitung_, "she shall get no potash--the +indispensable fertilizer in which we have a world monopoly. If she +withholds her oil and grain, then she shall get no _dyes_, no drugs, no +glassware or optical instruments." But as a writer in the London +_Outlook_ stated, this threat could not be made an effective instrument +of trade control: + + "There is potash in plenty in the great Republic, especially in + the alkali lakes of Nebraska and Southern California. Potash is + now obtained from the Great Salt Lake in Utah, and from the + vast kelp beds of the Pacific coast. American chemists are also + extracting potash (by the Cottrell process) from the dust of + cement-kilns and blast-furnaces. So the German monopoly will + pass, and many others with it. America will produce her own + dyes and optical instruments, though I may not linger on the + details of this supplanting. + + "American genius has long been busy with these things; another + year or two will see her wholly independent of German supplies. + The potash monopoly--from the mines of Stassfurt in Saxony--was + undeniably a problem; there are still richer sources in Alsace, + as we all know Germany's resolve to hold that province through + thick and thin. America needs 500,000 tons of potash every + year, for the sandy soils of the Atlantic seaboard, and also + for the citrus fruits of Florida, the tobacco of Georgia and + the Carolinas, the potatoes and garden produce of Maryland." + + +SHUTTING OFF GERMAN TRADE + +Pessimistic anticipations of German statesmen regarding the curtailing +of German trade were realized when the War Trade Board in the United +States began to deal with the question of American exports to neutrals. +The report of the Board, published in 1918, contains the following +passage: + + "Neutral exports of foodstuffs to the Central Powers have + declined from last year's corresponding exports in amounts + estimated at from 65 to 85 per cent., depending on the neutral, + and there has been a decrease in the export of many other + important commodities. + + "In November, 1917, we became party to Great Britain's + tentative agreement with Norway, as a result of which action on + our part 1,400,000 tons dead-weight of Norwegian shipping were + chartered into the service of the United States and Great + Britain for the period of the war. Shortly following, temporary + agreements were concluded with Holland and with Sweden. That + with Holland gives us the use, for periods up to 90 days, of + 450,000 tons dead-weight of her shipping which had heretofore, + for a long period, lain idle. The agreement with Sweden gives + us the use for three months of tonnage estimated at 250,000 + tons dead-weight which had not theretofore been employed in + services useful to us. + + "Specific accomplishments of this character are, however, far + from constituting a full measure of the results achieved by the + War Trade Board. The elimination of enemy advantage from our + trade and, to a considerable extent, from that of the world, + the securing and conserving of commodities essential to + ourselves and those associated with us in the war, the bringing + of shipping generally into the services most useful to + us--these results can not be accurately stated or appraised at + the present time, nor have they been accomplished by any single + act or agreement." + +[Illustration: Examining Cargoes for Contraband + +An inspector is using the X-ray on a bale of cotton, it having been +found that smuggling of every conceivable sort was being carried by +German agents.] + + +THE TRADE LICENSE SYSTEM + +The United States trade license system was extremely effective in +cutting off the business of firms whose controlling motive was the +advancement of German commercial interests. It was largely directed +against preventing pro-German firms in neutral countries from engaging +in the re-exportation process, a familiar practice in the earlier part +of the war. The policy of the War Trade Board is indicated in the March +(1918) issue of the _War Trade Journal_: + + "To accomplish these results the War Trade Board, through its + Bureau of Imports, has adopted certain regulations in + connection with the importation of many of these raw materials, + to which it is the duty of every patriotic American citizen to + give complete and wholehearted support. + + "Organizations have been voluntarily created in many of the + trades, such as rubber, wool, jute, tin, etc., to act as + consignees when required and to perform other duties in + connection with importations, under and by direction of the War + Trade Board. + + "Every effort will be made to administer these regulations with + the slightest possible detriment to legitimate business + interests, but when it is considered that the transmittal of a + few pounds of rubber or copper to Germany may cost the lives of + scores of our men at the front, and that each day's supply of + wool, or food, or money to the enemy means another day's war, + with its accompanying toll of lives, the very thought of + hesitancy or weakness is inconceivable. The policy will be + 'safety first' for our soldiers, regardless of every other + consideration. Persons and firms in this country, as well as + abroad, who before our entrance into the war had little + sympathy with the war-time commercial safeguards of the Allies + must be taught that these are now matters of the first + importance to this country, and violators of present + restrictions need expect no favors, regardless of how important + such individuals or firms may be in the business world. The + time has come when all must realize that the war is not limited + to combating the enemy on the battle fields of France, but must + be carried into our every-day transactions of life, and that + our business practices must be remolded, where necessary, to + meet existing conditions. + + "It is unnecessary to mention other desirable results which may + be obtained by this import control, such as the gathering of + trade information or the conservation of tonnage by elimination + of non-essentials. + + "No anxiety need be felt by importers that there will be any + serious restrictions of the importation of necessary articles + if the transaction does not involve dealing with an enemy or + ally of an enemy, or otherwise giving him aid or comfort." + + +THE ANTI-GERMAN TOY EPISODE + +An example of the intense popular indignation against encouraging trade +with Germany was furnished when a Dutch boat arrived in New York in +1918, laden with 400 cases of toys made in Germany. The ship that +carried them had been guaranteed against submarines by the German +Government. Its arrival in America brought about a storm of indignation +strong enough to remind many editors of the famous Boston Tea-Party. One +of the consignees of the cargo refused to accept delivery of his share; +the _Manufacturers Record_ of Baltimore offered him its congratulations: + + "It is none too soon to begin the campaign against the + importation of German-made goods. Imagine for one moment any + American mother giving to her baby toys made by Germany while + she thinks of tens of thousands of babies murdered by Germany + in this war. Every toy made in Germany and every other piece of + goods of every kind will for generations bear a bloody stain + which all the waters of all the oceans can never wash out." + +Patriotic organizations passed resolutions on the subject. American +feeling as to German merchandise was well shown through the publication +of an editorial in the _Hardware Age_ against American use of German +toys. The paper received 4,000 letters on the subject and over 250,000 +reprints of the editorial were sent out, all on request. On the subject +of German toys, it said, among other things: + + "America has fed starving Belgium. We fed and clothed and cared + for her suffering people long before we became her proud ally + on the battlefields. Thousands of orphaned Belgian and French + children have been adopted into American homes. In the days to + come are we going to force these children to play with + German-made toys? God forbid! American toy manufacturers have + stripped us of the last vestige of an excuse for the purchase + of toys from the Huns. Our factories are making more toys than + we ever imported, and they are not the flimsy jim-cracks we + formerly bought from abroad. They are largely exercise toys + which develop a child's body, or mechanical or structural toys + which train the mind. Before the war we imported eight million + dollars' worth of toys from the Central Powers. Who will make + our kiddies' toys in the days to come? Once more, Mr. Buyer, + it's up to you." + + +SMUGGLING FROM NEUTRAL COUNTRIES + +Considerable aid was afforded to Germany by her trade with neutral +countries. First, there was a good deal of direct re-exportation of +materials imported from abroad. Then there was an exportation of +domestic products, and the filling up of this deficit by importation +from abroad, mainly from the United States. Mr. J. L. Moore of Harvard +University, thought that smuggling deserved to be added to the source of +German supply from the outside, and he mentioned the fact that a member +of the Commerce Department of the Swiss Government was convicted of this +offense and served a prison sentence. His exposition of how neutrals +aided Germany is given in the following passage from the New York +_Times_: + + "To direct and indirect re-exportation must be added, finally, + smuggling, which has always been a factor in the evasion of + blockades. In Switzerland a member of the Commerce Department + of the government was recently convicted of this offense and is + serving a prison sentence. + + "That this aid was precious to the Central Powers and enabled + them to stave off starvation and consequent submission can be + corroborated in various ways. First, in spite of the enormous + volume of imports from the neutrals Germany was on the verge of + starvation during the last winter, the economic crisis reaching + its critical stage coincidentally with the political crisis in + the Reichstag at the beginning of July. The most potent cause + of this political upheaval was the economic destitution which + cast its melancholy shadow over the whole nation and increased + the desperation of people and Reichstag till it exploded in a + violent outburst of wrath against the government. Secondly, the + general impression of press and people in Germany and + Switzerland is that the most sensational part of the speech of + Erzberger, which brought the crisis into being, consisted of an + expose proving the futility of the submarine policy and + impugning the judgment of the officials responsible for its + inauguration, inasmuch as the entrance of the United States + into the list of Germany's enemies, which resulted therefrom, + was likely to result in a curtailment of the imports obtained + through the neutrals, and without a continuance of these + imports Germany could not hold out long." + + +SURPRISING INCREASE OF NEUTRAL SHIPPING + +The shutting off of the German commercial fleet from trade and the +employment of Allied shipping under government contract offered an +exceptional opportunity to small neutral countries to advance their +shipping business. This opportunity was eagerly seized. Norway reported +the establishment in 1915 of no fewer than 488 shipping firms. This was +followed in 1916 by an increase of 459. Some of these Norwegian firms +paid dividends as high as 400 per cent. Statistics from Sweden also show +a significant expansion. Swedish firms of inconsiderable capitalization +before the war became important companies, able to undertake +transatlantic trade on a large scale. It seems likely that these Swedish +transatlantic lines will constitute a formidable competitor to the old +established German companies--now that the war is over. + +Corroborative evidence on the shipping situation in neutral powers is +found in the following passage taken from the New York _Journal of +Commerce_: + + "Of great importance for an estimate of the future of our + shipping combines is the progress which the two largest Danish + lines--the Forenede, which sails to North America; and the + Estasiatisk Kompagni, which, as the name suggests, runs lines + to East Asia--have made during the war. The Forenede, for + instance, made in 1916, with a stock capital of 30,000,000 + crowns, a net profit of no less than 40,000,000 crowns, of + which a good 10,500,000 crowns was allotted to the reserve and + emergency funds. The collective reserves of this company + amounted to more than 26,000,000 crowns at the end of 1916: and + its bank credits totaled 44,000,000 crowns. + + "The large Dutch shipping firms have likewise made enormous + profits. The following table presents their results for 1916 + (the Dutch florin, or guilder, is worth $0.402 United States + currency at normal exchange): + + Reserve and + Stock Net Emergency + Shipping Firm Capital, Profits, Funds, + Florins Florins Florins + + Holland-Amer. Line 12,000,000 26,500,000 10,200,000 + Stoomvaart Mij. Nederland 19,000,000 18,600,000 8,800,000 + Kon. Nederl. Stoomboot Mij 15,050,000 19,000,000 7,800,000 + Rotterdamsche Lloyd 15,000,000 15,100,000 12,600,000 + Kon. Holland Lloyd 10,000,000 10,900,000 2,000,000 + + "The example of the Holland-America Line shows best what + enormous progress took place in the inner consolidation of the + Dutch firms. The reserve of this company, which in 1913 + amounted to 6,600,000 florins, grew to 24,800,000 by the end of + 1916--in other words, the previous stock capital (which in the + meantime had been increased by 15,000,000 florins) by more than + double. In addition, the company has available funds amounting + in all to 21,700,000 florins. The reserves in the Nederland + Company, which have increased in the same period from 6,700,000 + to 23,000,000 florins, exceed the capital by 4,000,000 florins. + The available funds of the Rotterdamsche Lloyd amounted at the + end of 1916 to about 25,000,000 florins, with a share capital + of 15,000,000 florins and a ready reserve of 16,000,000 + florins. + + "But the business successes of the neutral European shipping + firms are far surpassed by the earnings of the Japanese + overseas lines. Thus the largest Japanese shipping firm, Nippon + Yusen Kaisha, that sails from East Asia to all the important + shipping markets, had a net profit in the summer half-year 1916 + of 19,780,000 yen (the Japanese yen is equivalent to $0.498 + United States currency); in the winter half-year 1916--17 + actually 22,150,000; in a single fiscal year it earned, + therefore, about 42,000,000 yen. The company's capital stock + amounted at the end of the fiscal year 1916--17, after a + previous increase through the distribution of free shares, to + 27,500,000 yen, the net profits of this single company being + thus about 15,000,000 yen more than the amount of the capital. + + "The company's fleet has grown considerably. The total + available reserves amount to nearly 63,000,000 yen. Of ready + money the company had at its disposal at the end of March, + 1917, 55,300,000 yen." + + +GERMANS AT WORK IN SPAIN + +Germany's astuteness in dealing with neutral countries was especially +marked in Spain. The country was filled with German propaganda and there +were skeleton German trade organizations ready to begin functioning at a +moment's notice. The extent to which this propaganda was carried on was +described by a correspondent of the _Saturday Evening Post_, Mr. I. F. +Marcosson, in an address to the National Machine Tool Builders' +Association at Atlantic City: + + "The German propagandists have carried on a campaign on the + proposition of the Kaiser. It has been the finest selling + campaign that I have ever seen. They have organized it. Each + man had his territory, his selling territory; each man has his + line of samples, and that line of samples was the finest lot of + German gold and German 'hot air' that any propaganda has ever + produced. + + "The Germans have sold Spain on the proposition of German trade + and German good-will, because they are giving the Spaniard, as + they did in business before the war, what the Spaniard had in + mind. + + "Germany went into Spain to fill the Spaniard with 'hot air' + and to tell him he was the finest aristocrat in the world. And + he got it over. And if you had gone, as I have, from one end of + Spain to the other and looked into these great warehouses you + would have found hundreds of them jammed and packed with copper + and oil and cotton, and all the material with which to + re-establish a great industry. And today, whenever there is a + water-right for sale, whenever there is stock for sale, or + whenever anything can be leased, or a factory can be bought, + who buys it? =The Germans.= + + "They have got the finest industrial secret service in Spain that I + have seen in my life. And to what end? All to the great end that + when the war is over, in Spain as in Holland and in Switzerland, + the wheels of German output will be going.... Germany will put on + the goods, as I have seen with my own eyes, 'Made in Spain,' 'Made + in Switzerland,' and 'Made in Holland.' Your own goods, machine + tools, are going out in the markets of the world now and + forevermore in competition with German-made stuff, made by German + hands, made by German capital, part with stuff that is marked + offensive, in competition with stuff that is marked as I have said + it would be marked." + +[Illustration: Photo by Paul Thompson + +An Antidote for the Submarine Pest + +Quantity production of eighty-foot motor boats in a shipyard at Bayonne, +N. J., for use as scouts and submarine hunters.] + + +NO ECONOMIC BOYCOTT AFTER THE WAR + +The official leaders of the Allied Governments soon found that the +scheme to start an economic war after peace had been negotiated had no +very strong support. President Wilson took a hand in subjecting the +Paris resolutions advocating this economic war to unfavorable criticism. +The British Trades Union by a large majority showed their disapproval of +them. The London _Economist_ also disapproved of the program of a +vindictive trade policy after the war, though it thought that an +economic boycott might be used as a threat to force Germany to make +peace. Lord Robert Cecil took the ground that it would not be wise to +attempt an economic war. The labor point of view was that an economic +war was bound to produce another outbreak of militarism. The Speaker of +the British House of Commons, who always occupies a non-partisan +position, in an address at Carlisle on war aims, showed no sympathy with +the proposal: + + "We had heard of war after the war, and it had been suggested + that whatever the terms of peace might be we in England should + have no dealings with Germany, that we should boycott them + commercially, allow none of our raw materials to go to Germany, + that we should form a combination with our Allies, and that + together we should cut her off altogether and treat her as + though she were a leper. He did not believe in this idea. He + was out for peace, and when he said he wanted peace he meant a + lasting peace. He wanted peace founded on sound conditions, + which would stand wear and tear and last forever, if + possible--at all events, for many, many years, it might be + centuries; but a boycott of Germany would not be the way to + attain a peace of that kind. That would be a way of carrying on + the war, and although it would not be with the weapons we were + now using, there would be the same hatred and struggle between + one combination of nations and another, and it would leave the + world divided and engender seeds of hatred and dissent. In many + respects it would be almost as bad as the war at the present + time. He did not, therefore, accept that condition of things." + +In explaining England's position as to war aims the Premier, Lloyd +George, made the following observations: + + "Germany has occupied a great position in the world. It is not + our wish or intention to question or destroy that position for + the future, but rather to turn her aside from hopes and schemes + of military domination and to see her devote all her strength + to the great beneficent tasks of the world.... The economic + conditions at the end of the war will be in the highest degree + difficult. Owing to the diversion of human effort to warlike + pursuits, there must follow a world shortage of raw materials, + which will increase the longer the war lasts; and it is + inevitable that those countries which have control of the raw + materials will desire to help themselves and their friends + first." + + +AN IMPOSSIBLE PROGRAM + +In the emotional atmosphere of the war period some astonishing economic +propositions were accepted as if they were axiomatic truths. Notably was +this the case in the discussion of Germany's program of peaceful +penetration in the economic sphere. It was undoubtedly linked up with +schemes of military aggression. There was wide discussion of the methods +to be used to guard against Germany's commercial policy. Sometimes these +proposals indicated the desire that those who opposed Germany should +take a leaf from her dog-in-the-manger policy. Strange conceptions of +international trade that suggest the mercantilism of the seventeenth and +eighteenth centuries were revived in order to guard against any attempt +on the part of Germany to secure a privileged industrial position after +the war. As early as 1916 there was the famous proposal of an +anti-German economic league contemplated in the Paris resolutions of +that date. In Great Britain the supporters of this policy also actively +advocated a system of imperial preference by which special advantages +would be given to countries within the bounds of the British Empire. The +result of upholding any double-barreled policy of this type is described +by the Edinburgh _Review_ as impossible of realization. + + "Even if Belgium, France, and Italy alone took that course, the + whole policy of an economic boycott, or partial boycott, to + prevent German expansion or to punish German crimes would fall + to the ground. We cannot imprison Germany in an economic strait + jacket if her territorial neighbors are willing to trade with + her. As a matter of fact before the war the most important and + the most expansive portion of German export trade was with the + continent of Europe." + + +COMMERCIAL AVIATION + +A great advance in aeroplane development was one of the most spectacular +results of war activity. The military side of this development must be +discussed in another place, but the fact that aeroplanes had to be +constructed substantial enough to carry a large amount of explosives +naturally brought up the whole question of the commercial side of +aeroplane employment. Although the aeroplane has been developed to a +remarkable extent for war purposes, it must not be taken for granted +that every type of aeroplane has its use for peace. In the military +machine regard has been paid rather to gun positions, bomb carrying +capacity and performance than to economy in operation and large cargo +space, which are the essential peace requirements. This aspect of the +problem was discussed by F. Handley-Page in an article in the +_Fortnightly Review_. + + "The type of aeroplane for commercial work requires careful + consideration and design. In estimating the value of a + transport vehicle account must be taken of the respective + proportions of the load that are and are not remunerative. A + steam motor wagon that was only just able to transport the coke + for its own consumption would be useless for transport work. + The large quantity of fuel the aeroplane must carry makes this + point an important one regarding it. It affects very largely + the _type_ of aeroplane that must be chosen for each duty. + + "The total lift of a large bombing aeroplane of medium speed is + about 20 lbs., while that of a small high-speed scout may not + be more than about 8 to 10 lbs. per horse-power. From these + lifts have to be deducted the weight per horse-power of the + aeroplane structure and engines. These leave a margin of about + 11 pounds per horse-power in the case of the large machine and + of only about two to four pounds per horse-power in the case of + the smaller and higher speed machine. From these margins have + to be deducted the weight _per horse-power_ of the pilot and of + the fuel to be carried." + +According to this expert's opinion there is little probability of using +for commercial purposes the small high-powered aeroplane. But if large +machines are used with a speed limit of 100 miles an hour and fitted +with twin engines, Mr. Page thinks that such machines will have economic +possibilities. Countries now far distant from one another can be brought +close together. For example Australia will be within a week of London, +and he thinks that passengers can be carried at the rate of about six +cents a mile. If air transport is to be systematized he is in favor of +strict state regulation: + + "There must be no possible chance of the wildcat schemes of the + early railway days recurring, nor must aircraft or their pilots + be below a specified standard. The State must see that projects + doomed to failure owing to lack of financial or technical + backing are prevented from being placed before the public. + + "Regulations must be drawn up which will insure that the + machines cannot be used for the public service until they have + received a certificate similar to that now issued by Lloyd's + for ships. Pilots must not be allowed to fly machines conveying + the public or mails, unless they have received a certificate + equivalent to that issued to the master of a ship by the Board + of Trade before he can take charge. + + "The aeroplane will not compete with the telegraph system, + cable, or wireless, but will be a useful adjunct conveying + written signed statements, important documents, long reports, + and descriptive letters in the time of a week-end cable and at + a fraction of the cost. + + "It will enable the business man to visit his overseas agencies + and friends, to discuss matters with them on the spot and + examine the requirements of their districts, at the cost of a + few _days_ instead of months of travel." + +[Illustration: The Awkward Squad + +"Left, right--one, two, three, four," was the slogan heard throughout +the National Army cantonments, such as this at Camp Dodge, Des Moines, +Ia., during the first days in teaching the recruits one of the first +lessons of the soldier; how to keep step. + +Copyright International Film Service] + + + + +V--THE MONEY COST OF THE WAR + +Over $210,000,000,000 Spent by the Belligerents--How This Stupendous +Sum Was Raised--What the War Cost Uncle Sam + +By EDWIN R. A. SELIGMAN + + +Professor of Political Economy and Finance in Columbia University + + +The cost of a war may mean several different things. It may mean, in the +first place, the actual money cost, or expenditure in dollars and cents, +directly involved in prosecuting the war. Or, secondly, it may mean the +war cost, both direct and indirect, from the economic point of view. The +real cost of a war from this latter point of view may mean either actual +loss of lives and property or the diminution of the annual social +production. The wealth of a country measured in its social income may be +reduced either by the actual loss of territory, as in Germany; by the +impairment of its natural resources like the coal mines and forests, as +in France; by the reduction of labor power, due to the wounded workmen +or the results of starvation or privation, as in many countries of +Europe; or by the loss of economic efficiency due to a reduction of the +standard of life or to a changed attitude toward habits of work. The +real costs of war, although often incalculable, are none the less of +profound significance. + +The actual money costs or expenditures of government for war include not +only the actual outlays for military and naval purposes, but also the +whole range of expenditures incurred in industrial life to prepare the +wherewithal for the Army and Navy; and they also comprise the sums +devoted to the maintenance of the families of the soldiers. All these +items are far greater in modern times than they used to be. It is a far +cry from the meeting of two savage tribes armed only with bows and +arrows or javelins, to the modern 16-inch guns, the dreadnoughts, the +airplanes, the submarines, the poison gas and the innumerable technical +adjuncts of modern warfare. The consequence is that the money costs of +the World War have far transcended those of all previous conflicts. + +The attempt to present in figures the costs of the war meets with +several difficulties. In the first place the question arises as to the +period at which we ought to stop. In one sense the war ceased when the +armistice was declared. In another sense the war did not actually stop +until the peace was declared--in this case a matter of many months +additional. But even when peace was declared the war expenses were by no +means over. The process of demobilization is a slow one: moreover it is +necessary to continue for some time the policing of the conquered +countries; and finally comes the question of the pensions to the wounded +soldiers or to the families of the dead. It will be seen, therefore, how +impossible it is to state with any accuracy at the present time the +costs of the war, when those are still being incurred. Furthermore, the +figures ordinarily given contain additional inaccuracies. The richer +countries make loans to the poorer countries and these expenditures are +consequently counted twice in the total,--a procedure legitimate only on +the assumption that the loans will not be repaid. Again, in a country +like the United States, which has substituted an insurance system for +the pension system, the nominal expenditures appear smaller than is +really the case, because of the receipt of vast insurance premiums which +will ultimately all be expended again. Finally the figures make no +allowances for the change in the price level or the alteration in the +value of money. In a great war like the present, prices have risen: in +some countries they have doubled, in some countries they have more than +tripled, for reasons which it is needless to discuss here. What appears, +therefore, to be a great and increasing outlay from year to year may be +in reality due in part, at least, to this cause. + +After making all allowances for these difficulties we may proceed to +state some of the facts as to the actual outlays of various countries. + + +THE COST OF THE WAR DAY BY DAY + +In all the belligerent countries it naturally took some time for them to +get into their stride. This is especially true of Great Britain. The +figures of the average daily expenditures, as given by the Chancellor of +the Exchequer, amounted to almost $10,000,000 in the opening months of +the war and reached a maximum of almost $36,000,000 by 1918. These +figures, however, are not exact because they include all of the +expenditures. The real war expenditures may be arrived at by deducting +in each case the amount of the expenditures in the last year of peace, +ending March 31, 1914. Making these corrections, it appears that the +average daily war expenditures in England rose from about $9,500,000 +during the first eight months of the war to about $33,500,000 in 1918, +then slowly receding in 1919. In France the average daily expenditures +were naturally somewhat less, rising from about $8,500,000 during the +first three months of the war to over $21,000,000 during 1917, the last +full year of the war. In Germany the daily expenses were approximately +the same as in Great Britain, rising from about $13,000,000 in the first +nine months of the war to $34,500,000 during the last six months of +1918. In the case of both Germany and France, it is not known whether +the figures comprise the total expenditures or only the pure war +expenditures. In the former event the daily expenditures of Germany +would be a little less than those of Great Britain; in the latter, they +would be a little more. In Italy and Austria-Hungary the daily +expenditures were naturally smaller, amounting at the maximum to about +$10,500,000 and $20,000,000 respectively. In Russia the daily +expenditures rose in 1916 to about $20,000,000 and in 1917, just prior +to the October revolution, nominally to $47,000,000. But, owing to the +great depreciation of the ruble, the actual expenditures were much less. + + +OUR WAR EXPENSES MONTH BY MONTH + +When the United States entered the war the scale of its operations +became so stupendous that its daily war expenditures soon far exceeded +those of any other belligerent. In the second month of the war the +average daily expenditures for pure war purposes were $15,000,000 and +little over a year later they had risen to almost $50,000,000. By the +end of 1918, the daily average war expenditures reached the staggering +figure of $64,500,000. + +[Illustration: The Economic Conference in Paris + +Mr. Bonar Law talking with M. Clementel (Minister of Commerce) and M. +Doumergue (Colonies) in the garden of the foreign ministry.] + +If, now, we attempt to present the statistics of the total cost of the +war we must be mindful of the difficulties mentioned above. The figures +are not entirely accurate, and cannot be made entirely accurate for the +following reasons: In the first place, the last date in the official +return differs from country to country. They are, however, all +subsequent to the armistice, with the exception of Russia, where we +have no trustworthy figures after the advent of Bolshevism. In the +second place, we do not know, except in the case of the United States +and Great Britain, whether the figures comprise the total expenditures +or only the purely war expenditures. Even making allowance for these +differences it will be seen that the total war expenditures amount to +over $232,000,000,000. In Japan and some of the minor belligerents, +there were virtually no war expenses. Inasmuch, however, as most of the +countries will continue to have expenses attributable to the war for +some little time in the future, it is probable that the total war +expenditures will amount, by the end of 1920, to almost +$236,000,000,000. From this must, however, be deducted the sums counted +twice, because advanced to their allies by the United States, Great +Britain, France and Germany. Making allowance for this, it is safe to +say that the total net war expenditures will be about $210,000,000,000. + + WAR EXPENDITURES OF ALL BELLIGERENTS + In Millions + ==================================================================== + | From entrance | To | | + | into war | | | + --------------+----------------+----------------+----------+-------- + Great Britain | August 4, 1914 | March 31, 1919 | L 8,601| $41,887 + | | | | + Australia | August 4, 1914 | March 31, 1919 | L 291| 1,461 + | | | | + Canada (inc. | August 4, 1914 |August 31, 1919 | | 1,545 + Newfoundland) | | | | + New Zealand | August 4, 1914 | March 31, 1919 | L 76| 365 + | | | | + South Africa | August 4, 1914 | March 31, 1919 | L 33| 243 + | | | | + India | August 4, 1914 | March 31, 1919 | L 119| 584 + | | | | ------- + British Empire| | | | $46,083 + | | | | + France | August 3, 1914 | March 31, 1919 |fr 169,000| $32,617 + | | | | + Russia | August 1, 1914 |October 31, 1917| ru 51,500| 26,522 + | | | | + Italy | May 23, 1915 |October 31, 1918| li 81,016| 15,636 + | | | | + Belgium | August 2, 1914 |October 31, 1918| fr 5,900| 1,387 + | | | | + Rumania |August 27, 1916 |October 31, 1918| | 907 + | | | | + Serbia | July 28, 1914 |October 31, 1918| | 635 + | | | | + United States | April 15, 1917 | June 30, 1919 | | 32,261 + | | | |-------- + Entente Powers| | | |$156,050 + | | | | + Germany | August 1, 1914 |October 31, 1919|mk 204,268| 48,616 + | | | | + Austria- | July 28, 1914 |October 31, 1919|kr 119,504| 24,858 + Hungary | | | | + Turkey |November 3, 1914|October .., 1919| | 1,802 + | | | | + Bulgaria |October 4, 1915 |October .., 1919| | 732 + | | | | ------- + Central Powers| | | | $76,008 + | | | | + Total | | | In |$232,058 + | | | Millions | + ==================================================================== + + +HOW MONEY FOR WAR WAS RAISED + +The question now arises as to the steps taken by the various countries +to meet these stupendous outlays. Of the older expedients, such as war +treasures, or the sale of public property there was naturally no +question. In only one country, viz., Germany, was there a war treasure; +but this was so small as to be well-nigh negligible. The only two +available resources were accordingly taxation and borrowing. + +When we compare these two expedients, we are struck not only by the +great difference in the theories of war finance followed by the various +countries, but also by the diversity in the economic conditions which +largely influenced the choice. In a general way, it may be said that all +countries were compelled to rely to an overwhelming extent on public +loans, but that Great Britain and the United States raised a far greater +share by taxation than did other countries. Italy was able to raise by +new taxation only just about enough to pay the interest on the new +loans; Germany accomplished this only in part; while France was not in a +position to defray any of her war expenditures from additional taxation. +The same is true of the other belligerents, with the exception of the +British colonies. + +Proceeding now to take up this matter in detail, we shall first attempt +to set forth the facts as to war taxation. + + UNITED STATES + ----------------------------+-------------+-------------+------------ + | Monthly | | + |Expenditures | | + |exclusive of | | + |the principal| | + | of the | Monthly | Average + | public debt | War | Daily + |and of postal|Expenditures |Expenditures + |expenditures | [19] | + ----------------------------+-------------+-------------+------------ + | Million $ | Million $ | Million $ + April 6--30, 1917 | 279 | 219 | 8. + May, 1917 | 527 | 467 | 15. + June, 1917 | 410 | 350 | 11.7 + | ------ | ------ | + Total April 6--June 30, 1917| 1,216 | 1,156 | + | | | + July 1917 | 662 | 602 | 19.4 + August 1917 | 757 | 697 | 22.5 + September 1917 | 746 | 686 | 22.9 + October 1917 | 944 | 884 | 29.5 + November 1917 | 986 | 926 | 30.9 + December 1917 | 1,105 | 1,045 | 33.7 + January 1918 | 1,090 | 1,030 | 33.2 + February 1918 | 1,012 | 952 | 34. + March 1918 | 1,156 | 1,096 | 35.9 + April 1918 | 1,215 | 1,155 | 38.5 + May 1918 | 1,508 | 1,448 | 46.7 + June 1918 | 1,512 | 1,452 | 48.4 + | ------ | ------ | + Total for fiscal year, 1918 | 12,697 | 11,977 | + July 1918 | 1,608 | 1,548 | 49.9 + August 1918 | 1,805 | 1,745 | 56.8 + September 1918 | 1,557 | 1,497 | 49.9 + October 1918 | 1,665 | 1,605 | 51.8 + November 1918 | 1,935 | 1,875 | 62.5 + December 1918 | 2,061 | 2,001 | 64.5 + January 1919 | 1,962 | 1,902 | 61.4 + February 1919 | 1,189 | 1,129 | 40. + March 1919 | 1,379 | 1,319 | 42.5 + April 1919 | 1,429 | 1,369 | 45.6 + May 1919 | 1,112 | 1,052 | 33.9 + June 1919 | 809 | 749 | 24.9 + | ------ | ------ | + Total for fiscal year 1919 | 18,505 | 17,785 | + | | | + Total April 6, 1914 to June | | | + 30, 1919 | 32,428 | 30,918 | + ----------------------------+-------------+-------------+------------ + +[19] Obtained by deducting 11/12 of the annual (peace) expenditures for +1915--1916 exclusive of postal expenditures, i. e. 11/12 of $1,008--287 +millions--60 millions. Secretary Glass in his letter of July 9, 1919 to +the Chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means excludes postal +expenditures in the first column, but fails to exclude them when making +the deduction for peace expenditures. He consequently arrives at the +figure of 30,177 billions as the cost of the war; making allowance for +this fact, and using the final corrected figures, we reach the figure of +$32,261,000,000 as the cost of the war to June 30, 1919. + + +WAR TAXATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES + +Great Britain, as the wealthiest country at the outbreak of the war, +endeavored to raise as much as possible from taxation. From year to +year, as the expenses mounted up, more and more demands were made upon +the taxpayer. But the expenditures for the war were so enormous that it +soon turned out to be impracticable, even with the best of will, to +secure more than a comparatively small proportion of the total cost from +taxation. The figures usually advanced by the various Chancellors of the +Exchequer and repeated parrot-like by most commentators take the +proportion that total taxes bear to total expenditures. This method of +calculation, as will be seen from the table, shows that almost a quarter +of the total expenditures, or to be more exact, 24.9 per cent., was +derived from taxes. These figures, however, err doubly. In the first +place the significant problem is to ascertain the war expenditures, not +simply the total expenditures. These can naturally be obtained only by +deducting from the annual total expenditures the sums equal to the peace +expenditures, _i. e._, the expenditures for the last full year of peace. +In the second place, what is significant is not the total taxes, but the +war taxes; that is, the proceeds of the additional taxes raised during +the war. These again can be obtained only by deducting from the total +tax revenue the proceeds of the taxes during the last full year of +peace. If then we endeavor to ascertain how much of the war expenditures +were met by war taxes--and this is really the important problem--we find +that, immense as were the burdens resting upon the British taxpayer, the +percentage of war expenditures raised by war taxes is much smaller than +is usually stated. As a matter of fact, in the first year of war only a +little over 7 per cent. of the total war expenditures were raised from +taxes. With every succeeding year the percentage increased until the +last year of war, 1918--19, a little over one-quarter of the war +expenditures were met from war taxes. For the entire five years the +proportion of war taxes to war expenditures was slightly over 17 per +cent. + +In the other belligerent countries the showing was by no means so good. +France struggled under a double difficulty. In the first place France +was invaded at the very outset of the war, and the territory occupied, +although relatively small in extent, represented the richest and the +most industrially developed part of the country. This operated largely +to reduce the ordinary revenues. In the second place the resultant +economic confusion, as well as the general political situation, made it +very difficult to impose any new taxes at all. The consequence was that +for the first three years of the war, the tax revenues of France did not +even suffice to defray the ordinary peace expenditures. + +After a little while, indeed, France found it possible to levy some war +taxes; but these were exceedingly slight compared with what had been +accomplished in Great Britain. The result is that the new war taxes of +France were only just about sufficient to make up the deficit on the +ordinary peace budget--a deficit caused chiefly by the devastation of +the occupied territory. In France, therefore, we may say that as a +result no part of the expenditures was met by war taxes. + +In Italy the situation was a little better. Italy had not been invaded +and its financial situation was not so desperate as that of France. +Moreover, Italy entered the war somewhat later and did not have to +endure a strain for so long a time. Italy consequently proceeded as soon +as possible to levy new war taxes; but as Italy had always been +relatively overtaxed, as compared with Great Britain, it was not +feasible to do as much. As a result, the war taxes levied by Italy were +just about sufficient to pay the interest on the war loans. While Italy, +therefore, did better than France, she also was not able to defray any +of the war expenditures proper out of war taxation. + +The condition of Russia soon became worse than that of France and Italy, +and even before the October revolution, Russia was able to put very +little reliance upon revenues from war taxation. + +Among the Central Powers the situation was much the same, but for a +different reason. Germany at the outset of the war had so confidently +counted upon victory and upon huge indemnities that it resolved to +defray its war expenses entirely from loans. It must, however, be +observed that in Germany a not insignificant part of the war expenses +were met by the separate states; and in these various states a +considerable increase of taxation was provided for at once. As the war +proceeded and the hopes of a speedy and complete victory gradually faded +away, Germany began to change her policy and decided, especially from +1916 on, to impose more and more taxes. The result was that by the end +of the war Germany had done a little better than France. + + +OUR WAR TAXES COMPARED WITH WAR EXPENDITURES + +We come finally to the experience of the United States. When the United +States entered the war it was confronted by two rival theories of +public finances. One was to the effect that the war expenses should be +defrayed entirely by war loans, as had been the case in the early years +of the Civil War and as was true of many of the belligerents during this +war. The other theory was that the war expenditures ought to be defrayed +entirely out of war taxes. This was equally extreme and perilous as the +former theory, and labored under the additional disadvantage of being +impossible of achievement. The President went so far as to adopt the +fifty-fifty theory, namely, that half of the war expenditures ought to +be defrayed from taxation. + +The prodigious profits made during the beginning years of the European +war and the resulting prosperity throughout the country enabled Congress +to levy taxes far higher than had before been attempted in our history. +Even with an immense addition to taxation, however, the proportion of +war expenses derived from war taxes was relatively small. Here, again, +we must observe the same caution as in the case of the British figures. +We must not compare total expenditures with total taxes, but war +expenditures with war taxes. War expenditures are easily ascertained by +deducting for each year the amount of the expenditures for the last year +of peace, the year ending June 30, 1916. In the case of war taxes, +however, it is more exact to deduct from the total revenues the tax +revenues for the year ending June 30, 1915. For during the year 1915--16 +a number of taxes were already levied in preparation for our possible +entrance into the war. + +As a matter of fact, during the first quarter of war ending June 30, +1917, the proportion of war expenditures derived from war taxes was less +than one-third or 30 per cent. If we exclude loans to Allies on the +assumption that they will all be repaid some day, the showing is +somewhat better--as two-thirds of the expenditures of that period +consisted of such loans. + +As soon, however, as we struck our full gait the situation was less +satisfactory. The proportion of war expenditures derived from war taxes +during the year 1917--18 was less than one-quarter or more exactly only +24.8 per cent. and if we again exclude loans to Allies, only 30 per +cent. In the last year of the war the showing was still less favorable. +If we take the expenditures for the entire period of our participation +in the war the figures are respectively 21.7 per cent. and 27 per cent. +For the entire period of our participation in the war, less than +one-fourth (or exactly 23.3 per cent.) of the war expenditures were paid +out of war taxes. And if the loans to Allies are again excluded the +proportion is still under one third, or more exactly 32.5 per cent. + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +=Lord Reading= + +President of the Anglo-French loan mission to the United States in 1915, +and special envoy of the British Government to the United States in +1917.] + +This compares favorably even with the British figures. But it +conclusively shows how impossible it is even with the best of will, to +raise more than a relatively small part of war expenses from war taxes; +especially during the early period of a war. + + +CHARACTER OF WAR TAXATION + +The next point of interest is that of the character of the war taxes +imposed by the various countries. Here again we notice a very great +difference. In all of the European belligerents on the continent, at +least as much additional revenue was raised from direct, as from +indirect, taxation. In France about as much new revenue came from +indirect taxation or taxes on consumption as from direct taxation or +taxes on wealth. + +The situation is still less satisfactory in the other continental +countries. + +In England, on the other hand, a different path was pursued from the +beginning. While it is true that a considerable increase of revenue was +derived from indirect taxes like customs and excise, the chief reliance +was placed on the increase of the income tax, on a new war profits tax +and finally, although to a minor degree, on an increase in the +inheritance tax. + +When we come, however, to the situation in the United States we find the +democratic movement so strong that the overwhelming proportion of the +new tax revenue was derived from direct taxation on wealth rather than +from indirect taxation on consumption. In the great Revenue Act of 1917 +over 79 per cent. of the new tax revenue came from direct taxation, +principally the income tax and the excess profits tax. In the second +great Revenue Act of 1918, the proportions were still more favorable, +the amount ascribable to direct taxation in 1919 being almost 81 per +cent. + + UNITED STATES + Internal Revenue Receipts + In millions of dollars + + Per Per + Year ending June 30 1918 Cent. 1919 Cent. + Income and profits taxes 2,839 2,596[20] + Munition manufacturers tax 13 ..... + Estate tax 47 82 + Corporate capital stock tax 25 29 + ----- ----- + Total taxes on wealth 2,924 79.1 2,707 70.5 + + Distilled spirits 318 365 + Fermented liquors 126 118 + Tobacco 158 206 + Stamp taxes 19 37 + Transportation 71 234 + Insurance 6 15 + Excise taxes 37 78 + Soft drinks 2 7 + Admissions 26 51 + Miscellaneous 8 22 + ---- ---- + Total taxes on consumption, + transactions and + commodities 771 20.9 1,133 29.5 + Total 3,695 .... 3,840 .... + + [20] As the new taxes are payable in instalments, about 2 millions + of the 1919 tax will not be received until the fiscal year 1920. + Making allowance for this the proportion of taxes on wealth + really ascribable to the year 1919 rises to 80.6 per cent. + +With the impossibility of securing more than a comparatively small +proportion of the war expenditures from taxation, it accordingly became +necessary to resort to borrowing. This was consequently done by every +country on a gigantic scale; although here again the fiscal and economic +conditions in the various countries were so different that they employed +quite diverse expedients. + +Great Britain provided at the outset of the war for immediate needs by +the selling of short time securities, principally Treasury Bills. Before +long these had amounted to such a sum that it became necessary to issue +long time bonds. Accordingly, subscriptions were invited to the first +war loan, which was issued on March 1, 1915, followed by the second war +loan on June 1, 1915. These bore interest at the rate of 3-1/2 and 4-1/2 per +cent. and the amount issued was $1,703,000,000 and $2,883,000,000 +respectively. On February, 1916, a continuous issue of War Savings +Certificates was inaugurated. On April 15, 1917, the third war loan was +issued at 4 per cent., followed on June 1, by the issue of 5 per cent. +bonds. Of these $4,811,000,000 were issued. + +Beginning on October 2, 1917, a continuous issue of 4 and 5 per cent. +National War Bonds was made, the difference in the rate of interest +being due to the tax exemption. The temporary and short time paper was +gradually funded into these bonds. In the meantime the Anglo-French loan +of $500,000,000, of which England had one-half, had been contracted in +the United States; and with the entrance of the United States into the +war on April 6, 1917, continually larger sums were borrowed from the +American Government. During the period of the war the British debt rose +from L650,000,000 to L7,643,000,000 or from $3,115,000,000 to +$37,221,000,000. It is expected that $250,000,000 will be borrowed +during the year 1919--20, so that in all probability the debt of Great +Britain at the end of 1920 will amount to almost L8,000,000,000, or +$38,500,000,000, meaning that the war debt probably will amount to about +L7,500,000,000, or $35,000,000,000. + +France was in a far less favorable situation than England at the outset +of the war. The total debt of France at the close of 1913 amounted to +fr. 32,594,000,000, or $6,291,000,000, and the ordinary budget had +closed with a large deficit. So that it had been necessary to issue a +loan during the spring and summer of 1914. When the war suddenly broke +out, precipitating an economical and financial crash, it became +practically impossible to issue another loan. The government was +therefore compelled to rely upon advances from the Banque de France, +which was permitted correspondingly to increase its notes issue. It was +not until November, 1915, that France saw her way to issue her first war +loan of 5 per cent. bonds. This was followed on August 6, 1916, by the +second war loan, also of 5 per cent. bonds, on December 15, 1917, by the +third war loan of 4 per cent. bonds, and on Dec. 15, 1918, by the fourth +war loan, also at 4 per cent. The first war loan issued at 88 yielded +$1,894,000,000; the second, at 83.75, yielded $1,981,000,000; the third +at 68.60 yielded $2,914,000,000 and the fourth at 70.8 yielded +$5,382,000,000. Meanwhile National Defense Bonds were issued +continuously from February 25, 1915, and foreign loans had been +contracted in England, in the United States and in Japan. The result was +that at the close of the year 1918 the French debt amounted to fr. +167,469,000,000 or $32,322,000,000. This meant that the debt due to the +war amounted to fr. 134,875,000,000 or $26,031,000,000. It is expected, +however, that a considerable sum will still have to be borrowed during +the year 1919, thus bringing the total French debt to 27 or 28 billions +of dollars. + +[Illustration: While the Men Fought, Those Left Behind Bought Bonds + +Not all brave hearts beat under khaki during the war. More than +$20,000,000,000 was raised by the four Liberty Loans and the Fifth +Victory Loan. Among those who bought bonds were hundreds of thousands of +wives and children of the men at the front. + +Courtesy McClure's Magazine] + +Russia was the first of the Entente Powers to issue public loans. On +September 14, 1914, it issued a 5 per cent. loan at 94, yielding +$259,000,000. This was followed at regular intervals by six more loans +prior to the revolution of 1917. After the revolution there was +considerable confusion which, of course, was much accentuated by the +advent of Bolshevism. The consequence was that the public debt of +Russia, which amounted for July, 1914, to $4,623,000,000, increased by +the time of the October revolution in 1917 to 49,288 millions of rubles +or 25,383 millions of dollars. This would mean a war debt of almost +twenty-one billions of dollars. As a matter of fact of course it is very +uncertain whether the debt will ever be redeemed at these figures. + +The debt of Italy before it entered the war amounted to lire +13,636,000,000 or $2,621,000,000. Italy started at once with a so-called +mobilization loan followed by its first war loan in July, 1915, and +successive war loans on the first of January of each of the following +years. The result was that on October 31, 1918, the total debt amounted +to lire 63,093,000,000 or $12,177,000,000. By the end of May, 1919, the +debt had grown to 77,763,000,000 lire or $15,009,000,000 leaving as the +war debt lire 64,127,000,000 or $12,388,000,000. + +Of the Central Powers, Germany started at once on October 1, 1914, to +issue a war loan at 5 per cent., having from the outset decided to rely +upon comparatively long time bonds rather than upon temporary or short +time securities as was the case in England and in France. There followed +in regular succession eight war loans bearing 4-1/2 and 5-1/2 per cent. +interest. As a result, the debt of Germany, which before the war +amounted to Mk. 4,732,000,000 increased on October 31, 1919, to Mk. +204,000,000,000 or $48,552,000,000; the war debt proper in Germany would +therefore amount to $47,426,000,000. + + +TOTAL WAR DEBT, UNITED STATES + +When the United States entered the war it depended, for the time being, +on temporary war certificates. But at the beginning of June, 1917, +Liberty Loans were issued in continually greater dimensions. In the +table below the details of the four Liberty Loans and the Fifth Victory +Loan are given, showing that over $20,000,000,000 were raised from bonds +alone. To these is to be added the unfunded loans. It appears that the +total net debt of the United States, which in April, 1917, was +$1,190,000,000, increased by June 30, 1919, to $24,232,000,000, making a +war debt of $23,042,000,000. Inasmuch, however, as somewhat over a +billion dollars from the Victory Loan will be paid in the course of the +year 1919--20, and as still more will have to be borrowed temporarily, +the total war debt of the United States by the end of 1920 will amount +to over $25,000,000,000, including the nine billions advanced to the +Allies. + + UNITED STATES + In Millions + Debt Less Annual + Cash in Interest + Treasury Charge + April 5, 1917 $1,189 $23 + June 30, 1917 1,909 84 + June 30, 1918 10,924 466 + June 30, 1919 24,233 619 + + DEBT ON JUNE 30, 1919 + Bonds + Pre-war bonds 833 + War loans + First Liberty Loan $1,985 + Second Liberty Loan 3,566 + Third Liberty Loan 3,959 + Fourth Liberty Loan 6,795 + Victory Loan (notes) 3,468 20,455 + Treasury Certificates 3,634 + Old debt on which interest increased 2 + Non-interest bearing debt 236 + ------ + Total gross debt 25,485 + Cash on hand 1,252 + ------- + Net debt (In Millions) $24,233 + +The other belligerents need not be treated separately. The total pre-war +debt, including Japan, whose debt was increased only by the money raised +to loan to Great Britain and France, amounted to almost $28,000,000,000. +The debt at the close of the war amounted to over $224,000,000,000, +making the net war debt somewhat over $196,000,000,000. When we compare +this with the total cost of the war, which, as we have seen, will amount +to about $210,000,000,000, it appears that almost the entire cost of the +war will have been defrayed from loans, the difference of well-nigh +$15,000,000,000 derived from taxation being due almost entirely to the +efforts of Great Britain and the United States respectively. + + PUBLIC DEBT OF THE BELLIGERENTS + 000,000 omitted + ========================================================== + |Before | | After | War debt | + |the war| |the war | | + ---------+-------+----------+--------+-----------+ + Great |Aug. 4,| L650 = |Mar. 31,|L7,643[21] | $34,056 + Britain | 1914 | $3,165 | 1919 | = $37,221 | + | | | | | + Australia|Aug. 4,| 97 = 472 |Jan. 31,|[22] 336 = | 1,162 + | 1914 | | 1919 | 1,634 | + | | | | | + Canada. |Aug. 4,| 332 |Mar. 31,| 1,584 | 1,250 + | 1914 | | 1919 | | + | | | | | + New |Aug. 4,|100 = 487 |Mar. 31,| 170 = 828 | 341 + Zealand | 1914 | | 1919 | | + | | | | | + South |Aug. 4,|126 = 614 |Mar. 31,| 175 = 846 | 332 + Africa | 1914 | | 1919 | | + | | ------ | | ------- | ------- + British | | $5,070 | | $42,213 | $37,143 + Empire | | | | | + | | | | | + France | July |fr. 32,594|Dec. 31,|fr. 167,459| 26,031 + | 1914 | = $6,291 | 1918 | = 32,322 | + | | | | | + Russia | July |ru. 8,800 |Jan. 1, |ru. 49,288 | 20,760 + | 1914 | = 4,623 | 1918 | = 25,383 | + | | | | | + Italy | May |li. 13,636|Oct. 31,|li. 77,763 | 12,388 + | 1915 | = 2,621 | 1918 | = 15,009 | + | | | | | + Belgium |Aug. 2,|fr. 3,743 |Apr. 30,|fr. 9,787 =| 1,166 + | 1914 | = 722 | 1919 | 1,888 | + | | | | | + Rumania | Aug. | 292 |Oct. 31,| 1,020 | 728 + | 1916 | | 1918 | | + | | | | | + Serbia | July | 271 |Oct. 31,| 730 | 459 + | 1914 | | 1918 | | + | | | | | + Japan | July |yen 2,494 |July 31,|yen 2,530 =| 18 + | 1914 | = 1,190 | 1918 | 1,265 | + | | | | | + United |Apr. 5,| 1,190 |June 30,| 24,232 | 23,042 + States | 1917 | | 1919 | | + | | ------ | | ------- | ------- + Entente | | $22,327 | | 144,062 | 121,735 + Powers | | | | | + ---------+-------+----------+--------+-----------+-------- + Germany |Aug. 1,|mk. 4,732 |Dec. 31,|mk. 204,000| 47,426 + | 1914 | = $1,126 | 1918 | = $48,352 | + | | | | | + Austria- |Aug. 1,| 3,726 |Oct. 31,|kr. 137,858| 24,858 + Hungary | 1914 | | 1918 | = 25,584 | [23] + | | | | | + Turkey | Nov. | LT 112 = |Oct. 31,| LT 455 = | 1,517 + | 1914 | 485 | 1918 | 2,002 | + | | | | | + Bulgaria |Oct. 4,| 219 |Oct. 31,| 974 | 755 + | 1915 | | 1918 | | + | | ------ | | ------- | ------ + Central | | $5,556 | | $80,112 | 74,556 + Powers | | | | | + | | | | | + Total | | $27,883 | | $224,174 | 196,291 + | |In Millions |In Millions| + ========================================================== + +[21] Counting on repayments of one half of the loans to the Allies (L816 +millions). + +[22] Not including the debts of the separate states. + +[23] Obtained by considering the debt of the new Austria as representing +70 per cent of the debt of all the states which constituted the old +empire. + +[Illustration: French School Children Waiting to Welcome General +Petain] + + + + +VI--AMERICAN BUSINESS IN THE WAR + +Voluntary Cooperation of Experts and Loyal Support of Labor Put Our +Industries on a War Basis + +By GROSVENOR B. CLARKSON + +Director of the U. S. Council of National Defense and of Its Advisory +Commission + + + Modern wars are not won by mere numbers. They are not won by + mere enthusiasm. They are not won by mere national spirit. They + are won by the scientific conduct of war, the scientific + application of irresistible force. + + --WOODROW WILSON. + + +War today means that for every man on the fighting line there must be +approximately ten men--and women--behind him in the factories, mills, +and mines of the nation that enters the conflict. It is an enterprise to +which military men alone have ceased to be called, for it enlists the +specialists of every industry and every science from the fighting line +clear back to the last line of defense. + +When the American Marines were thrown into the battle line at the Marne, +a French general officer rode up to headquarters. + +"How deep is your front?" he asked. + +"From here to San Francisco," was the reply; and in that statement lay +the story of America's industrial and economic mobilization for war. + +For America the actual arena of the war was 3,000 miles oversea, and +into this arena the Government of the United States threw 2,000,000 of +the most superb troops that the drama of warfare has known; and, what is +more, got them there on time to make possible the final smashing blow. +The organization, transportation, and clocklike delivery at the eleventh +hour of these irresistible citizen armies of the great Republic of the +western world is an epic in itself. + +But here at home there were armies too. They were created without +mandates; they were welded into cohesive form by suggestion rather than +by order; they were galvanized from beginning to end by the mighty force +of voluntary cooperation; and they went into the home stretch with a +power which nothing could have stopped. These were the armies of +production--production mainly, it is true, of guns and steel plates and +soldiers' shoes; but production as well of energy, of thought that made +the sword a flaming thing, of optimism to offset the stupid pessimism of +people who criticized but had nothing tangible to contribute, of the +immortal spirit of "carry on," of, above all, unification. + +In all of this endeavor, in all of this uprooting of the static national +life of peace time, the business man of America reached his apotheosis +and surprised even himself in his ability to merge his heart and nerves +and brain into the national interest in the most emergent hour of the +country's history. + +In effect, America went into the war unprepared. The will to war was a +dormant thing throughout the nation. The country was swollen with +material success almost to the point expressed in Lincoln's phrase: "A +fat hound won't hunt." The evolution of the Government of the United +States, enjoying profound peace for more than half a century, except for +the minor military operations of the Spanish-American conflict, into a +great war-making machine in mercilessly short time was a task to +challenge the ability of even the most resourceful nation of the earth. + +There, broadly stated, was the national picture in the spring of 1917. +War came, and almost with every day grew the need for increased +participation on America's part. + + +COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE + +The only federal agency in existence on April 7, 1917, capable of the +elasticity to mobilize industry, labor, and science for the national +defense was the United States Council of National Defense. This body, +composed of the Secretaries of War, Navy, Interior, Agriculture, +Commerce, and Labor, had providentially been created by Congress eight +months before. It was charged by Congress with "the coordination of +industries and resources for the national security and welfare" and "the +creation of relations which will render possible in time of need the +immediate concentration and utilization of the resources of the nation." +With it was to act an advisory commission of seven men, each to have +expert knowledge of some special industry, public utility, or the +development of some natural resource. + +The Council was further charged with the following particular duties: + + 1. To supervise and direct investigations and make + recommendations to the President and the heads of Executive + Departments as to: + + (_a_) The location of railroads with reference to the frontier + of the United States, so as to render possible expeditious + concentration of troops and supplies to points of defense. + + (_b_) The coordination of military, industrial, and commercial + purposes in the location of extensive highways and branch lines + of railroads. + + (_c_) The utilization of waterways. + + (_d_) The mobilization of military and naval resources for + defense. + + (_e_) The increase of domestic production of articles and + materials essential to the support of the armies and of the + people during the interruption of foreign commerce. + + (_f_) The development of sea-going transportation. + + (_g_) Data as to amounts, location, methods and means of + production and availability of military supplies. + + (_h_) The giving of information to producers and manufacturers + as to the class of supplies needed by the military and other + services of the Government, the requirements relating thereto, + and the creation of relations which will render possible in + time of need the immediate concentration and utilization of the + resources of the nation. + + 2. To report to the President or to the heads of Executive + Departments upon special inquiries or subjects appropriate + thereto. + + 3. To submit an annual report to Congress, through the + President, giving as full a statement of the activities of the + Council and the agencies subordinate to it as is consistent + with the public interest, including an itemized account of the + expenditures made by the Council or authorized by it, in as + full detail as the public interest will permit, providing, + however, that when deemed proper the President may authorize, + in amounts stipulated by him, unvouchered expenditures and + report the gross so authorized not itemized. + + +PERSONNEL OF THE COUNCIL + +Save for preliminary meetings late in the winter of 1916, the Council +and Advisory Commission did not get under way to any appreciable degree +until February, 1917, when both bodies began to meet separately and +jointly with the primary purpose of taking the national balance, chiefly +with regard to industrial resources. The permanent organization of both +bodies was made on March 3, 1917. + +The Council of National Defense was composed as follows: + + Secretary of War Newton D. Baker, Chairman. + Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels. + Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane. + Secretary of Agriculture David F. Houston. + Secretary of Commerce William C. Redfield. + Secretary of Labor William B. Wilson. + +The members of the Advisory Commission were: + + _Transportation and Communication_: + Daniel Willard, Chairman, President of the Baltimore and Ohio + Railroad. + + _Munitions and Manufacturing, including Standardization and + Industrial Relations_: + Howard E. Coffin, Vice-President of the Hudson Motor Car + Company. + + _Supplies, including Food and Clothing_: + Julius Rosenwald, President of Sears, Roebuck & Company. + + _Raw Materials, Minerals and Metals_: + Bernard M. Baruch, financier. + + _Engineering and Education_: + Doctor Hollis Godfrey, President of the Drexel Institute. + + _Labor, including Conservation of Health and Welfare of + Workers_: + Samuel Gompers, President of the American Federation of Labor. + + _Medicine and Surgery, including General Sanitation_: + Doctor Franklin Martin, Secretary-General of the American + College of Surgeons. + + +The Director of the Council and the Advisory Commission during the +greater part of the war was Walter S. Gifford, now Vice-President of the +American Telephone and Telegraph Company, a most capable organizer, who +with the writer had been closely associated with Howard Coffin in a +pioneer industrial preparedness movement inaugurated in the spring of +1916 to examine into the capacity of industrial plants for military +purposes. This was an entirely volunteer movement of business men and +industrial engineers under the Naval Consulting Board of the United +States, acting with the full approval of the President and the War and +Navy Departments. Mr. Coffin's Committee on Industrial Preparedness did +a remarkable job in a very short space of time, and the creation of the +Council of National Defense was the logical sequence of the Committee's +work, its records being turned over to the Council. The writer was the +Secretary of the Council and the Advisory Commission throughout until +the early summer of 1918, when he became Acting Director, succeeding Mr. +Gifford shortly after the signing of the armistice. + +[Illustration: Copyright by Harris & Ewing + +=United States Council of National Defense and Its Advisory Commission= + +Seated, left to right: David F. Houston, Secretary of Agriculture; +Josephus Daniels, Secretary of the Navy; Newton D. Baker, Secretary of +War; Franklin K. Lane, Secretary of the Interior; William B. Wilson, +Secretary of Labor. Standing, left to right: Grosvenor B. Clarkson, +Secretary, later Director, of both Council and Advisory Commission; +Julius Rosenwald, Bernard M. Baruch, Daniel Willard, Chairman of the +Advisory Commission; Dr. Franklin Martin, Dr. Hollis Godfrey, Howard E. +Coffin and Walter S. Gifford, Director of the Council and Advisory +Commission.] + + +PROPOSALS OF THE ADVISORY COMMITTEE + +Although the Council and Advisory Commission did not, as has been +stated, make permanent organization until March 3, 1917, the Advisory +Commission on December 7, 1916, determined on the following proposals of +action: + + To begin immediately a study to determine the most effective + flexible organization and mechanism for the securing of all + necessary information and for the clarifying, recording, and + classifying of such information when secured. + + To begin immediately a study as to what media now exist which + can aid in the carrying out of the purposes of the council. + This study to be made in three divisions--governmental media + in the departments, governmental media outside the departments, + and civil media. As this study progresses it is believed that + the council can aid materially in the development of such + media, and can from time to time define (_i. e._, delimit and + delineate) spheres of activity in which existing organizations + may operate intensively without duplication. + + To assist in the advance of the physical well being of the + people of the nation. + + To begin immediately a study of the possibility of the + coordination of transportation, communication and surveys. + + To continue the work done on the inventory of manufactures, of + medical equipment and officers, of supplies, and of resources. + + To assist in the development of the "Personal Index" already + begun. + + To set a fixed date (a date three months after the beginning of + action is suggested) on which an inspection may be made of the + work accomplished to that date. This inspection to be made + through the submitting to the commission of an actual problem + by the Departments of War and Navy, with the intent to + determine at that time what needed information is or is not + available. + + To form a temporary organization to put the above proposals or + any part of them or additional proposals into effect at the + earliest possible date, with the intention of changing from a + temporary organization to a permanent organization as the + progress of the work makes this possible. + + To begin a study of the best methods of expression of the work + of the council to the people of the nation. + + To scrutinize all legislative action touching national defense. + + To do any other thing or take any other action necessary to + give effect to the law under which the council and commission + are organized. + + +PRE-WAR ACTIVITIES + +At this time there was consideration of plans to enroll labor in an +industrial reserve, and the question of mobilization of American +railroads for military purposes was seriously discussed against future +need. At the same time Commissioner Baruch stated that he had been +making a study of the steel and metal industries in connection with the +national defense, and wished for authority to consult further with the +leaders in those trades. The Director was asked to establish relations +in the interest of the national defense with civic organizations, +patriotic associations, and chambers of commerce. + +At a meeting on February 12, 1917, plans were discussed to call a series +of conferences with the leading men in each industry fundamental to the +defense of the country in the event of war, and at the same meeting a +plan was laid down and afterwards agreed upon to split the Advisory +Commission up into seven separate committees as detailed above, the +Chairman of each committee to be given power to select the members of +his committee from either governmental or civil life, or both. + +At a meeting on February 14, 1917, E. S. Stettinius, who, acting for J. +P. Morgan and Company, was the purchasing agent of the Allies at that +time, was called before the Council to confer with it on the manufacture +of munitions. In the same way during this early period men of the +authority and standing of Herbert Hoover, Admiral Peary, and General +Kuhn, who had closely studied the German armies, were called into +consultation by the Council, Mr. Hoover of course, discussing the +mobilization, distribution, and conservation of food supplies, and +Admiral Peary the development of the aeroplane and seaplane for modern +war. + +On February 15th the Advisory Commission, further to progress its work +then already under way, requested detailed lists of materials, with +specifications and detailed dimensioned blueprints covering all +equipment needed for a force of 1,000,000 men and for the assumed force +of the Navy and Marine Corps with its numbers increased to emergency +strength. It also called for estimates of reasonable accuracy covering +the maintenance of a force of the size mentioned in the field during +each ninety days of active service. The information was desired in order +that approximations might be made as to the amounts of both manufactured +and raw material for which it would be necessary to draw upon the +resources of the country. The Advisory Commission later furnished +estimates of its own. + +On March 3rd Chairman Willard of the Advisory Commission read to the +Council a list of men nominated by the Commission to compose a munitions +standards board. It is highly significant to detail the names of these +men with their occupations, for they were typical of the cream of +American industry which from that time on was enlisted in the +Government's interest: + + W. H. Vandervoort, builders of special machine tools, and + President of the Moline Automobile Co. + + E. A. Deeds, formerly General Manager for the National Cash + Register Co., President of the Dayton Engineering Laboratories + Co., and interested in many industrial activities. + + Frank A. Scott, Warner & Swasey Co., Cleveland, manufacturers + of automatic machinery and optical instruments. + + Frank Pratt, General Electric Co., Schenectady. + + Samuel Vauclain, Baldwin Locomotive Works, Remington and + Westinghouse Cos. + + John E. Otterson, Vice-President, Winchester Arms Co. + +The Council duly approved these nominations. + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +Bernard M. Baruch + +Known as the "Eye of Industry," because his task was to see that the raw +materials were brought to the factories and the finished products +shipped overseas.] + + +MEN OF VISION + +It is impossible here to give more than a few instances such as the +foregoing of the way in which the Council and Commission, with +remarkable vision and perhaps even more remarkable disregard of +precedent when precedent got in the way of the national welfare, made +history in these pre-war days. Fully to tell the story of this period +would pack a large volume. I quote from a recent partisan criticism +directed by an American Congressman, as chairman of a congressional +committee to investigate war expenditures, against the Advisory +Commission particularly, which he characterized as the "secret +government of the United States" during this vital space of time: + + It appears from the minutes of the advisory commission and the + council, which were kept separately, that practically all of + the measures which were afterwards considered as war measures, + were initiated by this advisory commission, adopted by the + council, and afterwards acted upon by Congress. In many cases, + a considerable period before the actual declaration of war with + Germany this advisory commission was discussing matters which + were thought to be new legislation, conceived by reason of the + necessities of war. For instance, on March 3rd, over a month + before the War declaration, the advisory commission indorsed to + the Council of National Defense a daylight-saving scheme, and + recommended a Federal censorship of the press. The question of + Federal censorship of the press was further discussed on March + 24th, two weeks before the declaration of war. + + On February 15th, about two months before the declaration of + war, Commissioners Coffin and Gompers made a report as to the + exclusion of labor from military service, and the draft was + discussed; the draft was also discussed on other occasions + before anyone in this country, except this advisory commission + and those who were closely affiliated with the administration, + knew that a declaration of war was to be made later. At a + meeting, on February 15th, this same commission of seven men + (none of whom had any official authority except as advisors), + recommended that Herbert Hoover be employed by the Government + in connection with food control. It was generally understood, + as appears from the minutes, that Mr. Hoover was to be in + control of this matter, although war was two months in the + future. + + The advisory commission first met on December 6, 1916. Almost + the first thing the commission did was to take up the matter of + arranging an easy method of communication between the + manufacturers and the Government. On February 12th, for + example, Secretary Lane offered a resolution to the advisory + commission suggesting to them to call a series of conferences + of the leading men in various industries, so the industries + might organize and be able to do business with the council + through one man. In several meetings, long before the war was + declared, this advisory commission of seven men met with the + representatives of the manufacturing industries and formed an + organization of them for selling supplies to the Government, + which organization was well perfected before the war was + declared. This method consisted of having the representatives + of the various businesses, producing goods which the Government + would have to buy, form themselves into committees so that they + might be able to sell to the Government the goods direct, which + their industries produced. In almost every meeting that this + advisory commission had before the declaration of war, they + discussed and recommended to the council (which consisted of + six Cabinet members) these plans for fixing prices and selling + to the Government. When war was declared on April 6th, this + machinery began to move, headed by the advisory commission of + these minutes, the active Government of the seven men, who + were, in effect, as shown by United States, so far as the + purchase of supplies was concerned. So far as I can observe, + there was not an act of the so-called war legislation afterward + enacted that had not before the actual declaration of war been + discussed and settled upon by this advisory commission. + +It should be said, of course, that no member of this Council +organization ever sold commodities to himself. But that is another +story. + + +MEN OF EXPERIENCE + +I could not complete even a skeleton outline of the period in question +without certain other references. + +Further to emphasize the quality of the business men being called to +Washington by the Council and Advisory Commission, I quote part of a +letter to Chairman Willard of the Commission from Commissioner Baruch of +March 23, 1917: + + Mr. Daniel Willard, + Chairman, Advisory Commission, Council of + National Defense, Washington, D. C. + + Dear Sir: + + In pursuance of the authority given me and in order to be + prepared to meet the requests made of the advisory commission, + I have appointed the following committees. As the necessity + arises and the advisability becomes apparent, I shall add from + time to time other members to these committees, always bearing + in mind keeping them down to such a size that they will be + workable. It has been my endeavor to appoint on these + committees men of proved ability and undoubted integrity. + + LEATHER.--Walter C. Garritt, U. S. Leather Co., Boston, Mass.; + George F. Johnson, Endicott, N. Y.; Theodore P. Haight, + American Hide & Leather Co., New York City. + + RUBBER.--A. Marks, Diamond Rubber Co., Akron, Ohio; Fred Hood, + Hood Rubber Co., Watertown, Mass.; Stuart Hotchkiss, General + Rubber Co., New York City. + + STEEL.--E. H. Gary, President, American Iron & Steel Institute, + New York. + + WOOL.--J. F. Brown, Boston, Mass.; Sigmund Silberson, Chicago, + Ill.; Joseph R. Grundy, Bristol, Pa.; F. J. Hagenbarth, + President, National Association of Wool Growers, Salt Lake + City, Utah. + + NICKEL.--Ambrose Monell, President, International Nickel Co., + New York. + + OIL.--I have asked Mr. A. C. Bedford, president of the Standard + Oil Co., to serve on the committee, but I shall probably add + another from the Middle West, whose name I have not yet + determined upon, and Mr. Ed. L. Doheny, of Los Angeles, Calif. + + ZINC.--I have in the process of formation a committee + representing the zinc trade. There are certain difficulties in + the way of trade jealousies which we have to smooth away. The + same thing is occurring in other lines, but it will be + adjusted, and I shall report on them from time to time. + + COAL.--I have been in consultation with the producers of coal, + both bituminous and anthracite, and am now studying that + situation as to the best method of covering coal. + + SPRUCE WOOD.--I have also under consideration, but have come to + no conclusion, the employment through a committee of those best + fitted for obtaining the manufacture of aeroplanes for the + Government the proper amount of spruce wood which seems to be + needed. + + +LABOR PLEDGES SUPPORT + +It will be long before the writer forgets the dramatic meeting of the +Advisory Commission as early as March 3, 1917, when Commissioner Gompers +reported that he had called an executive council meeting of the American +Federation of Labor for March 9, 1917, for the purpose of considering +the attitude of labor toward the preparedness plans of the government. +The labor leader spoke with great emotion. He referred to England's +difficulty in the first year of the war in enlisting the services of the +working people. He went on to say that in England unity was then lacking +between government and labor and that the same situation, if not +properly handled before hand, could arise in this country in even more +acute form, largely because of the racial diversity of our working +classes. He concluded by stating that he was now bending his efforts to +mobilizing good will in this direction, saying: [24] "I want the +workingmen to do their part if war comes to America." He forecasted the +meeting in Washington on March 12, 1917, of the officers of the National +and International Trade Unions of America, and said: "I am expecting a +definite response of support from every trade union in America." There +is no doubt in the writer's mind that Samuel Gompers kept the faith +throughout. + +[24] I took Mr. Gompers' words verbatim. + +On April 6, 1917, the Council and Advisory Commission approved a +declaration of the attitude of American labor toward the war presented +by Mr. Gompers' Committee on Labor of the Advisory Commission. This +action was directed toward the maintenance of existing standards of +employment, and provided, among other things, that the Council should +issue a statement to employers and employees in industrial plants and +transportation systems advising that neither employers nor employees +should endeavor to take advantage of the country's necessities to change +existing standards; and providing further that when economic or other +emergencies might arise requiring changes of standards, the same should +be made only after such proposed changes were investigated and approved +by the Council. It likewise provided that the Council urge upon the +legislatures of the States, as well as upon all administrative agencies +charged with the enforcement of labor and health laws, the great duty of +rigorously maintaining the existing safeguards as to the health and +welfare of workers, and that no departure from such standards in State +laws and State rulings affecting labor should be taken without a +declaration of the Council that such departure was essential for the +effective pursuit of the national defense. + + +MERGING THE RAILROADS + +On April 7, 1917, the Council directed Chairman Willard of the Advisory +Commission to call upon the railroads so to organize their business as +to lead to the greatest expedition in the movement of freight and +troops. The response of the railroads was literally splendid. Their +executives came to Washington, conferred with Mr. Willard, and passed +the following resolution: + + RESOLVED, That the railroads of the United States, acting + through their chief executive officers here and now assembled + and stirred by a high sense of their opportunity to be of the + greatest service to their country in the present national + crisis, do hereby pledge themselves, with the Government of the + United States, with the governments of the several States, and + one with another, that during the present war they will + coordinate their operations in a continental railway system, + merging during such period all their merely individual and + competitive activities in the effort to produce a maximum of + national transportation efficiency. To this end they hereby + agree to create an organization which shall have general + authority to formulate in detail and from time to time a policy + of operation of all or any of the railways, which policy, when + and as announced by such temporary organization, shall be + accepted and earnestly made effective by the several + managements of the individual railroad companies here + represented. + + +COOPERATING COMMITTEES + +The first of July, 1917, found the Council and Advisory Commission +directing the operation of the following boards and committees: + + Aircraft Production Board. + + Committee on Coal Production. + + Commercial Economy Board. + + Woman's Committee. + + General Munitions Board with its sub-committees on Army + Vehicles, Armored Cars, Emergency Construction and Contracts, + Optical Glass, Storage Facilities, Machine Guns, Priority, and + Accounting. + + Munitions Standards Board with its sub-committees on Gauges and + Dies, Army and Navy Artillery, Fuses and Detonators, Small Arms + and Munitions, Optical Instruments, and Army and Navy + Projectiles. + + Section on Cooperation with States. + + Committee on Inland Waterways. + + Committee on Telegraphs and Telephones. + + Committee on Railroad Transportation, with which acted an + executive committee made up of leading railroad presidents and + six departmental committees composed likewise of railroad + executives and paralleling the military departments over the + country, and sub-committees on Express, Car Service, Military + Equipment Standards, Military Transportation Accounting, + Military Passenger Tariffs, Military Freight Tariffs, and + Materials and Supplies. + + Committees on Cars and Locomotives, with their personnel made + up of the high executives of such concerns as the Baldwin + Locomotive Works, the Pullman Company, and the American + Locomotive Company. + + Committee on Electric Railroad Transportation, composed of + electric railway presidents. + + Committee on Gas and Electric Service. + + Committee on Automotive Transport. + + Committee on Supplies, with its sub-committees on Cotton Goods, + Woolen Manufacturers, Shoe and Leather Industries, Knit Goods, + Leather Equipment, Mattresses and Pillows, and Canned Goods. + + Committee on Raw Materials, with its sub-committees, popularly + known at the time as the "A to Z" committees, on Alcohol, + Aluminum, Asbestos, Magnesia and Roofing, Brass, Cement, + Chemicals, Acids, Alkalis, Electrochemicals, Fertilizers, + Miscellaneous Chemicals, Coal-Tar Products, Pyrites, Sulphur. + + Sub-Committees on Copper, Lead, Lumber, Mica, Nickel, Steel + Products, with sub-committees on Alloys, Sheet Steel, Pig Tin, + Steel Distribution, Scrap Iron, Pig Iron, Iron Ore, and Lake + Transportation, Tubular Products, Tin Plate, Wire Rope, Wire + Products, and Cold Rolled and Cold Drawn Steel. + + Sub-Committee on Oil, Rubber, Wool, and Zinc. + + Committee on Engineering and Education, with its sub-committees + on General Engineering, Production Engineering, Universities + and Colleges, Secondary and Normal Schools, and Construction + Engineering. + + Committee on Labor, with its sub-committees on Mediation and + Conciliation, Wages and Hours, Women in Industry, Welfare Work, + Sanitation with twelve subdivisions, Vocational Education with + nine subdivisions, Information and Statistics, Cost of Living + and Domestic Economy. + + General Medical Board, with a long and active list of + sub-committees. + +[Illustration: Copyright by Underwood & Underwood + +Daniel Willard + +President of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. + +He was chairman of transportation and communication in the Council of +National Defense.] + + +SERVICE OF EXPERTS + +On these boards and committees sat, almost without exception, the +American leaders of industry, science, and labor. Scattered through the +list one finds such names as: + + Rear Admiral David W. Taylor, one of the world's leading naval + constructors. + + F. S. Peabody, the great coal operator. + + James J. Storrow, of Lee, Higginson & Co., of Boston. + + A. W. Shaw, publisher of the _System_ magazine, who, as + Chairman of the Commercial Economy Board, preached with + remarkable success the gospel of conservation in business. + + Dr. Anna Howard Shaw, who for her labors as Chairman of the + Woman's Committee received the Distinguished Service Medal. + + Frank A. Scott, on whom was bestowed the same distinction for + his leadership of the General Munitions Board. + + W. A. Starrett, constructing architect of New York, to whom in + great measure is due the credit for the building of the + cantonments in an incredibly short space of time. + + Samuel Vauclain, President of the Baldwin Locomotive Works, + whose contribution in the matter of Army and Navy artillery was + monumental. + + Theodore Vail, President of the American Telephone & Telegraph + Company, who brought the wire communication men of the country + to a common center in the national interest. + + Charles Clifton, President of the National Automobile Chamber + of Commerce. + + Gen. George H. Harries, the famous electric railway operator. + + Samuel Insull, President of the Commonwealth Edison Co., of + Chicago. + + Charles Eisenman, who, as active head of the Council's + Committee on Supplies, procured for the Government $800,000,000 + of supplies in 200 days at an overhead cost of but $20,000, + involving the handling of 45,000 contracts, and who justly + received the Distinguished Service Medal. + + A. F. Bemis, President of the National Association of Cotton + Manufacturers. + + John P. Woods, the eminent woolen manufacturer. + + J. F. McElwain, of the McElwain Shoe Company. + + Lincoln Cromwell, of Wm. Iselin & Co., New York. + + Arthur V. Davis, President of the Aluminum Co. of America. + + Thomas F. Manville, President of H. W. Johns-Manville Co. + + Charles F. Brooker, President of the American Brass Company. + + John E. Morron, President of the Atlas Portland Cement Company. + + John D. Ryan, President of the Anaconda Copper Company. + + R. L. Agassiz, President of the Calumet & Hecla Mining + Company. + + W. A. Clark, President of the United Verde Copper Company. + + Murry M. Guggenheim. + + R. H. Downman, President of the National Lumber Manufacturers' + Association. + + Ambrose Monell, President of the International Nickel Company. + + Gary, Farrell, Burden, Dinkey, King, Grace, Schwab, Topping, + Dalton, and Clarke, the great steel executives. + + Bedford, Davison, Doheney, Lufkin, Markham, Sinclair, Van Dyke, + Muir, James, and Guffy, in whose hands lay almost the entire + oil output of America. + + Stuart Hotchkiss, President of the General Rubber Company. + + F. J. Hagenbarth, President of the National Association of Wool + Growers. + + The Presidents of the leading zinc companies. + +Then when we come to Engineering and Education: + + Dr. Henry E. Crampton, of Columbia University. + + Charles A. Stone, of Stone and Webster. + + The heads of the great engineering societies. + + The presidents of Harvard, Johns Hopkins, and other famous + universities and colleges. + +Among labor leaders such persons as: + + Warren S. Stone, Grand Chief of the Brotherhood of Locomotive + Engineers. + + James W. Sullivan, Matthew Woll and Frank Morrison, all high in + the American Federation of Labor. + +Such well-known men as: + + V. Everit Macy, Benjamin Ide Wheeler, John H. Finley, August + Belmont, E. T. Stotesbury and Charles G. Dawes, afterwards a + brilliant figure as a General in France. + +Such nationally and internationally known physicians as: + + General Gorgas; Dr. William H. Welch, of Johns Hopkins; the + Mayos; Dr., afterwards Brigadier-General, Finney; Dr. George E. + Brewer; Dr. George W. Crile; Dr. Simon Flexner; and Dr. + Theodore Janeway. + + Dr. George E. Hale, Chairman of the National Research Council, + which was and is the Council's Department of Science and + Research. + + Thomas A. Edison, President of the Naval Consulting Board, + which was and is the Council's Board of Inventions. + +The activities of these men and their hundreds of colleagues, nearly all +dollar-a-year workers and men whose time could not be bought, as a rule, +in days of peace, reached out and touched almost every town and village +in almost every part of the United States. They were moved and +stimulated by the philosophy of voluntary cooperation, which was first +and in a very daring way thrust into the consciousness of the nation by +the Council of National Defense. It was the policy that won the war. One +distinct benefit which the Government received from calling the +industrial intelligence of the country to its aid was the breadth of +view which industrial leaders possess. Their habit of mind to survey the +field as a whole, to take a bird's-eye view of the problem to be solved, +enabled the Government agencies to obtain a proper comprehension of the +task of building the war machine. The country will probably never know +the debt that it owes to these men and their like who came to Washington +and bent their backs throughout the hot Southern summer during a series +of endeavors in which absolutely no paths were charted. + + +NON-PARTISAN REPRESENTATION + +It has been asked why a coalition government was not formed to wage the +war. That very thing was in effect done by the Council, though we were +all too busy to point it out at the time. A majority of the Advisory +Commission was made up of Republicans. Certainly Republicans were in the +huge preponderance in the Committee and Boards of the Council and +Advisory Commission. Speaking as one who was not affiliated with the +politics of the Administration of Woodrow Wilson, the writer never +perceived a trace of political flavor in the organization and operation +of the Council from first to last. Never did the six Democratic cabinet +officers forming the Council itself so much as inquire into the politics +of the hundreds of business men and experts nominated to them for +appointment. It was an amazing demonstration of non-partisanship in a +national crisis. The Council was an organization of specialists from +beginning to end, and the work was everywhere carried forward on the +most impersonal basis. The writer attributes this state of affairs to +the breadth of view, and the very genuine passion for national service, +of Secretary of War Baker, Chairman of the Council. + +It should be plainly stated that, utilizing in the main dollar-a-year +experts, the Council made the preliminary mobilization of industry to +July 1, 1917, at the grotesquely small sum of $127,000. To May 1, 1919, +its total expenditures, including the operation of the war industries +for nearly a year, amounted to but $1,500,000, and this comprehended the +expenditure of $225,000 for the erection of a building. I doubt if there +is anything in governmental or commercial history to match those +figures, squared with results. The savings of the Council and Advisory +Commission to the Government and the people mounted literally into the +billions, as careful analysis of pre-war and war-time prices on certain +commodities will demonstrate. It was made possible by the Council's +course in commandeering to its side the business men of the United +States. + + +SOME RESULTS OF COOPERATION + +One of the practical results of voluntary cooperation was the agreement +made by Mr. Baruch and Mr. Ryan with the largest copper producers of the +country to furnish the Navy 20,000,000 pounds of copper and the Army +25,510,000 pounds at 16-2/3c a pound when the market price was 35c a +pound. This meant saving to the Government close to $10,000,000. The +copper men made this offer notwithstanding their increased cost for +labor, materials, etc., because, as they said: "We believe it to be our +duty to furnish the requirements of the Government in preparing the +nation for war with no more profit than we receive from our regular +production in normal times." + +In the same way the steel makers of the country, represented in the +Steel Institute, agreed to furnish steel to the Government at the basic +price of 2.9c per pound as compared with the then market price of from +5c to 7c a pound. This represented an approximate saving to the +Government of $18,000,000. + + +THE FIELD DIVISION + +The tremendous effort of the Council to mobilize and coalesce into a +fluid and powerful whole the industrial, economic and scientific forces, +was supplemented and to a great extent made possible by the Council's +Section on Cooperation with States, later known as the Field Division. +Through this subordinate body was created, guided and coordinated the +185,000 units of the state, county, community and municipal councils of +defense, which literally unified the citizenship of America for war. If +production was to win the war, it was elementary that the civilian +morale must be brought to the highest pitch of cooperation and +efficiency--and it was accomplished. In this vital task a noble part was +played by the Woman's Committee of the Council, which in the most +thorough-going and swift manner brought the services of the women of the +country to the Government. The director of this committee, Miss Hannah +J. Patterson, received the Distinguished Service Medal. + + +WAR INDUSTRIES BOARD + +On August 1, 1917, the Council, with its fortunate power to create +subordinate bodies, brought into being the War Industries Board, of +which the first Chairman was Frank A. Scott, and of which some of the +other members up to the end of the war were: + + Robert S. Brookings. + + Brigadier-General Hugh S. Johnson. + + Rear Admiral F. F. Fletcher. + + Hugh Frayne, of the American Federation of Labor. + + George N. Peek, a prominent Middle Western manufacturer. + + J. L. Replogle, who became the very efficient Director of Steel + Supply. + + L. L. Summers, an expert on explosives. + + Alexander Legge, General Manager of the International Harvester + Company. + + And Judge Edwin B. Parker. + +Mr. Brookings was later placed in charge of price fixing and Judge +Parker in charge of priorities. The War Industries Board undoubtedly +accomplished a much better centralization of effort than was possible in +the hurried organization of the early days, when the imperative need was +to increase the sources of supply and get production going until the +executive departments of the Government could get into their full +stride. Mr. Scott was succeeded as Chairman of the War Industries by +Daniel Willard, who in turn was succeeded by B. M. Baruch, who, in his +leadership of this vital and powerful agency, duplicated the success +that Mr. Willard had made as Chairman of the pioneer Advisory +Commission. + + +CANTONMENT CONSTRUCTION + +In indicating even an outline statement of the American industrial and +economic effort in the war, the writer feels helpless to paint the +picture within the space of a few thousand words. It simply cannot be +done. But to visualize what the measure of the task was, let one thing +be cited: + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +=John D. Ryan= + +President of the Anaconda Copper Company. He was made chairman of the +Aircraft Production Board after we entered the war.] + +At our entrance into the war there were one colonel and four men to +build the cantonments. The job involved the expenditure of $150,000,000 +in about three months. The largest year's work on the Panama Canal +amounted to but some $50,000,000. The situation was heart-breaking. On +hearing of it Frank Scott, then Chairman of the General Munitions Board, +called up the Secretary of War and said that something had to be done, +with which the Secretary instantly agreed. The result was that the +Colonel, afterwards Brigadier-General Littell, had a civilian +organization built around him by the Council of National Defense, +notably by W. A. Starrett, later himself a colonel in the Army, which +functioned until the Army was in shape to carry on the job alone. The +building of the cantonments was the greatest job of the ages. +Incidentally it should be stated that the average profit to the +contractors was less than three per cent. + + +MEN LITTLE KNOWN + +The writer likewise feels great reluctance in mentioning, as he has +mentioned, only a few of the men who waged the industrial side of the +war. Many business men little known to the country gave up their +businesses and came to Washington and did superhuman things--did them in +an impersonal, selfless way that was nothing less than stirring. Many of +them remain unknown to this day, and their chief reward must lie in the +satisfaction that they drew to their own souls by what they did, which +is, of course, the greatest satisfaction of all in such situations as +war-time Washington exemplified. + +It has not even been possible to touch on the work of business men in +such great war agencies as the Food and Fuel Administration, the War +Trade Board, the Shipping Board, the Aircraft Production Board, the +Office of the Alien Property Custodian, the War Finance Corporation, and +those divisions of the War Department which called highly qualified +civilians to their aid. It would seem better to emphasize the initial +effort, when the Council, through force of circumstances, became the +great administrative laboratory for the examination, organization, and, +at the proper time, allocation of totally new and untried phases of +Federal action related to the prosecution of the war. It was in effect a +fecund mother, which, it is not the slightest exaggeration to say, gave +birth to and propelled the war machine which in the closing days of the +conflict overseas was reaching to the peak of its load, and which in +fact dealt the death blow to the Imperial German Government. It made, in +truth, its fair share of mistakes, but some day its part in sending out +the trumpet call to the business and labor and scientific leaders of +America to join in the national defense will be fully told. Then there +will be perceived in clear and true light the extent to which +peace-loving American civilians offered all they had and all they were +to the Government of the United States so that decency might again be +paramount upon the face of the earth. + + + + +VII--THE LIBERTY LOAN ARMY + +Mobilizing Americans at Home to Pay for the War--A National Effort +Which Yielded $24,065,810,350 + +By GUY EMERSON + +Vice-President of the National Bank of Commerce, formerly Director of +Publicity, Government Loan Organization + + +Our Army was our first line in the war against Germany. Our second line +of offense and defense was the Navy, and behind both stood another line +without which neither the Army nor the Navy could have "carried on." +This third force was the greatest unit ever marshalled in the history of +this or any other country--the Liberty Loan Army. Before a man in the +United States uniform entered a trench, before the first depth bomb had +been dropped on a U-boat, this Army, which finally carried a roster of +22,777,680 names, had entered the war. + +Think of it! One person in every five in the immense population was in +the war! + +True, their contribution to the eventual triumph of our arms was +measured in dollars while that of the men at the front or on the seas +was in lives or limbs. Yet it is a fact that dollars were as powerful +relatively as men in bringing the Boche to bay. + +Various causes have been given to account for the startlingly sudden +collapse of the Kaiser's army. Some say that the Allies' superior +military strategy brought it to its knees. Others contend that success +against the U-boats broke it down. Both are partly right, for each +helped to undermine the German morale. But however great the +contribution of both was, it is safe to say that the front presented by +the Liberty Loan Army was a vital factor. The belated German +consciousness that the United States as a whole was in the war, as +tangibly represented in the strength of the Liberty Loan Army, helped to +shatter the Germans' will to victory. As much as the men in khaki or in +blue, this gigantic unit bore in upon his mind as an unyielding +opponent. He understood the futility of trying to defeat a people that +enlisted against him to the number of 22,777,680 at home, 4,000,000 in +the field and 300,000 on the water. + + +THE SPIRIT BEHIND THE DOLLAR + +There is another angle to this important element of morale. In inverse +ratio to the weakening of the spirit of the Germans against this +resistless body there came a daily strengthening of the morale of our +own men and those of the Allies through this manifestation at home. +Where there are two opposing wills to victory in the field, the one that +has the greater backing at home is certain to overwhelm the other. + +It was not the dollar that won the war, it was the spirit behind the +dollar. Before Prince Max asked for the armistice he had learned that +$9,978,835,800 had been subscribed in this country toward his defeat. It +is natural to assume that this fact did not impress him so much as the +related fact that millions of persons had participated in the +subscription. + +Up to the end of the Fourth Loan, which coincided with the negotiations +for the Armistice, $16,971,909,050 had been paid in and this helped to +save life to an extent that we can only imagine. It was the confident +expectation when the Americans halted the German onslaught at +Chateau-Thierry that the end of the war would come in the following +spring. None dared to hope that it would come before Christmas. When the +crash came in November, even the Allied commanders were bewildered by +its suddenness. Had the war been prolonged to the spring of 1919, it is +certain that we would have paid a large toll in lives. Some have +estimated that 100,000 more of our young men would have been sacrificed. +That the war did not drag along for six months more may be ascribed in +part to the effect that the demonstrated loyalty of the Liberty Loan +Army had upon German morale. We know that the Germans fed lies to their +own troops and dropped pamphlets with these same falsehoods into our own +trenches. They tried to convince their own and our men that the Loans +had no support. + + +MOBILIZING THE LIBERTY LOAN ARMY + +When at 11 o'clock on November 11, 1918, peace dawned upon a war-sick +world we had 2,000,000 men in Europe, and as many more on this side +putting themselves in readiness to go across. On the seas we had close +to 300,000 men. This tremendous force was welded into form in the +nineteen months we were in the war. Yet within a few months after our +entrance into the war there were more than this total in the Liberty +Loan Army. The list of subscribers to the First Liberty Loan which +closed two months after our entry had 4,500,000 names. + +And this number remained for the duration of the war, giving every penny +they could spare, mortgaging their property, committing themselves to +personal privations. When the Second Loan books were totalled in +November the number had increased to 9,500,000, and it leaped to +17,000,000 in the Third. In the Fourth--the last loan of war-time--it +had grown to 22,777,680 and in the Fifth which closed six months after +the armistice, it finished with 12,000,000 names. + +As in the Army, where organization is half the battle, it was through +organization of the enthusiasm and the deep fervor of the American +people that success came in this big venture. We had to create a state +of mind, we had to educate the American public in finance--which in +itself appeared an insuperable task--we had to marshal resources on a +scale such as never before had been attempted, and we had to map out a +sales campaign that would comprehend millions of persons. There were no +precedents to go by; the example set in Europe could not have +application in the United States because of temperamental and financial +differences; the flotation of the loans in the Civil War afforded no +practicable working basis. It was pioneering, and this fact was made +clear in the first conference held in Washington when Secretary of the +Treasury William G. McAdoo called together the financial leaders of the +country. + +[Illustration: A Poster Used During the Fourth Liberty Loan Campaign] + +Only three weeks were allowed to prepare for the First Loan Drive. As +soon as we had decided to get into the war, this decision carried with +it the determination to go in to the limit of our resources. The +Secretary of the Treasury informed the bankers that the first issue +would be for $2,000,000,000 and this would be merely the forerunner of a +succession of loans in larger amounts. The bonds were to be put on the +market at three and a half percent. and the campaigns were to be +conducted according to the territories of the Federal Reserve districts, +twelve in all. + + "It is quite likely," said the Secretary of the Treasury, "that + we could induce a group of men to take up this loan but that + would compromise the country before the world. We must sell to + the public in such numbers that there shall exist no doubt + among our enemies that our people are back of the Government as + a unit in this war." + +The men whom he addressed were all recognized as organizers, all had +been identified with big business. However, few of them had had the +general contact with the public so essential to popularizing the loan. +They knew how to sell, but not in small denominations or to millions of +purchasers. In an abstract sense they realized the value of advertising +and newspaper publicity, but not one of them had the remotest idea of +how the ideal of Secretary McAdoo could be realized. + + +ORGANIZING THE FIRST DRIVE + +It was at this point that their resourcefulness came into play. Their +first move was the right one; they engaged specialists to undertake the +tasks of which they knew little. They addressed themselves to the public +through men skilled in establishing such contacts as are given through +advertising, publicity, and canvassing. In the brief time allotted to +them, they barely had time to surround themselves with this trained +talent. + +Verily, it was shooting in the dark, a process of hit and miss. Some one +said that the campaign in the First Loan was planned as we went along, +and that is literally true. The patriotism was there--that was an +unquestionable fact; the problem was to make it manifest itself in +sacrifice of savings and earnings. The work of the whole three weeks was +experimental and the country was the laboratory. Let it be said that the +alchemy of patriotism transmuted the hearts and minds of the public into +pure gold. Once the people were informed of their duty toward the United +States they rallied instantly. + +Newspapers turned over their columns, advertisers offered their precious +space--and it was precious in those days of paper shortage; stores and +banks opened booths for sales, public speakers cancelled every other +engagement that they might participate, factories strove to enlist every +person in their employment as purchasers, clubs responded in whole +memberships, women's committees were formed for the acceleration of +interest, churches consecrated themselves to the project, trade unions +abandoned all differences with employers and allied themselves +unselfishly, writers pleaded for a chance to exercise their influence, +foreign language groups demanded opportunity to prove their Americanism, +actors, singers, and lecturers begged for a place in the campaign. + +Wholeheartedly and with utter disregard of personal sacrifice this vast +aggregation committed itself to the task. The initial momentum gave the +drive the force of an avalanche that swept everything else aside. There +came times during this first drive when the issue seemed in doubt, but +this was due more to an excess of enthusiasm than to a lack of support. +When the totals were in, it was realized that these misgivings were due +to the physical inability of the tabulators to keep abreast of the tide +of subscriptions. The subscriptions went to $3,035,226,850. + +It had been said that the first campaign in its directive agencies was +largely hit and miss. When it was over the strikes were recorded and the +misses eliminated for the preliminary work of the Second Loan which was +to follow in October. Out of the mass was evolved a system of methods +that served as the groundwork of the real organization. The results +afforded a working basis that would have carried a dozen loans through, +granting that the people remained faithful to their patriotism. + + +THE APPEAL + +Let it be admitted that in the first loan there was no defined appeal. +We were in the war and in to win, that was sufficient. It was foreseen +that the psychology of the public must have a central theme for the next +loan to which it must respond. The Second campaign began on October 1, +1917, after the embarkation of the nucleus of the vast army that +eventually was to overwhelm the foe. None of them yet had been called +into action. The keynote of this drive was the education of the people +on the meaning of a German victory. We had before us the ghastly stories +of what the Germans had done in Belgium and in France; we had to throw +ourselves into the conflict to keep our own homes safe. + +The eyes of all Europe, our Allies and our enemies, were upon us. It was +clear that by the results at home we would be judged, as we had not yet +had the opportunity to show ourselves in the field. For four weeks and a +day the campaign went on, this time for $3,000,000,000. The appeal which +touched the heartstrings of all persons served a double purpose. Not +only did it carry the message of the Loan, but it knit closer the +sentiment of the whole American people to the purposes of the war. +Through its constant reiteration it had the effect of a prayer and like +a prayer gained added meaning with deeper thought. + +Thought was compelled through its manifold repetitions. All the +functions of life were linked with it, all the recreations, all the +relaxations embodied it in part. It formed the backbone of conversation, +it became a part of every daily activity. It assailed the eye at every +turn, it smote the ear constantly, it crashed into consciousnesses in +every conceivable form. Through a strange paradox it linked a fear and a +hope. It embraced the whole gamut of emotions. + + +GROWING RESPONSE + +Again there was a resounding response. In the First Loan the +subscriptions were limited to the actual amount of the issue, but in +the Second all subscriptions were accepted. The number of those who +took bonds was increased more than 100 percent.--it reached 9,500,000, +to be exact, and the $3,000,000,000 issue went to $3,808,766,150. + +So it was in the Third, which was put before the public on the +anniversary of our entrance into the war. At this time our men had gone +into the trenches which in itself made the war our own in its most +serious meaning. This was intensified throughout the land by the +operation of the Selective Service Act. The draft had entered almost +every home; many of those who had qualified in the first call were at +that time in France. Casualty lists were beginning to appear in the +newspapers. + +It needed only this fact--the fact in itself was its own appeal--to +bring out the finest in our people. All previous sentiment faded into +insignificance compared with the solemnity of the actual participation. +The resources that we had been led to believe had been plumbed to their +depths were now revealed to us as inexhaustible. Giving seemed to be the +poorest means of showing how the country was touched; the people gave as +if in despair because this was all they might do. + +The campaign had been for $3,000,000,000 and it brought in returns of +$4,170,069,650 from 17,000,000 men, women and children in the United +States; men, who regretted that this was all they might give to their +country's need; women, who offered with each dollar a passionate prayer +that it might help the men now matching themselves against the foe, and +children, who realized with joy that they were becoming part of the +world's greatest war. + + +FOURTH LIBERTY LOAN + +Before the Fourth Loan the Rolls of Honor in the daily newspapers were +carrying a lengthening list of those who had paid the supreme sacrifice. +In the training camps more and more hundreds of thousands of drafted men +were preparing themselves to take their places on the line; the sea +lanes were crowded with troopships, each bearing the best of our country +away. There had been a depressing period when Ludendorff's men seemed to +carry everything before them, when the coast ports of France seemed +menaced, but before the bugle called the non-combatants at home to +attention again our boys had turned the tide at Chateau-Thierry and now +were in full cry after the fugitive enemy. + +[Illustration: A Poster for the Third Liberty Loan Campaign] + +On September 27, 1918, the call for the Fourth Loan came and it seemed +at the time as if it had been postponed too long because the foe was +crumbling. President Wilson sounded the tocsin in the Metropolitan Opera +House in New York City. This time the appeal was to drive home the +finishing blows, to demonstrate to the crumbling empire of the +Hohenzollerns that here was a people undivided and unafraid. + +The campaign was carried through in a veritable ecstasy of delight. +Where before there had been the spirit to give in order to wage the war +to any length, here was the spirit to bring the end swiftly and +splendidly, to crown the triumphs of our arms abroad with another +triumph at home. In truth, the prospect of impending triumph at first +almost defeated the need of a campaign. The enthusiasm during the period +of the drive transcended everything ever seen in this country before. +The result reflected it: In an issue of $6,000,000,000 there was an +oversubscription of $933,073,250 and the total number was the 22,777,680 +which will stand as the high mark of Americanism for many generations to +come. + + +AROUSING THE HALF-HEARTED + +It has been set forth here that all appeals were based on arousing the +emotions of the people. This was necessary because, had the offerings +gone before the public solely on their practical value as investments, +the results would have been considered abroad as another demonstration +of our sordidness. Had the people of the United States been sordid, it +is certain that they might have obtained better investment values. That +they were not touched by selfish instincts is further proved by the fact +that all through the drives the bonds of the previous issues had been +quoted below par, due to the machinations of a group that never could be +lifted above self-interest. The public, in full realization of this +apparent depreciation, fought it out and showed their utter contempt for +the manipulators by subscribing in greater force and for greater amounts +to each subsequent issue. + +It has been said before that the feeling of the public toward the war +was made clear in the First Loan. It became the problem of the Second +and the succeeding drives to organize enthusiasm so that through +contagion the more resistant types might be affected. This compelled an +organization of psychology. Back of each demonstration there were stage +managers. These managers of psychology worked upon the public through +the newspapers, through advertising, through "stunts," and generated a +force of example which affected the whole community in which they were +expressed. + +For instance, a parade always has the effect of stirring people; +feelings deep-hidden cannot be well concealed when, in war-time, +marching men stride past. Unconsciously there comes to the mind of +people the question: "What will become of these fine boys when they +reach France?" There is the wish to help them, and the means to help +them has been before their eyes for days in the Liberty Loan publicity. +That is what is meant by stage management. + +Through all the Loans it was necessary to manipulate the emotions first, +to bring to the consciousness of the people in the news reports the +facts and purposes of the loans; secondly, to carry the "urge" to them +through the advertising; and thirdly to work upon their feelings through +spectacles, meetings, aeroplane flights, sham battles, motion pictures +of actual warfare, and like accelerants. It was necessary to infect them +in the mass so that as individuals they might infect others with the +fever to buy bonds. + +All this work had to be carried through and was carried through with +brilliant success in the four war-time loans. The Army, the Navy, the +stage women's committees, police organizations, Boy Scouts, foreign +language groups, all played a part. When the call came for the Fifth +Loan, practically everything that had been done before had to be +scrapped. It was all part of the war equipment and would help little in +getting over another loan when people were striving with every fiber to +get away from the thought and the sacrifices of the war. + + +"FINISH THE JOB" + +We had to deal, then, with a people who were beginning to adjust +themselves to peace, who were consoling themselves with the thought that +they had done their part and should not be called upon again. It looked +like a hopeless prospect from the vista presented at the close of the +Fourth campaign to expect the same response for a peace campaign. The +one optimistic fact that stood out was that the people had proved their +patriotism, and such patriotism never dies. The Fifth Loan based its +appeal solely upon patriotism's one expression in peace, duty. + +[Illustration: Victory Way at Night + +During the Victory Loan Drive, Park Avenue, just above the Grand Central +Station, was shut off and devoted to propaganda for the drive. The +photograph shows a pyramid of captured German helmets.] + +"Finish the Job" was the slogan of the Fifth Loan. The country was told +that the war was not ended until its debts were paid, that we should +feel gratitude in the lives spared by its sudden end. The Liberty Loan +workers had to create a new state of mind, to begin a new education--for +this time the issue was in Victory notes instead of bonds--and to arouse +the people to new emotions through spectacles, parades and other +features. It may be mentioned here that the greatest parade of the +entire war was held in New York in this Fifth Loan, when the different +branches of the army showed in procession the men and weapons they had +employed to win victory. + +The call was for $4,500,000,000 and the answer was subscribed in notes +by 12,000,000 persons, who paid in $5,249,908,300. + + +WAR SAVINGS CAMPAIGN + +In between the drives there was a lesser drive constantly carried on +among people who were not able to participate in bond buying. This was +the War Savings campaign which was a part of the Government Loan +enterprise. Newsboys, bootblacks, shop-girls, clerks and others who had +been unable to participate in the Loan drives or who wanted to prove +again their devotion to their country answered this appeal. In these +savings there was collected for the country up to the date of the +armistice $932,339,000 and the number of persons hoarding in small sums +was far beyond a million. + + LIBERTY LOAN FIGURES + Entire Country + | | | No. of + Quota |Am't Subscribed| Allotted |Subscribers + First Loan |$ 2,000,000,000|$ 3,035,226,850|$ 2,000,000,000| 4,500,000 + Second Loan| 3,000,000,000| 4,617,532,300| 3,808,766,150| 9,500,000 + Third Loan | 3,000,000,000| 4,170,069,650| 4,170,069,650|17,000,000 + Fourth Loan| 6,000,000,000| 6,993,073,250| 6,993,073,250|22,777,680 + Fifth Loan | 4,500,000,000| 5,249,908,300| 4,500,000,000|12,000,000 + +---------------+---------------+---------------+---------- + Totals | 18,500,000,000|$24,065,810,350|$21,471,909,050|65,777,680 + + Federal Reserve District of New York + + First Loan |$ 600,000,000|$ 1,191,992,100|$ 617,831,650| 978,959 + Second Loan| 900,000,000| 1,550,453,500| 1,164,366,950| 2,259,151 + Third Loan | 900,000,000| 1,115,243,650| 1,115,243,650| 3,046,929 + Fourth Loan| 1,800,000,000| 2,044,901,750| 2,044,901,750| 3,604,101 + Fifth Loan | 1,350,000,000| 1,762,684,900| 1,318,098,450| 2,484,532 + +---------------+---------------+---------------+---------- + Totals |$ 5,550,000,000|$ 7,665,275,900|$ 6,260,442,450|12,373,672 + +BENEFITS DERIVED FROM LOAN CAMPAIGNS + +The benefits derived from the Loan campaigns were many. Prominent among +them was the growth of thrift among the American people. The growth of +this habit will be an important factor in the future greatness of this +country. + +A lasting monument to the war spirit of those who had to stay at home is +the fact that more than a million persons, men, women and children, were +engaged actively in the promotion of the five loans. In other words, one +person in every hundred in the United States was a part of the +organization, and each induced twenty other persons in that hundred to +buy bonds. This colossal force did not work in haphazard fashion nor +scatter its energy but acted under a definite plan of campaign in which +each had an assigned part and in which each worked according to a method +that would avoid duplication or extra expense. + +The five campaigns which united such an aggregation of workers and which +produced such remarkable results were carried forward with a minimum of +expense. Never before in the history of finance had such widespread +exploitation been accomplished at so low a cost. Of the million workers +all but a small nucleus were volunteers; the resources of the country +were thrown open to the organizers with unexampled prodigality, mediums +of flotation in a veritable flood being contributed without cost to the +officers in the Liberty Loan Army. + +A single purpose animated the whole nation. Party lines, race prejudice, +creed distinctions, social barriers, all were wiped out in these loan +drives. The whole country formed itself into an All-American team that +rushed onward irresistibly. The closest approximation to a common +brotherhood had been achieved. War, with its terrible losses, with its +impairment of lusty young men, with its heartbreaks and agonies, surely +had not been waged in vain when it brought about such a unity. + +The United States in waging the war for democracy had won that democracy +for herself at home. + + + + +VIII--FOOD AND THE WAR + +How Scientific Control and Voluntary Food-Saving Kept Belgium from +Starving and Enabled the Allies to Avert Famine + +By VERNON KELLOGG + +Member of the Commission for the Relief of Belgium + + +America was made familiar with a slogan during 1917 and 1918 which +declared that "Food Will Win the War." The European Allies became +familiar from the very beginning of the war with the fact that without +much more food than they could count on from their own resources they +could not hope to win the war. And it became equally obvious to Germany +and her associates that if their normal food resources were materially +impaired they also could not hope to win the war. + +So there arose almost from the beginning of the great military struggle +an equally great struggle to get food and to keep food from being got. +The Allies, devoting their manpower to fighting and munitions-making, +saw their farms doomed to neglect and their food reduction doomed to +lessen. And they began their call on America for food in such quantities +as America had never dreamed of exporting before. In the last years +before the war we had been sending about five million tons of foodstuffs +a year to Europe. In 1918 we sent over fourteen million tons. Also the +Allies began trying, by their blockade, to prevent the Central Empires +from adding to their own inevitably lessened native production by +importations from without. + +On the other hand, Germany and her associates began to husband carefully +their internal food supplies by instituting a rigid, or would-be rigid, +control of internal marketing and consumption, and to collect from any +outside sources still accessible to them, such as the contiguous neutral +lands, whatever food was possible. Also they had strong hopes of +preventing, by their submarine warfare, the provisioning of the Allies +from America and other overseas sources. + +Thus, from the beginning of the war, and all through its long course, +food supply and food control were of the most vital importance. If our +epigrammatic slogan, "Food Will Win the War," was, like most epigrams, +not literally true, it was, nevertheless, literally true that there was +always possible to either side the loss of the war through lack of food, +and it is literally true that the food victory of the Allies was a great +element in the final war victory. Germany's military defeat was partly +due to food defeat, and if a military decision had not been reached in +the fall of 1918, Germany would have lost the war in the spring of 1919 +anyway from lack of food and raw materials. + + +ECONOMIC SELF-SUFFICIENCY + +The great struggle for food supply and food control involved so many and +such complex undertakings that it is hopeless to attempt a detailed +account of it in any space short of a huge volume. Yet the very +limitations of the present discussion may have its advantages in +compelling us to concentrate our attention on the most important aspects +of the struggle and to try to sum up the most important results of it. +Some of these at least should not be forgotten, for they have a bearing +on the peace-time food problem as well as the war-time one. Fortunately +the war-time food situation has developed in us a national and an +individual food consciousness that will certainly not disappear in this +generation at least. + +The first important lesson that has been learned is that it is of great +value to a nation to be able to provide in its own land its own +necessary food supply. For although in times of peace and usual harvests +international food exchanges enable a country, such as England or +Belgium, highly industrialized and of large population in proportion to +area, to make up without much difficulty its deficit as between +production and consumption, the moment the great emergency arrives there +is the utmost danger for its people. The history of the "relief of +Belgium" during the war will illustrate this. + + +$600,000,000 WORTH OF FOOD SUPPLIED + +This little country, famous through all past history as a battleground +and now famous for all future time for its heroic and pathetic role in +the World War, found itself at the very beginning of the war faced with +a food problem that seemed at first insoluble, and which, if not solved, +meant starvation for its people. It is a country highly industrialized, +and with an agriculture which, though more highly developed as to method +than that of almost any other country, was yet capable of providing but +little more than a third of the food necessary to its people. It +depended for its very life on a steady inflow of food from outside +sources. But with its invasion and occupation by the Germans this inflow +was immediately and completely shut off. Belgium was enclosed in a ring +of steel. What food it possessed inside this ring disappeared rapidly. + +The terrible situation was met in a way of which Americans may be proud. +For the Commission for the Relief of Belgium, which was the agency that +solved Belgium's great problem, was an American organization with a +staff composed chiefly of young Americans, most of them from American +colleges and universities, headed by an American, Herbert Hoover, of +great organizing and diplomatic genius, and with the large heart of a +world philanthropist. In the four and a half years from November 1, +1914, to May 1, 1919, which was the period of activity of the +Commission, Belgium depended upon it for the supplying of three-fourths +of the food of its people, over seven million in number. This amounted +to about one million tons a year. In addition, the Commission supplied +the food through practically all this period for the maintenance of the +nearly two million unfortunate people in the German-occupied area of +France. This amounted to a total of about one million tons. The total +value of the food supplied to Belgium and occupied France was about six +hundred million dollars, which was provided by the Governments of +Belgium, France, England, and America, and the private charity of the +world. + + +THE FOOD PRODUCTION OF GERMANY + +For another impressive war-time food problem--which did not have the +same solution as Belgium's--let us take that of Germany. In peace times +the Germans produce about 80 percent. of the total food annually +consumed by them. But their tremendous military effort necessarily +entailed some reduction in their capacity for food production, although +they also made a tremendous effort to stimulate and direct into most +effective channels the native production of food. + +Although it is true, as already stated, that Germany normally produces +about 80 percent. of her food needs, making it seem possible for the +nation to meet the blockade emergency by repressing consumption by 10 +per cent. and increasing production by 10 per cent. this does not mean +that they normally produce 80 per cent. of each kind of food consumed by +them. As a matter of fact, they produce more than their total needs of +certain kinds of food, as sugar, for example, and less than 80 per cent. +of certain other kinds. And while there is a possibility of +substituting, within certain limits, one kind of food for another, so +that a shortage of wheat might be made up by an abundance of rye, or a +shortage of bread-grains in general be made up, in some degree, by +increasing the ration of potatoes, if they are available, this +substitution cannot go to the extent of substituting pure carbo-hydrate +or starchy foods like potatoes, which simply produce heat or energy for +the body, for the protein foods like meat, fish, eggs and dairy +products which produce not only energy but new tissues. A child must +have protein food in order to grow; an adult must have it in order to +replace the tissues worn out by daily work. Also, there are certain +peculiar and so far little understood elements, called vitamines, found +only in certain kinds of food, notably fats, milk and the green +vegetables, which are essential to the proper metabolism of the body. + +[Illustration: Photo by P. Thompson + +The Battle Scene at Home + +During the war the Allies called on the United States for food in far +greater quantities than we had ever dreamed of exporting. For example, +in the last years before the war we had been sending yearly to Europe +about five million tons of food. In 1918 alone we shipped more than +fourteen million tons of foodstuffs overseas.] + + +GERMANY'S FOOD PROBLEM + +Now in the light of these needs for proper feeding, and in the light of +the special conditions produced by the war, what was Germany's food +problem through the war? It was that of attempting to increase +production when the men and work animals had been sent to the fighting +lines, of repressing consumption when both men in the army and the men +in the war factories had to be well fed in order to fight well and work +well, of attempting to get in food from outside the country when a +blockade was steadily closing the borders ever and ever more tightly, +and finally, of trying to get the people to modify their food habits in +the way of accepting substitutes and using strange new semi-artificial +foods in place of the familiar staples. + +In 1916 the potato crop of Germany was a failure--but the turnip crop +was enormous. So turnips were substituted largely for potatoes, and for +many other kinds of food as well. Even marmalade and coffee substitutes +were made from them, and turnip meal was mixed in the already too coarse +and too much mixed flour. The Germans will never forget that terrible +_kohl-rueben zeit_, or turnip time, of late 1916 and early 1917. And it +was just after this time that the effects of Germany's great food +difficulties began to show in a really serious way; they began to +undermine the strength and health of the people. Those diseases like +tuberculosis, which can rest in incipient or suppressed form for years +without becoming serious as long as the body is well nourished, began to +develop rapidly and dangerously. The birth rate decreased and the death +rate increased. The physical and mental and moral tone of the whole +nation dropped. + + +THE SUGAR SHORTAGE + +Belgium and Germany illustrate a special food situation created by the +war, namely, one in which a country, which relied on outside sources for +a greater or lesser part of its food needs, had access to these sources +suddenly and almost completely shut off. But grave food problems also +confronted the countries which were not blockaded in so specific a way. +England and France, with full access to all the great food-producing +lands overseas (except to the extent that the submarines reduced this +freedom of access), nevertheless had food problems hardly less serious +than those of the more strictly blockaded countries. Their difficulties +arose primarily from the fact that there was only so much shipping in +the world and that the war conditions created suddenly a need for much +more shipping than existed. The transference of large numbers of troops +with their necessary equipment and munitions from the distant colonies +to the European seat of fighting, and of other numbers from the mother +countries to extra-European battlegrounds, made great demands on the +shipping available to these nations. At the same time, the reduction of +their native production increased largely their needs of food +importations. + +Take, for example, the case of the sugar supply for England and France. +England is accustomed to use about 2,000,000 tons of sugar a year but +she does not produce, at home, a single ton. She had relied before the +war chiefly on importations from Germany and Austria with some little +from Belgium and France. But with the outbreak of the war, she could get +none from the Central Empires, and none from Belgium, while France, +instead of being able to export sugar, suddenly found herself with her +principal sugar-producing region invaded by the Germans and able to +produce hardly a third of her former output. In fact, France herself was +suddenly placed in the position of needing to import nearly two-thirds +of the supply needed for her own consumption. So England and France had +to turn to Cuba, the nearest great sugar-producing country, and ask for +large quantities of her output. But the United States has always +depended on Cuba for a large part of its own needs. Consequently there +was a sugar problem for our own country as well as for England and +France long before we entered the war. + +The situation was serious; the demands on Cuba were much larger than she +could meet, although she was able under this stimulation of demand to +increase materially her sugar crop in the years following the first of +the war. One way of meeting this problem, which was promptly resorted +to, was to cut down the consumption of sugar in the countries involved. +In England and France sugar was strictly rationed; and in America the +people were called on to limit their use of sugar by voluntary +agreement. England cut her sugar allowance per capita from about seven +and a half pounds a month to two, and France from nearly four to one. In +America we reduced our per capita consumption by legally restricting the +making of soft drinks and candy and by the voluntary restriction of the +home use of sugar by about one-half. All this lessened the demand on +Cuba, and also the demand on shipping. + + +NATIONAL TASTES IN FOOD + +In this discussion of the war-time sugar problem one may be struck by +the fact, as noted, that the people of France were normally accustomed +to eat much less sugar than the people of England, indeed only about +one-half as much. This introduces a subject of importance in any general +discussion of the world food problem. It is that of the varying food +habits of different peoples, even peoples living under very similar +climatic and general physical conditions. For example, the people of +Germany are accustomed to eat twice as many potatoes as the people of +England, who in turn use more than three times as many as the people of +Italy. On the other hand, England uses twice as much sugar as Germany, +although she produces no sugar and Germany produces much sugar. The +Italians eat only a third as much meat as the English and the French +only half as much. But the English eat only two-thirds as much bread as +the French. + +These differences in food use, established by long custom, have to be +taken into account in all considerations of the world's food supply. +They are differences which cannot be easily or quickly changed, even +under circumstances which such great emergencies as war may produce. For +example, we in America are accustomed to eat corn as food in the form of +green corn, corn meal, corn flakes, etc. And in Italy one of the great +national dishes is _polenta_ (corn meal cooked in a certain way). But +when the Commission for the Relief of Belgium tried to introduce corn as +human food in Belgium, because of the large amount that could be +obtained from America when wheat and rye were scarce, it met with great +opposition and but little success. To the Belgians, corn is food for +animals. + + +SCIENTIFIC CONTROL OF FOOD + +An important point brought out by the war-time food problem is that of +the "scientific" make-up of the personal ration. Not only are the +national food habits of a people often difficult to understand from a +point of view of taste, but they are often of such a character as to +lead to a most uneconomical use of food. The exigencies of a world food +shortage and a shortage of shipping for food transport have made it +necessary for food ministries and relief organizations to give careful +consideration to the most economical selection of foods for import and +distribution, both from the point of view of economy of space and weight +and lack of deterioration during shipping and storage, and from that of +concentrated nutritional values and proper balancing of the ration. + +Food provides energy for bodily work and maintenance. It is the fuel for +the human machine. Scientific students of nutrition measure the amount +of energy thus provided, or the amount needed by the body, in units +termed calories. Physiologists have determined by experiment the +different amounts of calories produced by different kinds of foods and +the varying amounts needed by men at rest, at light work, at hard work, +by women and by children. By analyzing the make-up of a given population +as to proportions of men, women and children, and of work done by them, +it is possible to express the total food needs of the population in +calories and to arrange for the most economical provision of the total +calories necessary. + +But the simple provision of the total sum of calories may by no means +satisfy the real food needs of the population. For example, all the +calories might be provided by potatoes alone, or grains alone, or meat +or fats alone. But the population would starve under such circumstances. +Food provides not merely the energy for the body, but the substances +from which the body adds new tissue to itself during growth and +reproduces its constantly breaking down tissues during all of life. Now +while all kinds of food produce energy in greater or less quantity, only +certain kinds are the source of new tissues. Hence there must be in the +personal or national ration a sufficient proportion of the +tissue-producing foods, the protein carriers, as well as a sufficient +amount of the more strictly energy-producing foods, such as the fats and +carbohydrates. And there is necessary, too, in any ration capable of +maintaining the body in properly healthy condition, the presence in it, +in very small quantities, of certain food substances called vitamines +which have an important regulatory effect on the functioning of the +body. These substances occur only in certain kinds of food. + +All these things had to be taken into account in the war-time handling +of food. So important was a proper knowledge of scientific food use and +application of this knowledge, in connection with the efforts of the +various countries to feed themselves most economically and to best +effect in the light of their possibilities in the way of food supply, +that every country concerned called on its scientific men to advise and +help control the obtaining and distribution of its national food supply. +For example, America and the Allies (England, France, Belgium and Italy) +established an Inter-Allied Scientific Food Commission composed of +experts who met at various times at London, Paris, and Rome, and on +whose advice the determination, both as to kind and quantity, of the +necessary importations of food from overseas to England, France, Belgium +and Italy was largely made. Thus the war has done more to popularize the +scientific knowledge of food, and to put into practice a scientific +control of food-use than all the efforts of colleges and scientific +societies and food reform apostles for years and years before. Calories, +proteins, carbohydrates, fats and vitamines have been taken out of the +dictionary and put into the kitchen. + +[Illustration: Photo by P. Thompson + +A Community Conference on Food-Saving + +The importance of work of this kind increased after the signing of the +armistice, because the Poles, the Belgians, and other peoples whom we +could not reach during the war needed every pound of food we could +spare.] + + +GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS + +America's special relation to the world's war food problem was primarily +that of a provider of the Allies, but in order to insure that this +provision should be sufficient to keep the Allied soldiers and war +workers up to full fighting and working strength and their families in +full health, it was necessary for America to stimulate its own +production, repress considerably its consumption and cut out all +possible waste in food handling. To do this there was needed some form +of governmental food control and a nation-wide voluntary effort of the +people. Each of the Allied countries had established governmental food +control early in the war under the direction of a "food controller" +either attached to an already existing government department of +agriculture or commerce, or acting as an independent food minister. + +On the actual entrance of America into the war in 1917, governmental +food control was vested in a "United States Food Administration" with +powers given it by Congress to control all exports of food and all +food-handling by millers, manufacturers, jobbers, wholesalers, and +large retail dealers. But no retail dealer doing a business of less than +$100,000 a year, nor any farmer or farmers' cooperative association came +under the Food Administration's control. Thus the American food +administration differed from that of most European countries in that it +had no authority to fix the prices at which the actual producers should +sell their products or the small retailers should charge the consumers. + +But, indirectly, it was able to do, and did, a good deal in this +direction. By its direct control of exports, and of the millers, +manufacturers and large dealers, it was able to cut out a great part of +the middleman profits, and reduce wholesale prices for most staple +foodstuffs, especially that most important one, flour. By publicity of +prices and by indirect pressure through the wholesaler it was also able +to restrain the further sky-rocketing of retail prices. + + +NATION-WIDE FOOD SAVING + +But if the Food Administration was limited in what it could effect by +legal authority, there was no limit to what it could do by calling on +the voluntary action of the people of the country, except by the +possible refusal of the people to help. So there was set in movement a +nation-wide propaganda for food-production and food-saving which +resulted in the voluntary acceptance of wheatless and meatless days, +voluntarily modified hotel and restaurant and dining-car meals, and the +adoption of household pledges, taken by more than 12,000,000 American +homes, to follow the Food Administration's suggestions for food-saving. +All this, and the many other things which the Food Administration asked +the people to do, and which the people did, resulted in accomplishing a +very necessary thing. It enabled America not only to meet all those +ever-increasing absolutely imperative calls of the Allies for food for +their armies and people through 1917 and 1918, but to supply its own +army and people sufficiently well to carry on the war effectively. The +more food sunk by submarines, or prevented from coming to Europe from +distant food sources, as Australia and Argentine and India, the more we +provided by saving and increasing our production. + +A few figures will illustrate the actual results of the call for food +conservation. We entered the crop year of 1917 (July 1, 1917, to July 1, +1918), with a wheat supply which gave us only about 20,000,000 bushels +available for export. By December 1, 1917, our surplus had gone overseas +and an additional 36,000,000 bushels had been shipped to the Allies. In +January we learned of the further imperative need of the Allies of +75,000,000 bushels. We responded by sending 85,000,000 bushels between +the first of the year and the advent of the new crop. When the crop year +ended we had sent in all about 136,000,000 bushels of wheat to Europe. +We were assisted in these operations by the importation of 28,000,000 +bushels of wheat from Australia and the Argentine to supplement our +domestic supply, but the outstanding fact was the saving in our domestic +consumption, most of which was accomplished in the six-months' period +from January 1 to July 1, 1918. + + +AMERICAN RELIEF ADMINISTRATION + +But the cessation of the war did not produce food for the war-ravaged +countries of Europe. The newly liberated peoples of Central and Eastern +Europe found themselves, at the time of the Armistice, facing a period +of starvation until their 1918 harvest could come in. Something to save +these peoples had to be done quickly and on a large scale. The situation +was met by the establishment of a new American governmental organization +called the American Relief Administration which, with Mr. Hoover as +director-general, worked in connection with the Inter-Allied Supreme +Economic Council. Representatives of the A. R. A. were sent at once into +all the countries crying for help to find out the exact food situation, +and to arrange with the respective governments for the immediate +beginning of the importation and distribution of staple foodstuffs. +Programs for a food supply sufficient to last until the 1919 harvest +were determined on a basis of minimum necessity, and provision for +sufficient shipping and rail transportation was arranged by +international agreement. + +Modern war has thrown the spotlight on food. It has partly realized that +famous prophecy of the Polish economist, Jean Bloch, who wrote, twenty +years ago: "That is the future of war, not fighting, but famine." In +the World War of 1914--18 there was fighting on a scale never before +reached, but there was also famine, as never before dreamed of. + + + + +IX THE HIGH COST OF LIVING + +A Study of the Extraordinary Conditions Subsequent to the Armistice + +By THE DIRECTOR OF THE COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE + + +On August 9, 1919, Grosvenor B. Clarkson, Director of the Council of +National defense, submitted to the Secretary of War, a report entitled +"An Analysis of the High Cost of Living Problem." This report was the +result of much careful study and investigation. It is non-academic in +form and by omitting details presents a "panoramic view of the problem." +It laid chief stress upon conditions since the armistice. + +In the report the problem of the high cost of living is viewed as a +permanent one. It was, in other words, not peculiar to past war +conditions. Careful investigation by the Council has resulted in the +following analysis of the problem. + + THE ESSENCE OF THE HIGH COST OF LIVING SITUATION + + "1. The only complaints of the high cost of living which have + justification are those which are based upon inability of the + present income to maintain previous or reasonable standards of + living at present prices--such well-founded complaints mean + that increase of income has not kept pace with increased cost + of living, and therefore imply enforced reduction in standards + of living. + + + AMERICA'S PRODUCTIVE CAPACITY + + "2. America's industrial and economic achievements during the + war, notwithstanding depleted man power and diversion of + productive effort to war purposes, demonstrate the ample + ability of the Nation to sustain its population according to a + standard of living equal to or above standards of living which + obtained previous to or during the war. + + "3. The fundamental basis for the maintenance of national + standards of living is adequate production, economical + distribution, and fair apportionment among the various economic + groups which constitute our society. With the exception of + agricultural activity, production since the armistice has shown + evidence of curtailment, and has in general been abnormally + low. Normal consumption can not continue unless an adequate + rate of production is maintained. + + + FOOD SITUATION AND READJUSTMENT + + "4. Food production and the facilities for food production were + improved rather than injured during the war. Moreover, the + program with respect to food production since the signing of + the armistice has been one of vigorous expansion of the means + of providing raw food products. The actual consumption of + wheat, as shown by the Grain Corporation's report of May 25, + 1919, had for the previous ten months averaged 37,700,000 + bushels per month, as against 39,000,000 bushels for the + previous twelve months. This does not necessarily imply reduced + consumption of cereals. + + "The number of cattle slaughtered in the period January to May, + 1919, was 3,803,000, as against 4,204,000 for the corresponding + period of 1918, though the national reserve of cattle on farms + had increased during the war. The swine slaughtered January to + May increased from 18,260,000 in 1918 to 20,500,000 in 1919. + + + CLOTHING SITUATION + + "5. The production of civilian cloths and clothing suffered + some reduction during the war, and has suffered heavy + curtailment for many months since the signing of the armistice. + + "Boot and shoe production for civilian use was unfavorably + affected by the war and has likewise undergone extreme + curtailment since the signing of the armistice. + + + HOUSING PROBLEM + + "6. Housing facilities developed acute shortage through + curtailment of building during the war and, due to curtailment, + for many months following the armistice, of the production of + building material and of building construction, housing is + still far below normal. Rents continue to rise. + + + PROVISION OF NEW CAPITAL + + "7. The first half of 1919 shows diminished production of raw + materials and subnormal construction of new capital, and thus + indicates failure to utilize an adequate proportion of our + productive forces in the preliminary processes of provision to + meet future requirements. In fact, due to business uncertainty + and hesitation and tendencies to disagreement between + productive groups, retailers, wholesalers, manufacturers, + labor, etc., there ensued after the armistice a disuse of a + large proportion of America's productive capacity. Unless this + slump in production is atoned for by consistent future + activity, and unless production is constantly maintained on an + adequate scale, reduced standards of living will become + inescapable, regardless of prices, whether they rise or fall. + + "8. The very fact that prices of finished commodities, + consumption goods, so called, have risen to an extent out of + proportion to the rise in prices of raw materials and perhaps + out of proportion to the rise in general wages, indicates that + production and distribution carried on under these conditions + is, in general, yielding profits abnormally high." + +In corroboration of the preceding analysis, the report cites statistical +data gathered from various sources. The relation of currency and credit +to prices is admirably epitomized in the following extract: + + +CURRENCY AND CREDIT + + "The manner in which the volume of circulating credit and + currency is related to the war-time rise in prices is about as + follows: + + "The outbreak of the war brought to America urgent government + orders for munitions and supplies. Inasmuch as the belligerent + governments could not brook delay they were obliged to pay the + increased prices which American producers found it possible to + demand, and thus the wave of war prices was started in America. + When America entered the war it required, in order to perform + its part, almost boundless quantities of equipment and man + power. Producers naturally took advantage of the extremely + urgent character of these demands in order to increase their + prices, and, as a natural sequence, wages began to advance. + These increased prices and wages of course necessitated larger + expenditures by the government. + + "Increased prices also necessitate the employment of larger + funds in the conduct of a business. A larger volume of credit + is required at higher prices to take care of bills for raw + materials, and more money is necessary to meet increased + payrolls. As a consequence, therefore, of increased prices, + business men required increased credit if they were to avoid + curtailment of operations and reduced production. Due to higher + prices, therefore, the banks were under the necessity of + meeting the business demand for expansion of credit." + + +INFLATION + +The inflation process is described as follows: + + "In pre-war times every dollar finding its way to the market + was supposedly the counterpart of some commodity or part of a + commodity also appearing in the market. Funds expended for the + purchase of food, clothing, and for the payment of rentals + were assumed to have been earned by some productive + contribution to the general supply of commodities. With the + outbreak of war there began to appear in the market, funds + derived from wages, profits, etc., which had been paid out in + connection with nonproductive activities of war, and which + therefore implied no corresponding contribution to the market + supply of commodities. The producers of, and the dealers in, + the decreased quantity of commodities brought to market + increased the prices of these commodities to the point where + they might absorb all the purchase money that became available. + These increased prices and wages have required increased + circulating medium. This requirement has been met primarily by + increased credit and the increased use of bank checks as an + instrument of payment. As to the currency situation, the total + money in the United States in 1900 amounted to $2,340,000,000. + According to a statement issued by Governor W. P. G. Harding, + of the Federal Reserve Board, the amount of money in + circulation has varied during the last five years as follows: + + July 1, 1914, $3,419,108,368, or $34.53 per capita. + April 1, 1917, $4,100,976,000, or $37.88 per capita. + December 1, 1918, $5,129,985,000, or $48.13 per capita. + August 1, 1919, $4,796,890,000, or $45.16 per capita. + + "This shows an increase during our war period of $7.28 per + capita. The amount of money in the Treasury and in Federal + Reserve Banks is not in circulation, and is, therefore not + included in the figures quoted from Governor Harding's + statement. + + "In regard to the part played by national credit in meeting the + situation growing out of the extraordinary requirements of the + government and the rise in prices which the urgency of demands + made possible, it is to be noted that government bonds had to + be sold to pay for a large proportion of the goods which war + activities were consuming. In consequence the national debt up + to August 1, 1919, had been increased by $24,518,000,000, or + approximately $230 per capita. Of course, government bonds are + always good security for bank credit." + + +FOOD SUPPLY--WHEAT, CORN AND SUGAR + +Despite the fact that we sent large shipments of food to our Allies, our +supply at the close of the war was not seriously diminished. The 1919 +crop, while not expected to be large, was amply sufficient to prevent a +real shortage. This is supported by the following extract from Mr. +Clarkson's report: + + "The wheat crop for 1918 amounted to 917,000,000 bushels, as + compared to an average for 1910--14 of 728,000,000 bushels; and + the probable harvest in 1919 is 1,236,000,000 bushels. Our + supply of wheat in elevators, mills, etc., on May 9, 1919, was + 96,000,000 bushels, as against 34,000,000 bushels the year + before. Our flour mills, whose capacity is estimated at + something like double their usual output, were milling week by + week during 1919 considerably more flour than the year before. + They produced for the week ending May 9, 1919, for example, + 2,553,000 barrels as against 1,569,000 barrels for the + corresponding week of 1918. Notwithstanding large exports, our + wheat supply is obviously adequate. In 1918, a record year, we + exported 21,000,000 barrels of flour. In 1915 our wheat exports + reached their maximum--206,000,000 bushels. + +[Illustration: McCutcheon in the Chicago Tribune + +Will There Be Enough to Go Around?] + + "The corn crop of 1918 was likewise sufficient. The supply of + corn on hand on May 1, 1919, was 23,000,000 bushels, as + compared with 16,000,000 bushels May 1, 1918, and 7,000,000 + bushels on May 1 of both 1917 and 1913. Though the 1919 corn + crop is not expected to be unusually large, there is no + prospect of real shortage. And the situation with respect to + the other cereals is generally very good. + + "The sugar industry of the United States passed through the + period of the war with a tendency to increased production, + notwithstanding shipping difficulties. Though present stocks + are somewhat low in the United States, our exports during 1919 + have been unusually large. The future is normally provided + for." + + +THE MEAT SUPPLY + +The meat situation is described as follows: + + "America emerged from the war producing meat at a rate far + above pre-war figures, and yet possessing in reserve a larger + number of animals on the farms than we had before the heavy war + drafts upon our supplies began. The number of cattle + slaughtered in 1918 was 11,000,000, as compared with 6,978,000 + in 1913. Swine slaughtered were 41,214,000 in 1918 and + 34,163,000 in 1913. The cattle slaughtered in 1919, + January--May, were 3,803,000, as against 4,204,000, January--May, + 1918. The swine slaughtered January--May, 1919, made an increase + over the 1918 record, the figures being 20,500,000 for the + present year, as against 18,260,000 for the corresponding + interval last year. Although exports of hams and shoulders for + 1918 approximately doubled previous records, amounting to + 518,000,000 pounds, as against 172,000,000 pounds for 1913, and + exports have continued large during 1919, there is no doubt + that our productive capacity is vastly more than ample to meet + our requirements." + + +HIGH PRICE OF FOOD + +In view of the apparent abundance of food it is interesting to know the +reason for the high price of foodstuffs. The Council of National Defense +is of the opinion that the probability that the production of garden +products in war gardens had fallen far below that of 1918, when, it is +estimated, to have reached the value of $525,000,000, would not account +for the high prices. Exportation and storage had not depleted our stock +sufficiently to affect prices abnormally. In regard to the question of +exports the report gives the following illuminating figures: + + "Present food prices are not to be accounted for largely on the + basis of heavy exports. Exports of beef, canned, fresh, and + pickled, for example, have been less for 1919 than in the + previous year, the quantity amounting to 23,499,000 pounds in + May, 1919, as compared with 82,787,000 pounds in May, 1918. The + May figures for exports of hog products show 125,937,000 pounds + in 1919, as against 201,279,000 pounds in May, 1918. The + monthly exports of beef and pork show a declining tendency + during the first five months of 1919, contrary to the tendency + in 1918, the total amounting to 1,090,000,000 pounds in 1919, + as against 1,122,000,000 pounds for the corresponding period of + 1918--less than the amount of all meats in cold storage on July + 1, 1919, which was 1,336,000,000 pounds." + +Concerning storage the same report states that: + + "Even the fact that the report of goods in cold storage shows + an increase of over 9 per cent. in the quantity of all meats + held on July 1, 1919 (1,336,000,000 pounds), as compared with + the figures for July 1, 1918, is, though very important, not a + matter of significance for any considerable period of time. + Storage poultry July 1, 1919, was 48,895,704 pounds, or 181 per + cent. above last year; cheese, about 25 per cent.; butter, + about 75 per cent.; and eggs, about 25 per cent. above July 1 + last year. There was a decrease of frozen fish of about 13 per + cent. from last year. Taken in connection with the evidence of + relatively abundant reserves of live animals and large crops + for the current year, it would seem that some relief from high + prices of food should be possible." + + +WHY FOOD PRICES WERE HIGH + +The explanation of the post-war high prices of food is given as follows: + + "It is true that food is, by comparison, plentiful. But it is + also true that money or other circulating medium is + unprecedently plentiful. The fact that food prices are + relatively high and that the prices of chemicals, metals, + lumber, etc., are relatively low, though their supply is + relatively small, may be due to a concentration of purchasing + power upon food, and the general direction of the flow of + currency toward the purchase of immediate consumables. Some + relatively minor luxuries such as jewelry (and perhaps + automobiles should also be included here as the semi-luxury of + greater magnitude) find favor with purchasers, but the main + trend of purchase seems to bear toward demand for the + necessities of life now in a finished state or nearly so, with + a relatively weaker tendency toward demand of capital goods. If + the supply, and also the production, of raw materials has been + relatively small, and if the prices at which they have + exchanged have also been relatively low, it seems obvious that + the proportionate amount of currency and credit engaged in + their purchase must be abnormally small, thus accounting for + the ability of the producers and purveyors of food to demand + abnormally high prices regardless of the relative plentifulness + of their goods." + + +CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO PROFITEERING + + "The conditions just described are highly favorable to both + speculative profiteering and wasteful distribution, through the + intervention of supernumerary middlemen and caterers. In fact, + the statistics published by the New York Industrial Relations + Commission seem to indicate an unusually large increase of + persons engaging in certain kinds of salesmanship after the + armistice. It should, however, be remembered that even though + it may smack of profiteering to produce a very large crop and + sell it at abnormally high prices, this is a kind of + profiteering which deserves unstinted praise as compared with + that other species of profiteering which deliberately reduces + output in the expectation that the extortionate prices which + the reduced product will command may more than make up to the + producer or speculator for the portion of production withheld + or the percentage of hoarded goods condemned to spoil and be + lost to the nation." + + +OTHER COMMODITIES + +The price of commodities other than foodstuffs was influenced in 1919 by +the inadequacy of supply and the curtailment of production. This was +especially true of woolens, as stated by the Council: + + "The most obvious explanation of the high prices of woolens is + the glaring fact of the extreme reduction in output which + ensued after the signing of the armistice and the completion of + Army orders, which practically ended in January, 1919. + + "The war came to an end with the supply of civilian woolens + unprecedentedly low. The total quantity of wool available for + civilian fabrics between April and November, 1918, was probably + somewhere in the neighborhood of 75,000,000 pounds, an amount + perhaps a little more than sufficient to meet the demands of + normal manufacture for civilian consumption for one and + one-half months. + + * * * * * + + "In consequence of the general situation the total consumption + of wool in manufacture during first five months of the year + 1919 amounted to but little more than one-half the amount + consumed during the corresponding months of the previous year. + The proportion of looms, 50-inch reed space and over, idle + increased from 21 per cent. in November, 1918, to 52 per cent. + idle in February, 1919, and these looms were still 39 per cent. + idle in May, 1919. Of worsted spindles, 27 per cent. were + reported idle in December, 1918, and 52 per cent. idle in + March, 1919, and 26 per cent. were still idle in May. In the + meantime an extraordinary number of textile workers were + condemned to idleness, their productive capacity perishing day + by day and week by week, while the deficiency in the supply of + clothing was developing to such a point that it became possible + for the wholesale index number of the prices of cloths and + clothing to rise to 250 in June." + +The production of cotton and cotton goods also was far below normal. To +quote again from the report: + + "When the war ended the world's cotton supply was understood to + be below normal. The supplies of cotton goods were also + reported low. The acreage planted to cotton was in 1919 + approximately 9 per cent. less than for 1918. The present + prospects are that the cotton crop will be small, and published + articles are appearing expressing gratification over the + prospectively large commercial returns which the cotton + producers may be able to command because of the high prices + which may be had for the reduced cotton output. The forecast of + the cotton crop for 1919 is 10,900,000 bales--about 10 per + cent. below that of recent years and but little over two-thirds + as large as the record crop of 1914." + + + "OUTPUT AND MORE OUTPUT" ABANDONED + + "In regard to cotton manufacture, it may be recorded that the + situation is less unsatisfactory than as regards wool + manufacture. In this industry, as in most of our industries, + the economic watchword of war-time, which was 'Output, and more + output' (the necessary condition of full prosperity in peace, + as well as of success during war), was not heard after the + armistice. There soon developed, on the contrary, groundless + doubts about future demand, and hints of unhealthy fears of + 'overproduction.' + + "Notwithstanding the release of labor, if it were needed, by + demobilization, and notwithstanding adequate supplies of raw + cotton to meet the season's requirements and the lack of any + important difficulties in the way of reconversion to peace-time + products, and with low supplies of finished goods in stock, the + cotton industry kept more spindles idle during the first five + months of 1919 than were idle during the corresponding period + for 1918. The amount of cotton consumed in the United States + during the nine months ending with April, 1919, was + approximately 12 per cent. less than for the corresponding nine + months of 1918. The prices of cloths and clothing, as above + mentioned, show in June, 1919, an increase of 150 per cent. + over 1913 prices." + +The boot and show industry showed a marked decline after the signing of +the armistice. This, too, was borne out by the investigations of the +Council. + + "The production of boots and shoes for the first quarter of + 1919 was reported as about 60 per cent. below the production + for the last quarter of 1918. Plants were partially closed and + in some cases it is reported that machinery was returned to the + Shoe Machinery Co. All in all, there were 75,000,000 less pairs + of shoes produced in the first quarter of 1919 than in the last + quarter of 1918. + + "The census report shows a reduction of more than 25 per cent. + in the output of civilian men's shoes in the quarter ending + with March, 1919, as compared with production in the quarter + ending with December, 1918, and nearly 25 per cent. reduction + as compared with the quarter ending with September, 1918. The + reduction in output of women's shoes amounted to approximately + 30 and 25 per cent., respectively, in comprising corresponding + periods. The reduction in the output of shoes for youths, boys + and misses was even more marked." + + +COAL AND IRON + +What has been said of the production of cotton and woolen goods applied +equally to the mining of coal and to the output of iron and steel. +During the war we increased our coal production. In 1918 it amounted to +"685,000,000 short tons, almost 50 per cent. of the world's estimated +output for that year. Production for 1913 was 571,000,000 short tons." +The coal situation since the armistice is stated as follows: + + "Coal, the source of a vast proportion of our industrial power + as well as our chief source of heat and light, is a commodity + the production of which is itself an index of our economic + life. Coal output since the armistice has been greatly reduced, + the weekly production of anthracite for the first half of 1919 + being from 1,200,000 to 1,800,000 net tons, as against + 1,800,000 net tons to 3,000,000 net tons for the corresponding + period of 1918. Bituminous production was 9,147,000 net tons + for a typical week in 1919, as against 12,491,000 net tons for + the corresponding week in 1918. Coke production for the week + ending June 28, 1919, amounted to only 287,000 net tons, as + compared with 627,000 net tons for the week ending June 29, + 1918. The total amount of coal produced up to July 5, 1919, was + 261,000,000 long tons, as compared with 364,000,000 long tons + for the corresponding period of 1918." + +The production of iron and steel which was greatly stimulated by the war +was allowed to decline as soon as the concentrated effort of the nation +to win the war was abandoned. The resulting condition is succinctly +described by the Council: + + "The record of our after-war steel and iron output furnishes us + with another warning that we have been neglecting to keep pace + with the established American rate of industrial improvement + and expansion and foresighted preparation for future + requirements and progress. + + "The iron and steel business was considerably stimulated by + war-time requirements. There was a governmental agency whose + business it was to for see the war needs and to place orders so + that those productive forces which are wrapped up in the steel + industry might be utilized to capacity. The steel industry's + activity has, however, since the armistice greatly declined. + Pig-iron production for April, 1919, was 82,607 tons per day, + as against 109,607 tons in April, 1918. Birmingham properties + are reported to have been working in April, 1919, at about 50 + per cent. of the 1918 production. For the period January to + May, 1919, pig-iron production was only 2,114,000 tons, as + against 3,446,000 tons during the same period in 1918. + Steel-ingot production fell in the spring of 1919 to lower + figures than had been reached in more than two years. In fact, + a regular decline in production was in evidence after December, + 1918. + + "The figures representing the unfilled orders of the United + States Steel Corporation at the end of May, 1919, were smaller + than they had been since 1915." + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +Women Doing Night Farming + +Girls running a tractor plow and harrow at Farmingdale, Long Island.] + + +RECOMMENDATIONS + +The Council summarized its findings and recommends remedial measures as +follows: + + "The findings of the Reconstruction Research Division Council + of National Defense, indicate that the high cost of living is + primarily due to curtailment in the production of nearly all + commodities except raw food products, to hoarding of storage + food products, to profiteering, conscious and unconscious, and + to inflation of circulating credit. The findings indicate that + the situation may be most advantageously met by: + + "1. Stimulated production. + + "2. Some readjustment of incomes to the basis of higher price + levels. + + "3. The repression of hoarding and profiteering. + + "4. Improvement and standardization of methods and facilities + for distributing and marketing goods. + + "5. The perfecting of means of keeping the nation frequently, + promptly, and adequately informed regarding probable national + requirements and of current production and stocks of the more + important commodities. + + "The findings emphasize the fact that high standards of living + can not be maintained upon a basis of reduced production, + regardless of whether price levels be high or low." + +[Illustration: The Ore Market--Cleveland] + + + + +_PART II_ + +I--THE PEACE CONFERENCE AT WORK + +A Vivid Account from the Inside of the Machinery Which Produced the +Peace Treaty. How the Crises with Japan, Italy and Belgium Were Averted + +By THOMAS W. LAMONT + +Financial and Economic Adviser at Paris to the American Commission to +Negotiate Peace + + +When we finally gain an historic perspective of the work of the Peace +Conference we shall realize that, instead of being unduly delayed, it +was accomplished in an astonishingly brief period. The Treaty of Vienna, +back in 1815, took eleven months, and the factors to be dealt with were +nothing like so numerous nor so complex. The Paris Conference occupied +only about six months, and the earlier weeks were largely given over to +questions relating to the renewal of the Armistice, rather than to the +actual framing of the Peace Treaty. The Treaty text itself--aside from +the League of Nations Covenant--was whipped through in a little over +three months; for the active work of the Commissions which were to draft +the various chapters did not get under way until February 1st; and the +Treaty was presented to the German delegates at Versailles on May 7th. + + +COVENANTS "OPENLY ARRIVED AT" + +No adequate history of the Peace Conference can be written until years +have elapsed--until it is possible, as it is not now possible, to make +public a multitude of intimate details. Hundreds of important documents +were woven into the completed text of the Treaty. Such documents must +eventually be made available to the chroniclers of history, who must +finally have access to the official records, so that in course of time +they can acquaint the world with the details of those momentous +conferences which were held among the Chiefs of State, where the +ultimate decisions settling every important question were made. There +have been complaints that the covenants of the Treaty were not as +President Wilson had promised, "openly arrived at." In point of fact, as +far as lay within the bounds of possibility, the covenants of the Treaty +_were_ "openly arrived at," inasmuch as their essence was made public +just as soon as an understanding upon them had been reached, and in many +cases, long before the final agreement. Nothing was held back which the +public had any legitimate interest in knowing. It would, of course, have +been quite out of the question for the Chiefs of State to discuss in +public all the highly delicate and complex situations which were bound +to, and which did, arise at Paris. Every man of strong character and +powerful conviction has a view of his own upon any given subject, and +naturally maintains that view with vigor and tenacity--even at times, if +he be bitterly opposed--with acrimony. + +To take a familiar instance, it is an open secret that M. Clemenceau's +first solution of the question of the Saar Basin did not at all suit +President Wilson. Not unnaturally, M. Clemenceau simply wanted in effect +to annex the Saar Basin, on the grounds that the Germans had destroyed +the coal mines of Northern France. Mr. Wilson was in entire accord--to +this extent, that France should, until her coal mines had been repaired, +enjoy the entire output of the Saar coal fields; but to have France +permanently annex the Basin was contrary to his profoundest convictions, +as expressed in the well-known Fourteen Points. + +In the course of the discussion between M. Clemenceau and Mr. Wilson, +their ideas at the start being so divergent, vigorous views were +undoubtedly expressed; quite possibly tart language was used, at any +rate by the French Premier, who was feeling all the distress of German +frightfulness and war weariness. But to what possible good end could the +detail of such intimate conversations have been made public? I allude to +the possible conversations on the Saar Basin not as an historical fact, +but as an example of what might have taken place, and very likely did +take place; and if such temporary disagreements existed on that +question, undoubtedly, among so many Chiefs of State as were gathered +together at Paris, they existed on others. But in all cases amicable and +cordial agreements were finally reached. + +Whenever agreements were even in sight, the press was informed; so that, +when the Treaty of Peace and the summary of it finally came out, there +were no surprises for the public. Every covenant, every clause, had been +already foreshadowed and accurately pictured. + + +THE "BIG THREE" + +Naturally, the question is often asked: Who were the peacemakers at +Paris? Were they two or three powerful Chiefs of State? The answer is +both "Yes" and "No." The final decision on every important matter lay in +the hands of the so-called Big Four, and after Premier Orlando's +defection and return to Italy, it narrowed down to the Big Triumvirate, +Messrs. Wilson, Lloyd George, and Clemenceau. Yet while they made the +final decisions, these were almost invariably based upon reports and +opinions expressed to this trio, or to the quartet, by their advisers +and experts. The actual text of the Treaty was, of course, written by +the technicians, and there is hardly a phrase in the whole of it that +can claim as its original author any one of the Chiefs of State. In +every true sense, then, the Treaty of Peace has been the product, not of +three men, not even of three-score, nor of three hundred, but of +thousands; for quite aside from the official delegations at Paris, which +comprised several hundred persons, we must remember that the data and +the various suggested solutions on most of the questions had been +canvassed at home for each delegation by large groups of office and +technical experts. + +Of course it sounds well to say that the Treaty was written by three +men: the picture of those few Chiefs of State sitting in conference day +after day is dramatic in the extreme. That is, I must confess, the +picture which comes back oftenest to my mind. I see them today, as I saw +them for months at Paris, sitting in that large but cosy salon in the +house allotted to President Wilson on the Place des Etats Unis; for, by +common consent, it was there that the Supreme Council finally held all +its meetings. It is in that theatre, with the three or four Chiefs of +State taking the leading roles, that we saw the other characters in the +great drama moving slowly on the stage, playing their parts, and then +disappearing into the wings. Today it might be Paderewski, pleading with +all his earnestness and sincerity, to have Danzig allotted to the +sovereignty of Poland. To-morrow it might be Hymans, the Belgian +Secretary for Foreign Affairs, begging that there should be a prompt +realization of those pledges to Belgium, which Belgium felt had been +made by all the Allies; or it might even be word brought by special +aeroplane from the King of the Belgians at Brussels, with fresh and +important instructions to his delegation in the matter of Reparation. Or +it might be a group of the representatives of those newer nationalities, +Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Jugoslavia, arguing some burning question of +boundary rights. Or it might be the British shipping experts, +maintaining that the captured German ships should be restored to the +various Allies upon a basis dividing the ships _pro rata_ to the losses +sustained by submarines, and contending against the American claim that +the United States should have all the German ships finding lodgment in +American harbors. Or it might be Herbert Hoover, that brilliant +American, come to describe to the Big Four starvation conditions in +Vienna, and to emphasize his belief that, enemy or no enemy, those +conditions must be relieved or Bolshevism would march into Austria and +directly on west until it reached France--and beyond. + + +THE PLACE OF MEETING + +The stage for this world drama was originally set at the Ministry of +War, behind the Chamber of Deputies and across the Seine; and here +Premier Clemenceau--who, it will be remembered, was Minister of War as +well as President of the Council of French Ministers--was the presiding +genius. But eventually, as the result of an interesting trend of +circumstances, the all important conferences took place at President +Wilson's house. + +[Illustration: Copyright Walter Adams & Sons + +=David Lloyd George= + +Ray Standard Baker, who attended the Peace Conference, wrote in his +book, "What Wilson Did at Paris": "Lloyd George personally was one of +the most charming and amiable figures at Paris, full of Celtic +quicksilver, a torrential talker in the conference, but no one was ever +quite sure, having heard him express an unalterable determination on one +day, that he would not be unalterably determined some other way the day +following."] + +The original theatre of operations at the War Ministry had been so +large, and there was such an enormous chorus brought into play, that +progress was interminably slow. There were usually present all five of +the plenipotentiaries of each of the five great powers, including Japan, +and very frequently Marshal Foch as well. His presence automatically +commanded the attendance of the chief military experts of the other +delegates. With the innumerable secretaries who had to attend the +plenipotentiaries, with the interpreters and whatnot, the Supreme +Council came to look like a legislative chamber, in the midst of which +sat Clemenceau, presiding with his usual incisiveness. At such meetings +progress could be made only upon rather formal matters which had been +threshed out beforehand. When it came to a point of great delicacy, +where the discussions could be only on a most intimate basis, it became +quite impossible to "carry on." Nobody would feel like speaking out in +meeting and calling the other fellow names--as was necessary at times in +order to clear the atmosphere--if there were half a hundred other people +around, to hear those names, and promptly to babble them to an expectant +throng outside. + +So finally the Supreme Council was boiled down to the four Chiefs of +State, including Japan's representative on any questions not strictly +confined to Western Europe; and the small Council began to meet +alternately at Clemenceau's office in the War Ministry, at Mr. Lloyd +George's house, and at Mr. Wilson's, which was just around the corner +from the British Premier's. Then in March, shortly after President +Wilson's second coming from the United States, he fell ill with the +grippe. After a rather severe attack he was able to get on his feet +again and to do business, but was warned by his vigilant friend and +physician, Admiral Grayson, to keep within doors for a time. Mr. Lloyd +George, M. Clemenceau, and Signor Orlando were glad to accommodate +themselves to Mr. Wilson's necessities, and formed the habit of meeting +regularly at his house. His large salon was much better adapted for +these conferences than the room at Mr. Lloyd George's. So there it was +they met during all the final weeks of the Conference, leading up to the +very end. + + +A DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNCIL CHAMBER + +In the middle of the salon, facing the row of windows looking out upon +the Place, was a large yet most inviting fireplace. On the left of this, +a little removed from it, President Wilson usually ensconced himself on +a small sofa, where he made room for some one member of his delegation, +whom, for the particular subject under discussion, he desired to have +most available. On the other side of the fireplace sat Mr. Lloyd George +in a rather high, old-fashioned chair of carved Italian maple, and at +his left sat his experts. Opposite the fireplace, to the right of it, +and about half-way across the room, sat M. Clemenceau, with such of his +Ministers as he needed, and then between him and President Wilson was +Signor Orlando with the Italians. This made a semi-circle around the +fireplace, and whenever Viscount Chinda of the Japanese delegation was +present, the circle was usually enlarged so as to give him a seat in the +middle of it. Behind this first semi-circle was a second one, made up of +secretaries and various technical experts, but the conference was always +a limited one, and was not allowed to grow so large as to become +unwieldy. + +Directly in front of the fireplace, almost scorching his coat-tails, sat +Professor Mantou, the official interpreter for the Big Four. Mantou is a +Frenchman, Professor of French in the University of London, so he had a +perfect mastery of both French and English, with a good working +knowledge of Italian. Mantou was quite an extraordinary character, and +the most vivid interpreter I have ever heard, or rather seen; for at +times he entered into the spirit of the discussions more vigorously than +the original actors. M. Clemenceau, for instance, might make a quiet, +moderate statement, in French, of course; and when it became Mantou's +time to interpret it into English, he would enliven and embellish it +with his own unique gestures. + +The Secretary of the Council was Sir Maurice Hankey, a British Army +officer of great skill and tact, who had a marvelous aptitude for +keeping everything straight, for taking perfectly adequate, and yet not +too voluminous minutes, for seeing that no topic was left in the air +without further reference, and in the last analysis, for holding the +Chiefs of State with their noses to the grindstone. He knew French and +Italian well, and was a distinct asset to the Council. I note that, in +the honors and money-grants disbursed by Parliament to Marshal Haig, +Admiral Beatty and others, Hankey received L25,000. Everybody who worked +with him at Paris will be glad of this just recognition. I have +described this Council Chamber in the President's house rather minutely +because, as I have said, it formed the stage for all of the momentous +decisions which went to make up the final peace settlement. At these +conferences there was no formal presiding officer, but to President +Wilson was usually accorded the courtesy of acting as moderator. + + +HOW THE TREATY WAS COMPOUNDED + +What, then, is the Treaty? The answer is that it is a human document, a +compound of all the qualities possessed by human beings at their +best--and at their worst. People might expect a Treaty of Peace to be a +formal, legal, mechanical sort of document; and undoubtedly an effort +was made by some of the drafting lawyers, who bound all the different +clauses together, to throw the Treaty into the mold of formality. But +all the same, it is a compound quivering with human passion--virtue, +entreaty, fear, sometimes rage, and above all, I believe, justice. + +The reason fear enters into the Treaty must be manifest. Take, for +instance, the case of France. France had lived under the German menace +for half a century. Finally the sword of Damocles had fallen, and almost +one-sixth of beautiful France had been laid waste. Her farms, her +factories, her villages, had been destroyed; her women ravished and led +captive; her children made homeless; her men folk killed. Do we realize +that almost 60 per cent. of all the French soldiers under thirty-one +years of age were killed in the war? Is it any wonder France could not +believe that the German menace was gone forever, and that the world +would never again allow German autocracy to overwhelm her? She could not +believe it, and for that reason she felt it essential that the terms of +the Treaty should be so severe as to leave Germany stripped for +generations of any power to wage aggression against beautiful France. If +her Allies pointed out that to cripple Germany economically was to make +it impossible for Germany to repair the frightful damage she had wrought +in France, France would in effect reply that this might be so, but never +again could she endure such a menace as had threatened her eastern +border for the previous half century. If certain of the Treaty clauses +appear to some minds as unduly severe, it must be remembered that the +Allies, little more than France, could bear the thought of letting +Germany off so easily that within a few years she might again prepare +for war. + +There was fear, too, on the part of those new nations, which had been +largely split off from the effete and outworn Austro-Hungarian Empire, +that in some way their ancient oppressors would once more gain sway over +them. And, every nation, great and small, was overshadowed with the +constant terror of Bolshevism,--that dread specter which seemed to be +stalking, with long strides, from eastern Europe west towards the +Atlantic. Unless peace were hastened that evil might overtake all the +Allies. Such apprehensions as these, far more than imperial ambition or +greed, were factors in the Treaty decisions. Judgments that might take +many months in the ripening could not with safety be awaited. + + +THE PROTECTION DEMANDED BY FRANCE + +France, I say, was thoroughly shocked at the frightful fate which had +come upon so great a portion of her land and population. She seemed to +have real fear that out of the ground, or from the sky, or from the +waters of the earth, at the waving of the devil's wand, there would +spring into being a fresh German army, ready to overwhelm her. It was +this fear that led France to ask for a special Treaty by which England +and America would pledge themselves to come to her aid in case of +Germany's unprovoked attack against her. Those Americans who object to +this have no conception of the real terror in France which led her to +entreat her two most powerful Allies to make such a special treaty with +her. France maintained, and with some reason, that during the formative +period of the League of Nations, before it might become an effective +instrument, if she did not have the psychological and practical +protection of England and America, she must look to her own defense, and +the only real defense she could conceive was to make the Rhine her +eastern boundary. This suggestion of Marshal Foch, based upon sound +military concept, was rejected by President Wilson and Mr. Lloyd George +on the theory that it would mean the annexation of German territory, +would change Germany's ancient boundary line of the Rhine, and +inevitably lead to future trouble. + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +President Poincare With the Swiss President, M. Gustave Ador, Driving to +the Peace Conference in Paris.] + +"Very well," in effect answered M. Clemenceau, "we see your point, but +if you will not allow us to fix this natural boundary for defense, then +we must beg you to guarantee us by treaty your cooperation against +German aggression. That cooperation you will never be called upon to +render with military force, because if Germany knows you are pledged to +come to our defense, that very fact will act as a complete deterrent to +any aggression." + +This was the sound reasoning which led President Wilson and Mr. Lloyd +George to agree to submit respectively to Congress and Parliament this +special French Treaty; this is the reasoning which ought to lead +Congress, as it has led Parliament, to ratify the French Treaty +promptly. My belief is that after five years, this special Treaty will +be abrogated by mutual consent, because by that time the League of +Nations will be built up into such an effective instrument for the +prevention of future wars, any special treaties will be deemed +unnecessary. + + +THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS COVENANT + +If, in the foregoing paragraphs, I have given some idea as to how the +Treaty of Peace was compounded, how it was made up of a mixture of +virtue, selfishness, fear and justice, then perhaps I can proceed to +describe briefly how the document was actually evolved. First, then, we +deal with the drafting of the League of Nations Covenant: + +The world has come to regard President Wilson as the special promoter +and sponsor for the League of Nations. It is perfectly true that Mr. +Wilson went to Paris with a fixed determination, above all else, to +bring about some definite arrangement which would tend to prevent future +wars. It is also true, however, that English statesmen had, for an even +longer time than President Wilson, been giving this same subject earnest +thought and study. Some of the more enlightened French statesmen, like +Leon Bourgeois, had also been sketching out plans for a League of Free +Nations. In England Viscount Grey of Falloden, England's really great +Minister of Foreign Affairs for almost a decade prior to the war, the +man who did everything that human intelligence and wisdom could devise +to prevent the war, and now happily named as British Ambassador to the +United States, had long worked for a League of Nations. Lord Robert +Cecil, a worthy son of a noble father, was another British statesman who +had given his mind to the same subject. General Smuts of South Africa, +recently made Premier in succession to the late General Botha, was +another. So that President Wilson, Colonel House, and the other +delegates, upon their arrival in Paris, found themselves in a not +uncongenial atmosphere. To be sure, on the part of Clemenceau and of +course of the militarists, there was great scepticism. Nevertheless the +French joined in, and early in January the Covenant for the League of +Nations began to evolve. It was built up step by step, President Wilson +taking a most active part in the work. + +Finally the Covenant was adopted in a preliminary way and made public +late in February. It was subject to amendment, and those who drafted the +document welcomed amendments and urged that they be offered. An especial +effort was made to secure suggestions from various Republican +statesmen. No amendments, so far as I have been able to learn, were +offered by any of the Republican Senators, but ex-President Taft +suggested certain changes, some of which were adopted. President Lowell +of Harvard contributed one or two which were taken over almost verbatim. +Ex-Senator Elihu Root also made valuable suggestions, some of which were +utilized in the final drafting of the Covenant, made public early in +April. + + +ESSENCE AND SPIRIT OF THE LEAGUE + +Roughly, as the situation developed, the purpose of the League of +Nations became two-fold. The initial purpose, of course, was to set up +the machinery for a body, representative of the nations, keeping in such +close contact and guided by such general principles as would tend to +make it impossible for one nation to begin war upon another. Elsewhere +in this volume ex-Attorney General Wickersham has described in detail +the clauses of the Covenant; but even in this brief allusion it is +proper to set down the essence and spirit of the League. It is this: No +two peoples, if they come to know each other and each other's motives +sufficiently well, and if by certain machinery they are maintained in +close personal and ideal contact, can conceivably fly at each other's +throats. Now no machinery can be devised that will absolutely prevent +war, but a carrying out of the spirit and principles set forth in the +present Covenant ought to make war well-nigh impossible. The machinery +that was thus set up at Paris was deemed at the time to be of course +imperfect and subject to constant improvement. + +The second purpose of the League was to act as the binder, and in a way, +the administrative force of the present existing Treaty. That is to say, +we found as time went on there were many situations so complex that +human wisdom could not devise an immediate formula for their solution. +Hence, it became necessary for the Peace Conference to establish certain +machinery which, if necessary, should function over a series of years, +and thus work out permanently the problems involved. Therefore, as it +fell out, there were established under the Treaty, almost a score of +Commissions, most of them to act under the general supervision of a +League of Nations. Here, then, is another great function that the League +of Nations is immediately called upon to fulfil. + + +WORK OF THE COMMISSIONS + +With the Covenant of the League of Nations more or less complete, the +next business of the Conference was the setting up of the Treaty proper. +The method for this work was roughly as follows: About the first of +February there was appointed a large number of special Commissions, made +up of members of the various delegations. These Commissions, which were +each to treat of separate topics, having arrived at a solution of the +special subject, were then to draft their reports in such language that +they could readily be embodied in the final Treaty of Peace itself. +Thus, for instance, there was appointed a Commission on Reparations, a +Commission on Economic Phases of the Treaty, a Commission on Finance, a +Commission on Boundaries, a Commission on Military and Naval Armament, a +Commission on German Colonies, a Commission on the Saar Basin Coal +Fields, a Commission on Inland Waterways, and so on to the number of +perhaps twenty. These Commissions immediately organized, and if the +subject were particularly complex and many-sided, resolved themselves +into sub-commissions. These sub-commissions in turn organized, each with +its chairman and vice-chairman, its secretariat, and its interpreters, +together with experts called into attendance. + + +DELAYS TO THE TREATY + +The sittings of all these Commissions began, as I say, about February +1st, and at that time the plan was that the work of the Commissions +should be concluded in the form of a report to the Supreme Council six +weeks later, or about March 15th. The plan, further, was for the Supreme +Council to pass upon these various reports, amend them if need be, and +then have them drafted in such form as together would go to make up the +Treaty, which, under this scheme, would be presented to the Germans on +or about April 1st. The Germans would presumably sign within a +fortnight, and we should all be going home about April 15th. As a matter +of fact, the Germans signed the Treaty at Versailles at three o'clock on +the afternoon of June 28th, two and one-half months later than the time +originally planned. + +This delay was, however, not at all unreasonable, if one stops to +consider the number of questions involved, their magnitude, and the +difficulty of dealing with them promptly. In the first place, each +Commission was supposed to present the Supreme Council a unanimous +report. The Council had ruled that the Commissions should not report by +majority vote, for if in any given instance the majority overruled the +minority, the minority might have such bitter complaint that there would +be left in the situation the seed for future trouble. Therefore the +Council determined that in the case of divergence of opinion in the same +Commission, the two or more groups in the Commission should make +separate reports to the Council, each having its own day in court. The +Council would act as judges of the last resort, and no delegation would +go away feeling that it had not had ample opportunity to present its +case. Inevitable and sharp differences of opinion did arise, so that at +least half the reports, I should say, as presented to the Big Four had +to be thrashed out there in considerable detail. + +The second handicap to rapid progress, of course, lay in the composition +of the various Commissions. Each of the large five powers had to be +represented on each Commission, and in most instances smaller powers +also demanded representation. On some of the important Commissions the +larger powers had two or more delegates sitting. Owing to the fact that +Paris was full of influenza, each delegate had to have his alternate so +as to keep the ball rolling. When they first met these delegates were +not well acquainted with each other. They did not know how to get along +together. It took weeks for them to shake down, so as to understand +each other's methods and points of view; so as to be prepared to make +the necessary give and take, certain meetings of views which are always +essential where people are gathered from the four corners of the earth +with a single aim, but with vastly different ideas for attaining it. + +[Illustration: Copyright by Underwood & Underwood + +Where the Peace Treaty Was Signed + +This was the table and chair at which the delegates sat and signed the +peace document.] + + +POLITICS AT THE CONFERENCE + +Still another difficulty was the question of politics which could not be +eliminated. It is easy enough to say, "cut out politics," but in any +international gathering it is never possible to do it. I must say right +here, however, that--as it seemed to me--the American delegation +well-nigh attained that ideal, and be it to President Wilson's credit, I +never once saw him throughout the length of the conference, "play" +politics. But some of the other delegations naturally felt that at home +there was a "list'ning senate" to applaud or to condemn, and many of +these delegates, being members of their respective parliaments or +ministries, naturally had their ear to the ground for the effect that +their course at Paris was producing. Then if, at the sittings of a +Commission, one delegate made a particularly eloquent speech, his fellow +delegate might feel it incumbent upon him to make another equally long. +Some of the delegates deemed it their duty to make an extended speech +every day and seemed to feel that they were lacking in patriotism if +they failed each morning to cover several pages of the record with their +views. + + +THE DIFFICULTY OF LANGUAGE + +Then the final difficulty, uniting with the other troubles to prevent +rapid progress, was that of language. The Paris Conference was, of +course, a regular Tower of Babel. There were two official +languages--French and English. Each delegation used the language with +which its delegates were most familiar, and every word uttered by those +delegates had to be translated into the vernacular of the others. Not +only did this interpretation consume a vast amount of time, but of +course it frequently proved most unsatisfactory. Both the English and +French languages are so idiomatic that the finer shades of meaning can +never be well transmuted from one to the other. Hence, frequent and +sometimes serious mistakes arose. For instance, a Serbian delegate who +knew not a word of English would misunderstand something said by the +British delegate, poorly translated into French. As the Serbian +delegate's knowledge of French was also very limited he could not +readily understand. So he would fly into a towering rage, and for an +hour a heated argument would volley back and forth. Perhaps, at the end +of that time, some cool-headed delegate (frequently an American), would +point out that neither of the honorable delegates had any conception of +what the other had said, and at bottom their views were precisely +similar. Each of the competitors would then listen to reason, the +situation would clear up, and things move on more happily. + +I use here as an example a Serbian delegate, not that the Serbian +delegates were more prone to passion than anybody else. We were all +fighting like mad to make peace. We realized that though fundamentally +we all had the same aim, yet as to methods our views were so divergent, +that when we entered into conference at ten o'clock in the morning we +should probably have one continuous struggle, with interludes for +luncheon and dinner, until perhaps late in the evening. These struggles +never ceased altogether, but as we got to know one another better, they +of course let up materially, and we got on amicably and effectively. + + +THE COMMISSION ON REPARATIONS + +No sketch of the Peace Conference, even one as cursory and superficial +as this, could give any idea of the picture without a more detailed +reference to the workings of some particular Commission that played an +important part in the building up of the Peace Treaty. Hence I may be +permitted to mention the Commission on Reparations. All things +considered, this was perhaps the most important Commission at work. + +The original Commission on Reparations was divided into three +sub-commissions. Commission Number One was to determine upon what +principles reparation should be demanded from Germany, that is to say, +what items of damage should be included. In addition to physical damage +inflicted by Germany upon the Allies, by reason of her aggression on +land or sea, and from the air, should the cost of pensions for dead +French soldiers be claimed? Was the entire cost of the war as waged by +England, for instance, to be included as a charge against Germany? In +other words, just what categories should be adopted in order to define +Germany's liability? + +This Commission Number One sat for weeks, and it was only towards the +very end that it succeeded in establishing the categories. At the start +there was a sharp divergence of opinion among the various delegations. +The American delegation pointed out that under President Wilson's +Fourteen Points costs of war would have to be excluded. The British +delegation maintained otherwise. The French thought the costs of war +ought to be included, but deemed the matter academic, inasmuch as +Germany could never pay the total war costs. And so the argument ran. + +Sub-commission Number Two on reparations had for its object to determine +what Germany's capacity to pay was, and what the proper method of +payment should be. Sub-commission Number Three was to devise sanctions +or guarantees by which the Allies should be assured of receiving the +payments finally determined upon. + +For weeks I was active upon Sub-commission Number Two, and in fact was +charged with the duty of drawing up the initial report covering the +question of Germany's capacity to pay. Early in the deliberations of +this Sub-commission it became apparent that its work was of momentous +import, for whatever the Sub-commission determined as Germany's capacity +to pay, undoubtedly that sum would be fixed as what Germany should be +obligated to pay. Theoretically, as the French had pointed out, it did +not make a great difference what categories of damage were included, +because Germany would probably be unable to pay even the extent of +material damage she had wrought. It was equally evident that she would +be compelled by the Allies to pay to the utmost extent of her capacity. +Therefore Sub-commission Number Two was in effect, naming the amount of +the German "indemnity." + + +AN ESTIMATE OF GERMANY'S CAPACITY TO PAY + +This knowledge rendered the work of the delegates on Sub-commission +Number Two considerably more difficult. To estimate Germany's capacity +to pay over a series of years was by no means a purely scientific +matter. No banker, or economist, or financier, whatever his experience, +could look far enough into the future to be able to say what Germany +could or could not pay, in ten, twenty, or thirty years. The initial +estimate made by one of the delegations, as representing Germany's +capacity to pay, was one thousand million of francs. Another estimate +was twenty-four billion sterling, about one hundred twenty billion of +dollars. Now Germany's entire wealth was estimated at not over eighty +billion dollars, so it was inconceivable how it could be possible, even +over a series of years, for Germany to pick up her entire commonwealth +and transfer it to the Allies. Most of Germany's property consists of +the soil, railroads, factories, dwellings, and none of those things can +be transported, none can be made available for the payment of +reparation. Hence the question arose as to how much liquid wealth +Germany could export year after year and still maintain her own economic +life. This was the estimate upon which the British, French and American +delegations wrangled pleasantly for weeks. Whenever we reached too tense +a point, tea and toast was served, with jam to sweeten the atmosphere a +bit, and then we would start afresh. + +As a matter of fact, as we encouraged newspaper reporters to surmise, we +had nearly arrived upon a basis of agreement for demanding a fixed sum +from Germany. That sum would not have exceeded forty or forty-five +billion dollars, with interest added. The American delegation believed +it to be far sounder economically to name a fixed sum and thus limit +Germany's liability, so that all nations could address themselves to a +definite end and arrange their fiscal and taxation policies accordingly. +But both Mr. Lloyd George and M. Clemenceau urged that public opinion in +both their countries would not acquiesce in any sum that fell far below +previous expectations; that, therefore, inasmuch as it was difficult +anyway to arrive at once upon the exact amount of damage caused, it +would be wiser to leave the amount of reparation open, to be determined +by a commission which should examine into the damage sustained, and fix +the total amount within two years. America's material interest in the +question was so limited that President Wilson finally did not oppose Mr. +Lloyd George's and M. Clemenceau's judgment. This, in brief, is the +history of the Reparation clauses in the Treaty. As I have already said, +if we realize that in almost every one of the other chapters similar +complex courses of procedure had to be followed, we shall not be +surprised at the time which the Treaty took for drafting. + + +THE ITALIAN CRISIS + +The world is already familiar with the several crises which arose during +the course of the Peace Conference. The so-called Fiume crisis, when the +Italian delegation walked out and returned to Rome, was regarded as the +most serious. I am not sure it was, although it was generally so +considered. I believe most of Italy's warmest friends maintain that her +action in going home was a mistake. The question of putting Fiume under +Italian sovereignty was not covered nor even touched upon in the Treaty +of London. In face, the question of Fiume arose long after the Peace +Conference was under way. Signor Orlando, the Italian Premier, was +accused of fostering Italian feeling on Fiume and of fanning it into +flame. I believe there is no truth in this. At any rate, if the Italians +had been wise, they would have prevented the matter of Fiume from +becoming such a _cause celebre_. I think that by judicious work they +could have prevented it. Then, too, probably the difficulty would have +been lessened if President Wilson's statement to the Italian people had +previously met Signor Orlando's approval. Mr. Wilson made his statement +with the best will in the world, with the intent to allay and not +inflame Italian public opinion. It should have been possible to +coordinate his idealism with Signor Orlando's position. + +Later on the Italian delegation returned to Paris, realizing that the +question of Fiume, which was formerly an Austrian port, did not bear one +way or another upon the Treaty with Germany. But the Italians had lost a +certain tactical position which was important to them, and in my +judgment the move cost Italy much more than the whole question of Fiume +amounted to. + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +Awaiting the Decision of the German Peace Delegates. + +President Clemenceau is shown standing. Next to him from right to left +are: President Wilson, Secretary of State Robert Lansing, Commissioner +Henry White, Colonel House, Gen. Tasker H. Bliss, Stephen Pichon, French +Minister of Foreign Affairs; Louis Klotz, French Minister of Finance, +and Andre Tardieu, French High Commissioner. From Clemenceau, left to +right: Premier Lloyd George, Bonar Law and A. J. Balfour.] + + +THE QUESTION OF SHANTUNG + +The Shantung crisis was another serious one. It was so realized at the +time by the conferees at Paris. The Japanese delegation considered that +it had already suffered one or two rebuffs. Their clause to embody race +equality in the League of Nations Covenant had not been accepted. They, +as the leading Far Eastern Power, were being urged to take an active +part in the organization and development of the League of Nations, yet +they could see nothing for Japan in the idea except a chance to help the +other fellow. It was at this time that the Treaty clause was being +drafted covering the disposition of German rights in the Far East, +including those on the Shantung Peninsula. It will be remembered that at +the outbreak of the war Germany, by reason of treaty rights with China, +had possession of Kiauchau, upon the neck of the Shantung Peninsula. +Back in 1916, at a time when the war was going badly, after Japan had +driven the Germans out of the Far East and had prevented German +submarines from getting a base there to prey upon British troop ships +from Australia, Japan had demanded from England and France that she +become the inheritor of whatever rights Germany had in Shantung. England +and France readily granted this request, as America probably would have +done if she had been in the war at the time. Later on, according to the +record, China confirmed Japan in these rights. + +President Wilson's idea, however, was "China for Chinamen"; therefore +Shantung should be turned over to China. This was a proper point of +view. It was a great pity that it could not be made to prevail. The +difficulty, however, was two-fold: first, the agreement which I have +just cited between England and France on one hand, and Japan on the +other; second, Japan's statement to President Wilson that if he began +his League of Nations by forcing England and France to break a solemn +agreement with Japan, then Japan would have no use for such a faithless +confederation and would promptly withdraw. At the same time, however, +Japan reiterated that her inheritance of Shantung was largely a formal +matter, and that if the Allies gave her that recognition, she would feel +in honor bound to withdraw from Shantung in the near future. This +statement, made repeatedly by the Japanese delegates to President +Wilson, finally led him to refrain from forcing Great Britain and France +to break their agreement, as he might perhaps otherwise have done. The +climax, of course, came when Japan gave her ultimatum and said that +unless she had her rights she would retire from the Conference. + + +DEMANDS OF BELGIUM + +Then came the third and last crisis--the Belgians threatened to withdraw +and go home. They had, as they claimed, been promised by their Allies, +as well as by their enemies, including specifically Germany, that their +country, trampled over and devastated in order to defend France and +England from attack, was to be fully restored and reimbursed for its +expenditures. Early in the Conference Colonel House projected a plan to +Mr. Balfour of the British delegation and Mr. Klotz of the French +delegation, granting Belgium a priority of $500,000,000 on the German +reparation, this sum being sufficient to set Belgium well on her way to +recovery. There was, however, great delay in getting the final assent to +this priority. The American delegation worked hard to bring it about and +to push the plan on every occasion, but it still hung fire. + +The Belgian delegation, finally becoming alarmed, insisted on formally +taking up the question with the Council of Four. The Belgian delegation, +under the leadership of Mr. Hymans, Minister of Foreign Affairs, made +two chief demands, one for the priority already mentioned, and one for +reimbursement for what the war had cost her. To this latter item there +was vigorous objection on the ground that it was inadmissible to provide +for Belgium's "costs of war" and not for those of England, France, Italy +and the other Allies. As a compromise to meet the situation, a formula +was finally proposed in a phrase to the effect that Germany was to be +obligated especially "to reimburse Belgium for all the sums borrowed by +Belgium from the Allies as a necessary consequence of the violation of +the Treaty of 1839." Inasmuch as all such sums borrowed by Belgium were +used for the prosecution of the war, this phrase was simply a euphemism +for granting to Belgium the war costs which she had demanded. But it was +finally agreed to on all hands, and the crisis was averted. + +[Illustration: Copyright by Press Illustrating Service + +The George Washington + +It was on this ship that President and Mrs. Wilson made their two trips +across the Atlantic and back during the Peace Conference.] + + +THE TREATY PRESENTED TO THE GERMANS AT VERSAILLES + +The Treaty in its final form was presented to the Germans at Versailles +May 7th. The Germans were hoping they would be permitted to discuss +certain phases of the Treaty in person with the Allied delegates, and in +fact repeatedly requested the opportunity. Some of us believed such +conversations might be advantageous if they were held; not between the +chiefs of the Allied states and the heads of the German delegation, but +between technical experts on both sides. Mr. Wilson favored this view, +as tending to enlighten the Germans on certain phases of the Treaty, +which from their written communications it was evident they did not +understand. We thought that some weeks of delay might possibly be +averted by sitting around the table with the Germans, distasteful as +that task might be, and holding a kind of miniature peace conference. +This suggestion, however, was strongly opposed by M. Clemenceau, +although it was favored by some of his ministers. In fact, some of the +latter, as well as many of the British, were for a time convinced that +the terms of the Treaty were such that Germany would never sign them. +Again and again Clemenceau was urged to give way on this point, but he +sturdily opposed the view and declared positively that he knew the +German character; that the only way to secure a German signature to the +Treaty was to insist upon purely formal and written communications. +Clemenceau had his way, and then began the laying of a good many wagers +as to whether the Germans would sign. This was after the original German +delegation, or at least the chiefs of it, had returned to Berlin and +declared that they would not come back again to Versailles. My own +opinion was, that after making as great a kick as possible the Germans +would undoubtedly sign. The logic of the situation was all for their +signing, the reasoning being this: If the Treaty were a just Treaty, +then they ought to sign any way; if it were an unjust Treaty, then, even +if signed, it would eventually fall of its own weight, and the Germans +would run no risk in signing it. I felt that the German psychology of +the situation would be acute enough to see these points and to lead to a +signature. + + +GERMANY SIGNS THE TREATY + +This proved to be the case, and on Saturday, the 21st of June, after +questionings and misgivings, we finally got the word that the Germans +were to sign. I shall never forget the moment that the news came. Some +of us were in session with the Council of Four at the President's house. +Mr. Wilson sat on the right of the fireplace, Mr. Lloyd George on the +left, and M. Clemenceau in the middle. Mr. Orlando was in Italy but his +foreign minister, Baron Sonnino, was there in his place. The afternoon +was a tense one, for the time was growing short and the Germans had, as +I say, not yet signified their intention of signing the treaty. In the +mind of every one of us there lurked the question as to the terrible +steps that would have to be taken in the event the Germans refused to +sign. Late in the afternoon an orderly slipped into the room and +whispered into M. Clemenceau's ear. He struggled to his feet, marched up +to President Wilson and Mr. Lloyd George, and, drawing himself up, said +in solemn tones, "I have the honor to announce to you that the Germans +will sign the treaty." + +And then a moment later the cannon boomed forth to the expectant +populace the news that the Germans would sign, and M. Clemenceau, +turning to me, breathed: "Ah, that is the sound that I have been waiting +to hear for forty-eight years." + + + + +II--WILSON'S FOURTEEN POINTS + +An Attempt to Raise International Morality to the Level of +Private Morality + + +On January 8, 1918, President Wilson outlined the fourteen points on the +basis of which the Allies should make peace. This program was the +startling climax of a whole series of peace proposals which had kept +coming from both camps of belligerents, from neutrals, Socialists, and +the Pope. It is without doubt one of the greatest and most inspiring +State documents in the history of the world. It struck a vital and +telling blow at the basic causes of modern wars. For that reason it +electrified into complete unity the masses of the Allied countries. +Liberal, radical and pacifist opponents of the war rallied around it as +the last great hope of civilization. Its most important effect was to +give a democratic basis to the weary and disillusioned masses of the +Central Powers who were longing for peace. It was on the basis of the +fourteen points that the enemy surrendered. + + +THE WILSON PROGRAM + + We entered this war because violations of right had occurred + which touched us to the quick and made the life of our own + people impossible unless they were corrected and the world + secured once for all against their recurrence. What we demand + in this war, therefore, is nothing peculiar to ourselves. It is + that the world be made fit and safe to live in; and + particularly that it be made safe for every peace-loving nation + which, like our own, wishes to live its own life, determine its + own institutions, be assured of justice and fair dealings by + the other peoples of the world, as against force and selfish + aggression. All the peoples of the world are in effect partners + in this interest and for our own part we see very clearly that + unless justice be done to others it will not be done to us. The + programme of the world's peace, therefore, is our programme, + and that programme, the only possible programme, as we see it, + is this: + + I. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which + there shall be no private international understandings of any + kind, but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the + public view. + + II. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside + territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the + seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action + for the enforcement of international covenants. + + III. The removal, as far as possible, of all economic barriers + and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among + all the nations consenting to the peace and associating + themselves for its maintenance. + + IV. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments + will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic + safety. + + V. A free, open minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of + all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the + principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty + the interests of the populations concerned must have equal + weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title + is to be determined. + +[Illustration: Copyright by Underwood & Underwood + +Paris Crowds Greeting President Wilson + +A general holiday was declared to welcome the President of the United +States. This photograph was taken in the Place de la Concorde.] + + VI. The evacuation of Russian territory and such a settlement + of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and + freest cooperation of the other nations of the world in + obtaining for her an unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity + for the independent determination of her own political + development and national policy and assure her of a sincere + welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of + her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of + every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The + treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months + to come will be the acid test of their good will, of their + comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their own + interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy. + + VII. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and + restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which + she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other + single act will serve as this will serve to restore confidence + among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set + and demanded for the government of their relations with one + another. Without this healing act the whole structure and + validity of international law is forever impaired. + + VIII. All French territory should be freed and the invaded + portions restored, and the wrong done France by Prussia in 1871 + in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace + of the world for nearly fifty years, should be righted, in + order that peace may once more be made secure in the interest + of all. + + IX. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected + along clearly recognizable lines of nationality. + + X. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the + nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be + accorded the freest opportunity of autonomous development. + + XI. Rumania, Serbia and Montenegro should be evacuated; + occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free and secure + access to the sea, and the relations of the several Balkan + States to one another determined by friendly counsel along + historically established lines of allegiance and nationality, + and international guarantees of the political and economic + independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan + States should be entered into. + + XII. The Turkish portions of the present Ottoman Empire should + be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities + which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted + security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of + autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be + permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce + of all nations under international guarantees. + + XIII. An independent Polish State should be erected which + should include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish + population, which should be assured a free and secure access to + the sea and whose political and economic independence and + territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international + covenant. + + XIV. A general association of nations must be formed under + specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual + guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity + to great and small States alike. + + + + +III--HOW THE PEACE TREATY WAS SIGNED + +A Description of the Historic Ceremony in the Hall of Mirrors at the +Palace of Versailles, June 8, 1919 + +(Reprinted from the New York _Times_.) + + +No nobler and more eloquent setting could have been found for this +greatest of all modern events, the signing of the Peace of Versailles, +after five years of terrific struggle on whose outcome the fate of the +whole world had hung, than the palace of the greatest of French Kings on +the hillcrest of the Paris suburb that gave its name to the treaty. To +reach it, says the correspondent of _The New York Times_, the +plenipotentiaries and distinguished guests from all parts of the world +motored to Versailles that day, and drove down the magnificent +tree-lined Avenue du Chateau, then across the huge square--the famous +Place d'Armes of Versailles--and up through the gates and over the +cobblestones of the Court of Honor to the entrance, where officers of +the Republican Guard, whose creation dates back to the French +Revolution, in picturesque uniform, were drawn up to receive them. + +All day the crowd had been gathering. It was a cloudy day; not till noon +did the sky clear. By noon eleven regiments of French cavalry and +infantry had taken position along the approaches to the palace, while +within the court on either side solid lines of infantry in horizon blue +were drawn up at attention. + +Hours before the time set for the ceremony an endless stream of +automobiles began moving out of Paris up the cannon-lined hill of the +Champs Elysees, past the massive Arc de Triomphe, bulking somberly +against the leaden sky, and out through the Bois de Boulogne. This whole +thoroughfare was kept clear by pickets, dragoons, and mounted gendarmes. +In the meantime thousands of Parisians were packing regular and special +trains on all the lines leading to Versailles, and contending with +residents of the town for places in the vast park where the famous +fountains would rise in white fleur-de-lis to mark the end of the +ceremony. + + +A MEMORABLE SCENE + +Past the line of gendarmes thrown across the approaches to the square +reserved for ticket holders, the crowd surged in a compact and +irresistible wave, while hundreds of the more fortunate ones took up +positions in the high windows of every wing of the palace. Up the broad +boulevard of the Avenue de Paris the endless chain of motor cars rolled +between rows of French soldiers; and a guard of honor at the end of the +big court presented arms to the plenipotentiaries and delegates as they +drove through to the entrance, which for the Allied delegates only was +by the marble stairway to the "Queen's Apartments" and the Hall of +Peace, giving access to the Hall of Mirrors. A separate route of entry +was prescribed for the Germans, an arrangement which angered and +disconcerted them when they discovered it, through the park and up the +marble stairway through the ground floor. + +The delegates and plenipotentiaries began to arrive shortly after 2 p. +m., their automobiles rolling between double lines of infantry with +bayonets fixed--it was estimated that there were 20,000 soldiers +altogether guarding the route--that held back the cheering throngs. The +scene from the Court of Honor was impressive. The Place d'Armes was a +lake of white faces, dappled everywhere by the bright colors of flags +and fringed with the horizon blue of troops whose bayonets flamed +silverly as the sun emerged for a moment from behind heavy clouds. At +least a dozen airplanes wheeled and curvetted above. + +Up that triumphal passage, leading for a full quarter of a mile from the +wings of the palace to the entrance to the Hall of Mirrors, +representatives of the victorious nations passed in flag-decked +limousines--hundreds, one after another, without intermission, for fifty +minutes. Just inside the golden gates, which were flung wide, they +passed the big bronze statue of Louis XIV., the "Sun-King," on +horseback, flanked by statues of the Princes and Governors, Admirals and +Generals who had made Louis the Grand Monarque of France. And on the +facade of the twin, temple-like structures on either side of the great +statue they could read as they passed an inscription symbolic of the +historic ceremony just about to occur: "To All the Glories of France." + + +NOTABILITIES ARRIVE + +One of the earliest to arrive was Marshal Foch, amid a torrent of +cheering, which burst out even louder a few moments later when the +massive head of Premier Clemenceau was seen through the windows of a +French military car. To these and other leaders, including President +Wilson, General Pershing, and Premier Lloyd George, the troops drawn up +all around the courtyard presented arms. After Clemenceau the unique +procession continued, diplomats, soldiers, Princes of India in gorgeous +turbans and swarthy faces, dapper Japanese in immaculate Western dress, +Admirals, aviators, Arabs; one caught a glimpse of the bright colors of +French, British, and Colonial uniforms. British Tommies and American +doughboys also dashed up on crowded camions, representing the blood and +sweat of the hard-fought victory; they got an enthusiastic reception. It +was 2:45 when Mr. Balfour, bowing and smiling, heralded the arrival of +the British delegates. Mr. Lloyd George was just behind him, for once +wearing the conventional high hat instead of his usual felt. At 2:50 +came President Wilson in a black limousine with his flag, a white eagle +on a dark blue ground; he received a hearty welcome. + +By 3 o'clock the last contingent had arrived, and the broad ribbon road +stretched empty between the lines of troops from the gates of the palace +courtyard. The Germans had already entered; to avoid any unpleasant +incident they had been quietly conveyed from their lodgings at the Hotel +des Reservoirs Annex through the park. + + +THE SCENE INSIDE + +The final scene in the great drama was enacted in the magnificent Hall +of Mirrors. Versailles contains no more splendid chamber than this royal +hall, whose three hundred mirrors gleam from every wall, whose vaulted +and frescoed ceiling looms dark and high, in whose vastness the +footfalls of the passer re-echo over marble floors and die away +reverberatingly. It was no mere matter of convenience or accident that +the Germans were brought to sign the Peace Treaty in this hall. For this +same hall, which saw the German peace delegates of 1919, representing a +beaten and prostrate Germany, affix their signatures to the Allied terms +of peace, had witnessed in the year 1871 a very different ceremony. It +was in the Hall of Mirrors that the German Empire was born. Forty-nine +years ago, on a January morning, while the forts of beleaguered Paris +were firing their last defiant shots, in that mirror-gleaming hall was +inaugurated the reign of that German Empire the virtual end of which, so +far as the concept held by its originators is concerned, was signalized +in Versailles in the same spot on Saturday, June 28. And in 1871 +President Thiers had signed there the crushing terms of defeat imposed +by a victorious and ruthless Germany. + +In anticipation of the present ceremony carpets had been laid and the +ornamental table, with its eighteenth century gilt and bronze +decorations, had been placed in position on the dais where the +plenipotentiaries were seated. Fronting the chair of M. Clemenceau was +placed a small table, on which the diplomatic instruments were laid. It +was to this table that each representative was called, in alphabetical +order by countries, to sign his name to the treaty and affix to it his +Governmental seal. The four hundred or more invited guests were given +places in the left wing of the Hall of Mirrors, while the right wing was +occupied by about the same number of press representatives. Sixty seats +were allotted to the French press alone. Besides the military guards +outside the palace, the grand stairway up which the delegates came to +enter the hall was controlled by the Republican Guards in their most +brilliant gala uniform. + + +THE PEACE TABLE + +The peace table--a huge hollow rectangle with its open side facing the +windows in the hall--was spread with tawny yellow coverings blending +with the rich browns, blues, and yellows of the antique hangings and +rugs; these, and the mellow tints of the historical paintings, depicting +scenes from France's ancient wars, in the arched roof of the long hall, +lent bright dashes of color to an otherwise austere scene. Against the +sombre background also stood out the brilliant uniforms of a few French +guards, in red plumed silver helmets and red, white, and blue uniforms, +and a group of Allied Generals, including General Pershing, who wore the +scarlet sash of the Legion of Honor. + +But all the diplomats and members of the parties who attended the +ceremony of signing wore conventional civilian clothes. All gold lace +and pageantry was eschewed, the fanciful garb of the Middle Ages was +completely absent as representative of traditions and practices sternly +condemned in the great bound treaty-volume of Japanese paper, covered +with seals and printed in French and English, which was signed by +twenty-seven nations that afternoon. + +As a contrast with the Franco-German peace session of 1871, held in the +same hall, there were present some grizzled French veterans of the +Franco-Prussian war. They took the place of the Prussian guardsmen of +the previous ceremony, and gazed with a species of grim satisfaction at +the disciples of Bismarck, who sat this time in the seats of the lowly, +while the white marble statue of Minerva looked stonily on. + + +ENTRANCE OF CHIEF ACTORS + +The ceremony of signing was marked only by three minor incidents: a +protest by the German delegation at the eleventh hour over the +provision of separate entrance, the filing of a document of protest by +General Jan Smuts of the South African delegation, and the deliberate +absence of the Chinese delegates from the ceremony, due to +dissatisfaction over the concessions granted to Japan in Shantung. + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +Henry White + +Former Ambassador to France and Italy and one of the United States +delegates to the Peace Conference.] + +The treaty was deposited on the table at 2:10 p.m. by William Martin of +the French Foreign Office; it was inclosed in a stamped leather case, +and bulked large. Because of the size of the volume and the fragile +seals it bore, the plan to present it for signing to Premier Clemenceau, +President Wilson, and Premier Lloyd George had been given up. A box of +old-fashioned goose quills, sharpened by the expert pen pointer of the +French Foreign Office, was placed on each of the three tables for the +use of plenipotentiaries who desired to observe the conventional +formalities. + +Secretary Lansing, meanwhile, had been the first of the American +delegation to arrive in the palace--at 1:45 p.m. Premier Clemenceau +entered at 2:20. Three detachments each consisting of fifteen private +soldiers--from the American, British, and French forces--just before 3 +o'clock and took their places in the embrasures of the windows +overlooking the chateau park, a few feet from Marshal Foch, who was +seated with the French delegation at the peace table. Marshal Foch was +present only as a spectator, and did not participate in the signing. +These forty-five soldiers of the three main belligerent nations were +present as the real "artisans of peace" and stood within the inclosure +reserved for plenipotentiaries and high officials of the conference as a +visible sign of their role in bringing into being a new Europe. These +men had been selected from those who bore honorable wounds. Premier +Clemenceau stepped up to the poilus of the French detachment and shook +the hand of each, expressing his pleasure at seeing them, and his +regrets for the suffering they had endured for France. + + +PRESIDENT WILSON ENTERS + +Delegates of the minor powers made their way with difficulty through the +crowd to their places at the table. Officers and civilians lined the +walls and filled the aisles. President Wilson entered the Hall of +Mirrors at 2:50. All the Allied delegates were then seated, except the +Chinese representatives, who were conspicuous by their absence. The +difficulty of seeing well militated against demonstrations on the +arrival of prominent statesmen. The crowd refused to be seated and +thronged toward the center of the hall, which is so long that a good +view was impossible from any distance, even with the aid of opera +glasses. German correspondents were ushered into the hall just before 3 +o'clock and took standing room in a window at the rear of the +correspondents' section. + +At 3 o'clock a hush fell over the hall. There were a few moments of +disorder while the officials and the crowd took their places. At 3:07 +the German delegates, Dr. Hermann Mueller, German Secretary for Foreign +Affairs, and Dr. Johannes Bell, Colonial Secretary, were shown into the +hall; with heads held high they took their seats. The other delegates +remained seated, according to a prearranged plan reminiscent of the +discourtesy displayed by von Brockdorff-Rantzau, who at the ceremony of +delivery of the peace treaty on May 7th, had refused to rise to read his +address to the Allied delegates. The seats of the German delegates +touched elbows with the Japanese on the right and the Brazilians on the +left. They were thus on the side nearest the entrance, and the program +required them to depart by a separate exit before the other delegates at +the close of the ceremony. Delegates from Ecuador, Peru, and Liberia +faced them across the narrow table. + + +THE GERMANS SIGN + +M. Clemenceau, as President of the Peace Conference, opened the +ceremony. Rising, he made the following brief address, amid dead +silence: + + "The session is open. The allied and associated powers on one + side and the German Reich on the other side have come to an + agreement on the conditions of peace. The text has been + completed, drafted, and the President of the Conference has + stated in writing that the text that is about to be signed now + is identical with the 200 copies that have been delivered to + the German delegation. The signatures will be given now, and + they amount to a solemn undertaking faithfully and loyally to + execute the conditions embodied by this treaty of peace. I now + invite the delegates of the German Reich to sign the treaty.' + +There was a tense pause for a moment. Then in response to M. +Clemenceau's bidding the German delegates rose without a word, and, +escorted by William Martin, master of ceremonies, moved to the signatory +table, where they placed upon the treaty the sign-manuals which German +Government leaders had declared over and over again, with emphasis and +anger, would never be appended to this treaty. They also signed a +protocol covering changes in the documents, and the Polish undertaking. +All three documents were similarly signed by the Allied delegates who +followed. + + +WILSON SIGNS NEXT + +When the German delegates regained their seats after signing, President +Wilson immediately rose and, followed by the other American +plenipotentiaries, moved around the sides of the horseshoe to the +signature tables. It was thus President Wilson, and not M. Clemenceau, +who was first of the Allied delegates to sign. This, however, was purely +what may be called an alphabetical honor, in accordance with which the +nations were named in the prologue to the treaty. Premier Lloyd George, +with the British delegation, came next. The British dominions followed. +M. Clemenceau with the French delegates, was next in line; then came +Baron Saionji and the other Japanese delegates, and they in turn were +followed by the representatives of the smaller powers. + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +Count von Brockdorff-Rantzau + +Foreign Minister of Germany and President of the German Peace +delegates.] + +During the attaching of the signatures of the great powers and the +Germans a battery of moving picture cameras clicked away so audibly that +they could be heard above the general noise and disorder of the throng. +The close of the ceremony came so quickly and quietly that it was +scarcely noticed until it was all over. M. Clemenceau arose almost +unremarked, and in a voice half lost amid the confusion and the hum of +conversation which had sprung up while the minor powers were signing +declared the conference closed, and asked the Allied and associated +delegates to remain in their seats for a few moments--this to permit the +German plenipotentiaries to leave the building before the general +exodus. + + +THE GERMANS DEPART + +None arose as the Germans filed out, accompanied by their suite of +secretaries and interpreters, just as all the plenipotentiaries had kept +their seats when Dr. Mueller and Dr. Bell entered. The Germans went forth +evidently suffering strong emotion. Outside an unsympathetic crowd +jammed close to the cars which took them away. There was no aggression, +but the sentiment of the throng was unmistakable. + +Meanwhile the great guns that announced the closing of the ceremony were +booming, and their concussion shook the old palace of Versailles to its +foundations. Amid confusion the assembly dispersed, and the most +momentous ceremony of the epoch was at an end. + +The great war which for five long years had shaken Europe and the world +was formally ended at last. It was a war which had cost the belligerents +over $200,000,000,000; which had caused the deaths of 8,000,000 human +beings, and which had left the world a post-war burden of debt amounting +to $135,000,000,000. It was a war which had changed the whole face of +Europe, which had brought many new nations into existence, which had +revolutionized the organization of all national and international life. +It was a war which had brought the world the consciousness of its common +obligation to unite against all war. The booming of the great guns of +Versailles seemed to proclaim a new epoch. + + + + +IV--THE PEACE TREATY--ITS MEANING +TO AMERICA + +America's "Place in the Sun" Due to Her Efforts to Secure a Just Peace + +By GEORGE W. WICKERSHAM + +Formerly Attorney-General of the United States. + + +"The cause of our entrance into the great war," declares Dr. David Jayne +Hill in a recent essay, "being the violation by the German Imperial +Government of our legal rights as a nation, our object in the war was to +make our rights respected. The one clear duty of the treaty-making power +in concluding peace with Germany, therefore, is to secure this +result."[25] + +[25] "Americanizing the Treaty."--_North American Review_, August, 1919. + +In these words, one of the most distinguished and accomplished of the +opponents of the treaty of Paris reveals the profound abyss which +separates those who oppose from those who are urging the approval of the +Treaty of Versailles. Dr. Hill, perhaps unconsciously, gives expression +to a sordid, narrow, selfish view of the issues of the war, which would +transmute into the most elemental act of self-defense one of the +greatest crusades of high idealism ever conducted by any people in the +history of nations. If, in fact, the cause of our participation in the +war was merely to repel attacks upon our legal rights as a nation, then +indeed, that end being attained, and the aggressor reduced to impotence +for the future, we may return within our own borders, withdraw unto +ourselves, disclaim all responsibility for the condition of the world +elsewhere and plunge into the selfish exploitation of our national +resources, "the world forgetting, by the world forgot." It is a strange +perversion of the facts of recent history that leads to such a +conception of America's responsibility for the future of civilization. + +There were undoubtedly, as Mr. Wilson said, "violations of right which +touched us to the quick." Was it merely violations of our own national +rights that roused this peace-loving nation to array itself for battle; +that sent two million of our young men across three thousand miles of +ocean to take their places beside the heroes of Verdun and the Marne, +the veterans of Cambrai and Arras, Ypres and the Somme; infused the +weary defenders of civilization with new courage; converted their +defense into an irresistible offensive which shattered the greatest +military machine of history, overthrew the Kaiser and his government, +and brought the German nation to its knees? No! It was not the German +attacks upon our rights as a nation; it was the German challenge of the +whole basis of modern Christian civilization. It was her cynical +disclaimer of the binding character of treaties; her inhuman method of +warfare; her brutal cruelties of non-combatant men, women and children; +her ruthless destruction of monuments of art--the possessions of not +merely one nation, but of the entire world of men and women in every +land who love beauty and revere art. It was the growing conviction that +a government which ordered the sinking of the _Lusitania_ and the +_Sussex_; that destroyed the priceless literary treasures of Louvain; +that separated families in Belgium and France, and deported great +companies of men to work in German munition factories; that ruthlessly +cut up by the roots the fruit trees and shrubs of the occupied regions +of France; that sought to destroy not merely the men, but the souls of +nations, so that its own horrid philosophy of Force might reign over +them--that such a government must no longer exist; that its pestilential +influence was more noxious than tuberculosis or the bubonic plague. + + +THE BASIS OF PEACE + +Therefore, the Youth of America joyously leaped to arms and crowded +overseas in the greatest of all crusades, insuring victory and promising +the opening of a new and better epoch of human history. It was the +recognition of human kinship; the perception of human brotherhood, that +inspired them to the great endeavor. Our proud sense of American +nationality took on a deeper and holier significance as we joined +forces with the older peoples in defense of the great principles of +human right which had been formulated by our fathers and upon which was +reared the American State. We were no less Americans that we had +accepted a common responsibility with Great Britain, France and Italy +for the preservation of the ideals of human freedom for which Washington +fought and Lincoln died. Nay! better Americans, as we realized that the +war was being fought in defense of those principles upon which our own +institutions were founded and by which we had become the great, strong, +free nation we are. + +And as the hideous carnage went on, and we saw a whole generation of the +youth of the free nations of Europe butchered because the German people +had become so obsessed with their own sense of superiority that they +were determined to rule the world and impose upon all other peoples +subservience to their Moloch-like gospel of efficiency, another feeling +began to struggle for expression in Europe and America alike--a +determination that all wars of aggression must cease; that disputes +between nations must be settled like those between individuals, by +peaceful arbitration or conciliation; that the causes of war must be +examined and, so far as possible, removed, and that no such war as this +ever again should desolate the earth. This was the meaning of the phrase +one came to hear on many lips, that it was "a war against war." How +could such a result be attained? Obviously, only by the continued +association in peace of those powers whose close cooperation in war was +compelling the overthrow of German militarism, and the widening of that +association to include all the other nations who should accept its +program and give an earnest of adherence to its ideals. There was also +the hope that some time--when they should have offered up that ancient +sacrifice, "an humble and a contrite heart"--even the German people, +enfranchised and regenerated, might be admitted into the society of Free +Peoples and with new significance become entitled to be called a +civilized nation. + +These were the principles that underlay Mr. Wilson's program of +peace--the fourteen points of January 8, 1918, and subsequent addresses; +the only definite formulation of the basis of peace which was laid +before the world, a program concerning which the American Congress +expressed no definite criticism and for which it offered no substitute; +a program which was accepted by Allies and opponents alike, and which +constituted the Chart by which the Conference of Paris was required to +endeavor to formulate the terms of the Treaty of Peace. + +The work of that Conference now has been submitted to the judgment of +mankind. It was accepted by the new government of Germany with a wry +face, as the judgment of the victors naturally would be taken by the +vanquished. It has been ratified by the Parliament of Great Britain, by +Italy, by France and by Japan. It has been for weeks under debate in the +Senate of the United States. Daily efforts have been made to create a +partisan political issue over it, and to visit upon it party resentment +against the past actions of the President.[26] + +[26] This article by Mr. Wickersham was prepared prior to the Senate +deadlock and the rejection of the Treaty with the Lodge reservations. + +Dr. Hill again sums up the case against the treaty--the final basis +which the confused gropings after some means of making it unpopular with +the people finally have evolved--in these words: + + "The League of Nations, as proposed, includes not only + obligations not related to the reasons for engaging in the war, + but also obligations opposed to the traditions, the + time-honored policies, and even the constitutional provisions + of the United States. It commits the whole future policy of + this country to the decisions of an international body in which + it would have only a single voice; it permits that body to + intrude its judgments, and thereby its policies into a sphere + hitherto regarded as exclusively American, and, in addition, it + demands that the territories held by each of the members of the + League under this treaty shall receive the permanent protection + of the United States as integral parts of the Nations that now + claim them." + +Is it true? What is the real meaning of the Peace Treaty and its effect +upon the people of the United States? The answer to these questions, and +indeed to most of the criticism of the Covenant, is conclusively met by +a reading of the treaty. But first let us turn for a moment to the +fourteen points of Mr. Wilson's address of January 8, 1918. The basis of +the territorial readjustment of Europe which he then proposed, was the +giving of national expression to racial aspiration. Alien imperial rule +such as that of Austria over Hungary and Bohemia, and that of Germany, +Austria or Russia over Poland, was to end, and the Poles, the Croats, +Serbs, Hungarians, Bohemians, and the Czechoslavs and Jugoslavs each +were to be allowed national existence, with the right of +self-determination. Whatever may now be thought of the wisdom of this +theory, it was accepted by all of the Allies, who thereby were committed +to a responsibility for the protection, certainly in the early years of +their existence, of the new nations they united to call into being. +Recognizing this fact, the fourteenth of the Wilson points provided for +the creation of an Association of the Allied Nations to protect the work +of their arms. Aside from that practical purpose, the League of Nations +was recognized by many in every land as furnishing the only practicable +machinery for the removal of causes of war and the prevention of new +assaults upon civilization, such as that which Germany had launched in +August, 1914. + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +=Victoria Hall at Geneva= + +Selected by the Council of the Powers as the meeting place of the League +of Nations.] + +The first Chapter of the Peace Treaty, therefore, is a Covenant or +Compact forming a League of Nations, whose purpose, as expressed in the +Preamble, is "to promote international cooperation and to achieve +international peace and security." Worthy objects, these: how are they +to be attained? The Preamble answers, + + "by the acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by the + prescription of open, just and honorable relations between + nations, by the firm establishment of the understandings of + international law as to actual rule of conduct among + governments, and by the maintenance of justice and a scrupulous + respect for all treaty obligations in the dealings of organized + peoples with one another." + +Are not these methods such as America has made her own? Have we not in +many treaties accepted obligations not to make war until all peaceful +methods of settling disputes shall have been exhausted; have we not +striven to make the principles of international law rules for the +government of nations; and was not one of the main points in the +indictment of Germany on which we prosecuted the war against her that +she had flouted the sanctity of treaties and made them mere scraps of +paper? + +The objects of the League therefore, as set forth in the Covenant, are +expressive only of policies and principles to which the United States +has given a consistent and unbroken adherence from the days of the Jay +Treaty to the present hour. How are these objects proposed to be +attained in the text of the Covenant? What is there in its provisions to +justify the frantic abuse that has been heaped upon it by its opponents +and to sustain the final accusation that it is "un-American?" + + +MACHINERY OF THE LEAGUE + +First, as to the Machinery of the League. There is an Assembly of its +members to which each Sovereign State may send delegates. There is an +Assembly of its members to which each nation necessarily has one vote. +In the United States Senate, Rhode Island and New York have equal +representation, despite disparity in wealth and population. The +principle of sovereignty requires this recognition of equality. But the +powers of the Assembly are restricted to voting upon the admission of +new members to the League, the addition of members to the Council, the +disposition of international disputes which may be referred to it by the +Council under Article XV, and the general consideration at its meetings +of "any matter within the sphere of action of the League or affecting +the peace of the world." This general authority only can embrace the +right of discussion, save in very exceptional cases, as by Article V, +"decisions at any meeting of the Assembly or of the Council shall +require the agreement of all the members of the League represented at +the meeting." + +The actual governing body of the League is the Council, which is to +consist of representatives of the five greater powers,--the United +States, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan, together with +representatives of four other members of the League selected by the +Assembly from time to time. These numbers may be increased, but only by +the unanimous vote of the Council, approved by a majority of the +Assembly. + +As noted above, save in the very few expressly expected cases, the +Council can reach decisions only by unanimous vote. What are to be its +functions? They need not be enumerated in detail here. Briefly, they +deal with the reduction of armaments, the control by governments of the +private manufacture of munitions and implements of war, the +consideration of any war or threat of war--"of any circumstance whatever +affecting international relations which threatens to disturb either the +peace or the good understanding between nations upon which peace +depends." They require the formulation and submission to the members of +the League for adoption of plans for the establishment of a permanent +Court of International Justice. They empower the Council to endeavor to +effect a settlement of any international dispute which shall not be +submitted to arbitration by the parties; to investigate, consider and +report upon any such dispute, and to publish its conclusions. + +The parties to the League solemnly covenant and agree that if any +dispute shall arise between them likely to lead to a rupture they will +submit it either to arbitration or inquiry by the Council, and that in +no case will they resort to war until three months after the award by +the arbitrators or the report by the Council. They agree also to carry +out in good faith any award that may be rendered, and not to make war +against any member of the League that complies therewith. If a report by +the Council is unanimously agreed to by its members, other than the +representatives of the disputants, the members agree not to go to war +with any party to the dispute which complies with the recommendations of +the report. + + +OBJECTIONS TO THE PLAN + +It is objected by some that the decision of questions between nations by +these provisions is left to a body of delegates composing the Council +who are not bound to decide according to rules of international law, but +may reach conclusions merely as political expediency. This seems a +strained interpretation. The members of the League agree to submit +either (1) to arbitration or (2) to investigation by the Council, every +dispute which may arise between them likely to lead to a rupture and in +no case to resort to war until three months after the award by +arbitrators or the report by the Council. They declare (by Article XIII) + + "Disputes as to the interpretation of a treaty, as to any + question of international law, as to the existence of any fact + which, if established, would constitute a breach of any + international obligation, or as to the extent and nature of the + reparation to be made for any such breach," to be among those + which are generally suitable for submission to arbitration. + Disputes of the character thus enumerated are what are known as + justiciable, _i. e._, subject to be decided by a Court by the + application of the recognized principles of international law. + +Mr. Root recommended that such disputes should be required to be +arbitrated. The Conference at Paris, like those at the two Hague +Conferences, would not agree to that. But in view of the declaration +just quoted, any power which should bring before the Council a dispute +of the character mentioned, but which it was unwilling to submit to +arbitration, would have the burden of showing convincing reason for such +attitude. + +When the first draft of the Covenant was before the country, American +critics objected that it would compel the United States to submit to +arbitration on inquiry by the Council purely domestic questions such as +tariff, immigration and coastwise traffic. To meet this objection, there +was inserted in Art. XV the following paragraph: + + "If the dispute between the parties is claimed by one of them, + and is found by the Council to arise out of a matter which by + international law is solely within the domestic jurisdiction of + that party, the Council shall so report, and shall make no + recommendation as to its settlement." + +To this it is objected that the determination of the question whether or +not a matter of dispute is by the rules of international law solely with +the domestic jurisdiction of a member is left to the Council and not to +the member. Surely, it requires no explanation to demonstrate, that if a +member State may oust the Council of jurisdiction to inquire into a +given dispute which threatens the peace of the world merely by itself +asserting that it arises out of a matter within its exclusive domestic +jurisdiction, a very imperfect means of averting war will have been +provided, and the League Covenant will hardly have more efficacy than +the second Hague Convention. Remember too, that the reports of the +Council must be unanimous, and the unreasonableness of the objection to +the provisions cited will appear. + + +MEANS TO PREVENT WAR + +Articles XI to XVI constitute the heart of the Covenant, the most +effective means ever formulated to prevent war. The agreements of the +nations not to resort to war until the processes of arbitration or +inquiry are exhausted, are buttressed by the provision that should any +member violate these agreements it shall _ipso facto_ be deemed to have +committed an act of war against all the other members of the League, +entailing as a consequence commercial boycott, expulsion and the +application of armed force, if the members shall so determine. The +employment of force in this case, as in every other contemplated by the +Covenant, is not left to the decision of Council or Assembly. They can +only recommend. The member States agree _not to go_ to war. There is +nowhere in the document any provision compelling them _to go_ to war. +Even where one State in violation of its Covenant threatens the peace of +the world, the utmost the Council can do is + + "To recommend to the several governments concerned what + effective military or naval forces the members of the League + shall severally contribute to the armaments of forces to be + used to protect the covenants of the League." + +Much heated objection has been directed against Article X, which reads +as follows: + + "The members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as + against external aggression the territorial integrity and + existing political independence of all members of the League. + In case of any such aggression or in case of any threat or + danger of such aggression, the Council shall advise upon the + means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled.' + +Again, it is left to the determination of each State what force it shall +employ to enforce this provision. As a matter of fact, this article adds +little, if anything, to the provisions of Article XI, which declares +that "Any war or threat of war ... is hereby declared a matter of +concern to the whole League, and the League shall take any action that +may be deemed wise and effectual to safeguard the peace of nations." Any +external aggression against the territorial integrity or political +independence of a member of the League would amount to a war or threat +of war, and would invoke action under Article XI, if not under Article +X. But the guaranty of Article X is very necessary as affording a moral +protection to the new nations brought into being through the peace +Conference. The United States of America, whose President formulated the +principles of peace to which these Nations owe their existence, can not +afford to shirk responsibility for their protection. The Covenant +abolishes the evil of secret treaties between the nations composing the +League, while preserving the effectiveness of existing treaties of +arbitration. + +[Illustration: Copyright Harris & Ewing + +=William Howard Taft= + +An earnest supporter of the President and his administration throughout +the war, though of the opposite party.] + + +THE MONROE DOCTRINE + +To meet the objection that the Covenant would deprive us of the Monroe +Doctrine--a national policy adopted by the United States as its own and +maintained for its own protection--Article XXI of the amended Covenant +provides that-- + + "Nothing in this Covenant shall be deemed to affect the + validity of international engagements such as treaties of + arbitration or regional understandings like the Monroe Doctrine + for securing the maintenance of peace." + +The phrase "regional understanding," as applied to the Monroe Doctrine, +is not a happy one. But the article certainly excludes the Monroe +Doctrine from modification or effect by the treaty. It secures from +every one of the thirty-two original members and the thirteen other +states which shall be invited to join the League, a recognition of the +existence of the Monroe Doctrine and an agreement that it is not to be +affected by anything contained in the Covenant. Certainly _that_ is not +an un-American result to accomplish, and when one reads Dr. Hill's +statement that the Covenant "does not embody our traditional American +ideals," one wonders in what museum of forgotten lore the learned doctor +has found those "traditional ideals" preserved. Dr. Hill's so-called +ideals conflict with the expression in this great treaty of the +peculiarly American ideal of averting war by providing peaceful methods +of settling disputes among nations, with the express recognition by all +the other nations of the doctrine that "was proclaimed in 1823 to +prevent America from becoming a theater for the intrigues of European +absolutism," and with the official commentary of the Delegates of Great +Britain which says that-- + + "At first a principle of American foreign _policy_, it (Monroe + Doctrine) has become an international _understanding_, and it + is not illegitimate for the people of the United States to ask + that the Covenant should recognize this fact." + + +GERMAN COLONIES + +One of the most difficult problems presented to the Peace Conference was +the disposition of the former colonies of Germany in Asia, Africa and +Australasia, and of the communities formerly belonging to the Turkish +Empire. It was recognized that the victors in the war shared a common +responsibility for the just and wise treatment of these peoples, who +were utterly unable to stand alone. The method adopted declared all of +them to be wards of the League of Nations and provided that they should +be governed by Mandatory Powers willing to undertake the task and +appointed by the League under charters framed by the Council. These +Powers would be answerable to the League for the right exercise of their +powers, and subject to inspection and report. A great deal of +impassioned rhetoric has been expended over these provisions, upon the +false assumption that thereby the United States was committed to a +responsibility for the government of remote regions of the earth. The +Covenant commits us to nothing. Our participation in the war has +entailed upon us a common responsibility with our Allies for the +protection and wise government of these communities. We no more can +escape that responsibility with honor than we could after the Spanish +War escape responsibility for the Philippine Islands. + +But it is for the American Congress to determine the extent of +recognition of our duty and the means by which we shall discharge it. + +In the case of the Philippine Islands, the United States set for the +world a great moral example in the government of colonies, not in its +own interest, but for the benefit and exclusively in the interest of the +inhabitants of possessions which fell into our hands as a consequence of +the war with Spain. The principle thus proclaimed and practiced has been +followed in the case of the colonies and territories which the World War +has left at the disposition of the Allied and Associated Nations. This +principle, in the words of the Covenant, is "that the well-being and +development of such peoples form a sacred trust of civilization." The +best method yet devised for giving practicable effect to this principle +undoubtedly is, + + "That the tutelage of such peoples be intrusted to advanced + nations who, by reason of their resources, their experience or + their geographical position, can best undertake this + responsibility, and who are willing to accept it, and that this + tutelage should be exercised by them as mandatories on behalf + of the League." + +This is the American attitude toward undeveloped peoples. To remove +these provisions from the Peace Treaty would be to _de_-Americanize the +Treaty. + + +MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS + +The Covenant brings within the cognizance of the League the regulation +of international relations affecting (1) efforts to secure and maintain +fair and humane conditions of labor for men, women and children--a +subject elaborated and provided for in great detail in Part XIII of the +Peace Treaty; (2) the execution of international agreements with regard +to traffic in women and children, and in opium and other dangerous +drugs; (3) the trade in arms and ammunition with the countries in which +the control of this traffic is necessary in the common interest; (4) the +prevention and control of disease. + +The members of the League further agree (1) + + "To make provision to secure and maintain freedom of + communication and of transit and _equitable_ treatment for the + commerce of all members of the League," + +and (2) + + "to encourage and promote the establishment and cooperation of + duly authorized voluntary national Red Cross organizations + having as purposes improvement of health, the prevention of + disease and the mitigation of suffering throughout the world." + +All these are subjects customarily dealt with in international +agreements. These provisions are designed to bring into coordination +with the League and make more effective all provisions concerning such +matters. + +The framers of this great program recognized that it was, necessarily, +an experiment, and that experience doubtless would develop defects and +suggest needed changes. Provision is therefor made for amendments which +should take effect when ratified by the members of the League whose +representatives compose the Council, and by a majority of the members +whose representatives compose the Assembly. But, preserving the theory +that the League is to be an alliance of Sovereign Powers, it also is +provided that no member shall be bound against his will by any such +amendment. It may dissent, and thereby cease to be a member of the +League. + +Finally, any member may, at will, after two years' notice, withdraw from +the League, + + "provided that all its international obligations and all its + obligations under this Covenant shall have been fulfilled at + the time of its withdrawal." + +No jurisdiction is vested in any organ of the League to determine +whether or not in any instance this condition has been complied with. It +is conceivable that pending some arbitration or inquiry by the Council, +the application of a commercial boycott or other disciplinary process +for violation of a provision of the Covenant, the offending power should +seek to escape the jurisdiction of the League, by exercising the right +of withdrawal. The period of notice probably is too long to allow of +this, and yet the slow process of international procedure might require +more than two years to reach a conclusion. Does it not seem fair that +before a nation should withdraw from this great association it should be +required to fulfil its obligations under the treaty? + + +PROBABILITY OF WAR MINIMIZED + +The treaty of peace with Germany deals with many questions of vital +import to European nations, but with which America has but little direct +concern. Part I, the Covenant, is the section which touches us most +nearly. It is the part which embodies the idealism of our people, and +through which we are enabled to discharge the responsibilities we +assumed by formulating for friend and foe the conditions of peace. Human +nature changes but little from century to century, but the highest and +purest aspirations of the human heart find expression from age to age +with greater force and with wider acceptance. Doubtless, in the future, +the passions of man will again flare up in bloody wars, but the +creation of an adequate machinery for discussion and cooling reflection, +must tend to minimize the probabilities of war. The spirits of millions +of slaughtered youth who sleep in the fields of France and Flanders call +out to us, for whom they died, to consecrate their sacrifice by a new +and greater endeavor to safeguard the future peace of the world. + +The conferees of Paris have formulated a measure for this purpose. It is +not perfect. Experience may develop even greater imperfections than +study has revealed. But it contains much of hope and promise. It is +practical; it is subject to amendment. It commits no one irrevocably to +its provisions. It is instinct with American idealism. It is in accord +with the best American traditions. Washington, Lincoln, McKinley, and +Roosevelt--each has contributed to the establishment of some of its main +provisions. No partisan, no provincial prejudice should be permitted to +influence or control the judgment of our people concerning it. + + * * * * * + + +=When Peace Came to Verdun= + +It was 10:45 on the morning of November 11th in Verdun. The Germans had +thrown a barrage over the little French city, now immortal; and shells +were falling, plowing up the earth that had been turned over and over, +ground to powder by four years of artillery fire. Would the Germans stop +at 11 o'clock? Reason said "yes." Everyone in Verdun knew that at that +hour the armistice would go into effect. + +It was 10:50. The guns continued bellowing. A feeling deeper than reason +came over those in the city that the Germans would not stop. Verdun had +lived through four years of fire, smoke, thunder, blood, and ruin. +Sometimes for days there would be a lull, but the guns were never quiet +long. The Germans never forgave the "they-shall-not-pass" spirit that +had hurled them back just as the prize--this military key to the West +front--seemed within their grasp. + +It was 10:55. Men were crouching between buildings. They kept +coming--doughboys, Morrocans, English soldiers, more doughboys. Even the +general and his aids began to look anxious. + +"Then," says B. C. Edworthy in _Association Men_, "as suddenly as though +God himself had dropped a wet blanket over the crackling flames of hell +and at one blow had extinguished them all, the firing ceased. There was +an instant's pause, in which it seemed as though the world had come to +an end. Then from the forty bells, high in the still untouched towers of +that old cathedral at Verdun, which had witnessed the most heroic +sacrifice of life and love save that on Calvary alone, pealed forth as +did the voices over the Bethlehem hills those silver tones that once +again were saying, 'Peace on Earth.' The men were joyously and +deliriously leaping about, yelling and shouting and singing and kissing +one another. Slowly those heavy cathedral doors opened and in rushed +about six hundred of the Allied soldiers." + +There were Mohammedans, Catholics, Jews, and Protestants. They pressed +forward into the choir space, the roofs above them open to heaven. A +simple impromptu service of thanksgiving followed. An English soldier +led the Doxology, and all who knew the hymn joined in. Six hundred +worshipers knelt, each soldier praying according to his faith. +Mohammedans bowed to the stones, Catholics crossed themselves, Jews and +Protestants with moving lips bent their heads or lifted their faces to +heaven. Dr. Oscar E. Maurer, of New Haven, Conn., led the _Lord's +Prayer_. As the strange congregation rose, the Americans began "My +Country 'tis of Thee," the English joining in with "God Save the King." + +There could be only one closing hymn in that battered shell of Verdun +Cathedral. Now, as though it had been arranged, the French pushed +forward and began the "Marseillaise." It was the singing of the soul of +a nation, a soul redeemed: + + _Allons, enfants de la patrie + Le jour de gloire est arrive_ + +Peace had come to Verdun, deliverance to France, safety to the world. +With the last words of the national hymn of France, the service was +finished, and the worshipers turned and reverently left the building. + + + + +THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES AND THE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS + +(Signed June 28, 1919, Rejected by the United States, November 19, 1919 +and Again Rejected, with the Lodge Reservations, March 19, 1920) + + +The preamble contains the names of the plenipotentiaries that took part +in the negotiations and signed the treaty, with a few exceptions: Dr. +Hermann Mueller and Dr. Johannes Bell were substituted for +Brockdorff-Rantzau and his associates, China's delegates refused to sign +on account of the Shantung concessions to Japan, and Italy was +represented by a new commission headed by Signor Tittoni, the new +Foreign Minister. + +The text here reproduced is the revised edition of the treaty +distributed in French and English among the delegates at the time of the +signing. The copy actually signed is deposited in the archives of the +Republic of France in Paris. + + + + +PREAMBLE + + + The United States of America, the British Empire, France, + Italy, and Japan, these powers being described in the present + treaty as the principal Allied and Associated Powers; Belgium, + Bolivia, Brazil, China, Cuba, Ecuador, Greece, Guatemala, + Haiti, the Hedjaz, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, + Poland, Portugal, Rumania, the Serb-Croat-Slovene State; Siam, + Czechoslovakia, and Uruguay, these powers constituting with the + principal powers mentioned above the Allied and Associated + Powers of the one part; and Germany, of the other part: Bearing + in mind that on the request of the Imperial German Government + an armistice was granted on Nov. 11, 1918, to Germany by the + principal Allied and Associated Powers in order that a treaty + of peace might be concluded with her, and the Allied and + Associated Powers being equally desirous that the war in which + they were successively involved directly or indirectly, and + which originated in the declaration of war by Austria-Hungary + on July 28, 1914, against Serbia; the declaration of war by + Germany against Russia on Aug. 1, 1914, and against France on + Aug. 3, 1914, and in the invasion of Belgium, should be + replaced by a firm, just, and durable peace; + + For this purpose the high contracting parties represented as + follows: + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, by: + + The Honorable Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States, + acting in his own name and by his own proper authority; + + The Honorable Robert Lansing, Secretary of State; + + The Honorable Henry White, formerly Ambassador Extraordinary + and Plenipotentiary of the United States at Rome and Paris; + + The Honorable Edward M. House; + + General Tasker H. Bliss, Military Representative of the United + States on the Supreme War Council; + + HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND + IRELAND AND OF THE BRITISH DOMINIONS BEYOND THE SEAS, EMPEROR + OF INDIA, by: + + The Right Honorable David Lloyd George, M. P., First Lord of + his Treasury and Prime Minister; + + The Right Honorable Andrew Bonar Law, M. P., his Lord Privy + Seal; + + The Right Honorable Viscount Milner, G. C. B., G. C. M. G., his + Secretary of State for the Colonies; + + The Right Honorable Arthur James Balfour, O. M., M. P., his + Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs; + + The Right Honorable George Nicoll Barnes, M. P., Minister + without portfolio; and + + FOR THE DOMINION OF CANADA, by: + + The Right Honorable Sir George Eulas Foster, G. C. M. G., + Minister of Trade and Commerce; + + The Right Honorable Charles Joseph Doherty, Minister of + Justice; + + FOR THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA, by: + + The Right Honorable William Morris Hughes, Attorney General and + Prime Minister; + + The Right Honorable Sir Joseph Cook, G. C. M. G., Minister for + the Navy; + + FOR THE DOMINION OF SOUTH AFRICA, by: + + General the Right Honorable Louis Botha, Prime Minister; + + Lieut. General the Right Honorable Jan Christiaan Smuts, K. C., + Minister of Defense; + + FOR THE DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND, by: + + The Right Honorable William Ferguson Massey, Minister of Labor + and Prime Minister; + + FOR INDIA, by: + + The Right Honorable Edwin Samuel Montagu, M. P., his Secretary + of State for India; + + Major General his Highness Maharaja Sir Ganga Singh Bahadur, + Maharaja of Bikanir, G. C. S. I., G. C. I. E., G. C. V. O., K. + C. B., A. D. C.; + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC, by: + + Mr. Georges Clemenceau, President of the Council, Minister of + War; + + Mr. Pichon, Minister of Foreign Affairs; + + Mr. L. L. Klotz, Minister of Finance; + + Mr. Andre Tardieu, Commissary General for Franco-American + Military Affairs; + + Mr. Jules Cambon, Ambassador of France; + + HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF ITALY,[27] by: + + Mr. V. E. Orlando, President of the Council of Ministers; + +[27] On account of the overthrow of the Orlando Ministry and the +formation of the Nitti Ministry, the treaty was signed by a delegation +headed by Signor Tittoni, the New Foreign Minister. + + Baron S. Sonnino, Minister of Foreign Affairs; + + Mr. S. Crespi, Deputy, Minister of Supplies; + + Marquis G. Imperiali, Senator of the Kingdom, Ambassador of his + Majesty the King of Italy at London; + + Mr. S. Barzilai, Deputy, formerly Minister; + + HIS MAJESTY THE EMPEROR OF JAPAN, by: + + Marquis Saionji, formerly President of the Council of + Ministers; + + Baron Makino, formerly Minister of Foreign Affairs, member of + the Diplomatic Council; + + Viscount Chinda, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary + of H. M. the Emperor of Japan at London; + + Mr. K. Matsui, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of + H. M. the Emperor of Japan at Paris; + + Mr. H. Ijuin, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of + H. M. the Emperor of Japan at Rome; + + HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE BELGIANS, by: + + Mr. Hymans, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of State; + + Mr. Van Den Heuvel, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister + Plenipotentiary of H. M. the King of the Belgians, Minister of + State; + + Mr. Vandervelde, Minister of Justice, Minister of State; + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA, by: + + Mr. Ismael Montes, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister + Plenipotentiary of Bolivia at Paris; + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF BRAZIL, by: + + Mr. Epitacio Pessoa, formerly Minister of State, formerly + member of the Supreme Court of Justice, Federal Senator; + + Mr. Pandia Calogeras, Deputy, formerly Minister of Finance; + + Mr. Raul Ferdnandes; + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE CHINESE REPUBLIC,[28] by; + + Mr. Lou Tseng-Tsiang, Minister of Foreign Affairs; + + Mr. Chengting Thomas Wang, formerly Minister of Agriculture and + Commerce; + + [28] Refused to sign on account of Shantung concessions to Japan. + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE CUBAN REPUBLIC, by: + + Mr. Antonio Sanchez de Bustamante, Dean of The Faculty of Law + in the University of Havana, President of the Cuban Society of + International Law; + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR, by: + + Mr. Enrique Dorn y de Alsua, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister + Plenipotentiary of Ecuador at Paris; + + HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE HELLENES, by: + + Mr. Eleftherios Venizelos, President of the Council of + Ministers; + + Mr. Nicolas Politis, Minister of Foreign Affairs; + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF GUATEMALA, by: + + Mr. Joaquin Mendez, formerly Minister of State for Public Works + and Public Instruction, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister + Plenipotentiary of Guatemala at Washington, Envoy Extraordinary + and Minister Plenipotentiary on Special Mission at Paris; + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF HAITI, by: + + Mr. Tertullien Guilbaud, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister + Plenipotentiary of Haiti at Paris; + + HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE HEDJAZ, by: + + Mr. Rustem Haidar; + + Mr. Abdul Hadi Aouni; + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF HONDURAS, by: + + Dr. Policarpe Bonilla, on special mission to Washington, + formerly President of the Republic of Honduras, Envoy + Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary; + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF LIBERIA, by: + + The Honorable C. D. B. King, Secretary of State; + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF NICARAGUA, by: + + Mr. Salvador Chamorro, President of the Chamber of Deputies; + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF PANAMA, by: + + Mr. Antonio Burgos, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister + Plenipotentiary of Panama at Madrid; + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF PERU, by: + + Mr. Carlos G. Candamo, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister + Plenipotentiary of Peru at Paris; + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE POLISH REPUBLIC, by: + + Mr. Roman Dmowski, President of the Polish National Committee; + + Mr. Ignace Paderewski, President of the Council of Ministers, + Minister of Foreign Affairs; + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE PORTUGESE REPUBLIC, by: + + Dr. Affonso Costa, formerly President of the Council of + Ministers; + + Mr. Augusto Soares, formerly Minister of Foreign Affairs; + + HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF RUMANIA, by: + + Mr. Jean J. C. Bratiano, President of the Council of Ministers, + Minister of Foreign Affairs; + + General Constantin Coanda, Corps Commander, A. D. C. to the + King, formerly President of the Council of Ministers; + + HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE SERBS, THE CROATS, AND THE + SLOVENES, by: + + Mr. N. P. Pachitch, formerly President of the Council of + Ministers; + + Mr. Ante Trumbic, Minister of Foreign Affairs; Mr. Milenko R. + Vesnitch, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of + H. M. the King of the Serbs, the Croats, and the Slovenes at + Paris; + + HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF SIAM, by: + + Prince Charoon, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister + Plenipotentiary of H. M. the King of Siam at Paris; + + Prince Traidos Prabandhu, Under Secretary of State for Foreign + Affairs; + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE CZECHO-SLOVAK REPUBLIC, by: + + Mr. Charles Kramar, President of the Council of Ministers; + + Mr. Edouard Benes, Minister of Foreign Affairs; + + THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF URUGUAY, by: + + Mr. Juan Antonio Buero, Minister of Industry, formerly Minister + of Foreign Affairs; + +[Illustration: Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States + +On January 8, 1918, President Wilson outlined the fourteen points on the +basis of which the Allies should make peace.] + + GERMANY,[29] by; + + Count Brockdorff-Rantzau, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the + Empire; + +[29] Treaty Signed by Dr. Hermann Mueller, Minister for Foreign Affairs +of the Empire, and Dr. Johannes Bell, Minister of the Empire. + + Dr. Landsberg, Minister of Justice of the Empire; + + Mr. Giesberts, Minister of Posts of the Empire; + + Oberbuergermeister Leinert, President of the Prussian National + Assembly; + + Dr. Schuecking; + + Dr. Karl Melchior; Acting in the name of the German Empire and + of each and every component State. + +WHO having communicated their full powers found in good and due form +HAVE AGREED AS FOLLOWS: + +From the coming into force of the present treaty the state of war will +terminate. From that moment and subject to the provisions of this treaty +official relations with Germany and with any of the German States will +be resumed by the Allied and Associated Powers. + + + + +PART I + +The Covenant of the League of Nations + + +The high contracting parties, in order to promote international +cooperation and to achieve international peace and security by the +acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by the prescription of +open, just, and honorable relations between nations, by the firm +establishment of the understandings of international law as the actual +rule of conduct among Governments, and by the maintenance of justice and +a scrupulous respect for all treaty obligations in the dealings of +organized peoples with one another, agree to this covenant of the League +of Nations. + +=ARTICLE 1.=--The original members of the League of Nations shall be +those of the signatories which are named in the annex to this covenant +and also such of those other States named in the annex as shall accede +without reservation to this covenant. Such accession shall be effected +by a declaration deposited with the secretariat within two months of the +coming into force of the covenant. Notice thereof shall be sent to all +other members of the League. + +Any fully self-governing State, dominion, or colony not named in the +annex may become a member of the League if its admission is agreed to by +two-thirds of the assembly, provided that it shall give effective +guarantees of its sincere intention to observe its international +obligations, and shall accept such regulations as may be prescribed by +the League in regard to its military, naval and air forces and +armaments. + +Any member of the League may, after two years' notice of its intention +so to do, withdraw from the League, provided that all its international +obligations and all its obligations under this covenant shall have been +fulfilled at the time of its withdrawal. + +=ARTICLE 2.=--The action of the League under this covenant shall be +effected through the instrumentality of an assembly and of a council, +with a permanent secretariat. + +=ARTICLE 3.=--The assembly shall consist of representatives of the +members of the League. + +The assembly shall meet at stated intervals and from time to time as +occasion may require at the seat of the League or at such other place as +may be decided upon. + +The assembly may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere +of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world. + +At meetings of the assembly each member of the League shall have one +vote, and may have not more than three representatives. + +=ARTICLE 4.=--The council shall consist of representatives of the +principal Allied and Associated Powers, together with representatives of +four other members of the League. These four members of the League shall +be selected by the assembly from time to time in its discretion. Until +the appointment of the representatives of the four members of the League +first selected by the assembly, representatives of Belgium, Brazil, +Spain, and Greece shall be members of the council. + +With the approval of the majority of the assembly, the council may name +additional members of the League whose representatives shall always be +members of the council; the council with like approval may increase the +number of members of the League to be selected by the assembly for +representation on the council. + +The council shall meet from time to time as occasion may require, and at +least once a year, at the seat of the League, or at such other place as +may be decided upon. + +The council may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere +of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world. + +Any member of the League not represented on the council shall be invited +to send a representative to sit as a member at any meeting of the +council during the consideration of matters specially affecting the +interests of that member of the League. + +At meetings of the council, each member of the League represented on the +council shall have one vote, and may have not more than one +representative. + +=ARTICLE 5.=--Except where otherwise expressly provided in this covenant +or by the terms of the present treaty, decisions at any meeting of the +assembly or of the council shall require the agreement of all the +members of the League represented at the meeting. + +All matters of procedure at meetings of the assembly or of the council, +including the appointment of committees to investigate particular +matters, shall be regulated by the assembly or by the council and may be +decided by a majority of the members of the League represented at the +meeting. + +The first meeting of the assembly and the first meeting of the council +shall be summoned by the President of the United States of America. + +=ARTICLE 6.=--The permanent secretariat shall be established at the seat +of the League. The secretariat shall comprise a Secretary General and +such secretaries and staff as may be required. + +The first Secretary General shall be the person named in the annex; +thereafter the Secretary General shall be appointed by the council with +the approval of the majority of the assembly. + +The secretaries and staff of the secretariat shall be appointed by the +Secretary General with the approval of the council. + +The Secretary General shall act in that capacity at all meetings of the +assembly and of the council. + +The expenses of the secretariat shall be borne by the members of the +League in accordance with the apportionment of the expenses of the +International Bureau of the Universal Postal Union. + +=ARTICLE 7.=--The seat of the League is established at Geneva. + +The council may at any time decide that the seat of the League shall be +established elsewhere. + +All positions under or in connection with the League, including the +secretariat, shall be open equally to men and women. + +Representatives of the members of the League and officials of the League +when engaged on the business of the League shall enjoy diplomatic +privileges and immunities. + +The buildings and other property occupied by the League or its officials +or by representatives attending its meetings shall be inviolable. + +=ARTICLE 8.=--The members of the League recognize that the maintenance +of peace requires the reduction of national armaments to the lowest +point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common +action of international obligations. + +The council, taking account of the geographical situation and +circumstances of each State, shall formulate plans for such reduction +for the consideration and action of several Governments. + +Such plans shall be subject to reconsideration and revision at least +every ten years. + +After these plans shall have been adopted by the several Governments, +the limits of armaments therein fixed shall not be exceeded without the +concurrence of the council. + +The members of the League agree that the manufacture by private +enterprise of munitions and implements of war is open to grave +objections. The council shall advise how the evil effects attendant upon +such manufacture can be prevented, due regard being had to the +necessities of those members of the League which are not able to +manufacture the munitions and implements of war necessary for their +safety. + +The members of the League undertake to interchange full and frank +information as to the scale of their armaments, their military and naval +programs and the condition of such of their industries as are adaptable +to warlike purposes. + +=ARTICLE 9.=--A permanent commission shall be constituted to advise the +council on the execution of the provisions of Articles 1 and 8 and on +military and naval questions generally. + +=ARTICLE 10.=--The members of the League undertake to respect and +preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and +existing political independence of all members of the League. In case of +any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of such +aggression the council shall advise upon the means by which this +obligation shall be fulfilled. + +=ARTICLE 11.=--Any war or threat of war, whether immediately affecting +any of the members of the League or not, is hereby declared a matter of +concern to the whole League, and the League shall take any action that +may be deemed wise and effectual to safeguard the peace of nations. In +case any such emergency should arise the Secretary General shall on the +request of any member of the League forthwith summon a meeting of the +council. + +It is also declared to be the friendly right of each member of the +League to bring to the attention of the assembly or of the council any +circumstance whatever affecting international relations which threatens +to disturb international peace or the good understanding between nations +upon which peace depends. + +=ARTICLE 12.=--The members of the League agree that if there should +arise between them any dispute likely to lead to a rupture, they will +submit the matter either to arbitration or to inquiry by the council, +and they agree in no case to resort to war until three months after the +award by the arbitrators or the report by the council. + +In any case under this article the award of the arbitrators shall be +made within a reasonable time, and the report of the council shall be +made within six months after the submission of the dispute. + +=ARTICLE 13.=--The members of the League agree that whenever any dispute +shall arise between them which they recognize to be suitable for +submission to arbitration and which cannot be satisfactorily settled by +diplomacy, they will submit the whole subject-matter to arbitration. + +Disputes as to the interpretation of a treaty, as to any question of +international law, as to the existence of any fact which if established +would constitute a breach of any international obligation, or as to the +extent and nature of the reparation to be made for any such breach, are +declared to be among those which are generally suitable for submission +to arbitration. + +For the consideration of any such dispute the Court of Arbitration to +which the case is referred shall be the court agreed on by the parties +to the dispute or stipulated in any convention existing between them. + +The members of the League agree that they will carry out in full good +faith any award that may be rendered, and that they will not resort to +war against a member of the League which complies therewith. In the +event of any failure to carry out such an award, the council shall +propose what steps should be taken to give effect thereto. + +=ARTICLE 14.=--The council shall formulate and submit to the members of +the League for adoption plans for the establishment of a Permanent Court +of International Justice. + +The court shall be competent to hear and determine any dispute of an +international character which the parties thereto submit to it. The +court may also give an advisory opinion upon any dispute or question +referred to it by the council or by the assembly. + +=ARTICLE 15.=--If there should arise between members of the League any +dispute likely to lead to a rupture, which is not submitted to +arbitration in accordance with Article 13, the members of the League +agree that they will submit the matter to the council. Any party to the +dispute may effect such submission by giving notice of the existence of +the dispute to the Secretary General, who will make all necessary +arrangements for a full investigation and consideration thereof. + +For this purpose the parties to the dispute will communicate to the +Secretary General, as promptly as possible, statements of their case +with all the relevant facts and papers, and the council may forthwith +direct the publication thereof. + +The council shall endeavor to effect a settlement of the dispute, and if +such efforts are successful, a statement shall be made public giving +such facts and explanations regarding the dispute and the terms of +settlement thereof as the council may deem appropriate. + +If the dispute is not thus settled, the council either unanimously or by +a majority vote shall make and publish a report containing a statement +of the facts of the dispute and the recommendations which are deemed +just and proper in regard thereto. + +Any member of the League represented on the council may make public a +statement of the facts of the dispute and of its conclusions regarding +the same. + +If a report by the council is unanimously agreed to by the members +thereof other than the representatives of one or more of the parties to +the dispute, the members of the League agree that they will not go to +war with any party to the dispute which complies with the +recommendations of the report. + +If the council fails to reach a report which is unanimously agreed to by +the members thereof, other than the representatives of one or more of +the parties to the dispute, the members of the League reserve to +themselves the right to take such action as they shall consider +necessary for the maintenance of right and justice. + +If the dispute between the parties is claimed by one of them, and is +found by the council to arise out of a matter which by international law +is solely within the domestic jurisdiction of that party, the council +shall so report, and shall make no recommendation as to its settlement. + +The council may in any case under this article refer the dispute to the +assembly. The dispute shall be so referred at the request of either +party to the dispute, provided that such request be made within fourteen +days after the submission of the dispute to the council. + +In any case referred to the assembly all the provisions of this article +and of Article 12 relating to the action and powers of the council shall +apply to the action and powers of the assembly, provided that a report +made by the assembly, if concurred in by the representatives of those +members of the League represented on the council and of a majority of +the other members of the League, exclusive in each case of the +representatives of the parties to the dispute, shall have the same force +as a report by the council concurred in by all the members thereof other +than the representatives of one or more of the parties to the dispute. + +=ARTICLE 16.=--Should any member of the League resort to war in +disregard of its covenants under Articles 12, 13, or 15, it shall =ipso +facto= be deemed to have committed an act of war against all other +members of the League, which hereby undertake immediately to subject it +to the severance of all trade or financial relations, the prohibition of +all intercourse between their nationals and the nationals of the +covenant-breaking State and the prevention of all financial, commercial, +or personal intercourse between the nationals of the covenant-breaking +State and the nationals of any other State, whether a member of the +League or not. + +It shall be the duty of the council in such case to recommend to the +several Governments concerned what effective military, naval or air +force the members of the League shall severally contribute to the armed +forces to be used to protect the covenants of the League. + +The members of the League agree, further, that they will mutually +support one another in the financial and economic measures which are +taken under this article, in order to minimize the loss and +inconvenience resulting from the above measures, and that they will +mutually support one another in resisting any special measures aimed at +one of their number by the covenant-breaking State, and that they will +take the necessary steps to afford passage through their territory to +the forces of any of the members of the League which are cooperating to +protect the covenants of the League. + +Any member of the League which has violated any covenant of the League +may be declared to be no longer a member of the League by a vote of the +council concurred in by the representatives of all the other members of +the League represented thereon. + +=ARTICLE 17.=--In the event of a dispute between a member of the League +and a State which is not a member of the League, or between States not +members of the League, the State or States not members of the League +shall be invited to accept the obligations of membership in the League +for the purposes of such dispute, upon such conditions as the council +may deem just. If such invitation is accepted, the provisions of +Articles 12 to 16 inclusive shall be applied with such modifications as +may be deemed necessary by the council. + +Upon such invitation being given the council shall immediately institute +an inquiry into the circumstances of the dispute and recommend such +action as may seem best and most effectual in the circumstances. + +If a State so invited shall refuse to accept the obligations of +membership in the League for the purposes of such dispute, and shall +resort to war against a member of the League, the provisions of Article +16 shall be applicable as against the State taking such action. + +If both parties to the dispute when so invited refuse to accept the +obligations of membership in the League for the purposes of such +dispute, the council may take such measures and make such +recommendations as will prevent hostilities and will result in the +settlement of the dispute. + +=ARTICLE 18.=--Every treaty or international engagement entered into +hereafter by any member of the League shall be forthwith registered with +the secretariat and shall as soon as possible be published by it. No +such treaty or international engagement shall be binding until so +registered. + +=ARTICLE 19.=--The assembly may from time to time advise the +reconsideration by members of the League of treaties which have become +inapplicable and the consideration of international conditions whose +continuance might endanger the peace of the world. + +=ARTICLE 20.=--The members of the League severally agree that this +covenant is accepted as abrogating all obligations or understandings +inter se which are inconsistent with the terms thereof, and solemnly +undertake that they will not hereafter enter into any engagements +inconsistent with the terms thereof. + +In case any member of the League shall, before becoming a member of the +League, have undertaken any obligations inconsistent with the terms of +this covenant, it shall be the duty of such member to take immediate +steps to procure its release from such obligations. + +=ARTICLE 21.=--Nothing in this covenant shall be deemed to affect the +validity of international engagements, such as treaties of arbitration +or regional understandings like the Monroe Doctrine, for securing the +maintenance of peace. + +=ARTICLE 22.=--To those colonies and territories which as a consequence +of the late war have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the States +which formerly governed them and which are inhabited by peoples not yet +able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern +world, there should be applied the principle that the well-being and +development of such peoples form a sacred trust of civilization and that +securities for the performance of this trust should be embodied in this +covenant. + +The best method of giving practical effect to this principle is that the +tutelage of such peoples should be intrusted to advanced nations who by +reason of their resources, their experience or their geographical +position can best undertake this responsibility, and who are willing to +accept it, and that this tutelage should be exercised by them as +mandatories on behalf of the League. + +The character of the mandate must differ according to the stage of +development of the people, the geographical situation of the territory, +its economic conditions and other similar circumstances. + +Certain communities formerly belonging to the Turkish Empire have +reached a stage of development where their existence as independent +nations can be provisionally recognized subject to rendering of +administrative advice and assistance by a mandatory until such time as +they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a +principal consideration in the selection of the mandatory. + +Other peoples, especially those of Central Africa, are at such a stage +that the mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the +territory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of conscience +and religion, subject only to the maintenance of public order and +morals, the prohibition of abuses such as the slave trade, the arms +traffic and the liquor traffic, and the prevention of the establishment +of fortifications or military and naval bases and of military training +of the natives for other than police purposes and the defense of +territory, and will also secure equal opportunities for the trade and +commerce of other members of the League. + +There are territories such as Southwest Africa and certain of the South +Pacific Islands, which, owing to the sparseness of their population or +their small size, or their remoteness from the centers of civilization; +or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the mandatory, and +other circumstances, can be best administered under the laws of the +mandatory as integral portions of its territory, subject to the +safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the indigenous +population. + +In every case of mandate the mandatory shall render to the council an +annual report in reference to the territory committed to its charge. + +The degree of authority, control, or administration to be exercised by +the mandatory shall, if not previously agreed upon by the members of the +League, be explicitly defined in each case by the council. + +A permanent commission shall be constituted to receive and examine the +annual reports of the mandatories and to advise the council on all +matters relating to the observance of the mandates. + +=ARTICLES 23.=--Subject to and in accordance with the provisions of +international conventions existing or hereafter to be agreed upon, the +members of the League: + + (a) will endeavor to secure and maintain fair and humane + conditions of labor for men, women and children, both in their + own countries and in all countries to which their commercial + and industrial relations extend, and for that purpose will + establish and maintain the necessary international + organizations; + + (b) undertake to secure just treatment of the native + inhabitants of territories under their control; + + (c) will intrust the League with the general supervision over + the execution of agreements with regard to the traffic in women + and children and the traffic in opium and other dangerous + drugs; + + (d) will intrust the League with the general supervision of the + trade in arms and ammunition with the countries in which the + control of this traffic is necessary in the common interest; + + (e) will make provision to secure and maintain freedom of + communications and of transit and equitable treatment for the + commerce of all members of the League. In this connection the + special necessities of the regions devastated during the war of + 1914--1918 shall be borne in mind; + + (f) will endeavor to take steps in matters of international + concern for the prevention and control of disease. + +=ARTICLE 24.=--There shall be placed under the direction of the League +all international bureaus already established by general treaties if the +parties to such treaties consent. All such international bureaus and all +commissions for the regulation of matters of international interest +hereafter constituted shall be placed under the direction of the League. + +In all matters of international interest which are regulated by general +conventions but which are not placed under the control of international +bureaus or commissions, the secretariat of the League shall, subject to +the consent of the council and if desired by the parties, collect and +distribute all relevant information and shall render any other +assistance which may be necessary or desirable. + +The council may include as part of the expenses of the secretariat the +expenses of any bureau or commission which is placed under the direction +of the League. + +=ARTICLE 25.=--The members of the League agree to encourage and promote +the establishment and co-operation of duly authorized voluntary national +Red Cross organizations having as purposes the improvement of health, +the prevention of disease, and the mitigation of suffering throughout +the world. + +=ARTICLE 26.=--Amendments to this covenant will take effect when +ratified by the members of the League whose representatives compose the +council and by a majority of the members of the League whose +representatives compose the assembly. + +No such amendment shall bind any member of the League which signifies +its dissent therefrom, but in that case it shall cease to be a member of +the League. + +ANNEX + +I. Original members of the League of Nations signatories of the treaty +of peace. + + United States of America. + Belgium. + Bolivia. + Brazil. + British Empire. + Canada. + Australia. + South Africa. + New Zealand. + India + China.[30] + Cuba. + Ecuador. + France. + Greece. + Guatemala. + Uruguay. + Haiti. + Hedjaz. + Honduras. + Italy. + Japan. + Liberia. + Nicaragua. + Panama. + Peru. + Poland. + Portugal. + Rumania. + Serb-Croat-Slovene State. + Siam. + Czecho-Slovakia. + +States invited to accede to the covenant. + + Argentine Republic + Chile. + Colombia. + Denmark. + Netherlands. + Norway. + Paraguay + Persia. + Salvador. + Spain. + Sweden. + Switzerland. + Venezuela. + +[30] Refused to sign. + +II. First Secretary General of the League of Nations. The Honorable Sir +James Eric Drummond, K. C. M. G., C. B. + + + + +PART II. + +Boundaries of Germany + + +=ARTICLE 27.=--The boundaries of Germany will be determined as follows: + +1. With Belgium: From the point common to the three frontiers of +Belgium, Holland, and Germany, and in a southerly direction; the +northeastern boundary of the former territory of neutral Moresnet, then +the eastern boundary of the Kreis of Eupen, then the frontier between +Belgium and the Kreis of Montjoie, then the northeastern and eastern +boundary of the Kreis of Malmedy to its junction with the frontier of +Luxemburg. + +2. With Luxemburg: The frontier of the 3d August, 1914, to its junction +with the frontier of France of the 18th July, 1870. + +3. With France: The frontier of the 18th July, 1870, from Luxemburg to +Switzerland, with the reservations made in Article 48 of Section 4 +(Sarre Basin) of Part III. + +4. With Switzerland: The present frontier. + +5. With Austria: The frontier of the 3d August, 1914, from Switzerland +to Czechoslovakia is hereinafter defined. + +6. With Czechoslovakia: The frontier of the 3d August, 1914, between +Germany and Austria from its junction with the old administrative +boundary separating Bohemia and the Province of Upper Austria to the +point north of the salient of the old Province of Austrian Silesia +situated at about eight kilometers east of Neustadt. + +7. With Poland: From the point defined above to a point to be fixed on +the ground about 2 kilometers east of Lorzendorf: the frontier as it +will be fixed in accordance with Article 88 of the present treaty; +thence in a northerly direction to the point where the administrative +boundary of Posnania crosses the river Bartsch; a line to be fixed on +the ground leaving the following places in Poland: Skorischau, +Reichthal, Trembatschau, Kunzendorf, Schleise, Gross Kosel, +Schreibersdorf, Rippin, Fuerstlich-Niefken, Pawelau, Tscheschen, +Konradau, Johannisdorf, Modzenowe, Bogdaj, and in Germany: Lorzendorf, +Kaulwitz, Glausche, Dalbersdorf, Reesewitz, Stradam, Gross Wartenberg +Kraschen, Neu Mittelwalde, Domaslawitz, Wodelsdorf, Tscheschen Hammer; +thence the boundary of Posnania northwestward to the point where it cuts +the Rawitsch-Herrnstadt railway; thence to the point where the +administrative boundary of Posnania cuts the Reisen-Tschirnau road: a +line to be fixed on the ground passing west of Triebusch and Gabel and +east of Saborwitz; thence the administrative boundary of Posnania to its +junction with the eastern boundary of the Kreis of Fraustadt; + +Thence in a northwesterly direction to a point to be chosen on the road +between the villages of Unruhstadt and Kophitz: a line to be fixed on +the ground passing west of Geyersdorf, Brenno, Fehlen, Altkloster, +Klebel, and east of Ulbersdorf, Buchwald, Ilgen, Weine, Lupitze, +Schwenten; thence in a northerly direction to the northernmost point of +Lake Chlop: a line to be fixed on the ground following the median line +of the lakes; the town and the station of Bentschen, however, (including +the junction of the lines Schwiebus-Bentschen and Zuellichau-Bentschen,) +remaining in Polish territory; + +Thence in a northeasterly direction to the point of junction of the +boundaries of the Kreise of Schwerin, Birnbaum, and Meseritz: a line to +be fixed on the ground passing east of Betsche; thence in a northerly +direction the boundary separating the Kreise of Schwerin and Birnbaum, +then in an easterly direction the northern boundary of Posnania and to +the point where it cuts the river Netze; thence upstream to its +confluence with the Kueddow: the course of the Netze; thence upstream to +a point to be chosen about 6 kilometers southeast of Schneidemuehl; the +course of the Kueddow; + +Thence northeastward to the most southern point of the re-entrant of the +northern boundary of Posnania about 5 kilometers west of Stahren: a line +to be fixed on the ground leaving the Schneidemuehl-Konitz railway in +this area entirely in German territory; thence the boundary of Posnania +northeastward to the point of the salient it makes about 15 kilometers +east of Flatow; thence northeastward to the point where the river +Kamionka meets the southern boundary of the Kreis of Konitz about 3 +kilometers northeast of Grunau: a line to be fixed on the ground leaving +the following places to Poland: Jasdrowo, Gr. Lutau, Kl. Lutau and +Wittkau, and to Germany: Gr. Butzig, Cziskowo, Battow, Boech, and Grunau; + +Thence in a northerly direction the boundary between the Kreise of +Konitz and Schlochau to the point where this boundary cuts the river +Brahe; thence to a point on the boundary of Pomerania 15 kilometers east +of Rummelsburg: a line to be fixed on the ground leaving the following +localities in Poland: Konarzin, Kelpin, Adl. Briesen, and in Germany: +Sampohl, Neuguth, Steinfort, and Gr. Peterkau; then the boundary of +Pomerania in an easterly direction to its junction with the boundary +between the Kreis of Konitz and Schlochau; + +[Illustration: Copyright Press Illustrating Service + +President and Mrs. Wilson Waving Good Bye + +This picture was taken as they were starting out for their first trip to +the Peace Conference.] + +Thence northward the boundary between Pomerania and West Prussia to the +point on the river Rheda about 3 kilometers northwest of Gohra, where +that river is joined by a tributary from the northwest; thence to a +point to be selected in the bend of the Piasnitz River about 1-1/2 +kilometers northwest of Warschkau: a line to be fixed on the ground; +thence this river downstream, then the median line of Lake Zarnowitz, +then the old boundary of West Prussia to the Baltic Sea. + +8. With Denmark: The frontier as it will be fixed in accordance with +Articles 109 and 110 of Part III., Section XII., (Schleswig.) + +=ARTICLE 28.=--The boundaries of East Prussia, with the reservations +made in Section IX. (East Prussia) of Part III. will be determined as +follows: + +From a point on the coast of the Baltic Sea about 1-1/2 kilometers north of +Proebbernau Church in a direction of about 159 degrees east from true +north: A line to be fixed on the ground for about 2 kilometers, thence +in a straight line to the light at the bend of the Elbinger Channel in +approximately latitude 54.19-1/2 north, longitude 19.26 east of Greenwich; + +Thence to the easternmost mouth of the Nogat River at a bearing of +approximately 209 degrees east from true north; + +Thence up the course of the Nogat River to the point where the latter +leaves the Vistula, (Weichsel;) + +Thence up the principal channel of navigation of the Vistula, then the +southern boundary of the Kreis of Marienwerder, then that of the Kreis +of Rosenberg, eastward to the point where it meets the old boundary of +East Prussia; + +Thence the old boundary between East and West Prussia, then the boundary +between the Kreise of Osterode and Neidenburg, then the course of the +River Skoppau down stream, then the course of the Neide up stream to a +point situated about 5 kilometers west of Bialutten, being the nearest +point to the old frontier of Russia, thence in an easterly direction to +a point immediately south of the intersection of the road +Neidenburg-Mlava with the old frontier of Russia; + +A line to be fixed on the ground passing north of Bialutten; + +Thence the old frontier of Russia to a point east of Schmalleningken, +then the principal channel of navigation of the Niemen (Memel) down +stream, then the Skierwieth arm of the delta to the Kurisches Haff; + +Thence a straight line to the point where the eastern shore of the +Kurische Nehrung meets the administrative boundary about 4 kilometers +southwest of Nidden; + +Thence this administrative boundary to the western shore of the Kurische +Nehrung. + +=ARTICLE 29.=--The boundaries as described above are drawn in red on a +one-in-a-million map which is annexed to the present treaty. (Map No. +1.) + +In the case of any discrepancies between the text of the treaty and this +map or any other map which may be annexed, the text will be final. + +=ARTICLE 30.=--In the case of boundaries which are defined by a +waterway, the terms "course" and "channel" used in the present treaty +signify: in the case of non-navigable rivers, the median line of the +waterway or of its principal arm, and in the case of navigable rivers +the median line of the principal channel of navigation. It will rest +with the boundary commissions provided by the present treaty to specify +in each case whether the frontier line shall follow any changes of the +course or channel which may take place or whether it shall be definitely +fixed by the position of the course or channel at the time when the +present treaty comes into force. + + + + +PART III + +Political Clauses for Europe + + +SECTION I.--_Belgium_ + +=ARTICLE 31.=--Germany, recognizing that the treaties of April 19, 1839, +which established the status of Belgium before the war, no longer +conform to the requirements of the situation, consents to the abrogation +of the said treaties and undertakes immediately to recognize and to +observe whatever conventions may be entered into by the principal allied +and associated powers, or by any of them in concert with the Governments +of Belgium and of the Netherlands, to replace the said treaties of 1839. +If her formal adhesion should be required to such conventions or to any +of their stipulations, Germany undertakes immediately to give it. + +=ARTICLE 32.=--Germany recognizes the full sovereignty of Belgium over +the whole of the contested territory of Moresnet, (called Moresnet +Neutre.) + +=ARTICLE 33.=--Germany renounces in favor of Belgium all rights and +title over the territory of Prussian Moresnet situated on the west of +the road from Liege to Aix-la-Chapelle: the road will belong to Belgium +where it bounds this territory. + +=ARTICLE 34.=--Germany renounces in favor of Belgium all rights and +title over the territory comprising the whole of the Kreise of Eupen and +of Malmedy. + +During the six months after the coming into force of this treaty, +registers will be opened by the Belgian authorities at Eupen and Malmedy +in which the inhabitants of the above territory will be entitled to +record in writing a desire to see the whole or part of it remain under +German sovereignty. + +The results of this public expression of opinion will be communicated by +the Belgian Government to the League of Nations, and Belgium undertakes +to accept the decision of the League. + +=ARTICLE 35.=--A commission of seven persons, five of whom will be +appointed by the principal allied and associated powers, one by Germany +and one by Belgium, will be set up fifteen days after the coming into +force of the present treaty to settle on the spot the new frontier line +between Belgium and Germany, taking into account the economic factors +and the means of communication. + +Decisions will be taken by a majority and will be binding on the parties +concerned. + +=ARTICLE 36.=--When the transfer of the sovereignty over the territories +referred to above has become definitive, German nationals habitually +resident in the territories will definitively acquire Belgian +nationality ipso facto, and will lose their German nationality. + +Nevertheless German nationals who become resident in the territories +after the 1st August, 1914, shall not obtain Belgian nationality without +a permit from the Belgian Government. + +=ARTICLE 37.=--Within the two years following the definitive transfer of +the sovereignty over the territories assigned to Belgium under the +present treaty, German nationals over 18 years of age habitually +resident in those territories will be entitled to opt for German +nationality. + +Option by a husband will cover his wife, and option by parents will +cover their children under 18 years of age. + +Persons who have exercised the above right to opt must within the +ensuing twelve months transfer their place of residence to Germany. + +They will be entitled to retain their immovable property in the +territories acquired by Belgium. They may carry with them their movable +property of every description. No export or import duties may be imposed +upon them in connection with the removal of such property. + +=ARTICLE 38.=--The German Government will hand over without delay to the +Belgian Government the archives, registers, plans, title deeds and +documents of every kind concerning the civil, military, financial, +judicial or other administrations in the territory transferred to +Belgian sovereignty. + +The German Government will likewise restore to the Belgian Government +the archives and documents of every kind carried off during the war by +the German authorities from the Belgian public administrations, in +particular from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs at Brussels. + +=ARTICLE 39.=--The proportion and nature of the financial liabilities of +Germany and of Prussia which Belgium will have to bear on account of the +territories ceded to her shall be fixed in conformity with Articles 254 +and 256 of Part IX. (financial clauses) of the present treaty. + + +SECTION II.--_Luxemburg_ + +=ARTICLE 40.=--With regard to the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, Germany +renounces the benefit of all the provisions inserted in her favor in the +treaties of Feb. 8, 1842; April 2, 1847; Oct. 20--25, 1865; Aug. 18, +1866; Feb. 21 and May 11, 1867; May 10, 1871; June 11, 1872, and Nov. +11, 1902, and in all conventions consequent upon such treaties. + +Germany recognizes that the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg ceased to form part +of the German Zollverein as from January 1, 1919; renounces all right to +the exploitation of the railways, adheres to the termination of the +regime of neutrality of the Grand Duchy, and accepts in advance all +international arrangements which may be concluded by the Allied and +Associated Powers relating to the Grand Duchy. + +=ARTICLE 41.=--Germany undertakes to grant to the Grand Duchy of +Luxemburg, when a demand to that effect is made to her by the principal +Allied and Associated Powers, the rights and advantages stipulated in +favor of such powers or their nationals in the present treaty, with +regard to economic questions, to questions relative to transport and to +aerial navigation. + + +SECTION III.--_Left Bank of the Rhine_ + +=ARTICLE 42.=--Germany is forbidden to maintain or construct any +fortifications either on the left bank of the Rhine or on the right bank +to the west of a line drawn fifty kilometers to the east of the Rhine. + +=ARTICLE 43.=--In the area defined above the maintenance and the +assembly of armed forces either permanently or temporarily, and military +maneuvers of any kind, as well as the upkeep of all permanent works for +mobilization, are in the same way forbidden. + +=ARTICLE 44.=--In case Germany violates in any manner the provisions of +Article 42 and 43 she shall be regarded as committing a hostile act +against the powers signatory of the present treaty and as calculated to +disturb the peace of the world. + + +SECTION IV.--_Sarre Basin_ + +=ARTICLE 45.=--As compensation for the destruction of the coal mines in +the North of France and as part payment toward the total reparation due +from Germany for the damage resulting from the war, Germany cedes to +France in full and absolute possession, with exclusive rights of +exploitation, unincumbered and free from all debts and charges of any +kind, the coal mines situated in the Sarre Basin as defined in Article +48. + +=ARTICLE 46.=--In order to assure the rights and welfare of the +population and to guarantee to France complete freedom in working the +mines, Germany agrees to the provisions of Chapters 1 and 2 of the annex +hereto. + +=ARTICLE 47.=--In order to make in due time permanent provision for the +government of the Sarre Basin in accordance with the wishes of the +population, France and Germany agree to the provisions of Chapter 3 of +the annex hereto. + +=ARTICLE 48.=--The boundaries of the territory of the Sarre Basin, as +dealt with in the present stipulations, will be fixed as follows: + +On the south and southwest: By the frontier of France as fixed by the +present treaty. + +On the northwest and north: By a line following the northern +administrative boundary of the Kreise of Merzig from the point where it +leaves the French frontier to the point where it meets the +administrative boundary, separating the commune of Saarhoelzbach from the +commune of Britten; following this communal boundary southward and +reaching the administrative boundary of the Canton of Merzig so as to +include in the territory of the Sarre Basin the Canton of Mettlach, with +the exception of the commune of Britten: following successively the +northern administrative limits of the Cantons of Merzig and Haustadt, +which are incorporated in the aforesaid Sarre Basin, then successively +the administrative boundaries separating the Kreise of Saare Louis, +Ottweiler, and Saint-wendel from the Kreise of Merzig, Treves, (Trier.) +and the principality of Birkenfeld as far as a point situated about 500 +meters north of the village of Furschweiler, (viz.: The highest point of +the Metzelberg.) + +On the northeast and east: From the last point defined above to a point +about 3-1/2 kilometers east-northeast of Saint Wendel: + +A line to be fixed on the ground passing east of Furschweiler, west of +Roschberg, east of points 418, 329, (south of Roschberg,) west of +Leitersweiler, northeast of point 46'4, and following the line of the +crest southward to its junction with the administrative boundary of the +Kreis of Kusel; + +Thence in a southerly direction the boundary of the Kreis of Kusel, then +the boundary of the Kreis of Homburg toward the south-southeast to a +point situated about 1,000 meters west of Dunzweiler; + +Thence to a point about one kilometer south of Hornbach: a line to be +fixed on the ground passing through point 424, (about 1,000 meters +southeast of Dunzweiler,) point 363, (Fuchsberg,) point 322, (southwest +of Waldmohr,) then east of Jagersburg and Erbach, then encircling +Homburg, passing through the points 361, (about 2-1/2 kilometers northeast +by east of that town,) 342, (about 2 kilometers southeast of that town,) +347, (Schreinersberg,) 356, 350, (about 1-1/2 kilometers southeast of +Schwarzenbach,) then passing east of Einoed, southeast of points 322 and +333, about 2 kilometers east of Webenheim, about 2 kilometers east of +Mimbach, passing east of the plateau which is traversed by the road from +Mimbach to Boeckweiler, (so as to include this road in the territory of +the Sarre Basin,) passing immediately north of the junction of the roads +from Boeckweiler and Altheim, situated about 2 kilometers north of +Altheim, then passing south of Ringweilderhof and north of point 322, +rejoining the frontier of France at the angle which it makes about 1 +kilometer south of Hornbach, (see Map No. 2, scale 1-100,000, annexed to +the present treaty.) + +A commission composed of five members, one appointed by France, one by +Germany, and three by the Council of the League of Nations, which will +select nationals of other powers, will be constituted within fifteen +days from the coming into force of the present treaty, to trace on the +spot the frontier line described above. In those parts of the preceding +line which do not coincide with administration boundaries, the +commission will endeavor to keep to the line indicated, while taking +into consideration, so far as is possible local economic interests and +existing communal boundaries. + +The decisions of this commission will be taken by a majority and will be +binding on the parties concerned. + +=ARTICLE 49.=--Germany renounces in favor of the League of Nations, in +the capacity of trustee, the government of the territory defined above. + +At the end of fifteen years from the coming into force of the present +treaty the inhabitants of the said territory shall be called upon to +indicate the sovereignty under which they desire to be placed. + +=ARTICLE 50.=--The stipulations under which the cession of the mines in +the Sarre Basin shall be carried out, together with the measures +intended to guarantee the rights and the well-being of the inhabitants +and the government of the territory, as well as the conditions in +accordance with which the plebiscite hereinbefore provided for is to be +made, are laid down in the annex hereto. This annex shall be considered +as an integral part of the present treaty, and Germany declares her +adherence to it. + + +ANNEX + +In accordance with the provisions of Articles 45 to 50 of the present +treaty, the stipulations under which the cession by Germany to France of +the mines of the Sarre Basin will be effected, as well as the measures +intended to insure respect for the rights and well-being of the +population and the government of the territory, and the conditions in +which the inhabitants will be called upon to indicate the sovereignty +under which they may wish to be placed, have been laid down as follows: + + +CHAPTER 1.--CESSION AND EXPLOITATION OF MINING PROPERTY + +1. From the date of the coming into force of the present treaty, all the +deposits of coal situated within the Sarre Basin, as defined in Article +48 of the said treaty, become the complete and absolute property of the +French State. + +The French State will have the right of working or not working the said +mines or of transferring to a third party the right of working them, +without having to obtain any previous authorization or to fulfill any +formalities. + +The French State may always require that the German mining laws and +regulations referred to below shall be applied in order to insure the +determination of its rights. + +2. The right of ownership of the French State will apply not only to the +deposits which are free, and for which concessions have not yet been +granted, but also to the deposits for which concessions have already +been granted, whoever may be the present proprietors, irrespective of +whether they belong to the Prussian State, to the Bavarian State, to +other States or bodies, to companies or to individuals, whether they +have been worked or not, or whether a right of exploitation distinct +from the right of the owners of the surface of the soil has or has not +been recognized. + +3. As far as concerns the mines which are being worked, the transfer of +the ownership to the French State will apply to all the accessories and +subsidiaries of the said mines, in particular to their plant and +equipment both on and below the surface, to their extracting machinery, +their plants for transforming coal into electric power, coke and +by-products, their workshops, means of communication, electric lines, +plant for catching and distributing water, land, buildings, such as +offices, managers', employes', and workmen's dwellings, schools, +hospitals, and dispensaries, their stocks and supplies of every +description, their archives and plans, and in general everything which +those who own or exploit the mines possess or enjoy for the purpose of +exploiting the mines and their accessories and subsidiaries. + +The transfer will apply also to the debts owing for products delivered +before the entry into possession by the French State, and after the +signature of the present treaty, and to deposits of money made by +customers, whose rights will be guaranteed by the French State. + +4. The French State will acquire the property free and clear of all +debts and charges. Nevertheless the rights acquired, or in course of +being acquired, by the employes of the mines and their accessories and +subsidiaries at the date of the coming into force of the present treaty, +in connection with pensions for old age or disability, will not be +affected. In return, Germany must pay over to the French State a sum +representing the actuarial amounts to which the said employes are +entitled. + +5. The value of the property thus ceded to the French State will be +determined by the Reparation Commission referred to in Article 233 of +Part VIII. (Reparations) of the present treaty. + +This value shall be credited to Germany in part payment of the amount +due for reparation. + +It will be for Germany to indemnify the proprietors or parties +concerned, whoever they may be. + +6. No tariff shall be established on the German railways and canals +which may directly or indirectly discriminate to the prejudice of the +transport of the personnel or products of the mines and their +accessories or subsidiaries, or of the material necessary to their +exploitation. Such transport shall enjoy all the rights and privileges +which any international railway conventions may guarantee to similar +products of French origin. + +7. The equipment and personnel necessary to insure the dispatch and +transport of the products of the mines and their accessories and +subsidiaries, as well as the carriage of workmen and employes, will be +provided by the local railway administration of the basin. + +8. No obstacle shall be placed in the way of such improvements of +railways or waterways as the French State may judge necessary to assure +the dispatch and transport of the products of the mines and their +accessories and subsidiaries, such as double trackage, enlargement of +stations, and construction of yards and appurtenances. + +The distribution of expenses will, in the event of disagreement, be +submitted to arbitration. + +The French State may also establish any new means of communication, such +as roads, electric lines, and telephone connections, which it may +consider necessary for the exploitation of the mines. + +It may exploit freely and without any restrictions the means of +communication of which it may become the owner, particularly those +connecting the mines and their accessories and subsidiaries with the +means of communication situated in French territory. + +9. The French State shall always be entitled to demand the application +of the German mining laws and regulations in force on the 11th of +November, 1918, excepting provisions adopted exclusively in view of the +state of war, with a view to the acquisition of such land as it may +judge necessary for the exploitation of the mines and their accessories +and subsidiaries. + +The payment for damage caused to immovable property by the working of +the said mines and their accessories and subsidiaries shall be made in +accordance with the German mining laws and regulations above referred +to. + +10. Every person whom the French State may substitute for itself as +regards the whole or part of its rights to the exploitation of the mines +and their accessories and subsidiaries shall enjoy the benefit of the +privileges provided in this annex. + +11. The mines and other immovable property which become the property of +the French State may never be made the subject of measures of +forfeiture, forced sale, expropriation or requisition, nor of any other +measure affecting the right of property. + +The personnel and the plant connected with the exploitation of these +mines or their accessories and subsidiaries, as well as the product +extracted from the mines or manufactured in their accessories and +subsidiaries, may not at any time be made the subject of any measures of +requisition. + +12. The exploitation of the mines and their accessories and +subsidiaries, which become the property of the French State, will +continue, subject to the provisions of Paragraph 23 below, to be subject +to the regime established by the German laws and regulations in force on +the 11th November, 1918, excepting provisions adopted exclusively in +view of the state of war. + +The rights of the workmen shall be similarly maintained, subject to the +provisions of the said Paragraph 23, as established on the 11th +November, 1918, by the German laws and regulations above referred to. No +impediment shall be placed in the way of the introduction or employment +in the mines and their accessories and subsidiaries of workmen from +without the basin. + +The employes and workmen of French nationality shall have the right to +belong to French labor unions. + +13. The amount contributed by the mines and their accessories and +subsidiaries, either to the local budget of the territory of the Sarre +Basin or to the communal funds, shall be fixed with due regard to the +ratio of the value of the mines to the total taxable wealth of the +basin. + +14. The French State shall always have the right of establishing and +maintaining, as incidental to the mines, primary or technical schools +for its employes and their children, and of causing instruction therein +to be given in the French language, in accordance with such curriculum +and by such teachers as it may select. + +It shall also have the right to establish and maintain hospitals, +dispensaries, workmen's houses and gardens, and other charitable and +social institutions. + +15. The French State shall enjoy complete liberty with respect to the +distribution, dispatch and sale prices of the products of the mines and +their accessories and subsidiaries. + +Nevertheless, whatever may be the total product of the mines, the French +Government undertakes that the requirements of local consumption for +industrial and domestic purposes shall always be satisfied in the +proportion existing in 1913 between the amount consumed locally and the +total output of the Sarre Basin. + + +CHAPTER II.--GOVERNMENT OF THE TERRITORY OF THE SARRE BASIN + +16. The government of the territory of the Sarre Basin shall be +intrusted to a commission representing the League of Nations. This +commission shall sit in the territory of the Sarre Basin. + +17. The Governing Commission provided for by Paragraph 16 shall consist +of five members chosen by the Council of the League of Nations, and will +include one citizen of France, one native inhabitant of the Sarre Basin +not a citizen of France, and three members belonging to three countries +other than France or Germany. + +The members of the Governing Commission shall be appointed for one year +and may be reappointed. They can be removed by the Council of the League +of Nations, which will provide for their replacement. The members of the +Governing Commission will be entitled to a salary which will be fixed by +the Council of the League of Nations, and charged on the local revenues. + +18. The Chairman of the Governing Commission shall be appointed for one +year from among the members of the commission by the Council of the +League of Nations and may be reappointed. The Chairman will act as the +executive of the commission. + +19. Within the territory of the Sarre Basin the Governing Commission +shall have all the powers of government hitherto belonging to the German +Empire, Prussia or Bavaria, including the appointment and dismissal of +officials, and the creation of such administrative and representative +bodies as it may deem necessary. It shall have full powers to administer +and operate the railways, canals, and the different public services. + +Its decisions shall be taken by a majority. + +20. Germany will place at the disposal of the Governing Commission all +official documents and archives under the control of Germany, of any +German State, or of any local authority, which relate to the territory +of the Sarre Basin or to the rights of the inhabitants thereof. + +21. It will be the duty of the Governing Commission to insure, by such +means and under such conditions as it may deem suitable, the protection +abroad of the interests of the inhabitants of the territory of the Sarre +Basin. + +22. The Governing Commission shall have the full right of user of all +property, other than mines belonging, both in public and in private +domain, to the Imperial German Government, or the Government of any +German State, in the territory of the Sarre Basin. + +As regards the railways, an equitable apportionment of rolling stock +shall be made by a mixed commission on which the government of the +territory of the Sarre Basin and the German railways will be +represented. + +Persons, goods, vessels, carriages, wagons, and mails, coming from or +going to the Sarre Basin, shall enjoy all the rights and privileges +relating to transit and transport which are specified in the provisions +of Part XII. (ports, waterways, railways) of the present treaty. + +23. The laws and regulations in force n Nov. 11, 1918, in the territory +of the Sarre Basin, (except those enacted in consequence of the state of +war,) shall continue to apply. If, for general reasons or to bring +these laws and regulations into accord with the provisions of the +present treaty, it is necessary to introduce modifications, these shall +be decided on, and put into effect by the Governing Commission, after +consultation with the elected representatives of the inhabitants in such +a manner as the commission may determine. No modification may be made in +the legal regime for the exploitation of the mines, provided for in +Paragraph 12, without the French State being previously consulted, +unless such modification results from a general regulation respecting +labor adopted by the League of Nations. + +In fixing the conditions and hours of labor for men, women, and +children, the Governing Commission is to take into consideration the +wishes expressed by the local labor organizations, as well as the +principles adopted by the League of Nations. + +24. Subject to the provisions of Paragraph 4, no rights of the +inhabitants of the Sarre Basin acquired or in process of acquisition at +the date of the coming into force of this treaty, in respect of any +insurance system of Germany, or in respect of any pension of any kind, +are affected by any of the provisions of the present treaty. + +Germany and the Government of the territory of the Saare Basin will +preserve and continue all the aforesaid rights. + +25. The civil and criminal courts existing in the territory of the Sarre +Basin shall continue. + +A civil and criminal court will be established by the Governing +Commission to hear appeals from the decisions of the said courts, and to +decide matters for which these courts are not competent. + +The Governing Commission will be responsible for settling the +organization and jurisdiction of the said court. + +Justice will be rendered in the name of the Governing Commission. + +26. The Governing Commission will alone have the power of levying taxes +and dues in the territory of the Sarre Basin. + +These taxes and dues will be exclusively applied to the needs of the +territory. + +The fiscal system existing on Nov. 11, 1918, will be maintained as far +as possible, and no new tax except customs duties may be imposed without +previously consulting the elected representatives of the inhabitants. + +27. The present stipulations will not affect the existing nationality of +the inhabitants of the territory of the Sarre Basin. No hindrance shall +be placed in the way of those who wish to acquire a different +nationality, but in such case the acquisition of the new nationality +will involve the loss of any other. + +28. Under the control of the Governing Commission the inhabitants will +retain their local assemblies, their religious liberties, their schools, +and their language. The right of voting will not be exercised for any +assemblies other than the local assemblies, and will belong to every +inhabitant over the age of 20 years without distinction of sex. + +29. Any of the inhabitants of the Sarre Basin who may desire to leave +the territory will have full liberty to retain in it their immovable +property or to sell it at fair prices and to remove their movable +property free of any charge. + +30. There will be no military service, whether compulsory or voluntary, +in the territory of the Sarre Basin, and the construction of +fortifications therein is forbidden. Only a local gendarmerie for the +maintenance of order may be established. It will be the duty of the +Governing Commission to provide in all cases for the protection of +persons and property in the Sarre Basin. + +31. The territory of the Sarre Basin as defined by Article 48 of the +present treaty shall be subjected to the French customs regime. The +receipts from the customs duties on goods intended for local consumption +shall be included in the budget of the said territory after deduction of +all costs of collection. No export tax shall be imposed upon +metallurgical products or coal exported from the said territory to +Germany, nor upon German exports for the use of the industries of the +territory of the Sarre Basin. Natural or manufactured products +originating in the basin in transit over German territory and similarly +German products in transit over the territory of the basin shall be free +of all customs duties. + +Products which both originate in and pass from the basin into Germany +shall be free of import duties for a period of five years from the date +of the coming into force of the present treaty, and during the same +period articles imported from Germany into the territory of the basin +for local consumption shall likewise be free of import duties. + +During these five years the French Government reserves to itself the +right of limiting to the annual average of the quantities imported into +Alsace-Lorraine and France in the years 1911 to 1913 the quantities +which may be sent into France of all articles coming from the basin, +which include raw materials and semi-manufactured goods imported duty +free from Germany. Such average shall be determined after reference to +all available official information and statistics. + +32. No prohibition or restriction shall be imposed upon the circulation +of French money in the territory of the Sarre Basin. The French State +shall have the right to use French money in all purchases, payments, and +contracts connected with the exploitation of the mines or their +accessories and subsidiaries. + +33. The Governing Commission shall have power to decide all questions +arising from the interpretation of the preceding provisions. France and +Germany agree that any dispute involving a difference of opinion as to +the interpretation of the said provisions shall in the same way be +submitted to the Governing Commission, and the decision of a majority of +the commission shall be binding on both countries. + + +CHAPTER III.--PLEBISCITE + +34. At the termination of a period of fifteen years from the coming into +force of the present treaty, the population of the territory of the +Sarre Basin will be called upon to indicate their desires in the +following manner: + +A vote will take place, by communes or districts, on the three following +alternatives: (a) Maintenance of the regime established by the present +treaty and by this annex; (b) union with France; (c) union with Germany. + +All persons without distinction of sex, more than 20 years old at the +date of the voting, resident in the territory at the date of the +signature of the present treaty, will have the right to vote. + +The other conditions, methods, and the date of the voting shall be fixed +by the Council of the League of Nations in such a way as to secure the +liberty, secrecy, and trustworthiness of the voting. + +35. The League of Nations shall decide on the sovereignty under which +the territory is to be placed, taking into account the wishes of the +inhabitants as expressed by the voting. + +(a) If, for the whole or part of the territory, the League of Nations +decides in favor of the maintenance of the regime established by the +present treaty and this annex, Germany hereby agrees to make such +renunciation of her sovereignty in favor of the League of Nations as the +latter shall deem necessary. It will be the duty of the League of +Nations to take appropriate steps to adapt the regime definitely adopted +to the permanent welfare of the territory and the general interests. + +(b) If for the whole or part of the territory the League of Nations +decides in favor of union with France, Germany hereby agrees to cede to +France in accordance with the decision of the League of Nations all +rights and title over the territory specified by the League. + +(c) If for the whole or part of the territory the League of Nations +decides in favor of union with Germany, it will be the duty of the +League of Nations to cause the German Government to be re-established in +the government of the territory specified by the League. + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +=President Wilson's Welcome in Paris= + +A general view of the Place de l'Etoile, showing the President's +carriage, passing the triumphant arch on its way to the Murat Castle, +where President Wilson established his home during his stay in the +French Capitol.] + +36. If the League of Nations decides in favor of the union of the whole +or part of the territory of the Sarre Basin with Germany, France's +rights of ownership in the mines situated in such part of the territory +will be repurchased by Germany in their entirety at a price payable in +gold. The price to be paid will be fixed by three experts, one nominated +by Germany, one by France, and one, who shall be neither a Frenchman nor +a German, by the Council of the League of Nations. The decision of the +experts will be given by a majority. + +The obligation of Germany to make such payment shall be taken into +account by the Reparation Commission, and for the purpose of this +payment Germany may create a prior charge upon her assets or revenues +upon such detailed terms as shall be agreed to by the Reparation +Commission. + +If, nevertheless, Germany after a period of one year from the date on +which the payment becomes due shall not have effected the said payment, +the Reparation Commission shall do so in accordance with such +instructions as may be given by the League of Nations, and, if +necessary, by liquidating that part of the mines which is in question. + +37. If, in consequence of the repurchase provided for in Paragraph 36, +the ownership of the mines or any part of them is transferred to +Germany, the French State and French nationals shall have the right to +purchase such amount of coal of the Sarre Basin as their industrial and +domestic needs are found at that time to require. An equitable +arrangement regarding amounts of coal, duration of contract, and prices +will be fixed in due time by the Council of the League of Nations. + +38. It is understood that France and Germany may, by special agreements +concluded before the time fixed for the payment of the price for the +repurchase of the mines, modify the provisions of Paragraphs 36 and 37. + +39. The Council of the League of Nations shall make such provisions as +may be necessary for the establishment of the regime which is to take +effect after the decisions of the League of Nations mentioned in +Paragraph 35 have become operative, including an equitable apportionment +of any obligations of the Government of the territory of the Sarre Basin +arising from loans raised by the commission or from other causes. + +From the coming into force of the new regime, the powers of the +Governing Commission will terminate, except in the case provided for in +Paragraph 35. (a) + +40. In all matters dealt with in the present annex, the decisions of the +Council of the League of Nations will be taken by a majority. + + +SECTION V.--_Alsace-Lorraine_ + +The high contracting powers, recognizing the moral obligation to redress +the wrong done by Germany in 1871, both to the rights of France and to +the wishes of the population of Alsace and Lorraine, which were +separated from their country in spite of solemn protests of their +representatives of the Assembly of Bordeaux, agree upon the following +articles: + +=ARTICLE 51.=--The territories which were ceded to Germany in accordance +with the preliminaries of peace signed at Versailles on the 26th +February, 1871, and the treaty of Frankfort on the 10th May, 1871, are +restored to French sovereignty as from the date of the armistice of the +11th November, 1918. + +The provisions of the treaties establishing the delimination of the +frontiers before 1871 shall be restored. + +=ARTICLE 52.=--The German Government shall hand over without delay to +the French Government all archives, registers, plans, titles, and +documents of every kind concerning the civil, military, financial, +judicial, or other administrations of the territories restored to French +sovereignty. If any of these documents, archives, registers, titles, or +plans have been misplaced, they will be restored by the German +Government on the demand of the French Government. + +=ARTICLE 53.=--Separate agreements shall be made between France and +Germany dealing with the interests of the inhabitants of the territories +referred to in Article 51, particularly as regards their civil rights, +their business and the exercise of their professions, it being +understood that Germany undertakes as from the present date to recognize +and accept the regulations laid down in the annex hereto regarding the +nationality of the inhabitants or natives of the said territories, not +to claim at any time or in any place whatsoever as German nationals +those who shall have been declared on any ground to be French, to +receive all others in her territory, and to conform, as regards the +property of German nationals in the territories indicated in Article 51, +with the provisions of Article 297, and the Annex to Section 4 of Part +X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty. + +Those German nationals who without acquiring French nationality shall +receive permission from the French Government to reside in the said +territories shall not be subjected to the provisions of the said +article. + +=ARTICLE 54=.--Those persons who have regained French nationality in +virtue of Paragraph 1 of the annex hereto, will be held to be +Alsace-Lorrainers for the purposes of the present section. + +The persons referred to in Paragraph 2 of the said annex will, from the +day on which they have claimed French nationality, be held to be +Alsace-Lorrainers with retroactive effect as from the 11th November, +1918. From those whose application is rejected, the privilege will +terminate at the date of the refusal. + +Such juridical persons will also have the status of Alsace-Lorrainers as +have been recognized as possessing this quality, whether by the French +administrative authorities or by a judicial decision. + +=ARTICLE 55.=--The territories referred to in Article 51 shall return to +France, free and quit of all public debts under the conditions laid down +in Article 255 of Part IX. (financial clauses) of the present treaty. + +=ARTICLE 56.=--In conformity with the provisions of Article 256 of Part +IX. (financial clauses) of the present treaty, France shall enter into +possession of all property and estate within the territories referred to +in Article 51, which belong to the German Empire or German States, +without any payment or credit on this account to any of the States +ceding the territories. + +This provision applies to all movable or immovable property of public or +private domain, together with all rights whatsoever belonging to the +German Empire or the German States or to their administrative areas. + +Crown property and the property of the former Emperor or other German +sovereigns shall be assimilated to property of the public domain. + +=ARTICLE 57.=--Germany shall not take any action, either by means of +stamping or by any other legal or administrative measures not applying +equally to the rest of her territory, which may be to the detriment of +the legal value or redeemability of German monetary instruments or +moneys which at the date of the signature of the present treaty are +legally current, and at that date are in the possession of the French +Government. + +=ARTICLE 58.=--A special convention will determine the conditions for +repayment in marks of the exceptional war expenditure advanced during +the course of the war by Alsace-Lorraine or by public bodies in +Alsace-Lorraine on account of the empire in accordance with German law, +such as payment to the families of persons mobilized, requisitions, +billeting of troops, and assistance to persons who have been expelled. +In fixing the amount of these sums Germany shall be credited with that +portion which Alsace-Lorraine would have contributed to the empire to +meet the expenses resulting from these payments, this contribution being +calculated according to the proportion of the imperial revenue derived +from Alsace-Lorraine in 1913. + +=ARTICLE 59.=--The French Government will collect for its own account +the imperial taxes, duties, and dues of every kind leviable in the +territories referred to in Article 51 and not collected at the time of +the armistice of the 11th November, 1918. + +=ARTICLE 60.=--The German Government shall without delay restore to +Alsace-Lorrainers, (individuals, juridical persons, and public +institutions,) all property, rights, and interests belonging to them on +the 11th November, 1918, in so far as these are situated in German +territory. + +=ARTICLE 61.=--The German Government undertakes to continue and complete +without delay the execution of the financial clauses regarding +Alsace-Lorraine contained in the armistice conventions. + +=ARTICLE 62.=--The German Government undertakes to bear the expense of +all civil and military pensions which had been earned in Alsace-Lorraine +on the date of the 11th November, 1918, and the maintenance of which was +a charge on the budget of the German Empire. + +The German Government shall furnish each year the funds necessary for +the payment in francs, at the average rate of exchange for that year, of +the sums in marks to which persons resident in Alsace-Lorraine would +have been entitled if Alsace-Lorraine had remained under German +jurisdiction. + +=ARTICLE 63.=--For the purposes of the obligation assumed by Germany in +Part VIII. (reparations) of the present treaty to give compensation for +damages caused to the civil populations of the Allied and Associated +countries in the form of lines, the inhabitants of the territories +referred to in Article 51 shall be assimilated to the above mentioned +populations. + +=ARTICLE 64.=--The regulations concerning the control of the Rhine and +of the Moselle are laid down in Part XII. (ports, waterways, and +railways) of the present treaty. + +=ARTICLE 65.=--Within a period of three weeks after the coming into +force of the present treaty the Port of Strasbourg and the Port of Kehl +shall be constituted, for a period of seven years, a single unit from +the point of view of exploitation. + +The administration of this single unit will be carried on by a manager +named by the Central Rhine Commission, which shall also have power to +remove him. He shall be of French nationality. He will reside in +Strasbourg and will be subject to the supervision of the Central Rhine +Commission. + +There will be established in the two ports free zones in conformity with +Part XII. (ports, waterways, and railways) of the present treaty. + +A special convention between France and Germany, which shall be +submitted to the approval of the Central Rhine Commission, will fix the +details of this organization, particularly as regards finance. + +It is understood that for the purpose of the present article the Port of +Kehl includes the whole of the area necessary for the movements of the +port and the trains which serve it, including the harbor, quays and +railroads, platforms, cranes, sheds and warehouses, silos, elevators and +hydro-electric plants, which make up the equipment of the port. + +The German Government undertakes to carry out all measures which shall +be required of it in order to assure that all the making up and +switching of trains arriving at or departing from Kehl, whether for the +right bank or the left bank of the Rhine, shall be carried on in the +best conditions possible. + +All property rights shall be safeguarded. In particular, the +administration of the ports shall not prejudice any property rights of +the French or Baden railroads. + +Equality of treatment as respects traffic shall be assured in both ports +to the nationals, vessels, and goods of every country. + +In case at the end of the sixth year France shall consider that the +progress made in the improvement of the Port of Strasbourg still +requires a prolongation of this temporary regime, she may ask for such +prolongation from the Central Rhine Commission, which may grant an +extension for a period not exceeding three years. + +Throughout the whole period of any such extension the free zones above +provided for shall be maintained. + +Pending appointment of the first manager by the Central Rhine +Commission, a provisional manager, who shall be of French nationality, +may be appointed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers, subject +to the foregoing provisions. + +For all purposes of the present article the Central Rhine Commission +will decide by a majority of votes. + +=ARTICLE 66.=--The railway and other bridges across the Rhine now +existing within the limits of Alsace-Lorraine shall, as to all their +parts and their whole length, be the property of the French State, which +shall insure their upkeep. + +=ARTICLE 67.=--The French Government is substituted in all the rights of +the German Empire over all the railways which were administered by the +Imperial Railway Administration, and which are actually working or under +construction. + +The same shall apply to the rights of the empire with regard to railway +and tramway concessions within the territories referred to in Article +51. + +This substitution shall not entail any payment on the part of the French +State. + +The frontier railway stations shall be established by a subsequent +agreement, it being stipulated in advance that on the Rhine frontier +they shall be situated on the right bank. + +=ARTICLE 68.=--In accordance with the provisions of Article 268 of +Chapter 1. of Section I. of Part X. (economic clause) of the present +treaty, for a period of five years from the coming into force of the +present treaty, natural or manufactured products originating in and +coming from the territories referred to in Article 51 shall, on +importation into German customs territory, be exempt from all customs +duty. The French Government shall fix each year, by decree communicated +to the German Government, the nature and amount of the products which +shall enjoy this exemption. + +The amount of each product which may be thus sent annually into Germany +shall not exceed the average of the amounts sent annually in the years +1911--1913. + +Further, during the period of five years above mentioned, the German +Government shall allow the free export from Germany and the free +reimportation into Germany, exempt from all customs duties and other +charges (including internal charges), of yarns, tissues, and other +textile materials or textile products of any kind, and in any condition, +sent from Germany into the territories referred to in Article 51, to be +subjected there to any finishing process, such as bleaching, dyeing, +printing, mercerization, gassing, twisting, or dressing. + +=ARTICLE 69.=--During a period of ten years from the coming into force +of the present treaty, central electric supply works situated in German +territory, and formerly furnishing electric power to the territories +referred to in Article 51, or to any establishment the working of which +passes permanently or temporarily from Germany to France, shall be +required to continue such supply up to the amount of consumption +corresponding to the undertakings and contracts current on the 11th +November, 1918. + +Such supply shall be furnished according to the contracts in force and +at a rate which shall not be higher than that paid to the said works by +German nationals. + +=ARTICLE 70.=--It is understood that the French Government preserves its +right to prohibit in the future in the territories referred to in +Article 51 all new German participation: + +1. In the management or exploitation of the public domain and of public +services, such as railways, navigable waterways, water works, gas works, +electric power, &c. + +2. In the ownership of mines and quarries of every kind and in +enterprises connected therewith; + +3. In metallurgical establishments, even though their working may not be +connected with that of any mine. + +=ARTICLE 71.=--As regards the territories referred to in Article 51, +Germany renounces on behalf of herself and her nationals as from the +11th November, 1918, all rights under the law of the 25th May, 1910, +regarding the trade in potash salts and generally under any stipulations +for the intervention of German organizations in the working of the +potash mines. Similarly she renounces on behalf of herself and her +nationals all rights under any agreements, stipulations or laws, which +may exist to her benefit with regard to other products of the aforesaid +territories. + +=ARTICLE 72.=--The settlement of the questions relating to debts +contracted before the 11th November, 1918, between the German Empire and +the German States or their nationals residing in Germany on the one +part, and Alsace-Lorrainers residing in Alsace-Lorraine on the other +part, shall be effected in accordance with the provisions of Section +III. of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty, the expression +"before the war" therein being replaced by the expression "before the +11th November, 1918." The rate of exchange applicable in the case of +such settlement shall be the average rate quoted on the Geneva Exchange +during the month preceding the 11th November, 1918. There may be +established in the territories referred to in Article 51, for the +settlement of the aforesaid debts under the conditions laid down in +Section III. of Part X (economic clauses) of the present treaty, a +special clearing office, it being understood that this office shall be +regarded as a "central office" under the provisions of Paragraph 1 of +the annex to the said section. + +=ARTICLE 73.=--The private property rights and interests of +Alsace-Lorrainers in Germany will be regulated by the stipulations of +Section IV. of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty. + +=ARTICLE 74.=--The French Government reserves the right to retain and +liquidate all the property, rights and interests which German nationals +or societies controlled by Germany possessed in the territories referred +to in Article 51 on Nov. 11, 1918, subject to the conditions laid down +in the last paragraph of Article 53 above. + +Germany will directly compensate its nationals who may have been +dispossessed by the aforesaid liquidations. + +The product of these liquidations shall be applied in accordance with +the stipulations of Sections III. and IV. of Part X. (economic clauses) +of the present treaty. + +=ARTICLE 75.=--Notwithstanding the stipulations of Section V. of Part X. +(economic clauses) of the present treaty, all contracts made before the +date of the promulgation in Alsace-Lorraine of the French decree of 30th +November, 1918, between Alsace-Lorrainers (whether individuals or +juridical persons) or others resident in Alsace-Lorraine on the one +part, and the German Empire or German States and their nationals +resident in Germany on the other part, the execution of which has been +suspended by the armistice or by subsequent French legislation, shall be +maintained. + +Nevertheless, any contract of which the French Government shall notify +the cancellation to Germany in the general interest within a period of +six months from the date of the coming into force of the present treaty +shall be annulled except in respect of any debt or other pecuniary +obligation arising out of any act done or money paid thereunder before +the 11th November, 1918. If this dissolution would cause one of the +parties substantial prejudice, equitable compensation, calculated solely +on the capital employed without taking account of loss of profits, shall +be accorded to the prejudiced party. + +With regard to prescriptions, limitations, and forfeitures in +Alsace-Lorraine, the provisions of Articles 300 and 301 of Section V., +Part X. (economic clauses) shall be applied, with the substitution for +the expression "outbreak of war" of the expression "11th November, +1918," and for the expression "duration of the war" of the expression +"period from the 11th November, 1918, to date of the coming into force +of the present treaty." + +=ARTICLE 76.=--Questions concerning rights in industrial, literary, or +artistic property of Alsace-Lorrainers shall be regulated in accordance +with the general stipulations of Section VII. of Part X. (economic +clauses) of the present treaty, it being understood that +Alsace-Lorrainers holding rights of this nature under German legislation +will preserve full and entire enjoyment of those rights on German +territory. + +=ARTICLE 77.=--The German Government undertakes to pay over to the +French Government such proportion of all reserves accumulated by the +empire or by public or private bodies dependent upon it, for the +purposes of disability and old age insurance, as would fall to the +disability and old age insurance fund at Strasbourg. + +The same shall apply in respect of the capital and reserves accumulated +in Germany falling legitimately to other serial insurance funds, to +miners' superannuation funds, to the fund of the railways of +Alsace-Lorraine, to other superannuation organizations established for +the benefit of the personnel of public administrations and institutions +operating in Alsace-Lorraine, and also in respect of the capital and +reserves due by the insurance fund of private employes at Berlin by +reason of engagements entered into for the benefit of insured persons of +that category resident in Alsace-Lorraine. + +A special convention shall determine the conditions and procedure of +these transfers. + +=ARTICLE 78.=--With regard to the execution of judgments, orders and +prosecutions, the following rules shall be applied: + +1. All civil and commercial judgments which shall have been given since +Aug. 3, 1914, by the courts of Alsace-Lorraine between +Alsace-Lorrainers, or between Alsace-Lorrainers and foreigners, or +between foreigners, and which shall not have been appealed from before +the 11th November, 1918, shall be regarded as final and capable of being +fully executed. + +When the judgment has been given between Alsace-Lorrainers and Germans, +or between Alsace-Lorrainers and subjects of the allies of Germany, it +shall only be capable of execution after the issue of an exequatur by +the corresponding new tribunal in the restored territory referred to in +Article 51. + +2. All judgments given by German courts since the 3d August, 1914, +against Alsace-Lorrainers for political crimes or misdemeanors shall be +regarded as null and void. + +3. All sentences passed since the 11th November, 1918, by the Imperial +Court of Leipzig on Appeals against the decisions of the courts of +Alsace-Lorraine shall be regarded as null and void and shall be so +pronounced. The papers in regard to the cases in which such sentences +have been given shall be returned to the courts of Alsace-Lorraine +concerned. + +All appeals to the Imperial Court against decisions of the courts of +Alsace-Lorraine shall be suspended. In the cases referred to above, the +papers shall be returned under the aforesaid conditions for transfer +without delay to the French Cour de Cassation which shall be competent +to decide them. + +4. All prosecutions of Alsace-Lorraine for offenses committed during the +period between the 11th November, 1918, and the coming into force of the +present treaty will be conducted under German law except in so far as +this has been modified by decrees duly published on the spot by the +French authorities. + +All other questions as to competence, procedure or administration of +justice, shall be determined by a special convention between France and +Germany. + +=ARTICLE 79.=--The stipulations as to nationality contained in the annex +hereto shall be considered as of equal force with the provisions of the +present section. + +All other questions concerning Alsace-Lorraine which are not regulated +by the present section and the annex thereto, or by the general +provisions of the present treaty, will form the subject of further +conventions between France and Germany. + + +ANNEX + +1. As from the 11th November, 1918, the following persons are ipso facto +reinstated in French nationality: + +First--Persons who lost French nationality by the application of the +Franco-German treaty of the 10th May, 1871, and who have not since that +date acquired any nationality other than German; + +Second--The legitimate or natural descendants of the persons referred to +the immediately preceding paragraph, with the exception of those whose +ascendants in the paternal line include a German who migrated into +Alsace-Lorraine after the 15th July, 1870; + +Third--All persons born in Alsace-Lorraine of unknown parents or whose +nationality is unknown. + +2. Within the period of one year from the coming into force of the +present treaty, persons included in any of the following categories may +claim French nationality: + +First--All persons not restored to French nationality under Paragraph 1, +above, whose ascendants include a Frenchman or French woman who lost +French nationality under the conditions referred to in the said +paragraph; + +Second--All foreigners not nationals of a German State who acquired the +status of a citizen of Alsace-Lorraine before the 3d August, 1914; + +Third--All Germans domiciled in Alsace-Lorraine, if they have been so +domiciled since a date previous to 15th July, 1870, or if one of their +ascendants was at that date domiciled in Alsace-Lorraine; + +Fourth--All Germans born or domiciled in Alsace-Lorraine who have served +in the allied or associated armies during the present war and their +descendants; + +Fifth--All persons born in Alsace-Lorraine before 10th May, 1871, of +foreign parents, and the descendants of such persons; + +Sixth--The husband or wife of any person whose French nationality may +have been restored under Paragraph 1 or who may have claimed and +obtained French nationality in accordance with the preceding previsions. + +The legal representatives of a minor may exercise on behalf of that +minor the right to claim French nationality; and if that right has not +been exercised, the minor may claim French nationality within the year +following his majority. + +Except in the case provided in No. 6 of the present paragraph, the +French authorities reserve to themselves the right in individual cases +to reject the claim to French nationality. + +3. Subject to the provisions of Paragraph 2, Germans born or domiciled +in Alsace-Lorraine shall not acquire French nationality by reason of the +restoration of Alsace-Lorraine to France, even though they may have the +status of citizens of Alsace-Lorraine. + +They may acquire French nationality only by naturalization, on condition +of having been domiciled in Alsace-Lorraine from a date previous to the +3d August, 1914, and of submitting proof of unbroken residence within +the restored territory for a period of three years from the 11th +November, 1918. + +France will be solely responsible for their diplomatic and consular +protection from the date of their application for French naturalization. + +4. The French Government shall determine the procedure by which +reinstatement in French nationality as of right shall be effected, and +the conditions under which decisions shall be given upon claims to such +nationality and applications for naturalization, as provided by the +present annex. + + +SECTION VI.--_Austria_ + +=ARTICLE 80.=--Germany acknowledges and will respect strictly the +independence of Austria. Within the frontiers which may be fixed by a +treaty between that State and the principal Allied and Associated Powers +she agrees that this independence shall be inalienable, except with the +consent of the Council of the League of Nations. + + +SECTION VII.--_Czechoslovak State_ + +=ARTICLE 81.=--Germany, in conformity with the action already taken by +the Allied and Associated Powers, recognizes the complete independence +of the Czechoslovak State, which will include the autonomous territory +of the Ruthenians to the south of the Carpathians. Germany hereby +recognizes the frontier of this State as determined by the principal +Allied and Associated Powers and the other interested States. + +=ARTICLE 82.=--The old frontier as it existed on Aug. 3, 1914, between +Austria-Hungary and the German Empire will constitute the frontier +between Germany and the Czechoslovak State. + +=ARTICLE 83.=--Germany renounces in favor of the Czechoslovak State all +rights and title over the portion of Silesian territory defined as +follows: + +Starting from a point about 2 kilometers southeast of Katscher, on the +boundary between the Circles (Kreise) of Loebschuetz and Ratibor: the +boundary between the two Kreise; then, the former boundary between +Germany and Austria-Hungary up to a point on the Oder immediately to the +south of the Ratibor-Oderberg railway; thence, toward the northwest and +up to a point about 2 kilometers to the southeast of Katscher: a line to +be fixed on the spot passing to the west of Kranowitz. + +A commission composed of seven members, five nominated by the Principal +Allied and Associated Powers, one by Poland, and one by the Czechoslovak +State, will be appointed fifteen days after the coming into force of the +present treaty to trace on the spot the frontier line between Poland and +the Czechoslovak State. + +The decisions of this commission will be taken by a majority and shall +be binding on the parties concerned. + +Germany hereby agrees to renounce in favor of the Czechoslovak State all +rights and title over the part of the Kreise of Loebschuetz comprised +within the following boundaries in case after the determination of the +frontier between Germany and Poland the said part of that circle should +become isolated from Germany: from the southeastern extremity of the +salient of the former Austrian frontier at about 5 kilometers to the +west of Loebschuetz southward and up to a point of junction with the +boundary between the Kreise of Loebschuetz and Ratibor: the former +frontier between Germany and Austria-Hungary; then, northward, the +administrative boundary between the Kreise of Loebschuetz and Ratibor up +to a point situated about 2 kilometers to the southeast of Katscher; +thence, northwestward and up to the starting point of this definition: a +line to be fixed on the spot passing to the east of Katscher. + +=ARTICLE 84.=--German nationals habitually resident in any of the +territories recognized as forming part of the Czechoslovak State will +obtain Czechoslovak nationality ipso facto and lose their German +nationality. + +=ARTICLE 85.=--Within a period of two years from the coming into force +of the present treaty German nationals over 18 years of age habitually +resident in any of the territories recognized as forming part of the +Czechoslovak State will be entitled to opt for German nationality. +Czechoslovaks who are habitually resident in Germany will have a similar +right to opt for Czechoslovak nationality. + +Option by a husband will cover his wife, and option by parents will +cover their children under 18 years of age. Persons who have exercised +the above right to opt must within the succeeding twelve months transfer +their place of residence to the State for which they have opted. They +will be entitled to retain their landed property in the territory of the +other State where they had place of residence before exercising the +right to opt. They may carry with them their movable property of every +description. No export or import duties may be imposed upon them in +connection with the removal of such property. Within the same period +Czechoslovaks who are German nationals and are in a foreign country will +be entitled, in the absence of any provisions to the contrary in the +foreign law, and if they have not acquired the foreign nationality, to +obtain Czechoslovak nationality and lose their German nationality by +complying with the requirements laid down by the Czechoslovak State. + +=ARTICLE 86.=--The Czechoslovak State accepts and agrees to embody in a +treaty with the principal Allied and Associated Powers such provisions +as may be deemed necessary by the said powers to protect the interests +of inhabitants of that State who differ from the majority of the +population in race, language or religion. + +The Czechoslovak State further accepts and agrees to embody in a treaty +with the said powers such provisions as they may deem necessary to +protect freedom of transit and equitable treatment of the commerce of +other nations. + +The proportion and nature of the financial obligations of Germany and +Prussia, which the Czechoslovak State will have to assume on account of +the Silesian territory placed under its sovereignty will be determined +in accordance with Article 254 of Part IX. (financial clauses) of the +present treaty. + +Subsequent agreements will decide all questions not decided by the +present treaty which may arise in consequence of the cession of the said +territory. + + +SECTION VIII.--_Poland_ + +=ARTICLE 87.=--Germany, in conformity with the action already taken by +the Allied and Associated Powers, recognizes the complete independence +of Poland and renounces in her favor all rights and title over the +territory bounded by the Baltic Sea; the eastern frontier of Germany as +laid down in Article 27 of Part II. (boundaries of Germany) of the +present treaty, up to a point situated about two kilometers to the east +of the Lorzendorf, then a line to the acute angle which the northern +boundary of Upper Silesia makes about three kilometers northwest of +Simmenau, then to where the boundary of Upper Silesia has its meeting +point with the old frontier between Germany and Russia, then this +frontier to the point where it crosses the course of the Niemen, and +then the northern frontier of East Prussia, as laid down in Article 28, +Part II. aforesaid. + +The terms of this article do not, however, apply to the territories of +East Prussia and the free city of Danzig, as defined in Article 28, of +Part II. (boundaries of Germany,) and in Article 100 of Section XI. +(Danzig) of this part. + +The boundaries of Poland not laid down in the present treaty will be +subsequently determined by the principal Allied and Associated Powers. A +commission consisting of seven members, five of whom shall be nominated +by the principal Allied and Associated Powers, one by Germany, and one +by Poland, shall be constituted fifteen days after the coming into force +of the present treaty to delimit on the spot the frontier line between +Poland and Germany. The decision of the commission will be taken by a +majority of votes and shall be binding upon the parties concerned. + +=ARTICLE 88.=--In the portion of Upper Silesia included within the +boundaries described below the inhabitants will be called upon to +indicate by a vote whether they wish to be attached to Germany or to +Poland: + +Starting from the northern point of the salient of the old province of +Austrian Silesia, situated about eight kilometers east of Neustadt, the +former frontier between Germany and Austria, to its junction with the +boundary between the Kreise of Loebschuetz and Ratibor; thence in a +northerly direction to a point about two kilometers southeast of +Katscher; the boundary between the Kreise of Loebschuetz and Ratibor; +thence in a southeasterly direction to a point on the course of the Oder +immediately south of the Ratibor-Oderberg railway: a line to be fixed on +the ground passing south of Karanowitz; + +Thence the old boundary between Germany and Austria, thence the old +boundary between Germany and Russia to its junction with the +administrative boundary between Posnania and Upper Silesia; thence this +administrative boundary to its junction with the administrative boundary +between Upper and Middle Silesia; thence westward to the point where the +administrative boundary turns in an acute angle to the southwest about +three kilometers northwest of Simmenau; + +The boundary between Upper and Middle Silesia; thence in a westerly +direction to a point to be fixed on the ground about two kilometers east +of Orzendorf: a line to be fixed on the ground passing north of Kein +Hennersdorf; thence southward to the point where the boundary between +Upper and Middle Silesia cuts the Stadtel-Karlsruhe road: a line to be +fixed on the ground passing west of Hennersdorf, Polkowitz, Noldau, +Steamersdorf and Dammer, and east of Strehlitz, Nassadel, Eckersdorf, +Schwirz, and Stadtel; thence the boundary between Upper and Middle +Silesia to its junction with the eastern boundary of the Kreise of +Falkenberg; thence the eastern boundary of the Kreis of Falkenberg to +the point of the salient which is three kilometers east of Puschine; +thence to the northern point of the salient of the old province of +Austrian Silesia, situated about eight kilometers east of Neustadt: a +line to be fixed on the ground, passing east of Zulls. + +The regime under which this plebiscite will be taken and given effect to +is laid down in the annex hereto. + +The Polish and German Governments hereby respectively bind themselves to +conduct no prosecutions on any part of their territory and to take no +exceptional proceedings for any political action performed in Upper +Silesia during the period of the regime laid down in the annex hereto, +and up to the settlement of the final status of the country Germany +hereby renounces in favor of Poland all rights and title over the +portion of Upper Silesia lying beyond the frontier line fixed by the +principal Allied and Associated Powers as this result of the plebiscite. + + +ANNEX + +1. Within fifteen days from the coming into force of the present treaty +the German troops and such officials as may be designated by the +commission set up under the provisions of Paragraph 2 shall evacuate the +plebiscite area. Up to the moment of the completion of the evacuation +they shall refrain from any form of requisitioning in money or in kind +and from all acts likely to prejudice the material interest of the +country. + +Within the same period the workmen's and soldiers' councils which have +been constituted in this area shall be dissolved. Members of such +councils who are natives of another region and are exercising their +functions at the date of the coming into force of the present treaty, or +who have gone out of office since the 1st March, 1919, shall be +evacuated. + +All military and semi-military unions formed in the said area by the +inhabitants of the district shall be immediately disbanded. All members +of such military organizations who are not domiciled in the said area +shall be required to leave it. + +2. The plebiscite area shall be immediately placed under the authority +of an international commission of four members to be designated by the +following powers: The United States of America, France, the British +Empire, and Italy. It shall be occupied by troops belonging to the +Allied and Associated Powers, and the German Government undertakes to +give facilities for the transference of troops to Upper Silesia. + +3. The commission shall enjoy all the powers exercised by the German or +by the Prussian Government; except those of legislation or taxation. It +shall also be substituted for the Government of the Province and the +Regierungsbezirk. + +It shall be within the competence of the commission to interpret the +powers hereby conferred upon it, and to determine to what extent it +shall exercise them and to what extent they shall be left in the hands +of the existing authorities. + +Changes in the existing laws and the existing taxation shall only be +brought into force with the consent of the commission. + +The commission will maintain order with the help of the troops which +will be at its disposal and to the extent which it may deem necessary by +means of gendarmerie recruited among the inhabitants of the country. The +commission shall provide immediately for the replacement of the +evacuated German officials, and, if occasion arises, shall itself order +the evacuation of such authorities and proceed to the replacement of +such local authorities as may be required. It shall take all steps which +it thinks proper to insure the freedom, fairness, and secrecy of the +vote. In particular, it shall have the right to order the expulsion of +any person who may in any way have attempted to distort the result of +the plebiscite by methods of corruption or intimidation. + +The commission shall have full power to settle all questions arising +from the execution of the present clauses. It shall be assisted by +technical advisers, chosen by it from among the local populations. The +decision of the commission shall be taken by a majority vote. + +4. The vote shall take place at such date as may be determined by the +principal Allied and Associated Powers, but not sooner than six months +or later than eighteen months after the establishment of the commission +in the area. + +The right to vote shall be given to all persons, without distinction of +sex, who: + +(a) Have completed their twentieth year on the 1st of January of the +year in which the plebiscite takes place; + +(b) Were born in the plebiscite area or have been domiciled there since +a date to be determined by the commission, which shall not be subsequent +to January 1, 1919, or who have been expelled by the German authorities +and have not retained their domicile there. + +Persons convicted of political offenses shall not exercise their right +of voting. Every person will vote in the commune where he is domiciled, +or in which he was born, if he has not retained his domicile in the +area. + +The result of the vote will be determined by the communes according to +the majority of votes in each commune. + +5. On the conclusion of the voting the number of votes cast in each +commune will be communicated by the commission to the principal Allied +and Associated Powers with a full report as to the taking of the vote +and a recommendation as to the line which ought to be adopted as the +frontier of Germany in Upper Silesia. In this recommendation regard will +be paid to the wishes of the inhabitants, as shown by the vote, and to +the geographical and economic conditions of the locality. + +6. As soon as the frontier has been fixed by the principal Allied and +Associated Powers the German authorities will be notified by the +International Commission that they are free to take over the +administration of the territory which it is recognized should be German; +the said authorities must proceed to do so within one month of such +notification and in the manner prescribed by the commission. Within the +same period and in the manner prescribed by the commission, the Polish +Government must proceed to take over the administration of the +territory which it is recognized should be Polish. + +When the administration of the territory has been provided for by the +German and Polish authorities respectively the powers of the commission +will terminate. + +The cost of the Army of Occupation and expenditure by the commission, +whether in discharge of its own functions or in the administration of +the territory, will be a charge on the area. + +=ARTICLE 89.=--Poland undertakes to accord freedom of transit to +persons, goods, vessels, carriages, wagons, and mails in transit between +East Prussia and the rest of Germany over Polish territory, including +territorial waters, and to treat them at least as favorably as the +persons, goods, vessels, carriages, wagons, and mails, respectively, of +Polish or of any other most-favored nationality, origin, importation +starting point, or ownership, as regards facilities, restrictions, and +all other matters. + +Goods in transit shall be exempt from all customs or other similar +duties. + +Freedom of transit will extend to telegraphic and telephonic services +under the conditions laid down by the conventions referred to in Article +98. + +=ARTICLE 90.=--Poland undertakes to permit, for a period of fifteen +years, the exportation to Germany of the products of the mines in any +part of Poland in accordance with the present treaty. Such export shall +be subject to duties or other charges or restrictions on exportation. + +Poland agrees to take such steps as may be necessary to secure that such +products shall be available for sale to purchasers in Germany on terms +as favorable as are applicable to like products sold under similar +conditions to purchasers in Poland or in any other country. + +=ARTICLE 91.=--German nationals habitually resident in territories +recognized as forming part of Poland will acquire Polish nationality +ipso facto and will lose their German nationality. German nationals, +however, or their descendants who became resident in these territories +after January 1, 1908, will not acquire Polish nationality without a +special authorization from the Polish State. + +Within a period of two years after the coming into force of the present +treaty, German nationals over 18 years of age, habitually resident in +any of the territories recognized as forming part of Poland, will be +entitled to opt for German nationality. Poles who are German nationals +over 18 years of age, and habitually resident in Germany, will have a +similar right to opt for Polish nationality. Option by a husband will +cover his wife and option by parents will cover their children under 18 +years of age. Persons who have exercised the above right to opt must +within the succeeding twelve months transfer their place of residence to +the State for which they have opted. They will be entitled to retain +their immovable property in the territory of the other State, where they +had their place of residence before exercising the right to opt. They +may carry with them their movable property of every description. No +export or import duties or charges may be imposed upon them in +connection with the removal of such property. + +Within the same period Poles who are German nationals and are in a +foreign country will be entitled, in the absence of any provisions to +the contrary in the foreign law, and if they have not acquired foreign +nationality, to obtain Polish nationality and to lose their German +nationality by complying with the requirements laid down by the Polish +State. + +In this portion of Upper Silesia submitted to a plebiscite the +provisions of this article should only come into force as from the +definite attribution of the territory. + +=ARTICLE 92.=--The proportion and the nature of the financial +liabilities of Germany and Prussia to be borne by Poland will be +determined in accordance with Article 254 of Part IX. (financial +clauses) of the present treaty. There shall be excluded from the share +of such financial liabilities assumed by Poland that portion of the debt +which, according to the finding of the Reparation Commission referred to +in the above mentioned article, arises from measures adopted by the +German and Prussian Governments with a view to German colonization in +Poland. In fixing under Article 256 of the present treaty the value of +the property and possessions belonging to the German Empire and to the +German states which pass to Poland, with the territory transferred +above, the Reparation Commission shall exclude from the valuation +buildings, forests, and other State property which belonged to the +former kingdom of Poland; Poland shall acquire these properties free of +all costs and charges. + +In all the German territory transferred in accordance with the present +treaty and recognized as forming definitely a part of Poland, the +property rights and interests of German nationals shall not be +liquidated under Article 297 by the Polish Government except in +accordance with the following provisions: + +1. The proceeds of the liquidation shall be paid direct to the owner; + +2. If, on his application, the mixed arbitral tribunal provided for by +the Section 6 of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty, or an +arbitrator appointed by that tribunal, is satisfied that the conditions +of the sale or measures taken by the Polish Government outside of its +general legislation were unfairly prejudicial to the price obtained, +they shall have discretion to award to the owner equitable compensation +to be paid by the Polish Government. + +Further agreements will regulate all questions arising out of the +cession of the above territory, which are not regulated by the present +treaty. + +=ARTICLE 93.=--Poland accepts and agrees to embody in a treaty with the +principal Allied and Associated Powers such provisions as may be deemed +necessary by the said powers to protect the interests of inhabitants of +Poland who differ from the majority of the population in race, language +or religion. + +Poland further accepts and agrees to embody in a treaty with the said +powers such provisions as they may deem necessary to protect freedom of +transit and equitable treatment of the commerce of other nations. + + +SECTION IX.--_East Prussia._ + +=ARTICLE 94.=--In the area between the southern frontier of East +Prussia, as described in Article 28 of Part II. (frontiers of Germany) +of the present treaty, and the line described below, the inhabitants +will be called upon to indicate by a vote the State to which they wish +to belong: + +The western and northern boundary of Regierungsbezirk Allenstein to its +junction with the boundary between the Kreise of Oletsko and Angerburg, +thence, the northern boundary of the Kreise of Oletsko to its junction +with the old frontier of East Prussia. + +=ARTICLE 95.=--The German troops and authorities will be withdrawn from +the area defined above within a period not exceeding fifteen days after +the coming into force of the present treaty. Until the evacuation is +completed they will abstain from all requisitions in money or in kind +and from all measures injurious to the economic interests of the +country. + +On the expiration of the above-mentioned period the said area will be +placed under the authority of an International Commission of five +members appointed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers. This +commission will have general powers of administration and, in +particular, will be charged with the duty of arranging for the vote, and +of taking such measures as it may deem necessary to insure its freedom, +fairness, and secrecy. The commission will have all necessary authority +to decide any questions to which the execution of these provisions may +give rise. The commission will make such arrangements as may be +necessary for assistance in the exercise of its functions by officials +chosen by itself from the local population; its decisions will be taken +by a majority. + +Every person, irrespective of sex, will be entitled to vote who: + +(a) Is 20 years of age at the date of the coming into force of the +present treaty, and + +(b) Was born within the area where the vote will take place, or has been +habitually resident there from a date to be fixed by the commission. + +Every person will vote in the commune where he is habitually resident +or, if not habitually resident in the area, in the commune where he was +born. + +The result of the vote will be determined by commune, (Gemeinde,) +according to the majority of the votes in each commune. + +On the conclusion of the voting the number of votes cast in each commune +will be communicated by the commission to the principal Allied and +Associated Powers with a full report as to the taking of the vote and a +recommendation as to the line which ought to be adopted as the boundary +of East Prussia in this region. + +In this recommendation, regard will be paid to the wishes of the +inhabitants as shown by the vote, and to the geographical and economic +conditions of the locality. The principal Allied and Associated Powers +will then fix the frontier between East Prussia and Poland in this +region. If the line fixed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers +is such as to exclude from East Prussia any part of the territory +defined in Article 94, the renunciation of its rights by Germany in +favor of Poland, as provided in Article 87, above, will extend to the +territories so excluded. As soon as the line has been fixed by the +principal Allied and Associated Powers, the authorities administering +East Prussia will be notified by the International Commission that they +are free to take over the administration of the territory to the north +of the line so fixed, which they shall proceed to do within one month of +such notification and in the manner prescribed by the commission. Within +the same period, and as prescribed by the commission, the Polish +Government must proceed to take over the administration of the territory +to the south of the line. When the administration of the territory by +the East Prussian and Polish authorities, respectively, has been +provided for, the powers of the commission will terminate. + +Expenditure by the commission, whether in the discharge of its own +functions or in the administration of the territory, will be borne by +the local revenues. East Prussia will be required to bear such +proportion of any deficit as may be fixed by the principal Allied and +Associated Powers. + +=ARTICLE 96.=--In the area comprising the Kreise of Stuhm and Rosenberg, +and the portion of the Kreise of Marienburg which is situated east of +the Nogat, and that of Marienwerder east of the Vistula, the inhabitants +will be called upon to indicate by a vote, to be taken in each commune, +(Gemeinde,) whether they desire the various communes situated in this +territory to belong to Poland or to East Prussia. + +=ARTICLE 97.=--The German troops and authorities will be withdrawn from +the area defined in Article 96 within a period not exceeding fifteen +days after the coming into force of the present treaty. Until the +evacuation is completed they will abstain from all requisitions in money +or in kind and from all measures injurious to the economic interests of +the country. On the expiration of the above-mentioned period the said +area will be placed under the authority of an International Commission +of five members appointed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers. +This commission, supported, if occasion arises, by the necessary forces, +will have general powers of administration, and, in particular, will be +charged with the duty of arranging for the vote and of taking such +measures as it may deem necessary to insure its freedom, fairness, and +secrecy. The commission will conform as far as possible to the +provisions of the present treaty relating to the plebiscite in the +Allenstein area. Its decision will be taken by a majority. Expenditure +by the commission, whether in the discharge of its own functions or in +the administration of the territory, will be borne by the local +revenues. + +On the conclusion of the voting, the number of votes cast in each +commune will be communicated by the commission to the principal Allied +and Associated Powers, with a full report as to the taking of the vote +and a recommendation as to the line which ought to be adopted as the +boundary of East Prussia in this region. In this recommendation regard +will be paid to the wishes of the inhabitants as shown by the vote and +to the geographical and economic conditions of the locality. The +principal Allied and Associated Powers will then fix the frontier +between East Prussia and Poland in this region, leaving in any case to +Poland for the whole of the section bordering on the Vistula full and +complete control of the river, including the east bank as far east of +the river as may be necessary for its regulation and improvement. +Germany agrees that in any portion of the said territory which remains +German no fortifications shall at any time be erected. + +The principal Allied and Associated Powers will at the same time draw up +regulations for assuring to the population of East Prussia to the +fullest extent, and under equitable conditions, access to the Vistula, +and the use of it for themselves, their commerce, and their boats. The +determination of the frontier and the foregoing regulations shall be +binding upon all the parties concerned. When the administration of the +territory has been taken over by the East Prussian and Polish +authorities, respectively, the powers of the commission will terminate. + +=ARTICLE 98.=--Germany and Poland undertake, within one year of the +coming into force of this treaty, to enter into conventions of which the +terms, in case of difference, shall be settled by the Council of the +League of Nations, with the object of securing on the one hand to +Germany full and adequate railroad, telegraphic, and telephonic +facilities for communication between the rest of Germany and East +Prussia over the intervening Polish territory, and Anthe other hand to +Poland full and adequate railroad, telegraphic, and telephonic +facilities for communication between Poland and the free city of Danzig +over any German territory that may, on the right bank of the Vistula, +intervene between Poland and the free city of Danzig. + +[Illustration: _Copyright Harris and Ewing_ + +Sir Eric Drummond + +The first Secretary of the League of Nations. Sir Eric joined the +British Foreign Office in 1900, and later served as confidential +secretary to Sir Edward (Viscount) Grey, Herbert H. Asquith, and Arthur +J. Balfour. In 1917 he accompanied Mr. Balfour to the United States as a +member of the British High Commission.] + + +SECTION X.--_Memel_ + +=ARTICLE 99.=--Germany renounces in favor of the principal Allied and +Associated Powers all rights and title over the territories included +between the Baltic, the northeastern frontier of East Prussia as defined +in Article 28 of Part II. (frontiers of Germany) of the present treaty +and the former frontier between Germany and Russia. + +Germany undertakes to accept the settlement made by the principal Allied +and Associated Powers in regard to these territories, particularly in so +far as concerns the nationality of the inhabitants. + + +SECTION XI.--_Free City of Danzig_ + +=ARTICLE 100.=--Germany renounces in favor of the principal Allied and +Associated Powers all rights and title over the territory comprised +within the following limits: + +From the Baltic Sea southward to the point where the principal channels +of navigation of the Nogat and Vistula (Weichsel) meet; + +The boundary of East Prussia as described in Article 28 of Part II. +(boundaries of Germany) of the peace treaty; + +Thence the principal channel of navigation of the Vistula downstream to +a point about 6-1/2 kilometers north of the bridge of Dirschau; + +Thence northwest to point 5, 1-1/2 kilometers southeast of the Church of +Guettland, a line to be fixed on the ground; + +Thence in a general westerly direction to the salient of the Kreise of +Berent, 8-1/2 kilometers northeast of Schoeneck; + +A line to be fixed on the ground passing between Muehlbanz on the south +and Rambeltsch on the north; + +Thence the boundary of the Kreise of Berent, westward to the re-entrant +which it forms 6 kilometers north-northwest of Schoeneck; + +Thence to a point on the median line of Lonkener See; a line to be fixed +on the ground passing north of Neu Fietz and Schatarpi and south of +Barenhuette and Lonken; thence the median line of the Lonkener See to its +northernmost point; thence to the southern end of Pollenziner See; a +line to be fixed on the ground; + +Thence the median line of Pollenziner See to its northernmost point; + +Thence in a northeasterly direction to a point about one kilometer south +of Koliebken Church, where the Danzig-Neustadt Railway crosses a stream; + +A line to be fixed on the ground passing southeast of Kamehlen, Krissau, +Fidlin, Sulmin, (Richthof,) Mattern, Schaferei, and to the northwest of +Neuendorf, Marschau, Czapielken, Hoch and Klein Kelpin, Pulvermuehl, +Renneberg, and the towns of Oliva and Zoppot; + +Thence the course of this stream to the Baltic Sea. + +The boundaries described above are drawn on a German map scale +1-100,000, attached to the present treaty, (Map No. 4.) + +=ARTICLE 101.=--A commission composed of three members appointed by the +principal Allied and Associated Powers, including a High Commissioner as +President, one member appointed by Germany, and one member appointed by +Poland, shall be constituted within fifteen days of the coming into +force of the present treaty for the purpose of delimiting on the spot +the frontier of the territory as described above, taking into account as +far as possible the existing communal boundaries. + +=ARTICLE 102.=--The principal Allied and Associated Powers undertake to +establish the town of Danzig, together with the rest of the territory +described in Article 100, as a free city. It will be placed under the +protection of the League of Nations. + +=ARTICLE 103.=--A constitution for the free city of Danzig shall be +drawn up by the duly appointed representatives of the free city in +agreement with a High Commissioner to be appointed by the League of +Nations. The constitution shall be placed under the guarantee of the +League of Nations. + +The High Commissioner will also be intrusted with the duty of dealing in +the first instance with all differences arising between Poland and the +free city of Danzig in regard to this treaty or any arrangements or +agreements made thereunder. + +The High Commissioner shall reside at Danzig. + +=ARTICLE 104.=--The principal Allied and Associated Powers undertake to +negotiate a treaty between the Polish Government and the free city of +Danzig which shall come into force at the same time as the establishment +of said free city, with the following objects: + +1. To effect the inclusion of the free city of Danzig within the Polish +customs frontiers and to establish a free area in the port. + +2. To insure to Poland without any restriction the free use and service +of all waterways, docks, basins, wharves, and other works within the +territory of the free city necessary for Polish imports and exports. + +3. To insure to Poland the control and administration of the Vistula and +of the whole railway system within the free city; except such street and +other railways as serve primarily the needs of the free city and of +postal, telegraphic, and telephonic communication between Poland and the +Port of Danzig. + +4. To insure to Poland the right to develop and improve the waterways, +docks, basins, wharves, railways, and other works and means of +communication mentioned in this article, as well as to lease or purchase +through appropriate processes such land and other property as may be +necessary for these purposes. + +5. To provide against any discrimination within the free city of Danzig +to the detriment of citizens of Poland and other persons of Polish +origin or speech. + +6. To provide that the Polish Government shall undertake the conduct of +the foreign relations of the free city of Danzig as well as the +diplomatic protection of citizens of that city when abroad. + +=ARTICLE 105.=--On the coming into force of the present treaty German +nationals ordinarily resident in the territory described in Article 100 +will ipso facto lose their German nationality, in order to become +nationals of the free city of Danzig. + +=ARTICLE 106.=--Within a period of two years from the coming into force +of the present treaty German nationals over 18 years of age ordinarily +resident in the territory described in Article 100 will have the right +to opt for German nationality. + +Option by a husband will cover his wife and option by parents will cover +their children less than 18 years of age. + +All persons who exercise the right of option referred to above must +during the ensuing twelve months transfer their place of residence to +Germany. + +These persons will be entitled to preserve the immovable property +possessed by them in the territory of the free city of Danzig. They may +carry with them their movable property of every description. No export +or import duties shall be imposed upon them in this connection. + +=ARTICLE 107.=--All property situated within the territory of the free +city of Danzig belonging to the German Empire or any German State shall +pass to the principal Allied and Associated Powers for transfer to the +free city of Danzig or to the Polish State as they may consider +equitable. + +=ARTICLE 108.=--The proportion and nature of the financial liabilities +of Germany and of Prussia to be borne by the free city of Danzig shall +be fixed in accordance with Article 254 of Part IX. (financial clauses) +of the present treaty. + +All other questions which may arise from the cession of the territory +referred to in Article 100 shall be settled by further agreements. + + +SECTION XII.--_Schleswig_ + +=ARTICLE 109.=--The frontier between Germany and Denmark shall be fixed +in conformity with the wishes of the population. + +For this purpose the population inhabiting the territories of the former +German Empire situated to the north of a line from east to west, (shown +by a brown line on the Map No. 3 annexed to the present treaty;) + +Leaving the Baltic coast about thirteen kilometers east-northeast of +Flensburg, running southwest so as to pass southeast of Sygum, +Ringsberg, Munkbrarup, Adelby, Tastrup, Jarplund, Oversee, and northwest +of Langballigholz, Langballig, Boenstrup, Ruellschau, Weseby, +Kleinwolstrup, Gross-Solt; thence westward passing south of Froerup and +north of Wanderup; thence in a southwesterly direction passing southeast +of Oxlund, Stieglund, and Ostenau and northwest of the villages on the +Wanderup-Kollund road; thence in a northwesterly direction passing +southwest of Loewenstedt, Joldelund, Goldelund and northeast of +Kalkerheide and Hoegel to the bend of the Soholmer Au, about one +kilometer east of Soholm, where it meets the southern boundary of the +Kreise of Tondern; thence following this boundary to the North Sea; +thence passing south of the islands of Fohr and Amrum and north of the +islands of Oland and Langeness shall be called upon to pronounce by a +vote which will be taken under the following conditions: + +1. Within a period not exceeding ten days from the coming into force of +the present treaty, the German troops and authorities (including the +Oberprasidenten, Regierungs-Prasidenten, Landrathe, Amtsvorsteher, +Oberbuergermeister) shall evacuate the zone lying to the north of the +line above fixed. + +Within the same period the Workmen's and Soldiers' Councils which have +been constituted in this zone shall be dissolved; members of such +councils who are natives of another region and are exercising their +functions at the date of the coming into force of the present treaty, or +who have gone out of office since the 1st March, 1919, shall also be +evacuated. + +The said zone shall immediately be placed under the authority of an +international commission, composed of five members, of whom three will +be designated by the principal Allied and Associated Powers; the +Norwegian and Swedish Governments will each be requested to designate a +member. In the event of their failing to do so, these two members will +be chosen by the principal Allied and Associated Powers. + +The commission, assisted in case of need by the necessary forces, shall +have general powers of administration. In particular, it shall at once +provide for filling the places of the evacuated German authorities, and, +if necessary, shall itself give orders for their evacuation and proceed +to fill the places of such local authorities as may be required. It +shall take all steps which it thinks proper to insure the freedom, +fairness, and secrecy of the vote. It shall be assisted by German and +Danish technical advisers chosen by it from among the local population. +Its decisions will be taken by a majority. + +One-half of the expenses of the International Commission and of the +expenditure occasioned by the plebiscite shall be paid by Germany. + +2. The right to vote shall be given all persons, without distinction of +sex, who: + +(a) Have completed their twentieth year at the date of the coming into +force of the present treaty; and + +(b) Were born in the zone in which the plebiscite is taken, or had been +domiciled there since a date before the 1st January, 1900, or had been +expelled by the German authorities without having retained their +domicile there. + +Every person will vote in the commune (Gemeinde) where he is domiciled +or of which he is a native. + +Military persons, officers, non-commissioned officers and soldiers of +the German Army, who are natives of the zone of Schleswig, in which the +plebiscite is taken, shall be given the opportunity to return to their +native place in order to take part in the voting there. + +3. In the section of the evacuated zone lying to the north of a line +from east to west (shown by a red line on Map No. 3, which is annexed to +the present treaty): + +Passing south of the Island of Alsen and following the median line of +Flensburg Fjord; + +Thence leaving the fjord about six kilometers north of Flensburg, and +following the course of the stream flowing past Kupfermuehle upstream to +a point north of Niehuus; + +Thence passing north of Pattburg and Ellund and south of Froeslee to meet +the eastern boundary of the Kreise of Tondern at its junction with the +boundary between the old jurisdiction of Slogs and Kjaer, (Slogs Herred +and Kjaer Herred;) + +Thence the latter boundary to where it meets the Scheidebek; + +Thence the course of the Scheidebek, (Alte Au), Sueder Au, and Wied Au +downstream successively to the point where the latter bends northward, +about 1,500 meters west of Ruttebuell; + +Thence in a west-northwesterly direction to meet the North Sea north of +Sieltoft; + +Thence passing north of the Island of Sylt. + +The vote above provided for shall be taken within a period not exceeding +three weeks after the evacuation of the country by the German troops and +authorities. + +The result will be determined by the majority of votes cast in the whole +of this section. This result will be immediately communicated by the +commission to the principal Allied and Associated Governments and +proclaimed. + +If the vote results in favor of the reincorporation of this territory in +the Kingdom of Denmark, the Danish Government, in agreement with the +commission will be entitled to effect its occupation with their military +and administrative authorities immediately after the proclamation. + +4. In the section of the evacuated zone situated to the south of the +preceding section and to the north of the line which starts from the +Baltic Sea thirteen kilometers from Flensburg and ends north of the +islands of Oland and Langeness, the vote will be taken within a period +not exceeding five weeks after the plebiscite shall have been held in +the first section. + +The result will be determined by communes (Gemeinden) in accordance with +the majority of the votes cast in each commune, (Gemeinde.) + +=ARTICLE 110.=--Pending a delimination on the spot, a frontier line will +be fixed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers according to a +line based on the result of the voting, and proposed by the +International Commission, and taking into account the particular +geographical and economic conditions of the localities in question. + +From that time the Danish Government may effect the occupation of these +territories which the Danish civil and military authorities, and the +German Government may reinstate up to the said frontier line the German +civil and military authorities whom it has evacuated. + +Germany hereby renounced definitively in favor of the principal Allied +and Associated Powers all rights of sovereignty over the territories +situated to the north of the frontier line fixed in accordance with the +above provisions. The principal Allied and Associated Powers will hand +over the said territories to Denmark. + +=Article 111.=--A commission composed of seven members, five of whom +shall be nominated by the principal Allied and Associated Powers, one by +Denmark, and one by Germany, shall be constituted within fifteen days +from the date when the final result of the vote is known, to trace the +frontier line on the spot. + +The decisions of the commission will be taken by a majority of votes, +and shall be binding on the parties concerned. + +=ARTICLE 112.=--All the inhabitants of the territory which is returned +to Denmark will acquire Danish nationality ipso facto, and will lose +their German nationality. Persons, however, who had become habitually +resident in this territory after the 1st October, 1918, will not be able +to acquire Danish nationality without permission from the Danish +Government. + +=ARTICLE 113.=--Within two years from the date on which the sovereignty +over the whole or part of the territory of Schleswig subjected to the +plebiscite is restored to Denmark: + +Any person over 18 years of age, born in the territory restored to +Denmark, not habitually resident in this region and possessing German +nationality, will be entitled to opt for Denmark. + +Any person over 18 years of age habitually resident in the territory +restored to Denmark will be entitled to opt for Germany. + +Option by a husband will cover his wife and option by parents will cover +their children less than 18 years of age. + +Persons who have exercised the above right to opt must within the +ensuing twelve months transfer their place of residence to the State in +favor of which they have opted. + +They will be entitled to retain the immovable property which they own in +the territory of the other State in which they were habitually resident +before opting. They may carry with them their movable property of every +description. No export or import duties may be imposed upon them in +connection with the removal of such property. + +=ARTICLE 114.=--The proportion and nature of the financial or other +obligations of Germany and Prussia which are to be assumed by Denmark +will be fixed in accordance with Article 254 of Part IX. (financial +clauses) of the present treaty. + +Further stipulations will determine any other questions arising out of +the transfer to Denmark of the whole or part of the territory of which +she was deprived by the treaty of Oct. 30, 1864. + + +SECTION XIII.--_Heligoland_ + +=ARTICLE 115.=--The fortifications, military establishments, and harbors +of the islands of Heligoland and Dune shall be destroyed under the +supervision of the principal Allied Governments by German labor and at +the expense of Germany within a period to be determined by the said +Governments. + +The term "harbors" shall include the Northeast Mole, the West Wall, the +outer and inner breakwaters and reclaimed land within them, and all +naval and military works, fortifications, and buildings, constructed or +under construction, between lines connecting the following positions +taken from the British Admiralty Chart No. 126 of 19 April, 1918: + +(A) Lat. 54 degrees 10 minutes 49 seconds N.; long. 7 degrees 53 minutes +39 seconds E.; + +(B) Lat. 54 degrees 10 minutes 35 seconds N.; long. 7 degrees 54 minutes +18 seconds E.; + +(C) Lat. 54 degrees 10 minutes 14 seconds N.; long. 7 degrees 54 minutes +0 seconds E.; + +(D) Lat. 54 degrees 10 minutes 17 seconds N.; long. 7 degrees 53 minutes +37 seconds E.; + +(E) Lat. 54 degrees 10 minutes 44 seconds N.; long. 7 degrees 53 minutes +26 seconds E. + +These fortifications, military establishments, and harbors shall not be +reconstructed nor shall any similar works be constructed in future. + + +SECTION XIV.--_Russia and Russian States_ + +=ARTICLE 116.=--Germany acknowledges and agrees to respect as permanent +and inalienable the independence of all the territories which were part +of the former Russian Empire on Aug. 1, 1914. + +In accordance with the provisions of Article 259 of Part IX. (financial +clauses,) and Article 292 of Part X. (economic clauses,) Germany accepts +definitely the abrogation of the Brest-Litovsk Treaties and of all +treaties, conventions, and agreements entered into by her with the +Maximalist Government in Russia. + +The Allied and Associated Powers formally reserve the rights of Russia +to obtain from Germany restitution and reparation based on the +principles of the present treaty. + +=ARTICLE 117.=--Germany undertakes to recognize the full force of all +treaties or agreements which may be entered into by the Allied and +Associated Powers with States now existing or coming into existence in +future in the whole or part of the former Empire of Russia as it existed +on August 1, 1914, and to recognize the frontiers of any such States as +determined therein. + + + + +PART IV + +German Rights and Interests Outside Germany + + +=ARTICLE 118.=--In territory outside her European frontiers as fixed by +the present treaty, Germany renounces all rights, titles, and privileges +whatever in or over territory which belonged to her or to her allies, +and all rights, titles, and privileges, whatever their origin, which she +held as against the Allied and Associated Powers. + +Germany undertakes immediately to recognize and to conform to the +measures which may be taken now or in the future by the principal Allied +and Associated Powers, in agreement where necessary with third powers, +in order to carry the above stipulation into effect. + +In particular, Germany declares her acceptance of the following articles +relating to certain special subjects: + + +SECTION I.--_German Colonies_ + +=ARTICLE 119.=--Germany renounces in favor of the principal Allied and +Associated Powers all her rights and titles over her overseas +possessions. + +=ARTICLE 120.=--All movable and immovable property in such territories +belonging to the German Empire or to any German State shall pass to the +Government exercising authority over such territories on the terms laid +down in Article 257 of Part IX. (financial clauses) of the present +treaty. The decision of the local courts in any dispute as to the nature +of such property shall be final. + +=ARTICLE 121.=--The provisions of Section I. (commercial relations) and +Section IV. (property, rights, and interests) of Part X. (economic +clauses) of the present treaty shall apply in the case of these +territories whatever be the form of government adopted for them. + +=ARTICLE 122.=--The Government exercising authority over such +territories may make such provisions as it thinks fit with reference to +the repatriation from them of German nationals, and to the conditions +upon which German subjects of European origin shall, or shall not, be +allowed to reside, hold property, trade, or exercise a profession in +them. + +=ARTICLE 123.=--The provisions of Article 260 of Part IX. (financial +clauses) of the present treaty shall apply in the case of all agreements +concluded with German nationals for the construction or exploitation of +public works in the German overseas possessions, as well as any +sub-concessions or contracts resulting therefrom which may have been +made to or with such nationals. + +=ARTICLE 124.=--Germany hereby undertakes to pay in accordance with the +estimate to be presented by the French Government, and approved by the +Reparation Commission, reparation for damage suffered by French +nationals in the Cameroons or the frontier zone by reason of the acts of +the German civil and military authorities and of German private +individuals during the period from Jan. 1, 1900, to Aug. 1, 1914. + +=ARTICLE 125.=--Germany renounces all rights under the conventions and +agreements with France of Nov. 4, 1911, and Sept. 28, 1912, relating to +equatorial Africa. She undertakes to pay to the French Government, in +accordance with the estimate to be presented by the Government and +approved by the Reparation Commission, all the deposits, credits, +advances, &c., effected by virtue of these instruments in favor of +Germany. + +=ARTICLE 126.=--Germany undertakes to accept and observe the agreements +made or to be made by the Allied and Associated Powers or some of them +with any other power with regard to the trade in arms and spirits, and +to the matters dealt with in the general act of Berlin of Feb. 26, 1885, +the general act of Brussels of July 2, 1890, and the conventions +completing or modifying the same. + +=ARTICLE 127.=--The native inhabitants of the former German overseas +possessions shall be entitled to the diplomatic protection of the +Governments exercising authority over those territories. + + +SECTION II.--_China_ + +=ARTICLE 128.=--Germany renounces in favor of China all benefits and +privileges resulting from the provisions of the final protocol signed at +Peking on Sept. 7, 1901, and from all annexes, notes, and documents +supplementary thereto. She likewise renounces in favor of China any +claim to indemnities accruing thereunder subsequent to March 14, 1917. + +=ARTICLE 129.=--From the coming into force of the present treaty the +high contracting parties shall apply in so far as concerns them +respectively: + +1. The arrangement of Aug. 29, 1902, regarding the new Chinese customs +tariff. + +2. The arrangement of Sept. 27, 1905, regarding Whang-Poo, and the +provisional supplementary arrangement of April 4, 1912. China, however, +will no longer be bound to grant to Germany the advantages of privileges +which she allowed Germany under these arrangements. + +=ARTICLE 130.=--Subject to the provisions of Section VIII. of this part, +Germany cedes to China all the buildings, wharves and pontoons, +barracks, forts, arms and munitions of war, vessels of all kinds, +wireless telegraphy installations and other public property belonging to +the German Government, which are situated or may be in the German +concessions at Tientsin and Hankow or elsewhere in Chinese territory. + +It is understood, however, that premises used as diplomatic or consular +residences or offices are not included in the above cession, and, +furthermore, that no steps shall be taken by the Chinese Government to +dispose of the German public and private property situated within the +so-called legation quarter at Peking without the consent of the +diplomatic representatives of the powers which, on the coming into force +of the present treaty, remain parties to the final protocol of Sept. 7, +1901. + +=ARTICLE 131.=--Germany undertakes to restore to China within twelve +months from the coming into force of the present treaty all the +astronomical instruments which her troops in 1900--1901 carried away from +China, and to defray all expenses which may be incurred in affecting +such restoration, including the expenses of dismounting, packing, +transporting, insurance, and installation in Peking. + +[Illustration: From Around the World + +_Copyright Paul Thompson_ + +Lord Robert Cecil + +A son of Lord Salisbury and one of the most influential statesmen in +Great Britain during the war and an enthusiastic advocate of a League of +Nations.] + +=ARTICLE 132.=--Germany agrees to the abrogation of the leases from the +Chinese Government under which the German concessions at Hankow and +Tientsin are now held. + +China, restored to the full exercise of her sovereign rights in the +above areas, declares her intention of opening them to international +residence and trade. She further declares that the abrogation of the +leases under which these concessions are now held shall not affect the +property rights of nationals or Allied and Associated Powers who are +holders of lots in these concessions. + +=ARTICLE 133.=--Germany waives all claims against the Chinese Government +or against any Allied or Associated Government arising out of the +internment of German nationals in China and their repatriation. She +equally renounces all claims arising out of the capture and condemnation +of German ships in China or the liquidation, sequestration or control of +German properties, rights, and interests in that country since Aug. 14, +1917. This provision, however, shall not affect the rights of the +parties interested in the proceeds of any such liquidation, which shall +be governed by the provisions of Part X. (economic clauses) of the +present treaty. + +=ARTICLE 134.=--Germany renounces, in favor of the Government of his +Britannic Majesty, the German State property in the British concession +at Shameen at Canton. She renounces, in favor of the French and Chinese +Governments conjointly, the property of the German school situated in +the French concession at Shanghai. + + +SECTION III.--_Siam_ + +=ARTICLE 135.=--Germany recognizes that all treaties, conventions, and +agreements between her and Siam, and all rights, titles and privileges +derived therefrom, including all rights of extra territorial +jurisdiction, terminated as from July 22, 1917. + +=ARTICLE 136.=--All goods and property in Siam belonging to the German +Empire or to any German State, with the exception of premises used as +diplomatic or consular residences or offices, pass ipso facto and +without compensation to the Siamese Government. + +The goods, property, and private rights of German nationals in Siam +shall be dealt with in accordance with the provisions of Part X. +(economic clauses) of the present treaty. + +=ARTICLE 137.=--Germany waives all claims against the Siamese Government +on behalf of herself or her nationals arising out of the seizure or +condemnation of German ships, the liquidation of German property, or the +internment of German nationals in Siam. This provision shall not affect +the rights of the parties interested in the proceeds of any such +liquidation, which shall be governed by the provisions of Part X. +(economic clauses) of the present treaty. + + +SECTION IV.--_Liberia_ + +=ARTICLE 138.=--Germany renounces all rights and privileges arising from +the arrangements of 1911 and 1912 regarding Liberia, and particularly +the right to nominate a German receiver of customs in Liberia. She +further renounces all claim to participate in any measures whatsoever +which may be adopted for the rehabilitation of Liberia. + +=ARTICLE 139.=--Germany recognizes that all treaties and arrangements +between her and Liberia terminated as from Aug. 4, 1917. + +=ARTICLE 140.=--The property, rights, and interests of Germans in +Liberia shall be dealt with in accordance with Part X. (economic +clauses) of the present treaty. + + +SECTION V.--_Morocco_ + +=ARTICLE 141.=--Germany renounces all rights, titles, and privileges +conferred on her by the general act of Algeciras of April 7, 1906, and +by the Franco-German agreements of Feb. 9, 1909, and Nov. 4, 1911. All +treaties, agreements, arrangements, and contracts concluded by her with +the Sherifian Empire are regarded as abrogated as from Aug. 3, 1914. + +In no case can Germany take advantage of these instruments, and she +undertakes not to intervene in any way in negotiations relating to +Morocco which may take place between France and the other powers. + +=ARTICLE 142.=--Germany having recognized the French Protectorate in +Morocco, hereby accepts all consequences of its establishment, and she +renounces the regime of the capitulations therein. + +This renunciation shall take effect as from Aug. 3, 1914. + +=ARTICLE 143.=--The Sherifian Government shall have complete liberty of +action in regulating the status of German nationals in Morocco and the +conditions in which they may establish themselves there. + +German-protected persons, semsars, and "associes agricoles" shall be +considered as having ceased, as from Aug. 3, 1914, to enjoy the +privileges attached to their status and shall be subject to the ordinary +law. + +=ARTICLE 144.=--All property and possessions in the Sherifian Empire of +the German Empire and the German States pass to the Maghzen without +payment. + +For the purposes of this clause, the property and possessions of the +German Empire and States shall be deemed to include all the property of +the crown, the empire, or States, and the private property of the former +German Emperor and other royal personages. + +All movable and immovable property in the Sherifian Empire belonging to +German nationals shall be dealt with in accordance with Sections III. +and IV. of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty. + +Mining rights which may be recognized as belonging to German nationals +by the Court of Arbitration set up under the Moroccan mining regulations +shall form the subject of a valuation, which the arbitrators shall be +requested to make, and these rights shall then be treated in the same +way as property in Morocco belonging to German nationals. + +=ARTICLE 145.=--The German Government shall insure the transfer to a +person nominated by the French Government of the shares representing +Germany's portion of the capital of the State Bank of Morocco. The value +of these shares, as assessed by the Reparation Commission, shall be paid +to the Reparation Commission for the credit of Germany on account of the +sums due for reparation. The German Government shall be responsible for +indemnifying its nationals so dispossessed. + +This transfer will take place without prejudice to the repayment of +debts which German nationals may have contracted toward the State Bank +of Morocco. + +=ARTICLE 146.=--Moroccan goods entering Germany shall enjoy the +treatment accorded to French goods. + + +SECTION VI.--_Egypt_ + +=ARTICLE 147.=--Germany declares that she recognizes the protectorate +proclaimed over Egypt by Great Britain on Dec. 18, 1914, and that she +renounces the regime of the capitulations in Egypt. This renunciation +shall take effect as from Aug. 4, 1914. + +=ARTICLE 148.=--All treaties, agreements, arrangements, and contracts +concluded by Germany with Egypt are regarded as abrogated as from Aug. +4, 1914. + +In no case can Germany avail herself of these instruments, and she +undertakes not to intervene in any way in negotiations relating to Egypt +which may take place between Great Britain and the other powers. + +=ARTICLE 149.=--Until an Egyptian law of judicial organization +establishing courts with universal jurisdiction comes into force, +provision shall be made, by means of decrees issued by his Highness the +Sultan for the exercise of jurisdiction over German nationals and +property by the British consular tribunals. + +=ARTICLE 150.=--The Egyptian Government shall have complete liberty of +action in regulating the status of German nationals and the conditions +under which they may establish themselves in Egypt. + +=ARTICLE 151.=--Germany consents to the abrogation of the decree issued +by his Highness the Khedive on Nov. 28, 1904, relating to the commission +of the Egyptian public debt, or to such changes as the Egyptian +Government may think it desirable to make therein. + +=ARTICLE 152.=--Germany consents, in so far as she is concerned, to the +transfer to his Britannic Majesty's Government of the powers conferred +on his Imperial Majesty the Sultan, by the convention signed at +Constantinople on Oct. 29, 1888, relating to the free navigation of the +Suez Canal. + +She renounces all participation in the Sanitary, Maritime, and +Quarantine Board of Egypt, and consents, in so far as she is concerned, +to the transfer to the Egyptian authorities of the powers of that board. + +=ARTICLE 153.=--All property and possessions in Egypt of the German +Empire and the German States pass to the Egyptian Government without +payment. + +For this purpose the property and possessions of the German Empire and +States shall be deemed to include all the property of the crown, the +empire, or the States, and the private property of the former German +Emperor and other royal personages. + +All movable and immovable property in Egypt belonging to German +nationals shall be dealt with in accordance with Sections III. and IV. +of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty. + +=ARTICLE 154.=--Egyptian goods entering Germany shall enjoy the +treatment accorded to British goods. + + +SECTION VII.--_Turkey and Bulgaria_ + +=ARTICLE 155.=--Germany undertakes to recognize and accept all +arrangements which the Allied and Associated Powers may make with Turkey +and Bulgaria, with reference to any rights, interests, and privileges +whatever which might be claimed by Germany or her nationals in Turkey +and Bulgaria and which are not dealt with in the provisions of the +present treaty. + + +SECTION VIII.--_Shantung_ + +=ARTICLE 156.=--Germany renounces in favor of Japan, all her rights, +titles, and privileges--particularly those concerning the territory of +Kiao-Chau, railways, mines, and submarine cables--which she acquired in +virtue of the treaty concluded by her with China on 6th March, 1898, and +of all other arrangements relative to the Province of Shantung. + +All German rights in the Tsing-tao-Tsinan-Fu railway, including its +branch lines, together with its subsidiary property of all kinds, +stations, shops, fixed and rolling stock, mines, plant, and material for +the exploitation of the mines are and remain acquired by Japan, together +with all rights and privileges attaching thereto. + +The German State submarine cables from Tsing-tao to Shanghai and from +Tsing-tao to Che Foo, with all the rights, privileges, and properties +attaching thereto, are similarly acquired by Japan, free and clear of +all charges and incumbrances. + +=ARTICLE 157.=--The movable and immovable property owned by the German +State in the territory of Kiao-Chau, as well as all the rights which +Germany might claim in consequence of the works or improvements made or +of the expenses incurred by her, directly or indirectly, in connection +with this territory, are and remain acquired by Japan, free and clear of +all charges and incumbrances. + +=ARTICLE 158.=--Germany shall hand over to Japan within three months +from the coming into force of the present treaty the archives, +registers, plans, title deeds, and documents of every kind, wherever +they may be, relating to the administration, whether civil, military, +financial, judicial or other, of the territory of Kiao-Chau. + +Within the same period Germany shall give particulars to Japan of all +treaties, arrangements or agreements relating to the rights, title or +privileges referred to in the two preceding articles. + + + + +PART V + +Military, Naval, and Aerial Clauses + + +In order to render possible the initiation of a general limitation of +the armaments of all nations, Germany undertakes strictly to observe the +military, naval, and air clauses which follow: + + +SECTION I.--_Military Clauses_ + +CHAPTER I.--EFFECTIVES AND CADRES OF THE GERMAN ARMY + +=ARTICLE 159=--The German military forces shall be demobilized and +reduced as prescribed hereinafter. + +=ARTICLE 160=--1. By a date which must not be later than March 31, 1920, +the German Army must not comprise more than seven divisions of infantry +and three divisions of cavalry. After that date the total number of +effectives in the army of the States constituting Germany must not +exceed 100,000 men, including officers and establishments of depots. The +army shall be devoted exclusively to the maintenance of order within the +territory and to the control of the frontiers. + +The total effective strength of officers, including the personnel of +staffs, whatever their composition, must not exceed 4,000. + +2. Divisions and army corps headquarters staffs shall be organized in +accordance with Table No. 1 annexed to this section. + +The number and strength of the units of infantry, artillery, engineers, +technical services, and troops laid down in the aforesaid table +constitute maxima which must not be exceeded. + +The following units may each have their own depot: + +An infantry regiment; a cavalry regiment; a regiment of field artillery; +a battalion of pioneers. + +3. The divisions must not be grouped under more than two army corps +headquarters staff. + +The maintenance or formation of forces differently grouped or of other +organizations for the command of troops or for preparation for war is +forbidden. + +The Great German General Staff and all similar organizations shall be +dissolved and may not be reconstituted in any form. + +The officers, or persons in the position of officers, in the Ministries +of War in the different States in Germany and in the administrations +attached to them, must not exceed three hundred in number and are +included in the maximum strength of four thousand laid down in the third +sub-paragraph of the first paragraph of this article. + +=ARTICLE 161.=--Army administrative services consisting of civilian +personnel not included in the number of effectives prescribed by the +present treaty will have such personnel reduced in each class to +one-tenth of that laid down in the budget of 1913. + +=ARTICLE 162.=--The number of employes or officials of the German +States, such as customs officers, forest guards, and coast guards shall +not exceed that of the employes or officials functioning in these +capacities in 1913. + +The number of gendarmes and employes or officials of the local or +municipal police may only be increased to an extent corresponding to the +increase of population since 1913 in the districts or municipalities in +which they are employed. + +These employes and officials may not be assembled for military training. + +=ARTICLE 163.=--The reduction of the strength of the German military +forces as provided for in Article 160 may be effected gradually in the +following manner: + +Within three months from the coming into force of the present treaty the +total number of effectives must be reduced to 200,000 and the number of +units must not exceed twice the number of those laid down in Article +160. + +At the expiration of this period, and at the end of each subsequent +period of three months, a conference of military experts of the +principal Allied and Associated Powers will fix the reductions to be +made in the ensuing three months, so that by the 31st of March, 1920, at +the latest, the total number of German effectives does not exceed the +maximum number of 100,000 men laid down in Article 160. In these +successive reductions the same ratio between the number of officers and +of men, and between the various kinds of units shall be maintained as is +laid down in that article. + + +CHAPTER II.--ARMAMENT, MUNITIONS, AND MATERIAL + +=ARTICLE 164.=--Up till the time at which Germany is admitted as a +member of the League of Nations the German Army must not possess an +armament greater than the amounts fixed in Table No. 2, annexed to this +section, with the exception of an optional increase not exceeding +one-twenty-fifth part for small arms and one-fiftieth part for guns, +which shall be exclusively used to provide for such eventual +replacements as may be necessary. + +Germany agrees that after she has become a member of the League of +Nations the armaments fixed in the said table shall remain in force +until they are modified by the Council of the League. Furthermore she +hereby agrees strictly to observe the decisions of the Council of the +League on this subject. + +=ARTICLE 165.=--The maximum number of guns, machine guns, trench +mortars, rifles, and the amount of ammunition and equipment which +Germany is allowed to maintain during the period between the coming into +force of the present treaty and the date of March 31, 1920, referred to +in Article 160, shall bear the same proportion to the amount authorized +in Table No. 3 annexed to this section as the strength of the German +Army as reduced from time to time in accordance with Article 163 bears +to the strength permitted under Article 160. + +=ARTICLE 166.=--At the date of March 31, 1920, the stock of munitions +which the German Army may have at its disposal shall not exceed the +amounts fixed in Table No. 3 annexed to this section. + +Within the same period the German Government will store these stocks at +points to be notified to the Governments of the principal Allied and +Associated Powers. The German Government is forbidden to establish any +other stocks, depots, or reserves of munitions. + +=ARTICLE 167.=--The number and calibre of the guns constituting at the +date of the coming into force of the present treaty the armament of the +fortified works, fortresses, and any land or coast forts which Germany +is allowed to retain, must be notified immediately by the German +Government to the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated +Powers, and will constitute maximum amounts which may not be exceeded. + +Within two months from the coming into force of the present treaty the +maximum stock of ammunition for these guns will be reduced to, and +maintained at, the following uniform rates: Fifteen hundred rounds per +piece for those the calibre of which is 10.5 cm. and under; 500 rounds +per piece for those of higher calibre. + +=ARTICLE 168.=--The manufacture of arms, munitions, or any war material +shall only be carried out in factories or works the locations of which +shall be communicated to and approved by the Governments of the +principal Allied and Associated Powers, and the number of which they +retain the right to restrict. + +Within three months from the coming into force of the present treaty all +other establishments for the manufacture, preparation, storage, or +design of arms, munitions, or any war material whatever shall be closed +down. The same applies to all arsenals except those used as depots for +the authorized stocks of munitions. Within the same period the personnel +of these arsenals will be dismissed. + +=ARTICLE 169.=--Within two months from the coming into force of the +present treaty, German arms, munitions, and war materials, including +anti-aircraft material, existing in Germany in excess of the quantities +allowed must be surrendered to the Governments of the principal Allied +and Associated Powers, to be destroyed or rendered useless. This will +also apply to any special plant intended for the manufacture of military +material, except such as may be recognized as necessary for equipping +the authorized strength of the German Army. + +The surrender in question will be effected at such points in German +territory as may be selected by the said Governments. + +Within the same period, arms, munitions, and war material, including +anti-aircraft material, of origin other than German, in whatever state +they may be, will be delivered to the said Governments, who will decide +as to their disposal. + +Arms and munitions which on account of the successive reductions in the +strength of the German Army become in excess of the amounts authorized +by Tables 2 and 3 of the annex must be handed over in the manner laid +down above within such periods as may be decided by the conferences +referred to in Article 163. + +=ARTICLE 170.=--Importation into Germany of arms, munitions, and war +material of every kind shall be strictly prohibited. + +The same applies to the manufacture for and export to foreign countries +of arms, munitions, and war material of every kind. + +=ARTICLE 171.=--The use of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases and +all analogous liquids, materials or devices being prohibited, their +manufacture and importation are strictly forbidden in Germany. + +The same applies to materials specially intended for the manufacture, +storage, and use of the said products or devices. + +The manufacture and the importation into Germany of armored cars, tanks, +and all similar constructions suitable for use in war are also +prohibited. + +=ARTICLE 172.=--Within a period of three months from the coming into +force of the present treaty the German Government will disclose to the +Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers the nature and +mode of manufacture of all explosives, toxic substances or other like +chemical preparations used by them in the war or prepared by them for +the purpose of being so used. + + +CHAPTER III.--RECRUITING AND MILITARY TRAINING + +=ARTICLE 173.=--Universal compulsory military service shall be abolished +in Germany. + +The German Army may only be constituted and recruited by means of +voluntary enlistment. + +=ARTICLE 174.=--The period of enlistment for non-commissioned officers +and privates must be twelve consecutive years. + +The number of men discharged for any reason before the expiration of +their term of enlistment must not exceed in any year 5 per cent. of the +total effectives as fixed by the second sub-paragraph of Paragraph 1 of +Article 160 of the present treaty. + +=ARTICLE 175.=--The officers who are retained in the army must undertake +the obligation to serve in it up to the age of forty-five years, at +least. + +Officers newly appointed must undertake to serve on the active list for +twenty-five consecutive years, at least. + +Officers who have previously belonged to any formation whatever of the +army and who are not retained in the units allowed to be maintained must +not take part in any military exercise, whether theoretical or +practical, and will not be under any military obligations whatever. + +The number of officers discharged for any reason before the expiration +of their term of service must not exceed in any year 5 per cent. of the +total effectives of officers provided for in the third sub-paragraph of +Paragraph 1 of Article 100 of the present treaty. + +=ARTICLE 176.=--On the expiration of two months from the coming into +force of the present treaty there must only exist in Germany the number +of military schools which is absolutely indispensable for the +recruitment of the officers of the units allowed. These schools will be +exclusively intended for the recruitment of officers of each arm, in the +proportion of one school per arm. + +The number of students admitted to attend the courses of the said +schools will be strictly in proportion to the vacancies to be filled in +the cadres of officers. The students and the cadres will be reckoned in +the effectives fixed by the second and third sub-paragraphs of Paragraph +1 of Article 160 of the present treaty. + +Consequently, and during the period fixed above, all military academies +or similar institutions in Germany, as well as the different military +schools for officers, student officers (aspiranten), cadets +non-commissioned officers, or student non-commissioned officers +(aspiranten), other than the schools above provided for, will be +abolished. + +=ARTICLE 177.=--Educational establishments, the universities, societies +of discharged soldiers, shooting or touring clubs, and, generally +speaking, associations of every description, whatever be the age of +their members, must not occupy themselves with any military matters. In +particular they will be forbidden to instruct or exercise their members, +or to allow them to be instructed or exercised, in the profession or use +of arms. + +These societies, associations, educational establishments, and +universities must have no connection with the Ministries of War or any +other military authority. + +=ARTICLE 178.=--All measures of mobilization or appertaining to +mobilization are forbidden. + +In no case must formations, administrative services, or general staffs +include supplementary cadres. + +=ARTICLE 179.=--Germany agrees, from the coming into force of the +present treaty, not to accredit nor to send to any foreign country any +military, naval, or air mission, nor to allow any such missions to leave +her territory, and Germany further agrees to take appropriate measures +to prevent German nationals from leaving her territory to become +enrolled in the army, navy, or air service of any foreign power, or to +be attached to such army, navy, or air service for the purpose of +assisting in the military, naval, or air training thereof, or otherwise +for the purpose of giving military, naval, or air instruction in any +foreign country. + +The Allied and Associated Powers agree, so far as they are concerned, +from the coming into force of the present treaty, not to enroll in nor +to attach to their armies or naval or air forces any German national for +the purpose of assisting in the military training of such armies or +naval or air forces, or otherwise to employ any such German national as +military, naval, or aeronautic instructor. + +The present provision, however, does not affect the right of France to +recruit for the Foreign Legion in accordance with French military laws +and regulations. + + +CHAPTER IV.--FORTIFICATIONS + +=ARTICLE 180.=--All fortified works, fortresses, and field works +situated in German territory to the west of a line drawn fifty +kilometers to the east of the Rhine shall be disarmed and dismantled. + +Within a period of two months from the coming into force of the present +treaty such of the above fortified works, fortresses, and field works as +are situated in territory not occupied by Allied and Associated troops +shall be disarmed and within a further period of four months they shall +be dismantled. Those which are situated in territory occupied by Allied +and Associated troops shall be disarmed and dismantled within such +periods as may be fixed by the Allied High Command. + +The construction of any new fortification, whatever its nature and +importance, is forbidden in the zone referred to in the first paragraph +above. + +The system of fortified works of the southern and eastern frontiers of +Germany shall be maintained in its existing state. + + +=TABLE NO. 1.= + +=State and Establishment of Army Corps Headquarters Staffs and of +Infantry and Cavalry Divisions.= + +These tabular statements do not form a fixed establishment to be imposed +on Germany, but the figures contained in them (number of units and +strengths) represent maximum figures, which should not in any case be +exceeded. + + +----------------------+----------+----------------------------+ + |Unit | Maximum| Max. Strength of Each Unit | + | | No.| | + | +----------+----------------------------+ + | |Authorized| Officers.| N.C.O.'s| + | | Division.| | Men.| + +----------------------+----------+---------------+------------+ + |Army corps hdq. staffs| 2| 30| 150| + |Total for hdq. staffs | ..| 60| 300| + +----------------------+----------+---------------+------------+ + + +2. ESTABLISHMENT OF AN INFANTRY DIVISION. + + +--------------------------+-----------------------------------------+ + | |Maximum No.| | + | | of Such | | + | |Units in a | Max. Strength of Each Unit | + | | Single +-----------+-----------------+ + | Unit | Division | Officers| N.C.O.'s and Men| + +--------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+ + |Hdqrs. of inf. div. | 1| 25| 70| + | | | | | + |Hdqrs. of divisional inf. | 1| 4| 30| + | | | | | + |Hdqrs. of divisional art. | 1| 4| 30| + | | | | | + |Regiment of inf. | 3| 70| 2,300| + | | | | | + |(Each regiment comprises 3| | | | + |battalions of infantry. | | | | + |Each battalion comprises 3| | | | + |companies of infantry and | | | | + |1 machine-gun company.) | | | | + | | | | | + |Trench mortar company | 3| 6| 150| + | | | | | + |Divisional squadron | 1| 6| 150| + | | | | | + |Field artillery regiment | 1| 85| 1,300| + | | | | | + |(Each regiment comprises 3| | | | + |groups of artillery. Each | | | | + |group comprises 3 | | | | + |batteries.) | | | | + | | | | | + |Pioneer battalion | 1| 12| 400| + | | | | | + |(This battalion comprises | | | | + |2 companies of pioneers, 1| | | | + |pontoon detachment, 1 | | | | + |searchlight section.) | | | | + | | | | | + |Signal detachment\ | 1| 12| 300| + | | | | | + |(This detachment comprises| | | | + |1 telephone detachment, 1 | | | | + |listening section, 1 | | | | + |carrier pigeon section.) | | | | + | | | | | + |Divisional Med. Service | 1| 20| 400| + | | | | | + |Parks and convoys | ..| 14| 800| + | | | | | + |Total for infantry div. | ..| 410| 10,830| + +--------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+ + +3. ESTABLISHMENT OF A CAVALRY DIVISION. + + +------------------------------------+----------+--------+---------+ + | | Maximum Strength | + | | of Each Unit | + | +----------+------------------+ + | |[31]Units.|Officers.|N.C.O.'s| + | | | |and Men.| + | | | | | + |Headquarters of a cavalry division | 1| 15| 50| + | | | | | + |Cavalry regiment | 6| 40| 800| + | | | | | + |(Each regiment comprises four | | | | + |squadrons.) | | | | + | | | | | + |Horse artillery group (three | 1| 20| 400| + |batteries) | | | | + | | | | | + |Total for cavalry division | ..| 275| 5,250| + +------------------------------------+----------+---------+--------+ + +[31] Maximum number of such units in single division. + +=TABLE NO. 2.= + +=Tabular statement of armament establishment for a maximum of seven +infantry divisions, three cavalry divisions, and two army corps +headquarters staffs.= + + +--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+------+-------+ + |Materials. | Inft.| For 7| Cav.| For 3| Total| + | | Div.| Inft.| Div.| Cav.|Columns| + | | | Divs.| | Divs.| 2 & 4| + +--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+------+-------+ + |Rifles | 12,000| 84,000| ...| ...| 84,000| + | | | | | | | + |Carbines | ...| ...| 6,000|18,000| 18,000| + | | | | | | | + |Heavy machine guns | 108| 756| 12| 36| 792| + | | | | | | | + |Light machine guns | 162| 1,134| ...| ...| 1,134| + | | | | | | | + |Medium trench mortars | 9| 63| ...| ...| 63| + | | | | | | | + |Light trench mortars | 27| 189| ...| ...| 189| + | | | | | | | + |7.7 cm. guns | 24| 168| 12| 36| 204| + | | | | | | | + |10.5 cm. howitzers | 12| 84| ...| ...| 84| + +--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+------+-------+ + + +Army corps headquarters staff establishment +must be drawn from the increased armaments of +the divisional infantry. + +=TABLE NO. 3.= + +=Maximum Stocks Authorized.= + + +----------------------+-----------+---------+-----------+ + |Material. | Maximum | Estab- | Maximum| + | | Number of |lishment | Totals,| + | | Arms |Per Unit,| Rounds.| + | |Authorized.| Rounds. | | + +----------------------+-----------+---------+-----------+ + |Rifles | 84,000 } | 40 | 40,800,000| + | | | | | + |Carbines | 18,000 } | | | + | | | | | + |Heavy machine guns | 792 } | 8,000 | 15,408,000| + | | | | | + |Light machine guns | 1,134 } | | | + | | | | | + |Medium trench mortars | 63 | 40 | 25,200| + | | | | | + |Light trench mort's | 189 | 800 | 151,200| + | | | | | + |Field artillery-- | | | | + | | | | | + |7.7 cm. guns | 204 | 1,000 | 204,000| + | | | | | + |10.5 cm. howitzers | 84 | 800 | 67,200| + +----------------------+-----------+---------+-----------+ + +SECTION II.--_Naval Clauses_ + +=ARTICLE 181.=--After the expiration of a period of two months from the +coming into force of the present treaty the German naval forces in +commission must not exceed: Six battleships of the Deutschland or +Lothringen type, six light cruisers, twelve destroyers, twelve torpedo +boats, or an equal number of ships constructed to replace them as +provided in Article 190. + +No submarines are to be included. All other warships except where there +is provision to the contrary in the present treaty must be placed in +reserve or devoted to commercial purposes. + +=ARTICLE 182.=--Until the completion of the minesweeping prescribed by +Article 193, Germany will keep in commission such number of minesweeping +vessels as may be fixed by the Governments of the principal Allied and +Associated Powers. + +=ARTICLE 183.=--After the expiration of a period of two months from the +coming into force of the present treaty the total personnel of the +German Navy, including the manning of the fleet, coast defenses, signal +stations, administration, and other land services, must not exceed +15,000, including officers and men of all grades and corps. The total +strength of officers and warrant officers must not exceed 1,500. Within +two months from the coming into force of the present treaty the +personnel in excess of the above strength shall be demobilized. No naval +or military corps or reserve force in connection with the navy may be +organized in Germany without being included in the above strength. + +=ARTICLE 184.=--From the date of the coming into force of the present +treaty all the German surface warships which are not in German ports +cease to belong to Germany, who renounces all rights over them. Vessels +which, in compliance with the armistice of Nov. 11, 1918, are now +interned in the ports of the Allied and Associated Powers, are declared +to be finally surrendered. Vessels which are now interned in neutral +ports will be there surrendered to the Governments of the principal +Allied and Associated Powers. The German Government must address a +notification to that effect to the neutral powers on the coming into +force of the present treaty. + +=ARTICLE 185.=--Within a period of two months from the coming into force +of the present treaty the German surface warships enumerated below will +be surrendered to the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated +Powers in such allied ports as the said powers may direct. These +warships will have been disarmed as provided in Article 23 of the +armistice, dated Nov. 11, 1918. Nevertheless, they must have all their +guns on board. + +Battleships--Oldenburg, Thuringen, Ostfriesland, Heligoland, Posen, +Westfalen, Rheinland, and Nassau. + +Light Cruisers--Stettin, Danzig, Muenchen, Luebeck, Stralsund, Augsburg, +Kolberg, and Stuttgart. + +And in addition forty-two modern destroyers and fifty modern torpedo +boats, as chosen by the Governments of the principal Allied and +Associated Powers. + +=ARTICLE 186.=--On the coming into force of the present treaty the +German Government must undertake, under the supervision of the +Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers, the breaking +up of all the German surface warships now under construction. + +=ARTICLE 187.=--The German auxiliary cruisers and fleet auxiliaries +enumerated below will be disarmed and treated as merchant ships. + +Ships interned in neutral countries: Berlin, Santa Fe, Seydlitz, Yorck. + +Ships interned in Germany: Ammon, Fuerst Buelow, Answald, Gertrud, Bosnia, +Kigoma, Cordoba, Rugia, Cassel, Santa Elena, Dania, Schleswig, Rio +Negro, Moewe, Rio Pardo, Sierra Ventana, Santa Cruz, Chemnitz, Schwaben, +Emil Georg von Strauss, Solingen, Habsburg, Steigerwald, Meteor, +Franken, Waltraute, Gundomar, Scharnhorst. + +=ARTICLE 188.=--On the expiration of one month from the coming into +force of the present treaty all German submarines, salvage vessels, and +docks for submarines, including the tubular dock, must have been handed +over to the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers. +Such of these submarines, vessels, and docks as are considered by said +Governments to be fit to proceed under their own power or to be towed +shall be taken by the German Government into such allied ports as have +been indicated. The remainder, and also those in course of construction, +shall be broken up entirely by the German Government under the +supervision of the said Governments. The breaking up must be completed +within three months at the most after the coming into force of the +present treaty. + +=ARTICLE 189.=--Articles, machinery, and material arising from the +breaking up of German warships of all kinds, whether surface vessels or +submarines, may not be used except for purely industrial or commercial +purposes. They may not be sold or disposed of to foreign countries. + +=ARTICLE 190.=--Germany is forbidden to construct or acquire any +warships other than those intended to replace the units in commission +provided for in Article 181 of the present treaty. The warships intended +for replacement purposes as above shall not exceed the following +displacement: Armored ships, 10,000 tons; light cruisers, 6,000 tons; +destroyers, 800 tons; torpedo boats, 200 tons. Except where a ship has +been lost, units of the different classes shall only be replaced at the +end of a period of twenty years in the case of battleships and cruisers, +and fifteen years in the case of destroyers and torpedo boats, counting +from the launching of the ship. + +=ARTICLE 191.=--The construction or acquisition of any submarine, even +for commercial purposes, shall be forbidden in Germany. + +=ARTICLE 192.=--The warships in commission of the German fleet must only +have on board or in reserve the allowance of arms, munitions, and war +material fixed by the principal Allied and Associated Powers. Within a +month from the fixing of the quantities as above, arms, munitions and +war material of all kinds, including mines and torpedoes now in the +hands of the German Government and in excess of the said quantities, +shall be surrendered to the Governments of the said powers at places to +be indicated by them. Such arms, munitions and war material will be +destroyed or rendered useless. All other stocks, depots or reserves of +arms, munitions or naval war material of all kinds are forbidden. The +manufacture of these articles in German territory for, and their export +to, foreign countries shall be forbidden. + +=ARTICLE 193.=--On the coming into force of the present treaty Germany +will forthwith sweep up the mines in the following areas in the North +Sea to the eastward of longitude 4 degrees 00 minutes east of Greenwich: +(1) Between parallels of latitude 53 degrees 00 minutes N. and 59 +degrees 00 minutes N.; (2) to the northward of latitude 60 degrees 30 +minutes N. Germany must keep these areas free from mines. Germany must +also sweep and keep free from mines such areas in the Baltic as may +ultimately be notified by the Governments of the principal Allied and +Associated Powers. + +=ARTICLE 194.=--The personnel of the German Navy shall be recruited +entirely by voluntary engagements entered into for a minimum period of +twenty-five consecutive years for officers and warrant officers, and +twelve consecutive years for petty officers, and men. The number engaged +to replace those discharged for any reason before the expiration of +their term of service must not exceed 5 per cent. per annum of the +totals laid down in this section. (Article 183.) + +The personnel discharged from the navy must not receive any kind of +naval or military training or undertake any further service in the navy +or army. Officers belonging to the German Navy and not demobilized must +engage to serve till the age of 45 unless discharged for sufficient +reasons. No officer or man of the German mercantile marine shall receive +any training in the navy. + +=ARTICLE 195.=--In order to insure free passage into the Baltic to all +nations, Germany shall not erect any fortifications in the area +comprised between latitudes 55.27 north and 54.00 north and longitudes +9.00 east and 16.00 east of the meridian of Greenwich, nor install any +guns commanding the maritime routes between the North Sea and the +Baltic. The fortifications now existing in this area shall be demolished +and the guns removed under the supervision of the Allied Governments and +in periods to be fixed by them. The German Government shall place at the +disposal of the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated +Powers all hydrographical information now in its possession concerning +the channels and adjoining waters between the Baltic and the North Sea. + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +=Berlin Demonstrations Against The Peace Treaty=] + +=ARTICLE 196.=--All fortified works and fortifications other than those +mentioned in Article 195 and in Part III. (political clauses for +Europe), Section XIII. (Heligoland), now established within fifty +kilometers of the German coast or on German islands off that coast, +shall be considered of a defensive nature and may remain in their +existing condition. No new fortifications shall be constructed within +these limits. The armament of these defenses shall not exceed, as +regards the number and calibre of guns, those in position at the date of +the coming into force of the present treaty. The German Government shall +communicate forthwith particulars thereof to all the European +Governments. On the expiration of a period of two months from the coming +into force of the present treaty the stocks of ammunition for these guns +shall be reduced to and maintained at a maximum figure of fifteen +hundred rounds per piece for calibres of 4.1-inch and under, and five +hundred rounds per piece for higher calibres. + +=ARTICLE 197.=--During the three months following the coming into force +of the present treaty the German high-power wireless telegraphy stations +at Nauen, Hanover, and Berlin shall not be used for the transmission of +messages concerning naval, military, or political questions of interest +to Germany or any State which has been allied to Germany in the war, +without the assent of the Governments of the principal Allied and +Associated Powers. These stations may be used for commercial purposes, +but only under the supervision of the said Governments, who will decide +the wave length to be used. During the same period Germany shall not +build any more high-power wireless telegraphy stations in her own +territory or that of Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, or Turkey. + + +SECTION III.--_Air Clauses_ + +=ARTICLE 198.=--The armed forces of Germany must not include any +military or naval air forces. Germany may, during a period not extending +beyond Oct. 1, 1919, maintain a maximum number of 100 seaplanes or +flying boats, which shall be exclusively employed in searching for +submarine mines, shall be furnished with the necessary equipment for +this purpose, and shall in no case carry arms, munitions, or bombs of +any nature whatever. In addition to the engines installed in the +seaplanes or flying boats above mentioned, one spare engine may be +provided for each engine of each of these craft. No dirigible shall be +kept. + +=ARTICLE 199.=--Within two months from the coming into force of the +present treaty the personnel of the air forces on the rolls of the +German land and sea forces shall be demobilized. Up to the 1st October, +1919, however, Germany may keep and maintain a total number of 1,000 +men, including officers, for the whole of the cadres and personnel, +flying and nonflying, of all formations and establishments. + +=ARTICLE 200.=--Until the complete evacuation of German territory by the +Allied and Associated troops, the aircraft of the Allied and Associated +Powers shall enjoy in Germany freedom of passage through the air, +freedom of transit and of landing. + +=ARTICLE 201.=--During the six months following the coming into force of +the present treaty the manufacture and importation of aircraft, parts of +aircraft, engines for aircraft, and parts of engines for aircraft shall +be forbidden in all German territory. + +=ARTICLE 202.=--On the coming into force of the present treaty all +military and naval aeronautical material, except the machines mentioned +in the second and third paragraphs of Article 198, must be delivered to +the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers. Delivery +must be effected at such places as the said Governments may select, and +must be completed within three months. In particular, this material will +include all items under the following heads, which are or have been in +use or were designed for warlike purposes: + +Complete airplanes and seaplanes, as well as those being manufactured, +repaired, or assembled. + +Dirigibles able to take the air being manufactured, repaired, or +assembled. + +Plant for the manufacture of hydrogen. + +Dirigible sheds and shelters of every kind for aircraft. + +Pending their delivery, dirigibles will, at the expense of Germany, be +maintained inflated with hydrogen; the plant for the manufacture of +hydrogen, as well as the sheds for dirigibles, may, at the discretion of +said powers, be left to Germany until the time when the dirigibles are +handed over. + +Engines for aircraft. + +Nacelles and fuselages. + +Armament (guns, machine guns, light machine guns, bomb-dropping +apparatus, torpedo-dropping apparatus, synchronization apparatus, aiming +apparatus). + +Munitions (cartridges, shells, bombs, loaded or unloaded, stocks of +explosives or of material for their manufacture). + +Instruments for use on aircraft. + +Wireless apparatus and photographic or cinematograph apparatus for use +on aircraft. + +Component parts of any of the items under the preceding heads. + +The material referred to above shall not be removed without special +permission from the said Governments. + + +SECTION IV.--_Interallied Commissions of Control_ + +=ARTICLE 203.=--All the military, naval, and air clauses contained in +the present treaty, for the execution of which a time limit is +prescribed, shall be executed by Germany under the control of +interallied commissions specially appointed for this purpose by the +principal Allied and Associated Powers. + +=ARTICLE 204.=--The Interallied Commissions of Control will be specially +charged with the duty of seeing to the complete execution of the +delivery, destruction, demolition, and rendering things useless to be +carried out at the expense of the German Government in accordance with +the present treaty. They will communicate to the German authorities the +decisions which the principal Allied and Associated Powers have reserved +the right to take, or which the execution of the military, naval, and +air clauses may necessitate. + +=ARTICLE 205.=--The Interallied Commissions of Control may establish +their organizations at the seat of the Central German Government. They +shall be entitled as often as they think desirable to proceed to any +point whatever in German territory, or to send sub-commissions, or to +authorize one or more of their members to go, to any such point. + +=ARTICLE 206.=--The German Government must give all necessary facilities +for the accomplishment of their missions to the Interallied Commissions +of Control and to their members. It shall attach a qualified +representative to each Interallied Commission of Control for the purpose +of receiving the communications which the commission may have to address +to the German Government, and of supplying or procuring for the +commission all information or documents which may be required. The +German Government must in all cases furnish at its own cost all labor +and material required to effect the deliveries and the work of +destruction, dismantling, demolition, and of rendering things useless, +provided for in the present treaty. + +=ARTICLE 207.=--The upkeep and cost of the Commissions of Control and +the expenses involved by their work shall be borne by Germany. + +=ARTICLE 208.=--The Military Interallied Commission of Control will +represent the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers +in dealing with the German Government in all matters concerning the +execution of the military clauses. In particular it will be its duty to +receive from the German Government the notifications relating to the +location of the stocks and depots of munitions, the armament of the +fortified works, fortresses and forts which Germany is allowed to +retain, and the location of the works or factories for the production of +arms, munitions and war material and their operations. It will take +delivery of the arms, munitions, and war material, will select the +points where such delivery is to be effected, and will supervise the +works of destruction and demolition and of rendering things useless +which are to be carried out in accordance with the present treaty. The +German Government must furnish to the Military Interallied Commission of +Control all such information and documents as the latter may deem +necessary to insure the complete execution of the military clauses, and +in particular all legislative and administrative documents and +regulations. + +=ARTICLE 209.=--The Naval Interallied Commission of Control will +represent the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers +in dealing with the German Government in all matters concerning the +execution of the naval clauses. In particular it will be its duty to +proceed to the building yards and to supervise the breaking up of the +ships which are under construction there, to take delivery of all +surface ships or submarines, salvage ships, docks and the tubular dock, +and to supervise the destruction and breaking up provided for. The +German Government must furnish to the Naval Interallied Commission of +Control all such information and documents as the commission may deem +necessary to insure the complete execution of the naval clauses, in +particular the designs of the warships, the composition of their +armaments, the details and models of the guns, munitions, torpedoes, +mines, explosives, wireless telegraphic apparatus and in general +everything relating to naval war material, as well as all legislative or +administrative documents or regulations. + +=ARTICLE 210.=--The Aeronautical Interallied Commission of Control will +represent the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers +in dealing with the German Government in all matters concerning the +execution of the air clauses. In particular it will be its duty to make +an inventory of the aeronautical material existing in German territory, +to inspect airplane, balloon, and motor manufactories, and factories +producing arms, munitions, and explosives capable of being used by +aircraft, to visit all aerodromes, sheds, landing grounds, parks, and +depots, to authorize, where necessary, a removal of material, and to +take delivery of such material. The German Government must furnish to +the Aeronautical Interallied Commission of Control all such information +and legislative, administrative or other documents which the commission +may consider necessary to insure the complete execution of the air +clauses, and, in particular, a list of the personnel belonging to all +the German air services, and of the existing material as well as of that +in process of manufacture or on order, and a list of all establishments +working for aviation, of their positions, and of all sheds and landing +grounds. + + +SECTION V.--_General Articles_ + +=ARTICLE 211.=--After the expiration of a period of three months from +the coming into force of the present treaty the German laws must have +been modified and shall be maintained in conformity with this part of +the present treaty. Within the same period all the administrative or +other measures relating to the execution of this part of the treaty must +have been taken. + +=ARTICLE 212.=--The following portions of the armistice of Nov. 11, +1918: Article VI., the first two and the sixth and seventh paragraphs of +Article VII, Article IX, Clauses I., II., and V. of Annex No. 2 and the +protocol, dated April 4, 1919, supplementing the armistice of Nov. 11, +1918, remain in force so far as they are not inconsistent with the above +stipulations. + +=ARTICLE 213.=--So long as the present treaty remains in force, Germany +undertakes to give every facility for any investigation which the +Council of the League of Nations, acting if need be by a majority vote, +may consider necessary. + + + + +PART VI + +Prisoners of War and Graves + + +SECTION I.--_Prisoners of War_ + + +=ARTICLE 214.=--The repatriation of prisoners of war and interned +civilians shall take place as soon as possible after the coming into +force of the present treaty and shall be carried out with the greatest +rapidity. + +=ARTICLE 215.=--The repatriation of German prisoners of war and interned +civilians shall, in accordance with Article 214, be carried out by a +commission composed of representatives of the Allied and Associated +Powers on the one part, and of the German Government on the other part. + +For each of the Allied and Associated Powers a sub-commission composed +exclusively of representatives of the interested powers and of delegates +of the German Government shall regulate the details of carrying into +effect the repatriation of the prisoners of war. + +=ARTICLE 216.=--From the time of their delivery into the hands of the +German authorities the prisoners of war and interned civilians are to be +returned without delay to their homes by the said authorities. Those +among them who before the war were habitually resident in territory +occupied by the troops of the Allied and Associated Powers are likewise +to be sent to their homes, subject to the consent and control of the +military authorities of the Allied and Associated Armies of Occupation. + +=ARTICLE 217.=--The whole cost of repatriation from the moment of +starting shall be borne by the German Government, who shall also provide +the land and sea transport and staff considered necessary by the +commission referred to in Article 215. + +=ARTICLE 218.=--Prisoners of war and interned civilians awaiting +disposal or undergoing sentences for offenses against discipline shall +be repatriated irrespective of the completion of their sentence or of +the proceedings pending against them. + +This stipulation shall not apply to prisoners of war and interned +civilians punished for offenses committed subsequent to May 1, 1919. + +During the period pending their repatriation all prisoners of war and +interned civilians shall remain subject to the existing regulations, +more especially as regards work and discipline. + +=ARTICLE 219.=--Prisoners of war and interned civilians who are awaiting +disposal or undergoing sentence for offenses other than those against +discipline may be detained. + +=ARTICLE 220.=--The German Government undertakes to admit to its +territory without distinction all persons liable to repatriation. + +Prisoners of war or other German nationals who do not desire to be +repatriated may be excluded from repatriation; but the Allied and +Associated Governments reserve to themselves the right either to +repatriate them or to take them to a neutral country or to allow them to +reside in their own territories. + +The German Government undertakes not to institute any exceptional +proceedings against these persons or their families nor to take any +repressive or vexatious measures of any kind whatsoever against them on +this account. + +=ARTICLE 221.=--The Allied and Associated Governments reserve the right +to make the repatriation of German prisoners of war or German nationals +in their hands conditional upon the immediate notification and release +by the German Government of any prisoners of war who are nationals of +the Allied and Associated Powers and may still be in Germany. + +=ARTICLE 222.=--Germany undertakes: + +1. To give every facility to the commissions to inquire into the cases +of those who cannot be traced; to furnish such commissions with all +necessary means of transport; to allow them access to camps, prisons, +hospitals, and all other places; and to place at their disposal all +documents, whether public or private, which would facilitate their +inquiries. + +2. To impose penalties upon any German officials or private persons who +have concealed the presence of any nationals of any of the Allied and +Associated Powers, or have neglected to reveal the presence of any such +after it had come to their knowledge. + +=ARTICLE 223.=--Germany undertakes to restore without delay from the +date of the coming into force of the present treaty all articles, money, +securities, and documents which have belonged to nationals of the Allied +and Associated Powers and which have been retained by the German +authorities. + +=ARTICLE 224.=--The high contracting parties waive reciprocally all +repayment of sums due for the maintenance of prisoners of war in their +respective territories. + + +SECTION II.--_Graves_ + +=ARTICLE 225.=--The Allied and Associated Governments and the German +Government will cause to be respected and maintained the graves of the +soldiers and sailors buried in their respective territories. + +They agree to recognize any commission appointed by an Allied or +Associated Government for the purpose of identifying, registering, +caring for, or erecting suitable memorials over the said graves and to +facilitate the discharge of its duties. + +Furthermore, they agree to afford, so far as the provisions of their +laws and the requirements of public health allow, every facility for +giving effect to requests that the bodies of their soldiers and sailors +may be transferred to their own countries. + +=ARTICLE 226.=--The graves of prisoners of war and interned civilians +who are nationals of the different belligerent States and have died in +captivity shall be properly maintained in accordance with Article 225 of +the present treaty. + +The Allied and Associated Governments on the one part, and the German +Government on the other part, reciprocally, undertake also to furnish to +each other: + +1. A complete list of those who have died, together with all information +useful for identification. + +2. All information as to the number and position of the graves of all +those who have been buried without identification. + + + + +PART VII + +Penalties + + +=ARTICLE 227.=--The Allied and Associated Powers publicly arraign +William II. of Hohenzollern, formerly German Emperor, for a supreme +offense against international morality and the sanctity of treaties. + +A special tribunal will be constituted to try the accused, thereby +assuring him the guarantees essential to the right of defense. It will +be composed of five judges, one appointed by each of the following +powers: The United States of America, Great Britain, France, Italy, and +Japan. + +In its decision, the tribunal will be guided by the highest motives of +international policy with a view to vindicating the solemn obligations +of international undertakings and the validity of international +morality. It will be its duty to fix the punishment which it considers +should be imposed. + +The Allied and Associated Powers will address a request to the +Government of the Netherlands for the surrender to them of the +ex-Emperor in order that he may be put on trial. + +=ARTICLE 228.=--The German Government recognizes the right of the Allied +and Associated Powers to bring before military tribunals persons accused +of having committed acts in violation of the laws and customs of war. +Such persons shall, if found guilty, be sentenced to punishments laid +down by law. This provision will apply, notwithstanding any proceedings +or prosecution before a tribunal in Germany or in the territory of her +allies. + +The German Government shall hand over to the Allied and Associated +Powers or to such one of them as shall so request, all persons accused +of having committed an act in violation of the laws and customs of war +who are specified either by name or by the rank, office, or employment +which they held under the German authorities. + +=ARTICLE 229.=--Persons guilty of criminal acts against the nationals of +one of the Allied and Associated Powers will be brought before the +military tribunals of that power. + +Persons guilty of criminal acts against the nationals of more than one +of the Allied and Associated Powers will be brought before military +tribunals composed of members of the military tribunals of the powers +concerned. + +In every case the accused will be entitled to name his own counsel. + +=ARTICLE 230.=--The German Government undertakes to furnish all +documents and information of every kind, the production of which may be +considered necessary to insure the full knowledge of the incriminating +acts, the discovery of offenders, and the just appreciation of +responsibility. + + + + +PART VIII + +Reparation + + +SECTION I.--_General Provisions_ + + +=ARTICLE 231.=--The Allied and Associated Governments affirm, and +Germany accepts, the responsibility of Germany and her allies for +causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated +Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of +the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies. + +=ARTICLE 232.=--The Allied and Associated Governments recognize that the +resources of Germany are not adequate, after taking into account +permanent diminutions of such resources which will result from other +provisions of the present treaty, to make complete reparation for all +such loss and damage. + +The Allied and Associated Governments, however, require, and Germany +undertakes, that she will make compensation for all damage done to the +civilian population of the Allied and Associated Powers and to their +property during the period of the belligerency of each as an Allied or +Associated Power against Germany by such aggression by land, by sea, and +from the air, and in general all damage as defined in Annex I. hereto. + +In accordance with Germany's pledges, already given as to complete +restoration for Belgium, Germany undertakes, in addition to the +compensation for damage elsewhere in this chapter provided for, as a +consequence of the violation of the treaty of 1839, to make +reimbursement of all sums which Belgium has borrowed from the Allies and +Associated Governments up to Nov. 11, 1918, together with interest at +the rate of 5 per cent. per annum on such sums. This amount shall be +determined by the Reparation Commission, and the German Government +undertakes thereupon forthwith to make a special issue of bearer bonds +to an equivalent amount payable in marks gold, on May 1, 1926, or, at +the option of the German Government, on the 1st of May in any year up to +1926. Subject to the foregoing, the form of such bonds shall be +determined by the Reparation Commission. Such bonds shall be handed over +to the Reparation Commission, which has authority to take and +acknowledge receipt thereof on behalf of Belgium. + +=ARTICLE 233.=--The amount of the above damage for which compensation is +to be made by Germany shall be determined by an interallied commission, +to be called the Reparation Commission, and constituted in the form and +with the power set forth hereunder and in Annexes II. to VII. inclusive +hereto. + +This commission shall consider the claims and give to the German +Government a just opportunity to be heard. + +The findings of the commission as to the amount of damage defined as +above shall be concluded and notified to the German Government on or +before the 1st May, 1921, as representing the extent of that +Government's obligations. + +The commission shall concurrently draw up a schedule of payments +prescribing the time and manner for securing and discharging the entire +obligation within a period of thirty years from the 1st May, 1921. If, +however, within the period mentioned, Germany fails to discharge her +obligations, any balance remaining unpaid may, within the discretion of +the commission, be postponed for settlement in subsequent years, or may +be handled otherwise in such manner as the Allied and Associated +Governments, acting in accordance with the procedure laid down in this +part of the present treaty, shall determine. + +=ARTICLE 234.=--The Reparation Commission shall after the 1st May, 1921, +from time to time, consider the resources and capacity of Germany and, +after giving her representatives a just opportunity to be heard, shall +have discretion to extend the date and to modify the form of payments, +such as are to be provided for in accordance with Article 233; but not +to cancel any part, except with the specific authority of the several +Governments represented upon the commission. + +=ARTICLE 235.=--In order to enable the Allied and Associated Powers to +proceed at once to the restoration of their industrial and economic +life, pending the full determination of their claims, Germany shall pay +in such installments and in such manner (whether in gold, commodities, +ships, securities, or otherwise) as the Reparation Commission may fix, +during 1919, 1920, and the first four months of 1921, the equivalent of +20,000,000,000 gold marks. + +Out of this sum the expenses of the armies of occupation subsequent to +the armistice of the 11th November, 1918, shall first be met, and such +supplies of food and raw materials as may be judged by the Governments +of the principal Allied and Associated Powers to be essential to enable +Germany to meet her obligations for reparation may also, with the +approval of the said Governments, be paid for out of the above sum. The +balance shall be reckoned toward liquidation of the amounts due for +reparation. + +Germany shall further deposit bonds as prescribed in Paragraph 12 (c) of +Annex II. hereto. + +=ARTICLE 236.=--Germany further agrees to the direct application of her +economic resources to reparation as specified in Annexes III., IV., V., +and VI., relating respectively to merchant shipping, to physical +restoration, and to coal and derivatives of coal, and to dyestuffs and +other chemical products; provided always that the value of the property +transferred and any services rendered by her under these annexes, +assessed in the manner herein prescribed, shall be credited to her +toward liquidation of her obligations under the above articles. + +=ARTICLE 237.=--The successive installments, including the above sum, +paid over by Germany in satisfaction of the above claims, will be +divided by the Allied and Associated Governments in proportions which +have been determined upon by them in advance on a basis of general +equity and of the rights of each. + +For the purposes of this division the value of property transferred and +services rendered under Article 243 and under Annexes III., IV., VI., +and VII. shall be reckoned in the same manner as cash payments effected +in that year. + +=ARTICLE 238.=--In addition to the payments mentioned above, Germany +shall effect, in accordance with the procedure laid down by the +Reparation Commission, restitution in cash of cash taken away, seized, +or sequestrated, and also restitution of animals, objects of every +nature, and securities taken away, seized, or sequestrated, in the cases +in which it proves possible to identify them in territory belonging to +Germany or her allies. + +Until this procedure is laid down restitution will continue in +accordance with the provisions of the armistice of 11th November, 1918, +and its renewals and the protocols thereto. + +=ARTICLE 239.=--Germany undertakes to make forthwith the restitution +contemplated by Article 238 and to make the payments and deliveries +contemplated by Articles 233, 234, 235, and 236. + +=ARTICLE 240.=--Germany recognizes the commission provided for by +Article 233 as the same may be constituted by the Allied and Associated +Governments in accordance with Annex II. and agrees irrevocably to the +possession and exercise by such commission of the power and authority +given to it under the present treaty. The German Government will supply +to the commission all the information which the commission may require +relative to the financial situation and operations and to the property, +productive capacity, and stocks and current production of raw materials +and manufactured articles of Germany and her nationals, and, further, +any information relative to military operations which in the judgment of +the commission may be necessary for the assessment of Germany's +liability for reparation as defined in Annex I. + +The German Government will accord to the members of the commission and +its authorized agents the same rights and immunities as are enjoyed in +Germany by duly accredited diplomatic agents of friendly powers. Germany +further agrees to provide for the salaries and expenses of the +commission, and of such staff as it may employ. + +=ARTICLE 241.=--Germany undertakes to pass, issue, and maintain in force +any legislation, orders, and decrees that may be necessary to give +complete effect to these provisions. + +=ARTICLE 242.=--The provisions of this part of the present treaty do not +apply to the property, rights, and interests referred to in Sections +III. and IV. of Part X. (economic clauses) of the present treaty, nor to +the product of their liquidation, except so far as concerns any final +balance in favor of Germany under Article 243 (a). + +=ARTICLE 243.=--The following shall be reckoned as credits to Germany in +respect of her reparation obligations: + +(a) Any final balance in favor of Germany under Sections III. and IV. of +Part X. (economic clauses) and Section V. (Alsace-Lorraine) of Part III. +(political clauses for Europe). + +(b) Amounts due to Germany in respect of transfers under Part IX. +(financial clauses), Part XII. (ports, waterways, and railways), and +Section IV. (Sarre Basin) of Part III. (political clauses for Europe). + +(c) Amounts which in the judgment of the Reparation Commission should be +credited to Germany on account of any other transfers under the present +treaty of property, rights, concessions, or other interests. + +In no case, however, shall credit be given for property restored in +accordance with Article 238. + +=ARTICLE 244.=--The transfer of the German submarine cables which do not +form the subject of particular provisions of the present treaty as +regulated by Annex VII. hereto. + + +ANNEX I. + +Compensation may be claimed from Germany under Article 232 above in +respect of the total damage under the following categories: + +1. Damage to injured persons and to surviving dependents by personal +injury to or death of civilians caused by acts of war, including +bombardments or other attacks on land, on sea, or from the air, and all +the direct consequences thereof, and of all operations of war by the two +groups of belligerents wherever arising. + +2. Damage caused by Germany or her allies to civilian victims of acts of +cruelty, violence, or maltreatment, (including injuries to life or +health as a consequence of imprisonment, deportation, internment, or +evacuation, of exposure at sea, or of being forced to labor by Germany +or her allies,) wherever arising, and to the surviving dependents of +such victims. + +3. Damage caused by Germany or her allies in their own territory or in +occupied or invaded territory to civilian victims of all acts injurious +to health or capacity to work, or to honor, as well as to the surviving +dependents of such victims. + +4. Damage caused by any kind of maltreatment of prisoners of war. + +5. As damage caused to the peoples of the Allied and Associated Powers, +all pensions and compensations in the nature of pensions to naval and +military victims of war, (including members of the air forces,) whether +mutilated, wounded, sick or invalided, and to the dependents of such +victims, the amount due to the Allied and Associated Governments being +calculated for each of them as being the capitalized costs of such +pensions and compensations at the date of the coming into force of the +present treaty, on the basis of the scales in force in France at such +date. + +6. The cost of assistance by the Governments of the Allied and +Associated Powers to prisoners of war and to their families and +dependents. + +7. Allowances by the Governments of the Allied and Associated Powers to +the families and dependents of mobilized persons or persons serving with +the forces, the amount due to them for each calendar year in which +hostilities occurred being calculated for each Government on the basis +of the average scale for such payments in force in France during that +year. + +8. Damage caused to civilians by being forced by Germany or her allies +to labor without just remuneration. + +9. Damage in respect of all property, wherever situated, belonging to +any of the Allied or Associated States or their nationals, with the +exception of naval and military works or materials, which have been +carried off, seized, injured, or destroyed by the acts of Germany or her +allies on land, on sea, or from the air, or damage directly in +consequence of hostilities or of any operations of war. + +10. Damage in the form of levies, fines and other similar exactions +imposed by Germany or her allies upon the civilian population. + + +ANNEX II. + +1. The commission referred to in Article 233 shall be called "The +Reparation Commission," and is hereinafter referred to as "the +commission." + +2. Delegates to the commission shall be nominated by the United States +of America, Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Belgium, and the +Serb-Croat-Slovene State. Each of these powers will appoint one delegate +and also one assistant delegate, who will take his place in case of +illness or necessary absence, but at other times will only have the +right to be present at proceedings without taking any part therein. On +no occasion shall the delegates of more than five of the above powers +have the right to take part in the proceedings of the commission and to +record their votes. The delegates of the United States, Great Britain, +France, and Italy shall have this right on all occasions. The delegates +of Belgium shall have this right on all occasions other than those +referred to below. The delegate of Japan shall have this right on +occasions when questions relating to damage at sea and questions arising +under Article 260 of Part IX. (financial clauses) in which Japanese +interests are concerned are under consideration. The delegate of the +Serb-Croat-Slovene State shall have this right when questions relating +to Austria, Hungary, or Bulgaria are under consideration. + +Each Government represented on the commission shall have the right to +withdraw therefrom upon twelve months' notice, filed with the commission +and confirmed in the course of the sixth month after the date of the +original notice. + +3. Such of the other Allied and Associated Powers as may be interested +shall have the right to appoint a delegate to be present and act as +assessor only while their respective claims and interests are under +examination or discussion, but without the right to vote. + +4. In case of the death, resignation or recall of any delegate, +assistant delegate, or assessor, a successor to him shall be nominated +as soon as possible. + +5. The commission will have its principal permanent bureau in Paris and +will hold its first meeting in Paris as soon as practicable after the +coming into force of the present treaty, and thereafter will meet in +such place or places and at such time as it may deem convenient and as +may be necessary for the most expeditious discharge of its duties. + +6. At its first meeting the commission shall elect from among the +delegates referred to above a Chairman and a Vice Chairman, who shall +hold office for one year and shall be eligible for re-election. If a +vacancy in the Chairmanship or Vice Chairmanship should occur during the +annual period the commission shall proceed to a new election for the +remainder of the said period. + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +German Press Representatives in Versailles + +These men who are shown in their work room in the Hotel Des Reservoirs, +Versailles, sent the news of the progress of the Peace Treaty throughout +Germany] + +7. The commission is authorized to appoint all necessary officers, +agents, and employees who may be required for the execution of its +functions, and to fix their remuneration; to constitute committees, +whose members need not necessarily be members of the commission, and to +take all executive steps necessary for the purpose of discharging its +duties, and to delegate authority and discretion to officers, agents, +and committees. + +8. All proceedings of the commission shall be private unless, on +particular occasions, the commission shall otherwise determine for +special reasons. + +9. The commission shall be required, if the German Government so desire, +to hear, within a period which it will fix from time to time, evidence +and arguments on the part of Germany on any question connected with her +capacity to pay. + +10. The commission shall consider the claims and give to the German +Government a just opportunity to be heard, but not to take any part +whatever in the decisions of the commission. The commission shall afford +a similar opportunity to the allies of Germany when it shall consider +that their interests are in question. + +11. The commission shall not be bound by any particular code or rules of +law or by any particular rule of evidence or of procedure, but shall be +guided by justice, equity, and good faith. Its decisions must follow the +same principles and rules in all cases where they are applicable. It +will establish rules relating to methods of proof of claims. It may act +on any trustworthy modes of computation. + +12. The commission shall have all the powers conferred upon it, and +shall exercise all the functions assigned to it by the present treaty. + +The commission shall in general have wide latitude as to its control and +handling of the whole reparation problem as dealt with in this part of +the present treaty, and shall have authority to interpret its +provisions. Subject to the provisions of the present treaty, the +commission is constituted by the several Allied and Associated +Governments referred to in Paragraphs 2 and 3 above as the exclusive +agency of the said Governments respectively for receiving, selling, +holding, and distributing the reparation payments to be made by Germany +under this part of the present treaty. The commission must comply with +the following conditions and provisions: + +(a) Whatever part of the full amount of the proved claims is not paid in +gold, or in ships, securities, and commodities or otherwise, Germany +shall be required, under such conditions as the commission may +determine, to cover by way of guarantee by an equivalent issue of bonds, +obligations, or otherwise, in order to constitute an acknowledgment of +the said part of the debt; + +(b) In periodically estimating Germany's capacity to pay, the commission +shall examine the German system of taxation, first to the end that the +sums for reparation which Germany is required to pay shall become a +charge upon all her revenues prior to that for the service or discharge +of any domestic loan, and, secondly, so as to satisfy itself that, in +general, the German scheme of taxation is fully as heavy proportionately +as that of any of the powers represented on the commission. + +(c) In order to facilitate and continue the immediate restoration of the +economic life of the Allied and Associated countries, the commission +will, as provided in Article 235, take from Germany by way of security +for and acknowledgment of her debt a first installment of gold bearer +bonds free of all taxes or charges of every description established or +to be established by the Government of the German Empire or of the +German States, or by any authority subject to them; these bonds will be +delivered on account and in three portions, the marks gold being payable +in conformity with Article 262 of Part IX. (financial clauses) of the +present treaty, as follows: + +First. To be issued forthwith, 20,000,000,000 marks gold bearer bonds, +payable not later than May 1, 1921, without interest. There shall be +specially applied toward the amortization of these bonds the payments +which Germany is pledged to make in conformity with Article 235, after +deduction of the sums used for the reimbursement of expenses of the +armies of occupation and for payment of foodstuffs and raw materials. +Such bonds as have not been redeemed by May 1, 1921, shall then be +exchanged for new bonds of the same type as those provided for below, +(Paragraph 12, c. second.) + +Second. To be issued forthwith, further 40,000,000,000 marks gold bearer +bonds, bearing interest at 2-1/2 per cent. per annum between 1921 and 1926, +and thereafter at 5 per cent. per annum, with an additional 1 per cent +for amortization beginning in 1926 on the whole amount of the issue. + +Third. To be delivered forthwith a covering undertaking in writing, to +issue when, but not until, the commission is satisfied that Germany can +meet such interest and sinking fund obligations, a further installment +of 40,000,000,000 marks gold 5 per cent. bearer bonds, the time and mode +of payment of principal and interest to be determined by the commission. + +The dates for payment of interest, the manner of applying the +amortization fund, and all other questions relating to the issue, +management, and regulation of the bond issue shall be determined by the +commission from time to time. + +Further issues by way of acknowledgment and security may be required as +the commission subsequently determines from time to time. + +(d) In the event of bonds, obligations, or other evidence of +indebtedness issued by Germany by way of security for or acknowledgment +of her reparation debt being disposed of outright, not by way of pledge, +to persons other than the several Governments in whose favor Germany's +original reparation indebtedness was created, an amount of such +reparation indebtedness shall be deemed to be extinguished +corresponding to the nominal value of the bonds, &c., so disposed of +outright, and the obligation of Germany in respect for such bonds shall +be confined to her liabilities to the holders of the bonds, as expressed +upon their face. + +(e) The damage for repairing, reconstructing, and rebuilding property in +the invaded and devastated districts, including reinstallation of +furniture, machinery and other equipment, will be calculated according +to the cost at the dates when the work is done. + +(f) Decisions of the commission relating to the total or partial +cancellation of the capital or interest of any verified debt of Germany +must be accompanied by a statement of its reasons. + +13. As to voting, the commission will observe the following rules: + +When a decision of the commission is taken, the votes of all the +delegates entitled to vote, or in the absence of any of them, of their +assistant delegates, shall be recorded. Abstention from voting is to be +treated as a vote against the proposal under discussion. Assessors have +no vote. + +On the following questions unanimity is necessary: + +(a) Questions involving the sovereignty of any of the Allied and +Associated Powers, or the cancellation of the whole or any part of the +debt or obligations of Germany. + +(b) Questions of determining the amount and conditions of bonds or other +obligations to be issued by the German Government and of fixing the time +and manner for selling, negotiating, or distributing such bonds. + +(c) Any postponement, total or partial, beyond the end of 1930, of the +payment of installments falling due between the 1st May, 1921, and the +end of 1926 inclusive. + +(d) Any postponement, total or partial, of any installment falling due +after 1926 for a period exceeding three years. + +(e) Questions of applying in any particular case a method of measuring +damages different from that which has been previously applied in a +similar case. + +(f) Questions of the interpretation of the provisions of this part of +the present treaty. + +All other questions shall be decided by the vote of a majority. + +In case of any difference of opinion among the delegates, which cannot +be solved by reference to their Governments, upon the question whether a +given case is one which requires a unanimous vote for its decision or +not, such difference shall be referred to the immediate arbitration of +some impartial person to be agreed upon by the Governments, whose award +the Allied and Associated Governments agree to accept. + +14. Decisions of the commission, in accordance with the powers conferred +upon it, shall forthwith become binding and may be put into immediate +execution without further proceedings. + +15. The commission will issue to each of the interested powers, in such +form as the commission shall fix: + +First. A certificate stating that it holds for the account of the said +power bonds of the issues mentioned above, the said certificate, on the +demand of the power concerned, being divisible in a number of parts not +exceeding five; + +Second. From time to time certificates stating the goods delivered by +Germany on account of her reparation debt which it holds for the account +of the said power. + +The said certificates shall be registered, and, upon notice to the +commission, may be transferred by indorsement. + +When bonds are issued for sale or negotiation, and when goods are +delivered by the commission, certificates to an equivalent value must be +withdrawn. + +16. Interest shall be debited to Germany as from 1st May, 1921, in +respect of her debt as determined by the commission, after allowing for +sums already covered by cash payments or their equivalent, or by bonds +issued to the commission, or under Article 243. The rate of interest +shall be 5 per cent., unless the commission shall determine at some +future time that circumstances justify a variation of this rate. + +The commission, in fixing on 1st May, 1921, the total amount of the debt +of Germany, may take account of interest due on sums arising out of the +reparation of material damage, as from 11th November, 1918, up to 1st +May, 1921. + +17. In case of default by Germany in the performance of any obligation +under this part of the present treaty, the commission will forthwith +give notice of such default to each of the interested powers and may +make such recommendations as to the action to be taken in consequence of +such default as it may think necessary. + +18. The measures which the Allied and Associated Powers shall have the +right to take, in case of voluntary default by Germany, and which +Germany agrees not to regard as acts of war, may include economic and +financial prohibitions and reprisals and in general such other measures +as the respective Governments may determine to be necessary in the +circumstances. + +19. Payments required to be made in gold or its equivalent on account of +the proved claims of the Allied and Associated Powers may at any time be +accepted by the commission in the form of chattels, properties, +commodities, businesses, rights, concessions, within or without German +territory, ships, bonds, shares, or securities of any kind, or +currencies of Germany or other States, the value of such substitutes for +gold being fixed at a fair and just amount by the commission itself. + +20. The commission, in fixing or accepting payment in specified +properties or rights, shall have due regard for any legal or equitable +interests of the Allied and Associated Powers or of neutral powers or of +their nationals therein. + +21. No member of the commission shall be responsible, except to the +Government appointing him, for any action or omission as such member. No +one of the Allied or Associated Governments assumes any responsibility +in respect of any other Government. + +22. Subject to the provisions of the present treaty this annex may be +amended by the unanimous decision of the Governments represented from +time to time upon the commission. + +23. When all the amounts due from Germany and her allies under the +present treaty or the decisions of the commission have been discharged +and all sums received, or their equivalents, shall have been distributed +to the powers interested, the commission shall be dissolved. + + +ANNEX III. + +1. Germany recognizes the right of the Allied and Associated Powers to +the replacement, ton for ton (gross tonnage) and class for class, of all +merchant ships and fishing boats lost or damaged owing to the war. + +Nevertheless, and in spite of the fact that the tonnage of German +shipping at present in existence is much less than that lost by the +Allied and Associated Powers, in consequence of the German aggression, +the right thus recognized will be enforced on German ships and boats +under the following conditions: + +The German Government on behalf of themselves and so as to bind all +other persons interested, cede to the Allied and Associated Governments +the property in all the German merchant ships which are of 1,600 tons +gross and upward; in one-half, reckoned in tonnage, of the ships which +are between 1,000 tons and 1,600 tons gross; in one-quarter, reckoned in +tonnage, of the steam trawlers, and in one-quarter, reckoned in tonnage, +of the other fishing boats. + +2. The German Government will, within two months of the coming into +force of the present treaty, deliver to the Reparation Commission all +the ships and boats mentioned in Paragraph 1. + +3. The ships and boats mentioned in Paragraph 1 include all ships and +boats which (a) fly, or may be entitled to fly, the German merchant +flag; or (b) are owned by any German national, company, or corporation +or by any company or corporation belonging to a country other than an +Allied or Associated country and under the control or direction of +German nationals; or (c) which are now under construction (1) in +Germany, (2) in other than Allied or Associated countries for the +account of any German national, company, or corporation. + +4. For the purpose of providing documents of title for the ships and +boats to be handed over as above mentioned, the German Government will: + +(a) Deliver to the Reparation Commission in respect of each vessel a +bill of sale or other document of title evidencing the transfer to the +commission of the entire property in the vessel free from all +incumbrances, charges, and liens of all kinds, as the commission may +require: + +(b) Take all measures that may be indicated by the Reparation Commission +for insuring that the ships themselves shall be placed at its disposal. + +5. As an additional part of reparation, Germany agrees to cause merchant +ships to be built in German yards for the account of the Allied and +Associated Governments as follows: + +(a) Within three months of the coming into force of the present treaty, +the Reparation Commission will notify to the German Government the +amount of tonnage to be laid down in German shipyards in each of the two +years next succeeding the three months mentioned above: + +(b) Within twenty-four months of the coming into force of the present +treaty, the Reparation Commission will notify to the German Government +the amount of tonnage to be laid down in each of the three years +following the two years mentioned above; + +(c) The amount of tonnage to be laid down in each year shall not exceed +200,000 tons, gross tonnage; + +(d) The specifications of the ships to be built, the conditions under +which they are to be built and delivered, the price per ton at which +they are to be accounted for by the Reparation Commission, and all other +questions relating to the accounting, ordering, building and delivery of +the ships, shall be determined by the commission. + +6. Germany undertakes to restore in kind and in normal condition of +upkeep to the Allied and Associated Powers, within two months of the +coming into force of the present treaty, in accordance with procedure to +be laid down by the Reparation Commission, any boats and other movable +appliances belonging to inland navigation which since the 1st August, +1914, have by any means whatever come into her possession or into the +possession of her nationals, and which can be identified. + +With a view to make good the loss in inland navigation tonnage, from +whatever cause arising, which has been incurred during the war by the +Allied and Associated Powers, and which cannot be made good by means of +the restitution prescribed above, Germany agrees to cede to the +Reparation Commission a portion of the German river fleet up to the +amount of the loss mentioned above, provided that such cession shall not +exceed 20 per cent. of the river fleet as it existed on the 11th +November, 1918. + +The condition of this session shall be settled by the arbitrators +referred to in Article 339 of Part XII. (ports, waterways and railways) +of the present treaty, who are charged with the settlement of +difficulties relating to the apportionment of river tonnage resulting +from the new international regime applicable to certain river systems or +from the territorial changes affecting those systems. + +7. Germany agrees to take any measures that may be indicated to her by +the Reparation Commission for obtaining the full title to the property +in all ships which have been during the war transferred, or are in +process of transfer, to neutral flags, without the consent of the Allied +and Associated Governments. + +8. Germany waives all claims of any description against the Allied and +Associated Governments and their nationals in respect of the detention, +employment, loss or damage of any German ships or boats, except when +being made of payments due in respect of the employment of ships in +conformity with the armistice agreement of the 13th January, 1919, and +subsequent agreements. + +The handing over of the ships of the German mercantile marine must be +continued without interruption in accordance with the said agreement. + +9. Germany waives all claims to vessels or cargoes sunk by or in +consequence of naval action and subsequently salved, in which any of the +Allied or Associated Governments or their nationals may have any +interest, either as owners, charterers, insurers or otherwise, +notwithstanding any decree of condemnation which may have been made by a +prize court of Germany or of her allies. + + +ANNEX IV. + +1. The Allied and Associated Powers require, and Germany undertakes, +that, in part satisfaction of her obligations expressed in this part of +the present treaty, she will, as hereinafter provided, devote her +economic resources directly to the physical restoration of the invaded +areas of the Allied and Associated Powers, to the extent that these +powers may determine. + +2. The Allied and Associated Governments may file with the Reparation +Commission lists showing: + +(a) Animals, machinery, equipment, tools, and like articles of +commercial character, which have been seized, consumed, or destroyed by +Germany or destroyed in direct consequence of military operations, and +which such Governments, for the purpose of meeting immediate and urgent +needs, desire to have replaced by animals and articles of the same +nature which are being in German territory at the date of the coming +into force of the present treaty; + +(b) Reconstruction materials, (stones, bricks, refractory bricks, tiles, +wood, window glass, steel, lime, cement, &c.,) machinery, heating +apparatus, furniture, and like articles of a commercial character which +the said Governments desire to have produced and manufactured in Germany +and delivered to them to permit of the restoration of the invaded areas. + +3. The lists relating to the articles mentioned in 2 (a), above, shall +be filed within sixty days after the date of the coming into force of +the present treaty. The lists relating to the articles in 2 (b), above, +shall be filed on or before Dec. 31, 1919. The lists shall contain all +such details as are customary in commercial contracts dealing with the +subject matter, including specifications, dates of delivery, (but not +extending over more than four years,) and places of delivery, but not +price or value, which shall be fixed as hereinafter provided by the +commission. + +4. Immediately upon the filing of such lists with the commission, the +commission shall consider the amount and number of the materials and +animals mentioned in the lists provided for above which are to be +required of Germany. In reaching a decision on this matter the +commission shall take into account such domestic requirements of Germany +as it deems essential for the maintenance of Germany's social and +economic life, and the prices and dates at which similar articles can be +obtained in the Allied and Associated countries as compared with those +to be fixed for German articles, and the general interest of the Allied +and Associated Governments that the industrial life of Germany be not so +disorganized as to affect adversely the ability of Germany to perform +the other acts of reparation stipulated for. Machinery, equipment, +tools, and like articles of a commercial character in actual industrial +use are not, however, to be demanded of Germany unless there is no free +stock of such articles respectively which is not in use and is +available, and then not in excess of 30 per cent. of the quantity of +such articles in use in any one establishment or undertaking. + +The commission shall give representatives of the German Government an +opportunity and a time to be heard as to their capacity to furnish the +said materials, articles, and animals. The decision of the commission +shall thereupon and at the earliest possible moment be communicated to +the German Government and to the several interested Allied and +Associated Governments. The German Government undertakes to deliver the +materials, articles, and animals as specified in the said communication, +and the interested Allied and Associated Governments severally agree to +accept the same, provided they conform to the specification given, or +are not, in the judgment of the commission, unfit to be utilized in the +work of reparation. + +5. The commission shall determine the value to be attributed to the +materials, articles, and animals to be delivered in accordance with the +foregoing, and the Allied or Associated Power receiving the same agrees +to be charged with such value, and the amount thereof shall be treated +as a payment by Germany to be divided in accordance with Article 237 of +this part of the present treaty. + +In cases where the right to require physical restoration as above +provided is exercised the commission shall insure that the amount to be +credited against the reparation obligation of Germany shall be the fair +value of work done or materials supplied by Germany and that the claim +made by the interested power in respect of the damage so repaired by +physical restoration shall be discharged to the extent of the +proportion which the damage thus repaired bears to the whole of the +damage thus claimed for. + +6. As an immediate advance on account of the animals referred to in +Paragraph 2 (a) above, Germany undertakes to deliver in equal monthly +installments in the three months following the coming into force of the +present treaty the following quantities of live stock: + +First. To the French Government, 500 stallions, (3 to 7 years,) 30,000 +fillies and mares, (18 months to 7 years,) type: Ardennais, Boulonnais, +or Belgian; 2,000 bulls, (18 months to 3 years); 90,000 milch cows, (2 +to 6 years); 1,000 rams, 100,000 sheep, 10,000 goats. + +Second. To the Belgian Government, 200 stallions, (3 to 7 years) large +Belgian type; 5,000 mares, (3 to 7 years) large Belgian type; 5,000 +fillies, (18 months to 3 years); large Belgian type; 2,000 bulls, (18 +months to 3 years) 50,000 milch cows, (2 to 6 years) 40,000 heifers, 200 +rams, 20,000 sheep, 15,000 sows. + +The animals delivered shall be of average health and condition. To the +extent that animals so delivered cannot be identified as animals taken +away or seized, the value of such animals shall be credited against the +reparation obligations of Germany in accordance with Paragraph 5 of this +annex. + +7. Without waiting for the decisions of the commission, referred to in +Paragraph 4 of this annex, to be taken, Germany must continue the +delivery to France of the agricultural material referred to in Article 3 +of the renewal of the armistice of 16th January, 1919. + + +ANNEX V. + +1. Germany accords the following options for the delivery of coal and +derivatives of coal to the under-mentioned signatories of the present +treaty. + +2. Germany undertakes to deliver to France 7,000,000 tons of coal per +year for ten years. In addition, Germany undertakes to deliver to France +annually for a period not exceeding ten years an amount of coal equal to +the difference between the annual production before the war of the coal +mines of the Nord and Pas de Calais, destroyed as a result of the war, +and the production of the mines of the same area during the years in +question; such delivery not to exceed 20,000,000 tons in any one year of +the first five years, and 8,000,000 tons in any one year of the +succeeding five years. + +It is understood due diligence will be exercised in the restoration of +the destroyed mines in the Nord and Pas de Calais. + +3. Germany undertakes to deliver to Belgium 8,000,000 tons of coal +annually for ten years. + +4. Germany undertakes to deliver to Italy up to the following quantities +of coal: + + July, 1919, to June, 1920, 4,500,000 tons. + July, 1920, to June, 1921, 6,000,000 tons. + July, 1921, to June, 1922, 7,500,000 tons. + July, 1922, to June, 1923, 8,000,000 tons. + July, 1923, to June, 1924, 8,500,000 tons. + +and each of the following five years, 8,500,000 tons. + +At least two-thirds of the actual deliveries to be land borne. + +5. Germany further undertakes to deliver annually to Luxemburg, if +directed by the Reparation Commission, a quantity of coal equal to the +pre-war annual consumption of German coal in Luxemburg. + +6. The prices to be paid for coal delivered under these options shall be +as follows: + +(a) For overland delivery, including delivery by barge, the German +pithead price to German nationals, plus the freight to French, Belgian, +Italian, or Luxemburg frontiers, provided the pithead price does not +exceed the pithead price of British coal for export. In case of Belgian +bunker coal, the price shall not exceed the Dutch bunker price. Railroad +and barge tariffs shall not be higher than the lowest similar rates paid +in Germany. + +(b) For sea delivery, the German export price f. o. b. the German ports, +or the British export price f. o. b. British ports, whichever may be +lower. + +7. The Allied and Associated Governments interested may demand the +delivery in place of coal of metallurgical coke in the proportion of +three tons of coke to four tons of coal. + +8. Germany undertakes to deliver to France and to transport to the +French frontier by rail or by water the following products during each +of the three years following the coming into force of this treaty: + + Benzol--35,000 tons. + Coal tar--50,000 tons. + Sulphate of ammonia--30,000 tons. + +All or part of the coal tar may, at the option of the French Government, +be replaced by corresponding quantities of products of distillation, +such as light oils, heavy oils, anthracine, naphthaline, or pitch. + +9. The price paid for coke and for the articles referred to in the +preceding paragraphs shall be the same as the price paid by German +nationals under the same conditions of shipment to the French frontier +or to the German ports, and shall be subject to any advantages which may +be accorded similar products furnished to German nationals. + +10. The foregoing options shall be exercised through the intervention of +the Reparation Commission, which, subject to the specific provisions +hereof, shall have power to determine all questions relative to +procedure and the qualities and quantities of products, the quantity of +coke which may be substituted for coal, and the times and modes of +delivery and payment. In giving notice to the German Government of the +foregoing options the commission shall give at least 120 days' notice of +deliveries to be made after 1st January, 1920, and at least thirty days' +notice of deliveries to be made between the coming into force of this +treaty and the 1st January, 1920. Until Germany has received the demands +referred to in this paragraph the provisions of the protocol of the 25th +December, 1918, (execution of Article 6 of the armistice of the 11th +November, 1918,) remain in force. + +The notice to be given to the German Government of the exercise of the +right of substitution accorded by Paragraphs 7 and 8 shall be such as +the Reparation Commission may consider sufficient. + +If the commission shall determine that the full exercise of the +foregoing options would interfere unduly with the industrial +requirements of Germany, the commission is authorized to postpone or to +cancel deliveries, and in so doing to settle all questions of priority, +but the coal to replace coal from destroyed mines shall receive priority +over other deliveries. + + +ANNEX VI. + +1. Germany accords to the Reparation Commission an option to require as +part of reparation the delivery by Germany of such quantities and kinds +of dyestuffs and chemical drugs as the commission may designate, not +exceeding 50 per cent. of the total stock of each and every kind of +dyestuff and chemical drug in Germany or under German control at the +date of the coming into force of the present treaty. + +This option shall be exercised within sixty days of the receipt by the +commission of such particulars as to stocks as may be considered +necessary by the commission. + +2. Germany further accords to the Reparation Commission an option to +require delivery during the period from the date of the coming into +force of the present treaty until Jan. 1, 1920, and during each period +of six months thereafter until Jan. 1, 1925, of any specified kind of +dyestuff and chemical drug up to an amount not exceeding 25 per cent. of +the German production of such dyestuffs and chemical drugs during the +previous six months' period. If in any case the production during such +previous six months was, in the opinion of the commission, less than +normal, the amount required may be 25 per cent. of the normal +production. + +Such option shall be exercised within four weeks after the receipt of +such particulars as to production and in such form as may be considered +necessary by the commission; these particulars shall be furnished by the +German Government immediately after the expiration of each six months' +period. + +3. For dyestuffs and chemical drugs delivered under Paragraph 1 the +price shall be fixed by the commission, having regard to pre-war net +export prices and to subsequent increases of cost. + +For dyestuffs and chemical drugs delivered under Paragraph 2 the price +shall be fixed by the commission, having regard to pre-war net export +prices and subsequent variations of cost or the lowest net selling price +of similar dyestuffs and chemical drugs to any other purchaser. + +4. All details, including mode and times of exercising the options and +making delivery, and all other questions arising under this arrangement +shall be determined by the Reparation Commission; the German Government +will furnish to the commission all necessary information and other +assistance which it may require. + +5. The above expression "dyestuffs and chemical drugs" includes all +synthetic dyes and drugs and intermediate or other products used in +connection with dyeing, so far as they are manufactured for sale. The +present arrangement shall also apply to cinchona bark and salts of +quinine. + + +ANNEX VII. + +Germany renounces on her own behalf and on behalf of her nationals in +favor of the principal Allied and Associated Powers all rights, titles +or privileges of whatever nature in the submarine cables set out below, +or in any portions thereof: + + Emden-Vigo: from the Straits of Dover to off Vigo; + + Emden-Brest: from off Cherbourg to Brest; + + Emden-Teneriffe: from off Dunkirk to off Teneriffe; + + Emden-Azores (1): from the Straits of Dover to Fayal; + + Emden-Azores (2): from the Straits of Dover to Fayal; + + Azores-New York (1): from Fayal to New York; + + Azores-New York (2): from Fayal to the longitude of Halifax; + + Teneriffe-Monrovia: from off Teneriffe to off Monrovia; + + Monrovia-Lome: from about latitude 2 degrees 30 minutes north, + and longitude 7 degrees 40 minutes west of Greenwich, to about + latitude 2 degrees 20 minutes north, and longitude 5 degrees 30 + minutes west of Greenwich, and from about latitude 3 degrees 48 + minutes north, and longitude 0 degrees 0 minutes to Lome; + + Lome-Duala: from Lome to Duala; + + Monrovia-Pernambuco: from off Monrovia to off Pernambuco; + + Constantinople-Constanza: from Constantinople to Constanza; + + Yap-Shanghai, Yap-Guam, and Yap-Menado (Celebes): from Yap + Island to Shanghai, from Yap Island to Guam Island, and from + Yap Island to Menado. + +The value of the above-mentioned cables or portions thereof in so far as +they are privately owned, calculated on the basis of the original cost +less a suitable allowance for depreciation, shall be credited to Germany +in the reparation account. + + +SECTION II.--_Special Provisions_ + +=ARTICLE 245.=--Within six months after coming into force of the present +treaty the German Government must restore to the French Government the +trophies, archives, historical souvenirs, or works of art carried away +from France by the German authorities in the course of the war of +1870--71 and during this last war, in accordance with a list which will +be communicated to it by the French Government; particularly the French +flags taken in the course of the war of 1870--71, and all the political +papers taken by the German authorities on Oct. 10, 1870, at the Chateau +of Cercay, near Brunoy, (Seine-et-Oise,) belonging at the time to M. +Rouher, formerly Minister of State. + +=ARTICLE 246.=--Within six months of the coming into force of the +present treaty Germany will restore to his Majesty the King of the +Hedjaz the original Koran of the Caliph Othman, which was removed from +Medina by the Turkish authorities and is stated to have been presented +to the ex-Emperor William II. + +Within the same period Germany will hand over to his Britannic Majesty's +Government the skull of the Sultan Mkwawa, which was removed from the +protectorate of German East Africa and taken to Germany. + +The delivery of the articles above referred to will be effected in such +place and in such conditions as may be laid down by the Governments to +which they are to be restored + +=ARTICLE 247.=--Germany undertakes to furnish to the University of +Louvain, within three months after a request made by it and transmitted +through the intervention of the Reparation Commission, manuscripts, +incunabula, printed books, maps, and objects of collection corresponding +in number and value to those destroyed in the burning by Germany of the +library of Louvain. All details regarding such replacement will be +determined by the Reparation Commission. + +Germany undertakes to deliver to Belgium, through the Reparation +Commission, within six months of the coming into force of the present +treaty, in order to enable Belgium to reconstitute her two great +artistic works: + +(a) The leaves of the triptych of the Mystic Lamb painted by the Van +Eyck Brothers, formerly in the Church of St. Bavon at Ghent, now in the +Berlin Museum. + +(b) The leaves of the triptych of the Last Supper, painted by Dierick +Bouts, formerly in the Church of St. Peter at Louvain, two of which are +now in the Berlin Museum and two in the old Pinakothek at Munich. + + + + +PART IX + +Financial Clauses + + +=ARTICLE 248.=--Subject to such exceptions as the Reparation Commission +may approve, a first charge upon all the assets and revenues of the +German Empire and its constituent States shall be the cost of reparation +and all other costs arising under the present treaty or any treaties or +agreements supplementary thereto or under arrangements concluded between +Germany and the Allied and Associated Powers during the armistice or its +extensions. + +Up to May 1, 1921, the German Government shall not export or dispose of, +and shall forbid the export or disposal of, gold without the previous +approval of the Allied and Associated Powers acting through the +Reparation Commission. + +=ARTICLE 249.=--There shall be paid by the German Government the total +cost of all armies of the Allied and Associated Governments in occupied +German territory from the date of the signature of the armistice of the +11th November, 1918, including the keep of men and beasts, lodging and +billeting, pay and allowances, salaries and wages, bedding, heating, +lighting, clothing, equipment, harness and saddlery, armament and +rolling stock, air services, treatment of sick and wounded, veterinary +and remount services, transport service of all sorts, (such as by rail, +sea, river, or motor lorries,) communications and correspondence, and in +general the cost of all administrative or technical services, the +working of which is necessary for the training of troops and for keeping +their numbers up to strength and preserving their military efficiency. + +The cost of such liabilities under the above heads, so far as they +relate to purchases or requisitions by the Allied and Associated +Governments in the occupied territories, shall be paid by the German +Government to the Allied and Associated Governments in marks at the +current or agreed rate of exchange. All other of the above costs shall +be paid in gold marks. + +=ARTICLE 250.=--Germany confirms the surrender of all material handed +over to the Allied and Associated Powers in accordance with the +armistice agreement of the 11th November, 1918, and subsequent armistice +agreements, and recognizes the title of the Allied and Associated Powers +to such material. + +There shall be credited to the German Government against the sums due +from it to the Allied and Associated Powers for reparation, the value, +as assessed by the Reparation Commission referred to in Article 233 of +Part VIII. (reparation) of the present treaty, of the material handed +over in accordance with Article 7 of the armistice agreement of the 11th +November, 1918, Article 3 of the armistice agreement of the 16th +January, 1919, as well as of any other material handed over in +accordance with the armistice agreement of the 11th November, 1918, and +of subsequent armistice agreements, for which, as having non-military +value, credit should, in the judgment of the Reparation Commission, be +allowed to the German Government. + +Property belonging to the Allied and Associated Governments or their +nationals restored or surrendered under the armistice agreements in +specie shall not be credited to the German Government. + +=ARTICLE 251.=--The priority of the charges established by Article 248 +shall, subject to the qualifications made below, be as follows: + +(a) The cost of the armies of occupation as defined under Article 249 +during the armistice and its extensions; + +(b) The cost of any armies of occupation as defined under Article 249 +after the coming into force of the present treaty; + +(c) The cost of reparation arising out of the present treaty or any +treaties or conventions supplementary thereto; + +(d) The cost of all other obligations incumbent on Germany under the +armistice conventions or under this treaty or any treaties or +conventions supplementary thereto. + +The payment for such supplies of food and raw material for Germany and +such other payments as may be judged by the Allied and Associated Powers +to be essential to enable Germany to meet her obligations in respect of +reparation will have priority to the extent and upon the conditions +which have been or may be determined by the Governments of the said +powers. + +=ARTICLE 252.=--The right of each of the Allied and Associated Powers to +dispose of enemy assets and property within its jurisdiction at the date +of the coming into force of the present treaty is not affected by the +foregoing provisions. + +=ARTICLE 253.=--Nothing in the foregoing provisions shall prejudice in +any manner charges or mortgages lawfully effected in favor of the Allied +and Associated Powers or their nationals respectively, before the date +at which a state of war existed between Germany and the Allied and +Associated Powers concerned, by the German Empire or its constituent +States, or by German nationals on assets in their ownership at that +date. + +=ARTICLE 254.=--The powers to which German territory is ceded shall, +subject to the qualifications made in Article 255, undertake to pay: + +1. A portion of the debt of the German Empire as it stood on the 1st +August, 1914, calculated on the basis of the ratio between the average +for the three financial years 1911, 1912, 1913, of such revenues of the +ceded territory and the average for the same years of such revenues of +the whole German Empire as in the judgment of the Reparation Commission +are best calculated to represent the relative ability of the respective +territories to make payments. + +2. A portion of the debt as it stood on the 1st August, 1914, of the +German State to which the ceded territory belonged, to be determined in +accordance with the principle stated above. + +Such portions shall be determined by the Reparation Commission. + +The method of discharging the obligation both in respect of capital and +of interest, so assumed, shall be fixed by the Reparation Commission. +Such method may take the form, inter alia, of the assumption by the +power to which the territory is ceded of Germany's liability for the +German debt held by her nationals. But in the event of the method +adopted involving any payments to the German Government, such payments +shall be transferred to the Reparation Commission on account of the sums +due for reparation so long as any balance in respect of such sums +remains unpaid. + +=ARTICLE 255.=--1. As an exception to the above provision and inasmuch +as in 1871 Germany refused to undertake any portion of the burden of +the French debt, France shall be, in respect of Alsace-Lorraine, exempt +from any payment under Article 254. + +2. In the case of Poland that portion of the debt which, in the opinion +of the Reparation Commission is attributable to the measures taken by +the German and Prussian Governments for the German colonization of +Poland shall be excluded from the apportionment to be made under Article +254. + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +Dreadnoughts Welcoming President Wilson Home + +This photograph taken from the Fighting Top of the _Pennsylvania_, shows +American Warships in the North River, firing a salute in honor of the +President's return from France on the _George Washington_.] + +3. In the case of all ceded territories other than Alsace-Lorraine that +portion of the debt of the German Empire or German States which in the +opinion of the Reparation Commission represents expenditure by the +Governments of the German Empire or States upon the Government +properties referred to in Article 256 shall be excluded from the +apportionment to be made under Article 254. + +=ARTICLE 256.=--Powers to which German territory is ceded shall acquire +all property and possessions situated therein belonging to the German +Empire or to the German States, and the value of such acquisitions shall +be fixed by the Reparation Commission, and paid by the State acquiring +the territory to the Reparation Commission for the credit of the German +Government on account of the sums due for reparation. + +For the purposes of this article the property and possessions of the +German Empire and States shall be deemed to include all the property of +the Crown, the Empire or the States, and the private property of the +former German Emperor and other royal personages. + +In view of the terms on which Alsace-Lorraine was ceded to Germany in +1871--France shall be exempt in respect thereof from making any payment +or credit under this article for any property or possessions of the +German Empire or States situated therein. Belgium also shall be exempt +from making any payment or any credit under this article for any +property or possessions of the German Empire or States situated in +German territory ceded to Belgium under the present treaty. + +=ARTICLE 257.=--In the case of the former German territories, including +colonies, protectorates, or dependencies, administered by a mandatory +under Article 22 of Part I. (League of Nations) of the present treaty, +neither the territory nor the mandatory power shall be charged with any +portion of the debt of the German Empire or States. + +All property and possessions belonging to the German Empire or to the +German States situated in such territory shall be transferred with the +territories to the Mandatory Power in its capacity as such, and no +payment shall be made nor any credit given to those Governments in +consideration of this transfer. + +For the purpose of this article the property and possessions of the +German Empire and of the German States shall be deemed to include all +the property of the crown, the empire or the States and the private +property of the former German Emperor and other royal personages. + +=ARTICLE 258.=--Germany renounces all rights accorded to her or her +nationals by treaties, conventions or agreements, of whatsoever kind, to +representation upon or participation in the control or administration of +commissions, state banks, agencies or other financial or economic +organizations of an international character, exercising powers of +control or administration, and operating in any of the Allied or +Associated States, or in Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria or Turkey, or in the +dependencies of these States, or in the former Russian Empire. + +=ARTICLE 259.=--1. Germany agrees to deliver within one month from the +date of the coming into force of the present treaty, to such authority +as the principal Allied and Associated Powers may designate, the sum in +gold which was to be deposited in the Reichsbank in the name of the +Council of the Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt as security for +the first issue of Turkish Government currency notes. + +2. Germany recognizes her obligation to make annually for the period of +twelve years the payments in gold for which provision is made in the +German Treasury bonds deposited by her from time to time in the name of +the Council of the Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt as security +for the second and subsequent issues of Turkish Government currency +notes. + +3. Germany undertakes to deliver, within one month from the coming into +force of the present treaty, to such authority as the principal Allied +and Associated Powers may designate, the deposit gold constituted in the +Reichsbank or elsewhere, representing the residue of the advance in gold +agreed to on the 5th of May, 1915, by the Council of the Administration +of the Ottoman Public Debt to the Imperial Ottoman Government. + +4. Germany agrees to transfer to the principal Allied and Associated +Powers any title that she may have to the sum in gold and silver +transmitted by her to the Turkish Ministry of Finance in November, 1918, +in anticipation of the payment to be made in May, 1919, for the service +of the Turkish internal loan. + +5. Germany undertakes to transfer to the principal Allied and Associated +Powers within a period of one month from the coming into force of the +present treaty, any sums in gold transferred as pledge or as collateral +security to the German Government or its nationals in connection with +loans made by them to the Austro-Hungarian Government. + +6. Without prejudice to Article 292 of Part X. (economic clauses) of the +present treaty, Germany confirms the renunciation provided for in +Article XV. of the armistice convention of the 11th November, 1918, of +any benefit disclosed by the treaties of Bucharest and of Brest-Litovsk, +and by the treaties supplementary thereto. + +Germany undertakes to transfer, either to Rumania or to the principal +Allied and Associated Powers, as the case may be, all monetary +instruments, specie, securities and negotiable instruments or goods +which she has received under the aforesaid treaties. + +7. The sums of money and all securities, instruments and goods of +whatever nature, to be delivered, paid and transferred under the +provisions of this article, shall be disposed of by the principal Allied +and Associated Powers in a manner hereafter to be determined by these +powers. + +=ARTICLE 260.=--Without prejudice to the renunciation of any rights by +Germany on behalf of herself or of her nationals in the other provisions +of the present treaty, the Reparation Commission may, within one year +from the coming into force of the present treaty, demand that the German +Government become possessed of any rights and interests of the German +nationals in any public utility undertaking or in any concession +operating in Russia, China, Turkey, Austria, Hungary, and Bulgaria, or +in the possessions or dependencies of these States or in any territory +formerly belonging to Germany or her allies, to be ceded by Germany or +her allies to any power, or to be administered by a mandatary under the +present treaty, and may require that the German Government transfer, +within six months of the date of demand, all such rights and interests +and any similar rights and interests the German Government may itself +possess, to the Reparation Commission. + +Germany shall be responsible for indemnifying her nationals so +dispossessed and the Reparation Commission shall credit Germany on +account of sums due for reparation with such sums in respect of the +value of the transferred rights and interests as may be assessed by the +Reparation Commission, and the German Government shall, within six +months from the coming into force of the present treaty, communicate to +the Reparation Commission all such rights and interests, whether already +granted, contingent, or not yet exercised, and shall renounce on behalf +of itself and its nationals in favor of the Allied and Associated Powers +all such rights and interests which have not been so communicated. + +=ARTICLE 261.=--Germany undertakes to transfer to the Allied and +Associated Powers any claims she may have to payment or repayment by the +Governments of Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey, and, in particular +any claims which may arise, now or hereafter, from the fulfillment of +undertakings made by Germany during the war to those Governments. + +=ARTICLE 262.=--Any monetary obligation due by Germany arising out of +the present treaty and expressed in terms of gold marks shall be payable +at the option of the creditors in pounds sterling payable in London; +gold dollars of the United States of America payable in New York; gold +francs payable in Paris, or gold lire payable in Rome. + +For the purpose of this article, the gold coins mentioned above shall be +defined as being of the weight and fineness of gold as enacted by law on +the 1st January, 1914. + +=ARTICLE 263.=--Germany gives a guarantee to the Brazilian Government +that all sums representing the sale of coffee belonging to the State of +Sao Paolo in the Ports of Hamburg, Bremen, Antwerp, and Trieste, which +were deposited with the Bank of the Bleichroeder at Berlin, shall be +reimbursed, together with interest at the rate or rates agreed upon. + +Germany, having prevented the transfer of the sums in question to the +State of Sao Paolo at the proper time, guarantees also that the +reimbursements shall be effected at the rate of exchange of the day of +the deposit. + + + + +PART X + +Economic Clauses + + +SECTION I.--_Commercial Relations_ + +CHAPTER I.--CUSTOMS REGULATIONS, DUTIES, AND RESTRICTIONS + + +=ARTICLE 264.=--Germany undertakes that goods the produce or manufacture +of any one of the Allied or Associated States imported into German +territory, from whatsoever place arriving, shall not be subjected to +other or higher duties or charges (including internal charges) than +those to which the like goods the produce or manufacture of any other +such State or of any other foreign country are subject. + +Germany will not maintain or impose any prohibition or restriction on +the importation into German territory of any goods the produce or +manufacture of the territories of any one of the Allied or Associated +States, from whatsoever place arriving, which shall not equally extend +to the importation of the like goods the produce or manufacture of any +other such State or of any other foreign country. + +=ARTICLE 265.=--Germany further undertakes that, in the matter of the +regime applicable on importation, no discrimination against the commerce +of any of the Allied and Associated States as compared with any other of +the said States or any other foreign country shall be made, even by +indirect means, such as customs regulations or procedure, methods of +verification or analysis, conditions of payment of duties, tariff +classification or interpretation, or the operation of monopolies. + +=ARTICLE 266.=--In all that concerns exportation Germany undertakes that +goods, natural products or manufactured articles, exported from German +territory to the territories of any one of the Allied or Associated +States shall not be subjected to other or higher duties or charges +(including internal charges) than those paid on the like goods exported +to any other such State or to any other foreign country. + +Germany will not maintain or impose any prohibition or restriction on +the exportation of any goods sent from her territory to any one of the +Allied or Associated States which shall not equally extend to the +exportation of the like goods, natural products or manufactured +articles, sent to any other such State or to any other foreign country. + +=ARTICLE 267.=--Every favor, immunity, or privilege in regard to the +importation, exportation, or transit of goods granted by Germany to any +Allied or Associated State or to any other foreign country whatever +shall simultaneously and unconditionally, without request and without +compensation, be extended to all the Allied and Associated States. + +=ARTICLE 268.=--The provisions of Article 264 to 267 inclusive of this +chapter and of Article 323 of Part XII. (ports, waterways, and railways) +of the present treaty are subject to the following exceptions: + +(a) For a period of five years from the coming into force of the present +treaty, natural or manufactured products which both originate in and +come from the territories of Alsace and Lorraine reunited to France +shall, on importation into German customs territory, be exempt from all +customs duty. + +The French Government shall fix each year by decree communicated to the +German Government, the nature and amount of the products which shall +enjoy this exemption. + +The amount of each product which may be thus sent annually into Germany +shall not exceed the average of the amounts sent annually in the years +1911--1913. + +Further, during the period above mentioned the German Government shall +allow the free export from Germany, and the free reimportation into +Germany, exempt from all customs duties and other charges, (including +internal charges,) of yarns, tissues, and other textile materials or +textile products of any kind and in any condition sent from Germany into +the territories of Alsace or Lorraine, to be subjected there to any +finishing process, such as bleaching, dyeing, printing, mercerization, +gassing, twisting, or dressing. + +(b) During a period of three years from the coming into force of the +present treaty natural or manufactured products which both originate in +and come from Polish territories which before the war were part of +Germany shall, on importation into German customs territory, be exempt +from all customs duty. + +The Polish Government shall fix each year, by decree communicated to the +German Government, the nature and amount of the products which shall +enjoy this exemption. + +The amount of each product which may be thus sent annually into Germany +shall not exceed the average of the amounts sent annually in the years +1911--1913. + +(c) The Allied and Associated Powers reserve the right to require +Germany to accord freedom from customs duty, on importation into German +customs territory, to natural products and manufactured articles which +both originate in and come from the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, for a +period of five years from the coming into force of the present treaty. + +The nature and amount of the products which shall enjoy the benefits of +this regime shall be communicated each year to the German Government. + +The amount of each product which may be thus sent annually into Germany +shall not exceed the average of the amounts sent annually in the years +1911--1913. + +=ARTICLE 269.=--During the first six months after the coming into force +of the present treaty, the duties imposed by Germany on imports from +Allied and Associated States shall not be higher than the most favorable +duties which were applied to imports into Germany on the 31st July, +1914. + +During a further period of thirty months after the expiration of the +first six months, this provision shall continue to be applied +exclusively with regard to products which, being comprised in Section A +of the First Category of the German Customs Tariff of the 25th December, +1902, enjoyed at the above-mentioned date (31st July, 1914,) rates +conventionalized by treaties with the Allied and Associated Powers, with +the addition of all kinds of wine and vegetable oils, of artificial silk +and of washed or scoured wool, whether or not they were the subject of +special conventions before the 31st July, 1914. + +=ARTICLE 270.=--The Allied and Associated Powers reserve the right to +apply to German territory occupied by their troops a special customs +regime as regards imports and exports, in the event of such a measure +being necessary in their opinion in order to safeguard the economic +interests of the population of these territories. + + +CHAPTER II.--SHIPPING + +=ARTICLE 271.=--As regards sea fishing, maritime coasting trade, and +maritime towage, vessels of the Allied and Associated Powers shall +enjoy, in German territorial waters, the treatment accorded to vessels +of the most-favored nation. + +=ARTICLE 272.=--Germany agrees that, notwithstanding any stipulation to +the contrary contained in the conventions relating to the North Sea +fisheries and liquor traffic, all rights of inspection and police shall, +in the case of fishing boats of the Allied Powers, be exercised solely +by ships belonging to those powers. + +=ARTICLE 273.=--In the case of vessels of the Allied or Associated +Powers, all classes of certificates or documents relating to the vessel, +which were recognized as valid by Germany before the war, or which may +hereafter be recognized as valid by the principal maritime States, shall +be recognized by Germany as valid and as equivalent to the corresponding +certificates issued to German vessels. + +A similar recognition shall be accorded to the certificates and +documents issued to their vessels by the Governments of new States, +whether they have a seacoast or not, provided that such certificates and +documents shall be issued in conformity with the general practice +observed in the principal maritime States. + +The high contracting parties agree to recognize the flag flown by the +vessels of an Allied or Associated Power having no seacoast which are +registered at some one specified place situated in its territory; such +place shall serve as the port of registry of such vessels. + + +CHAPTER III.--UNFAIR COMPETITION + +=ARTICLE 274.=--Germany undertakes to adopt all the necessary +legislative and administrative measures to protect goods the produce or +manufacture of any one of the Allied and Associated Powers from all +forms of unfair competition in commercial transactions. + +Germany undertakes to prohibit and repress by seizure and by other +appropriate remedies the importation, exportation, manufacture, +distribution, sale or offering for sale in its territory of all goods +bearing upon themselves or their usual get-up or wrappings any marks, +names, devices, or descriptions whatsoever which are calculated to +convey directly or indirectly a false indication of the origin, type, +nature, or special characteristics of such goods. + +=ARTICLE 275.=--Germany undertakes on condition that reciprocity is +accorded in these matters to respect any law, or any administrative or +judicial decision given in conformity with such law, in force in any +Allied or Associated State and duly communicated to her by the proper +authorities, defining or regulating the right to any regional +appellation in respect of wine or spirits produced in the State to which +the region belongs or the conditions under which the use of any such +appellation may be permitted; and the importation, exportation, +manufacture, distribution, sale or offering for sale of products or +articles bearing regional appellations inconsistent with such law or +order shall be prohibited by the German Government and repressed by the +measures prescribed in the preceding article. + + +CHAPTER IV.--TREATMENT OF NATIONALS OF ALLIED AND ASSOCIATED POWERS + +=ARTICLE 276.=--Germany undertakes: + +(a) not to subject the nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers to +any prohibition in regard to the exercise of occupations, professions, +trade, and industry, which shall not be equally applicable to all aliens +without exception; + +(b) not to subject the nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers in +regard to the rights referred to in Paragraph (a) to any regulation or +restriction which might contravene directly or indirectly the +stipulations of the said paragraph, or which shall be other or more +disadvantageous than those which are applicable to nationals of the +most-favored nation; + +(c) not to subject the nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers, +their property, rights, or interests, including companies and +associations in which they are interested, to any charge, tax, or +impost, direct or indirect, other or higher than those which are or may +be imposed on her own nationals or their property, rights, or interests; + +(d) not to subject the nationals of any one of the Allied and Associated +Powers to any restriction which was not applicable on July 1, 1914, to +the nationals of such powers unless such restriction is likewise imposed +on her own nationals. + +=ARTICLE 277.=--The nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers shall +enjoy in German territory a constant protection for their persons and +for their property, rights, and interests, and shall have free access to +the courts of law. + +=ARTICLE 278.=--Germany undertakes to recognize any new nationality +which has been or may be acquired by her nationals under the laws of the +Allied and Associated Powers, and in accordance with the decisions of +the competent authorities of these powers pursuant to naturalization +laws or under treaty stipulations, and to regard such persons as having, +in consequence of the acquisition of such new nationality, in all +respects severed their allegiance to their country of origin. + +=ARTICLE 279.=--The Allied and Associated Powers may appoint Consuls +General, Consuls, Vice Consuls, and Consular Agents in German towns and +ports. Germany undertakes to approve the designation of the Consuls +General, Consuls, Vice Consuls, and Consular Agents, whose names shall +be notified to her, and to admit them to the exercise of their functions +in conformity with the usual rules and customs. + + +CHAPTER V.--GENERAL ARTICLES + +=ARTICLE 280.=--The obligations imposed on Germany by Chapter I. and by +Articles 271 and 272 of Chapter II. above shall cease to have effect +five years from the date of the coming into force of the present treaty, +unless otherwise provided in the text, or unless the Council of the +League of Nations shall, at least twelve months before the expiration of +that period, decide that these obligations shall be maintained for a +further period with or without amendment. + +Article 276 of Chapter IV. shall remain in operation, with or without +amendment, after the period of five years for such further period, if +any, not exceeding five years, as may be determined by a majority of the +Council of the League of Nations. + +=ARTICLE 281.=--If the German Government engages in international trade, +it shall not in respect thereof have or be deemed to have any rights, +privileges, or immunities of sovereignty. + + +SECTION II.--_Treaties_ + +=ARTICLE 282.=--From the coming into force of the present treaty and +subject to the provisions thereof the multilateral treaties, +conventions, and agreements of an economic or technical character +enumerated below and in the subsequent articles shall alone be applied +as between Germany and those of the Allied and Associated Powers party +thereto: + +1. Conventions of March 14, 1884; Dec. 1, 1886, and March 23, 1887, and +final protocol of July 7, 1887, regarding the protection of submarine +cables. + +2. Convention of Oct. 11, 1909, regarding the international circulation +of motor cars. + +3. Agreement of May 15, 1886, regarding the sealing of railway trucks +subject to customs inspection, and protocol of May 18, 1907. + +4. Agreement of May 15, 1886, regarding the technical standardization of +railways. + +5. Convention of July 5, 1890, regarding the publication of customs +tariffs and the organization of an international union for the +publication of customs tariffs. + +6. Convention of Dec. 31, 1913, regarding the unification of commercial +statistics. + +7. Convention of April 25, 1907, regarding the raising of the Turkish +customs tariff. + +8. Convention of March 14, 1857, for the redemption of toll dues on the +Sound and Belts. + +9. Convention of June 22, 1861, for the redemption of the Stade Toll on +the Elbe. + +10. Convention of July 16, 1863, for the redemption of toll dues on the +Scheldt. + +11. Convention of Oct. 29, 1888, regarding the establishment of a +definite arrangement guaranteeing the free use of the Suez Canal. + +12. Convention of Sept. 23, 1910, respecting the unification of certain +regulations regarding collisions and salvage at sea. + +13. Convention of Dec. 21, 1904, regarding the exemption of hospital +ships from dues and charges in ports. + +14. Convention of Feb. 4, 1898, regarding the tonnage measurement of +vessels for inland navigation. + +15. Convention of Sept. 26, 1906, for the suppression of nightwork for +women. + +16. Convention of Sept. 26, 1906, for the suppression of the use of +white phosphorus in the manufacture of matches. + +17. Conventions of May 18, 1904, and May 4, 1910, regarding the +suppression of the white slave traffic. + +18. Convention of May 4, 1910, regarding the suppression of obscene +publications. + +19. Sanitary conventions of January, 1892; April 15, 1893; April 3, +1894; April 19, 1897, and Dec. 3, 1903. + +20. Convention of May 20, 1875, regarding the unification and +improvement of the metric system. + +21. Convention of Nov. 29, 1906, regarding the unification of +pharmacopoeial formulae for potent drugs. + +22. Convention of Nov. 16 and 19, 1885, regarding the establishment of a +concert pitch. + +23. Convention of June 7, 1905, regarding the creation of an +International Agricultural Institute at Rome. + +24. Conventions of Nov. 3, 1881, and April 15, 1889, regarding +precautionary measures against phylloxera. + +25. Convention of March 19, 1902, regarding the protection of birds +useful to agriculture. + +26. Convention of June 12, 1902, as to the protection of minors. + +=ARTICLE 283.=--From the coming into force of the present treaty the +high contracting parties shall apply the conventions and agreements +hereinafter mentioned, in so far as concerns them, on condition that the +special stipulations contained in this article are fulfilled by Germany. + +=Postal Conventions:= + +Conventions and agreements of the Universal Postal Union concluded at +Vienna, July 4, 1891. + +Conventions and agreements of the Postal Union signed at Washington, +June 15, 1897. + +Conventions and agreements of the Postal Union signed at Rome May 26, +1906. + +=Telegraphic Conventions:= + +International Telegraphic Conventions signed at St. Petersburg July 10, +(22,) 1875. + +Regulations and tariffs drawn up by the International Telegraphic +Conference, Lisbon, June 11, 1908. + +Germany undertakes not to refuse her assent to the conclusion by the new +States of the special arrangements referred to in the conventions and +agreements relating to the Universal Postal Union and to the +International Telegraphic Union, to which the said new States have +adhered or may adhere. + +=ARTICLE 284.=--From the coming into force of the present treaty the +high contracting parties shall apply, in so far as concerns them, the +International Radio-Telegraphic Convention of July 5, 1912, on condition +that Germany fulfills the provisional regulations which will be +indicated to her by the Allied and Associated Powers. + +If within five years after the coming into force of the present treaty a +new convention regulating international radio-telegraphic communications +should have been concluded to take the place of the convention of July +5, 1912, this new convention shall bind Germany even if Germany should +refuse either to take part in drawing up the convention or to subscribe +thereto. + +This new convention will likewise replace the provisional regulations in +force. + +=ARTICLE 285.=--From the coming into force of the present treaty the +high contracting parties shall apply in so far as concerns them and +under the conditions stipulated in Article 272 the conventions +hereinafter mentioned: + +1. The conventions of May 6, 1882, and Feb. 1, 1889, regulating the +fisheries in the North Sea outside territorial waters. + +2. The conventions and protocols of Nov. 16, 1887, Feb. 14, 1893, and +April 11, 1894, regarding the North Sea liquor traffic. + +=ARTICLE 286.=--The International Convention of Paris of March 20, 1883, +for the protection of industrial property, revised at Washington on June +2, 1911; the International Convention of Berne of Sept. 9, 1886, for the +protection of literary and artistic works, revised at Berlin on Nov. 13, +1908, and completed by the additional protocol signed at Berne on March +20, 1914, will again come into effect as from the coming into force of +the present treaty, in so far as they are not affected or modified by +the exceptions and restrictions resulting therefrom. + +=ARTICLE 287.=--From the coming into force of the present treaty the +high contracting parties shall apply, in so far as concerns them, the +Convention of the Hague of July 17, 1905, relating to civil procedure. +This renewal, however, will not apply to France, Portugal and Rumania. + +=ARTICLE 288.=--The special rights and privileges granted to Germany by +Article 3 of the convention of Dec. 2, 1899, relating to Samoa shall be +considered to have terminated on Aug. 4, 1914. + +=ARTICLE 289.=--Each of the Allied or Associated Powers, being guided by +the general principles or special provisions of the present treaty, +shall notify to Germany the bilateral treaties or conventions which such +Allied or Associated Power wishes to revive with Germany. + +The notification referred to in the present article shall be made either +directly or through the intermediary of another power. Receipt thereof +shall be acknowledged in writing by Germany. The date of the revival +shall be that of the notification. + +The Allied and Associated Powers undertake among themselves not to +revive with Germany any conventions or treaties which are not in +accordance with the terms of the present treaty. + +The notification shall mention any provisions of the said conventions +and treaties which, not being in accordance with the terms of the +present treaty, shall not be considered as revived. In case of any +difference of opinion, the League of Nations will be called on to +decide. + +A period of six months from the coming into force of the present treaty +is allowed to the Allied and Associated Powers within which to make the +notification. + +Only those bilateral treaties and conventions which have been the +subject of such a notification shall be revived between the Allied and +Associated Powers and Germany; all the others are and shall remain +abrogated. + +The above regulations apply to all bilateral treaties or conventions +existing between all the Allied and Associated Powers signatories to the +present treaty and Germany, even if the said Allied and Associated +Powers have not been in a state of war with Germany. + + +=ARTICLE 290.=--Germany recognizes that all the treaties, conventions, +or agreements which she has concluded with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, +or Turkey since Aug. 1, 1914, until the coming into force of the present +treaty are and remain abrogated by the present treaty. + + +=ARTICLE 291.=--Germany undertakes to secure to the Allied and +Associated Powers, and to the officials and nationals of the said +powers, the enjoyment of all the rights and advantages of any kind which +she may have granted to Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, or Turkey, or to the +officials and nationals of these States by treaties, conventions, or +arrangements concluded before Aug. 1, 1914, so long as those treaties, +conventions, or arrangements remain in force. + +The Allied and Associated Powers reserve the right to accept or not the +enjoyment of these rights and advantages. + + +=ARTICLE 292.=--Germany recognizes that all treaties, conventions, or +arrangements which she concluded with Russia or with any State or +Government of which the territory previously formed a part of Russia, or +with Rumania before Aug. 1, 1914, or after that date until the coming +into force of the present treaty, are and remain abrogated. + +=ARTICLE 293.=--Should an Allied or Associated Power, Russia, or a State +or Government of which the territory formerly constituted a part of +Russia have been forced since Aug. 1, 1914, by reason of military +occupation or by any other means or for any other cause, to grant or to +allow to be granted by the act of any public authority, concessions, +privileges, and favors of any kind to Germany or to a German nation, +such concessions, privileges, and favors are _ipso facto_ annulled by +the present treaty. + +No claims or indemnities which may result from this annulment shall be +charged against the Allied or Associated Powers or the powers, States, +Governments, or public authorities which are released from their +engagements by the present article. + +=ARTICLE 294.=--From the coming into force of the present treaty Germany +undertakes to give the Allied and Associated Powers and their nationals +the benefit _ipso facto_ of the rights and advantages of any kind which +she has granted by treaties, conventions or arrangements to +non-belligerent States or their nationals since Aug. 1, 1914, until the +coming into force of the present treaty so long as those treaties, +conventions, or arrangements remain in force. + +=ARTICLE 295.=--Those of the high contracting parties who have not yet +signed, or who have signed but not yet ratified, the Opium Convention +signed at The Hague on Jan. 23, 1912, agree to bring the said convention +into force, and for this purpose to enact the necessary legislation +without delay and in any case within a period of twelve months from the +coming into force of the present treaty. + +Furthermore, they agree that ratification of the present treaty should +in the case of powers which have not yet ratified the Opium Convention +be deemed in all respects equivalent to the ratification of that +convention and to the signature of the special protocol which was opened +at The Hague in accordance with the resolutions adopted by the Third +Opium Conference in 1914 for bringing the said convention into force. + +For this purpose the Government of the French Republic will communicate +to the Government of the Netherlands a certified copy of the protocol of +the deposit of ratifications of the present treaty, and will invite the +Government of the Netherlands to accept and deposit the said certified +copy as if it were a deposit of ratifications of the Opium Convention +and a signature of the additional protocol of 1914. + + +SECTION III.--_Debts._ + +=ARTICLE 296.=--There shall be settled through the intervention of +clearing offices to be established by each of the high contracting +parties within three months of the notification referred to in paragraph +(e) hereafter the following classes of pecuniary obligations: + +1. Debts payable before the war and due by a national of one of the +contracting powers, residing within its territory, to a national of an +opposing power, residing within its territory. + +2. Debts which became payable during the war to nationals of one +contracting power residing within its territory and arose out of +transactions or contracts with the nationals of an opposing power, +resident within its territory, of which the total or partial execution +was suspended on account of the declaration of war. + +3. Interest which has accrued due before and during the war to a +national of one of the contracting powers in respect of securities +issued by an opposing power, provided that the payment of interest on +such securities to the nationals of that power or to neutrals has not +been suspended during the war. + +4. Capital sums which have become payable before and during the war to +nationals of one of the contracting powers in respect of securities +issued by one of the opposing powers, provided that the payment of such +capital sums to nationals of that power or to neutrals has not been +suspended during the war. + +[Illustration: Copyright Harris & Ewing + +M. Stephen Pichon + +Chosen Chairman of the provisional organization of the League of Nations +in recognition of his long leadership, not only in France but +internationally, in the work of bringing about a world-wide organization +to preserve peace.] + +The proceeds of liquidation of enemy property, rights, and interests +mentioned in Section IV. and in the annex thereto will be accounted for +through the clearing offices, in the currency and at the rate of +exchange hereinafter provided in Paragraph (d), and disposed of by them +under the conditions provided by the said section and annex. + +The settlements provided for in this article shall be effected according +to the following principles and in accordance with the annex to this +section: + +(a) Each of the high contracting parties shall prohibit, as from the +coming into force of the present treaty, both the payment and the +acceptance of payment of such debts, and also all communications between +the interested parties with regard to the settlement of the said debts +otherwise than through the clearing offices. + +(b) Each of the high contracting parties shall be respectively +responsible for the payment of such debts due by its nationals, except +in the cases where before the war the debtor was in a state of +bankruptcy or failure, or had given formal indication of insolvency or +where the debt was due by a company whose business has been liquidated +under emergency legislation during the war. Nevertheless, debts due by +the inhabitants of territory invaded or occupied by the enemy before the +armistice will not be guaranteed by the States of which those +territories form part. + +(c) The sums due to the nationals of one of the high contracting parties +by the nationals of an opposing State will be debited to the clearing +office of the country of the debtor, and paid to the creditor by the +clearing office of the country of the creditor. + +(d) Debts shall be paid or credited in the currency of such one of the +Allied and Associated Powers, their colonies or protectorates, or the +British Dominions or India, as may be concerned. If the debts are +payable in some other currency they shall be paid or credited in the +currency of the country concerned, whether an Allied or Associated +Power, colony, protectorate, British Dominion, or India, at the pre-war +rate of exchange. + +For the purpose of this provision the pre-war rate of exchange shall be +defined as the average cable transfer rate prevailing in the Allied or +Associated country concerned during the month immediately preceding the +outbreak of war between the said country concerned and Germany. + +If a contract provides for a fixed rate of exchange governing the +conversion of the currency in which the debt is stated into the currency +of the Allied or Associated country concerned, then the above provisions +concerning the rate of exchange shall not apply. + +In the case of new States the currency in which and the rate of exchange +at which debts shall be paid or credited shall be determined by the +Reparation Commission provided for in Part VIII. (Reparation.) + +(e) The provisions of this article and of the annex thereto shall not +apply as between Germany on the one hand and any one of the Allied and +Associated Powers, their colonies or protectorates, or any one of the +British Dominions or India on the other hand, unless within a period of +one month from the deposit of the ratifications of the present treaty by +the power in question, or of the ratification on behalf of such dominion +or of India, notice to that effect is given to Germany by the +Government of such Allied or Associated Power or of such Dominion or of +India as the case may be. + +(f) The Allied and Associated Powers who have adopted this article and +the annex hereto may agree between themselves to apply them to their +respective nationals established in their territory so far as regards +matters between their nationals and German nationals. In this case the +payments made by application of this provision will be subject to +arrangements between the allied and associated clearing offices +concerned. + + +ANNEX + +1. Each of the high contracting parties will, within three months from +the notification provided for in Article 296, Paragraph (e), establish a +clearing office for the collection and payment of enemy debts. + +Local clearing offices may be established for any particular portion of +the territories of the high contracting parties. Such local clearing +offices may perform all the functions of a central clearing office in +their respective districts, except that all transactions with the +clearing office in the opposing State must be effected through the +central clearing office. + +2. In this annex the pecuniary obligations referred to in the first +paragraph of Article 296 are described as "enemy debts," the persons +from whom the same are due as "enemy debtors," the persons to whom they +are due as "enemy creditors," the clearing office in the country of the +creditor is called the "Creditor Clearing Office," and the clearing +office in the country of the debtor is called the "Debtor Clearing +Office." + +3. The high contracting parties will subject contraventions of Paragraph +(a) of Article 296 to the same penalties as are at present provided by +their legislation for trading with the enemy. They will similarly +prohibit within their territory all legal process relating to payment of +enemy debts, except in accordance with the provisions of this annex. + +4. The Government guarantee specified in Paragraph (b) of Article 296 +shall take effect whenever, for any reason, a debt shall not be +recoverable, except in a case where at the date of the outbreak of war +the debt was barred by the laws of prescription in force in the country +of the debtor, or where the debtor was at that time in a state of +bankruptcy or failure or had given formal indication of insolvency, or +where the debt was due by a company whose business has been liquidated +under emergency legislation during the war. In such case the procedure +specified by this annex shall apply to payment of the dividends. + +The terms "bankruptcy" and "failure" refer to the application of +legislation providing for such juridical conditions. The expression +"formal indication of insolvency" bears the same meaning as it has in +English law. + +5. Creditors shall give notice to the Creditor Clearing Office within +six months of its establishment of debts due to them, and shall furnish +the Clearing Office with any documents and information required of them. + +The high contracting parties will take all suitable measures to trace +and punish collusion between enemy creditors and debtors. The clearing +offices will communicate to one another any evidence and information +which might help the discovery and punishment of such collusion. + +The high contracting parties will facilitate as much as possible postal +and telegraphic communication at the expense of the parties concerned +and through the intervention of the clearing offices between debtors and +creditors desirous of coming to an agreement as to the amount of their +debt. + +The Creditor Clearing Office will notify the Debtor Clearing Office of +all debts declared to it. The Debtor Clearing Office will, in due +course, inform the Creditor Clearing Office which debts are admitted and +which debts are contested. In the latter case the Debtor Clearing Office +will give the grounds for the non-admission of debt. + +6. When a debt has been admitted, in whole or in part, the Debtor +Clearing Office will at once credit the Creditor Clearing Office with +the amount admitted, and at the same time notify it of such credit. + +7. The debt shall be deemed to be admitted in full and shall be credited +forthwith to the Creditor Clearing Office unless within three months +from the receipt of the notification or such longer time as may be +agreed to by the Creditor Clearing Office notice has been given by the +Debtor Clearing Office that it is not admitted. + +8. When the whole or part of a debt is not admitted the two clearing +offices will examine into the matter jointly, and will endeavor to bring +the parties to an agreement. + +9. The Creditor Clearing Office will pay to the individual creditor the +sums credited to it out of the funds placed at its disposal by the +Government of its country and in accordance with the conditions fixed by +the said Government, retaining any sums considered necessary to cover +risks, expenses, or commissions. + +10. Any person having claimed payment of an enemy debt which is not +admitted in whole or in part shall pay to the clearing office by way of +fine interest at 5 per cent. on the part not admitted. Any person having +unduly refused to admit the whole or part of a debt claimed from him +shall pay by way of fine interest at 5 per cent. on the amount with +regard to which his refusal shall be disallowed. + +Such interest shall run from the date of expiration of the period +provided for in Paragraph 7 until the date on which the claim shall have +been disallowed or the debt paid. + +Each clearing office shall in so far as it is concerned take steps to +collect the fines above provided for, and will be responsible if such +fines cannot be collected. + +The fines will be credited to the other clearing office, which shall +retain them as a contribution toward the cost of carrying out the +present provisions. + +11. The balance between the clearing offices shall be struck monthly, +and the credit balance paid in cash by the debtor State within a week. + +Nevertheless, any credit balances which may be due by one or more of the +Allied and Associated Powers shall be retained until complete payment +shall have been effected of the sums due to the Allied or Associated +Powers or their nationals on account of the war. + +12. To facilitate discussion between the clearing offices each of them +shall have a representative at the place where the other is established. + +13. Except for special reasons all discussions in regard to claims will, +so far as possible, take place at the Debtor Clearing Office. + +14. In conformity with Article 296, Paragraph (b), the high contracting +parties are responsible for the payment of the enemy debts owing by +their nationals. + +The Debtor Clearing Office will therefore credit the Creditor Clearing +Office with all debts admitted, even in case of inability to collect +them from the individual debtor. The Governments concerned will, +nevertheless, invest their respective clearing offices with all +necessary powers for the recovery of debts which have been admitted. + +As an exception the admitted debts owing by persons having suffered +injury from acts of war shall only be credited to the Creditor Clearing +Office when the compensation due to the person concerned in respect of +such injury shall have been paid. + +15. Each Government will defray the expenses of the clearing office set +up in its territory, including the salaries of the staff. + +16. Where the two clearing offices are unable to agree whether a debt +claimed is due, or in case of a difference between an enemy debtor and +an enemy creditor, or between the clearing offices, the dispute shall +either be referred to arbitration if the parties so agree under +conditions fixed by agreement between them, or referred to the mixed +arbitral tribunal provided for in Section VI. hereafter. + +At the request of the Creditor Clearing Office the dispute may, however, +be submitted to the jurisdiction of the courts of the place of domicile +of the debtor. + +17. Recovery of sums found by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal, the court, or +the arbitration tribunal to be due shall be effected through the +clearing offices as if these sums were debts admitted by the Debtor +Clearing Office. + +18. Each of the Governments concerned shall appoint an agent who will be +responsible for the presentation to the mixed arbitral tribunal of the +cases conducted on behalf of its clearing office. This agent will +exercise a general control over the representatives or counsel employed +by its nationals. + +Decisions will be arrived at on documentary evidence, but it will be +open to the tribunal to hear the parties in person, or, according to +their preference, by their representatives approved by the two +Governments, or by the agent referred to above, who shall be competent +to intervene along with the party or to reopen and maintain a claim +abandoned by the same. + +19. The clearing offices concerned will lay before the mixed arbitral +tribunal all the information and documents in their possession, so as to +enable the tribunal to decide rapidly on the cases which are brought +before it. + +20. Where one of the parties concerned appeals against the joint +decision of the two clearing offices he shall make a deposit against the +costs, which deposit shall only be refunded when the first judgment is +modified in favor of the appellant and in proportion to the success he +may attain, his opponent in case of such a refund being required to pay +an equivalent proportion of the costs and expenses. Security accepted by +the tribunal may be substituted for a deposit. + +A fee of 5 per cent. of the amount in dispute shall be charged in +respect of all cases brought before the tribunal. This fee shall, unless +the tribunal directs otherwise, be borne by the unsuccessful party. Such +fee shall be added to the deposit referred to. It is also independent of +the security. + +The tribunal may award to one of the parties a sum in respect of the +expenses of the proceedings. + +Any sum payable under this paragraph shall be credited to the clearing +office of the successful party as a separate item. + +21. With a view to the rapid settlement of claims, due regard shall be +paid in the appointment of all persons connected with the clearing +offices or with the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal to their knowledge of the +language of the other country concerned. Each of the clearing offices +will be at liberty to correspond with the other, and to forward +documents in its own language. + +22. Subject to any special agreement to the contrary between the +Governments concerned, debts shall carry interest in accordance with the +following provisions: + +Interest shall not be payable on sums of money due by way of dividend, +interest, or other periodical payments which themselves represent +interest on capital. + +The rate of interest shall be 5 per cent. per annum except in cases +where, by contract, law, or custom, the creditor is entitled to payment +of interest at a different rate. In such cases the rate to which he is +entitled shall prevail. + +Interest shall run from the date of commencement of hostilities (or, if +the sum of money to be recovered fell due during the war, from the date +at which it fell due) until the sum is credited to the clearing office +of the creditor. + +Sums due by way of interest shall be treated as debts admitted by the +clearing offices and shall be credited to the Creditor Clearing Office +in the same way as such debts. + +23. Where by decision of the clearing offices or the Mixed Arbitral +Tribunal a claim is held not to fall within Article 296, the creditor +shall be at liberty to prosecute the claim before the courts or to take +such other proceedings as may be open to him. + +The presentation of a claim to the clearing office suspends the +operation of any period of prescription. + +24. The high contracting parties agree to regard the decisions of the +Mixed Arbitral Tribunal as final and conclusive, and to render them +binding upon their nationals. + +25. In any case where a Creditor Clearing Office declines to notify a +claim to the Debtor Clearing Office, or to take any step provided for in +this annex, intended to make effective in whole or in part a request of +which it has received due notice, the enemy creditor shall be entitled +to receive from the clearing office a certificate setting out the amount +of the claim, and shall then be entitled to prosecute the claim before +the courts or to take such other proceedings as may be open to him. + + +SECTION IV.--_Property, Rights, and Interests_ + +=ARTICLE 297.=--The question of private property, rights, and interests +in an enemy country shall be settled according to the principles laid +down in this section and to the provisions of the annex hereto: + +(a) The exceptional war measures and measures of transfer (defined in +Paragraph 3 of the annex hereto) taken by Germany with respect to the +property, rights, and interests of nationals of Allied or Associated +Powers, including companies and associations in which they are +interested, when liquidation has not been completed, shall be +immediately discontinued or stayed and the property, rights, and +interests concerned restored to their owners, who shall enjoy full +rights therein in accordance with the provisions of Article 298. + +(b) Subject to any contrary stipulations which may be provided for in +the present treaty, the Allied and Associated Powers reserve the right +to retain and liquidate all property, rights, and interests belonging at +the date of the coming into force of the present treaty to German +nationals, or companies controlled by them, within their territories, +colonies, possessions, and protectorates including territories ceded to +them by the present treaty. + +The liquidation shall be carried out in accordance with the laws of the +Allied or Associated State concerned, and the German owner shall not be +able to dispose of such property, rights, or interests nor to subject +them to any charge without the consent of that State. + +German nationals who acquire _ipso facto_ the nationality of an Allied +or Associated Power in accordance with the provisions of the present +treaty will not be considered as German nationals within the meaning of +this paragraph. + +(c) The price of the amount of compensation in respect of the exercise +of the right referred to in the preceding Paragraph (b) will be fixed in +accordance with the methods of sale or valuation adopted by the laws of +the country in which the property has been retained or liquidated. + +(d) As between the Allied and Associated Powers or their nationals on +the one hand and Germany or her nationals on the other hand, all the +exceptional war measures, or measures of transfer, or acts done or to be +done in execution of such measures as defined in Paragraphs 1 and 3 of +the annex hereto shall be considered as final and binding upon all +persons except as regards the reservations laid down in the present +treaty. + +(e) The nationals of Allied and Associated Powers shall be entitled to +compensation in respect of damage or injury inflicted upon their +property, rights, or interests including any company or association in +which they are interested, in German territory as it existed on Aug. 1, +1914, by the application either of the exceptional war measures or +measures of transfer mentioned in Paragraphs 1 and 3 of the annex +hereto. The claims made in this respect by such nationals shall be +investigated, and the total of the compensation shall be determined by +the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal provided for in Section VI, or by an +arbitrator appointed by that tribunal. This compensation shall be borne +by Germany, and may be charged upon the property of German nationals, +within the territory or under the control of the claimant's State. This +property may be constituted as a pledge for enemy liabilities under the +conditions fixed by Paragraph 4 of the annex hereto. The payment of this +compensation may be made by the Allied or Associated State, and the +amount will be debited to Germany. + +(f) Whenever a national of an Allied or Associated Power is entitled to +property which has been subjected to a measure of transfer in German +territory and expresses a desire for its restitution, his claim for +compensation in accordance with Paragraph (e) shall be satisfied by the +restitution of the said property if it still exists in specie. + +In such case Germany shall take all necessary steps to restore the +evicted owner to the possession of his property, free from all +incumbrances or burdens with which it may have been charged after the +liquidation, and to indemnify all third parties injured by the +restitution. + +If the restitution provided for in this paragraph cannot be effected, +private agreements arranged by the intermediation of the powers +concerned or the clearing offices provided for in the Annex to Section +III. may be made, in order to secure that the national of the Allied or +Associated Power may secure compensation for the injury referred to in +Paragraph (e) by the grant of advantages or equivalents which he agrees +to accept in place of the property, rights or interests of which he was +deprived. + +Through restitution in accordance with this article the price or the +amount of compensation fixed by the application of Paragraph (e) will be +reduced by the actual value of the property restored, account being +taken of compensation in respect of loss of use or deterioration. + +(g) The rights conferred by Paragraph (f) are reserved to owners who are +nationals of Allied or Associated Powers within whose territory +legislative measures prescribing the general liquidation of enemy +property, rights or interests were not applied before the signature of +the armistice. + +(h) Except in cases where, by application of Paragraph (f), restitutions +in specie have been made, the net proceeds of sales of enemy property, +rights or interests wherever situated carried out either by virtue of +war legislation, or by application of this article, and in general all +cash assets of enemies, shall be dealt with as follows: + +(1) As regards powers adopting Section III. and the annex thereto, the +said proceeds and cash assets shall be credited to the power of which +the owner is a national, through the clearing office established +thereunder; any credit balance in favor of Germany resulting therefrom +shall be dealt with as provided in Article 243. + +(2) As regards powers not adopting Section III. and the annex thereto, +the proceeds of the property, rights and interests, and the cash assets, +of the nationals or Allied or Associated Powers held by Germany shall be +paid immediately to the person entitled thereto or to his Government; +the proceeds of the property, rights and interests, and the cash assets, +of German nationals received by an Allied or Associated Power shall be +subject to disposal by such power in accordance with its laws and +regulations and may be applied in payment of the claims and debts +defined by this article or Paragraph 4 of the annex hereto. Any +property, rights and interests or proceeds thereof or cash assets not +used as above provided may be retained by the said Allied or Associated +Power and if retained the cash value thereof shall be dealt with as +provided in Article 243. + +In the case of liquidations effected in new States, which are +signatories of the present treaty as Allied and Associated Powers, or in +States which are not entitled to share in the reparation payments to be +made by Germany, the proceeds of liquidations effected by such States +shall, subject to the rights of the Reparation Commission under the +present treaty, particularly under Articles 235 and 260, be paid direct +to the owner. If on the application of that owner the Mixed Arbitral +Tribunal, provided for by Section VI. of this part or an arbitrator +appointed by that tribunal, is satisfied that the conditions of the sale +or measures taken by the Government of the State in question outside its +general legislation were unfairly prejudicial to the price obtained, +they shall have discretion to award to the owner equitable compensation +to be paid by that State. + +(i) Germany undertakes to compensate its nationals in respect of the +sale or retention of their property, rights or interests in Allied or +Associated States. + +(j) The amount of all taxes and imposts upon capital levied or to be +levied by Germany on the property, rights, and interests of the +nationals of the Allied or Associated Powers from the 11th of November, +1918, until three months from the coming into force of the present +treaty, or, in the case of property, rights or interests which have been +subjected to exceptional measures of war, until restitution in +accordance with the present treaty, shall be restored to the owners. + +=ARTICLE 298.=--Germany undertakes, with regard to the property, rights +and interests, including companies and associations in which they were +interested, restored to nationals of Allied and Associated Powers in +accordance with the provisions of Article 297, Paragraph (a) or (f): + +(a) to restore and maintain, except as expressly provided in the present +treaty, the property, rights, and interests of the nationals of Allied +or Associated Powers in the legal position obtaining in respect of the +property, rights, and interests of German nationals under the laws in +force before the war. + +(b) not to subject the property, rights, or interests of the nationals +of the Allied or Associated Powers to any measures in derogation of +property rights which are not applied equally to the property, rights, +and interests of German nationals, and to pay adequate compensation in +the event of the application of these measures. + + +ANNEX + +1. In accordance with the provisions of Article 297, Paragraph (d), the +validity of vesting orders and of orders for the winding up of +businesses or companies, and of any other orders, directions, decisions, +or instructions of any court or any department of the Government of any +of the high contracting parties made or given, or purporting to be made +or given, in pursuance of war legislation with regard to enemy property, +rights, and interests is confirmed. The interests of all persons shall +be regarded as having been effectively dealt with by any order, +direction, decision, or instruction dealing with property in which they +may be interested, whether or not such interests are specifically +mentioned in the order, direction, decision, or instruction. No question +shall be raised as to the regularity of a transfer of any property, +rights, or interests dealt with in pursuance of any such order, +direction, decision, or instruction. Every action taken with regard to +any property, business, or company, whether as regards its +investigation, sequestration, compulsory administration, use, +requisition, supervision, or winding up, the sale or management of +property, rights, or interests, the collection or discharge of debts, +the payment of costs, charges or expenses, or any other matter +whatsoever, in pursuance of orders, directions, decisions, or +instructions of any court or of any department of the Government of any +of the high contracting parties, made or given, or purporting to be made +or given in pursuance of war legislation with regard to enemy property, +rights or interests, is confirmed. Provided that the provisions of this +paragraph shall not be held to prejudice the titles to property +heretofore acquired in good faith and for value and in accordance with +the laws of the country in which the property is situated by nationals +of the Allied and Associated Powers. + +The provisions of this paragraph do not apply to such of the +above-mentioned measures as have been taken by the German authorities in +invaded or occupied territory, nor to such of the above mentioned +measures as have been taken by Germany or the German authorities since +Nov. 11, 1918, all of which shall be void. + +2. No claim or action shall be made or brought against any Allied or +Associated Power or against any person acting on behalf of or under the +direction of any legal authority or department of the Government of such +a power by Germany or by any German national wherever resident in +respect of any act or omission with regard to his property, rights, or +interests during the war or in preparation for the war. Similarly no +claim or action shall be made or brought against any person in respect +of any act or omission under or in accordance with the exceptional war +measures, laws, or regulations of any Allied or Associated Power. + +3. In Article 297 and this Annex the expression "exceptional war +measures" includes measures of all kinds, legislative, administrative, +judicial, or others, that have been taken or will be taken hereafter +with regard to enemy property, and which have had or will have the +effect of removing from the proprietors the power of disposition over +their property, though without affecting the ownership, such as measures +of supervision, of compulsory administration, and of sequestration; or +measures which have had or will have as an object the seizure of, the +use of, or the interference with enemy assets, for whatsoever motive, +under whatsoever form or in whatsoever place. Acts in the execution of +these measures include all detentions, instructions, orders or decrees +of Government departments or courts applying these measures to enemy +property, as well as acts performed by any person connected with the +administration or the supervision of enemy property, such as the payment +of debts, the collecting of credits, the payment of any costs, charges, +or expenses, or the collecting of fees. + +Measures of transfer are those which have affected or will affect the +ownership of enemy property by transferring it in whole or in part to a +person other than the enemy owner, and without his consent, such as +measures directing the sale, liquidation, or devolution of ownership in +enemy property, or the canceling of titles or securities. + +4. All property, rights, and interests of German nationals within the +territory of any Allied or Associated Power and the net proceeds of +their sale, liquidation or other dealing therewith may be charged by +that Allied or Associated Power in the first place with payment of +amounts due in respect of claims by the nationals of that Allied or +Associated Power with regard to their property, rights, and interests, +including companies and associations in which they are interested, in +German territory, or debts owing to them by German nationals, and with +payment of claims growing out of acts committed by the German Government +or by any German authorities since July 31, 1914, and before that Allied +or Associated Power entered into the war. The amount of such claims may +be assessed by an arbitrator appointed by Gustave Ador, if he is +willing, or if no such appointment is made by him by an arbitrator +appointed by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal provided for in Section VI. +They may be charged in the second place with payment of the amounts due +in respect of claims by the nationals of such Allied or Associated Power +with regard to their property, rights, and interests in the territory of +other enemy powers, or debts owing to them by nationals of such powers +in so far as those claims or debts are otherwise unsatisfied. + +5. Notwithstanding the provisions of Article 297, where immediately +before the outbreak of war a company incorporated in an Allied or +Associated State had rights in common with a company controlled by it +and incorporated in Germany to the use of trade-marks in third +countries, or enjoyed the use in common with such company of unique +means of reproduction of goods or articles for sale in third countries, +the former company shall alone have the right to use these trade-marks +in third countries to the exclusion of the German company, and these +unique means of reproduction shall be handed over to the former company, +notwithstanding any action taken under German war legislation with +regard to the latter company or its business, industrial property or +shares. Nevertheless, the former company, if requested, shall deliver to +the latter company derivative copies permitting the continuation of +reproduction of articles for use within German territory. + +6. Up to the time when restitution is carried out in accordance with +Article 297, Germany is responsible for the conservation of property, +rights, and interests of the nationals of Allied or Associated Powers, +including companies and associations in which they are interested, that +have been subjected by her to exceptional war measures. + +7. Within one year from the coming into force of the present treaty the +Allied or Associated Powers will specify the property, rights and +interests over which they intend to exercise the right provided in +Article 297, Paragraph (f). + +8. The restriction provided in Article 297 will be carried out by order +of the German Government or of the authorities which have been +substituted for it. Detailed accounts of the action of administrators +shall be furnished to the interested persons by the German authorities +upon request, which may be made at any time after the coming into force +of the present treaty. + +9. Until completion of the liquidation provided for by Article 297, +Paragraph (b), the property, rights and interests of German nationals +will continue to be subject to exceptional war measures that have been +or will be taken with regard to them. + +10. Germany will within six months from the coming into force of the +present treaty, deliver to each Allied or Associated Power all +securities, certificates, deeds, or other documents of title held by its +nationals and relating to property, rights or interests situated in the +territory of that Allied or Associated Power, including any shares, +stock, debentures, debenture stock, or other obligations of any company +incorporated in accordance with the laws of that power. + +Germany will at any time on demand of any Allied or Associated Power +furnish such information as may be required with regard to the property, +rights, and interests of German nationals within the territory of such +Allied or Associated Power, or with regard to any transactions +concerning such property, rights or interests effected since July 1, +1914. + +11. The expression "cash assets" includes all deposits or funds +established before or after the declaration of war, as well as all +assets coming from deposits, revenues, or profits collected by +administrators, sequestrators, or others from funds placed on deposit or +otherwise, but does not include sums belonging to the Allied or +Associated Powers or to their component States, provinces, or +municipalities. + +[Illustration: Copyright Harris & Ewing + +Henry Cabot Lodge + +Republican Senator from Massachusetts. + +One of the most earnest opponents of the peace treaty as originally +drawn up.] + +12. All investments wheresoever effected with the cash assets of +nationals of the high contracting parties, including companies and +associations in which such nationals were interested, by persons +responsible for the administration, of enemy properties or having +control over such administration, or by order of such persons or of any +authority whatsoever shall be annulled. These cash assets shall be +accounted for irrespective of any such investment. + +13. Within one month from the coming into force of the present treaty, +or on demand at any time, Germany will deliver to the Allied and +Associated Powers all accounts, vouchers, records, documents, and +information of any kind which may be within German territory, and which +concern the property, rights and interests of the nationals of those +powers, including companies and associations in which they are +interested, that have been subjected to an exceptional war measure, or +to a measure of transfer either in German territory or in territory +occupied by Germany or her allies. + +The controllers, supervisors, managers, administrators, sequestrators, +liquidators, and receivers shall be personally responsible under +guarantee of the German Government for the immediate delivery in full of +these accounts and documents, and for their accuracy. + +14. The provisions of Article 297 and this annex relating to property, +rights and interests in an enemy country, and the proceeds of the +liquidation thereof, apply to debts, credits and accounts, Section III. +regulating only the method of payment. + +In the settlement of matters provided for in Article 297 between Germany +and the Allied or Associated States, their colonies or protectorates, or +any one of the British Dominions or India, in respect of any of which a +declaration shall not have been made that they adopt Section III., and +between their respective nationals, the provisions of Section III. +respecting the currency in which payment is to be made and the rate of +exchange and of interest shall apply unless the Government of the Allied +or Associated Power concerned shall within six months of the coming into +force of the present treaty notify Germany that the said provisions are +not to be applied. + +15. The provisions of Article 297 and this annex apply to industrial, +literary, and artistic property which has been or will be dealt with in +the liquidation of property, rights, interests, companies, or businesses +under war legislation by the Allied or Associated Powers, or in +accordance with the stipulations of Article 297, Paragraph (b). + + +SECTION V.--_Contracts, Prescriptions, Judgments_ + +=ARTICLE 299.=--(a) Any contract concluded between enemies shall be +regarded as having been dissolved as from the time when any two of the +parties become enemies, except in respect of any debt or other pecuniary +obligation arising out of any act done or money paid thereunder, and +subject to the exceptions and special rules with regard to particular +contracts or classes of contracts contained herein or in the annex +hereto. + +(b) Any contract of which the execution shall be required in the general +interest, within six months from the date of the coming into force of +the present treaty, by the Allied or Associated Governments of which one +of the parties is a national, shall be excepted from dissolution under +this article. + +When the execution of the contract thus kept alive would, owing to the +alteration of trade conditions, cause one of the parties substantial +prejudice the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal provided for by Section VI. shall +be empowered to grant to the prejudiced party equitable compensation. + +(c) Having regard to the provisions of the Constitution and law of the +United States of America, of Brazil, and of Japan, neither the present +Article, nor Article 300, nor the Annex hereto shall apply to contracts +made between nationals of these States and German nationals; nor shall +Article 305 apply to the United States of America or its nationals. + +(d) The present Article and the Annex hereto shall not apply to +contracts the parties to which became enemies by reason of one of them +being an inhabitant of territory of which the sovereignty has been +transferred, if such party shall acquire under the present Treaty the +nationality of an Allied or Associated Power, nor shall they apply to +contracts between nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers between +whom trading has been prohibited by reason of one of the parties being +in allied or associated territory in the occupation of the enemy. + +(e) Nothing in the present Article or the Annex hereto shall be deemed +to invalidate a transaction lawfully carried out in accordance with a +contract between enemies if it has been carried out with the authority +of one of the belligerent Powers. + +=ARTICLE 300.=--(a) All periods of prescription, or limitation of right +of action, whether they began to run before or after the outbreak of +war, shall be treated in the territory of the High Contracting Parties, +so far as regards relations between enemies, as having been suspended +for the duration of the war. They shall begin to run again at earliest +three months after the coming into force of the present Treaty. This +provision shall apply to the period prescribed for the presentation of +interest or dividend coupons or for the presentation for repayment of +securities drawn for repayment or repayable on any other ground. + +(b) Where, on account of failure to perform any act or comply with any +formality during the war, measures of execution have been taken in +German territory to the prejudice of a national of an Allied or +Associated Power, the claim of such national shall, if the matter does +not fall within the competence of the courts of an Allied or Associated +Power, be heard by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal provided for by Section +VI. + +(c) Upon the application of any interested person who is a national of +an Allied or Associated Power, the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal shall order +the restoration of the rights which have been prejudiced by the measures +of execution referred to in Paragraph (b), wherever, having regard to +the particular circumstances of the case, such restoration is equitable +and possible. + +If such restoration is inequitable or impossible the Mixed Arbitral +Tribunal may grant compensation to the prejudiced party to be paid by +the German Government. + +(d) Where a contract between enemies has been dissolved by reason either +of failure on the part of either party to carry out its provisions or of +the exercise of a right stipulated in the contract itself the party +prejudiced may apply to the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal for relief. The +tribunal will have the powers provided for in Paragraph (c). + +(e) The provisions of the preceding paragraphs of this article shall +apply to the nationals of Allied and Associated Powers who have been +prejudiced by reason of measures referred to above taken by Germany in +invaded or occupied territory, if they have not been otherwise +compensated. + +(f) Germany shall compensate any third party who may be prejudiced by +any restitution or restoration ordered by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal +under the provisions of the preceding paragraphs of this Article. + +(g) As regards negotiable instruments, the period of three months +provided under paragraph (a) shall commence as from the date on which +any exceptional regulations applied in the territories of the interested +power with regard to negotiable instruments shall have definitely ceased +to have force. + +=ARTICLE 301.=--As between enemies, no negotiable instrument made before +the war shall be deemed to have become invalid by reason only of failure +within the required time to present the instrument for acceptance or +payment or to give notice of non-acceptance or non-payment to drawers or +indorsers or to protest the instrument, nor by reason of failure to +complete any formality during the war. + +Where the period within which a negotiable instrument should have been +presented for acceptance or for payment, or within which notice of +non-acceptance or non-payment should have been given to the drawer or +indorser within which the instrument should have been protested, has +elapsed during the war, and the party who should have presented or +protested the instrument or have given notice of non-acceptance or +non-payment has failed to do so during the war, a period of not less +than three months from the coming into force of the present treaty shall +be allowed within which presentation, notice of non-acceptance or +non-payment or protest may be made. + +=ARTICLE 302.=--Judgments given by the courts of an Allied or Associated +Power in all cases which, under the present treaty, they are competent +to decide, shall be recognized in Germany as final, and shall be +enforced without it being necessary to have them declared executory. + +If a judgment in respect of any dispute which may have arisen has been +given during the war by a German court against a national of an Allied +or Associated State in a case in which he was not able to make his +defense, the allied and associated national who has suffered prejudice +thereby shall be entitled to recover compensation, to be fixed by the +Mixed Arbitral Tribunal provided for in Section VI. + +At the instance of the national of the Allied or Associated Power the +compensation above mentioned may, upon order to that effect of the Mixed +Arbitral Tribunal, be effected where it is possible by replacing the +parties in the situation which they occupied before the judgment was +given by the German court. + +The above compensation may likewise be obtained before the Mixed +Arbitral Tribunal by the nationals of Allied or Associated Powers who +have suffered prejudice by judicial measures taken in invaded or +occupied territories, if they have not been otherwise compensated. + +=ARTICLE 303.=--For the purpose of Sections III., IV., V., and VII., the +expression "during the war" means for each Allied or Associated Power +the period between the commencement of the state of war between that +power and Germany and the coming into force of the present treaty. + + +ANNEX + +I. _General Provisions_ + +1. Within the meaning of Articles 299, 300 and 301, the parties to a +contract shall be regarded as enemies when trading between them shall +have been prohibited by or otherwise became unlawful under laws, orders +or regulations to which one of those parties was subject. They shall be +deemed to have become enemies from the date when such trading was +prohibited or otherwise became unlawful. + +2. The following classes of contracts are excepted from dissolution by +Article 299 and, without prejudice to the rights contained in Article +297 (b) of Section IV., remain in force subject to the application of +domestic laws, orders or regulations made during the war by the Allied +and Associated Powers and subject to the terms of the contracts: + +(a) Contracts having for their object the transfer of estates or of real +or personal property where the property therein had passed or the object +had been delivered before the parties became enemies; + +(b) Leases and agreements for leases of land and houses; + +(c) Contracts of mortgage, pledge, or lien; + +(d) Concessions concerning mines, quarries or deposits; + +(e) Contracts between individuals or companies and States, provinces, +municipalities, or other similar juridical persons charged with +administrative functions, and concessions granted by States, provinces, +municipalities, or other similar juridical persons charged with +administrative functions. + +3. If the provisions of a contract are in part dissolved under Article +299, the remaining provisions of that contract shall, subject to the +same application of domestic laws as is provided for in Paragraph 2, +continue in force if they are severable, but where they are not +severable the contract shall be deemed to have been dissolved in its +entirety. + + +II. _Provisions Relating to Certain Classes of Contracts_ + +_Stock Exchange and Commercial Exchange Contracts_ + +4. (a) Rules made during the war by any recognized exchange of +commercial association providing for the closure of contracts entered +into before the war by an enemy are confirmed by the high contracting +parties, as also any action taken thereunder, provided:-- + +(i.) That the contract was expressed to be made subject to the rules of +the exchange or association in question; + +(ii.) That the rules applied to all persons concerned; + +(iii.) That the conditions attaching to the closure were fair and +reasonable. + +(b) The preceding paragraph shall not apply to rules made during the +occupation by exchange or commercial associations in the districts +occupied by the enemy. + +(c) The closure of contracts relating to cotton "futures," which were +closed as on the 31st July, 1914, under the decision of the Liverpool +Cotton Association, is also confirmed. + +_Security_ + +(5) The sale of a security held for an unpaid debt owing by an enemy +shall be deemed to have been valid irrespective of notice to the owner +if the creditor acted in good faith and with reasonable care and +prudence, and no claim by the debtor on the ground of such sale shall be +admitted. + +This stipulation shall not apply to any sale of securities effected by +an enemy during the occupation in regions invaded or occupied by the +enemy. + + +_Negotiable Instruments_ + +6. As regards powers which adopt Section III. and the Annex thereto the +pecuniary obligations existing between enemies and resulting from the +issue of negotiable instruments shall be adjusted in conformity with the +said Annex by the instrumentality of the Clearing Offices, which shall +assume the rights of the holder as regards the various remedies open to +him. + +7. If a person has either before or during the war become liable upon a +negotiable instrument in accordance with an undertaking given to him by +a person who has subsequently become an enemy, the latter shall remain +liable to indemnify the former in respect of his liability, +notwithstanding the outbreak of war. + + +III. _Contracts of Insurance_ + +8. Contracts of insurance entered into by any person with another person +who subsequently became an enemy will be dealt with in accordance with +the following paragraphs: + +_Fire Insurance_ + +9. Contracts for the insurance of property against fire entered into by +a person interested in such property with another person who +subsequently became an enemy shall not be deemed to have been dissolved +by the outbreak of war, or by the fact of the person becoming an enemy, +or on account of the failure during the war and for a period of three +months thereafter to perform his obligations under the contract, but +they shall be dissolved at the date when the annual premium becomes +payable for the first time after the expiration of a period of three +months after the coming into force of the present treaty. + +A settlement shall be effected of unpaid premiums which became due +during the war, or of claims for losses which occurred during the war. + +10. Where by administrative or legislative action an insurance against +fire effected before the war has been transferred during the war from +the original to another insurer, the transfer will be recognized and the +liability of the original insurer will be deemed to have ceased as from +the date of the transfer. The original insurer will, however, be +entitled to receive on demand full information as to the terms of the +transfer, and if it should appear that these terms were not equitable +they shall be amended so far as may be necessary to render them +equitable. + +Furthermore, the insured shall, subject to the concurrence of the +original insurer, be entitled to retransfer the contract to the original +insurer as from the date of the demand. + +_Life Insurance_ + +11. Contracts of life insurance entered into between an insurer and a +person who subsequently became an enemy shall not be deemed to have been +dissolved by the outbreak of war, or by the fact of the person becoming +an enemy. + +Any sum which during the war became due upon a contract deemed not to +have been dissolved under the preceding provision shall be recoverable +after the war with the addition of interest of five per cent. per annum +from the date of its becoming due up to the day of payment. + +Where the contract has lapsed during the war owing to non-payment of +premiums, or has become void from breach of the conditions of the +contract, the assured or his representatives or the persons entitled +shall have the right at any time within twelve months of the coming into +force of the present treaty to claim from the insurer the surrender +value of the policy at the date of its lapse or avoidance. + +Where the contract has lapsed during the war owing to non-payment of +premiums the payment of which has been prevented by the enforcement of +measures of war, the assured or his representative or the persons +entitled shall have the right to restore the contract on payment of the +premiums with interest at five per cent. per annum within three months +from the coming into effect of the present treaty. + +12. Any Allied or Associated Power may within three months of the coming +into force of the present treaty cancel all the contracts of insurance +running between a German insurance company and its nationals under +conditions which shall protect its nationals from any prejudice. + +To this end the German insurance company will hand over to the allied or +associated Government concerned, the proportion of its assets +attributable to the policies so canceled and will be relieved from all +liability in respect of such policies. The assets to be handed over +shall be determined by an actuary appointed by the Mixed Arbitral +Tribunal. + +13. Where contracts of life insurance have been entered into by a local +branch of an insurance company established in a country which +subsequently became an enemy country, the contract shall, in the absence +of any stipulation to the contrary in the contract itself, be governed +by the local law, but the insurer shall be entitled to demand from the +insured or his representatives the refund of sums paid on claims made or +enforced under measures taken during the war, if the making or +enforcement of such claims was not in accordance with the terms of the +contract itself or was not consistent with the laws or treaties existing +at the time when it was entered into. + +14. In any case where by the law applicable to the contract the insurer +remains bound by the contract notwithstanding the non-payment of +premiums until notice is given to the insured of the termination of the +contract, he shall be entitled where the giving of such notice was +prevented by the war to recover the unpaid premiums with interest at +five per cent. per annum from the insured. + +15. Insurance contracts shall be considered as contracts of life +assurance for the purpose of Paragraphs 11 to 14 when they depend on the +probabilities of human life combined with the rate of interest for the +calculation of the reciprocal engagements between the two parties. + + +_Marine Insurance_ + +16. Contracts of marine insurance including time policies and voyage +policies entered into between an insurer and a person who subsequently +became an enemy, shall be deemed to have been dissolved on his becoming +an enemy, except in cases where the risk undertaken in the contract had +attached before he became an enemy. + +Where the risk had not attached, money paid by way of premium or +otherwise shall be recoverable from the insurer. + +Where the risk had attached, effect shall be given to the contract +notwithstanding the party becoming an enemy, and sums due under the +contract either by way of premiums or in respect of losses shall be +recoverable after the coming into force of the present treaty. + +In the event of any agreement being come to for the payment of interest +on sums due before the war to or by the nationals of States which have +been at war and recovered after the war, such interest shall in the case +of losses recoverable under contracts of marine insurance run from the +expiration of a period of one year from the date of the loss. + +17. No contract of marine insurance with an insured person who +subsequently became an enemy shall be deemed to cover losses due to +belligerent action by the power of which the insurer was a national or +by the allies or associates of such power. + +18. Where it is shown that a person who had before the war entered into +a contract of marine insurance with an insurer who subsequently became +an enemy entered after the outbreak of war into a new contract covering +the same risk with an insurer who was not an enemy, the new contract +shall be deemed to be substituted for the original contract as from the +date when it was entered into, and the premiums payable shall be +adjusted on the basis of the original insurer having remained liable on +the contract only up till the time when the new contract was entered +into. + + +_Other Insurances_ + +19. Contracts of insurance entered into before the war between an +insurer and a person who subsequently became an enemy other than +contracts dealt with in Paragraphs 9 to 18 shall be treated in all +respects on the same footing as contracts of fire insurance between the +same persons would be dealt with under the said paragraphs. + +_Re-Insurance_ + +20. All treaties of re-insurance with a person who became an enemy shall +be regarded as having been abrogated by the person becoming an enemy, +but without prejudice in the case of life or marine risks which had +attached before the war to the right to recover payment after the war +for sums due in respect of such risks. + +Nevertheless, if, owing to invasion, it has been impossible for the +re-insured to find another re-insurer, the treaty shall remain in force +until three months after the coming into force of the present treaty. + +Where a re-insurance treaty becomes void under this paragraph, there +shall be an adjustment of accounts between the parties in respect both +of premiums paid and payable and of liabilities for losses in respect of +life or marine risk which had attached before the war. In the case of +risks other than those mentioned in Paragraphs 11 to 18 the adjustment +of accounts shall be made as at the date of the parties becoming enemies +without regard to claims for losses which may have occurred since that +date. + +21. The provisions of the preceding paragraph will extend equally to +re-insurances existing at the date of the parties becoming enemies of +particular risks undertaken by the insurer in a contract of insurance +against any risks other than life or marine risks. + +22. Re-insurance of life risks effected by particular contracts and not +under any general treaty remain in force. + +The provisions of Paragraph 12 apply to treaties of re-insurance of life +insurance contracts in which enemy companies are the re-insurers. + +23. In case of a re-insurance effected before the war of a contract of +marine insurance the cession of a risk which had been ceded to the +re-insurer shall, if it had attached before the outbreak of war, remain +valid and effect be given to the contract notwithstanding the outbreak +of war; sums due under the contract of re-insurance in respect either of +premiums or of losses shall be recoverable after the war. + +24. The provisions of Paragraphs 17 and 18 and the last part of +Paragraph 16 shall apply to contracts for the re-insurance of marine +risks. + + +SECTION VI.--_Mixed Arbitral Tribunal_ + +=ARTICLE 304.=--(a) Within three months from the date of the coming into +force of the present treaty, a Mixed Arbitral Tribunal shall be +established between each of the Allied and Associated Powers on the one +hand and Germany on the other hand. Each such tribunal shall consist of +three members. Each of the Governments concerned shall appoint one of +these members. The President shall be chosen by agreement between the +two Governments concerned. + +In case of failure to reach agreement, the President of the tribunal and +two other persons either of whom may in case of need take his place, +shall be chosen by the Council of the League of Nations, or, until this +is set up, by M. Gustave Ador if he is willing. These persons shall be +nationals of Powers that have remained neutral during the war. + +If any Government does not proceed within a period of one month in case +there is a vacancy to appoint a member of the tribunal, such member +shall be chosen by the other Government from the two persons mentioned +above other than the President. + +The decision of the majority of the members of the tribunal shall be the +decision of the tribunal. + +(b) The Mixed Arbitral Tribunals established pursuant to Paragraph (a) +shall decide all questions within their competence under Sections III., +IV., V., and VII. + +In addition, all questions, whatsoever their nature, relating to +contracts concluded before the coming into force of the present treaty +between nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers and German +nationals shall be decided by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal, always +excepting questions which, under the laws of the Allied, Associated or +neutral powers, are within the jurisdiction of the national courts of +those powers. Such questions shall be decided by the national courts in +question, to the exclusion of the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal. The party who +is a national of an Allied or Associated Power may nevertheless bring +the case before the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal if this is not prohibited by +the laws of his country. + +(c) If the number of cases justifies it, additional members shall be +appointed and each Mixed Arbitral Tribunal shall sit in divisions. Each +of these divisions will be constituted as above. + +(d) Each Mixed Arbitral Tribunal will settle its own procedure except in +so far as it is provided in the following Annex, and is empowered to +award the sums to be paid by the loser in respect of the costs and +expenses of the proceedings. + +(e) Each Government will pay the remuneration of the member of the Mixed +Arbitral Tribunal appointed by it and of any agent whom it may appoint +to represent it before the Tribunal. The remuneration of the President +will be determined by special agreement between the Governments +concerned, and this remuneration and the joint expenses of each +tribunal will be paid by the two Governments in equal moieties. + +(f) The high contracting parties agree that their courts and authorities +shall render to the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal direct all the assistance in +their power, particularly as regards transmitting notices and collecting +evidence. + +(g) The high contracting parties agree to regard the decisions of the +Mixed Arbitral Tribunal as final and conclusive, and to render them +binding upon their nationals. + + +ANNEX + +1. Should one of the members of the Tribunal either die, retire, or be +unable for any reason whatever to discharge his functions, the same +procedure will be followed for filling the vacancy as was followed for +appointing him. + +2. The tribunal may adopt such rules of procedure as shall be in +accordance with justice and equity and decide the order and time at +which each party must conclude its arguments, and may arrange all +formalities required for dealing with the evidence. + +3. The agent and counsel of the parties on each side are authorized to +present orally and in writing to the tribunal arguments in support or in +defense of each case. + +4. The tribunal shall keep record of the questions and cases submitted +and the proceedings thereon, with the dates of such proceedings. + +5. Each of the Powers concerned may appoint a secretary. These +secretaries shall act together as joint secretaries of the tribunal and +shall be subject to its direction. The tribunal may appoint and employ +any other necessary officer or officers to assist in the performance of +its duties. + +6. The tribunal shall decide all questions and matters submitted upon +such evidence and information as may be furnished by the parties +concerned. + +7. Germany agrees to give the tribunal all facilities and information +required by it for carrying out its investigations. + +8. The language in which the proceedings shall be conducted shall, +unless otherwise agreed, be English, French, Italian, or Japanese, as +may be determined by the Allied or Associated Power concerned. + +9. The place and time for the meetings of each tribunal shall be +determined by the President of the tribunal. + +=ARTICLE 305.=--Whenever a competent court has given or gives a decision +in a case covered by Sections III., IV., V. or VII., and such decision +is inconsistent with the provisions of such sections, the party who is +prejudiced by the decision shall be entitled to obtain redress which +shall be fixed by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal. At the request of the +national of an Allied or Associated Power, the redress may, whenever +possible, be effected by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal directing the +replacement of the parties in the position occupied by them before the +judgment was given by the German Court. + + +SECTION VII.--_Industrial Property_ + +=ARTICLE 306.=--Subject to the stipulations of the present treaty, +rights of industrial, literary, and artistic property, as such property +is defined by the International Conventions of Paris and of Berne, +mentioned in Article 286, shall be re-established or restored, as from +the coming into force of the present treaty in the territories of the +high contracting parties, in favor of the persons entitled to the +benefit of them at the moment when the state of war commenced, or their +legal representatives. Equally, rights which, except for the war, would +have been acquired during the war in consequence of an application made +for the protection of industrial property, or the publication of a +literary or artistic work, shall be recognized and established in favor +of those persons who would have been entitled thereto, from the coming +into force of the present treaty. + +Nevertheless, all acts done by virtue of the special measures taken +during the war under legislative, executive or administrative authority +of any Allied or Associated Power in regard to the rights of German +nationals in industrial, literary or artistic property shall remain in +force and shall continue to maintain their full effect. + +No claim shall be made or action brought by Germany or German nationals +in respect of the use during the war by the Government of any Allied or +Associated Power, or by any persons acting on behalf or with the assent +of such Government of any rights in industrial, literary or artistic +property, nor in respect of the sale, offering for sale, or use of any +products, articles, or apparatus whatsoever to which such rights +applied. + +Unless the legislation of any one of the Allied or Associated Powers in +force at the moment of the signature of the present treaty otherwise +directs, sums due or paid in virtue of any act or operation resulting +from the execution of the special measures mentioned in Paragraph 1 of +this article shall be dealt with in the same way as other sums due to +German nationals are directed to be dealt with by the present treaty; +and sums produced by any special measures taken by the German Government +in respect of rights in industrial, literary or artistic property +belonging to the nationals of the Allied or Associated Powers shall be +considered and treated in the same way as other debts due from German +nationals. + +Each of the Allied and Associated Powers reserves to itself the right to +impose such limitations, conditions or restrictions on rights of +industrial, literary or artistic property (with the exception of +trade-marks) acquired before or during the war, or which may be +subsequently acquired in accordance with its legislation, by German +nationals, whether by granting licenses, or by the working, or by +preserving control over their exploitation, or in any other way as may +be considered necessary for national defense or in the public interest, +or for assuring the fair treatment by Germany of the rights of +industrial, literary, and artistic property held in German territory by +its nationals, or for securing the due fulfillment of all the +obligations undertaken by Germany in the present treaty. + +As regards rights of industrial, literary and artistic property acquired +after the coming into force of the present treaty, the right so reserved +by the Allied and Associated Powers shall only be exercised in cases +where these limitations, conditions or restrictions may be considered +necessary for national defense or in the public interest. + +In the event of the application of the provisions of the preceding +paragraph by any of the Allied or Associated Powers, there shall be paid +reasonable indemnities or royalties which shall be dealt with in the +same way as other sums due to German nationals are directed to be dealt +with by the present treaty. + +Each of the Allied or Associated Powers reserves the right to treat as +void and of no effect any transfer in whole or in part of or other +dealing with rights of or in respect of industrial, literary or +artistic property effected after Aug. 1, 1914, or in the future, which +would have the result of defeating the objects of the provisions of this +article. + +The provisions of this article shall not apply to rights in industrial, +literary or artistic property which have been dealt with in the +liquidation of businesses or companies under war legislation by the +Allied or Associated Powers, or which may be so dealt with by virtue of +Article 297, Paragraph (b). + +=ARTICLE 307.=--A minimum of one year after the coming into force of the +present treaty shall be accorded to the nationals of the high +contracting parties, without extension fees or other penalty, in order +to enable such persons to accomplish any act, fulfill any formality, pay +any fees, and generally satisfy any obligation prescribed by the laws or +regulations of the respective States relating to the obtaining, +preserving or opposing rights to, or in respect of, industrial property +either acquired before the 1st of August, 1914, or which, except for the +war, might have been acquired since that date as a result of an +application made before the war or during its continuance, but nothing +in this article shall give any right to reopen interference proceedings +in the United States of America where a final hearing has taken place. + +All rights in, or in respect of, such property which may have lapsed by +reason of any failure to accomplish any act, fulfill any formality, or +make any payment, shall revive, but subject in the case of patents and +designs to the imposition of such conditions as each Allied or +Associated Power may deem reasonably necessary for the protection of +persons who have manufactured or made use of the subject matter of such +property while the rights had lapsed. Further, where rights to patents +or designs belonging to German nationals are revived under this article, +they shall be subject in respect of the grant of licenses to the same +provisions as would have been applicable to them during the war, as well +as to all the provisions of the present treaty. + +The period from the 1st August, 1914, until the coming into force of the +present treaty shall be excluded in considering the time within which a +patent should be worked or a trade mark or design used, and it is +further agreed that no patent, registered trade mark or design in force +on the 1st of August, 1914, shall be subject to revocation or +cancellation by reason only of the failure to work such patent or use +such trade mark or design for two years after the coming into force of +the present treaty. + +=ARTICLE 308.=--The rights of priority, provided by Article IV. of the +International Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property of +Paris, of the 20th March, 1883, revised at Washington in 1911, or by any +other convention or statute, for the filing or registration of +applications for patents or models of utility, and for the registration +of trade marks, designs, and models which had not expired on the 1st +August, 1914, and those which have arisen during the war, or would have +arisen but for the war, shall be extended by each of the high +contracting parties in favor of all nationals of the other high +contracting parties for a period of six months after the coming into +force of the present treaty. + +Nevertheless, such extension shall in no way affect the right of any of +the high contracting parties or of any person who before the coming into +force of the present treaty was _bona fide_ in possession of any rights +of industrial property conflicting with rights applied for by another +who claims rights of priority in respect of them, to exercise such +rights by itself or himself personally, or by such agents or licensees +as derived their rights from it or him before the coming into force of +the present treaty; and such persons shall not be amenable to any action +or other process of law in respect of infringement. + +=ARTICLE 309.=--No action shall be brought and no claim made by persons +residing or carrying on business within the territories of Germany on +the one part and of the Allied or Associated Powers on the other, or +persons who are nationals of such powers, respectively, or by any one +deriving title during the war from such persons, by reason or any action +which has taken place within the territory of the other party between +the date of the declaration of war and that of the coming into force of +the present treaty, which might constitute an infringement of the rights +of industrial property or rights of literary and artistic property, +either existing at any time during the war or revived under the +provisions of Articles 307 and 308. + +[Illustration: America's Peace Capitol in Paris + +The Hotel Crillon, facing upon the Place de la Concorde, was +requisitioned to serve during the Peace Conference as the office and +living quarters of President Wilson's staff. + +Copyright Underwood & Underwood] + + +Equally, no action for infringement of industrial, literary or artistic +property rights by such persons shall at any time be permissible in +respect of the sale or offering for sale for a period of one year after +the signature of the present treaty in the territories of the Allied or +Associated Powers on the one hand or Germany on the other, of products +or articles manufactured, or of literary or artistic works published, +during the period between the declaration of war and the signature of +the present treaty, or against those who have acquired and continue to +use them. It is understood, nevertheless, that this provision shall not +apply when the possessor of the rights was domiciled or had an +industrial or commercial establishment in the districts occupied by +Germany during the war. + +This article shall not apply as between the United States of America on +the one hand and Germany on the other. + +=ARTICLE 310.=--Licenses in respect of industrial, literary, or artistic +property concluded before the war between nationals of the Allied or +Associated Powers or persons residing in their territory or carrying on +business therein, on the one part, and German nationals, on the other +part, shall be considered as canceled as from the date of the +declaration of war between Germany and the Allied or Associated Powers. +But, in any case, the former beneficiary of a contract of this kind +shall have the right, within a period of six months after the coming +into force of the present treaty, to demand from the proprietor of the +rights the grant of a new license, the conditions of which, in default +of agreement between the parties, shall be fixed by the duly qualified +tribunal in the country under whose legislation the rights had been +acquired, except in the case of licenses held in respect of rights +acquired under German law. In such cases the conditions shall be fixed +by the Mixed Arbitral Tribunal referred to in Section VI. of this Part. +The tribunal may, if necessary, fix also the amount which it may deem +just should be paid by reason of the use of the rights during the war. + +No license in respect of industrial, literary, or artistic property, +granted under the special war legislation of any Allied or Associated +Power, shall be affected by the continued existence of any license +entered into before the war, but shall remain valid and of full effect, +and a license so granted to the former beneficiary of a license entered +into before the war shall be considered as substituted for such license. + +Where sums have been paid during the war by virtue of a license or +agreement concluded before the war in respect of rights of industrial +property or for the reproduction or the representation of literary, +dramatic, or artistic works, these sums shall be dealt with in the same +manner as other debts or credits of German nationals, as provided by the +present treaty. + +This Article shall not apply as between the United States of America on +the one hand and Germany on the other. + +=ARTICLE 311.=--The inhabitants of territories separated from Germany by +virtue of the present treaty shall, notwithstanding this separation and +the change of nationality consequent thereon, continue to enjoy in +Germany all the rights in industrial, literary, and artistic property to +which they were entitled under German legislation at the time of the +separation. + +Rights of industrial, literary and artistic property which are in force +in the territories separated from Germany under the present treaty at +the moment of the separation of these territories from Germany, or which +will be re-established or restored in accordance with the provisions of +Article 306 of the present treaty, shall be recognized by the State to +which the said territory is transferred and shall remain in force in +that territory for the same period of time given them under the German +law. + + +SECTION VIII.--_Social and State Insurance in Ceded Territory_ + +=ARTICLE 312.=--Without prejudice to the provisions contained in other +articles of the present treaty, the German Government undertakes to +transfer to any power to which German territory in Europe is ceded, and +to any power administering former German territory as a mandatory under +Article 22 of Part I. (League of Nations), such portion of the reserves +accumulated by the Government of the German Empire or of German States, +or by public or private organizations under their control, as is +attributable to the carrying on of social or State insurance in such +territory. + +The powers to which these funds are transferred must apply them to the +performance of the obligations arising from such insurances. + +The conditions of the transfer will be determined by special conventions +to be concluded between the German Government and the Governments +concerned. + +In case these special conventions are not concluded in accordance with +the above paragraph within three months after the coming into force of +the present treaty, the conditions of transfer shall in each case be +referred to a commission of five members, one of whom shall be appointed +by the German Government, one by the other interested Government, and +three by the governing body of the International Labor Office from the +nationals of other States. This commission shall by majority vote within +three months after appointment adopt recommendations for submission to +the Council of the League of Nations, and the decisions of the council +shall forthwith be accepted as final by Germany and the other Government +concerned. + + + + +PART XI + +Aerial Navigation + + +=ARTICLE 313.=--The aircraft of the Allied and Associated Powers shall +have full liberty of passage and landing over and in the territory and +territorial waters of Germany, and shall enjoy the same privileges as +German aircraft, particularly in case of distress by land or sea. + +=ARTICLE 314.=--The aircraft of the Allied and Associated Powers shall, +while in transit to any foreign country whatever, enjoy the right of +flying over the territory and territorial waters of Germany without +landing subject always to any regulations which may be made by Germany, +and which shall be applicable equally to the aircraft of Germany and +those of the Allied and Associated Countries. + +=ARTICLE 315.=--All aerodromes in Germany open to national public +traffic shall be open for the aircraft of the Allied and Associated +Powers, and in any such aerodrome such aircraft shall be treated on a +footing of equality with German aircraft as regards charges of every +description, including charges for landing and accommodation. + +=ARTICLE 316.=--Subject to the present provisions, the rights of +passage, transit and landing provided for in Articles 313, 314 and 315 +are subject to the observation of such regulations as Germany may +consider it necessary to enact, but such regulations shall be applied +without distinction to German aircraft and to those of Allied and +Associated Countries. + +=ARTICLE 317.=--Certificates of nationality, airworthiness, or +competency, and licenses, issued or recognized as valid by any of the +Allied or Associated Powers, shall be recognized in Germany as valid and +as equivalent to the certificates and licenses issued by Germany. + +=ARTICLE 318.=--As regards internal commercial air traffic, the aircraft +of the Allied and Associated Powers shall enjoy in Germany most favored +nation treatment. + +=ARTICLE 319.=--Germany undertakes to enforce the necessary measures to +insure that all German aircraft flying over her territory shall comply +with the rules as to lights and signals, rules of the air and rules for +air traffic on and in the neighborhood of aerodromes, which have been +laid down in the convention relative to aerial navigation concluded +between the Allied and Associated Powers. + +=ARTICLE 320.=--The obligations imposed by the preceding provisions +shall remain in force until the 1st January, 1923, unless before that +date Germany shall have been admitted into the League of Nations or +shall have been authorized, by consent of the Allied and Associated +Powers, to adhere to the convention relative to aerial navigation +concluded between those powers. + + + + +PART XII + +Ports, Waterways, and Railways + + +SECTION I.--_General Provisions_ + +=ARTICLE 321.=--Germany undertakes to grant freedom of transit through +her territories on the routes most convenient for international transit, +either by rail, navigable waterway, or canal, to persons, goods, +vessels, carriages, wagons, and mails coming from or going to the +territories of any of the Allied and Associated Powers (whether +contiguous or not); for this purpose the crossing of territorial waters +shall be allowed. Such persons, goods, vessels, carriages, wagons, and +mails shall not be subjected to any transit duty or to any undue delays +or restrictions, and shall be entitled in Germany to national treatment +as regards charges, facilities, and all other matters. + +Goods in transit shall be exempt from all customs or other similar +duties. + +All charges imposed on transport in transit shall be reasonable, having +regard to the conditions of the traffic. No charge, facility, or +restriction shall depend directly or indirectly on the ownership or on +the nationality of the ship or other means of transport on which any +part of the through journey has been, or is to be, accomplished. + +=ARTICLE 322.=--Germany undertakes neither to impose nor to maintain any +control over transmigration traffic through her territories beyond +measures necessary to insure that passengers are _bona fide_ in transit; +nor to allow any shipping company or any other private body, +corporation, or person interested in the traffic to take any part +whatever in, or to exercise any direct or indirect influence over, any +administrative service that may be necessary for this purpose. + +=ARTICLE 323.=--Germany undertakes to make no discrimination or +preference, direct or indirect, in the duties, charges, and prohibitions +relating to importations into or exportations from her territories, or, +subject to the special engagements contained in the present treaty, in +the charges and conditions of transport of goods or persons entering or +leaving her territories, based on the frontier crossed; or on the kind, +ownership, or flag of the means of transport (including aircraft) +employed; or on the original or immediate place of departure of the +vessel, wagon, or aircraft or other means of transport employed, or its +ultimate or intermediate destination; or on the route of or places of +transshipment on the journey; or on whether any port through which the +goods are imported or exported is a German port or a port belonging to +any foreign country or on whether the goods are imported or exported by +sea, by land, or by air. + +Germany particularly undertakes not to establish against the ports and +vessels of any of the Allied and Associated Powers any surtax or any +direct or indirect bounty for export or import by German ports of +vessels, or by those of another power, for example by means of combined +tariffs. She further undertakes that persons or goods passing through a +port or using a vessel of any of the Allied and Associated Powers shall +not be subjected to any formality or delay whatever to which such +persons or goods would not be subjected if they passed through a German +port or a port of any other power, or used a German vessel or a vessel +of any other power. + +=ARTICLE 324.=--All necessary administrative and technical measures +shall be taken to shorten, as much as possible, the transmission of +goods across the German frontiers and to insure their forwarding and +transport from such frontiers, irrespective of whether such goods are +coming from or going to the territories of the Allied and Associated +Powers or are in transit from or to those territories, under the same +material conditions in such matters as rapidity of carriage and care en +route as are enjoyed by other goods of the same kind carried on German +territory under similar conditions of transport. + +In particular, the transport of perishable goods shall be promptly and +regularly carried out, and the customs formalities shall be effected in +such a way as to allow the goods to be carried straight through by +trains which make connection. + +=ARTICLE 325.=--The seaports of the Allied and Associated Powers are +entitled to all favors and to all reduced tariffs granted on German +railways or navigable waterways for the benefit of German ports or of +any port of another power. + +=ARTICLE 326.=--Germany may not refuse to participate in the tariffs or +combinations of tariffs intended to secure for ports of any of the +Allied and Associated Powers advantages similar to those granted by +Germany to her own ports or the ports of any other power. + + +SECTION II.--_Navigation_ + +CHAPTER I.--FREEDOM OF NAVIGATION + +=ARTICLE 327.=--The nationals of any of the Allied and Associated Powers +as well as their vessels and property shall enjoy in all German ports +and in the inland navigation routes of Germany, the same treatment in +all respects as German nationals, vessels and property. + +In particular the vessels of any one of the Allied or Associated Powers +shall be entitled to transport goods of any description, and passengers, +to or from any ports or places in German territory to which German +vessels may have access, under conditions which shall not be more +onerous than those applied in the case of national vessels; they shall +be treated on a footing of equality with national vessels as regards +port and harbor facilities and charges of every description, including +facilities for stationing, loading and unloading, and duties and charges +of tonnage, harbor, pilotage, lighthouse, quarantine, and all analogous +duties and charges of whatsoever nature, levied in the name of or for +the profit of the Government, public functionaries, private individuals, +corporations or establishments of any kind. + +In the event of Germany granting a preferential regime to any of the +Allied or Associated Powers or to any other foreign power, this regime +shall be extended immediately and unconditionally to all the Allied and +Associated Powers. + +There shall be no impediment to the movement of persons or vessels other +than those arising from prescriptions concerning customs, police, +sanitation, emigration and immigration and those relating to the import +and export of prohibited goods. Such regulations must be reasonable and +uniform and must not impede traffic unnecessarily. + + +CHAPTER II.--FREE ZONES IN PORTS + +=ARTICLE 328.=--The free zones existing in German ports on the 1st +August, 1914, shall be maintained. These free zones and any other free +zones which may be established in German territory by the present treaty +shall be subject to the regime provided for in the following articles. + +Goods entering or leaving a free zone shall not be subjected to any +import or export duty, other than those provided for in Article 330. + +Vessels and goods entering a free zone may be subjected to the charges +established to cover expenses of administration, upkeep and improvement +of the port, as well as to the charges for the use of various +installations, provided that these charges shall be reasonable, having +regard to the expenditure incurred, and shall be levied in the +conditions of equality provided for in Article 327. + +Goods shall not be subjected to any other charge except a statistical +duty which shall not exceed 1 per mille ad valorem, and which shall be +devoted exclusively to defraying the expenses of compiling statements of +the traffic in the port. + +=ARTICLE 329.=--The facilities granted for the erection of warehouses, +for packing and for unpacking goods, shall be in accordance with trade +requirements for the time being. All goods allowed to be consumed in the +free zone shall be exempt from duty, whether of excise or of any other +description, apart from the statistical duty provided for in Article 328 +above. + +There shall be no discrimination in regard to any of the provisions of +the present article between persons belonging to different nationalities +or between goods of different origin or destination. + +=ARTICLE 330.=--Import duties may be levied on goods leaving the free +zone for consumption in the country on the territory of which the port +is situated. Conversely, export duties may be levied on goods coming +from such country and brought into the free zone. These import and +export duties shall be levied on the same basis and at the same rates as +similar duties levied at the other customs frontiers of the country +concerned. On the other hand, Germany shall not levy, under any +denomination, any import, export, or transit duty on goods carried by +land or water across her territory to or from the free zone from or to +any other State. + +Germany shall draw up the necessary regulations to secure and guarantee +such freedom of transit over such railways and waterways in her +territory as normally give access to the free zone. + + +CHAPTER III.--CLAUSES RELATING TO THE ELBE, THE ODER, THE NIEMEN +(RUSSTROM-MEMEL-NIEMEN), AND THE DANUBE + +(I)--_General Clauses_ + +=ARTICLE 331.=--The following rivers are declared international: + + The Elbe (Labe) from its confluence with the Vitava (Moldau) + and the Vitava (Moldau) from Prague; + the Oder (Odra) from its confluence with the Oppa; + the Niemen (Russtrom-Memel-Niemen) from Grodno, + the Danube from Ulm; + +and all navigable parts of these river systems which naturally provide +more than one State with access to the sea, with or without +transshipment from one vessel to another; together with lateral canals +and channels constructed either to duplicate or to improve naturally +navigable sections of the specified river system, or to connect two +naturally navigable sections of the same river. + +The same shall apply to the Rhine-Danube navigable waterway, should such +a waterway be constructed under the conditions laid down in Article 353. + +=ARTICLE 332.=--On the waterways declared to be international in the +preceding article, the nationals, property and flags of all powers shall +be treated on a footing of perfect equality, no distinction being made +to the detriment of the nationals, property or flag of any power between +them and the nationals, property or flag of the riparian State itself or +of the most favored nation. + +Nevertheless, German vessels shall not be entitled to carry passengers +or goods by regular services between the ports of any Allied or +Associated Power, without special authority from such power. + +=ARTICLE 333.=--Where such charges are not precluded by any existing +conventions, charges varying on different sections of a river may be +levied on vessels using the navigable channels or their approaches, +provided that they are intended solely to cover equitably the cost of +maintaining in a navigable condition, or of improving, the river and its +approaches, or to meet expenditure incurred in the interests of +navigation. The schedule of such charges shall be calculated on the +basis of such expenditure and shall be posted up in the ports. These +charges shall be levied in such a manner as to render any detailed +examination of cargoes unnecessary, except in cases of suspected fraud +or contravention. + +=ARTICLE 334.=--The transit of vessels, passengers, and goods on these +waterways shall be effected in accordance with the general conditions +prescribed for transit in Section I., above. + +When the two banks of an international river are within the same State, +goods in transit may be placed under seal or in the custody of customs +agents. When the river forms a frontier, goods and passengers in transit +shall be exempt from all customs formalities; the loading and unloading +of goods, and the embarkation and disembarkation of passengers, shall +only take place in the ports specified by the riparian State. + +=ARTICLE 335.=--No dues of any kind other than those provided for in the +present part shall be levied along the course or at the mouth of these +rivers. + +This provision shall not prevent the fixing by the riparian States of +customs, local octroi, or consumption duties, or the creation of +reasonable and uniform charges levied in the ports, in accordance with +public tariffs, for the use of cranes, elevators, quays, warehouses, &c. + +=ARTICLE 336.=--In default of any special organization for carrying out +the works connected with the upkeep and improvement of the international +portion of a navigable system, each riparian State shall be bound to +take suitable measures to remove any obstacle or danger to navigation +and to insure the maintenance of good conditions of navigation. + +If a State neglects to comply with this obligation any riparian State, +or any State represented on the International Commission, if there is +one, may appeal to the tribunal instituted for this purpose by the +League of Nations. + +=ARTICLE 337.=--The same procedure shall be followed in the case of a +riparian State undertaking any works of a nature to impede navigation in +the international section. The tribunal mentioned in the preceding +article shall be entitled to enforce the suspension or suppression of +such works, making due allowance in its decisions for all rights in +connection with irrigation, waterpower, fisheries, and other national +interests, which, with the consent of all the riparian States or of all +the States represented on the International Commission, if there be one, +shall be given priority over the requirements of navigation. + +Appeal to the tribunal of the League of Nations does not require the +suspension of the works. + +=ARTICLE 338.=--The regime set out in Articles 332 to 337 above shall be +superseded by one to be laid down in a General Convention drawn up by +the Allied and Associated Powers, and approved by the League of Nations, +relating to the waterways recognized in such Convention as having an +international character. This Convention shall apply in particular to +the whole or part of the above-mentioned river systems of the Elbe +(Labe), the Oder (Odra), the Niemen (Russtrom-Memel-Niemen), and the +Danube, and such other parts of these river systems as may be covered by +a general definition. + +Germany undertakes, in accordance with the provisions of Article 379, to +adhere to the said General Convention as well as to all projects +prepared in accordance with Article 343 below for the revision of +existing international agreements and regulations. + +=ARTICLE 339.=--Germany shall cede to the Allied and Associated Powers +concerned, within a maximum period of three months from the date on +which notification shall be given her, a proportion of the tugs and +vessels remaining registered in the ports of the river systems referred +to in Article 331 after the deduction of those surrendered by way of +restitution or reparation. Germany shall in the same way cede material +of all kinds necessary to the Allied and Associated Powers concerned for +the utilization of those river systems. + +The number of the tugs and boats and the amount of the material so +ceded, and their distribution, shall be determined by an arbitrator or +arbitrators nominated by the United States of America, due regard being +had to the legitimate needs of the parties concerned, and particularly +to the shipping traffic during the five years preceding the war. + +All craft so ceded shall be provided with their fittings and gear, shall +be in a good state of repair and in condition to carry goods, and shall +be selected from among those most recently built. + +The cessions provided for in the present article shall entail a credit +of which the total amount, settled in a lump sum by the arbitrator or +arbitrators, shall not in any case exceed the value of the capital +expended in the initial establishment of the material ceded, and shall +be set off against the total sums due from Germany; in consequence, the +indemnification of the proprietors shall be a matter for Germany to deal +with. + + +(2) _Special Clauses Relating to the Elbe, the Oder, and the Niemen +(Russtrom-Memel-Niemen)_ + +=ARTICLE 340.=--The Elbe (Labe) shall be placed under the administration +of an International Commission which shall comprise: + + 4 representatives of the German States bordering on the river; + 2 representatives of the Czechoslovak State; + 1 representative of Great Britain; + 1 representative of France; + 1 representative of Italy; + 1 representative of Belgium; + +Whatever be the number of members present, each delegation shall have +the right to record a number of votes equal to the number of +representatives allotted to it. + +If certain of these representatives cannot be appointed at the time of +the coming into force of the present treaty, the decisions of the +commission shall nevertheless be valid. + +=ARTICLE 341.=--The Oder (Odra) shall be placed under the administration +of an International Commission, which shall comprise: + + 1 representative of Poland; + 3 representatives of Prussia; + 1 representative of the Czechoslovak State; + 1 representative of Great Britain; + 1 representative of France; + 1 representative of Denmark; + 1 representative of Sweden. + +If certain of these representatives cannot be appointed at the time of +the coming into force of the present treaty, the decisions of the +commission shall nevertheless be valid. + +=ARTICLE 342.=--On a request being made to the League of Nations by any +riparian State, the Niemen (Russtrom-Memel-Niemen) shall be placed under +the administration of an International Commission, which shall comprise +one representative of each riparian State, and three representatives of +other States specified by the League of Nations. + +=ARTICLE 343.=--The International Commissions referred to in Articles +340 and 341 shall meet within three months of the date of the coming +into force of the present treaty, The International Commission referred +to in Article 342 shall meet within three months from the date of the +request made by a riparian State. Each of these commissions shall +proceed immediately to prepare a project for the revision of the +existing international agreements and regulations, drawn up in +conformity with the General Convention referred to in Article 338, +should such convention have been already concluded. In the absence of +such convention, the project for revision shall be in conformity with +the principles of Articles 332 to 337, above. + +=ARTICLE 344.=--The projects referred to in the preceding article shall, +_inter alia_: + +(a) Designate the headquarters of the International Commission, and +prescribe the manner in which its President is to be nominated; + +(b) Specify the extent of the commission's powers, particularly in +regard to the execution of works of maintenance, control, and +improvement on the river system, the financial regime the fixing and +collection of charges, and regulations for navigation; + +(c) Define the sections of the river or its tributaries to which the +international regime shall be applied. + +=ARTICLE 345.=--The international agreements and regulations at present +governing the navigation of the Elbe (Labe), the Oder (Odra), and the +Niemen (Russtrom-Memel-Niemen) shall be provisionally maintained in +force until the ratification of the above-mentioned projects. +Nevertheless, in all cases where such agreements and regulations in +force are in conflict with the provisions of Articles 332 to 337 above, +or of the General Convention to be concluded, the latter provisions +shall prevail. + +(3) _Special Clauses Relating to the Danube_ + +=ARTICLE 346.=--The European Commission of the Danube reassumes the +powers it possessed before the war. Nevertheless, as a provisional +measure, only representatives of Great Britain, France, Italy, and +Rumania shall constitute this commission. + +=ARTICLE 347.=--From the point where the competence of the European +Commission ceases, the Danube system referred to in Article 331 shall be +placed under the administration of an international commission composed +as follows: + + 2 representatives of German riparian States; + + 1 representative of each other riparian State; + + 1 representative of each non-riparian State represented in the + future on the European Commission of the Danube. + +If certain of these representatives cannot be appointed at the time of +the coming into force of the present treaty, the decisions of the +commission shall nevertheless be valid. + +=ARTICLE 348.=--The International Commission provided for in the +preceding article shall meet as soon as possible after the coming into +force of the present treaty, and shall undertake provisionally the +administration of the river in conformity with the provisions of +Articles 332 to 337, until such time as a definitive statute regarding +the Danube is concluded by the powers nominated by the Allied and +Associated Powers. + +=ARTICLE 349.=--Germany agrees to accept the regime which shall be laid +down for the Danube by a conference of the powers nominated by the +Allied and Associated Powers, which shall meet within one year after the +coming into force of the present treaty, and at which German +representatives may be present. + +=ARTICLE 350.=--The mandate given by Article 57 of the Treaty of Berlin +of the 13th July, 1878, to Austria-Hungary, and transferred by her to +Hungary, to carry out works at the Iron Gates, is abrogated. The +commission intrusted with the administration of this part of the river +shall lay down provisions for the settlement of accounts subject to the +financial provisions of the present treaty. Charges which may be +necessary shall in no case be levied by Hungary. + +=ARTICLE 351.=--Should the Czechoslovak State, the Serb-Croat-Slovene +State, or Rumania, with the authorization of or under mandate from the +International Commission undertake maintenance, improvement, weir or +other works on a part of the river system which forms a frontier, these +States shall enjoy on the opposite bank, and also on the part of the bed +which is outside their territory, all necessary facilities for the +survey, execution and maintenance of such works. + +=ARTICLE 352.=--Germany shall be obliged to make to the European +Commission of the Danube all restitutions, reparations, and indemnities +for damages inflicted on the commission during the war. + +=ARTICLE 353.=--Should a deep-draught Rhine-Danube navigable waterway be +constructed, Germany undertakes to apply thereto the regime prescribed +in Articles 332 to 338. + + +CHAPTER IV.--CLAUSES RELATING TO THE RHINE AND THE MOSELLE + +=ARTICLES 354.=--As from the coming into force of the present treaty, +the Convention of Mannheim of 17th October, 1868, together with the +Final Protocol thereof, shall continue to govern navigation on the +Rhine, subject to the conditions hereinafter laid down. + +In the event of any provisions of the said Convention being in conflict +with those laid down by the General Convention referred to in Article +338 (which shall apply to the Rhine), the provisions of the General +Convention shall prevail. + +Within a maximum period of six months from the coming into force of the +present treaty, the Central Commission referred to in Article 355 shall +meet to draw up a project of revision of the Convention of Mannheim. +This project shall be drawn up in harmony with the provisions of the +General Convention referred to above, should this have been concluded by +that time, and shall be submitted to the powers represented on the +Central Commission. Germany hereby agrees to adhere to the project so +drawn up. + +Further, the modifications set out in the following articles shall +immediately be made in the Convention of Mannheim. + +The Allied and Associated Powers reserve to themselves the right to +arrive at an understanding in this connection with Holland, and Germany +hereby agrees to accede if required to any such understanding. + +=ARTICLE 355.=--The Central Commission provided for in the Convention of +Mannheim shall consist of nineteen members, viz.: + + Two representatives of the Netherlands; + + Two representatives of Switzerland; + + Four representatives of German riparian States; + + Four representatives of France, which in addition shall appoint + the President of the Commission; + + Two representatives of Great Britain; + + Two representatives of Italy; + + Two representatives of Belgium. + + +[Illustration: Drawing by Georges Scott in L'illustration + +The White Flags That Meant Defeat for the German Cause and Marked the +Beginning of the End of the War + +German delegates on their way to the armistice conference with Marshal +Foch reaching the first French lines near Haudroy, November 7, 1918.] + +The headquarters of the Central Commission shall be at Strasbourg. + +Whatever be the number of members present, each delegation shall have +the right to record a number of votes equal to the number of +representatives allotted to it. + +If certain of these representatives cannot be appointed at the time of +the coming into force of the present treaty, the decisions of the +Commission shall nevertheless be valid. + +=ARTICLE 356.=--Vessels of all nations, and their cargoes, shall have +the same rights and privileges as those which are granted to vessels +belonging to the Rhine navigation, and to their cargoes. + +None of the provisions contained in Articles 15 to 20 and 26 of the +above-mentioned Convention of Mannheim, in Article 4 of the Final +Protocol thereof, or in later Conventions, shall impede the free +navigation of vessels and crews of all nations on the Rhine and on +waterways to which such Conventions apply, subject to compliance with +the regulations concerning pilotage and other police measures drawn up +by the Central Commission. + +The provisions of Article 22 of the Convention of Mannheim and of +Article 5 of the Final Protocol thereof shall be applied only to vessels +registered on the Rhine. The Central Commission shall decide on the +steps to be taken to insure that other vessels satisfy the conditions of +the general regulations applying to navigation on the Rhine. + +=ARTICLE 357.=--Within a maximum period of three months from the date on +which notification shall be given Germany shall cede to France tugs and +vessels, from among those remaining registered in German Rhine ports +after the deduction of those surrendered by way of restitution or +reparation, or shares in German Rhine navigation companies. + +When vessels and tugs are ceded, such vessels and tugs, together with +their fittings and gear, shall be in good state of repair, shall be in +condition to carry on commercial traffic on the Rhine, and shall be +selected from among those most recently built. + +The same procedure shall be followed in the matter of the cession by +Germany to France of-- + +(1) the installations, berthing, and anchorage accommodation, platforms, +docks, warehouses, plant, &c., which German subjects or German companies +owned on the 1st August, 1914, in the port of Rotterdam, and + +(2) the shares or interests which Germany or German nationals possessed +in such installations at the same date. + +The amount and specifications of such cessions shall be determined +within one year of the coming into force of the present treaty by an +arbitrator or arbitrators appointed by the United States of America, due +regard being had to the legitimate needs of the parties concerned. + +The cessions provided for in the present article shall entail a credit +of which the total amount, settled in a lump sum by the arbitrator, or +arbitrators mentioned above, shall not in any case exceed the value of +the capital expended in the initial establishment of the ceded material +and installations, and shall be set off against the total sums due from +Germany; in consequence, the indemnification of the proprietors shall be +a matter for Germany to deal with. + +=ARTICLE 358.=--Subject to the obligation to comply with the provisions +of the Convention of Mannheim or of the convention which may be +substituted therefor, and to the stipulations of the present treaty, +France shall have on the whole course of the Rhine included between the +two extreme points of the French frontiers-- + + (a) the right to take water from the Rhine to feed navigation + and irrigation canals (constructed or to be constructed) or for + any other purpose, and to execute on the German bank all works + necessary for the exercise of this right; + + (b) the exclusive right to the power derived from works of + regulation on the river, subject to the payment to Germany of + the value of half the power actually produced, this payment, + which will take into account the cost of the works necessary + for producing the power, being made either in money or in power + and in default of agreement being determined by arbitration. + For this purpose France alone shall have the right to carry out + in this part of the river all works of regulation (weirs or + other works) which she may consider necessary for the + production of power. Similarly, the right of taking water from + the Rhine is accorded to Belgium to feed the Rhine-Meuse + navigable waterway provided for below. + +The exercise of the rights mentioned under (a) and (b) of the present +article shall not interfere with navigability nor reduce the facilities +for navigation, either in the bed of the Rhine or in the derivations +which may be substituted therefor, nor shall it involve any increase in +the tolls formerly levied under the convention in force. All proposed +schemes shall be laid before the Central Commission in order that the +commission may assure itself that these conditions are complied with. + +To insure the proper and faithful execution of the provisions contained +in (a) and (b) above, Germany: + +(i) binds herself not to undertake or to allow the construction of any +lateral canal or any derivation on the right bank of the river opposite +the French frontiers; + +(ii) recognizes the possession by France of the right of support on and +the right of way over all lands situated on the right bank which may be +required in order to survey, to build, and to operate weirs which +France, with the consent of the Central Commission, may subsequently +decide to establish. In accordance with such consent, France shall be +entitled to decide upon and fix the limits of the necessary sites, and +she shall be permitted to occupy such lands after a period of two months +after simple notification, subject to the payment by her to Germany of +indemnities of which the total amount shall be fixed by the Central +Commission. Germany shall make it her business to indemnify the +proprietors whose property will be burdened with such servitudes or +permanently occupied by the works. + +Should Switzerland so demand, and if the Central Commission approves, +the same rights shall be accorded to Switzerland for the part of the +river forming her frontier with other riparian States; + +(iii) shall hand over to the French Government, during the month +following the coming into force of the present treaty, all projects, +designs, drafts of concessions and of specifications concerning the +regulation of the Rhine for any purpose whatever which have been drawn +up or received by the Governments of Alsace-Lorraine or of the Grand +Duchy of Baden. + +=ARTICLE 359.=--Subject to the preceding provisions, no works shall be +carried out in the bed or on either bank of the Rhine where it forms the +boundary of France and Germany without the previous approval of the +Central Commission or of its agents. + +=ARTICLE 360.=--France reserves the option of substituting herself as +regards the rights and obligations resulting from agreements arrived at +between the Government of Alsace-Lorraine and the Grand Duchy of Baden +concerning the works to be carried out on the Rhine; she may also +denounce such agreements within a term of five years dating from the +coming into force of the present treaty. + +France shall also have the option of causing works to be carried out +which may be recognized as necessary by the Central Commission for the +upkeep or improvement of the navigability of the Rhine above Mannheim. + +=ARTICLE 361.=--Should Belgium, within a period of 25 years from the +coming into force of the present treaty, decide to create a deep-draught +Rhine-Meuse navigable waterway, in the region of Ruhrort, Germany shall +be bound to construct, in accordance with plans to be communicated to +her by the Belgian Government, after agreement with the Central +Commission, the portion of this navigable waterway situated within her +territory. + +The Belgian Government shall, for this purpose, have the right to carry +out on the ground all necessary surveys. + +Should Germany fail to carry out all or part of these works, the Central +Commission shall be entitled to carry them out instead; and, for this +purpose, the commission may decide upon and fix the limits of the +necessary sites and occupy the ground after a period of two months after +simple notification, subject to the payment of indemnities to be fixed +by it and paid by Germany. + +This navigable waterway shall be placed under the same administrative +regime as the Rhine itself, and the division of the cost of initial +construction, including the above indemnities, among the States crossed +thereby shall be made by the Central Commission. + +=ARTICLE 362.=--Germany hereby agrees to offer no objection to any +proposals of the Central Rhine Commission for extending its +jurisdiction: + +(1) to the Moselle below the Franco-Luxemburg frontier down to the +Rhine, subject to the consent of Luxemburg; + +(2) to the Rhine above Basle up to the Lake of Constance, subject to the +consent of Switzerland; + +(3) to the lateral canals and channels which may be established either +to duplicate or to improve naturally navigable sections of the Rhine or +the Moselle, or to connect two naturally navigable sections of these +rivers, and also any other parts of the Rhine River system which may be +covered by the General Convention provided for in Article 338 above. + + +CHAPTER V.--CLAUSES GIVING TO THE CZECHO-SLOVAK STATE THE USE OF +NORTHERN PORTS + +=ARTICLE 363.=--In the ports of Hamburg and Stettin, Germany shall lease +to the Czechoslovak State, for a period of ninety-nine years, areas +which shall be placed under the general regime of free zones and shall +be used for the direct transit of goods coming from or going to that +State. + +=ARTICLE 364.=--The delimitation of these areas, and their equipment, +their exploitation, and in general all conditions for their utilization, +including the amount of the rental, shall be decided by a commission +consisting of one delegate of Germany, one delegate of the Czechoslovak +State and one delegate of Great Britain. These conditions shall be +susceptible of revision every ten years in the same manner. + +Germany declares in advance that she will adhere to the decisions so +taken. + + +SECTION III.--_Railways_ + +CHAPTER I.--CLAUSES RELATING TO INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORT + +=ARTICLE 365.=--Goods coming from the territories of the Allied and +Associated Powers, and going to Germany, or in transit through Germany +from or to the territories of the Allied and Associated Powers, shall +enjoy on the German railways as regards charges to be collected (rebates +and drawbacks being taken into account) facilities, and all other +matters, the most favorable treatment applied to goods of the same kind +carried on any German lines, either in internal traffic, or for export, +import or in transit, under similar conditions of transport, for example +as regards length of route. The same rule shall be applied, on the +request of one or more of the Allied and Associated Powers, to goods +specially designated by such power or powers coming from Germany and +going to their territories. + +International tariffs established in accordance with the rates referred +to in the preceding paragraph and involving through waybills shall be +established when one of the Allied and Associated Powers shall require +it from Germany. + +=ARTICLE 366.=--From the coming into force of the present treaty the +high contracting parties shall renew, in so far as concerns them and +under the reserves indicated in the second paragraph of the present +Article, the conventions and arrangements signed at Berne on the 14th of +October, 1890, the 20th September, 1893, the 16th July, 1895, the 16th +June, 1898, and the 19th September, 1906, regarding the transportation +of goods by rail. + +If within five years from the date of the coming into force of the +present treaty a new convention for the transportation of passengers, +luggage and goods by rail shall have been concluded to replace the Berne +convention of the 14th October, 1890, and the subsequent additions +referred to above, this new convention and the supplementary provisions +for international transport by rail which may be based on it shall bind +Germany even if she shall have refused to take part in the preparation +of the convention or to subscribe to it. Until a new convention shall +have been concluded, Germany shall conform to the provisions of the +Berne Convention and the subsequent additions referred to above, and to +the current supplementary provisions. + +=ARTICLE 367.=--Germany shall be bound to co-operate in the +establishment of through ticket services (for passengers and their +luggage) which shall be required by any of the Allied and Associated +Powers to insure their communication by rail with each other and with +all other countries by transit across the territories of Germany; in +particular Germany shall, for this purpose, accept trains and carriages +coming from the territories of the Allied and Associated Powers and +shall forward them with a speed at least equal to that of her best +long-distance trains on the same lines. The rates applicable to such +through services shall not in any case be higher than the rates +collected on German internal services for the same distance, under the +same conditions of speed and comfort. + +The tariffs applicable under the same conditions of speed and comfort to +the transportation of emigrants going to or coming from ports of the +Allied and Associated Powers and using the German railways, shall not be +at a higher kilometric rate than the most favorable tariffs (drawbacks +and rebates being taken into account) enjoyed on the said railways by +emigrants going to or coming from any other ports. + +=ARTICLE 368.=--Germany shall not apply specially to such through +services or to the transportation of emigrants going to or coming from +the ports of the Allied and Associated Powers, any technical, fiscal or +administrative measures, such as measures of customs examination, +general police, sanitary police, and control, the result of which would +be to impede or delay such services. + +=ARTICLE 369.=--In case of transport partly by rail and partly by +internal navigation, with or without through way-bill, the preceding +Articles shall apply to the part of the journey performed by rail. + + +CHAPTER II.--ROLLING STOCK + +=ARTICLE 370.=--Germany undertakes that German wagons shall be fitted +with apparatus allowing: + +(1) of their inclusion in goods trains on the lines such of the Allied +and Associated Powers as are parties to the Berne Convention of May 15, +1886, as modified on May 18, 1907, without hampering the action of the +continuous brake which may be adopted in such countries within ten years +of the coming into force of the present treaty, and + +(2) of the acceptance of wagons of such countries in all goods trains on +the German lines. + +The rolling stock of the Allied and Associated Powers shall enjoy on the +German lines the same treatment as German rolling stock as regards +movement, upkeep and repairs. + + +CHAPTER III.--CESSIONS OF RAILWAY LINES + +=ARTICLE 371.=--Subject to any special provisions concerning the cession +of ports, waterways and railways situated in the territories over which +Germany abandons her sovereignty, and to the financial conditions +relating to the concessionaires and the pensioning of the personnel, the +cession of railways will take place under the following conditions: + +1. The works and installations of all the railroads shall be handed over +complete and in good condition. + +2. When a railway system possessing its own rolling-stock is handed over +in its entirety by Germany to one of the Allied and Associated Powers, +such stock shall be handed over complete, in accordance with the last +inventory before November 11th, 1918, and in a normal state of upkeep. + +3. As regards lines without any special rolling-stock, commissions of +experts designated by the Allied and Associated Powers, on which Germany +shall be represented, shall fix the proportion of the stock existing on +the system to which those lines belong to be handed over. These +commissions shall have regard to the remount of material registered on +these lines in the last inventory before November 11th, 1918, the length +of track (sidings included), and the nature and amount of traffic. These +commissions shall also specify the locomotives, carriages and wagons to +be handed over in each case; they shall decide upon the conditions of +their acceptance, and shall make the provisional arrangements necessary +to insure their repair in German workshops. + +4. Stocks of stores, fittings and plant shall be handed over under the +same conditions as the rolling-stock. + +The provisions of paragraphs 3 and 4 above shall be applied to the lines +of former Russian Poland converted by Germany to the German gauge, such +lines being regarded as detached from the Prussian State System. + + +CHAPTER IV.--PROVISIONS RELATING TO CERTAIN RAILWAY LINES + +=ARTICLE 372.=--When as a result of the fixing of new frontiers a +railway connection between two parts of the same country crosses another +country, or a branch line from one country has its terminus in another, +the conditions of working, if not specifically provided for in the +present treaty, shall be laid down in a convention between the railway +administrations concerned. If the administrations cannot come to an +agreement as to the terms of such convention, the points of difference +shall be decided by commissions of experts composed as provided in the +preceding Article. + +=ARTICLE 373.=--Within a period of five years from the coming into force +of the present treaty the Czechoslovak State may require the +construction of a railway line in German territory between the stations +of Schlauney and Nachod. The cost of construction shall be borne by the +Czechoslovak State. + +=ARTICLE 374.=--Germany undertakes to accept, within ten years of the +coming into force of the present treaty, on request being made by the +Swiss Government after agreement with the Italian Government, the +denunciation of the International Convention of the 13th October, 1909, +relative to the St. Gothard railway. In the absence of agreement as to +the conditions of such denunciation, Germany hereby agrees to accept the +decision of an arbitrator designated by the United States of America. + + +CHAPTER V.--TRANSITORY PROVISIONS + +=ARTICLE 375.=--Germany shall carry out the instructions given her, in +regard to transport, by an authorized body acting on behalf of the +Allied and Associated Powers: + +1. For the carriage of troops under the provisions of the present +treaty, and of material, ammunition and supplies for army use. + +2. As a temporary measure, for the transportation of supplies for +certain regions, as well as for the restoration, as rapidly as possible, +of the normal conditions of transport, and for the organization of +postal and telegraphic services. + + +SECTION IV.--_Disputes and Revision of Permanent Clauses_ + +=ARTICLE 376.=--Disputes which may arise between interested powers with +regard to the interpretation and application of the preceding articles +shall be settled as provided by the League of Nations. + +=ARTICLE 377.=--At any time the League of Nations may recommend the +revision of such of these Articles as relate to a permanent +administrative regime. + +=ARTICLE 378.=--The stipulations in Articles 321 to 330, 332, 365, and +367 to 369 shall be subject to revision by the Council of the League of +Nations at any time after five years from the coming into force of the +present treaty. + +Failing such revision, no Allied or Associated Power can claim after the +expiration of the above period of five years the benefit of any of the +stipulations in the Articles enumerated above on behalf of any portion +of its territories in which reciprocity is not accorded in respect of +such stipulations. The period of five years during which reciprocity +cannot be demanded may be prolonged by the Council of the League of +Nations. + + +SECTION V.--_Special Provision_ + +=ARTICLE 379.=--Without prejudice to the special obligations imposed on +her by the present treaty for the benefit of the Allied and Associated +Powers, Germany undertakes to adhere to any general conventions +regarding the international regime of transit, waterways, ports or +railways which may be concluded by the Allied and Associated Powers, +with the approval of the League of Nations, within five years of the +coming into force of the present treaty. + + +SECTION VI.--_Clauses Relating to the Kiel Canal_ + +=ARTICLE 380.=--The Kiel Canal and its approaches shall be maintained +free and open to the vessels of commerce and of war of all nations at +peace with Germany on terms of entire equality. + +=ARTICLE 381.=--The nationals, property, and vessels of all powers +shall, in respect to charges, facilities, and in all other respects, be +treated on a footing of perfect equality in the use of the canal, no +distinction being made to the detriment of nationals, property, and +vessels of any power between them and the nationals, property, and +vessels of Germany or of the most favored nations. + +No impediment shall be placed on the movement of persons or vessels +other than those arising out of police, customs, sanitary, emigration or +immigration regulations, and those relating to the import or export of +prohibited goods. Such regulations must be reasonable and uniform and +must not unnecessarily impede traffic. + +=ARTICLE 382.=--Only such charges may be levied on vessels using the +canal or its approaches as are intended to cover in an equitable manner +the cost of maintaining in a navigable condition, or if improving, the +canal or its approaches, or to meet expenses incurred in the interests +of navigation. The schedule of such charged shall be calculated on the +basis of such expenses, and shall be posted up in the ports. + +These charges shall be levied in such a manner as to render any detailed +examination of cargoes unnecessary, except in the case of suspected +fraud or contravention. + +=ARTICLE 383.=--Goods in transit may be placed under seal or in the +custody of customs agents; the loading and unloading of goods, and the +embarkation and disembarkation of passengers, shall only take place in +the ports specified by Germany. + +=ARTICLE 384.=--No charge of any kind other than those provided for in +the present treaty shall be levied along the course or at the approaches +of the Kiel Canal. + +=ARTICLE 385.=--Germany shall be bound to take suitable measures to +remove any obstacle or danger to navigation, and to insure the +maintenance of good conditions of navigation. She shall not undertake +any works of a nature to impede navigation on the canal or its +approaches. + +=ARTICLE 386.=--In the event of violation of any of the conditions of +Articles 380 to 386, or of disputes as to the interpretation of these +articles, any interested power can appeal to the jurisdiction instituted +for the purpose by the League of Nations. + +In order to avoid reference of small questions to the League of Nations, +Germany will establish a local authority at Kiel qualified to deal with +disputes in the first instance and to give satisfaction so far as +possible to complaints which may be presented through the consular +representatives of the interested powers. + + + + +PART XIII + +Labor + + +SECTION I.--_Organization of Labor_ + +Whereas the League of Nations has for its object the establishment of +universal peace and such a peace can be established only if it is based +upon social justice; + +And whereas conditions of labor exist involving such injustice, +hardship, and privation to large numbers of people as to produce unrest +so great that the peace and harmony of the world are imperiled; and an +improvement of those conditions is urgently required: as, for example, +by the regulations of the hours of work, including the establishment of +a maximum working day and week, the regulation of the labor supply, the +prevention of unemployment, the provision of an adequate living wage, +the protection of the worker against sickness, disease, and injury +arising out of his employment, the protection of the children, young +persons, and women, provision for old age and injury, protection of the +interests of workers when employed in countries other than their own, +recognition of the principle of freedom of association, the organization +of vocational and technical education, and other measures: + +Whereas also the failure of any nation to adopt humane conditions of +labor is an obstacle in the way of other nations which desire to improve +the conditions in their own countries; + +The high contracting parties, moved by sentiments of justice and +humanity as well as by the desire to secure the permanent peace of the +world, agree to the following. + + +CHAPTER I.--ORGANIZATION + +=ARTICLE 387.=--A permanent organization is hereby established for the +promotion of the objects set forth in the preamble. + +The original members of the League of Nations shall be the original +members of this organization, and hereafter membership of the League of +Nations shall carry with it membership of the said organization. + +=ARTICLE 388.=--The permanent organization shall consist of: + +(i) a General Conference of Representatives of the Members, and, + +(ii) an International Labor Office controlled by the governing body +described in Article 393. + +=ARTICLE 389.=--The meetings of the General Conference of +Representatives of the Members shall be held from time to time as +occasion may require, and at least once in every year. It shall be +composed of four representatives of each of the members, of whom two +shall be Government delegates and the two others shall be delegates +representing respectively the employers and the workpeople of each of +the members. + +Each delegate may be accompanied by advisers, who shall not exceed two +in number for each item on the agenda of the meeting. When questions +specially affecting women are to be considered by the conference, one at +least of the advisers should be a woman. + +The members undertake to nominate non-Government delegates and advisers +chosen in agreement with the industrial organizations, if such +organizations exist, which are most representative of employers or +workpeople, as the case may be, in their respective countries. + +Advisers shall not speak except on a request made by the delegate whom +they accompany and by special authorization of the President of the +conference, and may not vote. + +A delegate may by notice in writing addressed to the President appoint +one of his advisers to act as his deputy, and the adviser, while so +acting, shall be allowed to speak and vote. + +The names of the delegates and their advisers will be communicated to +the International Labor Office by the Government of each of the members. + +The credentials of delegates and their advisers shall be subject to +scrutiny by the conference, which may, by two-thirds of the votes cast +by the delegates present, refuse to admit any delegate or adviser whom +it deems not to have been nominated in accordance with this article. + +=ARTICLE 390.=--Every delegate shall be entitled to vote individually on +all matters which are taken into consideration by the conference. + +If one of the members fails to nominate one of the non-Government +delegates whom it is entitled to nominate, the other non-Government +delegates shall be allowed to sit and speak at the conference, but not +to vote. + +If, in accordance with Article 389, the conference refuses admission to +a delegate of one of the members, the provisions of the present article +shall apply as if that delegate had not been nominated. + +=ARTICLE 391.=--The meetings of the conference shall be held at the seat +of the League of Nations, or at such other place as may be decided by +the conference at a previous meeting by two-thirds of the votes cast by +the delegates present. + +=ARTICLE 392.=--The International Labor Office shall be established at +the seat of the League of Nations as part of the organization of the +League. + +=ARTICLE 393.=--The International Labor Office shall be under the +control of a governing body consisting of twenty-four persons, appointed +in accordance with the following provisions: + +The governing body of the International Labor Office shall be +constituted as follows: + +Twelve persons representing the Governments: + +Six persons elected by the delegates to the conference representing the +employers: + +Six persons elected by the delegates to the conference representing the +workers. + +Of the twelve persons representing the Governments, eight shall be +nominated by the members which are of the chief industrial importance, +and four shall be nominated by the members selected for the purpose by +the Government delegates to the conference, excluding the delegates of +the eight members mentioned above. + +Any question as to which are the members of the chief industrial +importance shall be decided by the council of the League of Nations. + +The period of office of the members of the governing body will be three +years. The method of filling vacancies and other similar questions may +be determined by the governing body, subject to the approval of the +conference. + +The governing body shall, from time to time, elect one of its members to +act as its Chairman, shall regulate its own procedure, and shall fix its +own times of meeting. A special meeting shall be held if a written +request to that effect is made by at least ten members of the governing +body. + +=ARTICLE 394.=--There shall be a Director of the International Labor +Office, who shall be appointed by the governing body, and, subject to +the instructions of the Governing Body, shall be responsible for the +efficient conduct of the International Labor Office and for such other +duties as may be assigned to him. + +The Director or his deputy shall attend all meetings of the governing +body. + +=ARTICLE 395.=--The staff of the International Labor Office shall be +appointed by the Director, who shall, as far as is possible with due +regard to the efficiency of the work of the Office, select persons of +different nationalities. A certain number of these persons shall be +women. + +=ARTICLE 396.=--The functions of the International Labor Office shall +include the collection and distribution of information on all subjects +relating to the international adjustment of conditions of industrial +life and labor, and particularly the examination of subjects which it is +proposed to bring before the conference with a view to the conclusion of +international conventions, and the conduct of such special +investigations as may be ordered by the conference. + +It will prepare the agenda for the meetings of the conference. + +It will carry out the duties required of it by the provisions of this +part of the present treaty in connection with international disputes. + +It will edit and publish in French and English, and in such other +languages as the governing body may think desirable, a periodical paper +dealing with problems of industry and employment of international +interest. + +Generally, in addition to the functions set out in this Article, it +shall have such other powers and duties as may be assigned to it by the +conference. + +=ARTICLE 397.=--The Government departments of any of the members which +deal with questions of industry and employment may communicate directly +with the Director through the representative of their Government on the +governing body of the International Labor Office, or, failing any such +representative, through such other qualified official as the Government +may nominate for the purpose. + +=ARTICLE 398.=--The International Labor Office shall be entitled to the +assistance of the Secretary-General of the League of Nations in any +matter in which it can be given. + +=ARTICLE 399.=--Each of the members will pay the traveling and +subsistence expenses of its delegates and their advisers and of its +representatives attending the meetings of the conference or governing +body, as the case may be. + + +All the other expenses of the International Labor Office and of the +meetings of the conference or governing body shall be paid to the +Director by the Secretary-General of the League of Nations out of the +general funds of the League. + +The Director shall be responsible to the Secretary-General of the League +for the proper expenditure of all moneys paid to him in pursuance of +this Article. + + +CHAPTER II.--PROCEDURE + +=ARTICLE 400.=--The agenda of all meetings of the conference will be +settled by the governing body, who shall consider any suggestion as to +the agenda that may be made by the Government of any of the members or +by any representative organization recognized for the purpose of Article +389. + +=ARTICLE 401.=--The Director shall act as the Secretary of the +Conference, and shall transmit the agenda so as to reach the members +four months before the meeting of the conference, and, through them, the +non-Government delegates when appointed. + +=ARTICLE 402.=--Any of the Governments of the members may formally +object to the inclusion of any item or items in the agenda. The grounds +for such objection shall be set forth in a reasoned statement addressed +to the Director, who shall circulate it to all the members of the +permanent organization. + +Items to which such objection has been made shall not, however, be +excluded from the agenda if at the conference a majority of two-thirds +of the votes cast by delegates present is in favor of considering them. + +If the conference decides (otherwise than under the preceding paragraph) +by two-thirds of the votes cast by the delegates present that any +subject shall be considered by the conference, that subject shall be +included in the agenda for the following meeting. + +=ARTICLE 403.=--The conference shall regulate its own procedure, shall +elect its own President, and may appoint committees to consider and +report on any matter. + +Except as otherwise expressly provided in this part of the present +treaty, all matters shall be decided by a simple majority of the votes +cast by the delegates present. + +The voting is void unless the total number of votes cast is equal to +half the number of the delegates attending the conference. + +=ARTICLE 404.=--The conference may add to any committees which it +appoints technical experts, who shall be assessors without power to +vote. + +=ARTICLE 405.=--When the conference has decided on the adoption of +proposals with regard to an item in the agenda, it will rest with the +conference to determine whether these proposals should take the form: +(a) of a recommendation to be submitted to the members for consideration +with a view to effect being given to it by national legislation or +otherwise, or (b) of a draft international convention for ratification +by the members. + +In either case a majority of two-thirds of the votes cast by the +delegates present shall be necessary on the final vote for the adoption +of the recommendation or draft convention, as the case may be, by the +conference. + +In framing any recommendation or draft convention of general application +the conference shall have due regard to those countries in which +climatic conditions, the imperfect development of industrial +organization or other special circumstances make the industrial +conditions substantially different and shall suggest the modifications, +if any, which it considers may be required to meet the case of such +countries. + +A copy of the recommendation or draft convention shall be authenticated +by the signature of the President of the conference and of the Director +and shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the League of +Nations. The Secretary-General will communicate a certified copy of the +recommendation or draft convention to each of the members. + +Each of the members undertakes that it will, within the period of one +year at most from the closing of the session of the conference, or if it +is impossible owing to exceptional circumstances to do so within the +period of one year, then at the earliest practicable moment and in no +case later than eighteen months from the closing of the session of the +conference, bring the recommendation or draft convention before the +authority or authorities within whose competence the matter lies, for +the enactment of legislation or other action. + +In the case of a recommendation the members will inform the +Secretary-General of the action taken. + +In the case of a draft convention, the member will, if it obtains the +consent of the authority or authorities within whose competence the +matter lies, communicate the formal ratification of the convention to +the Secretary-General and will take such action as may be necessary to +make effective the provisions of such convention. + +If on a recommendation no legislative or other action is taken to make a +recommendation effective, or if the draft convention fails to obtain the +consent of the authority or authorities within whose competence the +matter lies, no further obligation shall rest upon the member. + +In the case of a federal state, the power of which to enter into +conventions on labor matters is subject to limitations, it shall be in +the discretion of that Government to treat a draft convention to which +such limitations apply as a recommendation only, and the provisions of +this article with respect to recommendations shall apply in such case. + +The above Article shall be interpreted in accordance with the following +principle: + +In no case shall any member be asked or required, as a result of the +adoption of any recommendation or draft convention by the conference to +lessen the protection afforded by its existing legislation to the +workers concerned. + +=ARTICLE 406.=--Any convention so ratified shall be registered by the +Secretary-General of the League of Nations, but shall only be binding +upon the members which ratify it. + +[Illustration: Copyright Underwood & Underwood + +Paris in War Time + +A wonderful photograph made from the top platform of the Eiffel Tower. +Hovering over the city is a French dirigible, a guardian against the +dreaded Zeppelins. Paris in war time pursued the even tenor of its way, +but it was a saddened city where frivolous tourists were not wanted.] + +=ARTICLE 407.=--If any convention coming before the conference for final +consideration fails to secure the support of two-thirds of the votes +cast by the delegates present, it shall nevertheless be within the right +of any of the members of the permanent organization to agree to such +convention among themselves. + +Any convention so agreed to shall be communicated by the Governments +concerned to the Secretary-General of the League of Nations, who shall +register it. + +=ARTICLE 408.=--Each of the members agrees to make an annual report to +the International Labor office on the measures which it has taken to +give effect to the provisions of conventions to which it is a party. +These reports shall be made in such form and shall contain such +particulars as the governing body may request. The Directors shall lay a +summary of these reports before the next meeting of the conference. + +=ARTICLE 409.=--In the event of any representation being made to the +International Labor Office by an industrial association of employers or +of workers that any of the members has failed to secure in any respect +the effective observance within its jurisdiction of any convention to +which it is a party, the Governing Body may communicate this +representation to the Government against which it is made and may invite +that Government to make such statement on the subject as it may think +fit. + +=ARTICLE 410.=--If no statement is received within a reasonable time +from the Government in question, or if the statement when received is +not deemed to be satisfactory by the Governing Body, the latter shall +have the right to publish the representation and the statement, if any, +made in reply to it. + +=ARTICLE 411.=--Any of the members shall have the right to file a +complaint with the International Labor Office if it is not satisfied +that any other member is securing the effective observance of any +convention which both have ratified in accordance with the foregoing +articles. + +The Governing Body may, if it thinks fit, before referring such a +complaint to a Commission of inquiry, as hereinafter provided for, +communicate with the Government in question in the manner described in +Article 409. + +If the Governing Body does not think it necessary to communicate the +complaint to the Government in question, or if, when they have made such +communication, no statement in reply has been received within a +reasonable time which the Governing Body considers to be satisfactory, +the Governing Body may apply for the appointment of a Commission of +inquiry to consider the complaint and to report thereon. + +The Governing Body may adopt the same procedure either of its own motion +or on receipt of a complaint from a Delegate to the Conference. + +When any matter arising out of Articles 410 or 411 is being considered +by the Governing Body, the Government in question shall, if not already +represented thereon, be entitled to send a representative to take part +in the proceedings of the Governing Body while the matter is under +consideration. Adequate notice of the date on which the matter will be +considered shall be given to the Government in question. + +=ARTICLE 412.=--The Commission of Inquiry shall be constituted in +accordance with the following provisions: + +Each of the members agrees to nominate within six months of the date on +which the present Treaty comes into force three persons of industrial +experience, of whom one shall be a representative of employers, one a +representative of workers, and one a person of independent standing, who +shall together form a panel from which the members of the Commission of +Inquiry shall be drawn. + +The qualifications of the persons so nominated shall be subject to +scrutiny by the Governing Body, which may by two-thirds of the votes +cast by the representatives present refuse to accept the nomination of +any person whose qualifications do not in its opinion comply with the +requirements of the present article. + +Upon the application of the Governing Body, the Secretary-General of the +League of Nations shall nominate three persons, one from each section of +this panel, to constitute the Commission of Inquiry, and shall designate +one of them as the President of the commission. None of these three +persons shall be a person nominated to the panel by any member directly +concerned in the complaint. + +=ARTICLE 413.=--The members agree that, in the event of the reference of +a complaint to a commission of inquiry under Article 411, they will +each, whether directly concerned in the complaint or not, place at the +disposal of the commission all the information in their possession which +bears upon the subject-matter of the complaint. + +=ARTICLE 414.=--When the Commission of Inquiry has fully considered the +complaint, it shall prepare a report embodying its findings on all +questions of fact relevant to determining the issue between the parties +and containing such recommendations as it may think proper as to the +steps which should be taken to meet the complaint and the time within +which they should be taken. + +It shall also indicate in this report the measures, if any, of an +economic character against a defaulting Government which it considers to +be appropriate, and which it considers other Governments would be +justified in adopting. + +=ARTICLE 415.=--The Secretary-General of the League of Nations shall +communicate the report of the Commission of Inquiry to each of the +Governments concerned in the complaint, and shall cause it to be +published. + +Each of these Governments shall within one month inform the +Secretary-General of the League of Nations whether or not it accepts the +recommendations contained in the report of the Commission; and if not, +whether it proposes to refer the complaint to the Permanent Court of +International Justice of the League of Nations. + +=ARTICLE 416.=--In the event of any member failing to take the action +required by Article 405, with regard to a recommendation or draft +convention, any other member shall be entitled to refer the matter to +the Permanent Court of International Justice. + +=ARTICLE 417.=--The decision of the Permanent Court of International +Justice in regard to a complaint or matter which has been referred to it +in pursuance of Article 415 or Article 416 shall be final. + +=ARTICLE 418.=--The Permanent Court of International Justice may affirm, +vary or reverse any of the findings or recommendations of the Commission +of Inquiry, if any, and shall in its decision indicate the measures, if +any, of an economic character which it considers to be appropriate, and +which other Governments would be justified in adopting against a +defaulting Government. + +=ARTICLE 419.=--In the event of any member failing to carry out within +the time specified the recommendations, if any, contained in the report +of the Commission of Inquiry, or in the decision of the Permanent Court +of International Justice, as the case may be, any other member may take +against that member the measures of an economic character indicated in +the report of the Commission or in the decision of the Court as +appropriate to the case. + +=ARTICLE 420.=--The defaulting Government may at any time inform the +Governing Body that it has taken the steps necessary to comply with the +recommendations of the Commission of Inquiry or with those in the +decision of the Permanent Court of International Justice, as the case +may be, and may request it to apply to the Secretary-General of the +League to constitute a commission of Inquiry to verify its contention. +In this case the provisions of Articles 412, 413, 414, 415, 417 and 418 +shall apply, and if the report of the Commission of Inquiry or the +decision of the Permanent Court of International Justice is in favor of +the defaulting Government, the other Governments shall forthwith +discontinue the measures of an economic character that they have taken +against the defaulting Government. + + +CHAPTER III.--GENERAL + +=ARTICLE 421.=--The members engage to apply conventions which they have +ratified in accordance with the provisions of this part of the present +treaty to their colonies, protectorates, and possessions which are not +fully self-governing: + +1. Except where owing to the local conditions the convention is +inapplicable, or + +2. Subject to such modifications as may be necessary to adapt the +convention to local conditions. + +And each of the members shall notify to the International Labor Office +the action taken in respect of each of its colonies, protectorates, and +possessions which are not fully self-governing. + +=ARTICLE 422.=--Amendments to this part of the present treaty which are +adopted by the Conference by a majority of two-thirds of the votes cast +by the delegates present shall take effect when ratified by the States +whose representatives compose the Council of the League of Nations and +by three-fourths of the members. + +=ARTICLE 423.=--Any question or dispute relating to the interpretation +of this part of the present treaty or of any subsequent convention +concluded by the members in pursuance of the provisions of this part of +the present treaty shall be referred for decision to the Permanent Court +of International Justice. + + +CHAPTER IV.--TRANSITORY PROVISIONS + +=ARTICLE 424.=--The first meeting of the Conference shall take place in +October, 1919. The place and agenda for this meeting shall be as +specified in the Annex hereto. + +Arrangements for the convening and the organization of the first meeting +of the Conference will be made by the Government designated for the +purpose in the said Annex. That Government shall be assisted in the +preparation of the documents for submission to the Conference by an +International Committee constituted as provided in the said Annex. + +The expenses of the first meeting and of all subsequent meetings held +before the League of Nations has been able to establish a general fund, +other than the expenses of delegates and their advisers, will be borne +by the members in Accordance with the apportionment of the expenses of +the International Bureau of the Universal Postal Union. + +=ARTICLE 425.=--Until the League of Nations has been constituted all +communications which under the provisions of the foregoing articles +should be addressed to the Secretary-General of the League will be +preserved by the Director of the International Labor Office, who will +transmit them to the Secretary-General of the League. + +=ARTICLE 426.=--Pending the creation of a Permanent Court of +International Justice, disputes which in accordance with this part of +the present treaty would be submitted to it for decision will be +referred to a tribunal of three persons appointed by the Council of the +League of Nations. + + +ANNEX + +_First Meeting of Annual Labor Conference, 1919_ + +The place of meeting will be Washington. + +The Government of the United States of America is requested to convene +the conference. + +The International Organizing Committee will consist of seven members, +appointed by the United States of America, Great Britain, France, Italy, +Japan, Belgium, and Switzerland. The committee may, if it thinks +necessary, invite other members to appoint representatives. + +Agenda: + +1. Application of principle of the 8-hours day or of the 48-hours week. + +2. Question of preventing or providing against unemployment. + +3. Women's employment. + + (a) Before and after childbirth, including the question of + maternity benefit. + + (b) During the night. + + (c) In unhealthy processes. + + +4. Employment of children: + + (a) Minimum age of employment. + + (b) During the night. + + (c) In unhealthy processes. + +5. Extension and application of the International Conventions adopted at +Berne in 1906 on the prohibition of night work for women employed in +industry and the prohibition of the use of white phosphorus in the +manufacture of matches. + + +SECTION II.--_General Principles_ + +=ARTICLE 427.=--The High Contracting Parties, recognizing that the +well-being, physical, moral, and intellectual, of industrial wage +earners is of supreme international importance, have framed, in order to +further this great end, the permanent machinery provided for in Section +I, and associated with that of the League of Nations. + +They recognize that differences of climate, habits, and customs, of +economic opportunity and industrial tradition, make strict uniformity in +the conditions of labor difficult of immediate attainment. But, holding +as they do, that labor should not be regarded merely as an article of +commerce, they think that there are methods and principles for +regulating labor conditions which all industrial communities should +endeavor to apply, so far as their special circumstances will permit. + +Among these methods and principles, the following seem to the High +Contracting Parties to be of special and urgent importance: + +First--The guiding principle above enunciated that labor should not be +regarded merely as a commodity or article of commerce. + +Second--The right of association for all lawful purposes by the employed +as well as by the employers. + +Third--The payment to the employed of a wage adequate to maintain a +reasonable standard of life as this is understood in their time and +country. + +Fourth--The adoption of an eight hours day or a forty-eight hours week +as the standard to be aimed at where it has not already been attained. + +Fifth--The adoption of a weekly rest of at least twenty-four hours, +which should include Sunday wherever practicable. + +Sixth--The abolition of child labor and the imposition of such +limitations on the labor of young persons as shall permit the +continuation of their education and assure their proper physical +development. + +Seventh--The principle that men and women should receive equal +remuneration for work of equal value. + +Eighth--The standard set by law in each country with respect to the +conditions of labor should have due regard to the equitable economic +treatment of all workers lawfully resident therein. + +Ninth--Each State should make provision for a system of inspection in +which women should take part in order to insure the enforcement of the +laws and regulations for the protection of the employed. + +Without claiming that these methods and principles are either complete +or final, the High Contracting Parties are of opinion that they are well +fitted to guide the policy of the League of Nations; and that, if +adopted by the industrial communities who are members of the League, and +safeguarded in practice by an adequate system of such inspection, they +will confer lasting benefits upon the wage earners of the world. + + + + +PART XIV + +Guarantees + + +SECTION I.--_Western Europe_ + +=ARTICLE 428.=--As a guarantee for the execution of the present treaty +by Germany, the German territory situated to the west of the Rhine, +together with the bridgeheads, will be occupied by Allied and Associated +troops for a period of fifteen years from the coming into force of the +present treaty. + +=ARTICLE 429.=--If the conditions of the present treaty are faithfully +carried out by Germany, the occupation referred to in Article 428 will +be successively restricted as follows: + +(i) At the expiration of five years there will be evacuated:--the +bridgehead of Cologne and the territories north of a line running along +the Ruhr, then along the railway Juelich, Duren, Euskirchen, Rheinbach, +thence along the road Rheinbach to Sinzig, and reaching the Rhine at the +confluence with the Ahr; the roads, railways and places mentioned above +being excluded from the area evacuated. + +(ii) At the expiration of ten years, there will be evacuated:--the +bridgehead of Coblenz and the territories north of a line to be drawn +from the intersection between the frontiers of Belgium, Germany and +Holland, running about 4 kilometers south of Aix-la-Chapelle, then to +and following the crest of Forst Gremuend, then east of the railway of +the Urft Valley, then along Blankenheim, Valdorf, Dreis, Ulmen to and +following the Moselle from Bremm to Nehren, then passing by Kappel and +Simmern, then following the ridge of the heights between Simmern and the +Rhine and reaching this river at Bacharach; all the places, valleys, +roads and railways mentioned above being excluded from the area +evacuated. + +(iii) At the expiration of fifteen years there will be evacuated:--the +bridgehead of Mainz, the bridgehead of Kehl and the remainder of the +German territory under occupation. + +If at that date the guarantees against unprovoked aggression by Germany +are not considered sufficient by the Allied and Associated Governments +the evacuation of the occupying troops may be delayed to the extent +regarded as necessary for the purpose of obtaining the required +guarantees. + +=ARTICLE 430.=--In case either during the occupation or after the +expiration of the fifteen years referred to above, the Reparation +Commission finds that Germany refuses to observe the whole or part of +her obligations under the present treaty with regard to reparation, the +whole or part of the areas specified in Article 429 will be re-occupied +immediately by the Allied of the employed. + +=ARTICLE 431.=--If before the expiration of the period of fifteen years +Germany complies with all the undertakings resulting from the present +treaty, the occupying forces will be withdrawn immediately. + +=ARTICLE 432.=--All matters relating to the occupation and not provided +for by the present treaty shall be regulated by subsequent agreements, +which Germany hereby undertakes to observe. + + +SECTION II.--_Eastern Europe_ + +=ARTICLE 433.=--As a guarantee for the execution of the provisions of +the present treaty, by which Germany accepts definitely the abrogation +of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, and of all treaties, conventions and +agreements entered into by her with the Maximalist Government in Russia, +and in order to insure the restoration of peace and good government in +the Baltic Provinces and Lithuania, all German troops at present in the +said territories shall return to within the frontiers of Germany as soon +as the Governments of the principal Allied and Associated Powers shall +think the moment suitable, having regard to the internal situation of +these territories. These troops shall abstain from all requisitions and +seizures and from any other coercive measures, with a view to obtaining +supplies intended for Germany, and shall in no way interfere with such +measures for national defense as may be adopted by the provisional +Governments of Esthonia, Letvia, and Lithuania. + +No other German troops shall, pending the evacuation or after the +evacuation is complete, be admitted to the said territories. + + + + +PART XV + +Miscellaneous Provisions + + +=ARTICLE 434.=--Germany undertakes to recognize the full force of the +treaties of peace and additional conventions which may be concluded by +the Allied and Associated Powers with the powers who fought on the side +of Germany, and to recognize whatever disposition may be made concerning +the territories of the former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, of the Kingdom +of Bulgaria, and of the Ottoman Empire, and to recognize the new States +within their frontiers as there laid down. + +=ARTICLE 435.=--The high contracting parties, while they recognize the +guarantees stipulated by the treaties of 1815, and especially by the Act +of 20th November, 1815, in favor of Switzerland, the said guarantees +constituting international obligations for the maintenance of peace, +declare nevertheless that the provisions of these treaties, conventions, +declarations and other supplementary acts concerning the neutralized +zone of Savoy, as laid down in paragraph 1 of Article 92 of the Final +Act of the Congress of Vienna, and in paragraph 2 of Article 3 of the +Treaty of Paris of 20th November, 1815, are no longer consistent with +present conditions. For this reason the high contracting parties take +note of the agreement reached between the French Government and the +Swiss Government for the abrogation of the stipulations relating to this +zone which are and remain abrogated. + +The high contracting parties also agree that the stipulations of the +treaties of 1815 and of the other supplementary acts concerning the free +zones of Upper Savoy and the Gex district are no longer consistent with +present conditions, and that it is for France and Switzerland to come to +an agreement together with a view to settling between themselves the +status of these territories under such conditions as shall be considered +suitable by both countries. + + +ANNEX + +1. The Swiss Federal Council has informed the French Government on the +5th May, 1919, that after examining the provisions of Article 435 in a +like spirit of sincere friendship it has happily reached the conclusion +that it was possible to acquiesce in it under the following conditions +and reservations: + +First--The neutralized zone of Haute-Savoie: + +(a) It will be understood that as long as the Federal Chambers have not +ratified the agreement come to between the two Governments concerning +the abrogation of the stipulations in respect of the neutralized zone of +Savoy nothing will be definitely settled, on one side or the other, in +regard to this subject. + +(b) The assent given by the Swiss Government to the abrogation of the +above-mentioned stipulations presupposes, in conformity with the text +adopted, the recognition of the guarantees formulated in favor of +Switzerland by the treaties of 1815 and particularly by the declaration +of 20th November, 1815. + +(c) The agreement between the Governments of France and Switzerland for +the abrogation of the above-mentioned stipulations will only be +considered as valid if the treaty of peace contains this article in its +present wording. In addition, the parties to the treaty of peace should +endeavor to obtain the assent of the signatory powers of the treaties of +1815 and of the declaration of 20th November, 1815, which are not +signatories of the present treaty of peace. + +Second--Free zone of Haute-Savoie and the district of Gex. + +(a) The Federal Council makes the most express reservations to the +interpretation to be given to the statement mentioned in the last +paragraph of the above article for insertion in the treaty of peace, +which provides that "the stipulations of the treaties of 1815 and other +supplementary acts concerning the free zones of Haute-Savoie and the Gex +district are no longer consistent with the present conditions." The +Federal Council would not wish that its acceptance of the above wording +should lead to the conclusion that it would agree to the suppression of +a system intended to give neighboring territory the benefit of a special +regime which is appropriate to the geographical and economical situation +and which has been well tested. + +In the opinion of the Federal Council the question is not the +modification of the customs system of the zones as set up by the +treaties mentioned above, but only the regulation in a manner more +appropriate to the economic conditions of the present day of the terms +of the exchange of goods between the regions in question. The Federal +Council has been led to make the preceding observations by the perusal +of the draft convention concerning the future constitution of the zones, +which was annexed to the note of April 26 from the French Government. +While making the above reservations the Federal Council declares its +readiness to examine in the most friendly spirit any proposals which the +French Government may deem it convenient to make on the subject. + +(b) It is conceded that the stipulations of the treaties of 1815 and +other supplementary acts relative to the free zones will remain in force +until a new arrangement is come to between France and Switzerland to +regulate matters in this territory. + +2. The French Government have addressed to the Swiss Government, on May +18, 1919, the following note in reply to the communication set out in +the preceding paragraph: + +In a note dated May 5 the Swiss Legation in Paris was good enough to +inform the Government of the French Republic that the Federal Government +adhered to the proposed article to be inserted in the Treaty of Peace +between the Allied and Associated Governments and Germany. + +The French Government have taken note with much pleasure of the +agreement thus reached, and, at their request, the proposed article, +which had been accepted by the Allied and Associated Governments, has +been inserted under No. 435 in the peace conditions presented to the +German plenipotentiaries. + +The Swiss Government, in their note of May 5, on this subject, have +expressed various views and reservations. + +Concerning the observations relating to the free zones of Haute-Savoie +and the Gex district, the French Government have the honor to observe +that the provisions of the last paragraph of Article 435 are so clear +that their purport cannot be misapprehended, especially where it implies +that no other power but France and Switzerland will in future be +interested in that question. + +The French Government, on their part, are anxious to protect the +interests of the French territories concerned, and, with that object, +having their special situation in view, they bear in mind the +desirability of assuring them a suitable customs regime and determining, +in a manner better suited to present conditions, the methods of +exchanges between these territories and the adjacent Swiss territories, +while taking into account the reciprocal interests of both regions. + +It is understood that this must in no way prejudice the right of France +to adjust her customs line in this region in conformity with her +political frontier, as is done on the other portions of her territorial +boundaries, and as was done by Switzerland long ago on her own +boundaries in this region. + +The French Government are pleased to note on this subject in what a +friendly disposition the Swiss Government take this opportunity of +declaring their willingness to consider any French proposal dealing with +the system to be substituted for the present regime of the said free +zones, which the French Government intend to formulate in the same +friendly spirit. + +Moreover, the French Government have no doubt that the provisional +maintenance of the regime of 1815 as to the free zones referred to in +the above-mentioned paragraph of the note from the Swiss Legation of May +5, whose object is to provide for the passage from the present regime to +the conventional regime, will cause no delay whatsoever in the +establishment of the new situation which has been found necessary by the +two Governments. This remark applies also to the ratification by the +Federal Chambers, dealt with in Paragraph 1 (a), of the Swiss note of +May 5, under the heading "Neutralized Zone of Haute-Savoie." + +=ARTICLE 436.=--The high contracting parties declare and place on record +that they have taken note of the treaty signed by the Government of the +French Republic on July 17th, 1918, with His Serene Highness the Prince +of Monaco defining the relations between France and the Principality. + +=ARTICLE 437.=--The high contracting parties agree that, in the absence +of a subsequent agreement to the contrary, the Chairman of any +commission established by the present treaty shall, in the event of an +equality of votes, be entitled to a second vote. + +=ARTICLE 438.=--The Allied and Associated Powers agree that where +Christian religious missions were being maintained by German societies +or persons in territory belonging to them, or of which the government is +intrusted to them in accordance with the present treaty, the property +which these missions or missionary societies possessed, including that +of trading societies whose profits were devoted to the support of +missions, shall continue to be devoted to missionary purposes. In order +to insure the due execution of this undertaking the Allied and +Associated Governments will hand over such property to boards of +trustees appointed by or approved by the Governments and composed of +persons holding the faith of the mission whose property is involved. + +The Allied and Associated Governments, while continuing to maintain full +control as to the individuals by whom the missions are conducted, will +safeguard the interests of such missions. + +Germany, taking note of the above undertaking, agrees to accept all +arrangements made or to be made by the Allied or Associated Government +concerned for carrying on the work of the said missions or trading +societies and waives all claims on their behalf. + +=ARTICLE 439.=--Without prejudice to the provisions of the present +treaty, Germany undertakes not to put forward directly or indirectly +against any Allied or Associated Power, signatory of the present treaty, +including those which without having declared war, have broken off +diplomatic relations with the German Empire, any pecuniary claim based +on events which occurred at any time before the coming into force of the +present treaty. + +The present stipulation will bar completely and finally all claims of +this nature, which will be thenceforward extinguished, whoever may be +the parties in interest. + +=ARTICLE 440.=--Germany accepts and recognizes as valid and binding all +decrees and orders concerning German ships and goods and all orders +relating to the payment of costs made by any prize court of any of the +Allied or Associated Powers, and undertakes not to put forward any claim +arising out of such decrees or orders on behalf of any German national. + +The Allied and Associated Powers reserve the right to examine in such +manner as they may determine all decisions and orders of German Prize +Courts, whether affecting the property rights of nationals of those +powers or of neutral powers. Germany agrees to furnish copies of all the +documents constituting the record of the cases, including the decisions +and orders made, and to accept and give effect to the recommendations +made after such examination of the cases. + +The present treaty, of which the French and English texts are both +authentic, shall be ratified. + +The deposit of ratifications shall be made at Paris as soon as possible. + +Powers of which the seat of the Government is outside Europe will be +entitled merely to inform the Government of the French Republic through +their diplomatic representative at Paris that their ratification has +been given; in that case they must transmit the instrument of +ratification as soon as possible. + +A first proces-verbal of the deposit of ratifications will be drawn up +as soon as the treaty has been ratified by Germany on the one hand, and +by three of the principal Allied and Associated Powers on the other +hand. + +From the date of the first proces-verbal the treaty will come into force +between the high contracting parties who have ratified it. For the +determination of all periods of time provided for in the present treaty +this date will be the date of the coming into force of the treaty. + +In all other respects the treaty will enter into force for each power at +the date of the deposit of its ratification. + +The French Government will transmit to all the signatory powers a +certified copy of the proces-verbaux of the deposit of ratifications. + +IN FAITH WHEREOF the above-named plenipotentiaries (1) except as +indicated in the footnotes to the preamble, have signed the present +treaty. + +DONE AT VERSAILLES, in a single copy which will remain deposited in the +archives of the French Republic, and of which authenticated copies will +be transmitted to each of the signatory powers. + + + + +REJECTION OF THE PEACE TREATY + +The Senate Fails to Ratify the Treaty of Versailles With the Revised +Lodge Reservations by a Vote of 49 to 35 + + +The Treaty of Versailles with the Covenant of The League of Nations was +signed on June 28, 1919, by Germany and by the representatives of the +Allied and Associated Powers, with the exception of China. + +It was ratified by the German National Assembly on July 10th; by the +British Parliament on July 25th, and by King George on July 31st, by the +King of Italy on October 7th, by France on October 13th and by Japan on +October 27th. + +On the day the Treaty was signed President Wilson sailed for New York, +and on July 10th he addressed the Senate and submitted the Treaty to +that body, which under the Constitution is empowered to give its "advice +and consent" to treaties negotiated by the Chief Executive. Opposition +to the Covenant of the League of Nations had previously developed in the +Senate, especially on the part of the Republican majority. The Foreign +Affairs Committee, of which Senator Lodge of Massachusetts was Chairman, +was from the start unalterably opposed to the Treaty unless it contained +as amendments or as reservations clauses which, it was claimed, would +safeguard American interests and institutions. In February the +President, who had made a hurried trip from Paris in order to acquaint +the American people with the details of the Treaty as it affected this +country, conferred at the White House with the Foreign Relations +Committee of the Senate and the Foreign Affairs Committee of the House, +on which occasion there was a frank and comprehensive discussion, a +complete stenographic report of which was published in the press. On +March 3rd Senator Lodge presented a resolution signed by 39 Republican +Senators and Senators-elect protesting against the Covenant of The +League of Nations, as it stood. As it required a two-thirds vote of the +Senate to ratify, these 39 opponents of the treaty would be sufficient +to reject it, and the virtual effect of this resolution was to give +warning to the President that the Treaty unless it were to be +"Americanized" would fail of ratification. + +The President on March 5th sailed from New York and returned to Paris to +take up his work at the Peace Conference, remaining there until the +Treaty was signed. + +On July 15th, the Foreign Relations Committee took the Treaty under +consideration and conducted hearings on it. One of these, continuing for +several days, was for the purpose of exposing what the Committee +regarded as the unjust treatment of China in respect of the cession to +Japan, under the Treaty, of the German rights in Shantung (Kiauchau). + +On August 19th, the Foreign Relations Committee again conferred at the +White House with the President, and on September 3rd the President +started on a tour of the country to win support for the Treaty and The +League of Nations. + +On September 10th the Foreign Relations Committee reported the Treaty to +the Senate with 45 amendments and four reservations. + +On September 26th, owing to a nervous breakdown, the President at +Wichita, Kansas, gave up his tour of the country and returned to +Washington. + +What were known as the Fall amendments to the Treaty were defeated in +the Senate on October 2nd by 58 to 30, and as this vote indicated the +unlikelihood of amendments being passed, the Republicans of the Foreign +Relations Committee changed their tactics, abandoning amendments and +considering reservations instead. It had been pointed out that American +amendments to the Treaty would require ratification by Germany and that +this might nullify the whole Treaty and necessitate the re-opening of +negotiations, thereby delaying peace indefinitely. + +On October 4th the Massachusetts Republican State Convention, before +which Senator Lodge spoke in defense of his attitude on the Treaty, +urged prompt ratification of the Peace Treaty with "reasonable and +effective" reservations. + +On October 15th by a vote of 55 to 35 the Senate rejected a proposed +amendment of the Foreign Relations Committee to the clause affecting the +German rights in Shantung by virtue of which these would be transferred +to China. + +The deadlock in the Senate had meanwhile aroused widespread criticism +throughout the country, the attitude of the Republican majority being +vigorously objected to by influential members of that party. Public +opinion both in and out of the Republican party was generally in favor +of ratification with reservations, as was repeatedly indicated by +"straw" votes among the people. + + +RATIFICATION, WITH ORIGINAL LODGE RESERVATIONS, DEFEATED NOV. 19, 1919. + +On November 6th Senator Lodge presented 14 reservations which had been +agreed to by the majority members of the Foreign Relations Committee. On +November 19th, they were voted on by the Senate, being coupled with the +following resolution of ratification: + +_Resolved (two-thirds of the Senators present concurring therein)_, That +the Senate advise and consent to the ratification of the Treaty of Peace +with Germany concluded at Versailles on the 28th day of June, 1919 +subject to the following reservations and understandings, which are +hereby made a part and condition to this resolution of ratification, +which ratification is not to take effect or bind the United States until +the said reservations and understandings adopted by the Senate have been +accepted by an exchange of notes as a part and a condition of this +resolution of ratification by at least three of the four principal +allied and associated powers, to wit, Great Britain, France, Italy, and +Japan. + +1. The United States so understands and construes Article I that in case +of notice of withdrawal from the League of Nations, as provided in said +article, the United States shall be the sole judge as to whether all its +international obligations and all its obligations under the said +covenant have been fulfilled, and notice of withdrawal by the United +States may be given by a concurrent resolution of the Congress of the +United States. + +2. The United States assumes no obligation to preserve the territorial +integrity or political independence of any other country or to +interfere in controversies between nations--whether members of the +League or not--under the provisions of Article 10, or to employ the +military or naval forces of the United States under any article of the +Treaty for any purpose, unless in any particular case the Congress, +which, under the Constitution, has the sole power to declare war or +authorize the employment of the military or naval forces of the United +States, shall by act or joint resolution so provide. + +3. No mandate shall be accepted by the United States under Article 22, +Part 1, or any other provision of the Treaty of Peace with Germany, +except by action of the Congress of the United States. + +4. The United States reserves to itself exclusively the right to decide +what questions are within its domestic jurisdiction and declares that +all domestic and political questions relating wholly or in part to its +internal affairs, including immigration, labor, coastwise traffic, the +tariff, commerce, the suppression of traffic in women and children, and +in opium and other dangerous drugs, and all other domestic questions, +are solely within the jurisdiction of the United States and are not +under this Treaty to be submitted in any way either to arbitration or to +the consideration of the Council or of the Assembly of the League of +Nations, or any agency thereof, or to the decision or recommendation of +any other power. + +5. The United States will not submit to arbitration or to inquiry by the +Assembly or by the Council of the League of Nations, provided for in +said Treaty of Peace, any questions which in the judgment of the United +States depend upon or relate to its long-established policy, commonly +known as the Monroe Doctrine; said doctrine is to be interpreted by the +United States alone and is hereby declared to be wholly outside the +jurisdiction of said League of Nations and entirely unaffected by any +provision contained in the said Treaty of Peace with Germany. + +6. The United States withholds its assent to Articles 156, 157, and 158, +and reserves full liberty of action with respect to any controversy +which may arise under said articles between the Republic of China and +the Empire of Japan. + +7. The Congress of the United States will provide by law for the +appointment of the representatives of the United States in the Assembly +and the Council of the League of Nations, and may in its discretion +provide for the participation of the United States in any commission, +committee, tribunal, court, council, or conference, or in the selection +of any members thereof and for the appointment of members of said +commissions, committees, tribunals, courts, councils, or conferences, or +any other representatives under the Treaty of Peace, or in carrying out +its provisions, and until such participation and appointment have been +so provided for and the powers and duties of such representatives have +been defined by law, no person shall represent the United States under +either said League of Nations or the Treaty of Peace with Germany, or be +authorized to perform any act for or on behalf of the United States +thereunder, and no citizen of the United States shall be selected or +appointed as a member of said commissions, committees, tribunals, +courts, councils, or conferences except with the approval of the Senate +of the United States. + +8. The United States understands that the Reparation Commission will +regulate or interfere with exports from the United States to Germany, or +from Germany to the United States, only when the United States by act or +joint resolution of Congress approves such regulation or interference. + +9. The United States shall not be obligated to contribute to any +expenses of the League of Nations, or of the secretariat, or of any +commission, or committee, or conference, or other agency, organized +under the League of Nations or under the Treaty or for the purpose of +carrying out the Treaty provisions, unless and until an appropriation of +funds available for such expenses shall have been made by the Congress +of the United States. + +10. If the United States shall at any time adopt any plan for the +limitation of armaments proposed by the Council of the League of +Nations, under the provisions of Article 8, it reserves the right to +increase such armaments without the consent of the Council whenever the +United States is threatened with invasion or engaged in war. + +11. The United States reserves the right to permit, in its discretion, +the nationals of a covenant-breaking State, as defined in Article 16 of +the covenant of the League of Nations, residing within the United States +or in countries other than that violating said Article 16, to continue +their commercial, financial, and personal relations with the nationals +of the United States. + +12. Nothing in Articles 296, 297, or in any of the annexes thereto or in +any other article, section, or annex of the Treaty of Peace with Germany +shall, as against citizens of the United States, be taken to mean any +confirmation, ratification, or approval of any act otherwise illegal or +in contravention of the right of citizens of the United States. + +13. The United States withholds its assent to Part XIII. (Articles 387 +to 427, inclusive) unless Congress by act or joint resolution shall +hereafter make provision for representation in the organization +established by said Part XIII, and in such event the participation of +the United States will be governed and conditioned by the provisions of +such act or joint resolution. + +14. The United States assumes no obligation to be bound by any election, +decision, report, or finding of the council, or assembly in which any +member of the League and its self-governing dominions, colonies, or +parts of empire, in the aggregate have cast more than one vote, and +assumes no obligation to be bound by any decision, report, or finding of +the council or assembly arising out of any dispute between the United +States and any member of the League if such member, or any +self-governing dominion, colony, empire, or part of empire united with +it politically has voted. + +Ratification of the above resolution required a two-thirds vote. The +resolution was lost 55 to 39, the votes of 13 Republican +"irreconcilables" being cast against the resolution. On a motion to +reconsider, the resolution was again voted on, this time the vote being +51 to 41. Senator Underwood's motion for unconditional ratification of +the Treaty without reservation was then lost 53 to 38. + +The crux of the opposition to the Treaty was Article X. In President +Wilson's view, the Lodge reservation to this article cut the heart out +of the League of Nations, and nullified its whole structure and +practical operation. For a time it looked as if the Peace Treaty was +dead. Public opinion, however, insisted that the Treaty must not be +allowed to die and that the United States was morally obligated to the +rest of the world to take its place in the family of nations as a +signatory to the Treaty with such interpretative reservations as would +protect America's interests, and at the same time not antagonize other +nations. + +Early in January, 1920, the President in a letter to Senator Hitchcock +declared against "strong" reservations, and on January 15th, with a view +to reaching a compromise, there began a series of bi-partisan +conferences among Senators at which were discussed the various +reservations that had been a stumbling block, but no agreement could be +reached. As before, the phraseology and intent of Article X was the +principal bone of contention. + + +THE TREATY AGAIN BEFORE THE SENATE + +On February 10th Senator Lodge reported the Treaty a second time to the +Senate, and with the original set of reservations. After another month +of debate and of organized efforts on the part of public spirited +citizens to exert pressure on the Senators to settle their differences +and give the nation what it demanded--a Treaty of Peace--the lines were +again drawn preparatory to another vote. The Senate, sitting in +Committee of the Whole, took up the Lodge reservations, one after +another, accepting some virtually without change, modifying or +amplifying others, until all but Article X had been agreed upon. + +Various new drafts of this reservation were suggested, both by Senators +and by private citizens; some of these were voted on, but none could +muster the votes necessary for adoption. + +Early in March a compromise reservation was worked out by Republicans +and Democrats, and this was made the occasion of an effort to induce the +President to give his views on Article X. For convenience in comparison, +Article X of the League of Nations, the original Lodge reservation, and +the proposed compromise reservation, are reproduced herewith: + + ARTICLE X OF THE LEAGUE + + The members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as + against external aggression the territorial integrity and + existing political independence of all members of the League. + In case of any such aggression the Council shall advise upon + the means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled. + + + THE ORIGINAL LODGE RESERVATION + + The United States assumes no obligation to preserve the + territorial integrity or political independence of any other + country or to interfere in controversies between + nations--whether members of the League or not--under the + provision of Article X., or to employ the military or naval + forces of the United States under any article of the Treaty for + any purpose, unless in any particular case the Congress, which + under the Constitution has the sole power to declare war or + authorize the employment of the military or naval forces of the + United States, shall by act or joint resolution so provide. + + + THE PROPOSED COMPROMISE RESERVATION + + The United States assumes no obligation to employ its military + or naval forces, its resources, or the economic boycott to + preserve the territorial integrity or political independence of + any other country under the provisions of Article X., or to + employ the military or naval forces of the United States under + any other article of the Treaty for any purpose, unless in any + particular case the Congress, which, under the Constitution, + has the sole power to declare war, shall, by act or joint + resolution, so provide. + + +ARTICLE X, SAYS WILSON, NULLIFIES A SACRED OBLIGATION + +The President expressed his views on Article X and the proposed +reservations to it in a letter to Senator Hitchcock under date of March +8th, in which he said: + + "There is no escaping the moral obligations which are expressed + in positive terms in this article of the covenant. We won a + moral victory over Germany, far greater even than the military + victory won on the field of battle, because the opinion of the + whole world swung to our support and the support of the nations + associated with us in the great struggle. It did so because of + our common profession and promise that we meant to establish + 'an organization of peace which should make it certain that the + combined power of free nations would check every invasion of + right, and serve to make peace and justice the more secure by + affording a definite tribunal of opinion to which all must + submit and by which every international readjustment that + cannot be amicably agreed upon by the peoples directly + concerned shall be sanctioned.' + + "This promise and assurance were written into the preliminaries + of the armistice and into the preliminaries of the peace itself + and constitute one of the most sacred obligations ever assumed + by any nation or body of nations. It is unthinkable that + America should set the example of ignoring such a solemn moral + engagement. + + "For myself, I feel that I could not look the soldiers of our + gallant armies in the face again if I did not do everything in + my power to remove every obstacle that lies in the way of the + adoption of this particular article of the covenant, because we + made these pledges to them as well as to the rest of the world, + and it was to this cause they deemed themselves devoted in a + spirit of crusaders. I should be forever unfaithful to them if + I did not do my utmost to fulfill the high purpose for which + they fought." + + +"A NEW DOCTRINE IN THE WORLD'S AFFAIRS" + +The President said he regarded the stipulations as to constitutional +methods required by the proposed compromise reservation as superfluous, +because it was understood at Paris that whatever duties any nation +undertook under the Treaty would as a matter of course "have to be +fulfilled by its usual and established constitutional methods of +action." He said further: + + "Any reservation which seeks to deprive the League of Nations + of the force of Article X. cuts at the very heart and life of + the covenant itself. Any League of Nations which does not + guarantee as a matter of incontestable right the political + independence and integrity of each of its members might be + hardly more than a futile scrap of paper, as ineffective in + operation as the agreement between Belgium and Germany which + the Germans violated in 1914. + + "Article X. as written into the Treaty of Versailles represents + the renunciation by Great Britain and Japan, which before the + war had begun to find so many interests in common in the + Pacific; by France, by Italy, by all the great fighting powers + of the world, of the old pretensions of political conquest and + territorial aggrandisement. It is a new doctrine in the world's + affairs and must be recognized or there is no secure basis for + the peace which the whole world so desperately needs. + + "If Article X. is not adopted and acted upon, the Governments + which reject it will, I think, be guilty of bad faith to their + people, whom they induced to make the infinite sacrifices of + the war by the pledge that they would be fighting to redeem the + world from the old order of force and aggression. They will be + acting also in bad faith to the opinion of the world at large, + to which they appealed for support in a concerted stand against + the aggressions and pretensions of Germany. + + "If we were to reject Article X. or so to weaken it as to take + its full force out of it, it would mark us as desiring to + return to the old world of jealous rivalry and + misunderstandings from which our gallant soldiers have rescued + us and would leave us without any vision or new conception of + justice and peace. We would have learned no lesson from the + war, but gained only the regret that it had involved us in its + maelstrom of suffering. If America has awakened, as the rest of + the world has, to the vision of a new day in which the mistakes + of the past are to be corrected, it will welcome the + opportunity to share the responsibilities of Article X. + + "It must not be forgotten, Senator, that the article + constitutes a renunciation of all ambition on the part of + powerful nations with whom we were associated in the war. It is + by no means certain that without this article any such + renunciation will take place. Militaristic ambitions and + imperialistic policies are by no means dead, even in counsels + of the nations whom we most trust and with whom we most desire + to be associated in the tasks of peace. + + + DEMOCRACY VERSUS IMPERIALISM + + "The choice is between two ideals; on the one hand, the ideal + of democracy, which represents the rights of free peoples + everywhere to govern themselves, and on the other hand the + ideal of imperialism which seeks to dominate by force and + unjust power, an ideal which is by no means dead and which is + earnestly held in many quarters still. + + "Every imperialistic influence in Europe was hostile to the + embodiment of Article X. in the covenant of the League of + Nations, and its defeat now would mark the complete + consummation of their efforts to nullify the Treaty. I hold the + doctrine of Article X. as the essence of Americanism. We cannot + repudiate it or weaken it without at the same time repudiating + our own principles. + + "The imperialist wants no League of Nations, but if, in + response to the universal cry of the masses everywhere, there + is to be one, he is interested to secure one suited to his own + purposes, one that will permit him to continue the historic + game of pawns and peoples--the juggling of provinces, the old + balances of power, and the inevitable wars attendant upon these + things. + + "The reservation proposed would perpetuate the old order. Does + any one really want to see the old game played again? Can any + one really venture to take part in reviving the old order? The + enemies of a League of Nations have by every true instinct + centered their efforts against Article X., for it is + undoubtedly the foundation of the whole structure. It is the + bulwark, and the only bulwark, of the rising democracy of the + world against the forces of imperialism and reaction. + + "Either we should enter the League fearlessly, accepting the + responsibility and not fearing the role of leadership, which we + now enjoy, contributing our efforts toward establishing a just + and permanent peace, or we should retire as gracefully as + possible from the great concert of powers, by which the world + was saved. For my own part, I am not willing to trust to the + counsel of diplomats the working out of any salvation of the + world from the things which it has suffered." + + +ARTICLE X AS FINALLY ADOPTED + +The Article X reservation was again rewritten and when finally adopted +on March 15 by a vote of 56 to 26, read as follows: + + The United States assumes no obligation to preserve the + territorial integrity or political independence of any other + country by the employment of its military or naval forces, its + resources, or any form of economic discrimination, or to + interfere in any way in controversies between nations, + including all controversies relating to territorial integrity + or political independence, whether members of the League or + not, under the provisions of Article X., or to employ the + military or naval forces of the United States, under any + article of the Treaty for any purpose, unless in any particular + case the Congress, which, under the Constitution, has the sole + power to declare war or authorize the employment of the + military or naval forces of the United States, shall, in the + exercise of full liberty of action, by act or joint resolution + so provide. + + +THE TREATY AGAIN REJECTED + +All of the 14 reservations having been debated and adopted in the +Senate, sitting in Committee of the Whole, a fifteenth reservation +expressing sympathy with the aspirations of the Irish people having been +added, the resolution of ratification was introduced by Senator Lodge on +March 19th. The vote stood: in favor of ratification, 49; against, 35. +By this vote, the Treaty of Versailles was for the second time rejected. +The resolution was supported by 28 Republicans and 21 Democrats, and +opposed by 23 Democrats and 12 Republicans. The resolution lacked seven +votes of the necessary two-thirds, and although it was a Republican +measure, the opposition of the Republican "irreconcilables" or +"bitter-enders" was sufficient to defeat it. + + + + +THE RESERVATIONS WHICH FAILED + +Text of the Preamble and Fifteen Reservations as Adopted by the Senate +Before the Final Vote on Ratification + + +Resolved (two-thirds of the Senators present concurring therein), That +the Senate advise and consent to the ratification of the Treaty of Peace +with Germany concluded at Versailles on the 28th day of June, 1919, +subject to the following reservations and understandings, which are +hereby made a part and condition of this resolution of ratification, +which ratification is not to take effect or bind the United States until +the said reservations and understandings adopted by the Senate have been +accepted as a part and a condition of this resolution of ratification by +the Allied and Associated Powers, and a failure on the part of the +Allied and Associated Powers to make objection to said reservations and +understandings prior to the deposit of ratification by the United States +shall be taken as a full and final acceptance of such reservations and +understandings by said powers: + +1. The United States so understands and construes Article I. that in +case of notice of withdrawal from the League of Nations, as provided in +said article, the United States shall be the sole judge as to whether +all its international obligations and all its obligations under the said +covenant have been fulfilled, and notice of withdrawal by the United +States may be given by a concurrent resolution of the Congress of the +United States. + +2. The United States assumes no obligation to preserve the territorial +integrity or political independence of any other country by the +employment of its military or naval forces, its resources, or any form +of economic discrimination, or to interfere in any way in controversies +between nations, including all controversies relating to territorial +integrity or political independence, whether members of the League or +not, under the provisions of Article X., or to employ the military or +naval forces of the United States, under any article of the treaty for +any purpose, unless in any particular case the Congress, which under the +Constitution has the sole power to declare war or authorize the +employment of the military or naval forces of the United States, shall, +in the exercise of full liberty of action, by act or joint resolution so +provide. + +3. No mandate shall be accepted by the United States under Article +XXII., Part 1, or any other provision of the Treaty of Peace with +Germany, except by action of the Congress of the United States. + +4. The United States reserves to itself exclusively the right to decide +what questions are within its domestic jurisdiction and declares that +all domestic and political questions relating wholly or in part to its +internal affairs, including immigration, labor, coastwise traffic, the +tariff, commerce, the suppression of traffic in women and children and +in opium and other dangerous drugs, and all other domestic questions, +are solely within the jurisdiction of the United States and are not +under this Treaty to be submitted in any way either to arbitration or to +the consideration of the council or of the Assembly of the League of +Nations, or any agency thereof, or to the decision or recommendation of +any other power. + +5. The United States will not submit to arbitration or to inquiry by the +Assembly or by the Council of the League of Nations, provided for in +said Treaty of Peace, any questions which in the judgment of the United +States depend upon or relate to its long established policy, commonly +known as the Monroe Doctrine; said doctrine is to be interpreted by the +United States alone and is hereby declared to be wholly outside the +jurisdiction of said League of Nations and entirely unaffected by any +provision contained in the said Treaty of Peace with Germany. + +6. The United States withholds its assent to Articles 156, 157, and 158, +and reserves full liberty of action with respect to any controversy +which may arise under said articles. + +7. No person is or shall be authorized to represent the United States, +nor shall any citizen of the United States be eligible, as a member of +any body or agency established or authorized by said Treaty of Peace +with Germany except pursuant to an act of the Congress of the United +States providing for his appointment and defining his powers and duties. + +8. The United States understands that the Reparation Commission will +regulate or interfere with exports from the United States to Germany, or +from Germany to the United States, only when the United States by act or +joint resolution of Congress approves such regulation or interference. + +9. The United States shall not be obligated to contribute to any +expenses of the League of Nations, or of the Secretariat or of any +commission, or committee, or conference, or other agency, organized +under the League of Nations or under the Treaty or for the purpose of +carrying out the Treaty provisions, unless and until an appropriation of +funds available for such expenses shall have been made by the Congress +of the United States; provided, that the foregoing limitation shall not +apply to the United States' proportionate share of the expense of the +office force and salary of the Secretary General. + +10. No plan for the limitation of armaments as reported by the Council +of the League of Nations under the provisions of Article 8 shall be held +as binding the United States until the same shall have been accepted by +Congress, and the United States reserves the right to increase its +armament without the consent of the Council whenever the United States +is threatened with invasion or engaged in war. + +11. The United States reserves the right to permit, in its discretion, +the nationals of a covenant-breaking state as defined in Article XVI. of +the covenant of the League of Nations, residing within the United States +or in countries other than such covenant-breaking state, to continue +their commercial, financial and personal relations with the nationals of +the United States. + +12. Nothing in Articles 296, 297, or in any of the annexes thereto or in +any other article, section, or annex of the Treaty of Peace with Germany +shall, as against citizens of the United States be taken to mean any +confirmation, ratification or approval of any act otherwise illegal or +in contravention of the rights of citizens of the United States. + +13. The United States withholds its assent to Part XIII. (Articles 337 +to 427 inclusive), unless Congress by act or joint resolution shall +hereafter make provision for representation in the organization +established by said Part XIII., and in such event the participation of +the United States will be governed and conditioned by the provisions of +such act or joint resolution. + +14. Until Part 1, being the covenant of the League of Nations, shall be +so amended as to provide that the United States shall be entitled to +cast a number of votes equal to that which any member of the League and +its self-governing dominions, colonies or parts of empire, in the +aggregate, shall be entitled to cast, the United States assumes no +obligation to be bound, except in cases where Congress has previously +given its consent, by any election, decision, report, or finding of the +Council or Assembly in which any member of the League and its +self-governing dominions, colonies, or parts of empire, in the +aggregate, have cast more than one vote. + +The United States assumes no obligation to be bound by any decision, +report, or finding of the Council or Assembly arising out of any dispute +between the United States and any member of the League if such member or +any self-governing dominion, colony, empire, or part of empire united +with it politically has voted. + +15. In consenting to the ratification of the Treaty with Germany the +United States adheres to the principle of self-determination and to the +resolution of sympathy with the aspirations of the Irish people for a +government of their own choice adopted by the Senate June 6, 1919, and +declares that when such government is attained by Ireland, a +consummation which it is hoped is at hand, it should promptly be +admitted as a member of the League of Nations. + + +The First Meeting of the Council of the League of Nations + + +Representatives of France, Great Britain, Italy, Greece, Belgium, Spain, +Japan and Brazil, members of the Council of the League of Nations, met +on January 16, 1920, in the "cloak room" of the French Foreign Office +for the first meeting in the history of the League. + +The Council organized by electing Leon Bourgeois Chairman and confirming +the choice of Sir Eric Drummond of Great Britain as General Secretary. +The first official act of the League Council was the appointment of a +commission to trace upon the spot the frontiers of the territory of the +Saar Basin. + +All the members of the Council called for by the covenant of the League, +with the exception of the representative of the United States, were +present. Beside M. Bourgeois, the members were Earl Curzon, the British +Foreign Secretary, for Great Britain; Premier Venizelos, for Greece; +Carlo Ferraris, Italian Minister of Industry, Commerce, Labor and Food, +for Italy; Paul Hymans, the Belgian Foreign Minister, for Belgium; Baron +Matsui, Ambassador to France, for Japan; Dr. Gastoa da Cunha, Ambassador +to France, for Brazil; Count Quinones de Leon, Ambassador to France, for +Spain. + + + + +PEACE BY CONGRESSIONAL ENACTMENT FAILS + +President Wilson Vetoes Knox Resolution Declaring State of War Ended + + +The failure of the Peace Treaty of ratification for the second time on +March 19, 1920, with the Lodge reservations attached, and the determined +refusal of the Republican majority to ratify it in the form desired by +President Wilson, showed quite conclusively that under existing +political alignment no peace might be expected for the country through +the Treaty of Versailles. The Republicans, therefore, turned their +efforts in a new direction to bring about peace without yielding to the +President. + +On April 1st the Foreign Affairs Committee of the House of +Representatives reported favorably a joint resolution declaring the +state of war between Germany and the United States at an end and +terminating the operation of all Congressional acts and Presidential +proclamations dependent for their duration on the termination of the war +or of the "present or existing emergency." It gave Germany forty-five +days in which similarly to declare the ending of the war with the United +States, and to waive all claims against this country, which she would +not have had the right to assert had the United States ratified the +Treaty of Versailles. For failure to comply with this provision, all +commercial intercourse and the furnishing of loans and other financial +assistance by this country to Germany were prohibited, except by license +of the President. In answer to Democratic criticisms that the resolution +was not only insincere, but also unconstitutional in arrogating to +Congress the treaty-making power of the President, the Republican +leaders conceded that, while the negotiation of peace terms rested with +the President, the declaration of a status of peace was quite within the +proper functions of Congress. + + +TEXT OF HOUSE RESOLUTION + +The original resolution, as introduced in the House, read as follows: + + WHEREAS the President of the United States, in the performance + of his constitutional duty to give to Congress information of + the state of the Union, has advised Congress that the war with + the Imperial German Government has ended; + + _Resolved_, by the Senate and the House of Representatives of + the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the + state of war declared to exist between the Imperial German + Government and the people of the United States by a joint + resolution of Congress, approved April 6, 1917, is hereby + declared at an end. + + Section 2--That in the interpretation of any provision relating + to the date of the termination of the present war, or of the + present or existing emergency in any acts of Congress, joint + resolutions or proclamations of the President containing + provisions contingent upon the date of the termination of the + war, or of the present or existing emergency, the date when + this resolution becomes effective shall be construed and + treated as the date of the termination of the war, or of the + present or existing emergency, notwithstanding any provision in + any act of Congress or joint resolution providing any other + mode of determination of the date of the termination of the + war, or of the present or existing emergency. + + Section 3--That, with a view to securing reciprocal trade with + the German Government and its nationals, and for this purpose, + it is hereby provided that unless within forty-five days from + the date when this resolution becomes effective the German + Government shall duly notify the President of the United States + that it has declared a termination of the war with the United + States and that it waives and renounces on behalf of itself and + its nationals any claim, demand, right or benefit against the + United States, or its nationals, that it or they would not have + the right to assert had the United States ratified the Treaty + of Versailles, the President of the United States shall have + the power, and it shall be his duty, to proclaim the fact that + the German Government has not given the notification + hereinbefore mentioned, and thereupon, and until the President + shall have proclaimed the receipt of such notification, + commercial intercourse between the United States and Germany + and the making of loans or credits, and the furnishing of + financial assistance or supplies to the German Government or + the inhabitants of Germany, directly or indirectly, by the + Government or the inhabitants of the United States, shall, + except with the license of the President, be prohibited. + + Section 4--That whoever shall willfully violate the foregoing + prohibition, whenever the same shall be in force, shall upon + conviction be fined not more than $10,000, or, if a natural + person, imprisoned for not more than two years, or both; and + the officer, director or agent of any corporation who knowingly + participates in such violation shall be punished by a like + fine, imprisonment, or both, and any property, funds, + securities, papers, or other articles or documents, or any + vessel, together with her tackle, apparel, furniture, and + equipment, concerned in such violation, shall be forfeited to + the United States. + + Section 5--That nothing herein contained shall be construed as + a waiver by the United States of its rights, privileges, + indemnities, reparations or advantages to which the United + States has become entitled under the terms of the armistice + signed November 11, 1918, or which were acquired by or are in + the possession of the United States by reason of its + participation in the war or otherwise; and all fines, + forfeitures, penalties, and seizures imposed or made by the + United States are hereby ratified, confirmed, and maintained. + + +MINORITY OPPOSITION + +The Democratic members of the Foreign Affairs Committee presented a +minority report severely arraigning the Republican majority both for the +spirit and the provisions of the resolution, which, the report +contended, "outrageously surrendered" American rights and, by the spirit +in which it was conceived, laid open its authors to the charge of "sharp +practice." The chief points made in the minority report were: + + "The preamble states that the President of the United States, + in the performance of his constitutional duty to give to + Congress information of the state of the Union, has advised + Congress that the war with the Imperial German Government has + ended. At no time and under no circumstances has the President + made any such assertion. + + "It is true that, on the signing of the armistice, the + President, in the course of an address to Congress, used the + words, 'the war thus comes to an end.' But he spoke of actual + hostilities, as every one knew, and not of the technical state + of war. + + "It takes a treaty to end a war. Hostilities had ceased, but + the war had not ended, and will not end until it is terminated + in a constitutional manner. The drafters of the resolution and + the members of the Committee on Foreign Affairs who voted for + it knew that this was the case. + + "By quoting this statement of the President as the basis for + this resolution the authors of the resolution lay themselves + open to the charge of insincerity and sharp practice. The + President never declared that the technical state of war which + this resolution undertakes to declare at an end had come to an + end, and the Supreme Court of the United States has recently + declared that what the President had done did not announce the + termination of the war.[32] + + [32] The reference is to the Supreme Court decision on the question + of war-time prohibition in the Kentucky distilleries case. + + "This resolution contains some provisions that are within the + power of Congress, and others that are not. So far as it seeks + to declare peace, and so far as it seeks to direct the + President to issue a proclamation to the German Government, it + trenches upon the treaty-making powers and is not within the + power of Congress. + + "So far as it prohibits the United States citizens and + residents from commercial intercourse with Germany or its + nationals, and provides penalties for the violation of such + restriction, it is valid. So far as it attempts to repeal war + legislation, it is, of course, within the power of Congress." + +With regard to Section 2, which fixed the date of the termination of the +war as the date when the resolution shall become effective, the report +said: + + "There is much war and emergency legislation that should be + repealed. This section does not repeal this legislation, + however, and it gives no relief from the burdens, + inconveniences, extravagances and losses which come from the + existence of this legislation. Much of this legislation is + burdensome, and oppressive in time of peace. + + "Congress has the power to repeal it, and it should address + itself to this task instead of frittering away its time in + attempting to pass unconstitutional legislation for the purpose + of embarrassing the executive department of the Government, or + for some other political purpose." + +Objection was raised against Section 3 for not adequately protecting +American rights. The report, which was presented by Representative +Flood, observed on this subject: + + "The first thought which comes to one's mind in connection with + this section is that it gives to Germany and her nationals all + the rights they would have had if the United States had + ratified the Treaty of Versailles. Without the provisions of + the treaty great uncertainty prevails as to the title to and + right to use German ships. The Versailles Treaty contains + Germany's assent to the use of the property seized by the Alien + Property Custodian, amounting to more than $500,000,000, to pay + claims of the United States against Germany. This resolution + does not pretend to accomplish this result. + + "If we are dependent for a status of peace upon this + resolution, I fail to see how we could be able to demand + reimbursement for the cost of our army of occupation. + + "Under the treaty Germany can become a League of Nations + member, and, having under this resolution all the rights it + would have had under the treaty when it became a member of the + League, it would be entitled to assert against the United + States the same rights which any other nation could assert, had + our country ratified the treaty. We would thus be in the + position of being compelled to protect the independence and + territorial integrity of Germany against the aggressions of any + or all of our allies. + + "Section 5 is an attempt to preserve something out of the wreck + of American rights which have been so outrageously surrendered + in former sections of the resolution." + + +RESOLUTION PASSES HOUSE, 242 TO 150 + +The first test of strength between the supporters and the opponents of +the resolution came on April 8th, when a rule limiting debate was +adopted by a nearly strict party vote of 214 to 155, the Republicans, as +were to be expected, supporting, and the Democrats opposing the rule. +The vote on the resolution itself came next day, April 9th, when, after +a flow of oratory characterized chiefly by bitterly partisan attacks +from both sides of the House, the resolution was adopted by a vote of +242 to 150. Twenty-two Democrats joined the Republicans in voting for +it, and two Republicans broke party lines in opposing it. Despite the +comfortable majority, however, the result showed that without the +President's approval efforts to declare peace by Congressional action +would prove futile, since the vote lacked twenty of the two-thirds +majority necessary to override a veto. + + +SENATE TAKES UP FIGHT TO FORCE PEACE + +The scene now shifted to the Senate. Here the fortunes of the resolution +were placed in the hands of Senator Philander C. Knox, of Pennsylvania, +Secretary of State in President Taft's cabinet and a recognized +authority on international law. Senator Knox redrafted the House +resolution so as to repeal specifically the joint resolutions of war +against Germany on April 6, 1917, and against Austria-Hungary on +December 7, 1917, and thus, by annulling Congressional action declaring +a state of war, to re-establish _status quo ante bellum_. + +Such a solution of the problem, it was felt, did not encroach at all +upon the President's right of making treaties. In fact, the resolution +specifically requested the President to open negotiations for the +purpose of establishing friendly relations and commercial intercourse +between the United States and Germany, and the United States and the +successors of the Austro-Hungarian government. The resolution also +provided for the retention by the United States government of all enemy +property seized during the war until all American claims against enemy +governments had been settled, and declared further that, although the +United States had not ratified the Treaty of Versailles, nevertheless it +did not waive any of the "rights, privileges, indemnities, reparations +or advantages" stipulated for its benefit in the terms of that document. + + +TEXT OF ORIGINAL KNOX RESOLUTION + +The text of the Knox resolution, as favorably reported to the Senate on +April 30th by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, read: + + Joint resolution repealing the joint resolution of April 6, + 1917, declaring a state of war to exist between the United + States and Germany, and the joint resolution of December 7, + 1917, declaring that a state of war exists between the United + States and the Austro-Hungarian Government. + + _Resolved_ by the Senate and House of Representatives of the + United States of America, in Congress assembled, that the joint + resolution of Congress passed April 6, 1917, declaring a state + of war to exist between the Imperial German Government and the + Government and people of the United States, and making + provisions to prosecute the same, be, and the same is hereby + declared at an end. + + Provided, however, that all property of the Imperial German + Government or its successor or successors, and of all German + nationalists which was on April 6, 1917, in or has since that + date come into the possession or under control of the + Government of the United States or of any of its officers, + agents, or employees, from any source or by any agency + whatsoever, shall be retained by the United States and no + disposition thereof made, except as shall specifically be + hereafter provided by Congress, until such time as the German + Government has by treaty with the United States, ratification + whereof is to be made by and with the advice and consent of the + Senate, made suitable provisions for the satisfaction of all + claims against the German Government of all persons wheresoever + domiciled, who owe permanent allegiance to the United States, + whether such persons have suffered through the acts of the + German Government or its agents since July 31, 1914, loss, + damage or injury to persons or property, directly or + indirectly, through the ownership of shares of stock in German, + American, or other corporations, or otherwise, and until the + German Government has given further undertakings and made + provisions by treaty, to be ratified by and with the advice and + consent of the Senate, for granting to persons owing permanent + allegiance to the United States, most favored nation treatment, + whether the same be national or otherwise, in all matters + affecting residence, business, profession, trade, navigation, + commerce, and industrial property rights, and confirming to the + United States all fines, forfeitures, penalties, and seizures + imposed or made by the United States during the war, whether in + respect to the property of the German government or German + nationalists, and waiving any pecuniary claim based on events + which occurred at any time before the coming into force of such + treaty, any existing treaty between the United States and + Germany to the contrary notwithstanding. + + To these ends, and for the purpose of establishing fully + friendly relations and commercial intercourse between the + United States and Germany, the President is hereby requested + immediately to open negotiations with the Government of + Germany. + + Section 2--That in the interpretation of any provision relating + to the date of the termination of the present war or of the + present or existing emergency in any acts of Congress, joint + resolutions or proclamations of the President containing + provisions contingent upon the date of the termination of the + war or of the present or existing emergency, the date when this + resolution becomes effective, shall be construed and treated as + the date of the termination of the war or of the present or + existing emergency, notwithstanding any provision in any act of + Congress or joint resolution providing any other mode of + determining the date of the termination of the war or of the + present or existing emergency. + + Section 3--That until by treaty or act or joint resolution of + Congress it shall be determined otherwise, the United States, + although it has not ratified the Treaty of Versailles, does not + waive any of the rights, privileges, indemnities, reparations, + or advantages to which it and its nationals have become + entitled under the terms of the armistice signed November 11, + 1918, or any extensions or modifications thereof or which, + under the Treaty of Versailles, have been stipulated for its + benefit as one of the principal allied and associated powers + and to which it is entitled. + + Section 4--That the joint resolution of Congress, approved + December 7, 1917, declaring that a state of war exists between + the Imperial and Royal Austro-Hungarian Government and the + Government and people of the United States, and making + provisions to prosecute the same, be and the same is hereby + repealed, and said state of war is hereby declared at an end, + and the President is hereby requested immediately to open + negotiations with the successor or successors of said + Government for the purpose of establishing fully friendly + relations and commercial intercourse between the United States + and the Governments and peoples of Austria and Hungary. + + +A DEMOCRAT PAYS HIS RESPECTS TO REPUBLICANS + +The attitude of leaders of the Democratic party on Republican maneuvers +to force peace by Congressional action was indicated by a statement +issued by Homer S. Cummings, chairman of the Democratic National +Committee, in which the Knox resolution was characterized as "renewed +evidence of the moral leprosy which is eating out the heart of the +Republican party," and which, according to Mr. Cummings, proposed +dishonor in the name of peace. As reported in the press, the statement +said: + + "The so-called Knox peace resolution, which has just been + reported by the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, is + renewed evidence of the moral leprosy which is eating out the + heart of the Republican party. In the name of peace it proposes + dishonor. + + "An analysis of the resolution discloses that: + + "First, it recognizes the defect in the recent House + resolution, which attempted to make a separate treaty with + Germany by act of Congress. + +[Illustration: Senator Philander C. Knox of Pennsylvania + +A former United States Attorney-General and Secretary of State, and one +of the "irreconcilable" opponents of the League of Nations and Treaty of +Versailles. He was the author of the peace resolution declaring war with +Germany ended which was passed by Congress but vetoed by President +Wilson.] + + "Second, as an alternative proposition, it requests the + President to commence negotiations for a separate peace with + Germany. + + "Third, it seeks to terminate, by a paper resolution, a state + of war without protecting American rights. + + "Fourth, it attempts to take advantage of the provisions of the + Treaty of Versailles without becoming a party to that treaty + and, + + "Fifth, it requests the President to negotiate a separate peace + with Austria. + + "These are the outstanding features of the resolution. If any + group of leaders a year ago had dared to suggest that we should + abandon our allies and negotiate a separate treaty of peace, + they would have found themselves isolated and discredited. + Republican leaders have lost their moral sense in their mad + lust for power. + + "There has not been one moment since November, 1918, during + which America has not suffered in honor, prestige, and power, + as the result of the elections of that year. Since that time + everything has been in confusion, and the frantic attempt of + Republican leaders to find a legal method in which to do the + dishonorable thing merely adds to the confusion. There is but + one clear path of duty. It is likewise the path of honor and of + peace and of permanent security. + + "The path lies straight before us, and consists simply in + ratifying the treaty of peace which our companions in arms have + already ratified. The more the matter is debated the more it + will become apparent that there are no substitutes for the + requirements of plain duty and American honor." + + +KNOX URGES SEPARATE PEACE WITH GERMANY + +On May 5th the debate on the resolution was opened in the Senate with a +carefully prepared speech by Senator Knox, which outlined in detail +arguments not only for the propriety and validity of the resolution, but +for the absolute necessity of its adoption. Senator Knox contended that +the war had ended, in fact and in law; that the objects for which the +United States had entered the struggle had been achieved; that a +"power-maddened administration" was continuing the technical state of +war solely for the purpose of coercing the Senate into ratifying the +Versailles Treaty, which had been universally discredited in all its +parts; and that, since there was no hope of co-operation from the +President, Congress must find means of ending the technical state of +war independently of him. Said Senator Knox: + + "The welfare and safety of the nation imperatively demands that + we know we have peace. The whole world seethes with revolution. + Our own nation is in ferment and turmoil. Force and strife are + rampant and threaten the destruction not only of our property, + but of our free institutions and even of our very lives. And + yet we stand, and have stood for months, as a rudderless ship + foundering in the trough of tremendous seas. We must not dare + longer to delay a return to the ordered government of peace. As + a preliminary step, the Executive must be returned to his + peace-time powers and prerogatives. Need, propriety, wisdom, + cannot question this. The resolution before us is designed to + bring us to this. + + + WILSON TO BLAME + + "The course of the President ever since he cruised to Europe to + participate in the Peace Conference leaves no chance for doubt + that he will continue hereafter as heretofore to thwart, so far + as he is able, every attempt on the part of the Senate, the + Congress, or the people, to take any action immediately or + remotely affecting, in however slight a degree, through change + or modification, the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles as + it came to us fresh from his signature. He preferred to keep + the country in an alleged state of war for now almost a year + rather than abate one jot or tittle of the full measure his + isolated will had set for the nation. Constitutional order, + lawful functions, rights and duties of position, oaths of + office as affecting the members of this body, he has noticed + only to bring into contempt. He has conjured up every power + within the whole vast executive domain in his efforts to compel + this Senate to surrender its will and judgment to him, to + become mere automatons to register his mandate--to approve this + treaty in its last minutiae of detail as he sent it to us. + + "Now, in the face of this situation, it will be idle for us to + pass any resolution looking to the immediate establishment of + peace that does not contemplate the unqualified acceptance of + the treaty, if that resolution requires from the President the + performance of any act or duty in order to secure peace, + because if we do, he will, if the statements of his + representatives are accepted, so delay or ignore that act or + duty as to defeat the end and purpose of our action, for in his + opinion wisdom lies only in following the behests of his will. + Therefore, if the resolution is to be effective, it must be + self-operative. Nothing necessary to the bringing of peace must + be left for his accomplishment. + + +WHY UNITED STATES WENT TO WAR + +"Our purposes, as stated by the President, were three-fold: + +"First, the defeat and elimination of the Imperial German Government and +Prussian autocracy; + +"Next, the liberation from their yoke of despotism of the Germans +themselves--for whom we had nothing but sympathy and friendship--to the +end that they might be masters of their own fates and fortunes; and + +"Lastly, the establishment, as sincere friends of the German people, of +intimate relations of mutual advantage between them and us. + +"In so far as my information goes, the German Government never declared +war against the United States. They merely accepted the status which +this declaration recognized and probably created; for it must be +remembered that while we interpreted, and rightly so, that German +submarine warfare, as directed against the United States, was illegal, +constituting acts of war, the German Government never acquiesced in that +view and, on the contrary, maintained the legality of all general +measures taken. + +"The Imperial German Government, against whom we declared war, did cease +to exist at the time of the signing of the armistice, leaving us from +thence on without any titular enemy against which to wage a war unless +we were warring with the German people, and we have clearly estopped +ourselves to make such a contention. + +"Thus from this point of view also the armistice brought us not alone +the end of hostilities, but the actual peace. There remained only the +making of arrangements covering the ordinary peace-time intercourse. + + +WAR AT END, IN FACT AND IN LAW + +"As a matter of law and of fact we are at peace with Germany; first, +because of the terms of the armistice of November 11, 1918, its +amendments and renewals; second, because of the 'silent ceasing' of +hostilities; third, because of the disappearance, the extinction of the +Government against which we declared war, and fourth, because of the +negotiation by us and our allies or associates in the war with the +people who were lately our enemies, and the ratification by our allies +or associates and our enemies, of a treaty of peace which specifically +provides both for the termination of hostilities to be followed by a +resumption of diplomatic relations, and also for the status that should +exist during our future peace-time intercourse; which treaty is now in +force and observed everywhere except in the United States, and has in +fact and in international law brought peace to the whole world, +including ourselves. + + "Having thus in law and in fact international peace, having + nothing left but a domestic status of war created by a + legislative declaration of war, with no hostilities heretofore + or now existent or possible in the territory over which this + paper-war status exists, it is not only legally sound, but + economically, morally, and patriotically necessary and + indispensable that we at once repeal the declaration of war and + so immediately end the despotic war powers with which a + power-maddened administration continues to misrule this great + people. + + +VERSAILLES TREATY IMPOSSIBLE + +"To what end has all this juggling with obvious facts and universally +recognized principles been maintained? The answer is easy and known to +all. The purpose has been to coerce the Senate to approve the Treaty of +Versailles--a treaty that is almost universally discredited in all its +parts. The majority of its negotiators concede this. Its economic terms +are impossible; its League of Nations is an aggravated imitation of the +worst features of the ill-fated and foolish Holy Alliance of a century +ago. It promises little but mischief unless recast on such radical lines +as will entirely obliterate its identity. + +"Wisdom requires the negotiation of a separate treaty between the United +States and Germany, which should provide reciprocal rights and +obligations between us and that country alone." + + +KNOX RESOLUTION PASSES BOTH HOUSES + +In the course of its consideration in the Senate, the provision of the +resolution requesting the President to negotiate a separate treaty with +Germany was eliminated, but the request for a treaty with the successors +of the Austro-Hungarian government was retained. In its amended form the +resolution was brought to a decision in the Senate on May 15th, and +adopted by a vote of 43 to 38, three Democrats voting with its +supporters and one Republican with the opposition. + +As the text of the Knox resolution adopted by the Senate differed from +the measure which had been passed by the House of Representatives on +April 9th, the House, to expedite matters, dropped its own resolution, +and passed, on May 21st, the Senate draft by a vote of 228 to 139, +seventeen short of the two-thirds majority necessary to override the +expected Presidential veto. + + +TEXT OF AMENDED RESOLUTION + +The text of the peace resolution as passed by the Senate and later +concurred in by the House of Representatives, read as follows: + + The joint resolution of Congress, passed April 6, 1917, + declaring a state of war to exist between the Imperial German + Government and the Government and people of the United States, + and making provisions to prosecute the same, be, and the same + is hereby repealed and said state of war is hereby declared at + an end. + + Provided, however, that all property of the Imperial German + Government, or its successor or successors, and of all German + nationals which was on April 6, 1917, is or has since that date + come into the possession or under control of the Government of + the United States or any of its officers, agents or employees + from any source or by any agency whatsoever, shall be retained + by the United States and no disposition thereof made, except as + shall specifically be hereafter provided by Congress, until + such time as the German Government has, by treaty with the + United States, ratification whereof is to be made by and with + the advice and consent of the Senate, made suitable provisions + for the satisfaction of all claims against the German + Government of all persons, wheresoever domiciled, who owe + permanent allegiance to the United States, whether such persons + have suffered through the acts of the German Government or its + agents since July 31, 1914, loss, damage, or injury to their + persons or property, directly or indirectly, through the + ownership of shares of stock in German, American, or other + corporations, or have suffered damage directly in consequence + of hostilities or any operations of war, or otherwise, or until + the German Government has given further undertakings and made + provisions by treaty, to be ratified by and with the advice and + consent of the Senate, for granting to persons owing permanent + allegiance to the United States, most favored nation treatment, + whether the same be national or otherwise, in all matters + affecting residence, business, profession, trade, navigation, + commerce and industrial property rights, and confirming to the + United States all fines, forfeitures, penalties, and seizures + imposed or made by the United States during the war, whether in + respect to the property of the German Government or German + nationals, and waiving any pecuniary claim based on events + which occurred at any time before the coming into force of such + treaty, any existing treaty between the United States and + Germany to the contrary notwithstanding. + + That in the interpretation of any provision relating to the date of + the termination of the war or of the present or existing emergency + in any acts of Congress, joint resolutions or proclamations of the + President containing provisions contingent upon the date of the + termination of the war or of the present or existing emergency, the + date when this resolution becomes effective shall be construed and + treated as the date of the termination of the war or of the present + or existing emergency, notwithstanding any provision in any act of + Congress or joint resolution, providing any other mode of + determining the date of the termination of the war or of the + present or existing emergency. + + That until by treaty or act or joint resolution of Congress it + shall be determined otherwise, the United States, although it + has not ratified the Treaty of Versailles, does not waive any + of the rights, privileges, indemnities, reparations or + advantages to which it and its nationals have become entitled + under the terms of the armistice signed November 11, 1918, or + any extensions or modifications thereof or which under the + Treaty of Versailles have been stipulated for its benefit as + one of the principal allied and associated powers and to which + it is entitled. + + That the joint resolution of Congress approved December 7, + 1917, declaring that a state of war exists between the Imperial + and Royal Austro-Hungarian Government and the Government and + the people of the United States and making provisions to + prosecute the same, be, and the same is hereby repealed, and + said state of war is hereby declared at an end, and the + President is hereby requested immediately to open negotiations + with the successor or successors of said Government for the + purpose of establishing fully friendly relations and commercial + intercourse between the United States and the Governments and + peoples of Austria and Hungary. + + +PRESIDENT'S VETO + +The resolution now came before the President for his signature. On May +27th he returned it to the House without his approval, and in an +accompanying message explained the reasons for his veto. The President +did not touch upon the question of constitutionality which had been +raised frequently during the debates, but gave as his chief reason +refusal to become party to an action which, he felt, would place +"ineffaceable stain upon the gallantry and honor of the United States." + +Following is the text of President Wilson's message vetoing the peace +resolution: + + "_To the House of Representatives:_ + + "I return herewith, without my signature, House Joint + Resolution 327, intended to repeal the Joint Resolution of + April 6, 1917, declaring a state of war to exist between the + United States and Germany, and the Joint Resolution of December + 7, 1917, declaring a state of war to exist between the United + States and the Austro-Hungarian Government, and to declare a + state of peace. I have not felt at liberty to sign this + resolution because I cannot bring myself to become party to an + action which would place ineffaceable stain upon the gallantry + and honor of the United States. + + "The resolution seeks to establish peace with the German Empire + without exacting from the German Government any action by way + of setting right the infinite wrongs which it did to the + peoples whom it attacked and whom we professed it our purpose + to assist when we entered the war. Have we sacrificed the lives + of more than one hundred thousand Americans and ruined the + lives of thousands of others and brought upon thousands of + American families an unhappiness that can never end for + purposes which we do not now care to state or take further + steps to attain? + + "The attainment of these purposes is provided for in the Treaty + of Versailles by terms deemed adequate by the leading statesmen + and experts of all the great peoples who were associated in the + war against Germany. Do we now not care to join in the effort + to secure them? + + "We entered the war most reluctantly. Our people were + profoundly disinclined to take part in a European war, and at + last did so, only because they became convinced that it could + not in truth be regarded as only a European war, but must be + regarded as a war in which civilization itself was involved and + human rights of every kind as against a belligerent Government. + Moreover, when we entered the war we set forth very definitely + the purposes for which we entered, partly because we did not + wish to be considered as merely taking part in a European + contest. This Joint Resolution which I return does not seek to + accomplish any of these objects, but in effect makes a complete + surrender of the rights of the United States so far as the + German Government is concerned. + + "A treaty of peace was signed at Versailles on the + twenty-eighth of June last which did seek to accomplish the + objects which we had declared to be in our minds, because all + the great Governments and peoples which united against Germany + had adopted our declarations of purpose as their own and had in + solemn form embodied them in communications to the German + Government preliminary to the armistice of November 11, 1918. + But the treaty, as signed at Versailles, has been rejected by + the Senate of the United States, though it has been ratified by + Germany. By that rejection and by its methods we had in effect + declared that we wish to draw apart and pursue objects and + interests of our own, unhampered by any connections of interest + or of purpose with other Governments and peoples. + + "Notwithstanding the fact that upon our entrance into the war + we professed to be seeking to assist in the maintenance of + common interests, nothing is said in this resolution about the + freedom of navigation upon the seas, or the reduction of + armaments, or the vindication of the rights of Belgium, or the + rectification of wrongs done to France, or the release of the + Christian populations of the Ottoman Empire from the + intolerable subjugation which they have had for so many + generations to endure, or the establishment of an independent + Polish State, or the continued maintenance of any kind of + understanding among the great powers of the world which would + be calculated to prevent in the future such outrages as Germany + attempted and in part consummated. + + "We have now, in effect, declared that we do not care to take + any further risks or to assume any further responsibilities + with regard to the freedom of nations or the sacredness of + international obligations or the safety of independent peoples. + Such a peace with Germany--a peace in which none of the + essential interests which we had at heart when we entered the + war is safeguarded--_is_, or ought to be, inconceivable, as + inconsistent with the dignity of the United States, with the + rights and liberties of her citizens, and with the very + fundamental conditions of civilization. + + "I hope that in these statements I have sufficiently set forth + the reasons why I have felt it incumbent upon me to withhold my + signature. + + WOODROW WILSON. + THE WHITE HOUSE, _May 27, 1920._" + +Next day, May 28th, the resolution was brought before the House in an +attempt to repass it over the veto, but the vote, 219 to 152, lacked +twenty-nine of the necessary two-thirds majority. On the original House +resolution, passed April 9th, the vote had been 242 to 150, and on the +Knox resolution, passed by the House on May 21st, 228 to 139. A few days +later Congress adjourned until the winter session in December. + + + + +THE MAP OF EUROPE REMADE + +Proposed Form of Government, Countries from Which Formed and Ethnic or +Racial Stock of Newly Established Political Units Resulting from the +World War. + +(From a paper prepared in January, 1920, by O. P. Austin, Statistical +Department, National City Bank.) + + + ========================================================================= + |[33]Area | [33] | Date |Form of |Countries |Ethnic or + | |Population|estab-|Govern- |from which | Racial + | | |lished|ment |formed | Stock + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Poland | 141,854|36,000,000|Nov., |Republic |Russia, | Slavic, + | | | 1916 | |Germany, | Semitic + | | | | |Austria- | + | | | | |Hungary | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Czecho- | 60,000|13,000,000|Oct., |Republic |Austria- | Slavic + Slovakia | | | 1918 | |Hungary | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Jugo-Slavia | 85,000|10,500,000|Oct., |Kingdom |Hung, | Slavic, + | | | 1918 | |Serbia, | Serbs, + | | | | |Bosnia, | Croats + | | | | |Herzegovina, + | | | | |Mont. | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Ukrainia | 215,000|30,000,000|Nov., |Republic |Russia, | Slavic + | | | 1917 | |Austria- | + | | | | |Hungary | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Esthonia | 7,300| 1,750,000|Apr., |Republic |Russia | Slavic + | | | 1918 | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Livonia | 17,000| 1,650,000|Apr., |Republic |Russia | Slavic + | | | 1918 | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Courland | 10,000| 600,000|Apr., |Republic |Russia | Slavic + | | | 1918 | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Letvia | 9,000| 1,500,000|Apr., |Republic |Russia | Letts + | | | 1918 | | | (Balto- + | | | | | | Slavs) + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Lithuania | 90,000|10,000,000|Apr., |Republic |Russia | Slavic, + | | | 1918 | | |Germania + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + White Russia| 140,000| 5,000,000| May, |Republic |Russia | Slavic + | | | 1918 | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + North Russia| 275,000| 400,000|Nov., |Military |Russia | Slavic, + | | | 1918 |Gov | | Finns + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Rus. Fed. | Undet'd | Undet'd |Nov., |Soviet Rep|Russia | Slavic + Soviet Rep | | | 1917 | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Don Rep | 63,000| 4,000,000|Jan., |Military |Russia | Slavic, + | | | 1918 |Gov | | Cossack + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Kuban Rep | 36,000| 3,000,000|Nov., |Republic |Russia | Slavic + | | | 1918 | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Tauride Rep | 23,000| 1,800,000|Mar., |Republic |Russia | Slavic, + | | | 1918 | | | Tartar + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Terek Rep | 28,000| 1,300,000|Sept.,|Republic |Russia | Turko- + | | | 1918 | | | Tartar + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Tatar- | 175,000| 9,000,000|Oct., |Military |Russia | Turko- + Bashkir Rep | | | 1918 | | | Tartar + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Yakutsk Rep |1,000,000| 400,000| May, |Military |Siberian | Yakuts, + | | | 1918 | |Russia | Cossack + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Rep. of | Undet'd | Undet'd |Dec., |Military |Siberian | Slav, + Siberia | | 1917 | |Russia | Mongol, + | | | | | | Tartar + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Rep. of | 40,000| 2,500,000|Jan., |Republic |Russia, |Georgian, + Georgia | | | 1918 | |Turkey | Armenian + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Rep. of | 400,000| 6,500,000|Jan., |Military |Russia | Turko- + Turkestan | | | 1918 | | | Tartar + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Eastern | 68,000| 250,000| May, |Military |Russia | Balto- + Karelia | | | 1919 | | | Slavic + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Finland | 125,000| 3,500,000|Dec., |Republic |Russia | Finns + | | | 1917 | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Murman | 35,000| 100,000|July, |Military |Russian | Finns + Region | | | 1918 | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + German Rep | 175,000|60,000,000|Nov., |Republic |Germany | Germanic + | | | 1918 | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Rep of | 28,000|10,000,000|Oct., |Republic |Austria | Germanic + German | | | 1918 | | | + Austria | | | | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Hungarian | 32,000| 9,000,000|Nov., |Soviet |Hungary | Magyar + Rep | | | 1918 |Rep. | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + [34]Rumania | 110,000|12,500,000| |Kingdom |Rumania, |Rumanian, + | | | 1919 | |Hungary, | Magyar + | | | | |Bessarabia | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Turkey in | 10,000| 1,900,000| |Undet'd |Turkey | Turkish + Europe | | | | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Anatolia, | 145,000| 5,000,000| |Undet'd |Turkey | Turkish + Asia Minor | | | | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Armenia, | 75,000| 2,500,000|Aug., |Undet'd |Turkey |Armenians + Asia Minor | | | 1918 | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Mesopotamia,| 143,000| 2,000,000| 1917 |British |Turkey | Turks, + Asia Minor | | | |Admin. | | Arabs, + | | | | | | Persian + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Syria, Asia | 37,000| 1,000,000| 1919 |Undet'd |Turkey | Syrian, + Minor | | | | | | Turkish + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Palestine, | 16,000| 500,000| 1917 |British |Turkey | Turks, + Asia Minor | | | |Admin. | | Arabs, + | | | | | | Jews + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Kingdom of | 96,500| 300,000|June, |Kingdom |Turkey | Arabs, + Hejaz | | | 1916 | | | Turks + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Nejd & Hasa,| No data | No data | 1913 |Emirate |Turkey | Arabs + Arabia | | | | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Jebel | No data | No data | 1918 |Emirate |Turkey | Bedouin + Shammar, | | | | | | + Arabia | | | | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Asir, Arabia| No data | No data | 1918 |Principate|Turkey | Arabs + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Yemen, | No data | No data | 1918 |Imamate |Turkey | Arabs + Arabia | | | | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Koweit, | No data | No data | 1918 |Sultanate |Turkey | Arabs + Arabia | | | | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Oman, Arabia| 82,000| 500,000| 1913 |G. Brit & |Turkey | Arabs + | | | |France | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Egypt | 350,000|12,000,000| 1914 |Great |Turkey | Egyptian + | | | |Britain | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + German East | 384,000| 8,000,000| 1918 |Great |German | Bantu + Africa | | | |Britain |Colony | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + German S. W.| 322,000| 200,000| 1915 |British S.|German Hottentots + Africa | | | |Africa |Colony | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Kamerun | 191,000| 2,500,000| 1916 |British & |German | Sudanese + | | | |French |Colony | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Togo | 33,000| 1,000,000| 1914 |Allied Mil|German | Hamitic + | | | | |Colony | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Kaiser | 70,000| 250,000| 1918 |Australia |German | Malay + Wilhelm Land| | | | |Colony | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Ger. Samoan | 1,200| 40,000| 1918 |Australia |German | Samoan + Islands | | | | |Colony | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Nauru | [35] | | 1918 |Mandate-- |German | Samoan + Islands | | | |British |Colony | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Ger. S. | 15,000| 350,000| 1918 |Australia |German | Malay + Pacific | | | |Japan |Colony | + Islands | | | | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Ger. N. | 5,000| 600,000| 1918 |Mandate-- |German | Malay + Pacific | | | |Japan |Colony | + Islands | | | | | | + ------------+---------+----------+------+----------+-----------+--------- + Kiau Chau | 200| 200,000| 1918 |Mandate-- |German | Chinese + | | | |Japan |Colony | + ========================================================================= + +[33] Latest available estimate. + +[34] Enlarged by absorption of Hungarian territory. + +[35] A small island in the Marshall Group occupied as a wireless +station; also known as Pleasant Island. + + + + +OUR PART IN WINNING THE WAR + +Official Figures That Reveal the Enormous Contribution of This +Country in Men, Money and Supplies + + + FIGURES OF AMERICAN PARTICIPATION IN THE WAR[36] + Revised to August 1, 1919 + + Total armed forces, including + Army, Navy, Marine Corps, etc. 4,800,000 + Total men in the Army 4,000,000 + Men who went overseas 2,086,000 + Men who fought in France 1,390,000 + Greatest number sent in one month 306,000 + Greatest number returning in one month 333,000 + Tons of supplies shipped from America to France 7,500,000 + Total registered in draft 24,234,021 + Total draft inductions 2,810,296 + Greatest number inducted in one month 400,000 + Graduates of Line Officers' Training Schools 80,568 + Cost of war to April 30, 1919 $21,850,000,000 + + Cost of Army to April 30, 1919 $13,930,000,000 + Battles fought by American troops 13 + Months of American participation in the war 19 + Days of battle 200 + Days of duration of Meuse-Argonne battle 47 + Americans in Meuse-Argonne battle 1,200,000 + American casualties in Meuse-Argonne battle 120,000 + American battle deaths in war 50,300 + American wounded in war 205,690 + American deaths from disease 57,500 + Total deaths in the Army 115,500 + + [36] From the _War with Germany_--A STATISTICAL SUMMARY, by Leonard P. + Ayres, Colonel, General Staff, U. S. A. (For statistics of American + casualties revised to the end of 1919, see Vol. III, pp. 403-6.) + +The part played by the United States in the war is statistically and +graphically summarized in a compact little book prepared by Colonel +Leonard P. Ayres of the Statistical Staff of the War Department. +Attentively as the public may have followed the published reports of the +many progressive steps and stages of our preparation for and +participation in the war, much of the matter in _The War With Germany--A +Statistical Summary_ will have surprising interest. It is the first time +a comprehensive view of the character and magnitude of our war +activities has been made possible through anything so concrete and +authoritative. The data were obtained from official reports, during the +war, to the President, Secretary of War and Chief-of-Staff from the +American Peace Commission in Paris, from the files of the Supreme War +Council in Versailles, and other sources; and though, as Colonel Ayres +states, it was still impossible to get final figures on some points or +wholly reliable ones on others, care was taken to insure the degree of +reliability reasonably practicable. The diagrams, figures and other +information presented here and elsewhere in this volume are reproduced +from Colonel Ayres' _Summary_, second edition, revised to August 1, +1919. + +[Illustration: Official Government Statistics. + +Male Population Registered and Not Registered] + + +THE SELECTIVE SERVICE + +"The willingness," Colonel Ayres says, "with which the American people +accepted the universal draft was the most remarkable feature in the +history of our preparation for war. It is a noteworthy evidence of the +enthusiastic support given the war program that, despite the previous +hostility to the principle of universal liability for military service, +a few months after the selective service law was passed, the standing of +the drafted soldier was fully as honorable in the estimation of his +companions and of the country in general as was that of the man who +enlisted voluntarily. Moreover, the record of desertions from the Army +shows that the total was smaller than in previous wars and a smaller +percentage occurred among drafted men than among those who volunteered. +The Selective Service Law was passed on May 19, 1917, and as +subsequently amended, it mobilized all the man power of the nation from +the ages of 18 to 45 inclusive. Under this act, 24,234,021 men were +registered and slightly more than 2,800,000 were inducted into the +military service on the first draft. But during the war, from April 6, +1917, to November 11, 1918, about 4,000,000 served in the Army of the +United States." The total number serving the armed forces of the +country, including Army, Navy, Marine Corps and other services, amounted +to 4,800,000. Approximately five men out of every 100 citizens were in +arms. Of these, 2,086,000, constituting the American Expeditionary +Force, were in service on the Western front. Those who saw actual +fighting were 1,390,000. + +It is interesting in this connection to record the fact that in our +greatest previous war, the Civil War, 2,400,000 men served in the +Northern Armies and in the Navy. In that struggle 10 men in each 100 +inhabitants of the Northern States served as soldiers or sailors. + +The fact is pointed out by Colonel Ayres that though the British sent to +France more men in their first year than we did in our first year, it +took England three years to reach a strength of 2,000,000 men in France +whereas the United States reached that strength in France in a year and +a half. But as an offset, it must be borne in mind that the British had +to use men from the beginning to fill terrible casualty gaps, which was +not the case with the American steadily building forces, and that the +British also were sending men to several other battle fronts than those +of France. + + +HOW THE DRAFT WAS MADE UP + +Under the draft, registrants were subjected to a preliminary examination +by the local boards to determine who were not of sufficient soundness +and vigor for military life. Those accepted as qualified for service +were sent to training camps where they underwent a second examination +and rejections were made of those in any serious way defective. The not +surprising result of the examinations was the demonstration that men +representing the highest order of physical condition came from +agricultural districts, the country bred boys far excelling those reared +in the city. Taken by States it is noteworthy that men from the Middle +West and those from Kentucky and Arkansas of the Southern States had the +highest record, their physical condition enabling 70 to 80 percent. to +pass the two examinations. The lowest percentage was in the New England +States, in New York, in Michigan and in Western States that have for +years been health resorts, where subnormal persons from all over the +country resort. The percentage of men from those states who passed the +two examinations was but 50 to 59. The intermediate ranges were 60 to +69. Under the two examinations not only did country boys make a better +showing than city boys (100,000 country boys would furnish for military +service 4,700 more soldiers than would an equal number of city boys), +but the white registrants were better than the colored, the native-born +better than the alien-born. Under the analysis 100,000 whites would +furnish 1,240 more soldiers than would an equal number of colored; and +100,000 native-born would yield 3,500 more soldiers than would the like +number of foreign-born. As 3,500 men are equivalent to an infantry +regiment at full war strength, the value of these differences can be +appreciated. + +[Illustration: Official Government Statistics. + +Comparative Losses of Merchant Shipping During the War] + +About 200,000 commissioned officers were required for the Army. Less +than 9,000 were in the Federal Service at the beginning of the +war,--5,791 were Regulars and 3,199 were officers of the National Guard +in Federal Service. Thus out of every six officers one had had previous +training in the army, Guard or ranks; three trained for their +commissions in officers' training camps; two went from civil life into +the army with little or no military training--the latter being in the +majority physicians, ministers or technical men. + + +CAMPS AND TRAINING + +Shelter was constructed in a few months for the accommodation of +1,800,000 men under training. For the National Guard and National Army +divisions there were 16 camps and 16 cantonments, chiefly in the North. +For National Guard Units organized during the summer of 1917 there were +canvas camps in the South. One division, the Rainbow, required no +training field, as it was assembled directly at Camp Mills for early +transportation to France. The average American soldier who went to +France received six months' training before he sailed and two months +more in a quiet sector after reaching France, before entering the battle +line. + +The infantry soldier was trained in the division, the American typical +unit, composed of about 1,000 officers and 27,000 men. Before the +signing of the armistice there had been trained and sent overseas 42 +divisions, the training of 12 more was well advanced and 4 others were +being organized. Had the war continued this country would have had 80 +divisions overseas before July, 1919, and 100 by the end of that year. + +This country had the benefit in its training camps of 547 of the ablest +French and English officers who had seen service on the Western front +and were sent over to bring to the training of our men the approved +methods developed in the experiences of the war. There were besides 226 +non-commissioned British officers detailed as instructors. Colonel Ayres +says they rendered services out of all proportion to their number, being +a significant contribution to our training program. + + +GETTING THE TROOPS OVER + +Especially impressive are the figures dealing with troop movements: + + "During our nineteen months of war more than 2,000,000 American + soldiers were carried to France. Half a million of these went + over in the first thirteen months, the others in the last six + months. + + "The highest troop-carrying records are those of July, 1918, + when 306,000 soldiers were carried to Europe, and June, 1919, + when 364,000 were brought home to America. + + "Most of the troops who sailed for France left from New York. + Half of them landed in England and the other half landed in + France. + + "Among every 100 Americans who went over forty-nine went in + British ships, forty-five in American ships, three in Italian, + two in French, and one in Russian shipping under English + control. + + "Our cargo ships averaged one complete trip every seventy days + and our troopships one complete trip every thirty-five days. + + "The cargo fleet was almost exclusively American. It reached + the size of 2,700,000 dead-weight tons and carried to Europe + about 7,500,000 tons of cargo. + + "The greatest troopship among all the ships has been the + _Leviathan_, which landed 12,000 men (the equivalent of a + German division) in France every month. + + "The fastest transports have been the _Great Northern_ and the + _Northern Pacific_, which have made complete turn-arounds, + taken on new troops and started back again in nineteen days." + + +TRANSPORTATION EXTRAORDINARY + +_Apropos_ of the rapid transportation Colonel Ayres says: + + "In June (1918) with the German drives in full swing, the + Allies called on us to continue the extraordinary + transportation of troops begun in April. The early movement had + been met by filling up the divisions that sailed with the best + trained men wherever they could be found. Divisions embarked + after July 1 had to meet shortages with men called to the + colors in the spring. By November the average period of + training in the United States had been shortened to close to + four months, and the average for the period July 1 to Nov. 11 + was probably five months. + + "In the last months of the war, the induction of men was + carried forward at top speed and every device was used for + hastening training. The result fully justified the effort. Into + the great Meuse-Argonne offensive we were able to throw a force + of 1,200,000 men, while we had many thousands of troops engaged + in other parts of the line. Our training camp officers stood up + to the test; our men with their intensive drilling in + open-order fighting, which has characterized American + training, routed the best of the German divisions from the + Argonne Forest and the Valley of the Meuse." + + +FEEDING AND CLOTHING PROBLEMS + +When an army is 3,000 or 4,000 miles from its sources of supply the +amounts of supplies in reserve and in transit are enormous as compared +with the quantities actually consumed each month. As an example the army +purchases of blankets in 1918 were two and one-quarter times as great as +the entire American production in 1914. Put differently, the blankets +bought in one year for the use of 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 soldiers would +have been sufficient to make good the normal consumption of blankets by +100,000,000 American civilians for two and a quarter years. So +proportionately with other things, the rule for clothing was that for +every man at the front there must be a three months' reserve in France, +another two or three months' reserve in the United States and a third +three months' supply continuously in transit. + +The same thing was true of other supplies and munitions. The need for +reserves and the time required for transportation called for the supply +of enormous quantities and called for it at once. + + An indication of the quartermaster problem may be obtained from + the fact that between April 6, 1917, and May 31, 1918, there + was delivered to the army 131,800,000 pairs of wool stockings, + 85,000,000 undershirts, 83,600,000 drawers, 30,700,000 pairs of + shoes, 26,500,000 flannel shirts, 21,700,000 blankets, + 21,700,000 wool breeches, 13,900,000 wool coats, and 8,300,000 + overcoats. When the troop movement was speeded up in 1918 + Colonel Ayres states that the margin of woolen clothing was + dangerously narrow, and to secure these and other articles in + sufficient quantity it was found necessary to take control of + all states of the manufacturing process, from assembling the + raw material to inspecting the finished product. + + At no time was there a shortage of food in the expeditionary + forces. Soldiers sometimes went hungry in this as in all other + wars, but the condition was local and temporary. It occurred + because of transportation difficulties during periods of active + fighting or rapid movement when the units outran their rolling + kitchens. + + In France American engineers built seventeen new ship berths + and 1,000 miles of standard and 125 miles of narrow gauge + railroads. The Signal Corps strung 100,000 miles of telephone + wires, and 40,000 American made motor trucks were shipped + overseas. In this country army construction projects cost + twice as much as the Panama Canal and were on nearly as large a + scale overseas. + +The storage space constructed in France was more than nine-tenths as +large as that built at home. The amount of food on hand from the time +the American troops entered active fighting never fell below a 45 days' +supply, and at the time of the submarine scare, was kept at 59 to 72 +days' supply. + +Likewise the supply of clothing arose to the emergency of combat. + + "The records of the quartermaster show that during the six + months of hard fighting, from June to November, the enlisted + man in the A. E. F. received on the average: + + "Slicker and overcoat, every 5 months; blanket, flannel shirt, + and breeches, every 2 months; coat, every 79 days; shoes and + puttees, every 51 days; drawers and undershirt, every 34 days; + woolen socks, every 23 days." + + +GUNS AND MUNITIONS + +When war was declared we had on hand nearly 600,000 Springfield rifles. +The American Enfield rifle was designed and manufactured. The total +production of the two up to the signing of the armistice was over +2,500,000. The production of rifle ammunition amounted to 3,500,000,000, +of which half was shipped overseas, in addition to the 200,000,000 +rounds secured from the French and British. + + During the war the Browning automatic rifle and the Browning + machine gun were developed, put into quantity production and + used in large numbers in the final battles in France. Before + the war the allowance of machine guns in the American Army was + four guns to a regiment; the allowance now is 336 to a + regiment, testimony to the demonstrated importance in war of + that effective weapon. The Browning machine guns are believed + to be more effective than the corresponding weapons used in any + other army. + + The total number of machine guns produced in America up to the + end of 1918 was 226,557, of these 69,960 being of the light + Browning and 56,612 of the heavy Browning type. The Vickers + field machine guns produced totaled 12,125, the other field + guns 6,366, the Lewis aircraft guns, 39,200, the Browning + aircraft 580, the Marlin aircraft 38,000, and the Vickers + aircraft 3,714. Before Nov. 1, 1918, 29,000 light Brownings, + 27,000 heavy Brownings, and 1,500,000,000 rounds of rifle and + machine-gun ammunition were shipped. + + When war was declared the United States had sufficient light + artillery to equip an army of 500,000 men, and shortly found + itself confronted with the problem of preparing to equip + 5,000,000 men. To meet the situation, it was decided in June, + 1917, to allot our guns to training purposes and to equip our + forces in France with artillery conforming to the French and + British standard calibers. It was arranged that we should + purchase from the French and British the artillery needed for + our first divisions and ship them in return equivalent amounts + of steel, copper and other raw materials so that they could + either manufacture guns for us in their own factories or give + us guns out of their stocks and replace them by new ones made + from our materials. + + Up to the end of April, 1919, the number of complete artillery + units produced in American plants was more than 3,000, or equal + to all those purchased from the French and British during the + war. The number of rounds of complete artillery ammunition + produced in American plants was in excess of 20,000,000, as + compared with 10,000,000 rounds secured from the French and + British. In the first twenty months after the declaration of + war by each country, the British did better than we did in the + production of light artillery, and we excelled them in + producing heavy artillery and both light and heavy shells. + + +THE ARTILLERY SUPPLY + +Colonel Ayres says: + + "The most important single fact about our artillery in France + is that we always had a sufficient supply of light artillery + for the combat divisions that were ready for front-line + service. This does not mean that when the divisions went into + the battle line they always had their artillery with them, for + in a number of cases they did not. + + "The result of the compilation is to show that in every 100 + days that our combat divisions were in line they were supported + by their own artillery for seventy-five days, by British + artillery for five days, by French for one and one-half days, + and were without artillery for eighteen and one-half days out + of the 100. Of these eighteen and one-half days, however, + eighteen days were in quiet sectors and only one-half of one + day in each hundred was in active sectors. There are only three + records of American divisions being in an active sector without + artillery support. The total of these three cases amounts to + one-half of 1 per cent., or about fourteen hours out of the + typical 100 days just analyzed. + + "The facts can be summarized in round numbers with approximate + accuracy by saying that we had in France 3,500 pieces of + artillery of which nearly 500 were made in America, and we used + on the firing line 2,250, of which over 100 were made in + America." + + +THE CAMPAIGN OF 1919 + +At the conclusion of his chapter on rifles and machine guns Colonel +Ayres has an interesting bit of semi-critical comment on the question +of foresight, of which some desk-experts have been inclined to doubt the +United States authorities were possessed. He says: + + "At this point it is appropriate to comment on the fact that + there are many articles of munitions in which American + production reached great amounts by the fall of 1918 but which + were not used in large quantities at the front because the + armistice was signed before big supplies of them reached + France. In the main, these munitions are articles of ordnance + and aviation equipment, involving such technical difficulties + of manufacture that their production could not be improvised or + even greatly abbreviated in time. + + "As the production figures are scrutinized in retrospect, and + it is realized that many millions of dollars were spent on army + equipment that was never used at the front, it seems fair to + question whether prudent foresight could not have avoided some + of this expense. + + "Perhaps the best answer to the question is to be found in the + record of a conference that took place in the little French + town of Trois Fontaines on October 4, 1918, between Marshal + Foch and the American Secretary of War. + + "In that conference the Allied Commander-in-Chief made final + arrangements with the American Secretary as to the shipment of + American troops and munitions in great numbers during the fall + and winter preparatory for the campaign of 1919. + + "This was one day before the first German peace note and 38 + days before the end of the war, but Marshal Foch was then + calling upon America to make her great shipments of munitions + and her supreme contribution of man-power for the campaign of + the following year." + + +GAS AND EXPLOSIVES + +One of the striking contributions to the cause of the Allies was the +enormous quantity of smokeless powder and high explosives produced. From +April 1, 1917, to November 11, 1918, the production of smokeless powder +in the United States was 632,000,000 pounds, which was almost equal to +the combined production of France and Great Britain. But by the time the +war ended the production of smokeless powder in this country was 45 per +cent. greater than that of France and Great Britain combined. + +The output of high explosives, T.N.T. and others, increased rapidly from +its pre-war status to a quantity 40 percent. greater than that of Great +Britain, and nearly double the French production at the close of the +war. + + "The result of the high rate of production of both smokeless + powder and high explosives was that the artillery ammunition + program was never held up for lack of either the powder which + hurls the bullet or the shell from the gun, or the high + explosive which makes the shell effective when it reaches its + destination." + +Colonel Ayres says of toxic gases: + + "When the clouds of chlorine suddenly enveloped the British and + French lines in the Ypres salient, early in 1915, a new weapon + was introduced into the war. That it was a powerful weapon is + evidenced by the fact that during the year 1918 from 20 to 30 + percent. of all our battle casualties were due to gas. + + "At the time we entered the war we had practically no + experience in manufacturing toxic gases, and no existing + facilities which could be readily converted to such use. At the + signing of the armistice we were equipped to produce gas at a + more rapid rate than France, England, or Germany." + + +THE AIR SERVICE + + "On the declaration of war the United States had fifty-five + training airplanes, of which fifty-one were classified as + obsolete and the other four as obsolescent. When we entered the + war the Allies made the designs of their planes available to us + and before the end of hostilities furnished us from their own + manufacture 3,800 service planes. + + "Aviation training schools in the United States graduated 8,602 + men from elementary courses and 4,028 from advanced courses. + More than 5,000 pilots and observers were sent overseas. The + total personnel of the Air Service, officers, students, and + enlisted men, increased from 1,200 at the outbreak of the war + to nearly 200,000 at its close. + + "There were produced in the United States to Nov. 30, 1918, + more than 8,000 training planes and more than 16,000 training + engines. + + "The De Haviland-4 observation and day bombing plane was the + only plane the United States put into quantity production. + Before the signing of the armistice 3,227 had been completed + and 1,885 shipped overseas. The plane was successfully used at + the front for three months. + + "The production of the 12-cylinder Liberty engine was America's + chief contribution to aviation. Before the armistice 13,574 had + been completed, 4,435 shipped to the expeditionary forces, and + 1,025 delivered to the Allies. + + "The first fliers in action wearing the American uniforms were + members of the Lafayette Escadrille, who were transferred to + the American service in December, 1917. + + "The American air force at the front grew from 3 squadrons in + April to 45 in November, 1918. On Nov. 11 the 45 squadrons had + an equipment of 740 planes. + + "Of 2,698 planes sent to the zone of the advance for American + aviators 667, or nearly one-fourth, were of American + manufacture. + + "American air squadrons played important roles in the battles of + Chateau-Thierry, St. Mihiel, and the Meuse-Argonne. They brought + down in combat 755 enemy planes, while their own losses of planes + numbered only 357." + + "The squadrons were of four types: Observation squadrons, whose + business it is to make observations, take photographs, and + direct artillery fire; pursuit squadrons, using light fighting + planes to protect the observation planes at their work, to + drive the enemy from the air, or to _strafe_ marching columns + by machine-gun fire; the day bombers, whose work was the + dropping of bombs on railways or roads; and the night bombers, + carrying heavier bomb loads for the destruction of strategic + enemy works." + +[Illustration: _Official Government Statistics_ + +Production of Training Planes and Engines to the End of Each Month] + +At the armistice there were on the front 20 pursuit squadrons, 18 +observation squadrons and 7 bomber squadrons with 1,238 flying officers +and 740 service planes, in addition to which there were 23 balloon +companies. + + +CARGO SHIPMENTS + +Altogether, from our entrance into the war through April, 1919, the Army +shipped from this side of the Atlantic nearly seven and a half million +tons (7,500,000) of cargo. + +Included in the cargo shipment were 1,791 consolidation locomotives of +the 100-ton type. Of these, 650 were shipped, set up on their own wheels +so that they could be unloaded in France and run off in a few hours +under their own steam. + +The Army also shipped 26,994 standard-gauge freight cars; motor car +trucks to the number of 47,018, and rails and fittings for the +reinforcing of French railways and for the construction of our own lines +of communications to the aggregate of 423,000 tons. The Army also +shipped 68,694 horses and mules. + + +SIGNAL CORPS STATISTICS + +In order to operate the transportation of supplies in France the Signal +Corps strung its wires over nearly every part of that country. At the +end of the war the Signal Corps was operating 282 telephone exchanges +and 133 complete telegraph stations. The telephone lines numbered +14,956, reaching 8,959 stations. More than 100,000 miles of wire had +been strung. The peak load of operation reached was 47,555 telegrams a +day, averaging 60 words each. + +[Illustration: _Official Government Statistics_ + +Number of Battle Aeroplanes in Each Army at the Date of the Armistice] + + +CONSTRUCTION STATISTICS + +In building factories and storage warehouses for supplies as well as +housing for troops, 200,000 workmen in the United States were kept +continuously occupied for the period of the war. + +The operations of the Construction Division constituted what was +probably the largest contracting business ever handled in one office. +The total expenditures in this enterprise to November 11, 1918, were +about $800,000,000. + +Construction projects were conducted in France by the Corps of Engineers +under the services of supplies. Up to the signing of the armistice these +projects had been undertaken to the number of 831, distributed all over +France. To economize tonnage, materials were obtained in Europe as far +as possible. The Engineer Corps ran its own quarries, and its own +logging camps and saw-mills. The labor force consisted largely of +American soldiers and German prisoners, though French and English +civilians and Chinese coolies were used wherever available. + + +TWO HUNDRED DAYS OF BATTLE + +Of our combat forces Colonel Ayres says: + + "Two out of every three American soldiers who reached France + took part in battle. The number who reached France was + 2,086,000, and of these 1,390,000 saw active service in the + front line. + + "American combat forces were organized into divisions, which + consisted of some 28,000 officers and men. These divisions were + the largest on the Western front, since the British division + numbered about 15,000 and those of the French and Germans about + 12,000 each. There were sent overseas 42 American divisions and + several hundred thousand supplementary artillery and service of + supply troops. + + "Of the 42 divisions that reached France 29 took part in active + combat service, while the others were used for replacements or + were just arriving during the last month of hostilities. The + battle record of the United States Army in this war is largely + the history of these 29 combat divisions. Seven of them were + Regular Army divisions, 11 were organized from the National + Guard, and 11 were made up of National Army troops. + + "American combat divisions were in battle for 200 days, from + the 25th of April, 1918, when the first Regular division after + long training in quiet sectors, entered an active sector on the + Picardy front, until the signing of the armistice. During these + 200 days they were engaged in 13 major operations, of which 11 + were joint enterprises with the French, British, and Italians, + and 2 were distinctively American. + + "At the time of their greatest activity in the second week of + October all 29 American divisions were in action. They then + held 101 miles of front, or 23 percent. of the entire allied + battle line. From the middle of August until the end of the war + they held, during the greater part of the time a front longer + than that held by the British. Their strength tipped the + balance of man-power in favor of the Allies, so that from the + middle of June, 1918, to the end of the war the Allied forces + were superior in numbers to those of the enemy." + +[Illustration: Our Flag in Alsace + +A scene in Alsace after the armistice when American doughboys occupied a +small town. They were welcomed there by the inhabitants.] + +The total battle advances of the American divisions amounted to 782 +kilometers, or 485 miles, an average advance for each division of 17 +miles, nearly all of it against desperate enemy resistance. They +captured 63,000 prisoners, 1,378 pieces of artillery, 708 trench +mortars, and 9,650 machine guns. In June and July they helped to shatter +the enemy advance toward Paris, and to turn retreat into a triumphant +offensive. + +It is stated in reference to the part played by the American divisions +in the Argonne-Meuse that it was the 77th Division of New York selective +draft men that achieved the greatest advance against the enemy--71-1/2 +kilometers, or nearly 45 miles. + +In that battle the American Army captured 16,059 prisoners, liberated +150 French towns and villages, and as an army penetrated 34 miles into +territory previously held by the Germans. + + +THE DEADLIEST WAR + +In his chapter on "Health and Casualties," Colonel Ayres reminds us that +"the war was undoubtedly the bloodiest that has ever been fought." The +total battle deaths is given as 7,450,200. Russia led the death list +with 1,700,000; Germany came next with 1,600,000; France next with +1,385,300; Great Britain next with 900,000; Austria, 800,000; Italy, +364,000; Turkey, 250,000; Serbia and Montenegro, 125,000; Belgium, +102,000; Rumania and Bulgaria 100,000 each; the United States, 50,300; +Greece, 7,000; Portugal, 2,000. + +Of every 100 American soldiers and sailors who took part, 2 were killed +or died of disease during the period of hostilities. Among the other +nations between 20 and 25 in every 100 were killed or died. + +The total deaths were greater than all the deaths in all wars for more +than one hundred years previous. In the above figures only deaths +resulting directly from action are included. The total deaths from all +causes is very much larger. Some of the armies lost more heavily through +disease and privation than from battle. With regard to civilians' deaths +due to the war, see Volume XII. + +[Illustration: Secretary of War Baker Drawing Registration Numbers + +The head of the War Department is drawing for the first capsule after +the registration of young men who have become of age in the past year. +All told 24,000,000 names were registered in the draft. + +National Service Magazine] + + + + +INDEX + + + A + + Abbas Hilmi, Khedive of Egypt, pro-Turkish attitude, vi: 68. + + Abbatiale Farm, captured by 28th Div., Oct. 4, '18, v: 239. + + Abbeville agreement, + on U. S. military participation in War, v: 128, 284; + text, v: 378. + + Abi Dinas, Sudanese leader, defeated at Eli Tasher, iii: 191. + + Abo, occupied by Germans, Mar. 16, '18, i: 395. + + _Aboukir_, British cruiser, + sunk by _U-9_, Sept. 22, '14, iv: 205, x: 274-280, xi: 234. + + Absinthe, sale forbidden in France, Jan. 7, '15, i: 378. + + Acceleration, in projectiles, viii: 111. + + Achi Baba, + key to southern Gallipoli, iii: 170; + _see also_ Gallipoli Campaign. + + Acre, taken by British, Sept. 23, '18, iii: 199. + + Activism, Swedish pro-German movement, vi: 394. + + Adana, British objective in Turkish campaigns, ii: 90. + + Adler, Friedrich, + kills Austrian Premier, Count Carl Stuergkh, Oct. 21, '16, vi: 312. + + Adkinson, Sgt. Joseph B., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395. + + _Admiral Charner_, + French cruiser torpedoed, Feb. 13, '16, i: 384. + + Ador, Gustave, becomes head of Swiss Foreign Office, vi: 380. + + Adramyti, Gulf of, British bombard Turks, Mar. 3, '15, iv: 44. + + Adrian barracks, description, v: 8. + + Adriatic coast, disputed territory between Latin and Slav, vi: 359. + + Advisory Labor Council, U. S., activities, xii: 71. + + A. E. G. bombing airplanes, viii: 221. + + Aerial photography, + in range-finding, ii: 126, viii: 14; + gun cameras, description, viii: 216; + value, viii: 226, 331; + difficulties, viii: 228; + U. S. photographers in War, viii: 228-235; + future, viii: 234; + _see also_ Photography. + + Aeronautics: + + Airplanes, + conditions for effectiveness, ii: 123; + use of depth bombs by, iv: 332; + torpedo planes, iv: 335; + number shot down by U. S. pilots, v: 309; + as war weapon, viii: _Intro._, xi: 214; + detection by sound-rangers, viii: 20; + machine-gun mountings on, types, viii: 86, 189-192, 196, 208-216; + Allied and German equipment at start of War, viii: 189; + Farman plane, viii: 189; + utility in scouting, viii: 189; + Albatross pursuit planes, viii: 192; + Nieuport scout planes, viii: 192; + Allied and German types compared, viii: 194; + Spad biplanes, viii: 194; + general utility planes, viii: 196; + Gotha biplanes, viii: 196; + Handley-Page bombers, viii: 196, 204, 223; + aero engines, development of, viii: 198-200; + Liberty motor, viii: 199; + construction, essentials in, viii: 200; + maneuvering, types of, viii: 200; + Allied strength at end of war, viii: 201; + French types, viii: 202, 206; + British types, viii: 203-206; + British planes, viii: 203; + D. H. 10 British bombers, viii: 204; + German equipment, viii: 206; + pre-War record flights, viii: 206; + national supremacy, viii: 207; + machine-gun fire synchronizer, viii: 208; + aerial marksmanship, viii: 210; + "C. C. Gear," for timing gunfire through propeller blades, + viii: 214-216; + navigating instruments, viii: 217-221; + bombing planes, types, viii: 221-224; + A. E. G. bombing planes, viii: 221; + Gotha bombers, viii: 221; + Lizenz bombing planes, viii: 222; + Caproni triplanes, viii: 223; + Caudron bombers, viii: 223; + Letord bombers, viii: 223; + Voisin bombers, viii: 223; + Breguet bombers, viii: 224; + spruce in aircraft construction, viii: 308; + signals for landing in dark, viii: 335; + value in directing artillery fire, viii: 337, xi: 277; + ambulance planes, viii: 379; + U. S., in War, xi: 218; + development, xi: 219; + use against submarines, xi: 239; + commercial uses, xii: 103. + Aviators, + duties, iii: 392; + kinds of patrol, iii: 392; + fitness test by orientator, viii: 356-358; + qualifications, xi: 215. + Balloons, + development for war use, iv: 288; + in naval operations, iv: 289; + number shot down by U. S. pilots, v: 309; + functions and handling of captive balloons, viii: 257-264; + parachutes, use by military balloonists, viii: 260-263; + hydrogen, use in inflation of, viii: 263. + + Dirigibles, + use in coast patrol, iv: 290; + compared with airplanes, viii: 241-245; + in long-distance transportation, viii: 243-245; + British types, viii: 245; + _R-34_, description, viii: 245, 254; + _R-34_, crosses Atlantic, viii: 245; + U. S. types, viii: 245, 255-257; + U. S. "Blimps," viii: 245, 255-257; + U. S. C-class, viii: 245, 255-257; + mooring masts, viii: 245; + development in different countries, viii: 254; + _R-33_, sister ship of _R-34_, viii: 254; + Zeppelins, _see below_ under Aeronautics. + Navigation, + rules for, Peace Treaty provisions, xii: 246. + Observation, + in range-finding, ii: 126, viii: 13, 337, xi: 277; + uses of captive balloons, viii: 257-264; + utility in War, xi: 216. + Seaplanes, + in battle of Jutland, iv: 107; + for submarine spotting, iv: 285; + U. S. _N-C-4_ first to cross Atlantic, iv: 288, viii: 240; + N-C flying boats, description, viii: 236-240. + Zeppelins, + progress in construction, '14--'18, viii: 241; + use during War, viii: 246-248; + description, viii: 248-254; + number in crew, viii: 254. + _See also_ under each country. + + Aeroplane, see Aeronautics, Airplane. + + Afghanistan, + put outside Russian sphere by Anglo-Russian agreement, '07, i: 104; + friendly to England during War, vi: 78; + changed attitude toward British, '19, vi: 80; + border warfare with India, '19, vi: 81. + + Africa, + dark continent, i: 10; + European penetration, i: 48; + "spheres of influence," i: 96. + + African campaigns, iii: 250-256; + tropical peculiarities, iii: 250; + German handicaps, iii: 252; + operations in Cameroons (Kamerun), iii: 252; + in Togoland, iii: 252; + in German Southwest Africa, iii: 253; + in German East Africa, iii: 255. + + Agadir incident, + Germany creates Moroccan crisis, July, '11, i: 104, 203. + + _Agamemnon_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31; + hit by gunfire, iv: 43. + + Agram, + suppression of Jugoslav National Congress at, Mar., '18, vi: 363. + + Ahmed Fevzi, Turkish commander at Erzerum, iii: 262. + + Aincreville, captured by 90th Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 262. + + Air raids, + Ludendorff's plan to burn Allied capitals, ii: 333; + use of Zeppelins in, viii: 246; + success of, xi: 216; + on: + England, + Aug. 9, '15, i: 381; + Aug. 17, '15, i: 381; + Sept. 8, '15, i: 381; + Oct. 13, '15, i: 382; + Jan. 31, '16, i: 384; + Mar. 1, '16, i: 384; + Mar. 5, '16, i: 384; + Mar. 19, '16, i: 384; + Apr. 1--3, '16, i: 385; + Apr. 24, '16, i: 385; + Aug. 9, '16, i: 386; + Sept. 23, '16, i: 388; + Sept. 25, '16, i: 388; + Oct. 1, '16, i: 388; + attacks on undefended coast towns, ii: 266, vi: 4; + first attack on London, iii: 41. + Paris, + Jan. 30, '16, i: 384; + Mar. 11, '18, i: 395. + + Air Speed Indicator, for airplanes, viii: 220. + + Aircraft, _see_ Aeronautics. + + Aire valley, description, v: 73; + scene of action in Meuse-Argonne offensive, v: 225. + + Airships, _see_ Aeronautics. + + Aisne, battles of: + Sept., '14, i: 375, 376, iii: 36. + Apr.--Nov., '17, iii: 73-76; + French start offensive, iii: 73; + early French success, iii: 73; + battle for Chemin des Dames, iii: 73; + Germans driven from Chemin des Dames, iii: 76. + May 27--June 5, '18, iii: 92-95, v: 129-135; + situation before German offensive, iii: 92; + Soissons-Rheims salient, iii: 93; + Germans cross Vesle River, iii: 93; + Soissons captured by Germans, May 29, iii: 93; + Chateau-Thierry captured by Germans, June 1, iii: 93; + Germans reach Marne, iii: 93; + American troops check enemy, iii: 94. + + Aisne-Marne offensive, v: 130, 158-183; + artillery, important feature, v: 171; + A. E. F. casualties, v: 179, 181. + + Aisne-Meuse sector, + Franco-American offensive, Nov, 1--11, '18, iii: 103. + + Aisne-Ourcq sector, struck by Foch, '18, ii: 84. + + Aix-les-Bains, A. E. F. leave area, "Y" work in, vii: 269. + + Akabah, occupied by British, Nov. 3, '14, i: 376. + + Ala, captured by Italians, May 29, '15, iii: 234. + + Aland Island, occupied by Germans, Nov. 9, '17, i: 392. + + Alaska, acquisition by U. S., i: 52. + + Albania, + primitiveness of people, i: 92; + William of Wied becomes ruler, i: 206; + Allied offensive in, July, '18, i: 397; + Serbians retreat into, iii: 160; + Italy takes possession, Dec. '14, vi: 120; + promised to Italy, '15, vi: 361. + + Albatross pursuit planes, viii: 192. + + Albert, + captured by British, ii: 157, iii: 98; + captured by Germans in second Somme battle, iii: 89. + + Albert, Dr. Heinrich, German propagandist in U. S., i: 133, x: 327. + + Albert, King of Belgians, biography, ix: 385-391, xi: 128-131. + + _Albert of Belgium_, + poem by Dana Burnet, i: 228; + by Dorothy S. Phillips, ix: 391. + + _Albion_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31. + + Albrecht, Grand Duke of Wuerttemberg, army commands, ii: 184, iii: 10. + + _Alcantara_, + British armed liner, sinks German _Greif_, iv: 200. + + _Alcedo_, American ship torpedoed, Nov. 6, '17, i: 392. + + Aldis Optical Sight, use in aerial marksmanship, viii: 211. + + Aleppo, captured by British, Oct. 25, '18, iii: 200. + + Alexander, Crown Prince of Serbia, + re-enters Belgrade, Dec. 15, '14, iii: 397; + foreign policy, vi: 355; + head of united Jugoslavs, vi: 366. + + Alexanderson alternator, + for generation of radio waves, viii: 316-318. + + Alexandria, captured by Germans, Nov., '16, i: 389, iii: 222. + + Alexieff, Gen. Michael Vassilivitch, + commands Russian forces in Poland, iii: 140; + biography, ix: 238. + + Algeciras Conference, '06, i: 86, 99, 203. + + Algeria, French occupation of, i: 37. + + _Algonquin_, + American steamer sunk by U-boat, Mar. 2, '17, i: 349. + + All-American (82nd) Division, _see_ U. S., Army. + + All-Russian Congress of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates, + convention of, '17, vi: 164. + + All-Russian Government of Siberia, + formation, vi: 191; + collapse, vi: 193. + + Allen, Corp. Jake, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396. + + Allen, Maj.-Gen. Henry T., + commands 90th Div., v: 196; + in St. Mihiel drive, v: 202. + + Allenby, Gen. Sir Edmund H. H., + British commander in Palestine, ii: 90, iii: 193; + defeats Turks, ii: 92, 218, v: 213; + captures Jerusalem, ii: 92, iii: 322, xi: 48; + strategy of Palestine campaign, ii: 93; + at first battle of Ypres, ii: 171; + commands British cavalry at Mons retreat, iii: 25; + biography, ix: 194-199. + + Allenstein, + Russians defeated at, Aug. 26, '14, i: 375; + occupied by Russians, iii: 111. + + Alliances, Holy Alliance, + formation, i: 33; + conflict of European, i: 93-101; + Three Emperors' League, i: 95; + Triple Alliance, i: 95, 208, 255, ii: 4, 48, vi: 115; + Entente Cordiale, between France and Russia, i: 98; + Triple Entente, i: 98, 103, 106, 146, 218, 220, ii: 2; + Anglo-Japanese, '05, '11, i: 104, 107; + Balkan League, i: 204; + _see also_ under name of alliance. + + Allied Home for Munition Workers, vii: 108. + + Allies, superiority in inventiveness, i: _Intro. ix_; + agree not to make separate peace, i: 146; + defensive policy compared with German aggression, ii: 1; + lack unity of command, ii: 22, 40, 58, 230, iii: 55; + unsuccessful in all theaters of War during '15, ii: 36, 50; + unite command under Foch, ii: 40, 218, v: 120, 214; + man-power, ii: 82, 115, 154, iii: 403; + "Will to win" _vs._ German efficiency, ii: 100; + underestimate German strength, ii: 101; + propaganda among German troops, ii: 321; + plan of campaign against German invasion of France, iii: 8; + Balkan blunder, iii: 156; + fail to support Rumania, iii: 214; + casualties, iii: 404; + prisoners of war, iii: 404; + war aims, iv: 6; + military position, '17, iv: 10; + lack aggressive plan in Mediterranean, iv: 13; + gain superiority in air for first time, Sept., '18, v: 206; + make simultaneous attacks on all fronts, Sept., '18, v: 213; + appeal for U. S. troops, v: 373-375, 378; + secret treaty with Italy, Apr., '15, vi: 122, 361; + send troops to Russia, vi: 187; + intervene in Siberia, vi: 192; + intervene in Austria, '19, vi: 320; + occupy Hungary, '19, vi: 325; + secret treaties, '16--'17, dispose of Asiatic Turkey, vi: 334; + overcome German superiority in artillery, viii: 36; + war cost, xii: 27, 107; + plan of economic boycott against Germany, xii: 102; + rise in national debts, xii: 114; + list of "Allied and Associated Powers" against Germany, xii: 179. + + Allworth, Capt. Edward S., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 391. + + Almereyda, traitorous editor of _Bonnet Rouge_, vi: 105. + + _Alnwick Castle_, + British ship sunk without warning, Mar. 19, '17, iv: 230. + + Alpini, description, ii: 242. + + Alsace-Lorraine, early history, i: 210-212; + annexed by Germany, 1871, i: 212; + formed into _Reichsland_, i: 213; + German dictatorship in, i: 213; + fidelity to France during War, i: 215; + German immigration into, i: 215; + German constitution for, '11, i: 215; + French invasion of, during War, i: 375, 376, iii: 14-21; + Peace Treaty provisions for return to France, xii: 194-197; + exempt from share in German national debt, xii: 226. + + Altimeter, airplane altitude indicator, viii: 220. + + Altkirch, taken by French Aug. 7, '14, iii: 16. + + Alvensleben, G. C. A. von, + German financier and spy, sensational career, x: 363-368. + + _Amalfi_, Italian cruiser sunk by Austrian U-boat, + July 7, '15, i: 380, iv: 369. + + Amara, taken by British, May, '15, iii: 181. + + Ambrine, use in treatment of burns, viii: 290. + + Ambulance, first use, vii: 9; + Red Cross companies, location, vii: 30-31; + difficulties of transporting wounded, viii: 376; + improved types of stretchers, viii: 377; + drawn by dogs, viii: 379; + airplane ambulances, viii: 379; + hospital trains, viii: 380; + perils of driving, x: 92. + + American Committee for Armenian and Syrian Relief, vii: 92. + + American Committee for Devastated France, vii: 92. + + American Committee for Relief of Belgian Prisoners in Germany, + vii: 88. + + American Escadrille, _see_ Lafayette Escadrille. + + A. E. F., _see_ U. S., Army. + + American Fund for French Wounded, vii: 89. + + American Jewish Committee, relief for Belgium, vii: 350; + relief for Palestine, vii: 350; + organization, vii: 354. + + American Relief Administration, + for feeding newly liberated peoples, xii: 141; + Herbert Hoover director-general, xii: 141. + + American Students' Committee of Ecole des Beaux Arts, vii: 108. + + American Women's War Relief Fund, vii: 89, 91. + + Amerongen, residence of Kaiser after abdication, vi: 278. + + Ames, Winthrop, helps start Over-There Theater League, vii: 339. + + Amiens, strategic importance, ii: 69; + German attacks on, unsuccessful, Apr., '18, ii: 152, 314, iii: 389; + British offensive, Aug. 8, '18, ii: 281. + + Aminullah Khan, + murders father and succeeds to throne of Afghanistan, vi: 81. + + Ammunition: + Bullets, component parts, viii: 1; + steel-piercing, viii: 60-64; + Clay armor-piercing, description, viii: 60-63; + advantages of sharp-nosed, viii: 93; + types used in aerial fighting, viii: 211-214; + U. S. war output of rifle ammunition, xii: 284. + Explosives, function, viii: 1; + detonation compared with explosion, viii: 1; + explosive _compound_ and explosive _mixture_ compared, viii: 2; + black powder, viii: 2; + guncotton, viii: 2; + nitrogen necessary in, viii: 2; + driving power of gunpowder, viii: 2; + smokeless powder, viii: 4; + primers, viii: 6; + composition and properties of different kinds, viii: 6; + cordite, viii: 6; + trinitrotoluol (T.N.T.), viii: 6; + ballistic tests, viii: 7; + muzzle flash, viii: 7; + manufacture, xi: 282-284; + U. S. war production of smokeless powder, xii: 285; + of high explosives, xii: 285; + of T.N.T., xii: 285. + Shells, high explosive, compared with shrapnel, ii: 288; + non-ricochet, iv: 333; + star, iv: 334, viii: 77; + gas, U. S. production, v: 324; + kinds, viii: 8; + used by U. S. 3-in. field guns, viii: 23; + structure of "Big Bertha" shells, viii: 46; + illuminating shells and bombs, viii: 74; + rifle lights, viii: 75; + reason for rotating motion in flight, viii: 110; + forces determining path of flight, viii: 111-112; + computation of air resistance, viii: 113; + U. S. war production of artillery ammunition, xii: 284; + shrapnel, _see below_. + Shrapnel, compared with high explosive shell, ii: 287; + invention, viii: 72; + description, viii: 72; + manufacture, viii: 72-74. + + Amputation, new method of, viii: 367. + + Anatolia, area, xii: 279; + population, xii: 279. + + Anatolian Railway Co., gets concessions in Turkey, 1888, ii: 292. + + _Ancona_, + Austria-Hungary promises reparation for sinking, i: 326, 384; + controversy between U. S. and Austria-Hungary over sinking, + summary, i: 361; + torpedoed by Austrian U-boat, i: 382, iv: 223. + + Ancre sector, British offensive, ii: 212, iii: 64, 66. + + Anderson, Sgt. Johannes S., + gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396. + + Andrassy, Count Julius, + member Hungarian Independence Party, vii: 311; + statement on Communist Government, vii: 328. + + Andrews, Brig.-Gen. Avery D., + Chief of G-1, G. H. Q., A. E. F., Sept., '17, v: 102. + + Anglo-French Loan, floated in U. S., xii: 111. + + Annunzio, Gabriele D', _see_ D'Annunzio. + + Anti-aircraft guns, range, ii: 264; + effectiveness, v: 308. + + Anti-din compound, amount issued by U. S. Army, v: 324. + + _Antilles_, + U. S. transport torpedoed, Oct. 17, '17, i: 392, iv: 337; + eye-witness account, iv: 337. + + Antioch, captured by British, Jan. 30, '18, i: 393. + + Antivari, surrender to Austrians, Jan. 20, '16, i: 384. + + Antwerp, Belgian Government moves to, Aug. 17, '14, i: 375; + captured by Germans, Oct. 8, '14, i: 376, ii: 143, 168, iii: 15; + strategic value controlled by Dutch, vi: 375. + + Anzac Cove, + landing place of British troops at Gallipoli, ii: 30, iii: 170. + + Anzacs, _see_ Gallipoli Campaign. + + Apponyi, Count Albert, advocates war, vi: 307; + leader of Hungarian Independence Party, vi: 311. + + Apremont, location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199; + captured by 28th Div., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229. + + Arabia, revolt against Turkey, iii: 196, vi: 333. + + _Arabia_, British steamer sunk by U-boat, Nov. 6, '16, i: 334. + + _Arabic_, + British steamer sunk by U-boat, Aug. 19, '15, + i: 323, 381, iv: 223, xi: 20; + loss of life in sinking, i: 323; + controversy between U. S. and Germany on sinking, summary, i: 361. + + Arabs, with Turkish forces invading Egypt, iii: 190. + + Arbitration, Tribunal established by First Hague Conference, i: 94; + international treaties of, i: 103. + + Archangel, Allies land forces at, Apr. 21, '18, i: 395; + limited value as port, iii: 161; + A. E. F. sent to fight Bolsheviki, v: 394, vi: 187. + + Archangel, Mt., French attack Bulgars, Nov. 9--19, '15, iii: 204. + + Ardahan, Turks defeated by Russians at, Jan. 3--4, '15, i: 378. + + Ardennes, strategic importance, ii: 6; + topography, ii: 87, v: 73; + French retire from, Aug., '14, iii: 20. + + Arditi, description, ii: 240. + + _Arethusa_, British cruiser sunk by mine, Feb. 14, '16, i: 384; + in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240; + sinks German _Bluecher_ at Dogger Bank, iv: 247. + + Argentine, German population of, i: 79; + ultimatum to Germany, Sept. 22, '17, i: 390; + neutrality, vi: 389; + soviet riots, '19, vi: 389. + + Arges River, Rumanian stand at, iii: 222. + + Argonne Forest, military topography, v: 73, 217, 234; + battle of, _see_ Meuse-Argonne Offensive. + + _Ariadne_, + German cruiser in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240; + sunk, iv: 241. + + Arietal Farm, taken by 26th Inf., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240. + + _Ark Royal_, + mother-ship for British aircraft at Gallipoli, iv: 43. + + Armaments, international movement for reduction, i: _Intro. xi_; + battleships, xi: 280-282. + + Armenia, military operations in, iii: 260-263; + massacres in, by Turks, iii: 405, vi: 331; + early history, vi: 231; + fate under secret treaties of '16--'17, vi: 334; + independent government established. Aug., '18, xii: 279; + area, xii: 279; + population, xii: 279. + + Armenian and Syrian Relief, American Committee for, vii: 92. + + Armentieres, + occupied by Germans, Apr., '18, i: 395, ii: 75, iii: 359; + recaptured by British, Oct. 2, 18, i: 399, iii: 101. + + Armies, _see under_ name of country. + + Armies of Occupation, + Allied, expense to be paid by Germany, xii: 226; + conditions for withdrawal, xii: 261. + + Armistice, with Bulgaria, Sept. 30, '18, i: 399, vi: 347; + with Germany, Nov. 11, '18, + i: 399, iii: 402, iv: 142-144, v: 391, vi: 271, xi: 54; + false report in U. S., of signing, Nov. 7, i: 399, iii: 400; + terms extended, Dec. 11, '18, i: 399; + with Austria-Hungary, Nov. 3, '18, iii: 400; + celebrations, iii: 402; + with Turkey, Oct. 31, '18, vi: 334. + + Armor, use in modern warfare, viii: 59, 69. + + Army Educational Commission, American Y. M. C. A., vii: 282. + + Army of Occupation, _see_ U. S., Army. + + Army schools, U. S., _see_ U. S., Army. + + Arnim, Gen. von, commander 6th German Army Corps, iii: 14; + launches last attack on Ypres, iii: 360. + + Arras, battle of, Apr., '17, ii: 341, iii: 70-72; + Vimy Ridge captured by Canadians, iii: 70; + British capture "Oppy Line," iii: 72; + German casualties, iii: 72; + results, iii: 72. + + Arras-Roye sector, British offensive, Mar., '17, iii: 68. + + Arsiero, captured by Austrians, May 28, '16, i: 385, iii: 238; + retaken by Italians, June 27, '16, i: 386. + + Artificial eyes, for war blind, viii: 391. + + Artificial limbs, for war cripples, viii: 384-390. + + Artillery: + Anti-aircraft, v: 308. + Bore, explained, viii: 7, 111; + bore pressure in modern guns, viii: 7; + rifling, viii: 7, 111. + Durability, viii: 7, 26, xi: 280. + Field, French 75-mm. gun, ii: 287; + German and Austrian, viii: 22; + structure and operation, viii: 22; + U. S. pre-War equipment, viii: 22-25; + U. S. 3-in. gun, viii: 23; + U. S. 2.95-in. mountain gun, viii: 24; + U. S. 4.7-in. gun, viii: 24; + development of light guns to accompany infantry, viii: 140; + French 37-mm. quick firers, viii: 140. + Heavy, mobile German guns, ii: 287; + German superiority, ii: 288; + U. S. Naval Batteries on Western Front, iv: 323, viii: 42-45; + use in offensive, v: 304; + French 155-mm. G. P. F. gun, v: 308; + U. S. railway-mount guns, viii: 36-39; + U. S. caterpillar-mount guns, viii: 39; + long-range bombardment of Paris, viii: 45-47, xi: 271-274; + structure of shells hitting Paris, viii: 46; + super-range guns impractical, viii: 47; + U. S. 121-mile range super-gun, viii: 48-51; + British naval super-guns, viii: 53; + manufacture of big guns, viii: 54-58; + shell velocity of, viii: 314; + destructive power of 16-in. gun, viii: 336; + kinds used during War, xi: 274; + naval, xi: 280-282. + Howitzers, Skoda, viii: 22, xi: 278; + U. S. pre-War types, viii: 24; + U. S. railway-mount types, viii, 38, 39; + French 520-mm. (21-in.) gun, viii: 51-53; + use against forts and trench systems, xi: 274. + Importance, Field Marshal Haig's report on, ii: 123-131. + Mortars, limitations, viii: 30; + range of latest U. S. types, viii: 31; + German 11-in. siege mortars, viii: 34-36; + absence of rifling in bore, viii: 112; + device for rotating shell during flight, viii: 112; + functions, viii: 118; + Stokes mortar, viii: 141; + trench mortars captured by A. E. F., xii: 288. + Range-finding, muzzle velocity, viii: 7; + by sight, viii: 8-14; + telescopic range-finder, viii: 9; + problem of marksmanship, viii: 10-13; + use of aircraft in, viii: 13; + by sound, viii: 14-16; + use of photography in, viii: 14; + direct and indirect fire, viii: 28; + zones of fire, viii: 32; + altering range by change of projectile and powder charge, + viii: 32; + air-resistance to flying projectile, viii: 113. + _See also_ under each country. + + Artistic rights, + Peace Treaty provisions for re-establishment of, xii: 244-246. + + Artois, Allied offensive in, '15, ii: 148, iii: 46; + battle of, May, '14, iii: 42. + + Asiago, Austrians reach, May 28, '16, i: 385, iii: 238. + + Asir, Principate of, established, '18, xii: 279. + + _Askold_, Russian cruiser at Gallipoli, iv: 41. + + Asquith, Herbert Henry, + responsibility for Gallipoli disaster, ii: 198, 200, 202, 204; + biography, ix: 30-35. + + Association of Highland Societies of Edinburgh, viii: 95. + + Astor, Mrs. Vincent, "Y" worker in Paris, vii: 267. + + _Asturias_, + British hospital ship torpedoed, Mar. 20, '17, iv: 232. + + Athletics, for A. E. F., _see_ Sports. + + Atkins, Tommy, nickname for British soldier, origin of, vi: 230; + fighting qualities, xi: 181-189. + + Atrocities, German, summary of crimes, i: 400; + Ludendorff's explanation, ii: 346; + burning of Louvain, iii: 273-277; + in Marne district, iii: 297-300; + at Senlis, iii: 334-337; + in Belgium, vi: 84; + destruction of Rheims Cathedral, vi: 97. + + Aubers Ridge, battle of, iii: 42. + + _Audacious_, + British battleship sunk by U-boat, Oct. 27, '14, i: 376. + + Audenarde, taken by 91st Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 279. + + Auffenberg, Gen. von, + commands Austrian army invading Poland, iii: 118. + + Augustovo, battle of, German defeat at, iii: 118. + + Australia, war casualties, iii: 404, 405; + army strength, iii: 405; + naval strength, iv: 58; + history prior to '14, vi: 37; + area and population, vi: 37; + pro-War platform of Liberal Party, vi: 39; + recruiting opposed by Socialists, vi: 40; + conscription opposed by Labor Party, vii: 41, 42; + conscription defeated by referendum, Oct., '16, vi: 41; + labor unrest, '16, vi: 42; + Labor Party split on conscription, vi: 42; + coalition government formed, Feb., '17, vi: 42; + "Commonwealth War Government" takes office, Feb., '17, vi: 42; + Australian Workers' Union, + similar to American Federation of Labor, vi: 45; + "One Big Union" movement, vi: 45; + labor vote defeats conscription referendum second time, + '17, vi: 45; + war legislation by Nationalists, vi: 45; + soviet government favored by labor, vi: 46; + war cost, Aug., '14--Mar., '19, xii: 107; + rise in public debt, xii: 114; + Peace Conference delegates, xii: 179. + + Austria, Republic established, Nov. 13, '18, vi: 318; + Germany acknowledges independence of, '19, xii: 197; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Austria-Hungary: + Army, German estimate of effectiveness, ii: 4; + pre-War organization, iii: 7, 105; + requirements reduced, '15, vi: 311; + for military operations, _see_ name of campaign. + Blockade of, vi: 253; + food shortage due to, vi: 312. + Casualties, total in War, ii: 116, iii: 404; + battle deaths, v: 363; + Aug., '14--Aug., '15, vi: 311; + money equivalent of manpower lost, xii: 25. + Coal, production, '13--'17, xii: 48. + Cost of living, per cent. rise during War, xii: _Intro. x._ + Declarations of war, + ultimatum to Serbia, July 23, '14, + i: 112, 375, vi: 306, 357, xi: 4; + on Serbia, July 28, '14, 1: 115, 375; + reasons for war on Serbia, i: 243; + on Russia, Aug. 6, '14, i: 375; + by Great Britain, Aug. 12, '14, i: 375; + on Belgium, Aug. 28, '14, 1: 375; + by Rumania, Aug. 27, '16, 1: 386; + diplomatic relations broken with U. S., Apr. 8, '17, i: 389; + by China, Aug. 14, '17, i: 390; + by U. S., Dec. 7, '17, i: 393. + Food shortage, vi: 312, 314, 317, 321; + forces demand for peace, vi: 314, 317; + cause of revolt, Apr., '19, vi: 321. + Foreign policy, + German foreknowledge of ultimatum to Serbia, i: 8, 133-136, 252; + not a colonizing nation, i: 37; + Austro-Prussian War, 1866, i: 41; + world position in 1871, i: 47; + gets control of Bosnia-Herzegovina, i: 50; + subservience to Germany, i: 79, 133; + joins Triple Alliance, i: 95; + annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina, i: 109; + ultimatum to Serbia, July 23, '14, + i: 112, 375, vi: 306, 357, xi: 4; + during last days before War, i: 126; + unity of Austro-German interests, i: 208; + reasons for war on Serbia, i: 243; + antagonism to Russia, vi: 306; + antagonism to Italy, vi: 308; + ambition to incorporate Jugoslavs in Empire, vi: 355; + opposition to Serbian aspirations, vi: 356; + anti-Slav policy, vi: 360; + suppression of Czechoslovak nationalism, vi: 396. + Internal conditions, race rivalries, i: 21, ii: 63, vi: 306; + loyalty of German elements, vi: 307; + revolution suppressed, '14, vi: 308; + effect of Italian declaration of war, vi: 309; + parliamentary disturbances, '15--'16, vi: 311; + labor troubles, vi: 311, 314; + revolution threatened, '16, vi: 313; + revolution breaks out, '18, vi: 317; + Republic established, Nov. 13, '18, vi: 318; + Bolshevism, vi: 319. + National anthem, xi: 332. + Navy, development, iv: 364; + surrender to Jugoslavs, vi: 364; + _Monarch_ sunk, x: 290; + _Wien_ sunk, x: 290; + _Viribus Unitis_ + sunk by Italians in Pola harbor, x: 297-303. + Peace negotiations, + proposal to U. S. through Swedish minister, Sept. 16, '18, + i: 397; + appeal to U. S., Oct. 7, '18, i: 399; + asks U. S. for armistice, Oct. 27--29, '18, i: 399; + Emperor Charles' secret peace offer, '17, ii: 63, vi: 315; + asks Italy for armistice, ii: 252; + armistice signed, Nov. 3, '18, iii: 400, vi: 271, xi: 52; + Peace Treaty terms, vi: 321; + armistice terms, vi: 364. + Population, in 1860, i: 40; + German, i: 79, vi: 306; + Hungarian, i: 79; + Slav, i: 79. + Press, _Tageblatt_ demands war, '14, vi: 306; + attack on Italy, '15, vi: 310; + attitude on labor strikes, '18, vi: 314; + _Arbeiter Zeitung_ preaches radicalism, vi: 315; + comment on peace terms, vi: 322. + Prisoners of war, iii: 404. + War cost, money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25; + value of property loss, xii: 26; + average daily war cost, xii: 106; + total war cost, July, '14--Oct., '19, xii: 107; + rise in national debt, xii: 114. + + Authe, seized by 79th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266. + + Autocracy, destruction of, by War, i: _Intro. x._ + + Autrecourt, captured by 77th Div., Nov. 6, '18, v: 269. + + Averescu, Gen., Rumanian commander in Wallachia, iii: 222. + + Aviators, _see_ Aeronautics. + + Avlona, occupied by Italy, Dec., '14, vi: 120. + + Avocourt Woods, French retire from, Mar. 21, '16, i: 384; + scene of fierce battle at Verdun, iii: 51. + + _Ayesha, S. S._, _Emden's_ + landing party escapes from Keeling Island in, iv: 186, 191; + abandoned, iv: 192. + + Aylmer, Gen., + commands British force sent to relieve Kut-el-Amara, iii: 184. + + Ayres, Col. Leonard P., + extracts from _The War with Germany--a Statistical Summary_, + by, xii: 280-289. + + + B + + Babtie, Surg.-Gen. + responsibility for lack of medical service in Mesopotamia, + iii: 367. + + "Babushka," pet name of Catherine Breshkovsky, q.v., ix: 348. + + Baccarat sector, assigned to A. E. F., v: 11; + training area for 42nd Div., v: 118. + + Bacteriology, in disease prevention, vii: 253. + + Badonviller, German attack at, v: 21, 28. + + Bagdad, + captured by British, Mar. 11, '17, + i: 389, ii: 92, iii: 187, xi: 29, 48; + description, iii: 332. + + Bagdad Railway, German plan for connecting Berlin with Bagdad, i: 80; + Anglo-German agreement for joint control, '14, i: 200, ii: 13, 295; + menaced by Serbia, ii: 33; + "largest single factor in bringing on the War," ii: 290; + beginnings, 1871, ii: 291; + Anatolian Railway Co. gets concessions in Turkey, 1888, ii: 292; + Germans get concession to build road from Haidar Pasha to Angora, + 1888, ii: 292; + British oppose German concessions, ii: 292; + German Emperor visits Sultan, 1898, ii: 292; + _La Societe Imperiale Ottomane du Chemin de Fer de Bagdad_, + terms of concession to, ii: 292; + Germans get privilege to extend line to Bagdad, ii: 292; + clash of European interests, ii: 292; + compromise of clashing interests, ii: 294; + sections finished, Aug., '14, ii: 294; + Pan-German policy, ii: 296; + internationalization, ii: 297; + cut by fall of Nish, Oct., '18, iii: 213; + opened, '15, vi: 258; + route, xi: 4. + + Bagley, Lieut.-Com. David W., + commander of U. S. destroyer _Jacob Jones_, + sunk by U-boat, iv: 346. + + Bailey, Maj.-Gen. Charles J., commands 81st Div., v: 197. + + Bailleul, captured by Germans, iii: 360. + + Bainsizza Plateau, Italian offensive, Aug., '17, ii: 58, iii: 240. + + Baker, Newton D., biography, ix: 323-326; + conference with Marshal Foch at Trois Fontaines, xii: 285. + + Bakeries, constructed by A. E. F. in France, v: 333, 400. + + Bakhireff, Vice-Adm., + commands Russians in battle of Riga Gulf, iv: 366. + + Balance of Power, early wars for, i: 28. + + Balfour, Rt. Hon. Arthur James, biography, ix: 40-44; + visits America, ix: 44. + + Balkan League, i: 204. + + Balkan Wars, '12--'13, i: 109, 204; + unsatisfactory peace settlement, i: 110; + Sir Edward Grey's efforts to prevent general European war, i: 198; + London Ambassadorial Conference, i: 204; + London Peace Conference, i: 204; + war between Bulgaria and rest of Balkan Allies, i: 206; + Rumanian intervention, i: 206; + peace terms, i: 206; + German incitement, i: 207, ii: 27. + + Balkans, conflagration center of World War, i: 1, 89; + international position in '14, i: 62; + area, i: 90, 92; + independent states in, i: 92; + population in '14, i: 92; + racial mixtures, i: 92; + policy of Great Powers, i: 92, 114; + German dynasties in, i: 96; + German designs on, ii: 27; + civilian deaths from disease and famine, iii: 405. + + Ball, Capt., air duel with Capt. Immelmann, x: 209-211, xi: 228. + + Ballin, Herr, head of Hamburg-American Line, i: 264. + + Ballistics, + computation of air resistance to flying projectile, viii: 113. + + Balloons, _see_ Aeronautics. + + Ballou, Maj.-Gen. Charles C., commander 92nd Div., v: 145. + + Baltic Provinces, early history, vi: 226; + Russian duplicity in, vi: 226; + under domination of German landlords, vi: 226; + revolt, '05, vi: 227; + form Lettish Legion, vi: 227; + Bolshevik propaganda in, vi: 228; + overrun by Germans, vi: 230; + ask recognition by Peace Conference, vi: 238. + + _Baltimore_, + U. S. cruiser used in laying North Sea mine barrage, iv: 326. + + Bamberg, seat of Bavarian Government during Spartacide revolution, + Mar.--May, '19, vi: 300. + + Bamford, Brig.-Gen., + commander 1st Div., v: 250; + of 26th Div., v: 252. + + Banitza, occupied by Bulgars, Aug. 19, '16, iii: 208. + + Banking Indicator, on airplanes, viii: 221. + + Bantheville, captured by 90th Div., Oct. 22, '18, v: 252. + + Bapaume, + taken by British, Aug. 28,'18, i: 397, ii: 157; + British objective in Somme battle, iii: 55; + captured by British, Mar. 17, '17, iii: 68. + + Bar-sur-Aube, rest area for 26th Div., v: 118. + + Barbed wire, + French use in trench defense, v: 13; + impenetrable cloth as protection against, viii: 68; + value as defensive barrier, viii: 136, 152; + French devices for destruction of, viii: 152-155; + Breton-Prepot cutter, viii: 152; + Gabet-Aubriot electric torpedo for destruction of, viii: 154. + + Barger, Pvt. Charles D., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400. + + Barkeley, Pvt. David B., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401. + + Barkley, Pvt. John L., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 390. + + Barracks, Adrian type, v: 8; + constructed in France by A. E. F., v: 332, 400. + + Barrage, North Sea, + Allied mine, iv: _Intro. xi_, 324-330, viii: 274; + artillery, viii: 136-140, x: 162. + + Barrett, Sir Arthur, + commands British troops in Mesopotamia, iii: 180. + + Barricourt Wood, + taken by 89th Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 262; + heights captured by Fifth Corps, v: 391. + + Barrow, Sir Edmund, + responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364. + + Bart, Pvt. Frank J., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 388. + + Barth, Brig.-Gen. Charles H., commander 81st Div., v: 197. + + Bartlett, Brig.-Gen., + commander, Expeditionary Brigade, Coast Artillery Corps, v: 305. + + Barton, Clara, mother of American Red Cross, vii: 12. + + Baruch, Bernard M., + Chairman, U. S. War Industries Board, xii: 72; + member Advisory Commission, U. S. Council of National Defense, + xii: 116. + + Base hospitals, _see_ + Hospitals; + Red Cross. + + Bases, German, in France, ii: 86. + + Basra, + occupied by British Nov. 21, '14, i: 376, iii: 180; + British base for Mesopotamian expedition, ii: 91, iii: 330. + + Battalion of Death, Russian women's, x: 183-185, xi: 205. + + Battles: + Aisne, + Sept., '14, i: 375, 376, iii: 36; + Apr.--Nov., '17, iii: 73-76; + May 27--June 5, '18, iii: 92-95, 129-135. + Allenstein, Aug. 26, '14, i: 375. + Amiens, ii: 152, 281, 314, iii: 389. + Ardahan, Jan. 3--4, '15, i: 378. + Argonne, _see_ Meuse-Argonne Offensive. + Arras, Apr. 9, '17, ii: 341, iii: 70-72. + Artois, May 9, '14, iii: 42. + Augustovo, iii: 118. + "Battle of France," Sept.--Nov., '18, iii: 100-103. + Belleau Wood, iii: 94, v: 135-139, 192, 382, xi: 43. + Cambrai, + Nov., '17, + i: 392, 393, ii: 280, iii: 80-82, 337-340, viii: 142, 156; + Sept.--Oct., '18, ii: 281, iii: 101, v: 213, xi: 52. + Cantigny, + May 28, '18, i: 395; + '18, iii: 94, v: 31-34, 122, 124-128, 141, 380. + Champagne, + Sept., '15, i: 382, ii: 25, iii: 46; + July 15--17, '18, v: 47, 129, 148-158. + Chateau-Thierry, + May 31--June 3, '18, v: 35, 130, 134-135, 381-382, xi: 43. + Chemin des Dames, May 27, '18, i: 395, ii: 76, 154, v: 132. + Coronel, '14, i: 376, iv: 64-68, ix: 308. + Ctesiphon, iii: 182, 367, 384. + Dogger Bank, Jan. 24, '15, iv: 246-253. + Falkland Islands, Dec. 8, '14, i: 376, iv: 69-85, ix: 308. + Flanders, + June--July, '17, ii: 56, 343, iii: 38, 40, viii: 299; + _see also_ Yser. + Heligoland Bight, i: 375, iv: 240-243, xii: 205. + Isonzo, _see_ Italian Front. + Jadar, '14, ii: 32, iii: 152. + Jutland, May 31, '16, iv: 99-136, 144-156, 256, 258, xi: 29. + Kars, '15, iii: 260. + Kut-el-Amara, + i: 382, 385, 389, iii: 181-183, 318-320, 364, xi: 29. + Le Cateau, '14, ii: 162, 174, 176-182, iii: 23. + Liege, i: 143, 375, ii: 348, iii: 10, xi: 9. + Lys, iii: 91. + Marne, + Sept., '14, + i: 375, ii: 9, 82, 103, 138, 140-142, 182-184, 220, 227, 258, + iii: 30-34, xi: 12; + July--Aug., '18, + ii: 77, 154, 322-324, 326, + iii: 95, v: 47-61, 129, 148-183, 382, viii: 148, x: 381-387. + Mazurian Lakes, i: 378, iii: 113-116, 130. + Messines Ridge, i: 395, ii: 56, iii: 74, 76, 77, 360. + Mons-Charleroi, Aug. 21--23, '14, + i: 375, ii: 162, iii: 277-281, xi: 10. + Neuve Chapelle, Mar., '15, iii: 41, 375. + Passchendaele Ridge, i: 392, 395, ii: 56, iii: 79, 360, v: 377. + Passenheim, Aug., '14, iii: 116. + Ravaruska, Sept. 4--10, '14, iii: 122. + Riga, Oct. 18, '17, i: 392. + St. Mihiel, + Sept. 20, '14, iii: 37; + Sept. 12, '18, + ii: 84, iii: 99, v: 65-72, 199-212, 309, 384-386, xi: 46. + San, May 15--17, '15, i: 380, iii: 136. + Sarre, Aug., '14, iii: 18. + Somme, + July, '16, i: 386, ii: 44-47, 126, 148, iii: 55-68, 314; + Mar., '18, iii: 86-90, xi: 24; + Aug., '18, ii: 331, xi: 46. + Tannenberg, Aug. 26, '14, i: 375, ii: 24, 228, 353, iii: 112-116. + Vaux, i: 385, ii: 189, iii: 52, 54, 62, 306, 313, 327-329; + _see also_ Verdun. + Verdun, + i: 268, 376, 384, 388, 390, ii: 36-39, 47, 67, 186-189, + iii: 46-55, 61, 62, 79, 302-315, 327-329, viii: 289-291, xi: 22. + Vimy Ridge, i: 46, 47, 70, iii: 343-349. + Ypres, + Nov., '14, i: 376, ii: 144, 170, iii: 41; + Apr., '15, ii: 170, 222, iii: 42, 320; + July--Sept., '17, ii: 128; + Apr., '18, ii: 153, iii: 359-363. + Yser, + Oct., 14, i: 376, ii: 220, iii: 40; + July, '17, iii: 77. + _See also_ under name of engagement. + + Bauer, Herr Gustav, + chosen head of German cabinet, June, '19, vi: 304. + + Bauer, Otto, + leader of Austrian Maximalists, vi: 314; + activities, '18, vi: 318; + becomes Minister of Foreign Affairs, '19, vi: 319. + + Baulny, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 28, '18, v: 227. + + Bavaria, + socialist republic proclaimed, Nov., '18, vi: 273, 280; + revolt against Kurt Eisner, Feb., '19, vi: 298; + soviet republic proclaimed, Feb., '19, vi: 298, 300; + Revolutionary Tribunals in control of Munich, Mar., '19, vi: 300; + Peasants' Union declares food blockade against Munich, + Mar., '19, vi: 300. + + Bavarian Digging Song, xi: 339. + + Bayonet fighting, use in modern warfare, viii: 105-110. + + Bayonville, captured by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263. + + Beatty, Adm. Sir David, + at battle of Jutland, iv: 99; + British commander at battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240; + at battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246; + arranges for surrender of German fleet, iv: 383; + biography, ix: 283-287. + + Beauclaire, captured by 89th Div., Nov. 3, '18, v: 265. + + Beaucourt, + captured by British, Nov. 14, '16, i: 388; + British gain control of valley, Jan., '17, iii: 64. + + Beaufort, taken by 89th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266. + + Beaulencourt-Loupart line, captured by British, Mar., '17, iii: 64. + + Beaumont, + taken by Germans, Feb. 23, '16, iii: 48; + Germans driven from, by British, iii: 64; + captured by 2nd and 80th Divs., Nov. 5, '18, v: 266. + + Beaune, A. E. F. University at, v: 106, vii: 282. + + Beauquesne, training area for 27th Div., v: 290. + + Bebel, Herr, personal sketch, vi: _Intro. ix._ + + Bedouins, join Turks invading Egypt, iii: 190. + + Beersheba, captured by British, Oct. 31, '17, iii: 194. + + Beirut, taken by French, Oct. 10, '18, iii: 199. + + Beit Lekia, taken by British Nov. 19, '17, iii: 194. + + Bela Kun, Hungarian Bolshevik leader, activities, vi: 324-326. + + Belfort, + defenses of, iii: 2, v: 215; + bombarded by Germans, Jan., '16, iii: 48. + + Belgian Relief, _see_ Belgium; War Relief. + + _Belgian Prince, S. S._, sunk by U-boat, July 31, '17, iv: 232. + + _Belgium, 1918_, poem by Sheril Schell, xi: 84. + + Belgium: + Army, + increase in, '09--'12, i: 144; + dependence on Germany for munition supply, i: 234; + German estimate of effectiveness, ii: 4; + escapes from Antwerp, Oct. 9, '14, ii: 143; + pre-War organization, iii: 4; + mobilized, June 28, '14, iii: 378; + strength of air service at end of War, viii: 202; + for military operations, _see under_ name of campaign. + Casualties, + total in War, iii: 404; + money equivalent of manpower lost, xii: 25; + battle deaths, xii: 289. + Coal production '13--'15, xii: 48. + Food, _see_ Relief, below. + Neutrality, + guaranteed by European Powers, 1831, 1839, i: 141, 229; + British policy, history of, i: 141, 222, 224; + defense arrangement with British, '06, i: 143; + German violation, + Aug. 4, '14, i: 144, 223, ii: 8, iii: 8-16, 380, xi: 4; + Bethmann-Hollweg's "Scrap of paper" statement, i: 146; + France pledges to respect, Aug., '14, i: 223, iii: 380; + King Albert appeals to England, i: 223; + violation menace to Great Britain, i: 224; + Sir Edward Grey urges British intervention, Aug. 3, '14, i: 224; + German ultimatum, Aug. 2, '14, i: 227, iii: 380; + German reasons for violation, i: 229, 231, xi: 9; + Bismarck's pledge of guarantee, i: 229; + German admission of injustice of violation, i: 230; + German ultimatum rejected, i: 230. iii: 378-381; + German charge of secret Anglo-Belgian agreement, i: 231; + British offer of help, i: 232; + appeal to England, Aug. 4, '14, i: 233; + German charge of unneutral conduct denied, i: 234; + evidences of trust in German good faith, i: 234; + Lloyd George denounces violation, i: 236; + German disregard of, in planning campaign against France, ii: 4; + military topography of German border, ii: 6; + French consider German invasion improbable, ii: 8; + effect of invasion on result of War, ii: 206; + Ludendorff's justification of violation, ii: 346; + composition of invading forces, iii: 10; + French defenders retire, Aug., '14, iii: 20; + invasion creates national unity, vi: 84; + Bryce Report on atrocities, vi: 84; + deportation of civilian population, vi: 84; + for invasion and military operations, + _see_ name of engagement. + Peace Conference, delegates, xii: 180. + Peace Treaty, + claims against Holland, vi: 89; + acquires Moresnet, xii: 188; + acquires Eupen, xii: 188; + acquires Malmedy, xii: 188; + reparation by Germany, xii: 218. + Prisoners of war, iii: 404. + Relief, Commission for, + in Belgium, vii: 116-144; + famine conditions, vii: 117; + early relief organization, vii: 118; + Herbert Hoover's activities, vii: 119, 124, 136; + _Comite Nationale Belge, de Secours et d'Alimentation_, + vii: 120; + overcoming blockade difficulties, vii: 120-127; + care of children, vii: 134; + American contributions, vii: 139-144; + dependence on imports for existence, xii: 136. + Royal family, ix: 388, xi: 143-145. + War cost, + debt to U.S., xii: 18; + money equivalent of manpower lost, xii: 25; + value of property loss, xii: 26; + war cost, Aug., '14--Oct., '18, xii: 107; + rise in national debt, xii: 114. + + Belgrade, + captured by Austrians, Dec. 2, '14, i: 376, vi: 357; + recaptured by Serbians, Dec. 15, '14, iii: 155, 394, 397; + retaken by Austrians, Oct. 6--8, '15, i: 382, vi: 357. + + Belikamen, Serbs rout Austrians at, ii: 32. + + Bell, Maj.-Gen. George, Jr., commander 33rd Div., v: 144; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 219. + + Belleau Wood, battle of, + June, '18, 2nd Div. at, iii: 94, v: 135-139, 382, xi: 43; + strategic importance, v: 138; + renamed "Bois de la Brigade Marine," v: 139; + Gen. Degoutte's praise of A. E. F. at, v: 192. + + Bellicourt, position on Hindenburg Line, v: 290. + + Below, Gen. Otto von, commands 17th German Army, ii: 149. + + Benedict XV, Pope, makes peace plea, Aug. 15, '17, i: 390; + offer accepted by Germany, Sept. 21, '17, i: 390; + biography, ix: 405. + + Benes, Edward, seeks Allied aid for Bohemia, vi: 397; + member of Czechoslovak provisional government, vi: 399. + + Benet-Mercier machine gun, description, viii: 80. + + Benson, Admiral William S., biography, ix: 296-298. + + Bentinck, Count, Kaiser's host after abdication, Nov., '18, vi: 278. + + Berat, occupied by Italians, July 11, '18, i: 397. + + Berbers, with Turkish forces invading Egypt, iii: 190. + + Berchtold, Count A. J. S. J. K., biography, ix: 143. + + Berehaven, Ireland, U. S. naval base, iv: 356. + + Bergson, Henri, + French philosopher, on German doctrine of force, i: 152. + + Berlin, revolution, Nov., '18, vi: 273-276, 284; + Spartacide uprising, Jan., '19, vi: 287; + Spartacides suppressed by Ebert, vi: 289; + second Spartacide revolution, Mar., '19, vi: 299. + + Berlin-Bagdad Railroad, _see_ Bagdad Railway. + + Berlin Conference, '85, + divides Africa into "spheres of influence," i: 96. + + Berlin, Congress of, 1878, + Russian ambitions in Near East checked, i: 48, 93; + terms of settlement at, i: 93; + defects of settlement, i: 93. + + Bernhardi, Gen. Friedrich von, + expounds German Kultur in _Germany and the Next War_, i: 67; + on desirability of a European war, i: 131; + striking quotations from, i: 179. + + Bernstein, Herr, + German Socialist leader, opposes war, vi: _Intro. xii._ + + Bernstorff, Count Johann von, + activities as head of German spy system in U. S., i: 8, x: 326; + biography, ix: 133. + + Berny, taken by French, Sept. 17, '16, i: 388. + + Bersaglieri, description, ii: 240. + + Berthelot, Gen., drives Germans from Vesles to Aisne, '18, ii: 214. + + Berzy-le-Sec, captured by 1st Div., July 21, '18, v: 55, 179, 383. + + Bessarabia, Russian offensive in, starts, Dec. 24, '15, i: 382; + invaded by Bolsheviki, vi: 350. + + Bethincourt, captured by Germans, Mar. 6, '16, i: 384. + + Bethmann-Hollweg, Dr. Theobold von, + German Chancellor, justification of Germany, i: 117; + "scrap of paper" statement on Belgian neutrality, i: 146; + statement of reasons for unrestricted submarine warfare, i: 344; + proposes compromise peace, '17, vi: 262; + resigns as Chancellor, July, '17, vi: 266; + biography, ix: 121-126; + admission of German guilt, ix: 121; + opposition to ruthless warfare, ix: 126. + + "Big Bertha," + German long-range gun, bombards Paris, viii: 45-47, xi: 271-274. + + Birdwood, Lieut.-Gen. Sir William, personality, iii: 375. + + Births, decrease due to War, statistics, iii: 406. + + Bishop, Col. Wm. A., British ace, story of, x: 215-221, xi: 229. + + Bismarck, Prince Otto von, builder of German Empire, i: 41; + Near East policy, i: 48; + forced to resign Chancellorship, 1890, i: 73, 97, ix: 359; + forms Triple Alliance, i: 95; + colonial policy, i: 97; + representative of Junker class, i: 258; + plan for universal empire, ii: 2; + publishes von Moltke's views on German strategy, ii: 14. + + Bismarck, Major von, German military attache in Switzerland, vi: 380. + + Bissell, Lieut., + commands detachment defending bridge at Chateau-Thierry, + May 31, '18, v: 134. + + Bissolati, Signor, + Italian political leader, advocates Jugoslav conciliation, vi: 362; + against policy of aggrandizement, vi: 366. + + Bistritz, taken by Rumanians, Sept. 4, '16, iii: 218. + + Bitlis, captured by Russians, Mar. 2, '16, iii: 263; + evacuated by Russians, Aug. 8, '16, i: 386; + recaptured by Russians, Aug. 26, '16, i: 386. + + Bitur, taken by British, Nov., '17, iii: 194. + + "Black Cobra Bill," + nickname of "Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of India," + vi: 78. + + _Black Prince_, + British warship lost at battle of Jutland, iv: 121. + + Black Sea, Russia gains freedom of action in, 1871, i: 47; + Turkish bombardment of ports, Oct. 28, '14, i: 376. + + Blackwell, Pvt. Robert L., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395. + + Blanc Mont, + captured by French and Americans, Oct. 5, '18, v: 241, 255, 257. + + Blankets, for U. S. Army, v: 358. + + Bligny, German repulse at, July 15, '18, v: 51. + + "Blimps," U. S., scout dirigibles, viii: 245, 255. + + Blind, Committee for Men Blinded in Battle, activities, vii: 99; + Permanent Relief War Fund, activities, vii: 255-259; + Red Cross Institute for, vii: 259; + number blinded in War, vii: 260. + + Blinkers, use of, in action, v: 319. + + Bliss, Gen. Tasker H., + U. S. representative on Supreme War Council, iii: 84. + + Blockade, of Allies by Germany, _see_ Submarine Warfare; + of Germany by Allies, _see_ Germany, Blockade of. + + _Bluecher_, + German cruiser sunk at Dogger Bank, eye-witness account, iv: 247. + + Blue and Gray (29th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army. + + Blue Ridge (80th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army. + + Bobo, Capt. Stephen N., + story of his band of "rough-neck" weaklings, x: 49. + + Boehm-Ermolli, Gen., commands Austrians relieving Przemysl, iii: 132. + + Boers, rebel against British, '14, vi: 49; + Gen. Hertzog leader of rebellion, vi: 49; + aid Germans in Southwest Africa, '14, vi: 50; + _see_ also South Africa, Union of. + + Bohemia, Diet suppressed by Austria-Hungary, '15, vi: 311; + early history, vi: 396; + oppression by Austria-Hungary, vi: 396; + press comment on Czech loyalty, '14, vi: 396; + formation of army, '17, vi: 398; + National Council, vi: 399; + _see also_ Czechoslovakia. + + Boirault tank, viii, 153. + + Boiselles, taken by French, Jan. 17--18, '15, i: 378. + + Bolivia, + severs diplomatic relations with Germany, Apr. 13, '17, i: 389; + Peace Conference, delegate to, xii: 180. + + Bolo Pasha, French traitor, pro-German plots, vi: 105, x: 340-344. + + Bolshevism, fallacy of, i: _Intro. xi._; + doctrines, vi: 148, ix: 112, xi: 33; + as product of high cost of living, xii: _Intro. xiii_; + in: Australia, revolutionary spirit among labor, vi: 45. + Austria, rise and overthrow, '19, vi: 319. + Bulgaria, outbreak in, vi: 346. + Czechoslovakia, anti-Bolshevik feeling, vi: 400. + Finland, provisional government established, Nov., '17, vi: 198; + suppressed by Mannerheim, '18, vi: 200. + Germany, _see_ Spartacides. + Hungary, riots, Jan.--Feb., '19, vi: 324; + success, Mar., '19, vi: 325. + India, propaganda stirs unrest, vi: 77. + Poland, spread in, vi: 223. + Russia, + peace of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, Mar. 3, '18, + ii: 272, VI: 183; + propaganda among German troops, '18, ii: 322; + Russian troops incited to desert and revolt, + iii: 269, vi: 155, 164; + doctrines, vi: 148, ix: 112, xi: 33; + navy demoralized, vi: 155, 164; + Kornilov rebellion defeated, vi: 169; + movement against Kerensky spreads, Oct., '17, vi: 173; + arguments used to win populace, vi: 175; + Bolsheviki call on Soviets to seize government, Nov. 2, '17, + vi: 175; + increasing power of movement, Oct., '17, vi: 177; + overthrow Kerensky and seize government, vi: 177-183; + Lenin announces platform, Nov. 8, '17, vi: 179; + dictatorship of proletariat, vi: 181; + Bolshevik land program, vi: 181; + opposition of middle class functionaries, vi: 181; + Russian secret treaties made public, vi: 183; + Constituent Assembly dissolved, Jan. 18, vi: 185; + Red Army raised, vi: 185; + reign of terror, vi: 187; + state of war declared with Entente, vi: 187; + Princes' Island Conference proposed by Peace Conference, + vi: 188; + Finland used as base of operations. '15, vi: 198; + progress in Letvia, vi: 228; + financing German Spartacides, vi: 281; + connection with Maximalists, vi: 314; + Lenin's defense of tyrannical methods, ix: 115; + currency inflation, xii: _Intro. xiii._ + Siberia, opposition in, vi: 189. + + Bombs: + Aerial, viii: 221-225. + Depth, evolution of, iv: 307; + for combating U-boats, iv: 317; + development by U. S. Navy, iv: 330; + launching mechanism, iv: 331; + invention of "Y" gun, iv: 332; + description, viii: 281, xi: 239. + Illuminating, drop bombs, viii: 76. + + Bona, bombarded by _Breslau_, Aug. 4, '14, iv: 14. + + Bone, Fl.-Com. R. J., + battle with German planes invading England, x: 237. + + _Bonnet Rouge_, traitorous French newspaper, vi: 105. + + Books, demand for, in A. E. F. schools, vii: 282. + + Bordeaux, French government moves to, Sept. 3, '14, i: 375; + embarkation port for returning A. E. F., v: 395. + + Borden, Sir Robert, Premier of Canada, vi: 24; + urges increase of Foreign Service Army, Jan., '16, vi: 27. + + "Bore" of gun, defined, viii: 111. + + Boris, Czar of Bulgaria, + succeeds to throne following abdication of Ferdinand, '18, vi: 347. + + Boselli, Signor, forms coalition Italian cabinet, June, '16, vi: 127. + + Bosnia-Herzegovina, annexed by Austria, '08, i: 109, vi: 356; + devastated, '18, vi: 363. + + Bosphorus, bombarded by Russian warships, Mar. 28, '15, i: 378. + + Botchkareva (Butchkareff), + Ensign Vera, commander of Battalion of Death, x: 183-185, xi: 205. + + Botha, Gen. Louis, + commander of British South African troops, iii: 253; + policy as Prime Minister of Union of South Africa, vi: 47; + biography, ix: 191-193. + + Bott, Capt. Alan, + British ace, experiences as Turkish prisoner, x: 235-237. + + Bourassa, Henri, Canadian Nationalist leader, vi: 30; + opposition to Canadian participation in War, vi: 30. + + Bouresches, objective in Belleau Wood action, v: 37, 133, 137. + + Bourgeois, Leon, advocate of League of Nations, xii: 155. + + Bourmont, training area for 2nd Div., v: 6. + + _Bouvet_, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31; + sunk by mine, Mar. 18, '15, iv: 35, 47, 375. + + Bovington, U. S. Tank School at, v: 314. + + Boy-Ed, Capt. Karl, German Naval Attache in U. S., dismissed, i: 276; + share in passport frauds, i: 315; + German arch-spy in U. S., x: 329. + + Boy Scouts, war-time activities, British, xi: 94; + Belgian, xi: 98; + French, xi: 98; + American, xi: 100-116. + + Boycott, anti-German, Allied proposals for, xii: 102. + + Boyemia River, French withdraw to, in Salonika Campaign, iii: 204. + + Boyle, Lieut.-Com. E. C., + commander of British submarine _E-14_, iv: 209. + + Boyon Wood, taken by 18th and 28th Inf., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240. + + _Brabanconne, La_, Belgian national hymn, xi: 327. + + Brabant, A. E. F. engineers bridge Meuse at, Oct. 8, '18, v: 245. + + Bradley, Brig.-Gen. Alfred E., Chief Surgeon, A. E. F., v: 345. + + Brady, Father John J., heroic chaplain of U. S. Marines, x: 100. + + Brandeville, occupied by 5th Div., Nov. 7, '18, v: 271. + + Brazil, German population of, i: 79; + severs diplomatic relations with Germany, Apr. 11, '17, i: 389; + declares war on Germany, Oct. 26, '17, i: 392, vi: 390; + Peace Conference delegates, xii: 180. + + Bread, daily consumption by A. E. F., v: 330. + + Breguet bombing airplanes, viii: 224. + + Breheville, taken by 5th Div., Nov. 8, '18, v: 272. + + _Bremen_, + German cruiser sunk by British submarine, Dec. 18, '15, i: 382. + + Bremen, Spartacide uprising in, Feb., '19, vi: 294. + + Breshkovsky, Catherine, + leader of Russian Socialist-Revolutionary Party, vi: 148; + prophecy on Russia, ix: 231; + biography, ix: 348. + + _Breslau_, German cruiser, + outwits Allied fleets and escapes to Bosphorus, Aug., '14, + i: 375, iv: 13; + sunk, Jan. 20, '18, i: 393. + + Brest, embarkation port for returning A. E. F., v: 396. + + Brest-Litovsk, captured by Germans, Aug. 25, '15, i: 381, iii: 138. + + Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of, + between Russia and Germany, a dictated "German peace," + ii: 63, vi: 183, vi: 268; + effect of Austro-Hungarian demands for peace on, vi: 314; + abrogated by Treaty of Versailles, '19, xii: 205. + + _Bretelle_, definition of, v: 16. + + Breton, J. L., inventor of armored barbed-wire cutter, viii: 152. + + Briand, Aristide, forms French Cabinet, Oct., '15, vi: 100. + + Bridges, pontoons, viii: 299; + portable steel, viii: 301. + + Brieulles-sur-Bar, captured by 78th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266. + + Brieuvilles-sur-Meuse, + action in Meuse-Argonne battle at, Sept. 27, '18, v: 226. + + Briey, iron area coveted by Germans, ii: 6. + + _Brilliant_, British cruiser in Zeebrugge raid, iv: 262. + + Briquenay, captured by 78th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 91. + + _Bristol_, + British warship in battle of Falkland Islands, iv: 70. + + Bristol airplanes, viii: 203. + + _Britannia_, British battleship torpedoed, Nov. 9, '18, i: 399. + + _Britannic_, + British hospital ship sunk by mine, Nov. 21, '16, i: 389. + + British American War Relief Fund, vii: 99. + + Brody, captured by Russians, July 28, '16, i: 386, iii: 120, 145. + + _Broke_, + British destroyer, night battle with German destroyers, x: 293-295. + + Browning, Vice-Adm. Sir Montague E., + head of British delegation to U. S., iv: 157. + + Browning machine-guns, description, viii: 84-87; + U. S. production figures, xii: 284. + + Brunehilde position, location, v: 84. + + Brusiloff, Gen. Alexei Alexeievitch, + commands Russian invasion of Galicia, '16, ii: 42, 235, iii: 119; + biography, ix: 232-235. + + Brussels, occupied by Germans, Aug. 20, '14, iii: 14; + German entry described by Richard Harding Davis, iii: 271-273. + + _Brussels_, Capt. Fryatt's ship, x: 265. + + Bryan, William Jennings, policy on German submarine warfare, i: 321; + resigns as Secretary of State, i: 321. + + Buchan, John, description of Mons retreat, iii: 277-281. + + Bucharest, captured by Germans, Dec. 6, '16, iii: 222. + + Bucharest, Treaty of, + between Rumania and Central Powers, May 6, '18, i: 395, vi: 352; + Bulgarian attitude on, vi: 339. + + Buck, Maj.-Gen. Beaumont B., + cited for gallantry at Berzy-le-Sec, v: 180; + promoted to major-general, v: 182; + commands 3rd Div. at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12, '18, v: 202. + + Buckeye (37th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army. + + Budapest, Bolshevik riots in, '18--'19, vi:323. + + Buenz, Dr. Karl, German secret agent in U. S., x: 331. + + Buffaloes (92nd Division), _see_ U. S., Army. + + Bukovina, occupied by Russians, iii: 122. + + Bulair Lines, Gallipoli defenses, iv: 24. + + Bulgaria, German ruler of, i: 96; + defeat and surrender to Allies, Sept. 30, '18, + i: 399, ii: 94, 96, 216, iii: 213, vi: 347, xi: 48; + key to Balkan situation, ii: 28; + tool of Germany, ii: 28; + enmity for Serbia, ii: 32; + reasons for siding with Germany, ii: 32; + enters War, Oct. 14, '15, ii: 33, vi: 343; + Ludendorff's reasons for collapse of, ii: 329; + mobilizes against Serbia, iii: 156, vi: 342; + invades Rumania, Sept. 2, '16, iii: 218; + prisoners of war, iii: 404; + casualties, iii: 404, xii: 289; + effect of surrender on German morale, vi: 270; + racial characteristics, vi: 338; + desire for Balkan supremacy, vi: 339; + geographical position, vi: 341; + attitude toward Allies, vi: 341; + proclaims neutrality, '14, vi: 341; + terms for entering War, vi: 341; + antagonism toward Russia, vi: 342; + Agrarian Party against War, vi: 343; + result of Teutonic alliance, vi: 344; + cession of Demotika to, by Turkey, vi: 344; + friction with Germany, vi: 344; + attitude toward Russian Revolution, vi: 344; + dispute with Turkey, '18, vi: 345; + Bolshevism in, vi: 346; + terms of armistice with Allies, vi: 347; + money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25; + war cost, Oct., '15--Oct., '19, xii: 107; + rise in national debt, xii: 114; + for military operations, _see_ name of campaign. + + Bullard, Lieut.-Gen. Robert Lee, + in command of Third Army Corps, A. E. F., Aug., '18, + v: 62,167, 189, 383; + of Second Army, Oct., '18, v: 83, 246, 390; + of Toul sector, Jan., '18, v: 115; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 219, 388; + biography, ix: 218-221. + + Bullets, _see_ Ammunition. + + Buelow, Gen. von, + commands German army in first Marne battle, ii: 184, iii: 10; + on Italian Front, iii: 247. + + Buelow, Prince Bernhard von, biography, ix: 128-131. + + Bulson, captured by 42nd Div., Nov. 6, '18, v: 269. + + _Bulwark_, British battleship blows up, Nov. 26, '14, i: 376. + + Bundesrat, German, composition and powers, i: 71, 156. + + Bundy, Maj.-Gen. Omar, commander, 2nd Div., v: 109, 132; + biography, ix: 223-226. + + Burat, captured by Bulgars, Jan. 23, '16, i: 384. + + Burdick, "Ma," Salvation Army mother in France, vii: 384. + + Bures, training area for 1st Div., v: 6. + + _Buresk, S. S._, _Emden's_ collier, iv: 188. + + Burney, Vice-Adm. Sir Cecil, commands British Channel Fleet, iv: 89. + + Burnham, Gen., + commands 82nd Div. at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12, '18, v: 202. + + Burns, use of ambrine in treatment of, viii: 390. + + Bushnell, David, Revolutionary War inventor of submarine, iv: 201. + + Buzancy, captured by 80th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 91, 217, 264. + + Buzzer phone, use of, in action, v: 318. + + Byng, Gen. Sir Julian, + commander of British Third Army, ii: 214, iii: 371; + fights battle of Cambrai, Nov., '17, iii: 82, 337-340, viii: 142; + personal traits, iii: 376. + + Bzura, scene of fighting in German attack on Warsaw, iii: 129. + + + C + + _Cabinga, S. S._, prize of German raider _Emden_, iv: 172. + + Cables, + German submarine surrendered to Allies under Peace Treaty, + xii: 225. + + Cableways, Italian aerial, viii: 303-306. + + Cadets, Russian political party, aims of, vi: 148. + + Cadorna, Gen. Luigi, member of Inter-Allied General Staff, iii: 84; + Italian commander in Isonzo campaign, iii: 241; + biography, ix: 225-229. + + Caillaux, Joseph, + arrested on charge of treason, Jan. 13, '18, i: 393; + accused of traitorous activities, vi: 106. + + Caillette Wood, taken by French Oct. 24, '16, i: 388. + + Calais, German drive for, iii: 40; + Calais to Persia, Germany's goal in world control plan, '13, ii: 2. + + Call, 2nd Lieut. Donald M., + gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 402. + + Callaghan, Adm. Sir George, + commander of British Grand Fleet, + relieved by Jellicoe, Aug. 5, '14, iv: 88. + + Cambrai, German base in France, ii: 86; + first battle of, Nov., '17, + Maj.-Gen. Swinton on work of British tanks at, ii: 280; + Byng's surprise attack, iii: 80, 337-340 + (Philip Gibbs's description), viii: 142, 156; + American engineers at, iii: 82; + German prisoners captured, iii: 82; + German counter-offensive, iii: 82; + "best-kept secret of War," iii: 337; + adventures of a tank pilot, iii: 338; + Order of the Day for Tank Corps, Nov. 20, '17, iii: 340; + second battle of, Sept. 27--Oct. 10, '18, ii: 281, v: 213; + captured by Allies, Oct. 9, '18, xi: 52. + + Cambrai-St. Quentin sector, + Allies smash Hindenburg Line, '18, iii: 101. + + Cameron, Maj.-Gen. George H., commands 4th Div., May, '18, v: 128; + commands Fifth Corps, St. Mihiel, Sept., '18, v: 65, 202, 386; + commands Fifth Corps in Meuse-Argonne, Sept., '18, v: 219, 388. + + Cameroons (Kamerun) conquered by Allies, + Aug., '14--Feb., '16, iii: 252, xii: 279; + area, xii: 279; + population, '16, xii: 279. + + _Camilla, S. S._, Belgian Relief ship sunk by U-boat, iv: 230. + + Camouflage, use in outwitting U-boats, iv: 311, viii: 343, xi: 241; + for masking machine-guns, v: 287; + development, viii: 136; + in nature, viii: 336; + war uses, viii: 336-344, xi: 277, 291-295. + + Camp des Romains fort, location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199. + + _Campbells Are Coming_, Scotch patriotic air, xi: 334. + + Canada, becomes self-governing dominion, 1867, i: 43; + army in Europe, July, '16, iii: 343; + characteristics of fighting forces, iii: 343; + war casualties, iii: 404, 405; + prisoners of war, iii: 404; + strength of army, iii: 405; + political conditions, prior to '14, vi: 23; + enthusiastic response to declaration of war, vi: 24; + political situation, Aug., '14, vi: 25; + war donations by provinces, vi: 25; + Conservatives advocate close Imperial Federation, vi: 25; + Premier Borden's view of Canada + as a "participating nation" of British Empire, vi: 25; + Liberal view of Imperial Federation, vi: 26; + voluntary enlistments, vi: 26; + increase in land under cultivation, '15, vi: 26; + increase in food exports, '15, vi: 26; + bilingual schools issue creates race antagonism, vi: 27-28; + Bourassa, Nationalist leader, opposes War, vi: 30; + failure of recruiting among French-Canadians, vi: 31-36; + conscription, problems of, vi: 31-36; + Anglo-Saxons indorse conscription, vi: 31; + labor against conscription, vi: 32; + Liberals support conscription, vi: 32; + Conscription Bill announced, June, '17, vi: 32; + Conscription Bill passed, Aug., '17, vi: 33; + War Franchise Bill, '17, vi: 34; + Catholic Church opposes conscription, vi: 34; + results of election, '17, vi: 35; + pro-conscriptionists form "Unionist" coalition, vi: 35; + secessionist talk, vi: 36; + Quebec draft riots, Mar., '18, vi: 36; + loans floated in U. S., Aug., '14--Jan., '17, xii: 2; + coal production, '13--'17, xii: 48; + nationalization plans for railroads, xii: 90; + war cost, Aug., '14--Aug., '19, xii: 107; + rise in public debt, xii: 114; + Peace Conference delegates, xii: 179; + _see also_ Great Britain. + + Canadian sector on Western Front, '17, iii: 343. + + _Canadians_, poem by W. H. Ogilvie, x: 318. + + Canal du Nord, crossed by Allies, Sept. 25, '18, i: 397. + + Canal sector, Ypres to Voormezeele, v: 300. + + Canary birds, as gas detectors, xi: 324. + + Cannon, _see_ Artillery. + + _Canopus_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33; + in Cradock's fleet off Coronel, iv: 64; + in battle of Falklands, iv: 70. + + Cantigny, + captured by 1st Div., May 28, '18, i: 395, iii: 94, v: 31, 124; + American casualties at, v: 33, 128, 141; + significance of capture, v: 34; + Pershing's report on capture, v: 380. + + Cantonments, U. S., description, xi: 155; + soldiers' life at, xi: 159; + construction of, xii: 125. + + _Cap Trafalgar_, armed German liner, + battle with British _Carmania_, + Sept. 14, '14, iv: 199, x: 318-321. + + Cape Helles, Turkish fortification at, iv: 42. + + Cape Yeni Shehr, Turkish fortifications at, iv: 42. + + Caporetto, Italian disaster at, + Oct. 21--Nov. 1, '17, effect on Western Front, ii: _Intro. xx_; + Italian rout before Austrian advance, ii: 246; + wholesale Italian surrenders, ii: 246; + army demoralized, iii: 247; + causes of rout, ii: 248, vi: 129; + retreat checked at the Piave, ii: 250; + effect on Italo-Slav unity, vi: 362. + + Caproni triplanes, viii: 223. + + Carabinieri, Italian military police, ii: 242. + + Carbon dioxide, asphyxiating properties of, viii: 166; + monoxide, poisonous properties of, viii: 166-168. + + Carbonyl chloride, _see_ Phosgene. + + Carden, Vice-Adm., + commands British naval forces in Mediterranean,'15, iv: 28; + at Gallipoli, iv: 31; + resigns, Mar. 16, '15, iv: 32. + + Carency, French attack at, May 11--12, '15, i: 380. + + Carignan-Sedan-Mezieres railroad, + vital importance to Germans, v: 387; + threatened by Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 387. + + _Carmania_, armed British liner, + battle with German _Cap Trafalgar_, + Sept. 14, '14, iv: 199, x: 318-321. + + _Carnarvon_, British cruiser at Falklands, armament of, iv: 70. + + _Carnetta, S. S._, Belgian Relief ship sunk by U-boat, iv: 230. + + Carniola, clash of Italians and Jugoslavs in, vi: 364. + + Carpathian Mts., Russian attempts to cross, '15, ii: 26; + Ludendorff's account of campaigns, ii: 360; + topography, iii: 108; + Russians occupy passes, Sept., '14, iii: 124; + Austrian attacks, Jan.--Mar., '15, iii: 132; + _see also_ Russian Front. + + Carpenter, Capt., + commander of _Vindictive_ at Zeebrugge raid, iv: 263; + account of Zeebrugge raid, iv: 266. + + Carrel, Dr. Alexis, + invents Carrel-Dakin treatment for infected wounds, + viii: 369, ix: 312, xi: 289; + wins Nobel prize, '12, ix: 310; + biography, ix: 310-313. + + Carrel-Dakin treatment, description, viii: 369-372, ix: 312, xi: 289. + + Carso Plateau, description, ii: 244, iii: 239; + Italian advance across, June, '15--Oct., '17, ii: 245; + _see also_ Italian Front. + + Carson, Sir Edward, + leader of Ulster opposition to Irish Home Rule, vi: 53, 60; + biography, ix: 50-53. + + Cary, Gen. Langle de, + commands a French army at first Marne battle, ii: 184. + + Casement, Sir Roger, + hanged for treason, Aug. 3, '16, i: 386, vi: 60, ix: 53; + negotiations with Germany, vi: 57; + captured, vi: 58. + + _Cassin_, U. S. destroyer torpedoed, account of, iv: 343. + + Castelletto, mined by Italians, viii: 311. + + Castelnau, Gen., commands French forces in Lorraine, iii: 16; + stops Germans at Roye, Sept., '14, iii: 38; + appointed Chief of Staff, Dec., '14, iii: 46; + at Verdun, iii: 304. + + Casualties, among troops attacking with tanks, ii: 284; + total in War, iii: 403; + classified by belligerents, iii: 404; + civilian deaths due to War, iii: 405; + per cent. of head wounds, viii: 64; + in World War compared with all other wars, 1800--1913, xii: 25; + money equivalent of man-power lost, military and civilian, xii: 25; + total battle deaths, by countries, xii: 288; + _see also_ under campaign, battle, and country. + + Cattaro, bombarded by French and British, Aug. 24, '14, i: 375. + + Caucasus, military operations in, Oct., '14--Jan., '15, ii: 91-92; + iii: 260-263, xi: 29; + early history, vi: 231; + conflict of racial interests, vi: 231; + Russian misrule in, vi: 231; + demand for self-government, '05, vi: 231; + effect of Russian Revolution, vi: 232; + rise of new nations under Russian Revolution, vi: 233. + + Caudron bombing airplanes, viii: 223. + + Causes, of War, + summarized by Dr. Chas. W. Eliot, i: _Intro. vii_; + complexity of, i: 2; + conflict of political systems, i: 4; + conflict of nationalistic aspirations, i: 5; + element of individual responsibility, i: 5; + German desire for war, i: 8; + colonial rivalry, i: 14; + Anglo-German economic rivalry, i: 78, 121; + German ambitions for world power, i: 83; + murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, i: iii; + Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg's statement of, i: 117; + Vice-Chancellor Helfferich's statement of, i: 119; + Dr. Dernburg's statement of, i: 120; + statement of German "Intellectuals" on, i: 120; + racial element in, i: 120; + German territorial ambitions, i: 122; + German excuse of Russian menace, i: 137, 139; + German statement of English responsibility, i: 193; + Prince Lichnowsky denies Anglo-German commercial jealousy, i: 193; + Ludendorff's analysis of, ii: 346; + _see also_ Germany, Responsibility for War. + + Cavalry, function in Palestine campaign, ii: 93; + Field-Marshal Haig on value of, ii: 120; + German military critic on importance of, ii: 260; + use in St. Mihiel drive, v: 206; + _see also_ under armies of each country. + + Cavell, Edith, executed Oct. 12, '15, i: 382; + story of, x: 172; + betrayed by Gaston Quien, x: 352. + + "C. C. Gear," + for timing machine-gun fire through airplane propeller blades, + viii: 214-216. + + Cecil, Lord Robert, advocate of League of Nations, xii: 155. + + Cemeteries for A. E. F. dead in France, v: 331, 400. + + Central Committee for Relief of Jews Suffering Through the War, + vii: 352; + _see also_ Jews. + + Central Council of Delegates meets in Berlin, Dec. 16, '18, vi: 283. + + Central Powers, unity of command established, ii: 330; + general strategic plan on Eastern Front, iii: 110; + mobilized strength, iii: 430; + war casualties, iii: 404; + prisoners of war, iii: 404; + peace proposals, Dec. 12, '16, vi: 313; + Anti-Slav policy, vi: 360; + war cost, xii: 27, 107; + rise in national debts, xii: 114; + _see also_ + Austria-Hungary; + Bulgaria; + Germany; + Turkey. + + Central Records Office, A. E. F., v: 402. + + Cereals, shipped to Europe by U. S., '16--'18, xii: 37. + + Cerna River, Serb attack on Bulgars at, Sept. 15, '18, iii: 213. + + Cernavoda, captured by Teutons, Oct. 25, '16, i: 388, iii: 221. + + Cernavoda-Constanza Railway, Teutons gain control of, iii: 221. + + Cettinje, captured by Austrians, Jan. 13, '16, i: 384. + + Chalons, abandoned by Allies, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375; + taken by French, Sept. 11, '14, i: 375; + system of trench defenses, v: 44. + + Chamberlain, Austen, + responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364. + + Chamberlaine, Brig.-Gen. Wm., + commands Railway Reserve, First Army, A. E. F., v: 305. + + Champagne, French offensive in, Sept., '15, ii: 25, iii: 46; + as possible sector for German spring drive, '18, ii: 67; + German offensive checked, July 15--17, '18, + v: 47, 129, 155, viii: 146-148; + A. E. F. participation in Allied defensive, July 15--17, '18, + v: 148-158. + + Champigneulle, attacked by 77th Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263. + + Champneuville, captured by Germans, Feb. 27, '16, i: 384. + + Chanak, town on Dardanelles, iv: 24; + bombarded by Allies, Mar. 6, '15, iv: 45. + + Channel ports, importance to Allies, ii: _Intro. viii_; + German drive for, '18, ii: 75, iii: 38, 359; + opposing views of Viscount French and Joffre on importance of, + ii: 172; + Belgian coast evacuated by Germans, Oct., '18, ii: 214. + + _Chant du Depart, Le_, French patriotic song, xi: 333. + + Chapman, Victor, + member of Lafayette Escadrille, killed at Verdun, iii: 391. + + Charcoal, use in gas masks, viii: 176. + + _Charge of the Tank Brigade_, + poem by Vilda Sauvage Owens, xi: 267. + + _Charlemagne_, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31. + + Charleroi, captured by Germans, Aug. 21--23, '14, i: 375. + + Charles Francis, Emperor of Austria-Hungary, + ascends throne, Nov. 21, '16, i: 388; + secret letter to Prince Sixtus asking for peace, + Mar., '17, ii: 63, 315; + conciliatory policy, vi: 313; + overthrown by Socialist revolution, '18, vi: 317; + letter of appeal to King Ferdinand of Rumania, vi: 317; + leaves Austria, Mar. 23, '19, vi: 319; + biography, ix: 371-373. + + Charpentry, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 27, '18, v: 227. + + Charteves, captured by 3rd Div., v: 383. + + Chasseurs, description, xi: 189. + + Chateau-Thierry captured by Germans, June 1, '18, ii: 154, iii: 93; + Ludendorff on A. E. F. fighting at, ii: 320; + re-occupied by A. E. F. and French, July 21, '18, iii: 96, v: 184; + German attempts to cross Marne at, repulsed by A. E. F., + May 31--June 3, '18, v: 35, 130, 134-135, 381-382, xi: 43; + location and importance, v: 133; + _see also_ Marne, battles of, July, '18. + + Chateauroux, U. S. gas-mask factory at, v: 324. + + Chatel-Chehery, captured by 28th Div., Oct. 7, '18, v: 243. + + Chatillon, Germans force bridgehead at, July 15, '18, v. 51. + + Chatillon Wood, taken by 60th Inf., Nov. 5, '18, v: 271. + + Chaulnes, captured by British, Mar. 17, '17, iii: 68. + + Chaumont, A. E. F. general headquarters, v: 100. + + Chaumont-en-Vixen, training area for 1st Div., v: 121. + + Chelsea War Refugees Fund, vii: 106. + + Chemery, captured by 42nd Div., Nov. 6, '18, v: 269. + + Chemical warfare, + poison gas first used by Germans at battle of Ypres, Apr., + '15, iii: 42, 288, 320, xi: 316, xii: 285; + first use against Russians, iii: 288-292; + Pierre Loti's description of gassed, iii: 320-322; + German projector batteries, v: 28; + U. S. Chemical Warfare Service, activities, v: 321-327, 401; + gas warfare development, v: 321; + kinds of poison gases used, v: 321, viii: 166-172; + mustard gas, v: 321, viii: 171, xi: 321; + phosgene (carbonyl chloride), v: 321, viii: 168-170; + U. S. production of gas shells, v: 324, 325; + invention in U. S. of super-poisonous gas, viii: _Intro. ix_; + methods of gas attack, viii: 162-165; + gas clouds, viii: 162-164, xi: 316; + gas shells, description and use, viii: 164, xi: 320; + poisoning and asphyxiation, differences, viii: 166-167; + carbon dioxide, asphyxiating properties, 166; + nitrogen, asphyxiating properties, viii: 166; + carbon monoxide, poisonous properties, viii: 166, 167, 168; + chlorine, use in gas attacks, viii: 168-170; + vaporous liquid poisons, use in gas attacks, viii: 170-172; + diphosgene, use in gas attacks, viii: 170; + xylyl bromide (tear gas), use in gas attacks, viii: 170; + chlorpicrin, use in gas attacks, viii: 171; + sneezing gas, use in gas attacks, viii: 171; + Lewisite, new American poison gas, deadliest of all, viii: 172; + methods of defense against gas attacks, viii: 173-179; + oxygen helmets, viii: 173; + gas masks, viii: 174-178; + use of charcoal in gas masks, viii: 176; + fans for blowing away poison gases, viii: 178; + use of neutralizing reagents, viii: 178; + wet blankets as air-locks, viii: 178; + U. S. poison-gas production at Edgewood Arsenal, + viii: 179-187, xii: 285; + gas gangrene, xi: 287; + international law on, xi: 313; + general description, xi: 313-323. + + Chemin des Dames, battle and capture of, + by Germans, May 27, '18, i: 395, ii: 76, 154, v: 132; + Germans driven from, '17, iii: 73-76; + training area for 26th Div., v: 117. + + _Chemung, S. S._, + American steamer torpedoed, Nov. 26, '16, i: 389. + + Chennery, captured by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263. + + Cheppy, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 225. + + Chiapovano Valley, Italian objective in '17 drive, ii: 58. + + Children in the War, xi: _Intro. ix-xiii_, 56-84; + letters of, xi: 60, 74-84; + brave Belgian boys run off to war, xi: 67; + Prudent Marius, the boy dispatch rider, xi: 69; + "The Little Serbian Sergeant," xi: 69; + American relief for European, xi: 84-93. + + Chile, neutral during War, vi: 390; + Tacna-Arica dispute with Peru, vi: 390. + + Chiles, Capt. Marcellus H., + gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401. + + Chilly, taken by French, Sept. 4, '16, i: 386. + + China, under foreigners' yoke, i: 18; + defeated by Japan in war of 1894, i: 20; + forced to accept "open door" policy, i: 38; + U. S. policy of "open door" in, i: 57; + special Japanese interests in, + recognized by Lansing-Ishii Note, '17, i: 58; + international position of, '14, i: 63; + severs diplomatic relations with Germany, Mar. 14, '17, i: 389; + declares war on Teutonic Allies, Aug. 14, '17, i: 390; + coolie labor in France, ii: 377, xii: 80, 85; + siege of Tsing Tau, iii: 257; + Tsing Tau seized by Germans, 1897, iii: 259; + origin of phrase "yellow peril," vi: 248; + Japanese demands on, '15, vi: 385; + coal production, '13--'15, xii: 48; + refuses to sign Peace Treaty with Germany, xii: 167; + delegates to Peace Conference, xii: 180; + German rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 206; + Kiao-Chau (Shantung) + transferred to Japan under Peace Treaty, xii: 209; + _see also_ Kiau-Chau; Shantung. + + "Chinese Citizen Boy," letter from, xi: 179. + + Chipilly Ridge, + 33rd Div. breaks German line at, 'Aug. 1, '18, v: 260. + + Chloride of lime, amount issued by U. S. Army, v: 324. + + Chlorine, first used by Germans in gas attack at Ypres, + Apr., '15, iii: 42, 288, 320, xi: 316, xii: 285; + poisonous properties of, viii: 166, 168; + use in chemical warfare, viii: 168-170; + manufacture of, at U. S. Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 183. + + Chlorpicrin, description of, v: 321; + use in chemical warfare, viii: 171; + manufacture of, at U. S. Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 185. + + _Choising, S. S._, + _Emdens's_ survivors transfer from _Ayesha_ to, iv: 192. + + Cholm, claimed by Poland and Ukraine, vi: 248. + + Chronoscope, for measuring reaction times, viii: 352. + + Chunuk Bair, Turk stronghold at Gallipoli, iii: 172; + Anzac attack on, iii: 173, 356-358; + _see also_ Gallipoli Campaign. + + Churchill, Winston Spencer, + advocates Dardanelles attack, ii: _Intro. x, xiv._, 29, 200; + responsibility for Gallipoli disaster, ii: 198, 200; + member of British Cabinet War Council, ii: 198; + defends Dardanelles campaign, ii: 205, iv: 56; + biography, ix: 44-47. + + Cierges, attacked by 37th Div., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229. + + Ciezkowice, captured by Germans, May 2, '15, i: 380. + + Cimone, Mt., taken by Italians, July 25, '16, i: 386. + + Citizenship, Bureau of, educational work among A. E. F., vii: 282. + + Cividale, taken by Germans, Oct. 28, '17, iii: 247. + + Civil War, Gen. Maurice on strategy of, + compared with World War, ii: _Intro. xiii._ + + Civilian deaths, due to War, iii: 405; + money value of, xii: 25. + + Clam-Martinitz, Premier of Austria-Hungary, appointment as, vi: 313. + + Clarkson, Grosvenor B., + Director of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 115; + on causes of high cost of living, xii: 142-148. + + Clausewitz, Gen. Karl von, + influence on development of German militarism, i: 166. + + Clay, Capt. W. L., inventor of armor-piercing bullet, viii: 60. + + Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, + between U. S. and Great Britain on Panama Canal, i: 86. + + Clemenceau, Georges, makes _Bonnet Rouge_ disclosures, vi: 105; + forms new War Cabinet, Nov., '17, vi: 106; + disagrees with Pres. Wilson's peace aims, vi: 108; + publishes letter of Emperor Charles to Prince Sixtus + offering to make peace, vi: 315; + biography, ix: 1-13, xi: 125; + record as Premier, ix: 12; + view of "Fourteen Points," ix: 13; + bibliography, ix: 13; + faith in Foch, ix: 151; + at the Peace Conference, xii: 149-163; + excludes Germans from, xii: 162. + + Clermont-Ferrand, U. S. Air-Service Training School at, v: 313. + + Clery-le-Grand, taken by 60th Inf., Nov. 1, '18, v: 262. + + Clery-le-Petit, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 2, '18. v: 264. + + Clifford, Rev. J. H., + "Doc of the Fifth," chaplain of U. S. Marines, x: 32-35. + + Clocks, for airplanes, viii: 220. + + Cloth, anti-gas, amount issued by U. S. Army, v: 324. + + Coal, abundance secret of German power, i: 267; + German production, 1880--1913, i: 267; + seizure of French mines by Germany, ii: 20; + consumption of, by A. E. F., v: 331; + Dutch supply from Germany, vi: 377; + U. S. production, '18--'19, xii: 46; + production by chief countries, '13--'17, xii: 47; + war-time price of, xii: 48; + Peace Treaty requirements for German deliveries + to France, Belgium, Italy, xii: 224. + + Coast Guard, Boy Scouts in, xi: 104. + + "Coastals," type of U. S. dirigibles, viii: 245, 256. + + Coblenz, bombed by Allied airmen, Oct. 1, '17, i: 392; + bridgehead at, occupied by A. E. F., Dec. 8, '18, i: 400, v: 394; + conditions for Allied withdrawal from, xii: 261. + + Cochin, Lieut., + French submarine commander, feat in clearing minefield, iv: 375. + + Codes, detection of, v: 319. + + Coetquidan, artillery training camp in Brittany, v: 6. + + Coffin, H. E., + Chairman of Committee on Industrial Preparedness, xii: 69; + views on industrial preparedness, xii: 69; + member of Advisory Commission, U. S. Council of National Defense, + xii: 116. + + Cohalan, Justice, + leads Irish-American movement for Irish Republic, vi: 65. + + Cold storage plants, use by A. E. F., v: 331. + + Colmar, French advance toward, Aug., '14, iii: 16. + + Cologne, bridgehead at, occupied by British, Dec. 6, '18, i: 400; + conditions for Allied withdrawal from, xii: 261. + + Colombia, pro-German attitude of, vi: 392. + + Colonies, important share of British, in winning War, i: 13; + loss of German, i: 13; + German miscalculation of loyalty of British, i: 14; + share of French, in final victory, i: 14; + European rivalries for, a chief cause of war, i: 14; + era of colonization by European nations, i: 26; + influence on development of naval power, i: 28; + colonization during 19th century, i: 37; + in Far East, i: 38; + expansion important motive in German war policy, ii: 13. + + _Columbia, S. S._, + American steamer sunk by U-boat, Nov. 7, '16, i: 388. + + Colyer, Sgt. Wilbur E., + gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 388. + + Combles, captured by Allies, + Sept. 26, '16, i: 388, iii: 58, 59; + recaptured by Allies, Aug. 30, '18, ii: 158. + + _Comite Nationale Belge de Secours et d'Alimentation_, + organization, vii: 120. + + Commerce, national rivalries, i: 262; + English blockade threatens ruin of German, vi: 253; + _see also_ Trade, under name of country. + + Commerce raiders, German, exploits of _Emden_, iv: 166-194; + _Koenigsberg_, career in Indian Ocean, iv: 195; + _Karlsruhe_, activities in Atlantic, iv: 196; + _Koenigin Luise_, operations in English Channel, iv: 197; + _Meteor_, activities in Baltic, iv: 197; + _Moewe_, converted merchantman, iv: 197; + _Seeadler_, iv: 198; + _Wolf_, seaplane carrier, iv: 198. + + Commissaries, political, in Russia, demoralize army, iii: 268; + Council of People's, dictatorship of, vi: 181; + _see also_ Russia. + + Commission for Relief in Belgium, vii: 116-144. + + Committee, of Mercy, vii: 87; + for Fatherless Children of France, vii: 105. + + Communication, lines of, + French railways available for A. E. F. use, '18, v: 110; + between France and Germany, v: 214. + + Compass, for airplanes, viii: 220; + Sperry gyro-compass, viii: 348. + + Comrades in Service, vii: 284. + + _Conduct of War, The_, by Marshal Foch, ix: 152. + + _Confederation Generale du Travail_, + French labor union, political activities, vi: 110. + + Congo, Belgian exploitation of, i: 50; + creation of Congo Free State, i: 50. + + Congo Conference, '84--'85, i: 16. + + Congress of Berlin, 1878, i: 16. + + Congressional Medal of Honor, + list and deeds of recipients during War, x: 388-402. + + Conner, Brig.-Gen. Fox, + Chief of Operations, A. E. F. General Staff, v: 102. + + Connolly, James, Sinn Fein leader, + wounded during Dublin rioting, Apr., '16, vi: 60; + Commandant-General of "Irish Republic," ix: 53. + + Conscientious objectors, treatment of, in Great Britain, vi: 8. + + Conscription, _see under_ name of country. + + Consevoie, U. S. engineers bridge Meuse at, Oct. 8, '18, v: 245. + + Constantine, King of Greece, abdicates throne, June 12, '17, i: 390; + opposed to Allied cause, iii: 202; + biography, ix: 380-382. + + Constantinesco, M., + inventor of "C. C. Gear" for regulating airplane fire, viii: 215. + + Constantinople, Russian ambitions for, i: 63; + captured by Turks, 1453, i: 90; + Gallipoli base of defense of, ii: 27; + key to early ending of War, ii: 29; + early history, iv: 18; + _see also_ + Gallipoli Campaign; + Turkey. + + Constantinople Convention, 1888, Suez Canal neutralized, i: 15. + + Constanza, captured by Teuton forces, Oct. 23, '16, i: 388, iii: 221; + bombarded by Russian fleet, Nov. 11, '16, i: 388. + + Constituent Assembly, Russian, + dissolved by Bolsheviki, Jan., '18, vi: 185. + + Contraband, _see_ Germany, Blockade. + + Contracts, between German and Allied nationals, + Peace Treaty provisions on status and methods of discharge, + xii: 240-243. + + Convoy service, difficulties of, iv: 317. + + Cook, Lieut. S. W., + co-inventor of depth-bomb launching device, iv: 331. + + Co-operative Societies, Siberia, + organization of landowning peasants, vi: 191. + + Cordite, composition and explosive properties, viii: 6. + + Corfu, seat of Serbian government transferred to, iii: 160; + meeting of Jugoslav representatives at, Aug., '17, vi: 359. + + _Cormoran, S. S._, + converted into auxiliary cruiser by _Emden's_ crew, vi: 169. + + _Cornwall_, British cruiser at Falklands, iv: 70. + + Cornwall, Jack, heroic British Boy Scout, xi: 98. + + _Cornwallis_, British battleship sunk, Jan. 9, '17, i: 389; + at Gallipoli, iv: 33. + + Coronel, battle of, Nov. 1, '14, iv: 64-68, ix: 308; + comparison of opposing fleets, iv: 64, 65; + Von Spee's account of, iv: 66; + British account of, iv: 67; + losses, iv: 68; + Sir Henry Newbolt on strategy of, iv: 68. + + Corps, compared with Division, v: 109. + + Cossacks, origin, vi: 146; + fight against Bolsheviki, vi: 192. + + Cost of living, _see_ Prices; + _also_ under each country. + + Cost of War, capitalized value of lives lost, iii: 406, xii: 25; + importance of money as war weapon, xii: 1; + compared with previous wars, xii: 24; + value of property destroyed, xii: 24, 25; + economic loss in man-power, xii: 25; + value of production loss, xii: 26; + value of tonnage sunk, xii: 26; + cost to Allies and Central Powers, xii: 27, 107; + meaning of "cost of war," xii: 105; + difficulties of computing money equivalent, xii: 105; + range of expenditures, xii: 105; + expenditures of different belligerents, xii: 106-107; + methods used to raise war funds, xii: 107-114; + taxation _vs._ borrowing, xii: 107; + rise in national debts of belligerents, xii: 114; + _see also_ under each belligerent. + + Costin, Pvt. Henry G., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 394. + + Cote de Chatillon, capture of, + by 42nd Div., Oct. 16, '18, v: 84, 250, 252. + + Cotes-de-Meuse, taken in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. 12--13, '18, v: 69. + + Cotton, not on British contraband list, ii: 21. + + Coulommiers, + Germans beaten back at, in first battle of the Marne, iii: 32. + + Council of National Defense, U. S., + _see_ United States, Council of National Defense. + + Courcelette, taken by Allies, Sept. 15, '16, i: 388. + + Courland, early history, vi: 226; + Republic of, established Apr., '18, xii: 279; + area, xii: 279; + population, Apr., '18, xii: 279; + _see also_ Baltic Provinces. + + Courtu, stormed by French in first battle of the Somme, '16, iii: 58. + + _Covington_, U. S. transport sunk, July 1, '18, i: 397, iv: 337. + + Cracow, Russian operations against, '14, iii: 127. + + Cradock, Adm. Sir Christopher, + commander of defeated British fleet in battle of Coronel, + iv: 63, ix: 308. + + Crandell, Miss Marion G., + American "Y" worker with French, killed vii: 313. + + _Cressy_, British cruiser, sunk by _U-9_, + Sept. 22, '14, iv: 205, x: 274-280, xi: 234. + + Crile, Col. George W., + first demonstrator of nitrous oxide as anaesthetic, vii: 68. + + Croats, early history, vi: 354; + antagonism to Italy, vi: 362. + + Croix de Guerre, awards to American "Y" workers, vii: 275, 313. + + Cromarty, as British naval base, iv: 94. + + Cromer, Lord, + chairman of commission to investigate Gallipoli disaster, ii: 197. + + Cronkhite, Gen. Adelbert, commander 80th Div., v: 144; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 219. + + Crothers, Rachel, starts Stage Women's War Relief, vii: 343. + + Crown Prince of Germany, _see_ Frederick William. + + Crown Prince of Prussia, _see_ Frederick William. + + Ctesiphon, + British defeated at, by Turks, Jan. 3, '16, i: 384, iii: 182; + description of Arch of, iii: 331; + collapse of British medical service at battle of, iii: 367. + + Cuba, revolt against Spain, i: 56; + declares war on Germany, Apr. 7, '17, i: 389; + debt to U. S., xii: 18; + Peace Conference delegate, xii: 180. + + Cuisy Wood, captured by 79th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 224. + + Cukela, 1st Lieut. Louis, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 388. + + Cumieres, captured and lost by Germans, May 23--27, '16, iii: 54, 312. + + Cunel, captured by 5th Div., Oct. 14, '18, v: 250. + + Curlu, captured by British, July 2, '16, i: 386. + + _Cushing_, + American ship attacked by German airplane, Apr. 28, '15, iv: 218. + + Custace, Capt. Frank M., war services, x: 322. + + Custer (85th) Division, _see_ U. S. Army. + + Customs duties, German, regulation of, by Peace Treaty, xii: 229. + + Cuxhaven, bombarded by British airmen, Dec. 25, '14, i: 378. + + _Cyclops_, U. S. collier, mysterious disappearance, iv: 356. + + Cyprus, acquired by Great Britain, i: 93. + + Cyrenaica, base of Turkish forces invading western Egypt, iii: 190. + + Czar of Russia, _see_ Nicholas II. + + Czechoslovakia, anti-Bolshevist forces in Russia, vi: 187, 192; + capture of Vladivostok, June, '18, vi: 192; + attack on Hungary, April--May, '19, vi: 326; + antagonism to Italy, vi: 362; + independence recognized, vi: 399; + German elements rebel against new government, vi: 399; + Socialist movement in, '19, vi: 400; + against Bolshevism, vi: 400; + claims Teschen at Peace Conference, vi: 400; + debt to U. S., xii: 18; + Peace Conference delegates, xii: 180; + Peace Treaty provisions for independence of, xii: 197; + use of German ports, Peace Treaty provisions for, xii: 253; + Republic established, Oct., '18, xii: 279; + area, xii: 279; + population, Oct., '18, xii: 279; + _see also_ Bohemia. + + Czernin, Count, Austro-Hungarian Minister of Foreign Affairs, + appointment as, vi: 313; + peace statement, July, '17, vi: 314; + resigns as Foreign Minister, vi: 315. + + Czernowitz, taken by Russians, Nov. 29, '14, i: 376, iii: 122; + abandoned by Russians, Jan. 5, '16, i: 384; + recaptured by Russians, June 17--18, '16, i: 385, iii: 144; + occupied by Teutons, Aug. 3, '17, i: 390. + + + D + + _Daffodil_, British ferryboat in Zeebrugge raid, iv: 262. + + Daghestan, Republic of, formed by Caucasian mountaineers, vi: 234. + + Dalmatia, Italian claims for, vi: 361; + conflict between Italians and Jugoslavs for possession of, vi: 365. + + D'Amade, Gen., commander of French forces at Gallipoli, iii: 167. + + Damascus, + captured by British and Arabs, Oct. 1, '18, i: 399, iii: 199. + + Damloup, scene of fighting at Verdun, iii: 55. + + Dammartin, 1st Div. headquarters, June, '18, v: 143. + + "Danger Zone," in rifle fire, viii: 93. + + Daniels, Josephus, biography, ix: 326-329. + + Dankl, Gen., + commands Austrian army invading Russian Poland, '14, iii: 118. + + Dannevoux, + scene of fighting in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept. 26, '18, v: 224. + + D'Annunzio, Gabriele, + pro-Ally propaganda during Italian neutrality, + ii: 239, vi: 119, 124, ix: 343; + manifesto on Italian claims for eastern Adriatic coast, vi: 368; + claims Fiume, vi: 369; + seizes Fiume, vi: 370; + biography, ix: 343-345; + author of _Song of the Dardanelles_, ix: 343; + message to America, ix: 344. + + _Danton_, French battleship torpedoed, Mar. 19, '17, iv: 376. + + Danube River, as barrier against invasion, iii: 151, 214; + bridge across, blown up by Rumanians, iii: 221; + internationalized by Peace Treaty, xii: 248. + + Danzig, demanded by Poland, vi: 225; + made free city under Peace Treaty, vi: 226, xii: 203. + + Dardanelles, Russian gateway to the sea, ii: 28, iii: 161; + closed by Turkey, Sept., '14, ii: 28; + strategic importance, ii: 29; + Narrows, critical point, ii: 29; + topography of shores, iii: 165, iv: 21, 23; + modern defenses, iii: 165, iv: 23, 27, 45; + early history, iv: 18-22; + early fortifications, iv: 19; + closed by Turkey to warships of other nations, iv: 20; + forced in 1807 by Adm. Duckworth, iv: 20; + fortified by Allies in Crimean War, iv: 20; + forced in 1878, by Adm. Hornby, iv: 21; + importance to Turkey, iv: 23; + importance of combining land and naval attacks in forcing, iv: 26; + description, xi: 14; + _see also_ Gallipoli Campaign. + + Dardanelles Expedition, _see_ Gallipoli Campaign. + + Dardanos Fort, bombarded by British, Feb. 19, '15, iv: 43. + + Dar-es-Salam, captured by British, iii: 255. + + Davis, Richard Harding, + description of German entry into Brussels, iii: 271-273; + description of burning of Louvain, iii: 273-277. + + Davison, Henry P., Chairman, War Council American Red Cross, vii: i; + biography, ix: 339. + + De Ram automatic camera for aerial photography, viii: 228, 333. + + De Valera, Prof. Eamonn, elected to Parliament, vi: 62; + arrest and escape from jail, vi: 65; + elected President of Irish Republic, ix: 55; + address to America, ix: 55. + + Dead Man's Hill, at Verdun, + battle of, May, '16, iii: 51, 53, 306, 308, 310, xi: 22. + + Debeney, Gen., commander of French First Army, ii: 212. + + Debts, national, of belligerents, xii: 111-114; + between German and Allied nationals, + Peace Treaty provisions for settlement of, xii: 232-236. + + Decorations, Congressional Medal of Honor, + list and deeds of recipients during War, x: 388-402. + + _Deductions from the World War_, + by Gen. Baron von Freytag-Loringhoven, summary of, ii: 254. + + _Defender_, + British destroyer in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240. + + _Defense_, British ship sunk at Jutland, iv: 121. + + Defense, elements in, iv: 4; + French trench system of, v: 12; + Gouraud's method of, against infiltration, + v: 46, 155, viii: 146-148; + _see also_ Tactics. + + Defense of the Realm Act, British, + as weapon against war-time labor strikes, vi: 14; + used to prevent electricians' strike, Feb., '19, vi: 20. + + Definitions, of popular war terms, xi: 359-362. + + Delcasse, Theophile, + dismissed as French Minister through German pressure, i: 99; + resignation from Viviani government, Oct., '15, vi: 100. + + Delousing, by Salvage Service of A. E. F., v: 331. + + Demir-hissar, occupied by Bulgars, iii: 207. + + Demir-Kapu, taken by French, Oct. 20, '15, iii: 204. + + Democracy, in Europe, as result of the War, i: _Intro. x_; + rise of, during 19th century, i: 29; + among American colonists, i: 29; + development in France, i: 30; + European reaction, 1814--40, i: 32; + failure of movement of 1848 in Germany, i: 32; + growth of national sentiment for, in U. S., '04--'14, i: 293. + + Demotika, ceded to Bulgaria by Turkey, vi: 344; + Turkey demands return of, vi: 345. + + Denikin, Gen., report on collapse of Russian armies, iii: 267-270; + leads fight on Bolsheviki, vi: 192, 248. + + Denmark, war with Prussia, 1864, i: _Intro. vii_; + neutral during War, vi: 393; + popular sentiment pro-Ally, vi: 393; + war-time increase in shipping, xii: 101. + + Depth bomb, evolution of, iv: 307; + use in fighting submarines, iv: 317; + development by U. S. Navy, iv: 330; + launching mechanism, iv: 331; + invention of "Y" gun, iv: 332; + for discharge from airplanes, iv: 332; + description, viii: 281, xi: 239. + + _Der Kampf_, Maximalist publication, vi: 314. + + _Der Tag_, the German "millennium," xi: 195. + + _Derflinger_, German cruiser in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246. + + Dernburg, Dr. Bernhard, justifies German war policy, i: 120; + heads German propaganda in U. S., i: 274, 316; + character sketch of, ix: 353. + + _Derriere Chez Mon Pere_, French soldiers' song, xi: 339. + + D'Esperey, Gen. Franchet, + commands French troops at first Marne battle, ii: 184, iii: 31; + commands Allied troops on Balkan front, ii: 218, iii: 212, vi: 347; + signs armistice with Hungary, vi: 323. + + Destroyers, + effectiveness against submarines, viii: _Intro. viii._ + + Detonation, of explosives compared with explosion, viii: 1. + + _Deutschland_, German merchant submarine, + arrives at Baltimore, July 9, '16, i: 334, iv: 214; + Capt. Koenig's account of trip, iv: 215; + feat in crossing Atlantic, x: 271-274. + + Devastation of France, + by Germans in retreat to Hindenburg Line, iii: 67; + French protest to neutrals, iii: 68; + German excuses for, iii: 68. + + _Devoir, Le_, Canadian Nationalist newspaper, vi: 30. + + D'Eyncourt, Sir E., share in development of tank, viii: 155. + + D. H. 10, British bombing planes, viii: 204. + + _Dhair Hissar_, Turkish torpedo-boat in AEgean, iv: 49. + + Diaz, Gen., succeeds Cadorna as Italian Commander-in-Chief, iii: 248. + + Dickebusch sector, A. E. F. in, v: 286, 289. + + Dickinson, Prof. G. Lowes, + defense of British conscientious objectors, vi: 8. + + Dickman, Maj.-Gen. Joseph T., + commands 3rd Div. at Mezy-Moulins, v: 51; + commands Fourth Corps at St. Mihiel, v: 65, 202, 386; + commands First Corps in Meuse-Argonne, v: 83, 132; + commands 3rd Div. at Chateau-Thierry, v: 132; + commands Army of Occupation, v: 395. + + Dilboy, Pvt. George, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 391. + + Dimethyl-trithiocarbonate (skunk gas), + use in chemical warfare, v: 322. + + Dinant, + Germans checked at, in march through Belgium, Aug., '14, iii: 12. + + Diphenylchlorarsine, use in chemical warfare, v: 322. + + Diphosgene, use in chemical warfare, viii: 170. + + Dirigibles, _see_ Aeronautics. + + Disarmament, Anglo-German negotiations, '12, i: 106, 194; + German answer to British proposals, i: 195. + + Disease, + statistics for U. S. Army, v: 402, vii: 179, 193-196, 208-209; + early handicaps in prevention, vii: 177; + preventive methods in U. S. Army, vii: 193, 245-248; + results of preventive methods, statistics for U. S. Army, vii: 195; + sanitation, vii: 253; + inoculation against, vii: 253; + prevention of infections among troops, viii: 392-397; + anti-typhoid immunization, viii: 393; + _see also_ + Infection; + Medical Science; + Sanitation. + + Distinguished Service Cross, awards of, to "Y" workers, vii: 272. + + "Divine right of kings," Kaiser's conception of, i: 68. + + Dixmude, occupied by Germans, Nov. 10, '14, i: 376; + evacuated by Germans, Dec. 20, '14, i: 376; + occupied by Belgians, Sept. 29--30, '18, i: 397; + German repulse at, in march through Belgium, '14, iii: 40. + + Dixmude-Ypres sector, + Allied offensive, Sept. 28--Oct. 3, '18, iii: 100. + + Djemal Pasha, + commander of Turkish forces operating against Suez, iii: 190. + + Dmitrieff, Gen., biography, iii: 119. + + Dmowski, Roman, leader of Polish reactionary parties, vi: 220. + + Dniester River, + Germans defeated at, in Galician campaign, '15, iii: 136. + + Dobrudja, German conquest of, Sept.--Oct., '16, ii: 60, iii: 218-221; + description of, iii: 215; + disastrous Rumanian counter-offensive, Oct., '16, iii: 220; + dispute between Germany and Bulgaria over, vi: 344; + overrun by Bulgarians, vi: 344. + + Docks, constructed by A. E. F. in France, v: 332, 400. + + Dogger Bank, battle of, + British defeat fleet of German raiders, Jan. 24, '15, iv: 246-253; + eye-witness accounts, iv: 247-250; + Adm. Beatty's official report, iv: 250. + + Dogs in War, as ambulance drawers, viii: 379; + varied activities, xi: 340-347; + story of "Cap," the Red Cross dog, xi: 362-367; + story of "Pat," Liberty Bonds salesman, xi: 396-402; + effect of food shortage on, xii: 40. + + Dommartin-la-Montagne, + captured by 26th Div., Sept. 12--13, '18, v: 69, 212. + + Don Republic, established Jan., '18, xii: 279; + area, xii: 279; + population, xii: 279. + + Dormans, 28th Div. holds German line at, July 15, '18, v: 53; + location, v: 133. + + Douai, German base in France, ii: 86. + + Douaumont Fort, at Verdun, + captured by Germans, Feb. 25--26, '16, + i: 384, ii: 189, iii: 48, 305; + French recapture and lose, May 22--25, '16, i: 385, iii: 310; + retaken by French, Oct. 24, '16, i: 388, iii: 61. + + Doughboys, spirit of self-assurance of, i: 370; + _see also_ U. S., Army. + + Doughnuts, Salvation Army specialty, vii: 399. + + Doulcon, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 92, 264. + + Dozier, 1st Lieut. James C., + gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395. + + Draft, _see_ Conscription under name of country. + + _Drake_, British cruiser torpedoed, Oct. 1, '17, i: 392. + + _Dresden_, German cruiser + in battle off Coronel, armament, iv: 65; + in battle of Falkland Islands, iv: 70; + sunk by British near Juan Fernandez, Mar. 14, '15, iv: 70. + + Drina River, crossed by Austrians invading Serbia, iii: 151. + + Drop bombs, viii: 76. + + Drummond, Sir James Eric, + first Secretary-General of League of Nations, xii: 186. + + Dubilier, Wm., inventor of anti-submarine listening device, iv: 308. + + Dublin, bloody fighting at, during Irish Rebellion, vi: 60. + + Dubno, captured by Russians, June 11, '16, i: 385, iii: 144. + + Duck-boards, use in mud fields of Flanders, viii: 300. + + Duds, deloading of, v: 326. + + Dueidar, Turks defeated at, Apr., '16, iii: 191. + + Duff, Sir Beauchamp, + responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364, 370. + + Dugouts, subterranean system of, in Hindenburg Line, v: 301. + + Dukla Pass, occupied by Russians, Dec., '14, iii: 127. + + Duma, Russian, reconvened, Feb. 22, '16, vi: 140; + struggle against reactionary government, vi: 140, 142, 144; + forces dismissal of Stuermer as Premier, vi: 142; + Czar issues undated decree ordering dismissal, vi: 144; + refuses to be dismissed, Mar. 10, '17, vi: 146; + activities during Revolution, Mar., '17, vi: 150-155; + establishes Provisional Government under Prince Lvov, vi: 155; + _see also_ Russia. + + Dumba, Dr. Constantin, + Austro-Hungarian Ambassador at Washington, i: 275; + dismissed from U. S. for instigating labor strikes, i: 275. + + Dun-sur-Meuse, captured by 61st Inf., Nov. 5, '18, v: 94, 271, 391; + bombed by U. S. airmen, v: 311. + + Dunant, Henri, + influence in organization of International Red Cross, vii: 12. + + Duncan, Maj.-Gen. George B., + brigade commander in Toul sector, Jan., '18, v: 115; + commands 77th Div., May, '18, v: 141. + + Dunkirk, bombarded by Germans, Apr. 30,'15, i: 380; + bombarded by Germans, June, 22, '15, i: 380; + German drive for, '14, iii: 40. + + Dunn, Rear-Adm. Herbert O., biography, ix: 295. + + Dunne, Edw. F., + member of Irish-American delegation to Peace Conference, vi: 66. + + Durazzo, occupied by Austrians, Feb. 26, '16, i: 384; + naval base at, destroyed by Allied warships, Oct. 1, '18, i: 399; + occupied by Italians, Oct. 13, '18, i: 399; + retreating Serbs embark for Corfu from, '16, iii: 286. + + Dushkin, Alexander, visits Europe for Jewish relief, vii: 360. + + Dutov, Gen., commands anti-Bolshevik troops in Siberia, vi: 192. + + Duval, traitorous owner of _Bonnet Rouge_, vi: 105; + found guilty and shot, vi: 106. + + Dwyer, Lance Corp. Edward, wins Victoria Cross, x: 128. + + Dyestuffs, + German deliveries to Allies, Peace Treaty demands, xii: 224. + + + E + + _E-7_, British submarine, exploit in Sea of Marmora, iv: 211. + + _E-9_, British submarine, in German waters, iv: 207. + + _E-11_, British submarine, daring in Sea of Marmora, iv: 210. + + _E-14_, British submarine, activities in Dardanelles, iv: 209. + + _E-50_, British submarine, rams U-boat, iv: 214. + + _E-54_, British submarine, sinks U-boat, iv: 212. + + Eagle Hut, American "Y" center in London, vii: 288, 300. + + East, Maj.-Gen. Maurice + on strategic value of campaigns in, ii: _Intro. vii-xxiv._ + + East Africa, German, conquered by Allies, iii: 255; + acquired by Great Britain, '18, xii: 271; + area and population, xii: 271. + + East Prussia, + Russian invasion of, Aug., '14, ii: 24, 227, iii: 110-116; + battle of Tannenberg, Aug., '14, ii: 24, iii: 112-116; + effect of Russian invasion on first battle of the Marne, ii: 227; + German campaigns against Russia, '14, Ludendorff's account, + ii: 353-357; + plan of Russian invasion, iii: 110; + importance, iii: 112; + Hindenburg's strategy, iii: 113; + strength of Hindenburg's forces, iii: 113; + decisive German victory at Mazurian Lakes, iii: 113; + Russian withdrawal, iii: 116; + plebiscite provisions of Peace Treaty, xii: 200. + + Eastern Front, fortifications of, iii: 109; + strategic aspects, iii: 110; + Austrian strategic plans, iii: 118; + _see also_ East Prussia; + Galicia; + Mazurian Lakes; + Poland. + + Eastern Karelia, military government established, May, '19, xii: 279; + area, xii: 279; + population, xii: 279. + + Ebert, Friedrich, + elected President of Germany, Feb., '19, + vi: _Intro. xiii_, 292; + appointed Chancellor, Nov., '18, vi: 273; + establishes new democratic government, Nov., '18, vi: 277; + states government's determination to put down Spartacides, + Jan. 8, '19, vi: 287; + outlines policies of Provisional Government, Feb., '19, vi: 292; + German press comment on personality, vi: 293; + biography, ix: 135-138. + + Economic strategy, in war, theory and example of, ii: 16; + Allied proposals for anti-German boycott, xii: 102. + + Ecuador, proletarian unrest, vi: 392; + delegates to Peace Conference, xii: 180. + + Ecurey, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 8, '18, v: 272. + + Edgewood Arsenal, great U. S. poison-gas plant, viii: 179-187. + + Education, bilingual schools discontinued in Canada, vi: 29; + A. E. F. becomes "College in Khaki," vii: 280; + A. P. Stokes makes survey for A. E. F., vii: 281; + Y. M. C. A. hut classes, vii: 281; + demand for text-books in A. E. F. schools, vii: 282; + A. E. F. post schools, vii: 282; + work of Bureau of Citizenship among A. E. F., vii: 282; + U. S. soldier students at French and British universities, + vii: 282, 290; + Army Educational Committee, vii: 282; + A. E. F. university at Beaune, vii: 282; + Y. M. C. A. work for prisoners of war, vii: 306. + + Edward VII promotes Anglo-French good will, i: 98. + + Edwards, Maj.-Gen., + commands 26th Div. at St. Mihiel, Sept., '18, v: 202; + relieved of command, Oct. 24, '18, v: 252. + + Effects Depot, S. O. S., for care of effects of deceased men, v: 331. + + Eggers, Sgt. Alan Louis, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 392. + + Eggs, imports of, by Germany, ii: 18. + + Egli, Col., head of Swiss Intelligence Service, + tried for unneutral communication with Germans, vi: 380. + + Egypt, British establish themselves in, 1882, i: 48; + British control recognized by France, '04, i: 99; + anti-British German propaganda, iii: 188; + political unrest, iii: 188; + operations against Suez Canal, iii: 189; + Turks start offensive in western Egypt, iii: 190; + Turks driven out, '16, iii: 191; + tribesmen suppressed, '16--'17, iii: 191; + resentment against British domination, vi: 67; + popular pro-Turkish sympathy, vi: 68, 330; + Nationalist cry against "British oppression," vi: 69; + Great Britain declares protectorate over, + Dec. 19, '14, vi: 69, xii: 279; + Nationalist movement for independence, '18, vi: 70; + insurrection, '19, vi: 71; + German rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 208; + area, xii: 279; + population, '14, xii: 279. + + Eichhorn, chief of Berlin police, deposed, Jan. 5, '19, vi: 287. + + Eichorn, Marshal von, assassinated by Ukrainian, vi: 187, 248. + + Eisner, Kurt, + becomes head of Bavarian Socialist Republic, Nov., '18, + vi: 273, 280; + appeals to German national government on behalf of + Berlin Spartacides, vi: 288; + assassinated, Feb. 21, '19, vi: 298. + + El Arish, occupied by Turks, Jan., '15, iii: 189; + taken by British, Dec. 22, '16, iii: 192. + + El Kubri, Turks engage British in vicinity of, iii: 190. + + El Tasher, British defeat Sudanese at, May, '16, iii: 191. + + Elbe, + internationalized by Peace Treaty, rules of navigation, xii: 248. + + Electric drive, description and advantages of, iv: 322; + successfully applied in _U. S. S. New Mexico_, iv: 322. + + Electric welding, use in repairing interned German liners, iv: 319; + use in U. S. in construction of ships, iv: 322. + + Elles, Gen., commander of British Tank Corps, iii: 377. + + Elliott, Col., + leader of British Marines, killed in Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 264. + + Ellis, Sgt. Michael B., wins Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 388. + + Ely, Maj.-Gen., Hanson E., + as colonel, commands 28th Inf. at Cantigny, May 28, '18, v: 124; + assigned to command of 5th Div., Oct. 21, '18, v: 252. + + _Emden_, German commerce raider, exploits of, iv: 166-194; + method of sinking captured ships, iv: 173; + bombards Madras, Sept. 18, '14, iv: 174; + attacks Penang Harbor, Oct. 28, '14, iv: 178; + lands force on Keeling Island, Nov. 9, '14, iv: 184; + attacked by _Sydney_ off Keeling Island, Nov. 9, '14, iv: 185; + destruction of, report of captain of _Sydney_, iv: 187; + summary of raiding activities, iv: 189; + landing force at Keeling escapes on _Ayesha_, iv: 190-194. + + Emmich, Gen. von, commands German attack on Liege, iii: 10. + + Emont Wood, cleared by 37th Div., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229; + 37th Div. retreats from, Sept. 29, '18, v: 230. + + Emplacements, + duplicate, permitting rotation of artillery in trenches, v: 14. + + _Empress Maria_, Russian dreadnought, + blown up in Black Sea, iv: 366. + + Enfield rifle, facilities for manufacture in U. S., v: 347; + standard British service rifle, viii: 95; + U. S. production figures, xii: 284. + + Engineering, development in U. S. Navy, iv: 319; + relation of, to war, viii: 298-302. + + Engines, shipment of American locomotives to France, xii: 286. + + England, _see_ Great Britain. + + Entente Cordiale, established between France and Russia, 1891, i: 98. + + Entertainment, + 27th Div. theatrical troupe, v: 299; + Over-There Theater League, activities, vii: 277, 339-343; + for A. E. F., by Y. M. C. A., vii: 277; + at Winchester camp, vii: 287; + for Army of Occupation, vii: 292; + for A. E. F. in Siberia, vii: 295; + "Y" program for Navy, vii: 299; + by Stage Women's War Relief, vii: 346, 348. + + Enver Pasha, leader of Young Turks, i: 109, ix: 270; + commander of Turkish army, iii: 164; + in Caucasus campaign, iii: 260; + biography, ix: 270-274. + + Eperlecques, training area for 30th Div., v: 300. + + Epieds, German stand at, in retreat from Marne, July 21, '18, v: 184; + General Degouette commends Americans for service at, v: 192. + + Epionville, taken by 91st Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 225. + + Ersatz, German, i: 72. + + Erskine, Prof. John, member of Army Educational Commission, vii: 282; + educational director of A. E. F. university at Beaune, vii: 283. + + Erwin, Brig.-Gen. James B., commands 6th Div., Aug., '18, v: 197. + + Erzberger, leader of German Center Party, vi: _Intro. xiii_; + becomes Minister of Finance, July, '19, vi: _Intro. xiii._ + + Erzerum, + captured by Russians, Feb. 15, '16, i: 384, ii: 91, iii: 262. + + Erzingan, captured by Russians, July 25, '16, i: 386, iii: 263. + + Eseka, captured by French, Oct. 30, '15, i: 382. + + Esnes, location of, v: 217; + 4th Engineers build road from, to Malancourt, Sept., '18, v: 226. + + Essen, bombarded by Belgian airplanes, Nov. 19, '15, i: 382. + + Essen trench, captured and reversed by French, Oct. 1--3, '18, v: 254. + + Essey, captured by 42nd Div., Sept. 12, '18, v: 211. + + Essomes-sur-Marne, location of, v: 133. + + Estaires, occupied by Germans, Apr. 10--11, '18, i: 395. + + Esternay, destruction by Germans, iii: 297. + + Esthonia, early history, vi: 226; + independent Republic established, Apr., '18, vi: 230, xii: 279; + area, xii: 279; + population, '18, xii: 279; + _see also_ Baltic Provinces. + + Estrayes Wood, captured by 29th Div., Oct. 23, '18, v: 252. + + Etraye, threatened by 33rd Div., Oct. 7, '18, v: 82; + ridge taken by 29th Div., Oct. 23, '18, v: 86; + captured by 79th Div., Nov. 9, '18, v: 272. + + Eupen, ceded to Belgium, under Peace Treaty, vi: 89, xii: 188. + + Europe, area of greatest nationalistic development, i: 9; + race rivalries in, i: 21; + alignment of nations at outbreak of War, ii: 2; + general conditions, winter '17--'18, v: 1, 113; + military situation in, Nov. 1, '18, v: 253. + + Evan-Thomas, Rear-Adm. Hugh, + commands British 5th Battle Squadron at battle of Jutland, iv: 110. + + Everts, Gen., commander of Russian Army of the Bug, iii: 119. + + Exermont Valley, slopes taken by 182nd Brig., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229; + heavy A. E. F. casualties at, Oct. 5, '18, v: 240. + + Explosion, compared with detonation, viii: 1. + + Explosive shell, compared with shrapnel, ii: 288. + + Explosives, _see_ Ammunition. + + Extraterritoriality, explained, i: 17; + Japan withdraws rights of, i: 18; + Turkey withdraws rights of, i: 18. + + + F + + _Falaba, S. S._, British steamer, + sunk by German submarine, Mar., '15, i: 319, 378, iv: 218. + + Falkenhayn, Gen. Erich G. A. S. von, + sent to regain Bagdad, ii: _Intro. xx_, iii: 196; + invades Rumania, ii: 60, iii: 218; + replaced as Chief of German General Staff by von Hindenburg, + iii: 61; + biography, ix: 262. + + Falkland Islands, battle of, + British defeat German fleet, Dec. 8, '14, + i: 376, iv: 69-85, ix: 308; + strength of opposing fleets, iv: 70; + von Spee's strategy, criticism of, iv: 70; + Sturdee's tactics, iv: 71; + German cruiser _Dresden_ escapes, iv: 74; + British casualties, iv: 74; + German loss in men and ships, iv: 74; + importance of victory, iv: 74; + Admiral Sturdee's official report, iv: 75-79; + eye-witness accounts, iv: 80-85. + + Fallon, Capt. David, brave tank commander, x: 165. + + _Falmouth_, British cruiser sunk, Aug. 19, '16, i: 386; + at battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241. + + Falzarego Pass, limit of Italian advance in Cadore, iii: 234. + + _Fanning_, U. S. destroyer, captures German submarine, iv: 350. + + Fanning Island, + Germans destroy wireless station at, Sept. 7, '14, iv: 62. + + Fao, British land at, Nov. 7, '14, iii: 180. + + _Farewell_, poem by Lieut. Robert Nichols, R. F. A., vii: 389. + + Farman airplane, viii: 189. + + Farnsworth, Maj.-Gen. Charles S., + commands 37th Div., June, '18, v: 145; + in Marne-Aisne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 219. + + Fay, Robert, German agent, plots to blow up ships, x: 369-377. + + Fay-en-Haye, location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199. + + Fayolle, Gen., + commands Allied forces opposing German drive on Paris, '18, + ii: 152; + decorated for Somme campaign, iii: 60. + + _Fearless_, + British cruiser in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240. + + Federalism, development in America and Europe, i: 30. + + Ferdinand, Archduke Francis, + _see_ Francis Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria. + + Ferdinand, Czar of Bulgaria, abdicates, Oct. 5, '18, i: 399, vi: 347; + proclamation to army, vi: 340; + appeals to Germany, vi: 347; + character, ix: 378; + biography, ix: 378-380. + + _Ferdinand of Bulgaria_, poem by D. S. P., ix: 376. + + Ferdinand, King of Rumania, biography, ix: 399-401. + + Fere Forest captured by 42nd Div., July 26, '18, v: 58. + + Ferrero, Guglielmo, Italian historian, + comparison of German militarism with Roman imperialism, + ii: 365-372; + sympathy with Allies, '14, vi: 119. + + Fertilizers, shortage in Germany during blockade, ii: 18. + + Field glasses for A. E. F., viii: 326. + + Finland, signs peace with Germany, Mar. 7, '18, i: 393; + political history, 1809--1914, vi: 196; + granted autonomy, 1809, vi: 196; + autonomy revoked, 1899, vi: 196; + threatened with class revolution, '05, vi: 196; + socialist tendency in Diet, '05, vi: 196; + nationalism assailed by Russian bureaucracy, '14, vi: 196; + German aid against Russification, vi: 196; + declares independence, Mar., '17, vi: 198; + base for Russian revolutionary activities, '17, vi: 198; + Bolshevik revolution, Nov., '17, vi: 198; + Russia recognizes Bolshevik government, '17, vi: 198; + Socialists demand union with Russian Soviet, Nov. '17, vi: 198; + White Guards recalled from Germany to quell civil war, vi: 198; + General von der Goltz sent to aid Whites, vi: 199; + Republic established by moderate Socialists, '18, vi: 200; + new government recognized by Great Britain and U. S., '18, vi:200; + Bolshevism stamped out by Mannerheim, '18, vi: 200; + origin of inhabitants, vi: 200; + area and population, xii: 279. + + _Finland_, U. S. transport sunk by U-boat, Nov. 2, '17, i: 392; + torpedoed, Oct. 27, '17, iv: 337. + + _Firedrake_, + British destroyer in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241. + + First aid, importance in treatment of wounded, vii: 178. + + Fisher, Adm. Lord John, + responsibility for Gallipoli disaster, ii: 198, 200; + views on advisability of Dardanelles expedition, ii: 203; + biography, ix: 288-290. + + Fisher, Prof. Irving, + analysis of high cost of living, xii: _Intro._ + + Fiske, Rear-Adm. Bradley T., invents torpedo plane, iv: 335. + + Fiske, Brig.-Gen. H. B., + Chief of Training, A. E. F., Sept., '17, v: 102. + + Fismes, captured by 32nd Div., Aug. 6, '18, v: 61; + taken and retaken by U. S. divisions, July--Aug., '18, v: 189; + General Degoutte commends Americans for services at, Sept. 9, '18, + v: 192. + + Fismette, captured by 28th Div., Aug., '18, v: 62. + + Fiume, conflict of Italians and Jugoslavs for, vi: 365; + arrival of U. S. troops at, vi: 366; + Italian delegates withdraw from Peace Conference + in controversy over, vi: 368-370, xii: 159; + occupied by D'Annunzio, vi: 370; + awarded to Italy conditionally, vi: 370. + + _Five Souls_, poem by W. N. Ewer, xi: 93. + + Flabas, captured by 26th Div., Nov. 8, '18, v: 271. + + Flanders, battles of: + Oct., '14, nature of terrain, iii: 38, viii: 299; + extent of battle line, iii: 38; + Foch cuts dikes of Yser, iii: 40; + Germans repulsed, iii: 40. + Aug., '17, failure of British offensive, ii: 56; + Ludendorff's criticism of, ii: 343; + description of, iii: 78-80; + duration, iii: 78; + objects, iii: 78; + Allied offensive checked by rains, iii: 79; + Passchendaele Ridge captured by Canadians, iii: 79; + Allied gains, Sept.--Oct., '17, iii: 79; + results, iii: 79. + Sept., '18, Belgians and British renew offensive, v: 213. + + Flemings, failure of German propaganda among, vi: 86. + + Flers, captured by Allies, Sept. 15, '16, i: 388. + + Fleury, at Verdun, captured by French, Aug. 3, '16, i: 386; + captured by Germans, '16, iii: 313. + + Fleville, captured by 16th Inf., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240. + + _Florence H._, cargo-carrier, heroism of crew, iv: 354. + + Florina, occupied by Allies, Sept. 18, '16, i: 388, iii: 208; + occupied by Bulgars, Aug. 17, '16, iii: 207, 208. + + "Flying Dutchman," name applied to _Emden_, iv: 187. + + Foch, Marshal Ferdinand, + strategy of, in Allied offensive, '18, ii: 76-98, 212, v: 213; + at second Marne battle, ii: 77, 154; + theories on strategy, ii: 80, 81, 103, 137; + takes initiative of attack from Germans, ii: 84, v: 130; + as Lieut.-Col., Professor of General Tactics at Ecole de Guerre, + ii: 103, 137, 220; + share in victory at first Marne battle, + ii: 103, 138-142, 182, 184, 220; + author of _Principles of War_, summary, ii: 104; + conception of _mind_ as determining factor in victory, + ii: 138; + on functions of a general, ii: 138; + theories on battle tactics, ii: 138; + commands 20th Corps at Nancy, '14, ii: 138; + organizes new French army, '14, ii: 138; + famous despatch during first Marne battle, ii: 141, iii: 33; + given command of French Army of the North, Oct., '14, + ii: 143, iii: 38; + floods Belgium as defense against Germans, '14, ii: 145; + stops British retreat at Ypres, '14, ii: 145, 220; + commands French at Somme battle, July, '16, ii: 148; + appointed co-ordinator of Allied operations, Dec., '16, ii: 148; + appointed Chief of Staff, French Army, Mar., '17, ii: 148; + sends reinforcements to check Italian rout, ii: 149; + French representative on Allied War Council, ii: 149; + appointed Allied Commander-in-Chief on Western Front, Mar. 28, '18, + ii: 151, iii: 89, v: 120, 380, xi: 41; + analysis of weakness of German drive, '18, ii: 154; + made Marshal of France, ii: 156, iii: 97; + Viscount French's eulogy of, ii: 170; + General Malleterre's eulogy of, ii: 220; + commands 20th Corps at battle of the Selle, '14, iii: 18; + repulses Germans at Mondement, '14, iii: 33; + member Inter-Allied General Staff, iii: 84; + text of appointment as Allied Commander-in-Chief, v: 380; + biography, ix: 148-153; + Clemenceau's estimate of, ix: 151; + pronunciation of name, ix: 151; + bibliography, ix: 153; + members of family killed in War, ix: 153; + military commandments, xi: 55; + conference with Secretary Baker, at Trois Fontaines, Oct. 4, '18, + xii: 277. + + Focsani, captured by Germans, Jan. 8, '17, i: 389. + + Fogaras, captured by Rumanians, iii: 218. + + Fokker airplane, machine-gun mounting on, viii: 192, 208-210. + + Foltz, Brig.-Gen. F. S., commands 91st Div., July, '18, v: 196. + + Food, sent to Europe from U. S., '16--'18, xii: 36; + importance in winning War, xii: 40, 135; + War's effect on neutrals, xii: 42; + European relief by U. S., Hoover's report, xii, 42; + situation in Europe after armistice, xii: 43; + world's requirements and supply, '19, xii: 44; + use of potatoes as, xii: 47; + U. S. exports to Europe, before and during War, xii: 135; + problem of national self-sufficiency, xii: 135; + war-time sugar shortage, xii: 138; + national tastes in, xii: 138; + scientific rations _vs._ personal taste, xii: 139; + scientific rations as conservation measure, xii: 139; + Inter-Allied Scientific Food Commission, functions, xii: 139; + war-time government control, xii: 140; + U. S. wheat exports to Allies, July 1, '17--July 1, '18, xii: 141; + _see also_ under each country. + + Foreign Legion, American enlistments in, '14--'17, iii: 391; + in Aisne-Marne Offensive, July 18, '18, v: 168; + heroic story of, x: 27-32; + history, xi: 193. + + Forestry, A. E. F. operations, v: 334, 400. + + Forests, French, chief source of Allied lumber supply, viii: 307. + + Foret Wood, captured by 4th Div., Oct. 11, '18, v: 248. + + Forges, captured by Germans, Mar. 6, '16, iii: 51, 306; + captured by 33rd Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 224. + + _Formidable_, + British battleship sunk by U-boat, Jan. 1, '15, i: 378. + + Formosa, acquired by Japan, 1895, i: 20. + + Forrest, Sgt. Arthur J., wins Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401. + + Forstner, Lieut. von, share in Zabern incident, i: 73. + + Fortescue, Granville, + description of scenes behind Turkish lines at Gallipoli, iii: 340. + + Foster, Sgt. Gary Evans, wins Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395. + + "Fourteen Points," President Wilson's basis for peace, xii: 163-165. + + "Foyers du Marin," "Y" huts for French sailors, vii: 313. + + "Foyers du Soldats," comfort huts for French soldiers, vii: 310; + number, vii: 311; + locations, vii: 313. + + Fractures, treatment of, viii: 367. + + France: + Air Service, strength at end of War, viii: 201; + personnel and equipment, viii: 202, 206. + Army, increase in, for '14, i: 132; + German estimate of military effectiveness, '14, ii: 4; + military resources, Aug. 1, '14, ii: 12; + German military critic on, ii: 256; + uniform, ii: 286; + pre-War organization, iii: 3; + morale, '17, iv: 10; + relations with A. E. F., v: 22; + type of service rifle, viii: 95; + medical service, viii: 362-365; + Chasseurs, xi: 189; + Spahi, xi: 189; + Zouaves, xi: 189; + Tirailleurs, xi: 191; + Foreign Legion, xi: 193; + _see also_ Foreign Legion; + for military operations, _see_ name of campaign. + Artillery, famous "75's," efficiency of, ii: 287; + plan of rotating in trenches, v: 14; + 520-mm. (21-inch) howitzers, viii: 51-53. + Casualties, total in War, ii: 116, iii: 404; + money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25; + total battle deaths, xii: 288. + Cost of living, per cent. rise during War, xii: _Intro. x._ + Declarations of war, by Germany on, Aug. 3, '14, i: 140; + on Austria-Hungary, Aug. 10, '14, i: 375; + on Turkey, Nov. 5, '14, i: 376; + on Bulgaria, Oct. 16, '15, i: 382; + popular reception of, '14, vi: 95. + Food, potato crop, xii: 47; + war-time sugar shortage, xii: 138. + Foreign policy, occupation of Algeria, i: 37; + world position, 1871, i: 47; + world position, '14, i: 59; + Triple Entente among France, Russia, Great Britain, + i: 98, 103, 106, 107, 218, 220, ii: 2; + Entente Cordiale with Russia, 1891, i: 98; + Anglo-French Treaty of, '04, i: 99; + Franco-Russian treaty of July, '12, i: 107; + Anglo-French agreement for united action + against "third Power," '12, i: 107, 220; + Russian alliance cause of entry into War, i: 220; + pledge to respect Belgian neutrality, i: 223; + French complaints of British shirking of war duty, iii: 382; + Austro-Hungarian attempts to make peace with, '17, vi: 315; + claims to Asiatic Turkey under secret treaties, '16--'17, vi: 334; + Turkish policy announced, Nov. 7, '18, vi: 334. + Forests, chief source of Allied lumber supply, viii: 307. + Frontiers, topography of German border, ii: 6; + defenses, iii: 2; + natural gateways on, v: 214. + Industries, war-time disorganization, xii: 79; + economic value of A. E. F. to, xii: 86; + German destruction in invaded territory, xii: 87. + Internal politics, development of democracy, i: 30; + organization of War Cabinet by Viviani, vi: 97; + fall of Viviani government, Oct. 28, '15, vi: 100; + nation united in War aims, vi: 101; + mixed reception of Wilson's peace proposals, vi: 102; + Socialists advocate peace by negotiation, vi: 102, 103; + fall of Briand ministry, '17, vi: 103; + effect of Russian Revolution, vi: 103; + Stockholm Conference causes crisis, vi: 103; + _Bonnet Rouge_ disclosures wreck Ribot Cabinet, '17, + vi: 104; + Painleve forms new Cabinet, vi: 105; + Painleve ministry falls, Nov., '17, vi: 106; + Clemenceau succeeds as Premier, vi: 106; + Clemenceau overcomes pacifist opposition, vi: 106; + growth of labor movement in politics, vi: 109; + class war, '19, vi: 110; + Jaures parade, '19, vi: 110; + significance of attempt to kill Clemenceau, vi: 110; + French peace aims, vi: 111; + May Day riots, '19, vi: 111; + class war intensified, vi: 113. + Labor, war achievements, ii: 373-382; + shortage due to mobilization, ii: 373; + skilled workers recalled from army, ii: 374; + women as munition workers, ii: 376; + foreigners recruited for war work, ii: 377; + importation of Chinese laborers, ii: 377; + use of colonials, ii: 377; + use of prisoners of war, ii: 377; + size of labor army, ii: 377; + housing of war workers, ii: 377; + co-operative societies for provisioning of war workers, ii: 378; + protection for women workers, ii: 379; + war-time abandonment of strike and sabotage, ii: 379; + state intervention in industrial disputes, ii: 380; + growth of syndicalism, ii: 381; + demand for share in management, ii: 381; + selective assignment to industries, xii: 79. + Minerals, German plans for seizure of iron mines, + i: 122, 267, ii: 15, 20; + coal production, '13--'17, xii: 48. + Morale, of people during War, i: _Intro. xiii_, ii: 383-392; + war-time unity, ii: 385; + factors in war-time unity, ii: 392; + depression, '17--'18, v: 2. + Munitions, statistics on ordnance production, ii: 373; + immensity of need unforeseen, ii: 373. + Navy, strength in '06, i: 101; + increase in, for '14, i: 132; + entrusted control of Mediterranean by Allies, iv: 12; + strength at outbreak of War, iv: 13, 373; + war record in Mediterranean, iv: 373; + work in Dardanelles, iv: 375; + _Fusiliers marins_, French naval gunners, + on Western Front, iv: 376; + protection of French coast, iv: 377; + anti-submarine activities, iv: 378. + Peace Conference, delegates to, xii: 179; + _see also_ Peace Conference. + Peace Treaty, ratified, Oct. 13, '19, xii: 264; + _see also_ Peace Treaty. + Population, in 1860, i: 40; + in 1874, compared with that of Germany, i: 61; + in '14, compared with that of Germany, i: 61; + growth since 1870 compared with that of Germany, i: 262. + Prisoners of war, iii: 404. + Railroads, unprecedented war-time demands on, xii: 91; + equipment shipped to France by U. S., xii: 95, 286. + Reconstruction, material needs, xii: 87. + Shipping, war losses, xii: 87. + War cost, loans floated in U. S., Aug., '14--Jan., '17, xii: 2; + income-tax rates compared with British and U. S., xii: 4; + debt to U. S., xii: 18, 31; + money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25; + value of property loss, xii: 26; + Andre Tardieu's estimate, xii: 86; + average daily war cost, xii: 106; + total war cost, Aug., '14--Mar., '19, xii: 107; + taxation, xii: 109; + loans, xii: 111; + rise in national debt, xii: 111-113, 114. + War relief, _see_ War relief. + + Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, heir to Austrian throne, i: 111; + murdered with consort at Sarajevo, + June 28, '14, i: 111, 375, vi: 306, xi: 4; + responsibility of Serbian government for murder, i: 112; + responsibility disclaimed, i: 246; + causes and results of murder, vi: 135; + national policy, vi: 356. + + Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria-Hungary, + dies, Nov. 21, '16, i: 388, vi: 313; + tragedies of reign, vi: 305; + proclamation against Italy, vi: 310; + biography, ix: 370-373. + + Franco-American Committee for Protection of Children of Frontier, + vii: 101. + + Francois, Gen. von, German commander in East Prussia, iii: 111. + + Frankenau, Russians defeat Germans near, Aug. 22, '14, iii: 111. + + Frankfurt, bombed by Allied airmen, Oct. 1, '17, i: 392. + + Frantz, Gen. von, + protest against Allies' peace terms, May, '19, vi: 302. + + _Frauenlob_, German cruiser, + torpedoed in Baltic by British, Nov. 7, '15, i: 382. + + Frederick William, German Crown Prince, + moving spirit for campaign in West, '14, ii: 13; + commands an Army at first Marne battle, ii: 184; + renounces succession, Nov. 9, '18, ii: 340; + commands one of armies of invasion, '14, iii: 10; + commands German armies at Verdun, '16, iii: 303; + detained at Wieringen by Dutch, Nov., '18, vi: 278; + biography, ix: 367-369. + + Free Milk for France, fund started, vii: 376; + object, vii: 376; + French testimonials, vii: 379. + + Freedom of the seas, U. S. note to Germany on, i: 324; + Maurice Revai, Austro-Hungarian deputy, on Teutonic conception of, + ii: 27; + definition, xi: 18. + + French Heroes' Lafayette Memorial Fund, vii: 90, 110-116. + + French, Field-Marshal Sir John, Viscount of Ypres, + report on events leading to first Marne battle, ii: 9; + first British commander-in-chief in France, + ii: 159, iii: 22, ix: 180; + publishes _1914_, account of military operations of year, + ii: 159; + summary of _1914_, ii: 160-174; + arrival in France, ii: 161; + dispute with Kitchener on British military policy in France, + ii: 164, 169; + expose of British shell shortage, ii: 173; + overruled by Joffre on plan for offensive against Channel ports, + ii: 174; + commands British at first Marne battle, ii: 184; + official despatch on Mons retreat, iii: 24; + relieved as commander-in-chief, iii: 46, ix: 52; + biography, ix: 177-181; + Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, '18, ix: 181. + + French-Swiss, characteristics of, vi: 380. + + French Wounded Emergency Fund, vii: 91. + + Fresne, captured by Germans, Mar. 7, '16, i: 384. + + Fresnes-en-Woevre, + taken by 4th Div. in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. 13, '18, v: 69. + + Freyberg, Colonel, New Zealander, wins Victoria Cross, x: 131. + + Freytag-Loringhoven, Gen. Baron von, + German military critic, view on German tactics at start of War, + ii: 10; + summary of his _Deductions from the World War_, ii: 254; + exposition of German war philosophy, ii: 260. + + Fricourt, captured by Allies in Somme battle, iii: 58. + + Friedrichshaven, bombarded by British airmen, Nov. 21, '14, i: 376. + + Frise, captured by Germans, Jan., '16, iii: 47. + + Fryatt, Capt. Chas., + executed by Germans, July 27, '16, i: 386, x: 265-269; + attempts to ram _U-33_, Mar. 20, '15, x: 265; + Ambassador Gerard's intervention for, fails, x: 265. + + Fuchs, Lieut.-Gen., + German commander in St. Mihiel salient, Sept., '18, v: 201. + + Funk, Pvt. Jesse N., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401. + + Furlong, 1st Lieut. Richard A., + gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401. + + Fyfe, Hamilton, + defense of General Gough in defeat of British Fifth Army, ii: 190. + + + G + + _G-13_, British submarine, sinks U-boat, iv: 213. + + G. C.'s, explanation of, v: 12. + + Gaba Tepe. _see_ Gallipoli Campaign. + + Gabet-Aubriot electric torpedo, + for destroying barbed wire, viii: 154. + + Gaedke, Col., German military writer, views on the War, ii: 270. + + Gaffney, Pvt. Frank, wins Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393. + + Galicia, + German offensive in, '15, ii: 233, 360 + (Ludendorff's account), iii: 135-138; + Russian invasion of, '14, iii: 118-124; + General Russky crosses border, Sept., '14, iii: 120; + Lemberg captured by Russians, Sept. 3, '14, iii: 121; + rout of Auffenberg's army, iii: 121; + last Russian offensive, '17, iii: 146, 147; + Russian attempts at Russification of, vi: 243. + + Gallieni, Gen. Joseph-Simon, + prepares Paris for siege by Germans, iii: 28; + biography, ix: 161-164; + Military Governor of Paris, ix: 163. + + Gallipoli Campaign, + Winston Churchill advocates forcing Dardanelles, + ii: _Intro. x, xii_, 29, 200; + reasons for, + ii: _Intro. xii_, 27-31, 198, iii: 161-164, iv: 51-57; + failure of initial naval attack, ii: _Intro. xv_; + reasons for land attack after naval failure, ii: _Intro. xv_; + weakness, ii: _Intro. xvi_; + strategy, ii: 27-31; + Feb.--Dec., '15, ii: 27-31; + Viscount French's condemnation, ii: 173; + Commission of Inquiry into responsibility for failure, + appointment and personnel, ii: 197; + persons named as responsible, ii: 198; + summary of Commission's report on responsibility, ii: 200; + British War Council, responsibility of, for disaster, ii: 200; + campaign sanctioned without expert study, ii: 200; + Lord Fisher disapproves expedition, ii: 203; + Premier Asquith's defense, ii: 204, iv: 53; + Winston Churchill's defense, ii: 205, iv: 56; + military operations, Apr. 25, '15--Jan. 9, '16, iii: 161-177; + Allies assemble troops in Egypt for expedition, Apr., '15, + iii: 162; + composition of Allied forces, iii: 162; + Gen. Sir Ian Hamilton commander of Allied troops, iii: 162, iv: 32; + Enver Bey commands Turkish defenders, iii: 164; + composition of Turkish forces, iii: 164; + topography of peninsula, iii: 165, iv: 21, 23; + defenses, iii: 165, iv: 23, 27, 45; + British plans for landing attack, iii: 167; + Allied landing, Apr. 25, '15, iii: 167-170, 352, iv: 36-42 + (Adm. de Robeck's official report), x: 35-40; + Anzacs scale cliffs near Gaba Tepe, Apr. 25, iii: 167, 352 + (Masefield's description), iv: 36 (official report); + Achi Baba, key to southern Gallipoli, iii: 170, 355; + Pasha Dagh, Australian objective, iii: 170; + Krithia, objective of Allied attack, May--June, '15, iii: 170; + "war of attrition" on Anzac sector, iii: 171; + Allies' revised strategy, July, '15, iii: 171-173; + Turkish positions, July, '15, iii: 171; + Anzac reinforcements land for final attack, Aug., '15, iii: 173; + last Allied offensives fail, Aug., '15, + iii: 173, 355-358. (Masefield's description); + last attack on Chunuk Bair, Aug., '15, iii: 173, 355; + last attack on Koja Chemen Tepe, Aug., '15, iii: 173, 355, 357; + last attack on Krithia, Aug., '15, iii: 173; + obstacles to success of last Allied offensive, iii: 173; + Gen. Monro succeeds Hamilton, iii: 174; + evacuation, Nov., '15--Jan., '16, iii: 174-177, 358; + casualties, Allied and Turkish, iii: 177, 355, 357, iv: 51; + reasons for failure, iii: 177; + bibliography, iii: 177; + Fortescue's description, iii: 340-343; + Turkish camp scenes behind the lines, iii: 341; + Masefield's description of British embarkation for, iii: 350; + soldier's life on Gallipoli, described by Masefield, iii: 353; + Gen. Hamilton's report on Lone Pine fighting, iii: 356; + Adm. Carden favors naval attack, iv: 28; + initial Allied bombardment, Nov. 3, '14, iv: 28; + British plan of operations, iv: 30; + preliminaries to attack, Jan. 15--Feb. 19, '15, iv: 30; + bombardment by Allied fleet, Feb. 19, '15, iv: 30, 42; + Allied fleet enters Straits, Mar. 1, '15, iv: 32; + Vice-Adm. de Roebeck succeeds to command of Allied fleet, + Mar., '15, iv: 32; + Allies decide to combine naval and land operations, iv: 32, 35, 49; + number and description of Allied warships participating, iv: 33; + Allied bombardment, Mar. 18, '15, iv: 34 (official report), 47; + Hamilton's delay fatal mistake of campaign, iv: 34; + French land troops at Kum Kale, Apr. 25, '15, iv: 41; + heroic minesweeping, iv: 43; + Narrows forts bombarded, Mar. 5, 7, '15, iv: 45; + analogy to opening of Mississippi by Farragut during Civil War, + iv: 51; + cost of expedition, iv: 51; + lessons of, iv: 52; + mistakes in plan and execution, iv: 56; + Turkish joy over Allied failure, vi: 330; + Y. M. C. A. with British at, vii: 321; + _see also_ Dardanelles. + + Gallowitz, Gen. von, military career, v: 203. + + Gangrene, treatment for gas gangrene, viii: 367, xi: 287. + + Garda, Lake, naval operations on, iii: 232. + + Gardens, cultivated in France by British soldiers, ii: 131; + by A. E. F., v: 330. + + Gardiner, J. B. W., on strategy of the War, ii: 1. + + Garibaldi, descendants of Liberator, in War, x: 62-65. + + _Garibaldi_, Italian cruiser sunk by U-boat, iv: 369. + + _Garibaldi Hymn_, Italian national anthem, xi: 328. + + Garrisons, use of small _groupes de combat_ by French, v: 13. + + Garua, taken by Allies, June 11, '15, i: 380. + + Gas, _see_ Chemical warfare. + + Gas gangrene, _see_ Gangrene. + + Gas masks, v: 324, viii: 174-178, xi: 317. + + Gasoline, consumption by A. E. F., v: 331. + + _Gaulois_, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31; + damaged in attack, Mar. 18, '15, iv: 35. + + Gaza, Turks defeated by British at, Mar. 26--27, '17, iii: 192; + captured by British, Nov. 6, '17, iii: 194. + + Geddes, Sir Eric, biography, ix: 313-316. + + Generalship, British, in the War, + analyzed by Philip Gibbs, iii: 370-378; + physical characteristics of British leaders, iii: 371; + mostly of cavalry training, iii: 371; + personal gallantry, iii: 371; + as great "English gentlemen," iii: 371; + mental characteristics, iii: 371; + mostly conservative men, iii: 372; + no leader of magnetism, iii: 372, 374; + personal traits of Sir Douglas Haig, iii: 373; + ill feeling against Staff by men in ranks, iii: 373; + faulty tactics in battles of the Somme, iii: 374; + desire to gain worthless ground, iii: 374; + efficiency of administrative organization, iii: 374; + Sir Herbert Plumer, great military chief, iii: 375; + faults at battles of Neuve Chapelle and Loos, iii: 375; + Gen. Birdwood's popularity, iii: 375; + tragedy of Second Army, iii: 375; + final victory not due to generalship, iii: 378; + success of unprofessional soldier as leader, iii: 378; + inefficiency of Staff College, iii: 378; + chief shortcoming, iii: 378. + + Geneva, designated capital of League of Nations, vi: 382, xii: 183. + + Geologists, war services, v: 327, viii: 311. + + Geophone, description and use for sound locating, viii: 312-314. + + George V, King of England, + receives General Pershing, June, '17, v: 97; + biography, ix: 392-395. + + Georgia, early history of people, vi: 231; + Republic established, Jan., '18, xii: 279; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Gerache Wood, taken by 80th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266. + + Gerard, James W., leaves Germany as U. S. Ambassador, i: 346. + + German-Americans, distribution and characteristics, i: 278; + Bernhardi's views on political importance, i: 279. + + German-Swiss, characteristics, vi: 380. + + _Germania, To_, Bulgarian ode, vi: 342. + + Germany: + Air Service, + passing of supremacy, vii: 201; + strength at end of War, viii: 202; + pre-War record flights, viii: 206; + equipment and strength, viii: 206; + supremacy over Allies, viii: 207; + bombing planes, viii: 221-222; + A. E. G. bombers, viii: 221; + Gotha bombers, viii: 221; + Lizenz bombers, viii: 222; + Zeppelins during War, viii: 246-248; + Zeppelins described, viii: 248-254; + military service abolished under Peace Treaty, xii: 214; + surrendered to Allies, xii: 215. + Area, of Republic, xii: 279. + Army, + aristocratic character, i: 69; + system of organization, i: 71, iii: 4-6; + tradition of efficiency, i: 72; + conception of duties, i: 72; + increase in peace strength, '14, i: 131; + dependence on imports for munitions, ii: 21; + loss of morale in Somme battle, '16, ii: 47; + manpower on Western Front, Mar., '18, ii: 65; + loss of morale under Allied offensive, '18, + ii: 86, v: 87, vi: 270; + German critic's opinion of, ii: 257; + machine-gun equipment, ii: 275; + heroism of machine-gunners, ii: 282; + invisibility of uniform, ii: 286; + recruiting situation, '18, ii: 308-310, 318; + desertions, ii: 309; + punishments not severe enough, Ludendorff's view, ii: 318; + Ludendorff on causes of demoralization, ii: 320, 333; + agitators undermine morale, ii: 320; + reorganized after Somme battle, '16, iii: 61; + best equipped, iii: 272; + infiltration method of attack, iii: 386, v: 17; + construction of machine-gun nests, v: 37; + sympathy with Revolution, '18, vi: 274; + return to Berlin, Dec. 10, '18, vi: 282; + Machine Gun Corps, viii: 79; + trench systems, viii: 124-129; + adopt trench defense after Marne defeat, '14, viii: 134; + machine-gun equipment compared with Allied, Aug., '14, viii: 134; + method of attack, viii: 137; + "holding" troops, viii: 144; + "shock" troops, viii: 144; + training, xi: 195-204; + cavalry, xi: 196; + discipline, xi: 202; + reduction in strength under Peace Treaty, xii: 209, 211; + reduction in equipment under Peace Treaty, xii: 210, 212; + table of organization imposed by Peace Treaty, xii: 212; + for military operations, _see_ Western Front; + _also_ name of campaign or engagement. + Artillery, + superiority over Allies, ii: 128, 288, viii: 36; + guns captured by Allies, July--Nov., '18, iii: 103; + development of heavy field howitzers, viii: 22; + 11-in. siege mortars described, viii: 34-36; + long-range bombardment of Paris, viii: 45-47; + structure of long-range shells hitting Paris, viii: 46. + Bagdad Railway, interest in, _see_ Bagdad Railway. + Belgian neutrality, violation of, _see_ Belgium, Neutrality. + Blockade of, effectiveness, i: 280, vi: 253, xii: 97 (German view); + Allied regulation of neutral commerce, i: 280, vi: 377; + controversy between U. S. and Great Britain + on seizure of neutral cargoes, i: 312, 318, 339; + British Order in Council, Mar. 15, '15, i: 318; + Allied trade blacklist, i: 335; + controversy between U. S. and Great Britain + on seizure of neutral mail, i: 335; + measures to starve Germany, i: 358; + objects of British Orders in Council, ii: 16; + food shortage, ii: 17, vi: 253-255, 260, 261, 266, 285, 294; + report of German scientists on, ii: 17; + estimate of minimum food requirements, ii: 17; + meat production self-sufficient, ii: 18; + statistics on pre-War food imports, ii: 18; + shortage of fertilizers, ii: 18; + increased production as offset against blockade, ii: 18; + reduction of waste, ii: 18, vi: 254; + increase in tilled land, ii: 19; + international law on, ii: 21; + difficulties of enforcement, ii: 21, iv: 86; + German isolation, ii: 21; + value of, ii: 22; + effect on civilian population, ii: 99; + use of dog flesh as food, xii: 41; + after-War food conditions, xii: 45; + U. S. export license system, xii: 99; + German trade with neutrals, xii: 100; + smuggling, xii: 100; + Allied plan of after-War economic boycott, xii: 102; + pre-War food production, xii: 136-138; + war-time food problems, xii: 136. + Boundaries, under Peace Treaty, xii: 186. + Casualties, total in War, ii: 116, iii: 404; + princes killed in battle, ix: 237; + money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25; + total battle deaths, xii: 288. + China, rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 206. + Coal, production, 1880--1913, i: 267; + secret of power, i: 267; + production, '13--'15, xii: 48. + Colonies, loss of, i: 13; + acquisition of African, i: 50, 95; + acquisition of Pacific islands, i: 81; + acquisition of Kiau-Chau, i: 82; + South American settlements, i: 84; + area and population of African, i: 96, xii: 279; + understanding with British on African expansion, i: 200; + necessity as outlet for population, i: 262; + important motive in war policy, ii: 13; + conquest of African, by Allies, iii: 252-256; + New Guinea conquered by Australians, vi: 38; + Samoa conquered by New Zealanders, vi: 38; + surrendered to Allies under Peace Treaty, xii: 206; + Kiau-Chau transferred to Japan, xii: 209, 279; + distribution among Allies, xii: 279; + area and population, xii: 279; + _see also_ name of colony. + Cost of living, per cent. rise during War, xii: _Intro. x._ + Declarations of war, + on Russia, Aug. 1, '14, i: 115, 139, 375; + on France, Aug. 3, '14, i: 140, 375; + by Great Britain, Aug. 4, '14, i: 145, 375; + on Belgium, Aug. 4, '14, i: 375; + by Italy, Aug. 27, '16, i: 386; + on Rumania, Aug. 28, '16, i: 386; + by U. S., Apr. 6, '17, i: 389, ii: 53, xi: 35; + diplomatic relations with Brazil severed, Apr. 11, '17, i: 389; + diplomatic relations with Bolivia severed, Apr. 13, '17, i: 389; + Greece breaks off diplomatic relations, June, 29, '17, i: 390; + by China, Aug. 14, '17, i: 390. + Defeat, causes of, + underestimate of Allied inventive capacity, i: _Intro. ix_; + underestimate of British, ii: _Intro, viii_; + strategic, ii: 15; + faulty psychology, ii: 53, 78, 221; + collapse of Germanic allies, ii: 89, 98, 329; + analysis of, ii: 99; + German efficiency _vs._ Allies' "will to win," ii: 100; + Field-Marshal Haig on, ii: 120; + failure to take Channel ports in '14, ii: 221; + Russian campaigns, ii: 221; + adoption of trench warfare, ii: 222; + forcing U. S. into War, ii: 222; + miscalculation of German endurance, ii: 224; + launching of '18 offensive, ii: 225; + failure to learn from American Civil War, ii: 255; + not in position for war of exhaustion, ii: 304; + Ludendorff ascribes to incompetent civil government, + ii: 301-304, 310; + Allied superiority too great, Ludendorff's view, ii: 227; + _see also_ under Germany, Strategy; + for military operations, _see_ Western Front, + _also_ campaign or engagement. + Egypt, rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 208. + Food, _see_ Blockade. + Foreign policy, world position, 1871, i: 44; + influence of industrialism on, i: 77; + domination over Austria-Hungary, i: 79, 133; + Near East policy, i: 80, 207, ii: 89; + ambition for world power, i: 83, 170, ii: 2, 13; + expansion in South America, i: 84; + Venezuelan controversy with U. S., i: 86; + jealousy of U. S. strength, i: 87; + plans for subjugation of U. S., i: 87-88; + ambition for "place in the sun," i: 95, ii: 27; + enters Triple Alliance, i: 95; + dynastic relations in Balkans, i: 96; + sympathy with Boers, i: 96, 192; + Turkish policy, i: 98, 207, ii: 28, vi: 330; + Kaiser's statement of Moroccan policy, Mar., '05, i: 99, 202; + hatred of Great Britain, + i: 101, 167, 190-194, ii: 14, vi: 251-252, 264; + Moroccan crisis forced by sending gunboat + _Panther_ to Agadir, July, '11, i: 104, 203; + negotiations with British for curbing naval program, '12, + i: 106, 194-197; + dream of Central European Federation under herself, 171, vi: 258; + von Buelow's statement of policy, i: 173; + Bernhardi's view of British as declining nation, i: 190; + ill feeling against Kaiser's English mother, i: 192; + _Hymn of Hate_, i: 194; + negotiations with British for mutual neutrality, '12, i: 194-197; + Prince Lichnowsky on Moroccan policy, i: 204; + Kaiser visits Turkey, 1889, 1898, i: 207; + unity of Austro-German interests, i: 208; + Austria as buffer against Slavs, i: 209; + hatred of France, i: 215; + Sir Edward Grey's statement of events, July 23--Aug. 3, '14, + i: 218-227; + refusal to pledge respect of Belgian neutrality, '14, i: 223; + Bismarck's pledge to respect Belgian neutrality, 1870, i: 229; + Russian policy, i: 239; + statement of war aims by Chancellor Michaelis, '16, ii: 14; + plans for annexation of Russian territories, ii: 15; + anti-British plans in East, ii: 27; + "Gott strafe England," vi: 251; + Russo-British alliance rouses hatred, '14, vi: 251; + desire to include Austria in Republic, vi: 322; + friction with Bulgaria, vi: 344; + attitude on Dutch neutrality, vi: 376; + relations with Japan, vi: 382; + _see also_ under Germany, Militarism, Pan-Germanism. + Fortifications, + demolition under Peace Treaty terms, xii: 189, 205, 211, 214. + Health, effect of War on, iii: 406. + Industries, + rise as industrial power, i: 75-78; + state aid, i: 76; + influence on foreign policy, i: 77; + industrial mobilization, xii: 80; + effects of war-time shortage of raw materials, xii: 97; + use of potash boycott against U. S., xii: 98. + Internal politics, + political organization, 1648 to French Revolution, i: 26; + failure of democratic movement, 1848, i: 32; + unification under Bismarck, i: 40-44, ii: 1; + political organization of Empire, i: 70, 156; + strength of Social-Democrats, i: 71, vi: _Intro. xi, xv_; + powers of Imperial Chancellor, i: 71, 156; + William II becomes Emperor, 1888, i: 97; + Professor Lamprecht's defense of German system, i: 155; + composition and powers of Bundesrat, i: 156; + composition and powers of Reichstag, i: 156; + powers of Emperor, i: 156; + dominance of Prussia, i: 156, 258; + social classes, i: 258; + Bismarck representative of Junker class, i: 258; + change from agricultural into industrial state, i: 259-260; + struggle between old aristocracy and new capitalists, i: 260; + basis of national strength, i: 260; + social legislation, i: 264; + Sir Thomas Barclay on German political parties, + vi: _Intro. ix-xvi_; + party principles compared, vi: _Intro. ix, xii_; + Social-Democratic leaders, vi: _Intro. ix_; + Sir Thomas Barclay on Revolution of '18, vi: _Intro. x_; + leaders of the Revolution, vi: _Intro. x_; + strength of Center Party, vi: _Intro. xi, xv_; + strength of Conservatives, vi: _Intro. xi, xiv, xv_; + Conservative principles, vi: _Intro. xii_; + principles of Social-Democrats, vi: _Intro. xii_; + principles of National-Liberals, vi: _Intro. xii_; + policies of Center Party, vi: _Intro. xiii_; + National-Liberal strength, vi: _Intro. xv_; + strength of Democratic Party, vi: _Intro. xv_; + Germany politically undeveloped, vi: _Intro. xv_; + city governments non-partisan, vi: _Intro. xvi_; + public sentiment on War, '14, vi: 250; + anti-War protest by Social Revolutionists, '14, vi: 250; + Socialist peace agitation, '15, vi: 258, 262; + Socialist split on war policy, '15, vi: 260; + beginnings of Spartacide group, vi: 260; + "preventive arrests" for suppressing pacifists, '16, vi: 262; + Socialists demand peace without annexations, '17, vi: 266; + Socialists demand liberal terms for Russians at Brest-Litovsk, + vi: 268; + labor strikes during Brest-Litovsk peace negotiations,'17, + vi: 268; + strikes suppressed by armed force, vi: 260; + reduction in munition output, '18, vi: 270; + Germany faces defeat, vi: 270; + Prince Maximilian of Baden succeeds Count von Hertling + as Chancellor, Oct. 3, '18, vi: 270; + Prince Max proposes Liberal-Socialist coalition government, + vi: 270; + Kaiser's last appeals fail, vi: 270, 271; + Ludendorff's regime ends, Oct., '18, vi: 271; + revolutionary threats, Oct., '18, vi: 271; + Revolution starts, Nov. 7, '18, vi: 272; + Kaiser abdicates, Nov. 9, '18, vi: 272; + establishment of German republics, vi: 273, 280; + revolutionary scenes in Berlin, vi: 273-277; + Ebert, as Chancellor, + establishes provisional government, Nov. 9, '18, vi: 277; + Kaiser flees to Holland, vi: 277; + radical Socialists oppose Ebert government, vi: 278; + Spartacides urge Bolshevik revolution, vi: 279; + spread of Bolshevism, vi: 280; + Independents demand immediate social reconstruction + before political reform, vi: 280; + Ebert government appeals for bourgeois support, vi: 280; + Spartacides allied with Russian Bolsheviki, vi: 280; + return of "victorious" army to Berlin + strengthens Provisional Government, vi: 282; + Central Council of Delegates convened by Ebert, + Dec. 16, '18, vi: 283; + Central Council votes for election of National Assembly, + Dec. 19, '18, vi: 283; + Central Executive Committee created, Dec., '18, vi: 283; + Majority Socialists in absolute control of government, vi: 283; + Soldiers' and Workmen's Councils ordered dissolved, + Dec., '18, vi: 283; + Spartacides and Independents threaten proletarian revolution, + Dec., '18, vi: 283; + Count zu Reventlow on Germany under Socialist regime, vi: 284; + hunger and unemployment, vi: 285-287, 294-298; + Spartacide insurrection, Jan., '19, vi: 287-290; + Bavarian government supports Berlin Spartacides, vi: 288; + Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg killed, Jan. 14, '19, vi: 289; + National Assembly elections, Jan. 19, '19, vi: 290; + National Assembly meets at Weimar, Feb. 6, '19, vi: 291; + Ebert's speech before National Assembly on government's policies, + vi: 292; + Ebert elected President of Germany, Feb., '19, vi: 292; + Scheidemann elected Chancellor, Feb., '19, vi: 292; + composition of Scheidemann Cabinet, vi: 292; + German press comment on Ebert as President, vi: 293; + middleclass "counter strikes" against extremists, vi: 294; + Kurt Eisner assassinated, Feb. 21, '19, vi: 298; + Soviet established in Munich, Feb. 19, vi: 298, 300; + Spartacides in control of Saxony, Feb., '19, vi: 299; + second Spartacide rising in Berlin suppressed by Noske, + Mar., '19, vi: 299; + Ebert government overthrows Munich Soviet, + Apr.--May, '19, vi: 300-301; + forced to accept Versailles Peace Treaty, vi: 302-305; + press comment on peace terms, vi: 302-304; + Gustav Bauer succeeds Scheidemann as Chancellor + to sign Peace Treaty, vi: 304; + National Assembly votes to accept Allies' terms, + June 22, '19, vi: 305. + International concessions, + surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 228. + Iron, plans for annexation of French ore lands, + i: 122, 267, ii: 13, 15; + importance of Lorraine ore deposits, i: 267; + seizure of French and Belgian mines, '14, ii: 20. + Kultur, Bernhardi on, i: 64, 159, 160; + great men of, i: 64; + significance, i: 64; + manifestations, i: 64; + spokesmen of, i: 66; + gospel of conquest, i: 66; + educational program for dissemination of, i: 67; + supremacy of State dominant idea, i: 68, 148; + doctrine of "divine right of kings," i: 68; + relation to militarism, i: 69; + German social philosophy compared with British, i: 149; + strength of State higher good than happiness of individuals, + i: 149; + Bergson on German doctrine of force, i: 152; + transition from idealism to materialism, i: 152; + materialistic spirit of German students, i: 154; + national egoism, i: 154; + contributions to world culture, i: 154; + definition and exposition of, i: 158; + compared with _culture_, i: 158; + Bernhardi's belief in supremacy of German brain, i: 160; + right to conquest, i: 161; + _see also_ under Germany, Militarism. + Liberia, rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 208. + Luxemburg, violation of neutrality, _see_ Luxemburg. + Militarism, war as national policy, i: _Intro. vii_, 70; + basic conception, i: 69; + glorification of doctrine of force, i: 69; + Henri Bergson on, i: 152; + Professor Lamprecht's defense, i: 155; + Bernhardi on universal military training, i: 162; + Bernhardi on necessity of war to progress, i: 162; + Bernhardi condemns love of peace, i: 162, 171; + German pride in, i: 163; + compared with Christianity, i: 165; + compared with British policy, i: 165; + force in place of diplomacy, i: 166; + "World power or downfall," i: 170; + von der Goltz's plea against peace, i: 171; + German statement of policy, i: 171-173; + striking quotations from Bernhardi, i: 179; + Bernhardi on conqueror's right to annex territory, i: 181; + German denial of, i: 182; + compared with Allies' defensive policy, '14, ii: 1; + statement of war aims by Chancellor Michaelis, ii: 14; + explained by Baron von Freytag-Loringhoven, ii: 260; + compared with Roman imperialism, by Professor Ferrero, + ii: 365-372; + pre-War preparedness, vi: 249; + _see also_ under Germany, + Foreign policy, Kultur, Pan-Germanism. + Morale, demands of War on nation, ii: 302; + fighting spirit waning, '18, ii: 309-311; + change between '17 and '18, v: 2. + Morocco, rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 208. + Navy, strength in '06, i: 101; + negotiations with British for curbing naval program, + i: 106, 194-197; + increase in "peace strength" for '14, i: 131; + strength threat to British security, i: 196; + surrendered to Allies, Nov. 21, '18, + i: 400, + iv: 142-144, 383-384 (list and description of major units), + 385-387 (German eye-witness account), + 387-390 (American eye-witness account), + 390-394 (British eye-witness account), + xii: 213 (Peace Treaty terms); + hemmed in by British, ii: _Intro. viii_; + efforts to break blockade by use of submarines, iv: 7, 256; + strength of China Squadron, iv: 58; + operations in Pacific, iv: 60; + strategy of defense, iv: 86; + operations of High Sea Fleet in North Sea, iv: 91; + superior to British in destroyers, iv: 94; + use of fleet criticized by Jellicoe, iv: 94; + High Sea Fleet compared with British Grand Fleet, iv: 96; + North Sea raids, iv: 136; + mission during War, iv: 138; + development, iv: 362; + Bolshevik propaganda in, iv: 380; + revolts, Nov., '18, iv: 380-383, vi: 272, 283; + morale, iv: 294; + mutiny suppressed, '17, vi: 266; + Peace Treaty conditions for reduction, xii: 212-214; + _see also_ Submarine warfare. + Occupation by Allies, expense to be paid by Germany, xii: 226; + conditions for withdrawal, xii: 261. + Pan-Germanism, + ideal of unification of all Teuton elements in Europe, + i: 78, xi: 4; + Pan-German League, objects, i: 79; + propaganda in U. S., i: 79; + policy in South America, i: 84; + Bernhardi's statement of principles, i: 152; + Bismarck's plan for world empire, ii: 2; + first steps toward under William II, ii: 2; + goal of Calais to Bagdad, ii: 13; + Bagdad Railway important factor in, ii: 296; + compared with Roman imperialism, + by Professor Ferrero, ii: 365-372; + expounded by Friedrich Naumann in _Mitteleuropa_, vi: 258; + _see also_ under Germany, Foreign policy, Militarism. + Peace negotiations, + Prince Max asks Wilson to intercede, Oct. 6, '18, + i: 399, vi: 271; + armistice, Nov. 11, '18, i: 399, + iii: 402, v: 391, vi: 271, xi: 54; + war aims expressed in secret memorandum to Austria, '16, ii: 14; + condemned by Ludendorff, ii: 303; + Allies reject, prior to Spring offensive, '18, ii: 316; + Kaiser orders proposals through Queen of Holland, ii: 331; + Ludendorff convinced Germany can't win, Sept., '18, ii: 333, 335; + drive for "mental armistice," ii: 387-390; + armistice with Russia, Dec. 6, '17, v: 113; + Brest-Litovsk treaty with Russia, Mar. 3, '18, vi: 183; + Socialists present peace manifesto, Nov., '15, vi: 258; + Bethmann-Hollweg rejects Socialist peace demands, vi: 260; + Bethmann-Hollweg proposes "peace of compromise," '17, + vi: 262-264; + Socialists support peace without annexations, '17. vi: 266; + Reichstag passes resolution for peace without annexations, '17, + vi: 266; + forced to accept Versailles Peace Treaty, vi: 302-305; + Allies' peace terms received, May 7, '19, vi: 302; + press comment on peace terms, vi: 302-304; + National Assembly votes to sign Peace Treaty, June 22, '19, + vi: 304; + Peace Conference delegates, xii: 179, 182; + Peace Treaty ratified, July 10, '19, xii: 264; + _see also_ Peace, moves for. + Population, in 1860, i: 40; + compared with France, 1874--1914, i: 61; + emigration to U. S., i: 75, 79, 277; + emigration to South America, i: 79; + growth since 1870 compared with that of France, i: 262; + relation of growth to colonial expansion, i: 262; + rapid increase, i: 277; + of Republic, xii: 279. + Prisoners of war, iii: 404. + Propaganda, in U. S. before War, i: 79; + activities of Dr. Albert, i: 133; + artificial nature of public opinion, i: 149; + preparing German mind for war, i: 171, 181; + appeal to Americans, Aug., '14, i: 268; + von Jagow's defense against American criticisms, i: 273; + activities of German agents in U. S., + i: 274, 302, 314, x: 326-348; + Dr. Dernburg's activities in U. S., i: 274; + instigating Hindu revolutions, i: 317; + Mexican plot-against U. S., i: 347; + on Italian Front, iii: 247, vi: 128; + following capture of Americans at Seicheprey, v: 123; + in Spain, xii: 101. + Railroads, war-time deterioration, viii: 283; + efficiency under war conditions, viii: 284-285; + Peace Treaty regulations, xii: 253. + Reparation, views of U. S. press on, xii: 24; + estimates of capacity to pay, xii: 159; + cession of Sarre coalfields to France, xii: 189; + Peace Treaty provisions, xii: 217-225. + Responsibility for War, + German manipulations to force war, i: 8, 129-138; + unwillingness to cooperate to prevent World War, + i: 115, 124-126, 246, 250; + responsibility denied, i: 116-120; + Bethmann-Hollweg's statement, i: 117; + Hellferich's justification, i: 119; + statement by German "Intellectuals," i: 120; + Dr. Dernburg's defense, i: 120; + German case against Great Britain, i: 121; + evidences of anticipating the War, i: 131; + complicity in Austrian ultimatum to Serbia, i: 133-136, 252; + Potsdam Conference, July 5, '14, i: 136, 250; + statement of Allied infractions of international law, i: 139; + Sir Edward Grey's statement of events leading to War, + July 23--Aug. 3, '14, i: 218-227; + Prince Lichnowsky's account of events leading to War, + i: 246, 250; + Dr. Muehlon's disclosures, i: 250-254; + Peace Treaty provisions for trial of guilty, xii: 217; + _see also_ Causes of the War. + Royal family, xi: 149; + _see also_ + William II; + Frederick William. + Shipping, + increase in tonnage, 1880--1913, compared with British, i: 77; + increase in tonnage, '00--'04, i: 263; + Kaiser's personal interest in, i: 264; + German resourcefulness, i: 264; + tonnage and capital of North German Lloyd Line, i: 264; + tonnage and earnings of Hamburg-American Line, i: 264; + tonnage and earnings of Hansa Line, i: 264; + tonnage of Hamburg-South American Line, i: 264. + Siam, rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 208. + Strategy, + seizure of French coal and iron mines, + i: 122, 267, ii: 13, 15, 20; + general war plans, ii: 1-8, iii: 8, iv: 4-8; + estimate of European military alignments, ii: 2-4; + conquest of France first objective, ii: 4-8, iii: 2, 10; + topography of German western frontier, ii: 6; + invasion of Belgium and northern France, ii: 8, xi: 9; + mistake of striking first at France instead of Russia, '14, + ii: 11; + probable results of a vigorous offensive against Russia in '14, + ii: 13; + reasons for striking at France first, ii: 13; + destructiveness as war policy, ii: 15, xi: 20, xii: 23; + defensive attitude toward Russia, '14, ii: 22; + East Prussian campaigns, ii: 24; + invasion of Russian Poland, ii: 25; + failure to operate against Suez Canal, ii: 31; + military plans for '17, ii: 53; + necessity for military strokes of '18, ii: 65; + at strategic advantage, Mar., '18, ii: 66; + selection of front for spring offensive, '18, ii: 67; + plans for '18 campaign, ii: 70, 149; + retreat under blows of Foch, ii: 86; + causes of failure, ii: 99; + faced with military disaster, Nov., '18, ii: 215; + Russia overwhelmed, '15, ii: 233; + Col. Gaedke on German war plans and results, ii: 270; + underestimate of U. S. strength, ii: 272; + fortified lines of retreat behind Western Front, ii: 304; + Gen. von Schlieffen responsible for plan of invasion + through Belgium, ii: 345; + Ludendorff's defense of war policy, ii: 346; + alternatives facing Germany, winter, '17--'18, v: 3; + general strategy on Western Front, viii: 133; + _see also_ + under Germany, Defeat, causes of; + _also_ Western Front; + campaign or engagement. + Submarine warfare, _see_ Submarine warfare. + Trade, 1880--1914, compared with British, i: 77; + tariff policy, i: 78; + production and import of grains, ii: 17; + dependence on imports for war materials, ii: 20; + war trade with neutrals, ii: 21, xii: 100; + anti-German toy boycott in New York, xii: 99; + Allied proposals for after-War economic boycott, xii: 102; + customs regulations imposed by Peace Treaty, xii: 229; + suppression of unfair competition by Peace Treaty, xii: 230. + Treaties, + pre-War agreements with Allies revived by Peace Treaty, xii: 231; + with Germanic allies, abrogated by Peace Treaty, xii: 232; + with Russia, abrogated by Peace Treaty, xii: 232; + with Rumania, abrogated by Peace Treaty, xii: 232; + _see also_ Brest-Litovsk Treaty; + Bucharest, Treaty of; + Peace Treaty; + Triple Alliance. + War booty, value, xii: 22. + War cost, financial mobilization, ii: 265, xii: 21; + gold reserves, June 30, '14, i: 265; + loans floated in U. S., Aug., '14--Jan., '17, xii: 2; + method of raising war funds, xii: 21; + system of loans, xii: 21, 113; + estimate of expenditures, xii: 21; + currency inflation, xii: 22; + war finance system compared with British, xii: 22; + money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25; + value of property loss, xii: 26; + average daily war cost, xii: 106; + total war cost, Aug., '14--Oct. '19, xii: 107; + taxation, xii: 109; + rise in national debt, xii: 113, 114. + Wireless stations, Peace Treaty regulations for, xii: 214. + + _Germany and the Next War_, book by General von Bernhardi, + striking quotations from, i: 179. + + Germont, seized by 79th Div., Nov. 3, '18, v: 266. + + Gesnes, location, v: 217; + captured by 32nd Div., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240. + + Ghent, Belgians re-enter, iii: 103. + + Gibbons, Floyd, account of _Laconia_ sinking, iv: 226-229. + + Gibbs, Philip, analysis of German war blunders, ii: 221; + account of Cambrai battle, Nov., '17, iii: 337; + description of German spring offensive, '18, iii: 360; + analysis of British generalship, iii: 370-378. + + Gibercy, taken by 79th Div., Nov. 9, '18, v: 272. + + Gifford, Walter S., + Director U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 116. + + Ginchy, objective in Somme battle, iii: 58; + description of battle, x: 147-155. + + Giolitti, + Italian political leader, opposes entry into War, ii: 236, vi: 123. + + Girba, Turks routed at, Feb., '17, iii: 191. + + Glasgow, labor riots in, Jan., '19, vi: 19. + + _Glasgow_, British cruiser, in battle off Coronel, iv: 65; + hit by gunfire, iv: 68; + in battle of Falklands, iv: 70. + + Gleaves, Adm., + convoys first U. S. troops to France, June 26, '17, iv:160, v: 106. + + _Glenart Castle_, British hospital ship, + sunk Feb. 26, '18, i: 393. + + Glenn, Maj.-Gen. Edwin F., commands 83rd Div., June, '18, v: 146. + + _Glory of War, The_, poem by Dana Burnet, ix: 261. + + Glossop, Capt. John C. T., + commands _Sydney_ in engagement with _Emden_, iv: 187. + + _Gloucester Castle_, + British hospital-ship torpedoed without warning, iv: 232. + + Gloves, anti-gas, number issued by U. S. Army, v: 324. + + _Gneisenau_, German cruiser, in battle off Coronel, iv: 65, 66; + sunk at battle of Falklands, iv: 70, ix: 308; + eye-witness account of sinking, iv: 82. + + _God Save the King_, English national anthem, xi: 326. + + Godfrey, Dr. Hollis, + member, Advisory Commission, U. S. Council of National Defense, + xii: 116. + + _Goeben_, German battle cruiser, + eludes Allied fleet in Mediterranean and escapes to Turkish waters, + Aug., '14, iv: 13-16; + far-reaching effects of escape, iv: 16; + sold to Turkey, iv: 16; + damaged by mine in Black Sea, Nov. 18, '15, iv: 50, 365. + + Gold, Peace Treaty restriction on German export of, xii: 226; + deliveries of, by Germany to Allies under Peace Treaty, xii: 228. + + Goldschmidt alternator, for generating radio waves, viii: 316. + + _Goliath_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33; + sunk by Turks, May 13, '15, iv: 50. + + Golice, captured by Germans, May 2, '15, i: 380. + + Goltz, Field-Marshal Baron von der, + heads German mission to Turkey, iii: 164; + commands German troops in Finland, vi: 199; + biography, ix: 268. + + Goltz, Horst von der, plots to blow up Welland Canal, x: 333. + + Golytsin, Russian Prime Minister, reactionary government of, vi: 143; + gets undated order from Czar dismissing Duma, '17, vi: 144; + issues Czar's order dismissing Duma, Mar. 10, '17, vi: 146. + + Gompers, Samuel, + member Advisory Commission, U. S. Council of National Defense, + xii: 116. + + Gondrecourt, training area for 1st Div., v: 6. + + _Good-by-ee_, English soldiers' song, xi: 338. + + _Good Hope_, + Admiral Cradock's flagship at battle off Coronel, iv: 64; + hit by gunfire, iv: 66; + sunk by explosion, iv: 67, ix: 308. + + Goremykin, deposed as Russian Prime Minister, '15, vi: 140. + + Gorizia, Italian attacks fail, '15, ii: 50, 240, iii: 244; + captured by Italians, Aug., '16, ii: 51, 242, iii: 246; + life in, under Italian occupation, ii: 244; + key to Isonzo, iii: 239. + + _Goshawk_, British destroyer, + in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240. + + Gotha airplanes, description, viii: 196, 221. + + Goto, Baron, biography, ix: 92. + + Goettingen prison camp, Y. M. C. A. work in, vii: 303. + + Gough, Gen. Sir Hubert, at first Ypres battle, ii: 171; + responsibility for defeat of British Fifth Army, + Mar., '18, ii: 190-197; + decorated for Somme campaign, iii: 60. + + Gouraud, Gen., + defensive tactics against German advance, July, '18, + ii: 209, v: 46, 155, viii: 146-148; + famous appeal to troops, July, '18, v: 45; + qualities as leader, v: 46. + + Gourko, Gen. Basil, Chief of Russian General Staff, ii: 225; + exposition of Russian strategy, ii: 225. + + Gradisca, captured by Italians, June 9, '15, iii: 244. + + Grado, bombarded by Austrian airplanes, Nov. 19, '15, i: 382. + + Granatieri, description of, ii: 242. + + Grandcourt, taken by British, Nov. 18, '16, i: 388. + + Grand Fleet, British, _see_ Great Britain, Navy. + + Grand Pre, captured by A. E. F., Oct., '18. v: 85, 218, 252, xi: 53. + + Granger, Dr. Amedee, + invents X-ray apparatus for locating bullets in flesh, viii: 374. + + Graves, war, A. E. F. Registration Service, v: 331, 400; + Peace Treaty provisions for care of, xii: 217. + + Great Britain: + Air Service, formation of Royal Air Force, viii: 202; + strength at end of War, viii: 202; + types of airplanes, viii: 203-206; + Bristol planes, viii: 203; + Handley-Page bombers, viii: 204, 223; + D. H.-10 bombers, viii: 204; + types of dirigibles, viii: 245; + dirigible _R-34_ crosses Atlantic, viii: 245; + dirigibles _R-33_ and _R-34_, description, viii: 254. + Army, German contempt for, i: 191; + lands in France, Aug. 6, '14, i: 375; + ammunition shortage, '14, + ii: _Intro. xiii_, 173 (Viscount French's expose); + deficiency in trained men, ii: 113; + deficiency in material, ii: 114; + Field-Marshal Haig on value of cavalry, ii: 120; + machine-gun equipment, ii: 125, 275; + artillery equipment, ii: 125; + Haig on effects of growth in artillery service, ii: 125; + artillery at Somme battle, '16, ii: 126; + ammunition used on Western Front, Aug.--Nov., '18, ii: 130; + military hospitals in France, ii: 131; + total strength in France, ii: 131; + service of supply behind the lines, ii: 131-132; + Haig's opinion of British officer, ii: 133; + Haig's opinion on present organization, ii: 134; + changing civilians into soldiers described by Haig, ii: 135; + Haig's tribute to Regular Army, ii: 136; + opinion of a German military critic, ii: 256; + pre-War organization, iii: 3; + Intelligence service, iii: 383; + strength, '14--'18, iii: 404, 405; + strength in Italy, iii: 405; + strength in Mesopotamia, iii: 405; + "Pal" regiments, vi: 6; + slackers driven into service, vi: 6; + origin of nickname "Tommy," vi: 230; + types of rifles used, viii: 95; + Indian winners of Victoria Cross, x: 85; + Senegalese troops, x: 116; + British soldier as fighter, xi: 181-189; + for military operations, _see_ campaign or engagement. + Blockade by Germany, _see_ Submarine warfare. + Blockade of Germany, _see_ Germany, Blockade of. + Casualties, total in War, ii: 116, iii: 404, 405; + causes for extent of, analyzed by Field-Marshal Haig, ii: 118; + at Gallipoli, iii: 177; + in attempts to relieve Kut-el-Amara, iii: 364; + in '17, iii: 382; + in German spring offensive, '18, iii: 390; + money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25; + total battle deaths, xii: 288; + _see also_ campaign or engagement. + Coal, production, '13--'17, xii: 47; + war-time fuel control, xii: 51. + Cost of living, + increase in, by reduction of imports, ii: _Intro. xxii_; + price movements in England and U. S. since 1780, + xii: _Intro. viii-x_; + criticism of government policy, xii: 28. + Declarations of war, + on Germany, Aug. 4, '14, circumstances of, + i: 145, 218-227 (Sir Edward Grey's statement), 375; + on Austria-Hungary, Aug. 12, '14, i: 375; + on Turkey, Nov. 5, '14, i: 376; + on Bulgaria, Oct. 15, '15, i: 382. + Food, effect of submarine warfare, vi: 10; + police prevent hoarding, vi: 11; + government control of, xii: 34, 59; + Food Control Committee established, xii: 34; + sugar shortage, xii: 34, 138; + meat control, xii: 34; + war-time fish supply, xii: 34; + wheat control, xii: 35; + increase in crop production, '16--'18, xii: 40; + work of women in production of, xii: 40; + effect of food shortage on dogs, xii: 40; + potato crop, xii: 47; + war-time problems, xii: 138. + Foreign policy, value of U. S. good-will, i: 35; + world position, 1871, i: 44; + Turkish policy at Congress of Berlin, i: 48; + acquires control of Egypt, i: 48; + extent of colonial empire, i: 59; + international position, '14, i: 59; + policy of conciliation, i: 59, 107, 218; + Anglo-French good-will, i: 98; + treaty with France, '04, i: 99; + agreement with Russia for control of Persia, '07, i: 104; + Anglo-Japanese Alliance, i: 104; + negotiations with Germany for curbing naval program, + '12, i: 106, 194-197; + statement of policy by Asquith, Nov., '11, i: 106; + agreement with France for united action against "third Power," + '12, i: 107, 220; + negotiations to prevent World War, July--Aug., '14, + i: 115, 124, 218-227 (Sir Edward Grey's account), + 247-249 (Prince Lichnowsky's account); + policy on Belgian neutrality, i: 141, 222, 224; + arrangement with Belgium for defense of neutrality, '06, + i: 143, 231; + promise to defend French coast, Aug. 2, '14, i: 146, 220; + statement of war aims by Lloyd George, i: 189; + negotiations with Germany for mutual neutrality, '12, i: 194-197; + Sir Edward Grey's efforts to establish Anglo-German good-will, + i: 198; + agreement with Germany on African expansion, i: 200; + agreement for settling rivalries in Turkey, '14, i: 200; + question of armed intervention in Moroccan crisis, i: 218; + freedom from secret obligations in event of war, i: 218; + Sir Edward Grey urges intervention in defense of + Belgian neutrality, i: 224; + offer of help to Belgium, Aug. 4, '14, i: 232; + influence in the East, ii: 27; + claims to Turkey under secret treaties, '16--'17, vi: 334; + Turkish policy, announced Nov. 7, '18, vi: 334; + _see also_ Triple Entente. + Industries during War, peace and war productivity compared, + xii: 19, 77-79; + women in, xiii: 25; + bonuses to labor, xii: 28; + provisions for settlement of labor disputes, xii: 79. + Internal politics, Imperial unity through war, + i: _Intro. xiv_; + political philosophy compared with German, i: 165; + members of War Council, Nov., '14, ii: 198; + political conditions, Aug., '14, vi: 1; + industrial and social unrest, '15, vi: 2; + labor opposition to conscription, vi: 6; + Conscription Bill passed, Apr., '16, vi: 6; + treatment of conscientious objectors, vi: 8; + pacifists indorse Soviet peace aims, '17, vi: 12; + Lord Lansdowne's peace letter, vi: 13; + Defense of the Realm Act inadequate to prevent strikes, vi: 14; + Labor Party platform, '17, vi: 14; + conditions at close of War, vi: 15; + general elections, '18, vi: 16-17; + industrial strikes spread, Jan., '19, vi: 17; + ship-builders' strike, vi: 19; + Glasgow riots, vi: 19; + strike in electrical trades prevented + by Defense of the Realm Act, Feb., '19, vi: 20; + Lloyd George calls Labor Peace Conference, Feb., '19, vi: 20; + commission of inquiry into mining conditions appointed, + Feb., '19, vi: 20; + truce in labor war till completion of Peace Treaty, vi: 22; + after-War problems, vi: 23. + Munitions, expose of shell shortage by Viscount French, ii: 173; + production compared with that of Central Empires, xii: 78; + work of Ministry of Munitions, xii: 78. + Navy, protector of lines of supply, i: 15; + rise to world supremacy, i: 28; + strength in '06, i: 101; + negotiations with Germany for curbing naval program, + i: 106, 194-197; + general strategy during War, ii: _Intro. vii_, iv: 85-93; + ships in Mediterranean at outbreak of War, iv: 13; + squadrons in Eastern waters, iv: 58; + ships in West Atlantic, iv: 58; + problem of maintaining Allied supremacy, iv: 86; + Admiral Jellicoe appointed to command of Grand Fleet, + Aug. 4, '14, iv: 88; + minesweeping operations, iv: 91; + convoy of troopships, iv: 92; + bases, iv: 92; + extracts from Jellicoe's _The Grand Fleet, 1914--1916_, + iv: 93-97; + unpreparedness, '14, iv: 93; + lack of destroyers, iv: 94; + Grand Fleet compared with German High Sea Fleet, iv: 96; + Jellicoe's reasons for not attacking Germans, iv: 96; + make-up of Grand Fleet, Aug., '14, iv: 97; + make-up of Grand Fleet at battle of Jutland, iv: 119; + Lord Fisher's views on share in Allied victory, iv: 140; + statistics on transport of troops, '15--'18, iv: 239; + 18-in. super naval guns, viii: 53; + _see also_ + battle or engagement; + Gallipoli Campaign. + Peace Conference, delegates, xii: 179; + _see also_ Peace Conference. + Peace Treaty, press views, vi: 22; + ratified, July 25--31, '19, xii: 264; + _see also_ Peace Treaty with Germany. + Prisoners of war, iii: 404. + Railroads, system of war-time government control, xii: 89. + Royal family, xi: 150-152; + _see also_ George V. + Shipping, tonnage, 1880--1913, compared with German, i: 77; + government control of ship-building, xii: 95; + tonnage in '14, xii: 95; + yearly tonnage production, '14--'17, xii: 96; + war-time shortage of, xii: 96. + Strategy, analyzed by Maj.-Gen. Maurice, + ii: _Intro. vii-xxiv_; + naval, iv: 85-93. + Trade, 1880--1913, compared with German, i: 77; + pre-War position, xii: 18-19; + pre-War and war-time compared, xii: 78. + War cost, financial position at start of War, xii: 1, 18; + loans floated in U. S., Aug., '14--Jan., '17, xii: 2; + income tax rates, compared with U. S. and French rates, xii: 4; + debt to U. S., xii: 18; + exchange rates with U. S., xii: 19; + extravagance in expenditure of war funds, xii: 19-20; + taxes, xii: 20, 107, 108, 111; + money equivalent of manpower lost, xii: 25; + value of property loss, xii: 26; + currency inflation, xii: 27-28; + average daily war cost, xii: 105; + total war cost, Aug., '14--Mar., '19, xii: 107; + war loans, xii: 111; + rise in national debt, xii: 111, 114. + + _Great Northern, S. S._, speed record as army transport, v: 358. + + Greece, revolts against Turkey, 1825, i: 34; + breaks off diplomatic relations with Central Powers, June 29, '17, + i: 390, vi: 345; + anti-Allied attitude at Salonika, iii: 206; + Venizelos establishes revolutionary government, Sept., '16, + iii: 210; + Venizelos government recognized by Allies, Jan., '17, iii: 210; + King Constantine deposed by Allies, iii: 210, vi: 245; + war casualties, iii: 404, xii: 289; + prisoners of war, iii: 404; + debt to U. S., xii: 18; + money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25; + Peace Conference delegates, xii: 180; + _see also_ Salonika Campaign. + + Greek fire, composition of, xi: 314. + + Gregory, Sgt. Earl D., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395. + + _Greif_, German armed liner, + sunk in fight with British _Alcantara_, iv: 200. + + Grenades, number of U. S., at front, Nov. 11, '18, v: 350; + ancient method of throwing weapons by hand revived, viii: 119; + Germans first to use, viii: 119; + Allied unpreparedness at start of War, viii: 119; + nature, viii: 119; + technique of throwing, viii: 120; + kinds, viii: 120, xi: 211. + + Grenfell, Capt. Francis O., + first winner of Victoria Cross in War, x: 10. + + Gresham, Pvt., + one of first of A. E. F. to be killed in France, xi: 173. + + Grey, Edward, Viscount of Fallodon, + efforts to prevent the War, i: 124-126, 247; + mediation in Balkan Wars, i: 198; + efforts to establish Anglo-German good-will, i: 198; + negotiations to settle Anglo-German rivalry in Mesopotamia, + '12--'14, i: 200; + speech before Parliament summarizing events leading to World War, + Aug. 3, '14, i: 218-227; + biography, ix: 35-40; + bibliography, ix: 40; + advocate of League of Nations, xii: 155. + + Grierson, Gen. Sir James, + commander of British Second Corps, death in France, ii: 176. + + Grimancourt, taken by 322nd Inf., Nov. 10, '18, v: 277. + + Grimm, Swiss Socialist, + expelled by Russian Provisional Government, vi: 380. + + Grissinger, Col. J. W., Chief Surgeon, Third Army, A. E. F., v: 346. + + Grodno, captured by Germans, Sept. 2, '15, i: 381, iii: 140. + + _Groupes de Combat_, function in French defensive, v: 12. + + Guatemala, + severs diplomatic relations with Germany, Apr. 28, '17, i: 390; + delegate to Peace Conference, xii: 180. + + Guedecourt, taken by British, Sept. 26, '16, i: 388. + + Guepratte, Rear-Adm., commands French fleet at Gallipoli, iv: 31. + + Guillaumat, Gen., drives Germans from Vesles to Aisne, ii: 214. + + _Guillaume, Empereur d'Allemagne_, + French soldiers' song, xi: 339. + + Guillemont, taken by Allies, Sept. 3, '16, i: 386. + + Guillemont Farm, strong point on Hindenburg Line, v: 290. + + _Gulflight_, first American ship sunk by U-boat, May 1, '15, + i: 319, 380, iv: 218. + + Gumbinnen, Russians defeat Germans at, Aug. 16--24, '14, iii: 111; + retaken by Germans, iii: 116. + + Gumpertz, Sgt. Sydney G., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396. + + Guncotton, composition and detonating properties, viii: 2; + _see also_ Ammunition. + + Gunpowder, black, composition and explosive properties, viii: 2; + smokeless, composition and action, viii: 4; + muzzle flash, viii: 7; + _see also_ Ammunition. + + Gunpowder Neck, U. S. poison-gas plant at, viii: 179-187. + + Guns, _see_ Artillery. + + _Guns of Verdun_, poem by Patrick R. Chalmers, vi: 91. + + Guthrie, Col. Percy, first Canadian to enlist, x: 44. + + Guynemer, Capt. Georges, French "miracle ace," x: 202, xi: 231. + + Gyles, Midshipman Donald, + heroic fight against German destroyers, x: 293-295. + + Gyroscope, war uses, viii: 348. + + + H + + Haase, Herr, + leader German Social-Democratic minority, vi: _Intro. xii_; + in Ebert ministry, Nov., '18, vi: 278; + advocates Bolshevik principles, vi: 299. + + Habibullah Khan, + Emir of Afghanistan, assassinated, Feb., '19, vi: 80. + + Hagen position, location in Argonne, v: 218. + + Hague Conference, establishes Arbitration Tribunal, 1899, i: 94; + convened for second time at suggestion of Roosevelt, '07, i: 103; + accomplishments, i: 103. + + Hahn, Maj.-Gen. W. G., commander 32nd Div., Feb., '18, v: 119. + + Hai River, near Kut-el-Amara, iii: 186. + + Haifa, captured by British, Sept. 23, '18, iii: 199. + + Haig, Field-Marshal Sir Douglas, + analysis of Western Front campaigns, ii: 112-136; + theories on warfare, ii: 118; + on causes of German military collapse, ii: 120; + on functions of cavalry in the War, ii: 120; + on importance of infantry in the War, ii: 123; + on importance of artillery in the War, with statistics, + ii: 123, 126; + on efficiency of British army officers, ii: 133; + on British military organization, ii: 134; + appointed Commander-in-Chief of British Expeditionary Force, + Dec. 15, '15, iii: 46; + famous "Our backs to the wall" appeal, Mar., '18, iii: 359, v: 120; + personal traits, iii: 373; + biography, ix: 181-184. + + Haiti, delegate to Peace Conference, xii: 180. + + Halahan, Capt., killed at Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 264. + + Haldane, Gen., commander of British Sixth Army, iii: 371; + personal traits, iii: 377. + + Haldane, Lord, mission to Germany, '12, i: 106, 194. + + Halicz, Russians retire from, June 27, '15, i: 380; + captured by Russians, '14, iii: 121; + recaptured by Russians, July, '17, iii: 146. + + Hall, Richard Nelville, brave ambulance driver, story of, x: 95. + + Hall, Sgt. Thomas Lee, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395. + + Haller, Gen., + leads revolt of Polish "Iron Brigade" against Austria, vi: 216. + + Hamburg-American Line, tonnage and earnings, i: 264. + + Hamburg-Persian Gulf railway, _see_ Bagdad Railway. + + Hamburg-South American Line, tonnage, i: 264. + + Hamel, captured by Germans, Apr. 7, '18, i: 395; + work of tanks at Allied attack, July 4, '18, ii: 281; + share of 33rd Div. in recapture of, July, '18, v: 260. + + Hamidieh II, Turkish battery at Gallipoli, armament of, iv: 45. + + Hamilton, Gen. Sir Ian, + Allied commander-in-chief at Gallipoli, iii: 162, iv: 32; + succeeded by Gen. Monro, iii: 174; + despatches to War Office, iv: 35-36. + + _Hampshire_, British cruiser, + sunk June 5, '16, with Kitchener and staff, i: 385. + + Handley-Page bombing planes, viii: 196, 204, 223. + + Hankey, Sir Maurice, secretary, Supreme Peace Council, xii: 152. + + Hanotaux, Gabriel, on U. S. neutrality, i: 290. + + Hansa Line, tonnage and earnings, i: 264. + + Hapsburgs, rise and downfall, vi: 305; + _see also_ + Austria-Hungary; + Charles Francis; + Francis Joseph. + + Hara, Japanese Prime Minister, _see_ Kei Hara. + + Harbin, bourgeois government set up by General Horvath at, vi: 192. + + Harbord, Maj.-Gen. James G., + Chief of Staff, A. E. F., Sept., '17, v: 101, 403; + commands 2nd Div. in Aisne-Marne Offensive, July, '18, v: 167; + commander, Services of Supply, v: 401. + + Hardaumont, captured by Germans, Mar. 8, '16, i: 384. + + Harden, Maximilian, on sordid nature of World War, i: 123; + on relations between U. S. and Germany, i: 274; + on American war prosperity, i: 311; + optimistic view of German food situation, '14, vi: 254; + on Allied peace terms, vi: 303. + + Hardinge, Lord, + responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364, 370. + + Harington, Sir John, + "brain of British armies in the field," iii: 375. + + Harper, Harry, description of Zeppelins by, ii: 262. + + Harper, Gen., of British Fourth Corps, personal traits, iii: 377. + + Hart, Prof. Albert B., + summary of U. S. official correspondence on submarine sinkings, + i: 358-362. + + Hartlepool, bombarded by Germans, Dec. 16, '14, i: 376, iv: 245. + + Hartmannsweilerkopf, captured by French, Mar. 25, '15, i: 378; + Dec., '15, iii: 46. + + Hartwell, William, first officer of _S. S. Brussels_, + report on Fryatt case, x: 266-269. + + Harvey, Lieut. F. U. W., wins Victoria Cross at Vimy Ridge, iii: 349. + + Hassein, King of Hedjaz, joins forces with British, iii: 199. + + Hatler, Sgt. M. Waldo, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401. + + Haucourt, taken by Germans, Apr. 5, '16, i: 384, iii: 51. + + Haudromont Quarries, taken by French, Oct. 24, '16, i: 388. + + Hausen, Gen. von, + commander of a German Army at first Marne battle, ii: 184. + + Hauts de Meuse, location, v: 199. + + Havre, Belgian government moved to, Oct. 13, '14, i: 376; + embarkation port for returning A. E. F., v: 395. + + _Hawke_, British cruiser, torpedoed Oct. 13, '14, i: 376. + + Hay, Maj.-Gen. Wm. H., commander 28th Div., v: 278. + + Hay, Pvt., one of first of A. E. F. to be killed, xi: 173. + + Hays, 1st Lieut. George Price, + gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 391. + + Hayward, Col. Wm. D., account by, + of his colored regiment of "bell-hops and waiters," x: 135-137. + + Hazois Wood, taken by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263. + + Hebron, occupied by British, Dec. 7, '17, i: 393, iii: 196. + + Hedjaz, Arabs aid British in Palestine operations, iii: 196, 199; + kingdom established under secret treaties, '16--'17, + vi: 334, xii: 279; + delegate to Peace Conference, xii: 180; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Heeringen, Gen. von, + commands German Sixth Army of invasion, Aug., '14, iii: 10. + + _Hela_, German cruiser + torpedoed off Heligoland, Sept. 13, '14, iv: 207. + + Helfferich, Karl, on justification of Germany's part in War, i: 119; + director of Deutsche Bank, i: 133, 252; + German Vice-Chancellor, i: 133, 252; + biography, ix: 353. + + _Helgoland_, German battleship, + mutiny of crew starts revolution, Oct. 31, '18, iv: 381. + + Heligoland, + Peace Treaty provisions for destruction of fortifications on, + xii: 205. + + Heligoland Bight, naval battle of, + British victory, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375, iv: 240-243; + Admiral Beatty's official report on, iv: 241. + + Helmets, steel, devised by French, viii: 64; + process of manufacture of French type, viii: 64; + rate of production, viii: 65; + efficiency as protection, viii: 65; + process of manufacture of U. S. Army type, viii: 66-68; + bullet-resisting tests, viii: 69-72. + + Hem, stormed by French in battle of the Somme, July, '16, iii: 58. + + Henderson, Arthur, biography, ix: 47-50. + + _Henri IV_, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33. + + Henry, Prince, of Prussia, visits U. S., '02, i: 80; + escapes from mutiny of German Fleet, Nov. 7, '18, vi: 272. + + Herbebois, taken by Germans, Feb. 21, '16, iii: 48. + + Heriot, Corp. James D., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395. + + Hermannstadt, captured by Rumanians, Sept. 2, '16, i: 386; + Rumanians defeated at, Sept. 29--30, '16, i: 388. + + Hertling, Count von, German Chancellor, + comment on failure of Champagne-Marne Offensive, July 15--18, '18, + v: 158; + retires as Chancellor, Oct. 3, '18, vi: 270. + + Hertzog, Gen., + anti-British Nationalist leader in South Africa, vi: 49, 50; + heads Nationalist delegation to Peace Conference, Jan., '19, + vi: 52. + + Herzegovina, annexed by Austria, '08, i: 109, vi: 356; + _see also_ Bosnia-Herzegovina. + + _Hesperian, S. S._, + torpedoed by German submarine, Sept. 4, '15, i: 326. + + Hickey, Gen., commander of 16th Irish Div., iii: 377. + + Hickory (30th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army. + + High Sea Fleet, _see_ Germany, Navy. + + Hill, Corp. Ralyn, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397. + + Hill 60, at Ypres, + captured by British, Apr, 17, '15, i: 378, iii: 42; + captured by Germans, May 5, '15, i: 380. + + Hill 70, at Loos, captured by British, Sept., '15, iii: 46. + + Hill 140, near Souchez, captured by French, Sept., '15, iii: 46. + + Hill 180, captured by 327th Inf. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, + Oct. 7, '18, v: 242. + + Hill 190, near Roncheres, captured by 3rd Div., July 27, '18, v: 187. + + Hill 204, near Chateau-Thierry, + captured by 26th Div., July 20, '18, v: 56; + dominating situation, v: 133; + captured by French and A. E. F., June 6, '18, v: 135. + + Hill 223, near Chatel Chehery, + captured by 28th Div., Oct. 7, '18, v: 243. + + Hill 240, captured by 18th and 28th Infs. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, + Oct. 5, '18, v: 240. + + Hill 242, near Cote de Chatillon, + captured by 168th Inf., Oct. 15, '18, v: 84. + + Hill 244, near Chatel Chehery, + captured by 28th Div., Oct. 7, '18, v: 243. + + Hill 258, captured by 127th Div. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, + Oct. 14, '18, v: 250. + + Hill 263, captured by 28th Div. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, + Sept. 26, '18, v: 225. + + Hill 269, + captured by 26th Inf. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct. 5, '18, + v: 240; + held by 1st Engineers against German attacks, v: 246. + + Hill 288, near Cote de Chatillon, + captured by 168th Inf., Oct. 14, '18, v: 84. + + Hill 304, at Verdun, battle for, iii: 51. + + Hill 378, stormed by 79th Div. troops in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, + Nov. 5, '18, v: 270. + + Hilton, Sgt. Richmond H., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395. + + Hindenburg, Field-Marshal Paul von, + put in command of German armies in East Prussia, Aug., '14, + ii: 24, 353, iii: 112; + destroys Russian Army at battle of Tannenberg, Aug. 26--31, '14, + ii: 24, 353 (Ludendorff's account), iii: 112-116, ix: 242; + campaigns in Russian Poland, ii: 25, iii: 116-118, ix: 245; + Ludendorff's tribute to, ii: 300; + appointed Chief of German General Staff, Aug. 29, '16, + ii: 326, iii: 61; + made Chief of General Staff of Central Powers, ii: 331; + proclamation against "unconditional surrender," Oct. 24, '18, + ii: 335; + first meeting with Ludendorff, Aug. 23, '14, ii: 353; + biography, ix: 242-249; + nicknamed "Old Man of the Swamps," ix: 242; + decorated for valor, ix: 246; + popularity, ix: 249. + + Hindenburg Line, + German strategic retreat to, '17, ii: 53, iii: 66-70; + Germans driven to, Sept., '18, ii: 157, iii: 98, 100; + extent and description, iii: 66, v: 216, 301; + strategic purpose, iii: 66; + devastation of French territory in retreat to, '17, iii: 67; + reasons for strategic retreat of '17, iii: 70; + 27th and 30th Divs., A. E. F., attacking with British, + break through in Cambrai-St. Quentin sector, Sept.--Oct., '18, + iii: 101, v: 290-295, 301, 393; + Michel position on St. Mihiel front, v: 69; + Kriemhilde position on Meuse-Argonne front, v: 74, 218; + First Army breaks through in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 390. + + Hines, Maj.-Gen, John L., promotion, v: 182; + commands 4th Div. at St. Mihiel, Sept., '18, v: 202; + commands 4th Div. in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 219; + commands Third Corps in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 83, 390. + + Hintzmann, Korvettenkapitan, + German delegate to arrange for surrender of German fleet, iv: 384. + + Hipper, Rear-Adm. von, + commands German squadron at battle of Dogger Bank, Jan. 24, '15, + iv: 246; + commands German advance fleet at battle of Jutland, May 31, '16, + iv: 99, 103, 108, 113. + + Hirson, captured by Allies, Nov., '18, iii: 103. + + Hodges, Maj.-Gen. H. F., commander 76th Div., July, '18, v: 196. + + Hoffman, Sgt. Chas. F., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 389. + + Hoffman, Conrad, executive secretary, American Y. M. C. A., + work for prisoners in Germany, vii: 309. + + _Hogue_, British cruiser, torpedoed by _U-9_, + Sept. 22, '14, + eye-witness accounts, iv: 205, x: 274-280; + as told by U-boat commander, x: 279. + + Holbrook, Lieut.-Com. Norman D., + blows up Turk warship in Dardanelles, x: 317. + + "Holding" troops, German, viii: 144. + + Holland, _see_ Netherlands. + + _Holland No. 9_, first U. S. Navy submarine, iv: 205. + + Holy Alliance, formation of, i: 33; + defects of, i: 35. + + Holy War, declared by Turks, Nov. 17, '14, i: 376, vi: 330; + to destroy British control in East, ii: 27; + failure of, ii: 31; + response to, in India, vi: 74. + + Home Rule, Irish, _see_ Ireland. + + Home Service, Red Cross, activities of, vii: 35. + + Homs, taken by Allies, Oct., '18, iii: 199. + + Honduras, delegate to Peace Conference, xii: 180. + + Hood, Rear-Adm. Horace L. A., + commands 3rd British Battle Cruiser Squadron at battle of Jutland, + iv: 117; + lost with sinking of _Invincible_, iv: 120. + + Hoofien, S., Dutch representative in Palestine, + report on American relief work, vii: 366. + + Hoover, Herbert C., + appointed U. S. Food Administrator, May 19, '17, i: 390; + pioneer of American relief in Europe, vii: 85; + organizes American Relief Committee, vii: 119; + organizes American Commission for Relief in Belgium, + vii: 119, xii: 136; + account of interview with Lloyd George on Belgian Relief, vii: 124; + biography, ix: 316-323; + bibliography, ix: 323; + work as U. S. Food Administrator, xii: 35; + report on U. S. food exports for relief of Europe, xii: 42; + director-general of American Relief Administration, xii: 141. + + Horn, Lieut. Werner, + German spy, tries to blow up bridge on Canadian border, + i: 316, x: 368. + + Hornby, Sir Geoffrey Phipps, forces Dardanelles, 1878, iv: 21. + + Horne, Gen., + commands British First Army in offensive against Cambrai, + Sept., '18, ii: 214, v: 213; + characterization by Philip Gibbs, iii: 371. + + Horns, for gas alarm, number issued by U. S. Army, v: 324. + + Horses, utility in the War, viii: 397; + hospitals for, viii: 398; + number shipped to France by U. S., xii: 95, 278. + + Horton, Lieut.-Com. Max, + exploit in command of submarine _E-9_, iv: 207. + + Horvath, Gen., sets up bourgeois government in Siberia, vi: 192; + resigns from government, vi: 193. + + Hospitals: British, in France, ii: 131. + French, medical service for wounded, viii: 362-365. + United States, _see_ U. S. Army, Medical Service. + + Hotchkiss machine-gun, viii: 87. + + House, Col. E. M., + U. S. representative on Supreme War Council, iii: 84; + biography, ix: 70-76. + + Howitzers, _see_ Artillery. + + Hughes, W. M., Premier of Australia, + advocate of closer union within British Empire, vi: 40; + for vigorous war policy, vi: 40; + delegate to Allied Economic Conference, June, '16, vi: 40; + forms "Hughesite" Liberal government supporting conscription, + vi: 42. + + Hulloch, British enter, Sept. 26, '14, iii: 46. + + _Humber_, British monitor, description, iv: 281. + + Humbert, Charles, French Senator, + implicated in Bolo Pasha plots, x: 344. + + Hungary, war sentiment, '14, vi: 306; + parliamentary struggle, '16, vi: 311; + Independence Party, leaders and aims of, vi: 311; + "Independence and 1848" Party, formation and aims of, '16, vi: 311; + Socialist demands for peace, '16, vi: 312; + effects of Rumanian invasion, '16, vi: 313; + "bloodless" revolution overthrows Hapsburg rule, Oct., '18, + vi: 322; + National Council, governing body during revolution, vi: 322; + Republic established, Nov., '18, vi: 323, ix: 146, xii: 279; + Count Karolyi, provisional head of Republic, vi: 323; + armistice signed with Allies, vi: 323; + Ironworkers' Party, conflict with government, vi: 324; + Bolshevists under Bela Kun seize control, Mar., '19, vi: 324-328; + military occupation by Allies, Mar., '19, vi: 325; + Allies' peace terms rejected, vi: 326; + the Red Army, vi: 326; + area and population, xii: 279; + _see also_ Austria-Hungary. + + _Hunley_, Confederate submarine in American Civil War, iv: 203. + + Hurley, Edward, biography, ix: 335-337. + + "Hush" ships, description of, iv: 303. + + Hussein Kamil Pasha, made Khedive of Egypt by British, vi: 69. + + Hutier, Gen. von, commands Eighteenth German Army, ii: 149; + new method of surprise attack, general plan and tactics of, v: 41, + viii: 143-145. + + Hutton, Col. P. C., Chief Surgeon, "Paris Group," A. E. F., v: 346. + + Hydrogen, use for inflating balloons, viii: 263. + + Hydrophones, use in detection of U-boats, viii: 17-20, 279-281. + + Hydroplanes, _see_ Aeronautics. + + _Hymn of Hate_, German, against England, i: 194, vi: 253. + + _Hymn of the Lusitania_, German, i: 365. + + + I + + _I Want to Be an Angel_, aviators' song, xi: 338. + + Igel, Wolf von, German arch-spy in U. S., x: 337; + + Imecourt, captured by 319th Inf., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263. + + Immelmann, Capt., German ace, + death in air duel with Capt. Ball, x: 209-211, xi: 216. + + Immigration, to U. S. from Europe, i: 37. + + _Imperatritsa_, Russian battleship, + burns and sinks in Black Sea, Oct. 20, '16, i: 388. + + _Implacable_, British battleship, at Gallipoli, iv: 33. + + _In Flanders Fields_, poem by Lieut.-Col. John McCrae, xi: 54. + + Incendiary bullets, viii: 214. + + _Indefatigable_, British battle cruiser, + sunk at battle of Jutland, iv: 108. + + Indemnity, _see_ Reparation. + + Index numbers, for measuring price changes, xii: _Intro. vii._ + + India, + troops in Palestine and Salonika campaigns, + ii: _Intro._ _xxiii_; + Suez Canal gateway to, ii: 27; + response to appeal of Holy War, ii: 27, vi: 74; + casualties, total in War, iii: 404, 405; + strength of army, iii: 405; + agitation for autonomy, vi: 72; + response to British war needs, vi: 72; + reasons for loyalty, vi: 73; + Nationalist claims for independence, vi: 74; + political demands on Great Britain, vi: 75; + caste system, description of, vi: 75; + influenza epidemic, '18, vi: 76; + suffering from famine, '18--'19, vi: 76; + Defense of India Act, for suppressing sedition, vi: 77; + Bolshevism in, vi: 77; + "Black Cobra Bill," for suppressing radicalism, vi: 78; + coal production, '13--'16, xii: 48; + War cost, Aug., '14--Mar. '19, xii: 106; + Peace Conference delegates, xii: 179. + + Indian, American, as fighter, xi: 175-179. + + Indo-China, French, Japan's desire for, vi: 386. + + _Indomitable_, + British cruiser in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246. + + Industrial rights, + Peace Treaty provisions for re-establishment of, xii: 244-246. + + Infantry, Field-Marshal Haig's estimate of importance, ii: 123. + + Infection, in shell wounds, viii: 362, 367; + causes, viii: 369; + Carrel-Dakin treatment, viii: 369-372, ix: 312, xi: 288-289; + prevention among troops, viii: 392-397, xi: 286-289; + _see also_ + Disease; + Medical science; + Sanitation. + + "Infiltration," new German method of attack, iii: 386, v: 17, 19; + Gen. Gouraud's method of defense against, + v: 46, 155, viii: 146-148. + + _Inflexible_, British battle cruiser at Gallipoli, iv: 31; + damaged by gunfire in Gallipoli attack, Mar. 18, '15, iv: 35; + at battle of Falklands, iv: 70. + + Influenza, deaths from, in '18, iii: 405. + + Insterburg, + important junction on Petrograd-Berlin Railroad, iii: 111. + + Insurance, social, in territories ceded by Germany, + funds to be transferred to Allies, xii: 246. + + Intelligence tests for soldiers, viii: 349-351. + + Inter-Allied Commissions of Control, + to supervise execution of military terms of Peace Treaty, xii: 215. + + Inter-Allied Conference, Mar., '16, + decides on Somme offensive, iii: 55. + + Inter-Allied Games, at Pershing Stadium, vii: 313. + + Inter-Allied General Staff, created, iii: 84. + + Inter-Allied Scientific Food Commission, functions, xii: 139. + + Inter-Allied War Council, _see_ Supreme War Council. + + International law, formulation of, by Grotius, i: 26; + German statement of Allied infractions, i: 139; + Lansing's proposal for regulation of U-boat war, i: 281, 328; + comment of London _Times_ on Lansing proposal, i: 282; + German protest against U. S. position on armed merchantmen, i: 282; + U. S. position on status of armed merchantmen, i: 283; + controversy between U. S. and Great Britain + on right of seizure of neutral cargoes, i: 312, 318, 339; + controversy between U. S. and Germany on submarine warfare, + i: 317-326, 329-335, 339, 357-361 (chronological summary); + U. S. note to Germany on "Freedom of the seas," July 21, '15, + i: 323; + controversy between U. S. and Austria-Hungary on submarine warfare, + i: 326; + President Wilson opposed to principle of McLemore Resolution, + i: 327; + controversy between U. S. and Great Britain + on seizure of neutral mail, i: 335; + on blockades, ii: 21; + _see also_ + Germany, Blockade of; + Submarine warfare. + + International rivalries, factors in, 1890--1914, i: 58-63. + + International Sanitary Commission, + for Serbian typhus relief, iii: 398. + + _Intrepid_, British cruiser in Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 262; + sunk in channel at Zeebrugge, iv: 265. + + Inventions, + displace importance of strategy in war, viii: _Intro. vii._ + + _Invincible_, British battle cruiser, armament, iv: 70; + blown up at Jutland, iv: 119; + at Heligoland Bight, iv: 241. + + Ipek, occupied by French, Oct. 16, '18, i: 399. + + _Iphigenia_, British cruiser in Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 262; + sunk in channel at Zeebrugge, iv: 265. + + Ireland, history of Home Rule movement, vi: 53; + Ulster, led by Carson, opposes Home Rule, vi: 53, 60, ix: 50; + situation at outbreak of War, vi: 53; + loyalty to British in early days of War, vi: 55; + Sinn Feiners start separatist propaganda, vi: 55; + spread of Sinn Fein movement, vi: 57; + Sir Roger Casement's negotiations with Germans, vi: 57; + Sinn Feiners organize armed opposition, vi: 57; + Irish Volunteers, vi: 57; + sympathy with Germany, vi: 57; + German arms for Sinn Feiners captured by British, vi: 58; + Sir Roger Casement captured, vi: 58, ix: 53; + Easter Rebellion, Apr., '16, vi: 58; + proclamation of Republic, Apr., '16, vi: 60; + Padraic Pearse, Provisional President, vi: 60, ix: 53; + collapse of rebellion, May, '16, vi: 60; + leaders executed for treason, May 3, '16, vi: 60, ix: 53; + Lloyd George's proposal for Home Rule settlement, '17, vi: 61; + Irish Convention meets to discover way for settlement, '18, + vi: 61-63; + De Valera, leader of Sinn Feiners, vi: 61; + De Valera elected to Parliament, vi: 62; + Sinn Feiners' attitude toward Convention, vi: 62; + government's new Home Rule Bill, '18, outline of, vi: 64; + struggle over conscription, vi: 64; + Sinn Feiners carry parliamentary elections, '18, vi: 64; + Irish Republic proclaimed by National Assembly at Dublin, '18, + vi: 64; + delegates to Peace Conference appointed, vi: 64; + movement in U. S. in support of Irish freedom, vi: 65; + Irish-American mission to Peace Conference, vi: 65; + Peace Conference refuses hearing to Irish cause, vi: 66; + Sinn Fein platform, ix: 52; + De Valera elected President of Irish Republic, ix: 55. + + Ireland, Maj.-Gen. M. W., Surgeon-General, U. S. Army, v: 346. + + _Iris_, British ferryboat in Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 262. + + Irish-Americans, support for cause of Irish freedom, vi: 65; + Irish Race in America Convention, Feb., '19, vi: 65; + delegation to Peace Conference, vi: 65. + + Irkutsk, captured by Czechoslovaks, July 13, '18, i: 397. + + Iron, importance of Lorraine deposits, i: 267; + importance in war, i: 268; + French mines coveted by Germany, ii: 13, 15; + French mines seized by Germany, ii: 20. + + _Irresistible_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31; + sunk in Gallipoli attack, Mar. 18, '15, iv: 35, 48. + + Isherwood, Lieut.-Com., + co-inventor of launching device for depth bombs, iv: 331. + + Ishii, Viscount, biography, ix: 90. + + Ishtib, occupied by Allies, Sept. 26, '18, i: 397. + + Isonzo Front, _see_ Italian Front. + + Isonzo River, course, ii: 48. + + Is-sur-Tille, center of American lines of supply, + iii: 83, v: 11, 330. + + Istria, given by Allies to Italy under secret treaty, '15, vi: 361. + + _Italia Irredenta_, definition, xi: 18. + + Italian Front, + Lloyd George advocates strong offensive on, ii: _Intro. xx_; + most difficult theater of War, ii: 48; + general military topography, + ii: 48, 49, 236, 244, iii: 226-230, xi: 25; + general strategy at start of War, + ii: 48, 49, iii: 228-231, 239-241; + topography of Isonzo Front, ii: 48, iii: 239; + Isonzo campaigns, ii: 49-52, 56-58, 240, 242-250, iii: 239-248; + topography of Trentino Front, ii: 49, iii: 230; + Trentino campaigns, ii: 49, 51, iii: 230-239; + Italian attacks on Gorizia fail, '15, ii: 50, 240; + results of '15 campaign, ii: 51; + Gorizia captured by Italians, Aug., 16, ii: 51, 242, iii: 246; + Caporetto disaster and Italian rout, Oct.--Dec., '17, + ii: 56-58, 246-250, iii: 80, 246-248, vi: 129, xi: 37; + Italian retreat checked by stand at the Piave, Nov., '17, + ii: 58, 250, iii: 80, 248; + last Austrian offensive, June, '18, ii: 94-96, 250-252, iii: 249; + victorious final offensive by Italy, Oct., '18, + ii: 96, 252-254, iii: 249; + Carso Plateau, description of, ii: 244; + Gradisca captured by Italians, June 9, '15, iii: 244; + Monfalcone captured by Italians, June, '15, iii: 244; + casualties and prisoners of war, Austrian and Italian, + during Isonzo campaigns, iii: 244, 246, 248; + Cividale captured by Austro-Germans, Oct. 28, '17, iii: 247; + Udine captured by Austro-Germans, Oct., '17, iii: 247; + Italian losses in men and territory in great retreat, + Oct.--Dec., '17, ii: 248; + Jugoslavs in Austrian army desert to Italians, iii: 249; + American reinforcements arrive, July, '18, iii: 249, v: 394; + bibliography, iii: 249; + aerial cableways across the Alps, viii: 303-306. + + _Italian Front, On the_, poem by G. E. Woodbury, vi: 114. + + Italy: + Army, German estimate of effectiveness, '14, ii: 4; + Arditi, description of, ii: 240; + Bersaglieri, description of, ii: 240; + Alpini, description of, ii: 242; + Carabinieri, as military police, ii: 242; + Granatieri, description of, ii: 242; + pre-War organization and equipment, iii: 224-226; + effect of enemy propaganda on morale, iii: 247, vi: 128; + for military operations, _see_ Italian Front. + Casualties, total in War, ii: 116, iii: 404, vi: 130; + money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25; + total battle deaths, xii: 288. + Declarations of war, on Austria, May 23, '15, + i: 380, ii: 48, 236, vi: 126, 309, xi: 18; + on Turkey, Aug. 21, '15, i: 381; + on Bulgaria, Oct. 19, '15, i: 382; + on Germany, Aug. 27, '16, i: 386; + belligerency condemned as traitorous by Austrian press, vi: 310. + Foreign policy, international position, '14, i: 61; + ambition for Mediterranean supremacy, i: 61; + member of Triple Alliance, i: 95, 255, ii: 48, vi: 114; + war with Turkey for Tripoli, '12, i: 109, vi: 114; + neglected by Germany, i: 255; + Bissolati's explanation of neutrality, i: 256; + refusal to enter War as German ally, ii: 48, xi: 6; + Central Powers bargain for neutrality, ii: 48; + parliamentary struggle between neutralists and interventionists, + ii: 236, vi: 123-126; + Salandra and Sonino advocate war on side of Allies, + ii: 236, vi: 123; + Giolitti advocates continued neutrality, ii: 236, vi: 123; + attitude toward U. S., ii: 245; + public opinion for neutrality in early days of War, vi: 116; + pro-German sentiment, vi: 118; + pro-Ally sentiment grows, vi: 119; + territorial demands on Austria, '14, vi: 120; + Avlona occupied, Dec., '14, vi: 120; + secret treaty with Allies, Apr., '15, price of entry into War, + vi: 122, 361; + occupation of Austrian territories following armistice, + vi: 129, 364; + unpopularity of Austrian alliance, vi: 308; + claims to Asiatic Turkey under secret treaties, '16--'17, vi: 334; + hostility to Jugoslav expansion, vi: 360-362, 364-370; + Adriatic aspirations, vi: 361; + Fiume dispute, vi: 365-370. + Imports, dependence on, ii: 236, vi: 127. + Internal politics, unification, i: 39; + parliamentary struggle between neutralists and war party, + ii: 236, vi: 123-126; + Salandra and Sonnino advocate war on side of Allies, + ii: 236, vi: 120, 123; + Giolitti for continued neutrality, ii: 236, vi: 123; + D'Annunzio rouses people to side with Allies, ii: 239, vi: 124; + strikes instigated by Bolshevik propaganda, iii: 247, vi: 128; + political situation preceding entry into War, vi: 114; + popular sentiment for neutrality, vi: 116; + pro-Ally sentiment, vi: 116, 119; + attitude of political parties on neutrality, vi: 117; + pro-German sympathies, vi: 118; + King Victor takes decisive step for war, vi: 125; + obstructionist policy of Catholics and Socialists, vi: 126; + fall of Salandra Cabinet, June, '16, vi: 127; + coalition government under Boselli takes office, June, '16, + vi: 127; + pacifist propaganda and riots, vi: 128; + fall of Boselli government, Oct., '17, vi: 129; + Orlando heads new Cabinet, vi: 129; + Cabinet crisis on Fiume question, '18, vi: 369. + Navy, strength at outbreak of War, iv: 368; + War record, iv: 368; + blockade of Jugoslav ports, vi: 369. + Peace Conference, delegates to, xii: 179. + Peace Treaty, ratified, Oct. 7, '19, xii: 264. + Prisoners of war, iii: 404. + Royal family, xi: 141-143; + _see also_ Victor Emmanuel. + War cost, Luzzati's statement on, vi: 130; + relatively largest of all belligerents, vi: 131; + financial position at start of War, xii: 1; + debt to U. S., xii: 18; + value of man-power lost, xii: 25; + value of property destroyed, xii: 26; + average daily war cost, xii: 106; + total war cost, May, '15--Oct., '18, xii: 107; + taxation, xii: 107, 109; + loans, xii: 113; + rise in national debt, xii: 113, 114. + + + J + + Jablonitza, captured by Russians, Aug. 15, '16, i: 386. + + _Jacob Jones_, + U. S. destroyer sunk by U-boat, Dec. 6, '17, i: 393; + report of Lieut.-Com. Bagley, iv: 346-349. + + Jador, battle of, + Austrians driven from Serbia, '14, ii: 32, iii: 152. + + Jaffa, captured by British, iii: 194. + + Jagow, Gottlieb von, German Foreign Secretary, ix: 127-128. + + Jametz, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 10, '18, v: 272. + + Japan, abrogates extraterritorial rights, i: 18; + acquires Formosa, 1894, i: 20; + acquires Port Arthur and Korea in Russo-Japanese War, i: 20; + rise as world power, '05, i: 20; + adopts "open door" policy, 1854, i: 38; + Root-Takahira agreement on "open door" in China, '08, i: 57; + Lansing-Ishii Note recognizes special Japanese interest + in China, '17, i: 58; + international position in '14, i: 63; + Anglo-Japanese Alliance, terms of, i: 104, 107; + Ludendorff's comment on entry into War, ii: 357; + siege and capture of Kiau-Chau (Tsing Tau), + Aug. 23--Nov. 7, '14, iii: 257-259, iv: 367, vi: 382-383; + total casualties, iii: 404; + prisoners of war, iii: 404; + naval strength, iv: 58; + naval service to Allies, iv: 367; + motive in siding with Allies, iv: 367, vi: 382; + sends troops to Vladivostok against Soviet government, vi: 193; + the "Yellow Peril," origin of phrase, vi: 248; + ultimatum to Germany demanding surrender of Kiau-Chau, + Aug. 17, '14, vi: 382; + declares war on Germany, Aug. 23, '14, vi: 382; + internal politics during War, vi: 384; + forces China to accede to "Group Demands," '15, vi: 385; + summary of concessions obtained under "Group Demands," vi: 385; + ambition for domination in Far East, vi: 386; + treaty with Russia, '16, vi: 386; + imperialists advocate intervention in Siberia, '17, vi: 386; + Terauchi Cabinet opposed by liberals, vi: 386-388; + Kei Hara succeeds Terauchi as Premier, '18, vi: 388; + opposition by conservatives to Hara government, vi: 388; + separatist movement in Korea, vi: 388; + money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25; + coal production, '13--'16, xii: 48; + delegates to Peace Conference, xii: 180; + Shantung (Kiau-Chau) transferred to, by Peace Treaty, xii: 209; + ratifies Peace Treaty, Oct. 27, '19, xii: 264; + _see also_ + Kiau-Chau; + Shantung. + + Jaroslav, fortress on San, + captured by Russians, Sept. 21, '14, i: 376, iii: 123; + retaken by Germans, May 17, '15, iii: 136. + + Jassy, Rumanian government moved to, Nov. 28, '16, i: 389. + + Jastrow, Prof. Morris, Jr., + discussion of Bagdad Railway problem, ii: 290-297. + + Jaulgonne, location, v: 133; + captured by 3rd Div., July, '18, v: 383. + + _Jaureguiberry_, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33. + + Jaures, Jean, French anti-militarist, assassinated, vi: 95. + + Jebel Shammar, Emirate of, established, '18, xii: 279. + + Jellicoe, Adm. Sir John, + appointed Commander-in-Chief of British Grand Fleet, Aug. 4, '14, + iv: 88; + analysis of British and German fleets at start of War, iv: 93-97; + biography, ix: 275-282; + bibliography, ix: 282. + + Jericho, captured by British, Feb. 22, '18, i: 393, ii: 196. + + Jerusalem, + captured by Gen. Allenby, Dec. 11, '17, ii: 92, iii: 196, 322-326; + Allenby's proclamation to people of, iii: 325; + work of Y. M. C. A. in, vii: 323. + + _Jeszcze Polska_, Polish national anthem, xi: 331. + + Jews, distress in war areas, vii: 349; + number in Russian Poland, vii: 349, 358, 361, 376; + number in Galicia, vii: 349, 376; + number in Germany, vii: 349; + number in Turkey, vii: 349, 368 (outside Palestine), 376; + number in Palestine, vii: 349, 366, 376; + number in Serbia, vii: 349, 369, 376; + American aid for needy in Palestine, vii: 350, 358, 365-368; + American aid for needy in Belgium, vii: 350; + organization of war relief agencies in U. S., vii: 351-354; + American Jewish Relief Committee formed, vii: 354; + funds raised in U. S. for overseas war relief, '16--'17, + vii: 355-356; + American relief for destitute in Russian Poland, + vii: 356-358, 360-363; + refugees in interior of Russia, relief activities for, + vii: 356, 363-365; + conditions in Galicia, vii: 358; + number dependent on war relief, by countries, + vii: 358, 361, 362, 363, 366, 367, 369, 376; + work of relief commission sent to Europe from U. S., vii: 359-360; + American relief for needy in Constantinople, vii: 368; + contributions to destitute in Serbia and Greece, vii: 368; + aid for war refugees in Spain, vii: 369; + relief funds raised in U. S. during '18, vii: 370-374; + reports, on after-War distress in Europe, vii: 375-376; + extent of relief work in Vilna, vii: 375; + number in Lithuania, vii: 376; + number in Baltic Provinces, vii: 376; + number in Russia, vii: 376; + number in Serbia, vii: 376; + number in Rumania, vii: 376; + number in Bulgaria, vii: 376; + number in Greece, vii: 376; + number in Hungary, vii: 376; + number in Persia, vii: 376. + + Jihad, _see_ Holy War. + + Joffre, Marshal Josef Jacques Cesar, + fights first battle of the Marne, Sept., '14, ii: 9, 182, iii: 30; + controversy with Viscount French on importance of Channel ports, + ii: 172; + _General Joffre and His Battles_, book by Raymond Recouly, + summary of, ii: 182-189; + appointed Commander-in-Chief of French armies, iii: 46; + technical adviser to French War Council, iii: 62; + biography, ix: 154-161; + visit to U.S., ix: 161; + bibliography, ix: 161; + intimate anecdote of, ix: 269. + + Johnston, Sgt. Harold I., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401. + + Johnston, Maj.-Gen. W. H., + in command of 91st Div., Aug., '18, v: 196; + at Marne-Aisne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 220. + + Joint Distribution Committee, + for Jewish war relief, formation of, vii: 354. + + Jonc de Mer Ridge, + Germans driven back at, by A. E. F., Oct. 18, '18, v: 296. + + Jordan River, military operations along, iii: 197. + + Joseph Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, + commands Austrian forces to invade Poland, iii: 119. + + Jugoslavs, in Austrian Army desert to Italians, '18, iii: 249; + Austrian and Russian policies toward, vi: 306; + attack Hungarian Republic, April--May, '19, vi: 326; + racial groups among, with early history, vi: 354; + Serbian ambition for unification, vi: 355, 363; + clash with Austrian interests, vi: 355-359; + meeting of Jugoslav representatives in Corfu plans + for united nation, Aug.,'17, vi: 359; + conflict with Italy over eastern Adriatic coast, + vi: 359-363, 364-370; + Hungarian government suppresses Jugoslav Congress at Agram, + Mar., '18, vi: 363; + establish united Provisional Government, Nov., '18, vi: 364; + seize Austrian navy and merchant marine, Nov., '18, vi: 364; + armed opposition to Italian advance in Carniola, Nov., '18, + vi: 364; + struggle with Italy for possession of Fiume and Dalmatia, + vi: 365-370; + establish united kingdom under Prince Alexander of Serbia, + Dec. 21, '18, vi: 366; + recognized by U. S., Feb. '19, vi: 366; + President Wilson's note supporting Jugoslav claim for Fiume, + vi: 369; + claims for independence recognized by Austria-Hungary + in agreeing to armistice, vi: 399; + area and population of united kingdom, xii: 279; + _see also_ Serbia. + + Junior American Red Cross, activities, xi: 90. + + Justh, Julius, leader of Hungarian Independence Party, vi: 311. + + Jutland, battle of, May 31, '16, + description in full, with official reports, iv: 99-136; + outline in brief, iv: 99-104; + opposing commanders, iv: 99; + British ships and men lost, iv: 100; + German ships and men lost, iv: 100; + moral victory for Germans, iv: 100; + criticism of Jellicoe's tactics, iv: 101; + greatest naval engagement in history, iv: 102; + conditions influencing, iv: 102; + strength and composition of fleets engaged, + iv: 103-104, 112, 114, 119; + disposition of British forces, iv: 104; + first phase, iv: 106-113; + Beatty's report on first phase, iv: 106-110; + Jellicoe's account of first phase, iv: 108; + accuracy of German fire, iv: 108; + _Indefatigable_ sunk, iv: 108; + fight between destroyer flotillas, iv: 109; + _Queen Mary_ blown up, iv: 110; + critical analysis of first phase, iv: 110-113; + second phase, Beatty's report on, iv: 113-115; + weather conditions, iv: 113; + critical analysis of second phase, iv: 115; + third phase, iv: 115-130; + Jellicoe's account of third phase, iv: 117-120, 121-129; + Third Battle Cruiser Squadron under Hood reinforces Beatty, + iv: 117; + British miscalculate position, iv: 117; + Hood gets into action with enemy, iv: 119; + Beatty's report on third phase, iv: 119, 120-121, 129; + _Invincible_ blows up, iv: 119; + Adm. Hood lost with _Invincible_, iv: 119-120; + _Shark_, _Defence_, and _Black Prince_ sunk, iv: 121; + low visibility, iv: 121-123; + British alter course to avoid torpedo attack, iv: 125; + German destroyers sunk, iv: 126; + Germans retire under cover of smoke screen, iv: 126; + Jellicoe pursues enemy, iv: 127; + critical analysis of third phase, iv: 129; + fourth phase, iv: 131-136; + night fighting and torpedo attacks, iv: 131; + Jellicoe abandons pursuit, iv: 133; + critical analysis of fourth phase, iv: 133-136; + effect of battle on military situation, iv: 135; + lessons taught by, iv: 135; + account and analysis of, by Arthur Pollen, iv: 144-156; + authoritative information incomplete, iv: 146; + British lose chance for decisive victory, iv: 152, 156; + German eye-witness account, iv: 256; + British eye-witness account, iv: 258. + + Juvigny, captured by French and 32nd Div., A. E. F., + Aug., '18, i: 397, v: 62, 258, 384; + 32nd Div. casualties at, v: 259. + + + K + + _K-13_, British submarine, + account of sinking, and rescue of crew, x: 304-315. + + "Kahkos," description, viii: 257. + + Kaiser, _see_ William II. + + Kaiser Wilhelm Land, acquired by Australia, '18, xii: 279; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Kakali, captured by Allies, Oct., '15, iii: 204. + + Kale-I-Sultanie, fort on the Dardanelles, ii: 29. + + Kaledin, Gen., commands Russian army at Rovno, iii: 142; + leads Cossacks in Siberia, vi: 192. + + _Kambana_, Bulgarian newspaper, + statement against Russia, June, '15, vi: 342. + + Kamerun, _see_ Cameroons. + + Kamio, Gen., + Japanese commander at siege of Tsing Tau (Kiau-Chau), iii: 257. + + Karaburnu, Greek fort occupied by Allies, iii: 206. + + Karaurgan, Russians defeat Turks at, Jan. 16, '15, i: 378. + + Karlsruhe, Allied air raid on, June 15, '15, i: 380. + + _Karlsruhe_, German sea-raider, + battle with British cruiser _Bristol_, Aug. 6, '14, iv: 63; + career in Atlantic, iv: 196. + + Karnes, Sgt. James E., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396. + + Karolyi, Count Michael, + pleads Hungary's cause in U. S., '14, vi: 307; + leader of Hungarian Independence Party, vi: 311; + forms "Independence and 1848" Party, '16, vi: 311; + appointed Premier of Hungary, Nov., '18, vi: 323; + resigns as Premier, Mar., '19, vi: 325; + biography, ix: 144-147. + + Kars, Russians defeat Turks at, Jan. 1, '15, iii: 260. + + Katia, battle between Turks and British at, Apr., '16, iii: 191. + + Katz, Sgt. Philip C., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401. + + Kaufman, Sgt. Benjamin, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 399. + + Kautsky, Herr, German Social-Democratic leader, + opposes war, vi: _Intro. xii._ + + Kavala, bombarded by British warships, Aug. 27, '16, i: 386; + occupied by Bulgars, '16, iii: 207, vi: 344. + + _Kawachi_, Japanese battleship blows up, July 12, '18, i: 397. + + Keeling Island, destruction on, by landing party from _Emden_, + Nov. 9, '14, iv: 184, 190. + + _Keep the Home Fires Burning_, American soldiers' song, xi: 336. + + _Keep Your Head Down, Fritzie Boy_, + American soldiers' song, xi: 337. + + Kei Hara, heads liberal Japanese Cabinet, vi: 388. + + Keirsbilk, Alois Van, + Belgian hero, executed for plotting death of Kaiser, x: 357-360. + + Kellermann, Bernhard, + German novelist, description of conditions at front, iii: 286. + + Kelley, Col., British commander against Sudanese, iii: 191. + + Kelly, Pvt. John Joseph, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 389. + + Kem, captured by Anglo-American forces, July 15, '18, i: 397. + + Kemmel, Mount, + stormed and captured by Germans, Apr., '18, i: 395, iii: 91, 360; + occupied by Anglo-American troops, Aug. 19, '18, i: 397; + key-point in defense of Channel ports, iii: 381; + 27th and 30th Divs. in sector, v: 286. + + Kennedy, Maj.-Gen. C. W., commands 85th Div., Aug., '18, v: 197. + + _Kent_, British cruiser + at battle of Falklands, armament, iv: 70; + sinks _Nuernberg_, iv: 74. + + Kerensky, Alexander Feodorovitch, + speech in Duma predicting revolution, vi: 144; + leader of Socialist-Revolutionary Party, vi: 148; + pacifies revolting Petrograd troops, Mar. 12, '17, vi: 151; + Minister of Justice in Prince Lvov's Cabinet, vi: 155; + character sketch, vi: 155; + abolishes death penalty, vi: 157; + Minister of War in Lvov's coalition Cabinet, vi: 160; + member of "Group of Toil," vi: 160; + becomes Premier and dictator of Russia, vi: 165; + struggle with Kornilov for supreme power, vi: 167-171; + declares himself Commander-in-Chief, vi: 171; + struggle with Soviets, vi: 175-179; + overthrown by Bolsheviki, vi: 179-181; + biography, ix: 104-109; + bibliography, ix: 109. + + Kermanshah, captured by Russians, Feb. 25, '16, i: 384. + + Kerosene, amount used by A. E. F., v: 331. + + Kessler, Count, expelled from Poland, vi: 220. + + Kessler, George A., starts Blind Relief War Fund, vii: 255. + + Keystone (28th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army. + + Kharga, British base in Libyan Desert, iii: 191. + + _Kheyr-ed-Din-Barbarossa_, + Turkish battleship sunk by British submarine, Aug. 9, '15, i: 381. + + Khvostov, Russian Minister of Interior, + removed from office, Feb., '16, vi: 140. + + Kiau-Chau (Kiao-Chau), seized by Germany, 1897, i: 15, 82; + siege and conquest of Tsing Tau by Japanese, Aug. 24--Nov. 7, '14, + iii: 257-259, iv: 367, vi: 382-383; + German rights transferred to Japan under Peace Treaty, xii: 209; + area and population, xii: 279; + _see also_ Shantung. + + Kiel Canal, Peace Treaty provisions for navigation of, xii: 255. + + Kienzle, Herbert, in German plot to blow up ships at sea, x: 372. + + Kiev, captured by Germans, Mar. 2, '18, i: 393. + + Kilid-Bahr, fortification of, on Gallipoli, ii: 29, iv: 24, 45; + objective of British landing forces, iii: 167; + bombarded, Mar. 5, '15, iv: 45; + _see also_ Gallipoli Campaign. + + Killingholme, England, U. S. seaplane station at, iv: 359. + + _Kimigayo_, Japanese national anthem, xi: 328. + + _King Edward VII_, + British battleship sunk by mine, Jan. 10, '16, i: 384. + + Kiribaba Pass, seized by Russians, Jan. 16, '15, i: 378. + + Kitchener, Field-Marshal Lord Horatio Herbert, + drowned in sinking of cruiser _Hampshire_, June 5, '16, + i: 385, ix: 168; + attitude on Dardanelles campaign, ii: _Intro. xv_; + dispute with Field-Marshal French, ii: 164-169; + member of British Cabinet War Council, ii: 198; + responsibility for Dardanelles disaster, ii: 198, 202; + influence in War Council described by Winston Churchill, ii: 202; + biography, ix: 168-176; + bibliography, ix: 176; + military commandments, xi: 55. + + _K-K-K-Katy_, American soldiers' song, xi: 335. + + Kluck, Gen. Alexander von, + leads invasion of Belgium and France, Aug., '14, + ii: 8, iii: 10, xi: 10; + occupies Brussels, Aug. 20, '14, ii: 8, iii: 21; + defeated at first Marne battle and forced to retreat, Sept., '14, + ii: 9, 184, iii: 30-34; + strategy of Aug., '14 advance, criticism of, + by Field-Marshal French, ii: 168; + avoids Paris and crosses the Marne, iii: 28; + biography, ix: 266-268. + + Knights of Columbus, war-time activities of, vii: 328-339; + organizing for war work, vii: 330; + funds raised, vii: 331; + war work expenditures, vii: 332; + War Activities Committee, vii: 334; + employment bureaus for discharged service men, vii: 338. + + Knotty Ash Camp, Liverpool, American Y. M. C. A. at, vii: 287. + + Knox peace resolution, + declaring war between U. S. and Germany at end, + passed by Congress in substitution for Treaty of Versailles, + xii: 273-277; + text of original resolution + asking the President to make separate peace, xii: 273-274; + text of amended resolution, xii: 277; + vetoed by President Wilson, xii: 277; + President's veto message, xii: 278. + + Kocak, Sgt. Matej, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 389. + + Koenig, Paul, head of Hamburg-American Line secret service, i: 317; + German spy in U. S., x: 347. + + Koenig, Capt. Paul, + commander of German commerce submarine _Deutschland_, + personal account of trans-Atlantic trip, iv: 214-216, x: 271-274. + + Koja Chemen Tepe, at Gallipoli, dominates Anzac positions, iii: 172; + Anzac assault on, iii: 173; + _see also_ Gallipoli Campaign. + + Kolchak, Adm. Aleksandr Vasiliyevich, + Siberian government of, recognized by Allies, vi: 188; + declares himself dictator of Siberia, vi: 194; + leader of anti-Bolshevik forces in Russia, vi: 194; + biography, ix: 239-241. + + Kollontai, Mme., member of Bolshevik presidium, vi: 179. + + _Koeln_, German cruiser + sunk at battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241. + + _Koenigin Luise_, German raider in English Channel, iv: 197. + + Koenigsberg, in East Prussia, Russian objective, iii: 111. + + _Koenigsberg_, German sea-raider, + sunk by British monitors, July 11, '15, i: 381, iv: 195. + + Koran of Caliph Othwan, Peace Treaty provision for return of, + by Germany to King of Hedjaz, xii: 225. + + Korea, acquired by Japan, i: 20; + struggle for independence, vi: 388. + + Kornilov, Gen. Laurus, + appointed Commander-in-Chief of Russian armies by Kerensky, + vi: 164; + rebellion against Kerensky, vi: 167-171; + imprisoned, vi: 171; + leads Cossacks against Bolsheviki, vi: 192; + biography, ix: 235-237. + + Kossaima, occupied by Turks, Jan., '15, iii: 189. + + Kovel, military importance, ii: 42. + + Kovno, captured by Germans, Aug. 17, '15, i: 381, ii: 363, iii: 138. + + Koweit, Sultanate of, established, '18, xii: 279. + + Kriemhilde Position, German line of defense, + extent and description, v: 74, 218, 234; + A. E. F. breakthrough in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.--Nov., '18, + v: 80-88, 240, 245, 262; + _see also_ Meuse-Argonne Offensive. + + Krithia, at Gallipoli, Allied attacks on, iii: 169-173; + _see also_ Gallipoli Campaign. + + _Kronprinz Wilhelm_, + comes into Newport News harbor, Apr. 11, '15, i: 378; + interned, Apr. 26, '15, i: 380. + + Kronstadt, captured by Rumanians, Sept., '16, iii: 218; + recaptured by Teutons, Oct., '16, iii: 220; + military headquarters of Bolsheviki, vi: 164. + + Krovno, occupied by Austrians, Feb. 4, '16, i: 384. + + Krupp, Bertha, owner of largest German munition plant, ix: 352. + + Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, Dr. Gustave, + head of Krupp Works, visit to England, June, '14, i: 265; + husband of Bertha Krupp, ix: 352. + + Kuban Republic, established, Nov., '18, xii: 279; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Kucharzewski, Premier of Poland under German jurisdiction, vi: 214. + + Kuhn, Maj.-Gen. Joseph E., commands 79th Div., Aug., '18, v: 197; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 219. + + Kultur, German, _see_ Germany, Kultur. + + Kum Kale, + French land troops at, for Gallipoli Campaign, Apr. 25, '15, + iv: 41; + Turkish fortifications at, iv: 42; + Allied bombardment of, Mar. 4, '15, iv: 44. + + Kurnah, taken by British, Dec. 9, '14, i: 376, iii: 180. + + Kuryet-el-Enad, taken by British, Nov. 19, '17, iii: 194. + + Kusmanek, Gen. von, Austrian commander defending Przemysl, iii: 134. + + Kut-el-Amara, captured by British, Sept., '15, iii: 181; + siege and surrender of British at, Dec. 7, '15--Apr. 29, '16, + iii: 183, 318-320; + number of British surrendered, iii: 318; + conditions in, during siege, iii: 364. + + + L + + La Bassee, captured by British, Jan. 23, '15, i: 378. + + La Boisselle, captured by Allies in Somme battle, '16, iii: 58. + + Labor, anti-war spirit, xii: 65; + importance in winning the War, xii: 68; + floating, xii: 68; + women in war industries, xii: 83-85; + Peace Treaty charter for international organization, xii: 255-261; + _see also_ under each country. + + Labor Peace Conference, British, Feb. 27, '19, vi: 20. + + "Labyrinth," captured by French, June 22, '15, i: 380; + designation for German trenches between + Arras and Neuville St. Vaast, iii: 42. + + _Laconia, S. S._, Cunard liner torpedoed, Feb. 25, '17, i: 389; + eye-witness account, iv: 225-229. + + Ladd, Anna Coleman, makes copper face masks for mutilated, vii: 68. + + _Lafayette_, poem by R. A. Purdy, xi: 18. + + Lafayette Escadrille, formation, iii: 391; + first members, iii: 391; + Capt. Thenault appointed commander, iii: 391; + first casualties, iii: 391; + equipment of fliers, iii: 392; + propaganda among Germans, iii: 392; + total casualties, iii: 392; + story of, x: 196-202. + + Lafayette Fund, first American war relief organizations vii: 85. + + La Fere, British driven from, Aug. 26, '14, i: 375; + captured by Germans, Aug. 29, '14, i: 375; + recaptured by Allies, Oct. 13, '18, i: 399, xi: 52; + German base in France, ii: 86; + French attacks on, '17, iii: 68. + + La-Ferte-sous-Jouarre, headquarters of First Army, A. E. F., v: 384. + + Lamarch, captured by 42nd Div., Sept. 12, '18, v: 211. + + Lamont, Thomas W., + financial adviser to U. S. delegation to Peace Conference, + xii: 149; + account of Peace Conference at work, xii: 149-163; + member of Reparations Commission, xii: 158. + + Lamprecht, Prof. Karl, + German historian, defense of German system of government, i: 155. + + Landres-St. Georges, captured by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 90, 263; + bombed by A. E. F. airmen, v: 311. + + Landreville, captured by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263. + + Landsberg, Herr, member of Ebert government, Nov. 9, '18, vi: 277. + + Landsturm, German, i: 72. + + Landwehr, German, i: 72. + + Lane, Franklin K., on meaning of the War to America, i: 367. + + Langfitt, Maj.-Gen. Wm. C., Chief Engineer, A. E. F., v: 336. + + Langres, A. E. F. training schools at, v: 106, 314. + + Lanrezac, Gen., Viscount French's criticism of, ii: 162. + + Lansdowne, Lord, letter calling on Allies to state war aims, vi: 12. + + Lansing-Ishii Note, + '17, recognizes Japan's special interests in China, i: 58, vi: 386. + + Laon, captured by Germans, Aug. 29, '14, i: 375; + German base in France, ii: 86; + captured by Gen. Mangin, Oct. 12, '18, ii: 214, xi: 52. + + La Peyrere, Adm., Commander-in-Chief of French navy, '14, iv: 12. + + La Pultiere Wood, captured by 5th Div., Oct. 14, '18, v: 250. + + _Lars Kruse_, Belgian relief ship sunk by U-boat, iv: 230. + + La Rue Farm, captured by 27th Div., v: 296. + + _La Societe Imperiale Ottomane du Chemin de Fer de Bagdad_, + formation, ii: 292; + terms of concession to, ii: 292. + + _Last Long Mile, The_, British soldiers' song, xi: 337. + + Latham, Sgt. John C., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393. + + Latin America, participation in War, vi: 389. + + Launeville, taken by 89th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266. + + Laurier, Sir Wilfrid, Canadian Liberal leader, vi: 24; + speech pledging War support, Aug., '14, vi: 24; + against Imperial federation, vi: 26; + declines to form coalition Cabinet, vi: 33. + + League of Nations, Charles W. Eliot on, i: _Intro. xiii_; + international co-operation during War, i: _Intro. xiii_; + summary of provisions, i: _Intro. xiv_; + proposal to place Fiume under, vi: 369; + spirit of, xii: 155; + prominent advocates, xii: 155; + drafting of Covenant described by Thos. W. Lamont, xii: 155; + analysis by Geo. W. Wickersham, xii: 170-178; + text of Covenant in full, xii: 182-185; + countries invited to join, xii: 186; + original members, xii: 186; + Sir James Eric Drummond, first secretary-general, xii: 186; + U. S. Senate opposition to, xii: 264-270; + first meeting of Council, Jan. 20, '20, xii: 270. + + Leather, war-time conservation in shoemaking, xii: 53. + + Leave areas, "Y" service at, vii: 269; + _see also_ Y. M. C. A. + + Lebanon, disposal under secret treaties, '16--'17, vi: 334. + + Le Cateau, battle of, Aug. 26, '14, + criticism of Smith-Dorrien's strategy at, by Field-Marshal French, + ii: 162, 174; + account of battle, ii: 174-182, iii: 23. + + Le Charmel, German stand at, July 21, '18, v: 185; + Gen. Degoutte's commendation of A. E. F. at, v: 192. + + Le Chene Tondu, + German defense of, against 56th Brig., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229; + captured by 28th Div., Oct. 4, '18, v: 239. + + Lee service rifle, viii: 95. + + _Leelanaw, S. S._, American steamship + sunk by U-boat, July 25. '15, i: 381. + + _Leipzig_, German cruiser + in battle off Coronel, armament, iv: 65; + sunk in battle of Falklands, iv: 70, ix: 308; + eye-witness account of sinking, iv: 80. + + Lejeune, Gen., + commander of 2nd Div. at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12, '18, v: 202. + + Leman, Gen., defender of Liege, iii: 11. + + Le Mans, embarkation center for returning A. E. F., v: 395. + + Lemberg, + battle of, and capture by Russians, Sept. 1--3, '14, + i: 375, ii: 23, iii: 121, xi: 16; + recaptured by Austrians, June 22, '15, i: 380, iii: 137; + military importance, ii: 42; + seized by Poles, Nov., '18, vi: 217. + + Lemert, Sgt. Milo, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396. + + Lemordant, French painter-soldier, x: 169. + + Lenin, Nicolai, urges defeat of Russia, '14, '15, vi: 140; + leader of Bolsheviki, vi: 161-163; + overthrows Kerensky, Nov., '17, vi: 179-181; + becomes President of Council of People's Commissaries, Nov. 8, '17, + vi: 181; + policies of government, vi: 181; + biography, ix: 109-115; + bibliography, ix: 115. + + Lens, Allied objective in battle of Artois, May, '15, iii: 42; + objective in battle of Arras, Apr., '17, iii: 70; + held by Germans against Allied attacks in Arras battle, iii: 72. + + _Leon Gambetta_, French cruiser torpedoed, Apr. 27, '15, + iv: 373. + + _Leonardo da Vinci_, Italian dreadnought + blown up, Aug. 2, '16, i: 386. + + Leopold, Prince, commands Bavarians entering Warsaw, iii: 138. + + L'Epasse Wood, captured by 2nd Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 263. + + Le Pretre Wood, captured by 180 Inf. Brig., Sept. 13, '18, v: 209. + + Lescarboura, Austin C., on trench warfare, viii: 133; + opinion on efficiency of tanks, xi: 251; + on use of dogs in War, xi: 340. + + Le Selle River, German stand at, Oct., '18, v: 295. + + Les Eparges, location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199; + captured by French, Sept. 12, '18, v: 212. + + Les Petites Armoises, captured by 78th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266. + + Letord bombing airplanes, viii: 223. + + Letts, peasant inhabitants of Baltic Provinces, vi: 226; + early history, vi: 226; + rebellion of '05, vi: 227; + form Lettish Legion to fight in War, '15, vi: 227; + join Bolsheviki, vi: 228. + + Letvia, Republic of, established, Apr., '18, xii: 279; + area and population, xii: 279. + + _Leviathan_, work as U. S. transport, xii: 275. + + Levicu, Dr., + leader in movement for Soviet government in Munich, Mar., '19, + vi: 300. + + Lewis machine-gun, description, viii: 81; + rejected by U. S. government, viii: 82; + use on airplanes, viii: 87; + U. S. production figures for aircraft, xii: 284. + + Liberty Loans, U. S., popularity, xii: 10; + selection of drive periods, xii: 11; + influence on national thrift, xii: 11-16; + subscription figures by Federal Reserve Districts, xii: 12; + New York City subscriptions, by borough, xii: 12; + compared with amount of other U. S. indebtedness, xii: 16; + amounts raised, xii: 113; + effect on German morale, xii: 126; + number of subscribers, xii: 127; + methods used in selling campaigns, xii: 127-134; + sales psychology, xii: 132; + Victory Way, xii: 133; + number of persons engaged in drives, xii: 134; + statistics, xii: 134; + _see also_ U. S., War cost. + + Liberty motor, description, viii: 199; + production figures, xii: 285. + + Liberty truck, development and description, viii: 291-294. + + Libyan Desert, military operations in '16--'17, iii: 191. + + Lichnowsky, Prince Karl Maximilian, German ambassador to England, + negotiations for settlement of Anglo-German rivalries, '12--'14, + i: 196, 250; + account of events leading to World War, i: 246; + author of _Memorandum_, account of diplomatic experiences + in England, i: 250; + biography, ix: 131-133. + + Liebau, Hans, German propagandist in U. S., x: 338. + + "Liebau Employment Agency," + center of German propaganda in U. S., x: 338. + + Liebknecht, Karl, German radical leader, + sketch of, by Sir Thomas Barclay, vi: _Intro. x_; + votes against war credits, vi: _Intro. xii_; + protest against War, '14, vi: 249; + imprisoned, '16, vi: 262, ix: 140, 141; + freed from prison, Oct., '18, vi: 272; + leads Spartacides, Nov., '18, vi: 278, ix: 142; + organizes Spartacide demonstrations, Dec., '18, vi: 283; + killed during Spartacide uprising, Jan. 15, '19, vi: 289, ix: 142; + biography, ix: 138-143; + elected to Prussian Assembly while in prison, ix: 140; + expelled from Socialist Party, ix: 141; + bibliography, ix: 142. + + Liege, forts constructed, 1890, i: 143; + captured by Germans, Aug. 7, '14, i: 375, + ii: 348 (Ludendorff's account), iii: 10, xi: 9. + + Liggett, Lieut.-Gen. Hunter, + commands First Corps, A. E. F., in Marne defensive, July, '18, + v: 56; + commands First Corps in St. Mihiel drive, v: 65, 202, 386; + appointed commander of First Army, Oct. 16, '18, v: 83, 246, 390; + in command of 41st Div., '17, v: 109; + commands First Corps in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 220, 388, 390; + commands First Army in Meuse-Argonne, v: 390; + biography, ix: 218. + + Lightning (78th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army. + + Lille, abandoned by Allies, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375; + death-rate during German occupation, iii: 406. + + _Lille, Laon and St. Die_, poem by John Finley, vi: 82. + + Limburg, claimed by Belgium, vi: 91. + + Limey, location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199. + + Liners, interned German, in U. S. ports, injuries to, iv: 319. + + Linsingen, Gen. von, + commands Austrians operating against Lemberg, iii: 132. + + Liny-devant-Dun, captured by 11th Inf., Nov. 5, '18, v: 271. + + _Lion_, British battle cruiser, + Beatty's flagship in battle of Jutland, iv: 105; + in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241; + disabled in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246. + + Liquid fire, first use by Germans in Belgium, July 30, '15, i: 381; + how used, viii: 120; + story of Germans caught in own trap, x: 18. + + Lisle, Gen. de, at first battle of Ypres, ii: 171. + + Lissey, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 8, '18, v: 272. + + Listening device, for detecting submarines, description, iv: 308; + _see also_ + Hydrophones; + Microphone. + + Literary rights, Peace Treaty provisions for re-establishment of, + xii: 244-246. + + Lithuania, struggle for independence, vi: 234-236; + opposed by Polish aspirations, vi: 234; + fight against Bolshevism, vi: 236; + Cabinet of '18, vi: 236; + fight against Polish aggression, vi: 236; + Republic established, Apr., '18, xii: 279; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Little Russia, _see_ Ukraine. + + Livonia, early history, vi: 226; + Republic established, Apr., '18, xii: 279; + area and population, xii: 279; + _see also_ Baltic Provinces. + + Lizenz bombing airplanes, viii: 222. + + _Llandovery Castle_, torpedoed, June 22, '18, i: 395. + + Lloyd George, David, + advocates aggressive campaign against Austria, + ii: _Intro. x, xx_; + becomes British Prime Minister, + ii: _Intro. xx_, vi: 10, ix: 28; + military policy, ii: _Intro, xxi_; + becomes Minister of Munitions, May, '15, vi: 5, xii: 78; + appeal to munition workers, vi: 5, ix: 27; + speeds up British war efforts, vi: 10; + statement of Allied war aims, vi: 12; + indorses President Wilson's Fourteen Points, vi: 14; + conciliatory policy between labor and capital, vi: 20; + biography, ix: 21-30; + bibliography, ix: 30; + _see also_ Peace Conference. + + Loans, raised by belligerents for conduct of War, xii: 111. + + Locomotives, number shipped to France from U. S., xii: 95, 286; + _see also_ Railroads. + + Lodge, Senator Henry Cabot, + leads opposition to Peace Treaty, xii: 264; + original reservations to Peace Treaty, text, xii: 265; + revised reservations to Peace Treaty, text, xii: 269. + + Lodz, occupied by Germans, Nov. 27, '14, iii: 129. + + Logan, Col. James A., + Chief of Administration (G-1), G. H. Q., A. E. F., v: 101. + + Loman, Pvt. Berger, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397. + + Lome, surrender to British, Aug., '14, iii: 252. + + London, + air raids on, Aug. 17, '15, i: 381; + Sept. 8, '15, i: 381; + Oct. 13, '15, i: 382; + Dec. 24, '14, iii: 41; + welcome to Pershing, June, '17, v: 97; + American Y. M. C. A. in, vii: 288. + + _London_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33. + + London Volunteer Motor Corps, vii: 107. + + _Long, Long Trail_, American soldiers' song, xi: 335. + + Longueval, objective in Somme battle, iii: 58. + + Longwy, abandoned by Allies, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375; + iron area coveted by Germans, '14, ii: 6. + + Loos, British attempt to pierce German lines at, '15, ii: 25; + captured by British, Sept. 26, '15, iii: 46; + faulty British generalship in battle of, iii: 375. + + _Lord Nelson_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31. + + Lorraine, value of iron deposits, i: 267; + French offensive in, Aug., '14, iii: 16. + + Losnitza, Austrians cross Drina at, iii: 151. + + Losses, _see_ + Casualties; + Prisoners of war. + + "Lost Battalion," under Major Whittlesey + cut off from 77th Div., Oct. 2, '18, v: 231, 239; + attempts at relief of, fail, v: 241, 242; + rescued, Oct. 7, '18, v: 243; + units composing, v: 363. + + Loti, Pierre, description of gas victims, iii: 320-322. + + Lough Foyle, Ireland, U. S. naval air station at, iv: 357. + + Louppy, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 10, '18, v: 272. + + "Lousy Champagne," location, v: 43. + + Louvain, captured by Germans, Aug. 19, '14, i: 375, iii: 14; + burned by Germans, Aug. 26, '14, i: 375, iii: 14; + description of burning by Richard Harding Davis, iii: 273-277. + + Louvain, University of, Peace Treaty provisions for restoration + by Germany of books destroyed, xii: 225. + + Lowenstein, Milton B., Boy Scout in air service, xi: 116. + + Lowestoft, + attacked by German battle cruiser squadron, Apr. 25, '16, i: 385. + + Lowicz, occupied by Germans, Dec. 18, '14, i: 376. + + Lublin, occupied by Austrians, July 30, '15, i: 381. + + Lublin-Cholm Railway, cut by Germans in '15 offensive, iii: 138. + + Lubomirsky, Prince, + appointed by Germany to Regency Council of Poland, vi: 214. + + "Lucky Bag," explanation of term, iv: 171. + + Lucy-la-Bocage, important point near Chateau-Thierry, v: 132. + + Ludendorff, Gen. Erich von, War account, ii: 298-365; + estimate of own importance to German victories, ii: 298, 300; + appointed First Quartermaster-General, Aug. 29, '16, + ii: 326, iii: 61; + denies being Germany's dictator, ii: 333; + resignation forced, Oct. 26, '18, ii: 336, vi: 271; + opinion of A. E. F., ii: 337; + war attitude, explained by himself, ii: 344; + brigade commander at start of War, ii: 345; + share in capture of Liege, ii: 348; + appointed Chief of Staff to Hindenburg in East Prussia, Aug., '14, + ii: 351; + account of first meeting with Hindenburg, Aug. 23, '14, ii: 353; + appointed Chief of Staff for operations on southeastern front, + Sept., '14, ii: 357; + failure of "Spring Drive" loses War, '18, vi: 270; + biography, ix: 250-257. + + Luderitz Bay, captured by British, iii: 254. + + Lufberry, Maj. Raoul, American ace, story of, x: 191-196. + + Luke, Lieut. Frank, Jr., American aviator, story of, x: 211-214; + gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393. + + Lukin, Gen., heads expedition against Sollum, iii: 191. + + _Lullaby for a Baby Tank_, poem by H. T. Craven, xi: 270. + + Lumber, uses in war, viii: 306-309. + + Lunacharsky, member of Bolshevik presidium, vi: 179. + + Luneville, captured by Germans, Aug. 21--23, '14, i: 375, iii: 20; + retaken by French, Sept. 11, '14, i: 375. + + Lupkow Pass, occupied by Russians, Dec., '14, iii: 127. + + _Lurcher_, British destroyer + at battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241. + + _Lusitania, S. S._, + German warning against travelling on, May 1, '15, i: 319; + sunk by German submarine, May 7, '15, + i: 319, 358, 362-365 (Lord Mersey's official report), 380, + xi: 20, 237; + loss of life, i: 319, 362; + U. S. note to Germany on sinking, May 13, '15, i: 320; + Roosevelt's statement on, i: 320; + Taft's view of action by U. S. over sinking, i: 320; + U. S. demands disavowal of sinking by Germany, i: 323; + summary of controversy between U. S. and Germany over sinking, + i: 358; + dimensions, i: 362; + number and nationality of passengers on last trip, i: 362; + number in crew, i: 362; + not armed, i: 363; + German hymn of glory over sinking of, i: 365; + eye-witness accounts of sinking, iv: 220-222; + Capt. Turner's account, iv: 222; + Germans celebrate destruction as naval victory, iv: 223. + + Lutsk, captured by Germans, Sept. 1, '15, i: 381; + recaptured by Russians, Sept. 23, '15, i: 382; + recaptured by Germans, Sept. 27, '15, i: 382; + captured by Russians, June 6, '16, i: 385, iii: 142. + + _Luetzow_, German battle cruiser + sunk at Jutland, eye-witness account, iv: 256. + + Luxemburg, Duchess of, _see_ Marie Adelaide. + + Luxemburg, Grand Duchy of, + invaded by Germans, Aug. 2, '14, i: 144, iii: 10, vi: 93, xi: 10; + annexation sought by Belgium and France, '19, vi: 94; + Peace Treaty provisions concerning, xii: 189. + + Luxemburg, Rosa, + German radical leader, protest against War, '14, vi: 249; + imprisoned, '16, vi: 262; + leads Spartacides, Nov., '18, vi: 278; + killed during Spartacide uprising, Jan. 14, '19, vi: 289; + views on social revolution, ix: 147. + + Lvov, Prince George E., + Premier under Russian Provisional Government, Mar. 14, '17, + vi: 155; + manifesto on war aims, Apr. 9, '17, vi: 159; + forms Coalition Cabinet, vi: 160; + biography, ix: 100-102; + President of All-Russian Union of Provincial Councils, xii: 82. + + Lynch, George, + inventer of impenetrable cloth against barbed wire, viii: 68. + + Lys, battle of, Apr., '18, ii: 153, iii: 91; + Portuguese troops flee under German attack, + ii: 153, iii: 91, vi: 374; + Allied lines broken, ii: 153, iii: 91; + Germans turn attack to Channel ports, iii: 91. + + Lysk, Germans defeat Russians at '14, iii: 116. + + _Lynx_, British destroyer blown up in Baltic, iv: 197. + + + M + + Ma'an, seized by Arabs, Sept., '18, iii: 199. + + Maastricht salient, claimed by Belgium, vi: 91. + + MacArthur, Brig.-Gen. Douglas, + leads pursuit of Germans to Vesle River, Aug. 2--3, '18, v: 61; + commands 84th Inf. Brig., Oct. 14--16, '18, v: 84; + biography, ix: 213-217. + + Macao, purchase of Portuguese interests at, by Japan, vi: 386. + + Macdonald, Ramsay, endorses Bolshevist peace aims, vi: 12; + defeated in Parliamentary elections, '18, vi: 17. + + Macdowell, Major T. W., + wins Victoria Cross for gallantry at Vimy Ridge, iii: 349. + + Macedonia, promised to Bulgaria by Germany, ii: 32; + occupation of, by Bulgarians, vi: 343-344; + military operations in, _see_ Salonika Campaign. + + Machine-guns, use of, in British Army, ii: 125; + British and German equipments, Aug., '14, ii: 275; + utility in trench warfare, ii: 288, viii: 134-136; + nests, construction of, v: 37; + pits, v: 287; + number on A. E. F. front, Nov. 11, '18, v: 350; + predecessors of modern types, viii: 78; + Hiram Maxim's invention, 1883, viii: 78; + German pre-War preparedness, viii: 78; + effectiveness, viii: 79, 136; + usefulness compared with rifle, viii: 79; + German Machine-Gun Corps, viii: 79; + principal types, viii: 80-87; + Maxim gun, viii: 80, 87; + Benet-Mercier gun, viii: 80; + Lewis gun, viii: 81-82; + Browning gun, viii: 84-87; + on airplanes, viii: 86-87, 189-192, 196, 208-216; + Hotchkiss gun, viii: 87; + German and Allied equipments compared, Aug., '14, viii: 134; + tank _vs._ machine-gun, viii: 150-151; + U. S. production figures, xii: 284; + number captured by Americans, xii: 288. + + Mackensen, Field-Marshal August von, + commander of Teuton forces conquering Serbia, ii: 34, iii: 156; + leads invasion of Rumania, ii: 60, iii: 222; + leader of offensive through Galicia and Poland, ii: 233, iii: 128; + commands Bulgarian forces, iii: 218; + biography, ix: 257-261. + + Madeline Farm, + Germans resist attacks on, by 80th and 3rd Divs., Oct. 6, '18, + v: 241; + captured by Americans, Oct. 9, '18, v: 245. + + _Madelon, Le_, French soldiers' song, xi: 339. + + Madras, + bombarded by German raider _Emden_, Sept. 18, '14, iv: 174. + + _Magdeburg_, German cruiser sunk by Russians, Aug., '14, + iv: 365. + + Maghdaba, British defeat Turks at, iii: 192. + + Magnes, Dr. Judah L., + visits Europe for Jewish war relief, vii: 356, 360. + + _Magpies in Picardy_, poem by "Tipcuca," xi: 224. + + Magyars, predominance in Austria-Hungary, vi: 306; + loyalty to Empire, vi: 306; + rebel against new Czechoslovak government, vi: 399; + _see also_ + Austria-Hungary; + Hungary. + + Mahon, Gen., commands British at Salonika, iii: 202. + + Maidos, defenses of Gallipoli at, iv: 24. + + _Mainz_, German cruiser, + sunk in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241. + + Mainz, + occupation by Allies and conditions for withdrawal from, xii: 261. + + Maize, imports of, by Germany, ii: 17. + + _Majestic_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31; + sunk by submarine at Gallipoli, May 27, '15, iv: 50. + + Malancourt, captured by Germans, Mar., '16, iii: 51; + location, v: 217; + 4th Engrs. build artillery road from, to Esnes, Sept., '18, v: 226. + + Malborghetto, captured by Italians, iii: 244. + + _Mali Journal_, Serbian newspaper, + on antagonism to Austria-Hungary, vi: 356. + + Malingering, devices for detection of, viii: 358-361. + + Malinov, succeeds Radoslavov as Bulgarian Premier, vi: 346; + statement on circumstances of Bulgarian surrender, vi: 347. + + Malleterre, Gen., discussion of Allied victory, ii: 206; + Professor of Military Geography at Ecole de Guerre, ii: 220; + eulogy of Foch and Petain, ii: 220. + + Mallon, Capt. George H., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397. + + Malmedy, ceded to Belgium under Peace Treaty, vi: 89, xii: 188. + + Malmoe, meeting of Scandinavian rulers at, + and pledge of mutual neutrality, vi: 393. + + Malvy, French Minister of Interior, + tried for criminal neglect, iv: 10; + implicated in _Bonnet Rouge_ case, vi: 105; + exiled from France, vi: 106. + + Mametz, captured by British in Somme battle, iii: 58. + + Manchuria, Japanese penetration of, i: 20. + + Mangin, Gen., + attacks Germans on Villers-Cotterets and Soissons line, July, '18, + ii: 210, v: 159; + appointed commander of Verdun sector, iii: 62; + successful attack at Verdun, Dec., '16, iii: 62. + + Mann, Maj.-Gen. William A., + relieved of command of 42nd Div., '17, v: 109. + + Mannerheim, Gen., commands Finnish White Guards, vi: 198; + dictator of Finnish de facto Republic, '18, vi: 200. + + Manning, Corp. Sidney E., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 399. + + Manoury, Gen., + commands a French army at first Marne battle, ii: 182, 184. + + Mantou, Prof., interpreter to Supreme Peace Council, xii: 152. + + _Maple Leaf Forever, The_, Canadian national hymn, xi: 330. + + March, Gen. Peyton C., + Chief of Staff, U. S. Army, biography, ix: 210-212. + + Margate, bombed by German airmen, Oct. 22, '16, i: 388. + + Marie, Queen of Rumania, appeal for American aid, vi: 349. + + Marie Adelaide, Grand Duchess of Luxemburg, + resigns in favor of sister, vi: 94; + biography, ix: 383-384. + + _Marina, S. S._, British freighter + sunk by German submarine, Oct. 28, '16, i: 335, 388. + + Marines, U. S., _see_ U. S., Marines. + + Maritz, Col., rebel Boer leader, + joins Germans in Southwest Africa, '14, iii: 254, vi: 50. + + _Markomannia_, auxiliary to German raider _Emden_, + iv: 170, 172. + + Marlin aircraft guns, U. S. production figures, xii: 284; + _see also_ Machine-guns. + + Marne, Allied retreat to the, Aug.--Sept., '14, iii: 20-30; + topography of salient, v: 42, 133. + + Marne, battles of: + Sept., '14, report of Field-Marshal French on preliminary action, + ii: 9; + outline of maneuvers, ii: 9; + Foch's generalship at, ii: 103, 138-142, 182, 220, iii: 31-34; + described by French participant, ii: 182; + Gen. Manoury's share in victory, ii: 182; + military situation preceding, ii: 183; + Allied generals under Joffre at, ii: 184; + German commanders at, ii: 184; + effect of Russian invasion of East Prussia on, ii: 227; + analysis of, by a German military critic, ii: 258; + detailed account of, iii: 30-36; + casualties at, iii: 35. + July, '18, Foch's strategy, ii: 77, ii: 154; + Ludendorff's account, ii: 322-324; + Ludendorff's comment on casualties, ii: 326; + Ludendorff's comment on A. E. F. fighting, ii: 326; + general account of battle, iii: 95-97, v: 129; + detailed account of A. E. F. participation, + v: 47-61, 148-192, 382; + reasons for failure of German offensive, v: 54; + German artillery captured by Americans, v: 56; + stand of 38th Inf. against German attempts to cross Marne, + July 15, '18, v: 150-153, x: 381-387; + Pershing's message to troops, v: 191; + Gen. Degoutte's praise of A. E. F. at, v: 192; + work of tanks at, viii: 148; + _see also_ + Aisne-Marne Offensive; + Champagne. + + Marne District, German destruction in, iii: 297-300. + + Marne (3rd) Division, _see_ U. S., Army. + + Mars, A. E. F. base hospital at, v: 400. + + _Marseillaise_, French national anthem, + an Alsatian song, i: 211; + effect on French audience, i: 211; + words, xi: 326. + + Marseilles, embarkation port for returning A. E. F., v: 395. + + Marshal, Gen., commander of British capturing Bagdad, xi: 48. + + Marshall, Louis, President American Jewish Relief Committee, + vii: 354. + + Martin, Miss Winona C., + American "Y" worker killed in France, vii: 313. + + Martin, Dr. Franklin, member of Advisory Commission, + U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 116. + + Martinpuich, captured by Allies, Sept. 15, '16, i: 388. + + Mary, Queen of England, biography, ix: 392-395. + + Masaryk, T. G., leader of movement for Czech independence, vi: 397. + + Masefield, John, + description of British embarkation for Gallipoli, iii: 350; + account of Gallipoli fighting, iii: 352, 355-358; + description of soldier's life at Gallipoli, iii: 353. + + Mata-Hari, woman spy, executed by French, Oct. 15, '17, i: 392; + discloses tank secret to Germans, x: 360. + + Matz Valley, German attacks during '18 offensive, ii: 76. + + Maubeuge, Allied objective in final drive, Nov., '18, iii: 103. + + Maude, Gen. Sir Frederick Stanley, + Mesopotamian successes, '16--'17, + ii: _Intro. xviii_, 90, iii: 185; + biography, ix: 194-199. + + Maurepas, captured by French during battle of the Somme, iii: 58. + + Maurice, Maj.-Gen. Sir Frederick, + on general strategy of the War, ii: _Intro. vii-xxiv._ + + Mauser rifle, description, viii: 95. + + Max, Burgomaster of Brussels, + demand of concessions from Germans, iii: 14. + + Maxim, Hiram, invents machine-gun, 1883, viii: 78. + + Maxim machine-gun, description, viii: 80; + modified type used by Germans and Austrians, viii: 87. + + Maximilian of Baden, Prince, + appointed German Chancellor, Oct. 3, '18, vi: 270; + appeals to Wilson for armistice, vi: 270. + + Mayo, Adm. Henry Thomas, biography, ix: 296. + + Mazurian Lakes, topography of district, iii: 108; + difficulty of military operations in, iii: 113; + Russian armies annihilated by Hindenburg, Aug., '14, iii: 113-116; + second battle, Feb., '15, iii: 130; + _see also_ Tannenberg, battle of. + + McAdoo, William G., biography, ix: 329-331; + Director General, U. S. Railroad Administration, xii: 88. + + McAlexander, Brig.-Gen. U. G., + as colonel commands 38th Inf. Regt. in second battle of the Marne, + July, '18, v: 152; + commands 180th Inf. Brig, at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12--15, '18, v: 209; + biography, ix: 216. + + McAndrew, Maj.-Gen. James W., + succeeds Gen. Harbord as Chief of Staff, A. E. F., Aug., '17, + v: 102; + Pershing's appreciation, v: 403-404; + biography, ix: 216. + + McCaw, Brig.-Gen. Walter D., Chief Surgeon, A. E. F., v: 346. + + McLemore Resolution, warning to Americans not to + travel on belligerent ships, i: 327; + President Wilson opposes, i: 327; + defeated, i: 328. + + McLeod, Marguerite Gertrude Zelle, + German spy, discloses tank secret, x: 360. + + McMahon, Maj.-Gen. James E., in command of 5th Div., May, '18, + v: 128; + at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12, '18, v: 202; + relieved of command of 5th Div., Oct., '18, v: 252. + + McMurtry, Capt. George C., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 399. + + McRae, Maj.-Gen. James H., + in command of 78th Div., June, '18, v: 144; + at St. Mihiel, Sept. 12, '18, v: 202. + + Meat packers, profits before and during War, xii: 56. + + Mecca, captured by Arabs, July 15, '16, i: 386. + + Medeah Farm, captured by 67th French Div., Oct. 3, '18, v: 256. + + Medical Corps, U. S., _see_ U. S., Army. + + Medical science, use of X-ray, vii: 221, viii: 373-376; + development under war needs, viii: 361-365, xi: 286-291; + rifle and shell wounds, relative dangers of, viii: 361; + French medical service for wounded, viii: 362-365; + danger of infection in shell wounds, viii: 362, 367; + treatment of head wounds, viii: 365; + treatment of face wounds, viii: 366; + treatment of body wounds, viii: 366; + treatment of blood vessel lesions, viii: 366; + treatment of nerve cord lesions, viii: 366; + treatment of fractures, viii: 367; + new method of amputation, viii: 367; + prevention of tetanus infection, viii: 367, xi: 287; + prevention of gas gangrene, viii: 367, xi: 287-288; + treatment of shell shock, viii: 368; + causes of infection, viii: 369; + Carrel-Dakin treatment, viii: 369-372, xi: 288-289; + mechanical treatments for injured limbs, viii: 381-384; + artificial arms for war cripples, viii: 384-388; + artificial legs for war cripples, viii: 388-390; + reconstructing mutilated faces, viii: 390; + use of ambrine in treatment of burns, viii: 390; + artificial eyes for war blind, viii: 391; + prevention of infectious diseases among troops, viii: 392-397; + anti-typhoid immunization, viii: 393; + making drinking water safe for army, viii: 394-396; + _see also:_ + Disease; + Infection; + Reconstruction of disabled; + Sanitation; + Surgery. + + Medwa, Turks defeated at, by British, Jan., '16, iii: 191. + + Mehun, U. S. Ordnance repair shop at, v: 350. + + Memel, captured by Russians, Mar. 19, '15, i: 378; + evacuated by Russians, Mar. 21, '15, i: 378; + raided by Russian fleet, Mar., '15, iv: 365; + Peace Treaty provisions concerning, xii: 203. + + _Men of Harlech_, Welsh national hymn, xi: 330. + + Menoher, Maj.-Gen. Charles T., commander 42nd Div., '17, v: 109; + at St. Mihiel, Sept., '18, v: 202. + + Mensheviki, Russian political party, doctrines of, vi: 148. + + Menshikov, Russian imperialist, + outlines plan of conquest, '14, vi: 134. + + Merchant marine, _see_ Shipping. + + Mercier, Cardinal Desire, + biography and war-time activities, ix: 341-343. + + _Mersey_, British monitor, in Flanders and East Africa, iv: 281. + + Mersey, Lord, official report on _Lusitania_ sinking, + i: 362-365. + + Merville salient, evacuation of, by Germans, iii: 98. + + Mesopotamia, German dream of acquisition, ii: 27; + British irrigation schemes in, ii: 295; + terrain and climate, iii: 178; + historic background of modern battlefields, iii: 329-334; + disposition under secret treaties of '16--'17, vi: 334; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Mesopotamian Campaign, + strategic importance and Allied plan of operations, + ii: _Intro. xvi_, 87-91, iii: 178-180; + British land troops at Fao to protect oil fields, Nov., '14, + ii: _Intro. xvi_, iii: 180; + Gen. Nixon pursues Turks and threatens Bagdad, '15, + ii: _Intro. xvi_, 91, iii: 180-182; + British defeated at Ctesiphon and driven into + Kut-el-Amara, Dec., '15, ii: _Intro. xvi_, 91, 182-183; + siege of Kut and Gen. Townshend's surrender, + Dec. 7, '15--Apr. 29, '16, + ii: _Intro. xvii_, 91, iii: 183-185, 363, 364; + British reorganize campaign after Kut disaster, + ii: _Intro. xviii_, 92, iii: 185; + British capture Bagdad, Mar. 11, '17, + ii: _Intro. xviii_, 92, iii: 187; + British landing force advances to Basra and Kurna, Dec., '14, + iii: 180; + British capture Kut-el-Amara, Sept., '15, iii: 181; + unsuccessful attempts to relieve siege of Kut, iii: 184-185; + Gen. Maude placed in command of British, '16, iii: 185; + causes of and responsibility for British disaster, + report of Royal Commission, iii: 185, 363-370; + battle of Sannyat, iii: 185-187; + bibliography, iii: 187; + personnel of Commission of inquiry, iii: 363; + conditions in Kut during siege, iii: 364; + casualties in attempts to relieve Kut, iii: 364. + + Messines Ridge, + British mine and blow up German positions, June, '17, + ii: 56, iii: 74, 76-77, viii: 310; + nature of German defenses, iii: 77; + casualties, British and German, iii: 77; + recaptured by Germans, Apr., '18, iii: 360. + + _Messudiyeh_, Turkish warship + blown up in Dardanelles, Dec. 13, '14, i: 376, x: 317. + + Mestrovitch, Sgt. James I., + gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393. + + _Meteor_, German raider in Baltic, iv: 197. + + Metternich, Prince, theory of government, i: 33. + + Metz, bombarded by British airmen, Jan. 14, '18, i: 393; + entered by French, Nov. 19, '18, i: 400; + Allied plan for capture of, Nov., '18, v: 274. + + Meurer, Vice-Adm., + German delegate to arrange for surrender of German fleet, iv: 384. + + Meurthe River, line of defense before Nancy, iii: 19. + + Meuse River, French forced to retire from, Aug., '14, iii: 20; + German attempt to invade France through valley of, '14, v: 199. + + Meuse-Argonne Offensive, + concentration of A. E. F. for, Sept., '18, ii: 84, v: 75, 218, 388; + objectives, ii: 84, 214, 387; + topography of battleground, ii: 214, v: 73-74, 90, 217-218; + strategic importance, ii: 215, v: 214-216, 387; + breakdown of A. E. F. supply service, ii: 215; + Ludendorff's comment on, ii: 334; + detailed account of battle, Sept. 25--Nov. 11. '18, + iii: 100, v: 72-95, 213-253, 260-279; + extent of A. E. F. front, v: 72-73, 217, 390; + Allied plan of campaign, v: 73, 75, 216, 218; + A. E. F. divisions participating, with positions in line, + v: 74, 219-222, 388; + German defenses, position and strength, v: 74, 217-218, 388; + A. E. F. advance to Kriemhilde position, v: 78-82; + Allies break through Kriemhilde line, v: 83-88; + Germans dislodged and thrown across the Meuse, Nov., '18, v: 88-95; + number of French troops participating, v: 220, 388; + German strength, v: 220, 388; + day by day account of operations, Sept. 25--Oct. 3, v: 222-233; + number of Allied airplanes, v: 223, 388; + day by day account, Oct. 4--31, v: 234-253; + day by day account of last phase, Nov. 1--11, v: 260-279; + Argonne Forest cleared of Germans, Nov. 3, '18, v: 266; + number of Allied tanks used, v: 315, 388; + sector assigned to A. E. F., v: 385; + Pershing's official report, v: 386-393; + Allies' artillery strength, v: 388; + strength of First Army, A. E. F., v: 390, xii: 280; + desperate nature of fighting, v: 390-391; + Germans appeal for Armistice, Nov. 6, '18, v: 391; + German guns captured, v: 393; + German prisoners captured, v: 393; + casualties of First Army, v: 393, xii: 280; + magnitude of operations, v: 393. + + Mexico, German plot to involve in war with U. S., i: 347. + + Meyer-Waldeck, Capt., German governor of Tsing-Tau, iii: 257. + + Mezieres, captured by Germans, Aug. 27, '14, i: 375; + Allied objective in final drive, Nov., '18, iii: 103; + captured by French, Nov. 9,. '18, iii: 103; + fortified French frontier town, v: 215. + + Mezieres-Sedan railroad, + key to German lines of communication on Western Front, v: 216, 387. + + Mezy, Germans force passage of Marne at, July 15, '18, v: 150. + + Mice, uses in war, vii: 229. + + Michael, Grand Duke, + designated as successor by Czar on abdication, vi: 156; + renounces succession to Russian throne Mar., '17, vi: 156. + + Michaelis, Georg, statement of German war aims, ii: 14; + appointment as German Chancellor, July, '17, vi: 266. + + Michel position, + section of Hindenburg Line on St. Mihiel Front, v: 69. + + Michitch, Gen., Serbian commander, + stops advance of Austrian invaders, Dec., '14, iii: 394. + + Michler, Gen., decorated for Somme campaign, iii: 60. + + Microphone, instrument for detection of U-boats, iv: 308, xi: 241; + _see also_ Hydrophones. + + Milan, bombarded by Austrian airmen, Feb. 14, '16, i: 384. + + Miles, Capt. Wardlaw L., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 399. + + Militarism, German, _see_ Germany, Militarism. + + Military commandments, by Kitchener and Foch, xi: 55. + + Military training, universal, + advocated by Dr. Chas. W. Eliot, i: _Intro. xii_; + German system of, i: 71; + Bernhardi's defense of, i: 162; + Roosevelt's advocacy of, for U. S., i: 326; + abolition of, in Germany under Peace Treaty, xii: 211. + + Milk supply, German, ii: 18. + + Miller, Lieut. John Q., observation pilot, story of, x: 232-235. + + Miller, Major Oscar F., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 402. + + Millicent Sutherland Ambulance, vii: 107. + + Milne, Adm., + commander of British fleet in Mediterranean, Aug., '14, iv: 13. + + Milne, Pvt. W. J., + awarded Victoria Cross for gallantry at Vimy Ridge, iii: 349. + + Milyukov, Paul M., Russian statesman, + exposes treachery of Stuermer, Nov., '16, vi: 142; + assails Government distribution of food, Feb., '17, vi: 144; + Minister of Foreign Affairs in Provisional Government, Mar., '17, + vi: 158; + statement of loyalty to Allied cause, vi: 158, 159; + biography, ix: 102-103. + + Mines, submarine, + North Sea mine barrage, iv: _Intro. xi_, 324, viii: 274; + use of trawlers for sweeping, iv: 292; + use in fighting U-boats, iv: 312; + use of Paravanes as protection against, iv: 313; + methods of laying, iv: 326. + + Mining, in land operations, blowing up of Messines Ridge by British, + iii: 74, 76-77, viii: 310; + of Austrian positions in Alps by Italians, viii: 311. + + Minkler, C. T., inventor of depth bomb, iv: 330. + + Miraumont, evacuated by Germans, iii: 64. + + Mirbach, Count von, assassinated by Bolsheviki, vi: 187. + + Missionaries, European, as colonial pioneers in East, i: 17. + + Missions, German Christian, + continuity guaranteed by Peace Treaty, xii: 263. + + Missy, scene of hard fighting by 1st Div., July, '18, v: 55; + 1st Div. makes first capture of German guns by A. E. F., v: 174. + + Mitau, captured by Germans, Aug. 2, '15, i: 381. + + Mitrovitza, captured by Germans, Nov. 23, '15, i: 382. + + Mixed Arbitral Tribunal, + establishment and functions under Peace Treaty, xii: 243. + + Mkwawa, Sultan, skull of, + Peace Treaty provision for return of, by Germany, xii: 225. + + Mobile ordnance repair shops, + description and functions, v: 350, viii: 294-298. + + _Moewe_, German raider, activities, iv: 197. + + Moffat, John, systematizes American war relief, vii: 87; + decorated for relief work, vii: 87. + + Moffett, Capt. Wm. A., + commander of Great Lakes Naval Training Station, iv: 318. + + _Moltke_, German cruiser in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246. + + Moltke, Field-Marshal von, views on German strategy, ii: 14. + + Moltke, Lieut.-Gen. Helmuth von, biography, ix: 264. + + _Monarch_, Austrian battleship + torpedoed by Italians at Trieste, x: 290. + + Monastir, evacuated by Serbs, Dec. 3, '15, i: 382; + retaken by Allies, Nov. 19, '16, i: 388, iii: 208. + + Moncy Wood, captured by 26th Inf., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240. + + Mondement, Germans driven back at, in first Marne battle, iii: 33. + + Mondragon, Gen., of Mexico, designer of self-loading rifle, viii: 90. + + Money, + effect of unsecured paper money on prices, xii: _Intro. viii_; + inflation chief cause of high prices, xii: _Intro. xii_, 27; + war-time inflation in U. S., xii: _Intro. xii_; + inflation throughout world, xii: _Intro. xiii_; + functions, xii: _Intro. xv_; + standardized dollar as remedy for fluctuating cost of living, + xii: _Intro. xv_; + inflation defined, xii: 28; + effects of inflation, xii: 29; + revaluation of gold standard, xii: 31; + _see also_ Prices. + + Monfalcone, captured by Italians, June 9, '15, iii: 244. + + _Monge_, French submarine, rammed by Austrian warship, x: 295. + + Monitors, revival of discarded naval type, iv: 280; + description of British type, iv: 281; + service at Dardanelles, iv: 282; + service at Trieste, iv: 283; + service in Serbia, iv: 283; + construction of, iv: 284. + + _Monmouth_, British cruiser + in battle off Coronel, armament, iv: 65; + struck during battle, iv: 66; + sunk by _Nuernberg_, iv: 67, ix: 308. + + Monneaux, location, v: 133. + + Monro, Gen., Sir Charles, + sent to India to develop military resources, + ii: _Intro. xviii_; + succeeds Gen. Hamilton at Gallipoli, iii: 174; + conducts evacuation of Gallipoli, iii: 174. + + Monroe Doctrine, barrier against European expansion in America, i:37; + interpretation under Roosevelt, i: 84; + upheld by Roosevelt against German coercion of Venezuela, i: 86. + + Mons, + captured by Germans, Aug. 21--23, '14, i: 375; + British retreat from, Aug., '14, + ii: 162 (Viscount French's account), + iii: 277-281 (John Buchan's description); + British gallantry at, xi: 10. + + Monsard, taken by Fourth Corps, Sept. 12, '18, v: 206. + + Mont Blanc, captured by 2nd Div., v: 393. + + Mont Mare Wood, passage by 89th Div., Sept. 12, '18, v: 210. + + Mont St. Pere-Charteves, location, v: 133. + + Mont St. Quentin, captured by British, Mar. 18, '17, iii: 68. + + Mont Sec, dominating position on St. Mihiel sector, v: 65, 116, 199. + + Mont Wood, captured by 90th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 264. + + Montauban, captured by British in Somme battle, iii: 58. + + Montblainville, captured by 28th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 325. + + Montdidier, captured by French, Aug. 11, '18, i: 397; + 1st Div. relieves French near, v: 29. + + Montdidier-Noyon defensive, by Allies, June 9--15, '18, + iii: 94, v: 129, 139-141; + conditions leading to German attack, v: 139; + Allied use of artillery during, v: 139. + + Monte Nero, captured by Italians, iii: 244. + + Montecuccoli, Adm., + responsible for development of Austrian navy, iv: 364. + + Montenegro, declares war on Austria, Aug. 7, '14, i: 375; + declares war on Germany, Aug. 10, '14, i: 375; + forced to surrender to Austria, Feb., '16, vi: 358-359; + joins Jugoslav union, vi: 366; + battle deaths, xii: 288. + + Montfaucon, German stronghold in Meuse-Argonne sector, v: 78, 218; + captured by 79th Div., Sept. 27, '18, v: 224-225. + + Montfaucon Wood, captured by 37th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 224. + + Montmedy, captured by Germans, Aug. 27, '14, i: 375. + + Montmirail, German objective in last drive on Paris, v: 36; + headquarters of 28th Div., June, '18, v: 143. + + Montrebeau Wood, captured by 1st Div., Oct. 4, '18, v: 237. + + Montrieul-aux-Lions, headquarters of 2nd Div., June, '18, v: 143. + + Moore, Rear-Adm. Sir Archibald, + second in command of British in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246. + + Morale, Allied and German during winter, '17--'18, v: 1; + German, weakened by failure of great offensive, July, '18, v: 53; + American, under hardships of Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 87, 232; + Allied and German, Sept., '18, v: 213. + + Moranville, taken by 322nd Inf., Nov. 9, '18, v: 277. + + Morava-Maritza Valley, + approach to Constantinople through Serbia, iii: 150. + + Moravia, early history, vi: 396; + nationalistic aspirations, vi: 396. + + Moresnet, ceded to Belgium under Peace Treaty, vi: 89, xii: 188. + + Moreuil salient, military operations in, Aug.--Sept., '18, iii: 98; + Allied attack on Albert-Montdidier line, iii: 98; + Albert captured by British, Aug., '18, iii: 98; + British attack on the Scarpe, Sept., '18, iii: 98. + + Morgan, Miss Anne, war relief activities, vii: 92. + + Morine Wood, captured by 32nd Div., Oct. 5, '18, v: 240. + + Morocco, + French control of, recognized by Great Britain, '04, i: 99, 202; + Kaiser's famous speech at Tangier on German policy, Mar., '05, + i: 99, 202; + European crisis on dispatch of German gunboat _Panther_ + to Agadir, July, '11, i: 104, 203; + storm center of European diplomacy, i: 202; + Prince Lichnowsky's views on German policy, i: 204; + German rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 208. + + Mort Homme, _see_ + Dead Man's Hill; + Verdun. + + Mortars, _see_ Artillery. + + Morton, Maj.-Gen. Charles G., + commands 29th Div., June, '18, v: 146; + takes command of sector on right bank of Meuse, Oct. 10, '18, + v: 246. + + Moscow, + municipal elections annulled by reactionary Protopopov, '17, + vi: 143; + Conference called by Kerensky, '17, vi: 167; + meeting of Soviet Congress, Mar., '18, vi: 185. + + Moselle River, + German attempt to enter France through valley of, '14, v: 199. + + Mosley, Brig.-Gen. G. Van H., + Chief of Co-ordination, G. H. Q., A. E. F., Sept., '17, v: 102. + + Motors, airplane, production in U. S., xii: 285; + Liberty, production figures, xii: 285. + + Motor Transport Corps, U. S., _see_ U. S., Army. + + Motor trucks, important function in Verdun defense, + iii: 50, viii: 289-291; + mobile ordnance repair shops, description and functions, + v: 350, v: 294-298; + armored cars, viii: 286; + Paris buses as war transports, viii: 286; + use as ambulances, viii: 287; + number in use by belligerents, Aug., '14, viii: 288; + number in use at front, June, '15, viii: 288; + number shipped to France from U. S., viii: 288, xii: 95, 286; + Liberty truck, development and description, viii: 291-294. + + Mott, Dr. John R., + General Secretary, Y. M. C. A. War Work Council, vii: 261. + + _Mount Vernon_, U. S. transport torpedoed, Sept. 5, '17, + iv: 337. + + _Mousquet_, French destroyer + sunk by _Emden_, Oct. 28, '14, iv: 181. + + Mouzay, captured by 5th Div., Nov. 9, '18, v: 94, 272. + + Muecke, Lieut. Hellmuth von, + account of exploits of German raider _Emden_, + iv: 167-187, 190-194. + + Mudros, British advance base for Gallipoli campaign, + iii: 164, iv: 30. + + Muehlon, Dr. William, + disclosures of German complicity in forcing War, + i: 133-136, 250-254. + + Muir, Maj.-Gen. Charles H., commands 28th Div., May, '18, v: 128; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 220. + + Mules, number shipped to France by U. S., xii: 95, 286. + + Muelhausen, captured by French, Aug. 8, '14, iii: 16. + + Mueller, Capt. Karl von, + commander of German raider _Emden_, iv: 166. + + Munich, murder of Kurt Eisner + and Spartacide uprising in, Feb., '19, vi: 298; + Spartacides establish Soviet, vi: 300; + Soviet overthrown by Noske, May, '19, vi: 301. + + Muensterberg, Prof. Hugo, on "Russian Peril," vi: 250. + + Murfin, Capt. O. G., in charge of U. S. Navy mine bases, iv: 325. + + Murman Region, + Military Government of, established, July, '18, xii: 279; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Murmansk, fighting between Allies and Bolsheviki at, vi: 187. + + Murray, Gen., commands British troops defending Suez, iii: 191. + + Mush, captured by Russians, Feb. 18, '16, i: 384, iii: 263; + evacuated by Russians, Aug. 8, '16, i: 386. + + Mushi, captured by British, Mar. 13, '16, i: 384. + + Mustard gas, use in chemical warfare, v: 321, viii: 171-172, xi: 321; + use of "Sag Paste," as protection against, v: 324; + manufacture of, at U. S. Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 186. + + + N + + Namazieh Battery, at Gallipoli, iv: 45. + + Namur, forts of, constructed, 1890, i: 143; + captured by Germans, Aug., '14, i: 375, iii: 14-15. + + Nancy, German advance on, checked, Aug., '14, iii: 19; + important frontier fortress, v: 199, 215. + + Nantillois, captured by 315th Inf., Sept. 28, '18, v: 228. + + Napier, Rear-Adm. T. D. W., + commander of British 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron at Jutland, + iv: 120. + + Naples, bombed by German aviators, Mar. 11, '18, i: 395. + + Napoleon, Fort, at Gallipoli, + bombarded by French battleship _Gaulois_, Mar. 2, '15, iv: 43. + + Narew, Russian Army of the, invades East Prussia, iii: 111. + + _Narodna Odbrana_, Serbian patriotic society, + accused of responsibility for murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, + i: 112. + + _Narodni Savetz_, Bulgarian patriotic organization, vi: 341. + + Narrows, at Dardanelles, + defenses of bombarded by Allies, Mar. 5, '15, iv: 45. + + Narva, captured by Germans, Mar. 5, '18, i: 393. + + Nasarie, taken by British, '15, iii: 181. + + Nasmith, Lieut.-Com., + captain of British submarine _E-11_ in Sea of Marmora, + iv: 210. + + Nasrullah Khan, instigator of Habibullah Khan's assassination, + vi: 80. + + National Allied Relief Committee, vii: 87; + _see also_ War relief. + + National anthems, words and histories of, xi: 325-332. + + National Council of Austrian Women, peace appeals, '17, vi: 314. + + National Guard, U. S., federalized, Aug. 5, '17, i: 390; + _see also_ U. S., Army. + + National Volunteers, + Irish organization enlisted to aid British, vi: 57. + + National War Work Council, + of American Y. M. C. A., formation, vii: 262; + _see also_ Y. M. C. A. + + Nationalism, problems of, i: 23; + development in Europe since 1648, i: 26; + factor in racial unification, v: _Intro. viii_; + growth during 19th century, v: _Intro. ix_; + _see also_ under name of country. + + Nations of the world, political positions in 1871, i: 44-60. + + Naumann, Friedrich, + author of _Mittel Europa_, statement of German war aims, + vi: 258; + views on trench frontiers, viii: 126. + + _Nautilus_, submarine invented by Robert Fulton, 1800, iv: 202. + + Naval Batteries, U. S., on Western Front, v: 306, viii: 42-45. + + Naval power, influence on result of War, i: 13; + function as protector of supply routes, i: 15; + development as adjunct to colonization, i: 28. + + Naval raids, German bombardment of English coast towns, iv: 244-246. + + Naval stations, British, around the world, i: 15. + + Navarino, battle of, 1827, i: 34. + + Navies, _see_ under each country. + + Navigation, freedom of, for Allies, + over German waterways, Peace Treaty provisions, xii: 247-253; + Elbe, Oder, Niemen, and Danube internationalized + under Peace Treaty, xii: 248. + + "Navy Hut," American "Y" center at Brest, vii: 302. + + Nazareth, captured by British, Sept. 21, '18, iii: 198. + + N-C Flying Boats, development and description, viii: 236-240; + _N-C-4_ first airplane to cross Atlantic, iv: 288, viii: 240. + + Near East, European rivalries in, i: 38; + German policy, i: 80, 207, ii: 89; + _see also_ + Balkans; + Germany, Foreign policy. + + "Near victories," of the War, ii: 206. + + _Nebraskan, S. S._, American steamer + attacked by German submarine, May 25, '15, i: 320. + + Neibaur, Pvt. Thomas C., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 399. + + _Nembo_, Italian destroyer, + battle with Austrian U-boat, Oct. 16, '16, iv: 369. + + Nesle, occupied by French cavalry Mar., '17, iii: 68. + + Netherlands, international position in '14, i: 61; + refuses to cede Dutch Flanders to Belgium, vi: 89; + strength of army, '14, vi: 375, 378; + maintains armed neutrality, vi: 375-377; + neutrality condemned by British press, vi: 376; + effect of submarine warfare on, vi: 377-378; + merchant marine seized by Allies, Mar., '18, vi: 378; + claims Scheldt and Maastricht area, '18, vi: 378; + generous host to Belgian refugees, vii: 168-175; + war-time increase in shipping, xii: 101. + + "Netherlands Overseas Trust," vi: 377. + + Neufchateau, training area for 26th and 42nd Divs., v: 6. + + Neutrals, increase in shipping, xii: 100; + trade with Germany, xii: 100. + + Neuve Chapelle, captured by British, Mar. 9--10, '15, i: 378, iii: 41; + faulty British generalship at, iii: 375. + + Neuve Eglise, captured by British, Sept. 2, '18, i: 397. + + Newbolt, Sir Henry, + account of Smith-Dorrien's battle at Le Cateau, Aug. 26, '14, + ii: 176-182. + + New Guinea, German, captured by Australians, '14, vi: 38. + + _New Mexico_, U. S. battleship, + propelled by electricity, iv: 322. + + New Zealand, war casualties, iii: 404, 405; + strength of army, iii: 405; + area and population, vi: 37; + loyalty to Great Britain, vi: 46; + war cost, Aug., '14--Mar., '19, xii: 107, 114; + Peace Conference delegates, xii: 179. + + _New Zealand_, British cruiser + in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv 241; + in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246. + + Niblack, Rear-Adm. Albert P., biography, ix: 295. + + Nicaragua, delegate to Peace Conference, xii: 180. + + Nicholas, Grand Duke, Commander-in-Chief of Russian armies, iii: 119; + removed as Commander-in-Chief and sent to Caucasus, Sept., '15, + iii: 140, 262; + biography, ix: 229-231. + + Nicholas, King of Montenegro, + surrenders to Austrians, Feb., '16, vi: 359; + deposed, vi: 366. + + Nicholas II, Czar of Russia, + takes personal command of army, Sept., '15, iii: 140, vi: 141; + influence of Rasputin over court, vi: 141; + issues undated order for dismissal of Duma, '17, vi: 144; + abdicates, Mar. 15, '17, vi: 156; + biography, ix: 374-376. + + _Nicholson_ U. S. destroyer, captures German submarine, iv: 350. + + Niemen, Russian Army of the, invades East Prussia, iii: 110. + + Niemen River, internationalized by Peace Treaty, xii: 248. + + Nietzsche, Friedrich, + German apostle of gospel of force, i: 67, ii: 2; + striking quotations from, i: 179-180. + + Nieuport, captured by Germans, Oct. 24, '14, i: 376. + + Nieuport scout planes, viii: 192. + + Nightingale, Florence, pioneer army nurse, vii: 11. + + _1914_, by Viscount French, + account of military operations of year, summary with extracts, + ii: 159-174. + + Nish, captured by Bulgars, Nov. 5, '15, i: 382, iii: 158; + retaken by Allies, Oct. 13, '18, iii: 213. + + Nish-Salonika Railroad, cut by Bulgarians, iii: 158. + + Nitrogen, asphyxiating properties, viii: 166. + + Nitti, Francesco S., + Italian minister, opposes policy of aggrandizement, vi: 366. + + Nivelle, Gen. Robert, + succeeds Joffre as French Commander-in-Chief, + ii: _Intro. xx_, iii: 62; + in supreme command of Allied forces on Western Front, '16, ii: 54; + plans campaign of '17, ii: 54; + defends Verdun, '16, iii: 54, 61, 310; + biography, ix: 167-168. + + Nixon, Gen. Sir John, + commands British troops in Mesopotamia, iii: 182; + responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364, 367. + + "No Man's Land," definition, v: 17. + + Nolan, Brig.-Gen. D. E., + Chief of Intelligence (G-2), G. H. Q., A. E. F., + Sept., '17, v: 101; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 221. + + Nonsard, captured by 1st Div., Sept. 12, '18, v: 211. + + Norman Compensating Foresight, use in range-finding, viii: 211. + + North German Confederation, formation, i: 43, ii: 1. + + North German Lloyd Line, tonnage and capital, i: 264. + + North Pacific Islands, German, acquired by Japan, xii: 279; + area and population, xii: 279. + + North Sea, + Allied mine barrage, iv: _Intro. xi_, 324-330, viii: 274; + problem of belligerents in, iv: 86, 91; + German naval raids, iv: 136. + + _Northern Pacific, S. S._, speed record as transport, v: 358. + + Norway, pro-Ally sympathies, vi: 394. + + Noske, Gen., suppresses Berlin Spartacides, vi: 289; + overthrows Munich Soviet, vi: 300-301. + + _Nottingham_, British cruiser sunk, Aug. 19, '16, i: 386; + in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241. + + Nouart, captured by 89th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 264. + + Novo Georgievsk, Russian attack at, Oct., '14, iii: 126; + captured by Germans, Aug., '15, iii: 138. + + Noyon, captured by French, Aug. 28, '18, i: 397, ii: 158; + occupied by French, March 18, '17, iii: 68; + _see also_ Montdidier-Noyon defensive. + + Nugent, Gen., commander of 36th Ulster Div., iii: 377. + + _Nur-el-Bahr_, British cruiser + sunk off Sollum, Nov. 6, '15, ii: 190. + + _Nuernberg_, German cruiser in battle off Coronel, iv: 65; + sunk in battle of Falkland Islands, iv: 70, 74. + + Nurses, U. S. Army Nurse Corps, vii: 203; + _see also_ + Red Cross; + War relief. + + O + + _O Patria, O Rei, O Povo_, Portuguese national hymn, xi: 329. + + Obrenovatz, captured by Austrians, Oct. 18, '15, i: 382. + + O'Brien, Lieut. Pat, escape from German prison, x: 257. + + Observation balloons, _see_ Aeronautics. + + _Ocean_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31, 35, 48. + + Oches, taken by 77th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266. + + Oder River, internationalized by Peace Treaty, xii: 248. + + Odessa, importance as military base, iii: 161. + + Ogons Wood, captured by A. E. F., Oct. 5, '18, v: 230, 237, 239. + + _Oh, How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning_, + American soldiers' song, xi: 337. + + O'Kelly, J. T., Irish representative to Peace Conference, vi: 65. + + Okuma, Count, influence on Japanese foreign policy, vi: 384; + biography, ix: 87. + + "Old Dutch Cleansers," nickname for 9.2-in. British howitzers, + v: 308. + + Old Hickory (30th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army. + + O'Leary, Jeremiah, pro-German propagandist in U. S., x: 345. + + O'Leary, Sgt. Michael, wins Victoria Cross, x: 71. + + Oman, acquired by Allies, '13, xii: 279; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Omsk, capital of All-Russian Government, vi: 191. + + _Onslow_, British destroyer at battle of Jutland, iv: 121. + + "Open Door" policy in China, i: 57; + _see also_ China. + + Opium Convention, Jan. 23, '12, + put into force by Peace Treaty, xii: 232. + + Opium War, against China, 1840, i: 38. + + "Oppy Line," captured by British in Arras battle, iii: 72. + + Optical glasses, for A. E. F., viii: 326. + + Orange Free State, + becomes part of Union of South Africa, 1899, vi: 47; + opposition to Great Britain, vi: 50-52; + _see also_ South Africa, Union of. + + Orders in Council, + British, establish blockade of Germany, i: 312, 318, ii: 16, 21; + _see also_ Germany, Blockade of. + + Orientator, for testing aviators, viii: 356-358. + + Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele, + Italian statesman, forms coalition cabinet, Oct., '17, vi: 129; + foreign policy, vi: 362, 366; + demands Fiume for Italy, vi: 368; + withdraws from Peace Conference on Fiume crisis, vi: 368; + biography, ix: 85-87. + + Orly, U. S., aircraft factory at, v: 313. + + Ornes, captured by Germans, '16, iii: 48. + + Orphans, _see_ War relief. + + Orsova, captured by Rumanians, Sept. 7, '16, i: 386, iii: 218; + evacuated by Rumanians, Nov. 24, '16, i: 389, iii: 222. + + Orsova Railway, captured by Germans in Wallachian campaign, iii: 221. + + O'Ryan, Maj.-Gen. John F., commander, 27th Div., v: 196, 281; + account of history of 27th Div., v: 281-300. + + O'Shea, Corp. Thomas E., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393. + + Ossowetz, besieged by Germans, iii: 118, 130; + captured, Aug., '15, iii: 138. + + Ostend, seat of Belgian government moved to, Oct. 5, '14, i: 376; + occupied by Germans, Oct. 13, '14, i: 376, iii: 38; + raided by British May, '18, iv: 279; + evacuated by Germans, xi: 52. + + Ostrovo, Lake, + Allied counter-attack against Bulgars at, Sept., '16, iii: 208. + + _Otranto_, British auxiliary cruiser + in battle off Coronel, iv: 65. + + Ourcq River, + crossed by 42nd Div. in pursuit of Germans, July, '18, v: 50, 187; + course and topography of region, v: 133; + A. E. F. fighting at, commended by Gen. Degoutte, v: 192. + + _Over There_, American soldier song, xi: 336. + + Over-There Theater League, + organization and activities, vii: 277, 339-342. + + Ovillers, captured by Allies in Somme battle, iii: 58. + + Oxygen, for gas victims, iii: 320. + + Oxygen helmets as defense against poison gas, viii: 173. + + + P + + Paderewski, Ignace Jan, returns to Poland as popular hero, vi: 220; + becomes Prime Minister, vi: 223; + defeated for presidency, vi: 225; + biography, ix: 95-98. + + Paes, Dr. Sidonio, + President of Portugal, assassinated, Dec., '18, vi: 374. + + Paget, Sir Ralph, Chairman, + International Sanitary Commission for Serbian typhus relief, + iii: 398. + + Painleve, Paul, succeeds Ribot as French premier, '17, vi: 105. + + "Pal" regiments, British recruiting device, vi: 6. + + Palestine, strategic importance, ii: _Intro. xviii, xxi_, 87-90; + conquered by Gen. Allenby, + ii: _Intro. xx_, 92-94, 218, iii: 192-200, 322-326; + capture of Gaza, Mar. 26--27, '17, ii: 92, iii: 192; + capture of Jerusalem, Dec. 11, '17, + ii: 92, iii: 193-196, 322-326 (description of Allenby's entry); + British and Turkish manpower, ii: 93, iii: 200; + destruction of Turkish army, Sept., '18, ii: 94, 218, iii: 198; + Damascus captured, Oct. 1, '18, iii: 199; + Aleppo captured, Oct. 25, '18, iii: 200; + bibliography, iii: 200; + disposition under secret treaties, '16--'17, vi: 334; + Y. M. C. A. in, vii: 322; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Palmer, Frederick, comment on Marne fighting, July, '18, v: 158; + tribute to 1st Div., v: 234. + + Pan-Germanism, _see_ Germany. + + Pan-Slavism, aspirations, i: 244; + "Greater Serbia" propaganda, i: 244; + fight for control of Ukraine by Russia, vi: 241; + Russia aims at annexation of Ruthenia, '14, vi: 241; + Bulgaria's attitude toward, vi: 340; + _see also_ Slavs. + + Panama, declares war on Germany, Apr, 7. '17, i: 389; + Peace Conference delegate, xii: 180. + + Panama Canal, U. S. gains control of, i: 84. + + Pannes, captured by 42nd Div., v: 211. + + _Panther_, German gunboat sent to Agadir, July, '11, + i: 104, 203. + + Paolucci, Dr., + helps Lieut.-Col. Rossetti to sink Austrian warship + _Viribus Unitis_, x: 297-303. + + Papacy, relation to Italian government, i: 61. + + Papeete, bombarded by German fleet, Sept. 22, '14, iv: 62. + + Papen, Capt. Franz von, + German Military Attache in U. S., dismissed for unneutral conduct, + i: 276; + share in passport frauds, i: 314; + activities as arch-spy in U. S., x: 328-329. + + Parachutes, use by military balloonists, viii: 260-263. + + Parades, first American troops in Paris, July 4, '17, v: 107; + Allied troops on Bastille Day in Paris, July 14, '18, v: 147; + 27th Div. in New York City, Mar. 25, '19, v: 299. + + Parajd, captured by Rumanians, Oct. 5, '16, i: 388. + + Paravane, protective device against submarine mine, iv: 313. + + Paris, air raids on, Jan. 29--30, '16, i: 384; + Mar. 11, '18, i: 395; + German advance on, '14, ii: 6, iii: 28, vi: 97; + bombarded by long-range gun from St. Gobain Forest, + ii: 154, iii: 88, viii: 45-47; + welcome to Gen. Pershing, June 13, '17, v: 97; + German drive on, May 27--Aug. 6, '18, battles in Marne salient, + v: 129-139, 141, 147; + parade of Allies, July 14, '18, v: 147; + panic in, during German drive, '18, v: 378; + May Day rioting, May, '19, vi: 111. + + Paris Conference, 1856, guarantees Turkish power in Europe, i: 39. + + "Paris Group," organization of, Medical Department, A. E. F., v: 346. + + Pasha Dagh, Australian objective in Gallipoli attack, iii: 170; + _see also_ Gallipoli Campaign. + + Pashitch, Nicholas, Premier of Serbia, + negotiations with Italy for settling Adriatic rivalry, vi: 362; + biography, ix: 120. + + Passchendaele Ridge, captured by British, Oct.--Nov., '17, ii: 56, 79; + recaptured by Germans, Apr., '18, iii: 377. + + Passenheim, Russians defeated at, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375, iii: 116. + + Passport frauds, German activities in U. S., i: 314, x: 333. + + Patriotic songs, xi: 332-335. + + Patrol boats, work in combating submarines, iv: 292. + + Patrolling, training A. E. F. in, v: 117. + + Patrols, German system of, in the Vosges, v: 26. + + Patterson, Miss Hannah J., + awarded D. S. M. for work on Woman's Committee, + Council of National Defense, xii: 125. + + Pau, Gen. Paul, + commands French forces invading Alsace, Aug. 14, '14, iii: 16. + + Peace Conference, Paris, + U. S. delegates sail for, Dec. 4, '18, i: 400; + conciliatory attitude of Austrian delegates, vi: 321; + negotiation with Hungarian Soviet, Apr., '19, vi: 326; + Fiume crisis, vi: 366-370, xii: 159; + prestige of Japanese delegation, vi: 388; + dispute over Teschen district, vi: 400; + inside story of, by Thos. W. Lamont, + financial adviser to U. S. delegation, xii: 149-163; + complexity of task, xii: 149; + rapidity of work, xii: 149; + open diplomacy, xii: 149; + Supreme Council, members and method of evolving Peace Treaty, + xii: 150-153; + "Big Four," xii: 150, 152; + "Big Three," xii: 150; + Conference procedure, xii: 156; + commissions, xii: 156; + delays, xii: 156; + language difficulties, xii: 157; + Reparations Commission, organization and work, xii: 158, 219-221; + Shantung controversy, xii: 160; + Germans excluded from negotiation, xii: 161; + Belgian demands, xii: 161; + signing of Peace Treaty with Germany, ceremonies, xii: 165-169; + list of delegates, xii: 179-182; + _see also_ Peace Treaty with Germany, Versailles, '19. + + Peace moves, President Wilson asks belligerents + to state war aims, Dec. 18, '16, i: 335; + response to Wilson's note, i: 336; + Wilson's "Peace without victory" speech, i: 336; + Pope Benedict's appeal, Aug. 15, '17, i: 390, ix: 405; + Germany accepts Pope's offer, Sept. 21, '17, i: 390; + text of letter from Emperor Charles of Austria-Hungary + to Prince Sixtus making secret offer of peace, Mar., '17, ii: 63; + German attempts in '16 and '17 fail, ii: 270, 316, vi: 263; + German moves condemned by Ludendorff, ii: 303; + Kaiser orders proposals through Queen of Holland, ii: 331; + Russian Provisional Government urges Allies + to revise peace aims, May, '17, vi: 161; + German Socialists demand peace without annexations, '15, vi: 258; + Bethmann-Hollweg proposes peace of understanding, '16--'17, vi: 262; + German popular demand for + "peace without annexations or indemnities," vi: 266-268; + Emperor Charles forces offer by Teutonic allies, Dec. 12, '16, + vi: 313; + demonstrations in Sofia, vi: 346; + _see also_ + Armistice; + and under each country. + + Peace Treaty with Germany, + Versailles, '19, criticism by British liberal press, vi: 22; + terms presented to Germans, May 7, '19, vi: 302, xii: 161; + condemned by German press, vi: 302-304; + Germany consents to sign, June 22, '19, vi: 304, xii: 163; + how drafted, described by Thos. W. Lamont, + financial adviser to U. S. delegation, xii: 149-161; + text, work of technicians, xii: 150; + French demands, xii: 153; + evolution of Covenant of League of Nations, xii: 155; + Belgian demands, xii: 161; + ceremonies of signing, xii: 165-169; + analysis by Geo. W. Wickersham, xii: 170-178; + signed June 28, '19, xii: 179; + text in full, xii: 179-263; + preamble, giving list of nations allied against Germany, + and their delegates to Peace Conference, xii: 179-182; + League of Nations, text of Covenant, xii: 182-185; + boundaries of Germany, xii: 186; + provisions concerning Luxemburg, xii: 189; + demolition of German fortifications, xii: 189, 205, 211, 214; + Sarre Basin settlement, xii: 189-194; + Alsace-Lorraine, provisions for return to France, xii: 194-197; + Germany acknowledges independence of Austria, xii: 197; + provisions for independence of Czechoslovak State, xii: 197; + independence and boundaries of Poland, xii: 198-200; + plebiscite for East Prussia, xii: 200; + provisions concerning Memel, xii: 203; + Danzig made free city, xii: 203; + plebiscite provisions for Schleswig, xii: 204; + Heligoland, destruction of fortifications on, xii: 205; + provisions concerning Russo-German relations, xii: 205; + Brest-Litovsk Treaties abrogated, xii: 205; + German colonies surrendered to Allies, xii: 206; + German rights in China surrendered, xii: 206; + German rights in Siam surrendered, xii: 208; + German rights in Liberia surrendered, xii: 208; + German rights in Morocco surrendered, xii: 208; + German rights in Egypt surrendered, xii: 208; + Shantung (Kiau-Chau) transferred to Japan, xii: 209; + reduction of German army and military equipment, + xii: 209, 210, 211, 212; + universal military service abolished in Germany, xii: 211; + new German army, table of organization for, xii: 212; + German navy, surrender and reduction, xii: 212-214; + German wireless stations, regulation by Allies, xii: 214; + German military air service abolished, xii: 214; + existing German air service surrendered to Allies, xii: 215; + Interallied Commissions of Control + to supervise execution of military terms, xii: 215; + repatriation of prisoners of war, xii: 216; + war graves, care of, xii: 217; + punishment of Germans guilty of war crimes, xii: 217; + reparation terms imposed on Germany, xii: 217-225; + Reparation Commission, formation and functions, xii: 219-221; + shipping, restitution for Allied shipping sunk, xii: 222; + reconstruction, German obligations, xii: 223; + coal, German deliveries to France, Belgium, Italy, xii: 224; + dyestuffs, German deliveries to Allies, xii: 224; + submarine cables, German, surrendered to Allies, xii: 225; + trophies of war, return of, to France by Germany, xii: 225; + Koran of Caliph Othman, + return of, by Germany to King of Hedjaz, xii: 225; + Sultan Mkwawa, + skull of, return by Germany to Great Britain, xii: 225; + Louvain, University of, + restoration by Germany of books destroyed, xii: 225; + art objects, + carried by Germans from Belgium, restoration of, xii: 225; + gold, restriction on German export of, xii: 226; + Armies of Occupation, + Allied, in Germany, expense to be borne by Germany, xii: 226; + ceded territories, share in German national debt, xii: 226; + Alsace-Lorraine, + exempt from share in German national debt, xii: 226; + Poland, share in German national debt, xii: 227; + international concessions, + surrender by Germany of rights in, xii: 228; + gold, deliveries of, by Germany to Allies, xii: 228; + customs duties, regulations imposed on Germany, xii: 229; + privileges for Allied shipping to be granted by Germany, xii: 230; + trade competition, Germany to suppress unfair methods, xii: 230; + Allied nationals, treatment of, by Germany, xii: 230; + pre-War treaties between Allies and Germany revived, xii: 231; + treaties among Teutonic allies abrogated, xii: 232; + treaties between Germany and Russia abrogated, xii: 232; + treaties between Germany and Rumania abrogated, xii: 232; + Opium Convention, Jan, 23, '12, put into force, xii: 232; + debts, between German and Allied nationals, + methods of payment, xii: 232-236; + property rights of Allied nationals confiscated by Germany, + methods of restitution, xii: 236-240; + contracts, between German and Allied nationals, + status and methods of discharge, xii: 240-243; + Mixed Arbitral Tribunal, establishment and functions, xii: 243; + literary rights, provisions for re-establishment of, xii: 244-246; + artistic rights, provisions for re-establishment of, xii: 244-246; + industrial rights, provisions for re-establishment of, + xii: 244-246; + ceded territories, social insurance funds of, + to be transferred to Allies by Germany, xii: 246; + aerial navigation, rules for, xii: 246; + freedom of transit, + for Allied goods and nationals through Germany, xii: 247, 253; + ports, Allied, discrimination against, + by Germany forbidden, xii: 247; + navigation, Allied, over German waterways, xii: 247-253; + Elbe, internationalized, xii: 248; + Oder, internationalized, xii: 248; + Niemen, internationalized, xii: 248; + Danube, internationalized, xii: 248; + Rhine, international control and rules for navigation, + xii: 250-253; + use of northern German ports by Czechoslovak State, xii: 253; + German railways, provisions relating to, xii: 253; + Kiel Canal, rules of navigation through, xii: 255; + labor, international organization for improving conditions of, + xii: 255-261; + guarantees for execution, exacted from Germany, xii: 261; + Armies of Occupation, conditions for withdrawal, xii: 261; + Savoy, neutralized zone of, provisions concerning, xii: 262; + German Christian missions, continuity guaranteed, xii: 263; + prize courts, provision concerning decisions of, xii: 263; + signed, June 28, '19, xii: 264; + ratified by Germany, July 10, '19, xii: 264; + ratified by Great Britain, July 25--31, '19, xii: 264; + ratified by King of Italy, Oct. 7, '19, xii: 264; + ratified by France, Oct. 13, '19, xii: 264; + ratified by Japan, Oct. 27, '19, xii: 264; + U. S. Senate opposition to, xii: 264-278; + Fall amendments to, defeated in U. S. Senate, Oct. 2, '19, + xii: 264; + original Lodge reservations defeated in U. S. Senate, Nov. 19, '19, + xii: 265-266; + original Lodge reservations, text, xii: 265; + defeated in U. S. Senate for second time, Mar. 19, '20, + xii: 266-269; + Pres. Wilson's opinion on Lodge reservations, xii: 267; + revised Lodge reservations, text, xii: 269; + efforts of Congress to declare peace + by joint resolution in substitution for, xii: 271-278; + Knox Resolution, xii: 273, 277; + President Wilson's message vetoing Knox Resolution, xii: 278. + + Pearce, Padraic, + Provisional President of Irish Republic, vi: 60, ix: 53. + + Peck, Pvt. Archie A., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400. + + Penang harbor, attacked by _Emden_, Oct. 28, '14, iv: 178. + + People's Relief Committee, for Jewish relief, formation, vii: 354. + + Pepper Hill, at Verdun, + attacked by Germans, Apr. 18, '16, iii: 52, 304. + + Periscope, description, viii: 165, xi: 245. + + Perkins, Pvt. Michael J., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 391. + + Permanent Blind Relief War Fund, + organization and activities, vii: 255-259. + + Peronne, French objective in Somme battle, iii: 55; + captured by British, Mar. 18, '17, iii: 68. + + Peronne-Ham sector, Allied drive on, Sept., '18, ii: 158. + + Pershing, Gen. John J., + offers A. E. F. to Foch, Mar. 28, '18, v: 30, 120, 380, ix: 153; + sails for Europe, May, '17, v: 97; + reception in England, June, '17, v: 97; + reception in France, June, '17, v: 97; + reasons for selection of American Army zone, '18, v: 110; + farewell speech to 1st Div., Chaumont-en-Vixen, Apr., '18, v: 121; + urges attack with A. E. F., July, '18, v: 158; + extract from report on Aisne-Marne Offensive, July, '18, v: 182; + assumes tactical command of American forces in battle area, + v: 192, 384, ix: 205; + extract from report on St. Mihiel attack, v: 212; + starts Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 213; + extract from report on preparation for Meuse-Argonne attack, + v: 218; + divides A. E. F. combat units into two Armies, Oct. 9, '18, + v: 246, 390; + personal message to each soldier in A. E. F., v: 353; + official report on A. E. F., v: 373-404; + appeal to War Dept. for troops, Dec., '17, v: 373; + insists on independent American Army in France, v: 385; + Alsatian ancestry, ix: 166; + origin of name, ix: 166; + biography, ix: 199-210. + + Pershing Stadium, vii: 313. + + Persia, divided into "spheres of influence" + by Anglo-Russian agreement, '07, i: 104, vi: 335; + sympathy with Turkey, vi: 330; + pro-German sentiment, vi: 336-337; + Great Britain in control, '19, vi: 338. + + _Persia, S. S._, British merchantman + sunk in Mediterranean, Dec. 30, '15, i: 384; + eye-witness account, iv: 224. + + Peru, dispute with Chile over Tacna-Arica district, vi: 390; + delegate to Peace Conference, xii: 180. + + Petain, Marshal Henri Philippe, + defender of Verdun, ii: 189, iii: 50, 54, 304, xi: 22; + eulogy of, by Gen. Malleterre, ii: 220; + biography, ix: 164-166. + + Peter I, King of Serbia, + accompanies his nation in retreat, iii: 281, 284; + reenters Belgrade, Dec. 15, '14, iii: 397; + foreign policy, vi: 355; + biography, ix. 398-399. + + Petrograd, food shortage in, vi: 141; + workmen's delegates on War Industrial Committee arrested, vi: 143; + during the Revolution, vi: 144-153. + + Petroseny, captured by Rumanians, Sept. 1, '16, i: 386. + + Peuvillers, captured by 128th Inf. Regt., Nov. 10, '18, v: 272. + + Peyton, Maj.-Gen., British commander in western Egypt, iii: 191. + + Pflanzer, Gen. von, Austrian commander in Bukovina, iii: 132. + + Philippines, acquired by U. S., i: 56. + + Phillipeville, bombarded by _Goeben_, Aug. 4, '14, iv: 14. + + Phonotelemeter, description of, viii: 20. + + Phosgene (Carbonyl chloride), + use in chemical warfare, v: 321, viii: 168-170; + manufacture of, at U. S. Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 184. + + Photography in war, work of U. S. Signal Corps, v: 319; + use in artillery range-finding, viii: 14; + value of aerial photography, viii: 226, 331; + types of aerial cameras, viii: 228, 332-334; + De Ram automatic camera for aerial photography, viii: 228, 333; + work of U. S. aerial photographers, viii: 228, 235; + personnel of Photographic Section, U. S. Air Service, viii: 234; + future, viii: 234; + making pictorial history of War, viii: 329-331; + production of photographic supplies by U. S., viii: 355; + mobile developing laboratories, viii: 335; + _see also_ Aerial photography. + + Piave River, + Italian stand at, after Caporetto rout, ii: 58, 250, iii: 248. + + Picardy Front, German choice for final drive, '18, ii: 69; + advantages of, for German offensive, '18, ii: 69. + + Pichon, Stephen, French Foreign Minister, + speech before Chamber of Deputies + on secret Entente agreements of '16--'17, vi: 334. + + Pigeons, war uses, v: 239, 319, viii: 328. + + Pike, Lieut.-Col. Emory J., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, + x: 400. + + Pill-boxes, description, iii: 79, viii: 130; + battle tactics in use of, viii: 130-133. + + Pilsudski, Gen. Joseph, leads Polish troops against Russia, vi: 202; + jailed by Germans, vi: 214; + assumes dictatorship of Poland, vi: 219; + dictatorship not recognized by Allies, vi: 222; + Minister of Foreign Affairs in Paderewski cabinet, vi: 223; + becomes president of Polish Republic, vi: 225; + biography, ix: 92-95. + + Pirot, occupied by Bulgars, Oct. 28, '15, i: 382. + + Pistols, Schwarzlose automatic pistol, mechanism, viii: 90; + use as military weapon, viii: 116-117. + + "Place in the sun," speech by Kaiser, '01, i: 95; + definition of phrase, ii: 27; + German control of Balkans as means of attaining, ii: 27. + + Plava, captured by Italians June 10, '15, i: 380, iii: 244. + + _Players, The_, poem by Francis Bickley, ix: 290. + + Pleinchamps Farm, captured by 28th Div., Oct. 4, '18, v: 239. + + Ploechti, captured by Germans, Dec. 6, '16, iii: 222. + + Plumer, Gen. Sir Herbert, commander of British Second Army, ii: 214; + a great military chief, iii: 375; + offensive in Flanders, Sept., '18, v: 213. + + Plunkett, Rear-Adm. Chas. P., + commander of U. S. Naval Railway Batteries on Western Front, + v: 306, viii: 45. + + Plunkett, Sir Horace, + Irish leader, chairman of Irish Convention, '18, vi: 62. + + Plymouth, England, U. S. subchaser base, iv: 359. + + Poincare, Raymond, President of French Republic, biography, + ix: 14-19; + bibliography, ix: 19. + + _Points d'Appui_, definition, v: 13. + + Pola, Italian naval raid on, Nov. 2, '16, iv: 369; + Italians sink Austrian dreadnought at, May 14, '18, iv: 372; + Austrian dreadnought _Viribus Unitis_ blown up + by Italians at, Nov. 1, '18, x: 297-303. + + Poland, topography, iii: 106-108; + German invasion of, and unsuccessful attacks on Warsaw, + Sept., '14--Feb., '15, iii: 116-118, 124-127, 128-132; + Austrian invasion of, iii: 118-120; + conquered by Austro-German forces, July--Sept., '15, + iii: 137-141, vi: 311; + battle of the Salients, July, '15, iii: 138; + Warsaw captured by Germans, Aug. 4, '15, iii: 138; + civilian deaths due to war-time privation, iii: 406; + early history and pre-War condition, vi: 201; + Russian promise of autonomy, '14, vi: 201; + Austrian Poles support Central Powers, vi: 202; + Poles under Pilsudski fight against Russia, vi: 202; + war-time destitution in, vi: 204-210; + German reforms in, vi: 208; + German policy, vi: 210-213; + Germany promises reestablishment of Polish Kingdom, Nov. 5, '16, + vi: 210; + Germany demands Polish troops, vi: 213; + freed by Russian Revolution, vi: 213; + Germany sets up Regency, vi: 214; + denied representation at Brest-Litovsk by Germany, vi: 214; + revolt against Teuton domination, '18, vi: 216; + capture of Lemberg from Ruthenians, Nov. 5, '18, vi: 217; + proclamation of Republic, vi: 218-219; + Pilsudski becomes dictator, Nov., '18, vi: 219; + Germans expelled, Dec., '18, vi: 220; + political struggle between classes, vi: 220; + Conservatives support Paderewski, vi: 220; + Warsaw Revolt against Pilsudski fails, vi: 220-222; + war against Bolsheviki, vi: 222-224; + war with Ukraine over Cholm, vi: 222, 248; + dispute with Czechs over Teschen, vi: 222, 400; + compromise cabinet of Paderewski and Pilsudski, Feb. 9, '19, + vi: 223; + Provisional Government recognized by Allies, Feb., '19, vi: 225; + Pilsudski elected President, vi: 225; + claims for Danzig, vi: 225; + Peace Treaty provisions for independence and boundaries of, + vi: 226, xii: 18-200; + American war relief for Jews in, vii: 356-358, 360-363, 375; + value of property loss, xii: 26; + Peace Conference delegates, xii: 180; + share in German national debt, Peace Treaty provisions, xii: 227; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Political parties, _see_ under countries. + + _Pommern_, German battleship + torpedoed by British submarine _E-9_, July 2, '15, iv: 208. + + Pont-a-Mousson, on Toul-St. Mihiel sector, v: 65, 116, 119. + + Pontoons, viii: 299-300. + + _Pontoporros_, auxiliary to German raider _Emden_, iv: 172. + + Pope, _see_ Benedict XV. + + Pope, Corp. Thomas A., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397; + + Poperinghe line, + British-American line of defense in Flanders, v: 287, 289. + + Population, decrease in births due to War, iii: 406; + effects of War on, xii: 25. + + Port Arthur, seized by Russia from China, i: 20; + acquired by Japan, i: 20; + 11-in. siege guns first used by Japanese at, viii: 34. + + Ports, French, selected for A. E. F. use, '18, v: 110; + Allied, Peace Treaty provisions against discrimination by Germany, + xii: 247. + + Portugal, international position in '14, i: 62; + rout of army before German offensive, Apr., '18, + ii: 153, iii: 91, vi: 374; + war casualties, iii: 404, v: 364; + prisoners of war, iii: 404; + internal strife, vi: 372-375; + enters War as British ally, vi: 373; + President Paes assassinated, Dec. '18, vi: 374; + Royalist uprising suppressed, '19, vi: 375; + money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25; + Peace Conference delegates, xii: 180. + + Posen, revolt of Polish population against Germany, vi: 225; + awarded to Poland by Peace Conference, vi: 226. + + Potash, German boycott of U. S., xii: 98. + + Potatoes, world production by countries, xii: 47; + as food, xii: 47; + German system of drying and crushing, xii: 47. + + Potsdam Conference of German war leaders, July 5, '14, i: 136; + decision for war, i: 249. + + Potts, Pvt. Frederick, wins Victoria Cross at Gallipoli, x: 138. + + Powder, _see_ Ammunition. + + Power plants, built by A. E. F. Engineer Corps, v: 333. + + Pozieres, captured by British in Somme battle, iii: 58. + + Prague, + meeting of Czechoslovak representatives at, Apr. 2, '18, vi: 398. + + Prauthory, Haute-Marne, headquarters, 32nd Div., Feb., '18, v: 119. + + _President Lincoln_, U. S. transport + sunk, May 31, '18, i: 395, iv: 337; + eye-witness account, iv: 340. + + Press: + Austria-Hungary, _Tageblatt_ demands war, '14, vi: 306; + Hungarian journals support war, vi: 307; + _Pester Lloyd_ for war, '14, vi: 308; + _Oesterreichische Rundschau_ attacks Italy, '15, vi: 310; + _Vossische Zeitung_ on strikes, Jan., '18, vi: 314; + _Arbeiter Zeitung_, radical organ, vi: 315; + _Arbeiter Zeitung_ on peace terms, vi: 322; + _Has Haroda_ on Czech loyalty, '14, vi: 396. + Bulgaria, statement against Russia by _Kambana_, June, '15, + vi: 342. + Germany, _Militaerische Rundschau_ advocates immediate war, '14, + vi: 249; + Socialist organ _Vorwaerts_ supports Kaiser, vi: 249; + _Liller Kriegszeitung_ preaches hate of England, vi: 252; + optimistic attitude of _Frankfurter Zeitung_, Nov., '14, + vi: 253; + Maximilian Harden ridicules in _Zukunft_ talk + of German starvation, vi: 254; + alarm over prospects of starvation, '15, vi: 255; + submarine warfare urged, vi: 256, 265; + on German successes, '15, vi: 258; + _Vorwaerts_ demands statement of peace aims, vi: 258; + _Frankfurter Zeitung_ on seriousness + of Allied blockade, '15--'16, vi: 261; + _Vorwaerts_ on food shortage, vi: 261; + demand war to finish, '17, vi: 264; + gospel of hate against England, vi: 264-265; + _Taglische Rundschau_ + on German demoralization, Dec., '18, vi: 284; + _Vorwaerts_ on industrial unrest, Dec., '18, vi: 286; + comments on Ebert as President, vi: 293; + on peace terms, vi: 302-304; + Maximilian Harden on peace terms, vi: 303. + Great Britain, condemns Dutch neutrality, vi: 376. + Italy, _Corriere della Sera_ and _Secolo_ + advocate conciliation with Jugoslavs, vi: 362. + Serbia, expressions of hatred for Austria-Hungary + by _Politika_, _Mali Journal_, _Balkan_, _Zastava_, vi: 356; + _Samouprava_ denounces Italian treaty, '15, vi: 361. + Turkey, _Ikdam_ for war, vi: 330; + _Tanine_ on Dardanelles expedition vi: 330; + _Hillal_ acclaims victory, '15, vi: 331. + United States, attitude on U. S. neutrality, i: 308; + on _Lusitania_ sinking, i: 319; + on _Arabic_ torpedoing, i: 322; + on German indemnity, xii: 24. + + Pressel, Dr. Wilhelm von, + builds first spur of Bagdad railway, 1871, ii: 291. + + Pressure gauges, on airplanes, viii: 220. + + "Preventive arrests," + for suppressing pacifist agitation in Germany, vi: 262. + + Prices, + analysis of, by Prof. Irving Fisher, xii: _Intro. vii-xvii_; + high cost of living as result of War, xii: _Intro. vii_, 143; + index numbers, xii: _Intro. vii_; + rise in U. S., '13--'19, xii: _Intro. vii-viii_; + influence of unsecured paper money on, xii: _Intro. viii_; + chart of price movements in U. S. and England since 1780, + xii: _Intro. viii_; + before and after great wars of history, xii: _Intro. ix_; + percent. rise in warring countries, xii: _Intro. x_; + present high level not due to scarcity, xii: _Intro. x_; + inflation as cause of high prices, xii: _Intro. xii_, 27; + countries arranged in order of high prices, + xii: _Intro. xii-xiii_; + extent of currency inflation, xii: _Intro. xiii_; + high cost of living as breeder of Bolshevism, + xii: _Intro. xiii-xiv_; + purchasing power of wages, '13--'18, xii: _Intro. xiv_; + remedies for high cost of living, xii: _Intro. xiv-xv_; + standardized dollar as remedy for fluctuation in, + xii: _Intro. xv_; + effect of wars on, xii: 27; + reduced production as cause of high prices, xii: 27, 38-40; + "fair price" lists, xii: 54; + rise in U. S., '14--'18, xii: 56-59; + present, compared with Civil War days, xii: 57, 75; + effects of government control in Great Britain, xii: 59; + government control in U. S., xii: 59; + _see also_ Cost of living, under name of country. + + Prilep, captured by Bulgars, Nov. 17, '15, i: 382; + occupied by Allies, Sept. 26, '18, i: 397. + + Primers, composition and explosive properties, viii: 6. + + _Prince George_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33. + + Prince, Norman, member Lafayette Escadrille, death, iii: 391. + + Princes' Island, conference of Russian factions at, fails, vi: 188. + + _Princess Royal_, British cruiser, in Battle of Jutland, iv: 108; + in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246. + + _Principles of War_, treatise by Marshal Foch, + ii: 80, 104, ix: 152. + + _Prinz Eitel Friedrich_, German raider, + puts into Hampton Roads for repairs, Mar. 10, '15, i: 378; + interned by U. S., Apr. 7, '15, i: 378. + + Priority system, among U. S. industries during War, xii: 73-75. + + Pripet marshes, Russian offensive against Austria, June, '16, ii: 42; + description, iii: 108. + + Prisoners of war, classified by countries, iii: 404; + work of Swiss Red Cross for, vi: 380; + work of American Y. M. C. A. for, vii: 302-310; + Crown Princess of Sweden's work for, vii: 308; + Peace Treaty provisions for repatriation of, xii: 216. + Austria-Hungary, captured by Serbs, description of, iii: 395; + humane treatment by Serbs, iii: 400; + total lost in War, iii: 404. + French, diary describing life in German prison, iii: 300; + total lost in War, iii: 404. + German, captured in Somme battle, iii: 60; + in battle of Cambrai, iii: 82; + in St. Mihiel drive, iii: 99, v: 71, 207; + during Allied drive, July--Nov., '18, iii: 103; + total in War, iii: 404; + at Cantigny, v: 33; + taken by A. E. F. in Marne salient, July, '18, v: 56; + first capture by A. E. F., v: 113; + clothed by U. S. Salvage Service, v: 331; + captured in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 394; + total captured by A. E. F., xii: 288. + Russian, sufferings of, in German prison camp, iii: 300; + total lost in War, iii: 404. + Turkish, captured by British in Palestine campaign, + ii: 94, iii: 199; + total lost in War, iii: 404. + United States, first captured by Germans, iii: 84; + total lost in War, iii: 404; + work of American Red Cross for, vii: 37-39, 71. + _See also_ + under battle or campaign; + countries. + + Prize courts, Peace Treaty provision for decisions of, xii: 263. + + Profiteering, xii: 55; + U. S. meat-packers' profits before and during War, xii: 56. + + Prohibition, U. S. war-time act passed, July 7, '17, i: 390; + Russian government forbids sale of vodka, iii: 265, vi: 135; + voluntary abstention urged in England by Lloyd George, '14, vi: 2-3; + use of vodka substitutes in Russia, vi: 138; + imposed by Bela Kun's government in Hungary, vi: 325. + + Propaganda, _see_ + Allies; + Germany. + + Property rights, of Allied nationals confiscated by Germany, + Peace Treaty provisions for restitution of, xii: 236-240. + + Protopopoff, Russian Minister of Interior, + in German employ, ii: 59, vi: 143; + causes Rumanian entry into War for German interest, ii: 59; + gains power at court through Rasputin, vi: 143; + reactionary policy, vi: 143; + surrenders to Duma during Revolution, March, '17, vi: 153. + + _Provence II_, French cruiser + sunk by U-boat, Feb. 26, '16, iv: 376. + + Pruitt, Corp. John H., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 390. + + Prussia, war with Denmark, 1864, i: _Intro. vii_, 41; + autocratic form of government, i: 29; + assumes leadership of German states under Bismarck, i: 40; + population in 1860, i: 40; + Seven Weeks' War against Austria, 1866, i: 41; + representation in Imperial Bundesrat, ii: 71; + traditional policy of force, i: 150; + controlling share in government of German Empire, i: 156; + King of, powers as German Emperor, i: 156; + relations with Great Britain, stages in evolution of, i: 168; + Prussianization of Germany, i: 258; + plan of imperial development, ii: 1; + _see also_ Germany. + + Przasnyz, captured by Germans, Feb. 24, '15, i: 378, iii: 131; + recaptured by Russians, Feb. 27, '15, i: 378. + + Przemysl, invested by Russians, Sept. 16, '14, i: 376, iii: 123-124; + Russians forced to raise siege, Oct. 12, '14, i: 376, iii: 125; + reinvested by Russians, Nov. 12, '14, i: 376, iii: 127, xi: 16; + captured by Russians, Mar. 22--23, '15, + i: 378, iii: 134, 292-293, xi: 16; + number of Austrians surrendering, i: 378, iii: 134, 293; + recaptured by Austro-German forces, June 1--2, '15, + i: 380, ii: 234, iii: 136. + + Pskov, captured by Germans, Feb. 24, '18, i: 393. + + Psychological tests, for gauging intelligence of army recruits, + vii: 216, viii: 349-351. + + Psycho-physiological tests, + for determining fitness of recruits for specific duties, + viii: 351-356. + + Putnik, Field-Marshal, Commander-in-Chief of Serbian army, iii: 150. + + Pys, evacuated by Germans, Feb. 24, '17, iii: 64. + + + Q + + "Q" ships, British decoys for U-boats, iv: 296. + + Quebec, not enthusiastic for War, vi: 26; + failure of recruiting among French-Canadians, vi: 30; + move for secession from Dominion, vi: 33, 36; + Draft Boards defeat conscription by blanket exemptions, vi: 36; + draft riots, vi: 36; + _see also_ Canada. + + _Queen_, British battleship at Dardanelles, iv: 33. + + _Queen Elizabeth_, + British dreadnought at Dardanelles, ii: _Intro. xv_, iv: 31. + + _Queen Mary_, British cruiser blown up at Jutland, iv: 110, 258; + in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 241. + + Queenstown, Ireland, + base for U. S. destroyer and subchaser detachment, iv: 357. + + Quennemont Farm, strong point on Hindenburg Line, v: 290. + + Quien, Gaston, betrayer of Edith Cavell, x: 352. + + Quinn, Jim, citation for D. S. C., July 18, '18, v: 171. + + + R + + _R-34_, British dirigible, crosses Atlantic, viii: 245; + similarity to Zeppelin, viii: 254. + + Races, European rivalries, i: 21. + + Rada, Central Council of Ukraine, + formed after Russian revolution, vi: 243. + + Radio, _see_ Wireless. + + Radoslavov, Vassil, Bulgarian Premier, + heads patriotic organization, _Narodni Savetz_, vi: 341; + statement of Bulgarian war demands, vi: 341; + German sympathies, vi: 343; + resigns, June 17, '18, vi: 346. + + Raemakers, Louis, Dutch cartoonist of the War, ix: 190. + + Rafa, Turks defeated by British at, Jan., '17, iii: 192. + + Raids, _see_ + Air raids; + Naval raids. + + Raikes, Lieut.-Com. Robert H. T., + commander of British submarine _E-54_, + battle with German U-boats, iv: 212. + + Railroads, German ambition for Calais-Persia route, ii: 2; + Russian military, iii: 105; + Petrograd-Berlin, iii: 111; + Transylvanian, cut by Rumanians, iii: 218; + Orsova, taken by Germans in Wallachian campaign, iii: 221; + Cernavoda-Constanza, captured by Teuton allies, Oct., '16, iii, 221; + in Trentino, iii: 230; + in Isonzo sector, iii: 239; + in Uganda, iii: 255; + in Transcaucasia, iii: 260; + number of troop trains needed to move a U. S. division, v: 20; + French, available for A. E. F. use, v: 110; + St. Mihiel-Metz, cut, Sept. 12, '18, v: 206; + German lines of communication in occupied territory, v: 215; + Mezieres-Sedan, key to German lines of communication + on Western Front, v: 216, 387; + built by Engineer Corps, A. E. F., in France, + v: 333, 334, 403, xii: 283; + equipment sent to France from U. S., v: 403, xii: 95, 286; + war functions, viii: 283; + collapse of Russian system, under war stress, viii: 283; + work of German railroads during War, viii: 283-285; + narrow-gauge, at the front, viii: 302; + _see also_ Bagdad Railway. + + Railway Artillery Reserve, U. S., formation, v: 305; + units composing, v: 305; + engagements on Western Front, v: 306-308; + _see also_ U. S. Army, Artillery. + + Rainbow (42nd) Division, _see_ U. S., Army. + + Rambucourt, on Toul sector, v: 116. + + Ramscappelle, German success at, Oct. 30, '14, iii: 40. + + _Ramsey_, British patrol boat, + sunk by German auxiliary cruiser _Meteor_, iv, 197. + + Ramsgate, bombarded by German destroyers, Nov. 25, '16, i: 389. + + Range-finder, telescopic, structure and use of, viii: 9. + + Range-finding, _see_ + Artillery; + Hydrophones; + Microphone; + Phonotelemeter. + + Rapallo Conference, iii: 84. + + Rappes, Bois des, captured by 3rd Div., Oct., '18, v: 85. + + Rasputin, Gregory, influence over Czarina and Russian court, vi: 141; + assassinated, '16, vi: 141; + influence places Protopopov in power, vi: 143; + biography, ix: 345-347. + + Ravaruska, Russian success in battle of, Sept. 4--10, '14, iii: 122; + captured by Austro-German forces, June 20, '15, iii: 136. + + Rawlinson, Gen., commander of British Fourth Army, ii: 214, iii: 371. + + Raynal, Major, defender of Fort Vaux, iii: 55, 313. + + Read, Maj.-Gen. George W., commander, 30th Div., June, '18, v: 146; + commands 2nd Corps, v: 290, 382, 394; + biography, ix: 223-224. + + Read, Lieut.-Com., + pilots _N-C-4_, first airplane across Atlantic, viii: 240. + + Rebais, Germans beaten back at, in first Marne battle, iii: 32. + + Reconstruction of devastated war areas, + German obligations under Peace Treaty, xii: 223. + + Reconstruction of disabled, + American help for vocational training of French disabled, + vii: 79, 92-95; + program of European belligerents, vii: 175; + in U. S. Army, vii: 175-186, 210-216, 222, 233-239; + importance of first aid, vii: 178; + treatment of shell-shock, vii: 179; + percent. of injured returned to service, vii: 180; + system of vocational training for U. S. service men, + vii: 180-182, 210-216, 236-239; + educational personnel for training of U. S. service men, + vii: 180, 185; + care of blinded U. S. service men, vii: 182, 213; + correcting speech defects in U. S. military hospitals, + vii: 182, 213; + work of U. S. dental officers, vii: 210; + in civilian industries, vii: 240-245; + mechanical treatments for injured limbs, viii: 381-384; + artificial arms for war cripples, viii: 384-388; + artificial legs for war cripples, viii: 388-390; + remaking shell-torn faces, viii: 390; + artificial eyes for war blind, viii: 391; + _see also_ + Medical science; + Surgery. + + Recouly, Raymond, account of first Marne battle, ii: 182-186; + account of Verdun battle, ii: 186-189. + + Recreation, for service men, _see_ + Entertainment; + Sports. + + Recruiting, _see_ under country. + + Red Army, in Russia, organized by Trotzky, vi: 185; + in Munich, raised by Munich Soviet, vi: 300; + in Hungary, under Communist Government, vi: 326. + + Red Cross: + American, relief work in Italy, ii: 250, vii: 42, 82; + Henry P. Davison, Chairman of War Council, vii: 1; + war-time activities, summary, vii: 1; + amount of contributions to, vii: 1; + increase in membership, vii: 1; + personnel in France, vii: 1; + Clara Barton, mother of, vii: 12; + peace time activities, vii: 14; + war organization, vii: 15-27; + raising war funds, vii: 15-27; + total relief expenditures, vii: 27; + range of activities, vii: 29; + location of base hospitals, vii: 30; + location of ambulance companies, vii: 30-31; + sanitary service, vii: 31-32; + nursing personnel, vii: 33; + canteen service, vii: 33, 42, 47-49, 54, 57; + auxiliary activities for service men's comfort, vii: 34; + recruiting services of nation's womanhood, vii: 34; + home service work, vii: 35; + services abroad, vii: 35-40; + hospital work in France, vii: 37, 45; + work for American prisoners in Germany, vii: 37-39, 71; + relief activities in England, vii: 40, 45; + with the Navy, vii: 41; + relief work among belligerents during U. S. neutrality, + vii: 43-46; + hospital work in Germany, vii: 45; + hospital work in Austria-Hungary, vii: 45; + relief for Serbia, vii: 45, 84; + stories of overseas service with fighting men, vii: 47-72; + work for wounded, vii: 49-54, 56, 60-64; + ambulance service at the front, vii: 49-51; + tales of wounded, vii: 51-54; + hotels for service men in Paris, vii: 54; + supplying delicacies to wounded, vii: 56; + huts, vii: 59; + entertainment, vii: 60; + as bureau of information, vii: 62-64; + helping doughboys shop in France, vii: 64; + department store for overseas service men, vii: 66; + production of surgical dressings, vii: 67; + production of nitrous oxide, vii: 68; + baths and laundries behind the lines, vii: 70; + Children's Bureau, activities for welfare of child war sufferers, + vii: 72, 76-79, xi: 85-90; + relief among Allied civilians, vii: 73-85; + relief among French refugees, vii: 73; + fight against tuberculosis in France, vii: 75; + education of French disabled, vii: 79; + relief for Belgian refugees, vii: 82; + relief in Rumania, vii: 84; + work in Palestine, vii: 84; + Institute for the Blind, vii: 259; + letters of appreciation from refugee children, xi: 60; + Junior American Red Cross, activities, xi: 90-93; + help by Boy Scouts, xi: 108; + letter from "Chinese citizen boy," xi: 179. + International, in Switzerland, vi: 380; + World League of, vii: 3; + history of development, vii: 4-14; + Florence Nightingale, first field nurse, vii: 11; + U. S. becomes member, vii: 14. + + _Red Cross Nurse_, poem by Edith Thomas, vii: 279. + + "Red Monday," during Russian Revolution, Mar. 12, '17, vi: 150. + + "Red Week," rioting during, in Italy, June, '14, vi: 114. + + "Reds," _see_ Bolshevism. + + Reeves, Col. Ira L., + military superintendent, A. E. F. University at Beaune, vii: 283. + + Refrigerating plants, constructed by A. E. F. in France, v: 403. + + Refugees, _see_ War relief. + + Regan, 2nd Lieut. Patrick, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 395. + + Reichstag, German, limitations as legislative body, i: 71; + composition and powers, i: 156. + + Reims (Rheims), abandoned by Allies, Aug. 28, '14, i: 375; + re-occupied by French, Sept. 15, '14, i: 376; + Cathedral bombarded by Germans, iii: 74, vi: 97; + attacked by Crown Prince, June, '18, iii: 95; + description of surrounding country, v: 43; + gateway between Germany and France, v: 215. + + _Reiter's Morganlied_, German air, xi: 335. + + Relief, _see_ War relief. + + Religion, diversity of, obstacle to world federation, i: 25; + work of Y. M. C. A. with troops overseas, vii: 283-285. + + Remington self-loading rifle, description, viii: 89; + _see also_ Rifles. + + Remonville, location, v: 217; + captured by 89th Div., Nov. 1, '18, v: 262. + + Remounts, construction of depots for, by A. E. F., v: 333; + procuring of, for A. E. F., v: 399. + + Renault tank, description, viii: 156; + _see also_ Tanks. + + Rennenkampf, Gen., + commander of Russian forces invading East Prussia, '14, + ii: 24, 227, iii: 110; + driven out of East Prussia by Hindenburg, ii: 25, 229, iii: 116; + Ludendorff's account of retreat, ii: 355; + _see also_ + East Prussia; + Tannenberg, battle of. + + Renner, Dr., becomes Austrian Chancellor, '19, vi: 319; + Bolshevik uprising against, vi: 321; + conciliatory attitude at Peace Conference, vi: 321. + + Renwick, George, description of Munich under Red Terror, vi: 301. + + Repair shops, U. S. Ordnance, in France, v: 350. + + Reparation, by Germany, Peace Treaty provisions, xii: 217-225. + + Reparation Commission, formation and functions, xii: 158, 219-221. + + Repatries, returned French exiles, xi: 75. + + Repington, Colonel, + military correspondent of _London Times_, + exposes British shell shortage, May, '15, ii: 174. + + Replacement system, plan for A. E. F., '17, v: 102, 399. + + Respirators, number issued by U. S. Army, v: 324; + utility as defense against poison gas, viii: 174-178; + _see also_ Chemical warfare. + + Responsibility for the War, _see_ Germany, + Responsibility for War. + + Retreats, famous examples of, in history, iii: 280. + + _Return, The_, poem by John Freeman, ix: 331. + + Reval, seized by Germans, Feb. 24, '18, i: 393. + + Reventlow, Count Ernst Zu, + condemnation of democratic rule in Germany, vi: 284. + + Reville, taken by 5th Div., Nov. 8, '18, v: 272. + + Revolver, use as military weapon, viii: 117. + + Reynolds, Col. C. R., Chief Surgeon, Second Army, v: 346. + + Rheims, _see_ Reims. + + Rhine River, French strategy in regard to, ii: 8; + German fortifications on, Peace Treaty provisions concerning, + xii: 189; + Peace Treaty provisions for international control and navigation, + xii: 250-253. + + Ribot, Alexandre, succeeds Briand as French Premier, '17, vi: 103. + + Rice, Brig.-Gen. John H., Chief Ordnance Officer, A. E. F., v: 350. + + Richthofen, Capt. Baron Manfred Freiherr von, + career as aviator, x: 253-255. + + Rickenbacker, Capt. Eddie, career as aviator, x: 259-264. + + Rieka, Slav name of Fiume, vi: 365. + + Rifles, + type used by A. E. F., description and reasons for adoption, + v: 347, viii: 96, 102-105; + U. S. production figures, v: 347, xii: 284; + types, viii: 84, 88-105; + Browning automatic, viii: 84; + automatic, difference from machine-gun, viii: 88; + importance of rapid fire, viii: 88; + self-loading, compared with machine-gun, viii: 88; + principal self-loading types, viii: 89-91; + Remington, viii: 89; + Sjorgen, viii: 89; + Winchester, viii: 89; + rifle fire and artillery compared, viii: 92; + range of military rifle, viii: 92; + "danger zone" in rifle fire, viii: 93; + advantages of sharp-nosed bullet, viii: 93; + comparison to gas engine, viii: 94; + British service rifles, description, viii: 95; + Lee type, viii: 95; + Enfield-M type, viii: 95; + French service rifle, description, viii: 95; + German Mauser, description, viii: 95; + sighting devices, viii: 96-102; + definition of "bore," viii: 111; + definition and purpose of "rifling," viii: 111. + + Rifle lights, viii: 75. + + "Rifling" of gun, definition and purpose, viii: 111-112. + + Riga, occupied by Germans, Sept. 3, '17, i: 390, iii: 147, iv: 136. + + Riga, Gulf of, description, iv: 136-137; + German naval operations in, '15--'17, iv: 137-138; + battle of, and capture of dominating islands by Germans, + Oct. 12--18, '17, iv: 137-138. + + Rintelen, Capt. Franz von, German agent in U. S., i: 315. + + Ritchings, Lieut.-Col. Arthur, + rise from constable to lieutenant-colonel, x: 378. + + _River Clyde_, British transport at Gallipoli, iii: 168, iv: 39. + + Riviera, A. E. F. leave area, Y. M. C. A. work in, vii: 269. + + Rizzo, Commander Luigi, + sinks Austrian battleships in motor-boat attack, iv: 370; + sinks Austrian battleships, _Wien_ and _Monarch_, + in Trieste harbor, x: 290. + + _Road to France, The_, poem by Daniel M. Henderson, vi: 131. + + Roads, construction by A. E. F. in France, v: 334, 403. + + Robb, 1st Lieut. George S., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 402. + + Robeck, Vice-Adm. de, + succeeds Vice-Adm. Carden in command + of Allied fleet at Gallipoli, iv: 32. + + Roberts, Lieut. E. M., record as aviator, x: 249-252. + + Roberts, Corp. Harold W., + American tank driver, wins Congressional Medal of Honor, + x: 402, xi: 386. + + Robertson, Gen. Sir William, + appointed British Chief of General Staff, ii: _Intro. xviii_; + biography, ix: 184-186. + + Rockenbach, Brig.-Gen. Samuel D., commander U. S. Tank Corps, v: 314. + + Rockwell, Kiffin, + member of Lafayette Escadrille, killed in Vosges, iii: 391. + + Rodman, Admiral, biography, ix: 293-295. + + Rodzianko, Michael V., President of Russian Duma, vi: 150. + + Rogers, Maj.-Gen. H. L., Chief Quartermaster of A. E. F., v: 332. + + Rohrbach, Paul, German publicist, on Anglo-German rivalry, vi: 251. + + Romagne, captured by 32nd Div., Oct. 14, '18. v: 250. + + Romagne-sous-Montfaucon, American cemetery at, v: 403. + + Romani, Turks defeated by British at, Aug., '16, iii: 192. + + Romanoffs, _see_ + Nicholas II; + Russia, Royal family. + + Romorantin, U. S., aircraft plant at, v: 313. + + Roncheres, captured by 3rd Div., July 28, '18, v: 188. + + Roosevelt, Capt. Archie, war record, x: 238. + + Roosevelt, Capt. Kermit, war record, x: 241. + + Roosevelt, Lieut. Quentin, record as aviator, x: 241-249; + killed in air fight, x: 245-249. + + Roosevelt, Theodore, fight against "big business," i: 293; + against U. S. neutrality, i: 299; + temperament contrasted with that of Pres. Wilson, i: 299; + probable course of action if President during War, i: 302; + pro-German sentiments in '14, i: 309; + statement on _Lusitania_ sinking, i: 320; + statement on universal military training, Nov., '15, i: 326; + attacks Pres. Wilson's note asking + belligerents for statement of war aims, i: 337. + + Roosevelt, Lieut.-Col. Theodore, Jr., + commands 26th Inf. at Cantigny, May 28, '18, v: 126; + at Sedan, Nov. 7, '18, v: 269; + war record, x: 241. + + Roosevelt, Mrs. Theodore, Jr., "Y" worker in Bordeaux, vii: 267; + in charge of Aix-les-Bains leave area, vii: 269. + + Root-Takahira agreement, '08, i: 57. + + Rosenwald, Julius, member, + Advisory Commission of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 116. + + Rossetti, Lieut.-Col. R., + sinks Austrian warship _Viribus Unitis_ in Pola harbor, + x: 297-303. + + Rosyth, advance base for British battle cruisers, iv: 91, 94; + meeting place for arranging surrender of German fleet, iv: 384. + + Roulers, German base in France, ii: 86. + + Rowlatt, Justice, author of "Black Cobra Bill" of India, '18, vi: 78. + + Royal Air Force, British, _see_ Great Britain, Air Service. + + _Royal Edward_, British transport sunk, Aug. 13, '15, i: 381. + + Royal families, _see_ country. + + Roye, captured by Allies, Aug. 27, '18, i: 397, ii: 157. + + Rozyshche, captured by Russians, June, '16, iii: 144. + + Rue, training area for 27th Div., '18, v: 286. + + Ruggles orientator, for testing aviators, viii: 356-358. + + Ruhleben, German prison camp, American "Y" work at, vii: 303. + + _Rule Britannia_, British patriotic song, xi: 333. + + Rumania, gains independence from Turkey, i: 92; + intervention in Second Balkan War, '13, i: 206; + declares war on Austria-Hungary, Aug. 27, '16, i: 386; + Germany declares war on, Aug. 28, '16, i: 386; + Turkey declares war on, Aug. 29, '16, i: 386; + Bulgaria declares war on, Sept. 1, '16, i: 386; + reasons for entry into War, ii: 59, iii: 214, vi: 348-349; + betrayed by Russia, ii: 59, iii: 221, vi: 349; + natural resources, ii: 59; + invades Transylvania, ii: 60, iii: 217, vi: 313, xi: 28; + conquered by Teuton forces under Mackensen and Falkenhayn, + ii: 60, iii: 218-224, vi: 349, xi: 29; + topography, iii, 214; + failure of Allied support, iii: 214; + army, training and equipment, iii: 215; + strategy of campaigns, iii: 216; + Bucharest captured by Germans, Dec. 6, '16, iii: 222; + government moved to Jassy, Nov., '16, iii: 223, vi: 349; + prisoners of war, iii: 404; + total casualties, iii: 404, vi: 353, xii: 289; + civilian deaths from disease and famine, iii: 405; + attacks Hungarian republic, '19, vi: 326; + race problems, vi: 348; + policy of neutrality, vi: 348; + secret treaty with Allies as war price, iii: 349; + suffering under Teuton invasion, vi: 349, 353; + struggle with Russian Bolsheviki in Bessarabia, vi: 350-352; + signs peace treaty with Central Powers, May 7, '17, vi: 352; + peace terms imposed by Germany, vi: 352; + conditions after armistice, Nov., '18, vi: 353; + royal family, ix: 399-402; + debt to U. S., xii: 18; + money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25; + value of property loss, xii: 26; + war cost, Aug., '16--Oct., '18, xii: 107; + rise in national debt, xii: 114; + Peace Conference delegates, xii: 180; + former treaties with Germany abrogated by Treaty of Versailles, + xii: 232; + area, '19, xii: 279; + population, '19, xii: 279. + + _Rumania_, poem by George Edward Woodberry, vi: 347. + + Rumanian National Hymn, xi: 329. + + Rumanian Relief Committee of America, vii: 109. + + Rumeli Medjidieh Battery, Fort at Gallipoli, iv: 45; + bombarded by Allied fleet, iv: 45. + + Rupel, Greek fortress, seized by Bulgars, May, '16, iii: 207. + + _Rupert Brooke_, poem by Moray Dalton, vii: 285. + + Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria, army commands, iii: 10, 61. + + Ruroede, Carl, leader in German passport frauds in U. S., x: 333. + + Russell, Bertrand, British philosopher, + dismissed from Cambridge University + for supporting conscientious objectors, vi: 8; + on effects of War, vi: 11. + + _Russell_, British battleship + sunk in Mediterranean, Apr. 27, '16, i: 385. + + Russia: + Army, mobilization, July 31, '14, i: 375, iii: 264; + German estimate of effectiveness, ii: 4; + man-power available, ii: 27; + lack of resources to equip manpower, ii: 27-28; + shortage of ammunition, ii: 231, iii: 264; + machine-gun equipment, ii: 232; + artillery equipment deficient, ii: 232; + collapse of, ii: 340 (Ludendorff on), + iii: 146, 267-270 (Gen. Denikin's report), v: 113, vi: 157, 164; + organization and strength, iii: 104; + weaknesses, iii: 105; + Czar takes personal command, Sept. 8, '16, iii: 140; + leading commanders pledge support to Republican Government, + Mar., '17, iii: 145; + vice in, iii: 267; + causes of demoralization, iii: 268; + balloting substituted for fighting, iii: 268; + desertions, iii: 269, vi: 157, 164; + Bolshevist propaganda in, iii: 269, vi: 157, 164; + Cossack cavalry, strength, vi: 146; + fraternization with enemy, vi: 157, 161; + Kerensky abolishes death penalty, vi: 157; + Red Army raised by Trotzky, vi: 185; + for military operations, _see_ + Russian Front; + battle or campaign. + Casualties, total in War, iii: 404; + civilian deaths from disease and famine, iii: 406; + money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25; + battle deaths, xii: 288. + Coal, production, '13--'17, xii: 48. + Cost of living, percent. rise during War, xii: _Intro. x._ + Declarations of war, pledge of aid to Serbia against Austria, + July 27, '14, i: 114; + by Germany against, Aug. 1, '14, i: 115, 139, 375; + by Austria against, Aug. 6, '14, i: 375; + on Bulgaria by, Oct. 19, '15, i: 382; + on Turkey by, Oct. 30, '14, i: 376; + reception by populace, iii: 264, vi: 134-135; + ultimatum to Bulgaria, Oct. 4, '15, vi: 343. + Food, shortage, vi: 141, 144, 145; + potato crop, xii: 47. + Foreign policy, Asiatic expansion, i: 20; + seizure of Port Arthur from China, i: 20; + gains freedom of action in Black Sea, 1871, i: 47; + world position in '14, i: 62; + ambitions in Near East checked by Congress of Berlin, i: 93; + German influence, i: 95, 240; + Entente Cordiale with France, 1891, i: 98; + member of Triple Entente, i: 98, 103, 106; + settlement of Persian question with Great Britain, '07, i: 104; + Franco-Russian treaty of July, '12, i: 107; + Balkan policy, i: 114; + pledge of aid to Serbia against Austria, July 27, '14, i: 114; + negotiations in attempt to prevent the War, i: 126-129; + hatred of Germany, i: 242; + German view of, i: 242; + betrayal of Rumania by German agents in Government, + ii: 59, iii: 221, vi: 349; + imperialistic ambitions, vi: 132; + treachery of Government exposed by Milyukov, Nov., '16, vi: 142; + secret treaties made public by Trotzky, vi: 183; + Soviet Government makes peace with Germany, vi: 183-185; + relations of Soviet with Allies, vi: 187-188; + hostility to Ukrainian nationalistic aspirations, vi: 241; + treaty with Japan, '16, vi: 386; + for relations with Finland, _see_ Finland. + Industries, inadequate for war needs, ii: 27-28; + hampered by lack of port facilities, iii: 161; + chaotic condition during War, xii: 82. + Internal politics, war enthusiasm, Aug., '14, iii: 264, vi: 134-135; + prohibition of vodka, iii: 265, vi: 135; + revolutionary outbreaks before War, vi: 132-134; + Socialists oppose War, vi: 134; + attack of Duma on War Office for inefficiency, Aug., '15, vi: 136; + Minister of War Sukhomlinov arrested and disgraced, vi: 136; + request for new ministry refused by Czar, '15, vi: 136; + Duma dissolved, Sept., '15, vi: 136; + peace sentiment, '15, vi: 138; + Lenin advocates defeat of Russia, vi: 140; + Stuermer succeeds Goremykin as Prime Minister, vi: 140; + Duma reconvenes, Feb. 22, '16, vi: 140; + attack of Socialist Cheidze on Government, vi: 140; + influence of Rasputin at Court, vi: 141; + Rasputin murdered, vi: 141; + Stuermer becomes Foreign Minister, July, '16, vi: 142; + Stuermer dismissed under accusations of corruption and treachery, + vi: 142; + repressive policy of Protopopov, Minister of Interior, '17, + vi: 143; + Golytsin succeeds to Premiership, '17, vi: 143; + threats of revolt in Duma, Feb., '17, vi: 144; + Revolution starts in Petrograd, Mar., '17, vi: 145; + Duma disobeys Czar's order of dismissal, Mar., '17, vi: 146; + leaders and policies at start of Revolution, vi: 148; + revolutionary scenes in Petrograd, Mar. 11--15, '17, vi: 148-156; + Czar disregards appeals for liberal ministry, vi: 150, 151; + Red Monday, Mar. 12, '17, vi: 150-153; + arrest of ministers of old regime, vi: 153; + reform _vs._ revolution, Mar., '17, vi: 153-157; + Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates formed, Mar. 12, '17, + vi: 155; + Provisional Government under Prince Lvov formed by Duma, + Mar. 14, '17, vi: 155; + Czar abdicates, Mar. 15, '17, vi: 156; + struggle between Provisional Government and Soviet on war policy, + vi: 158-160; + fall of Liberal ministry and formation of coalition cabinet, + vi: 160; + peasant societies, vi: 160; + statement of policy by coalition Government, vi: 161; + Bolshevist uprising suppressed, July, '17, vi: 161-165; + Kerensky becomes virtual dictator, vi: 165; + rivalry between Kerensky and Kornilov for power, vi: 167-171; + Moscow Conference, vi: 167; + Kornilov rebellion fails, vi: 169; + Kerensky declares Russia a Republic, Sept. 15, '17, vi: 171; + Bolshevist revolution overthrows Kerensky, Nov., '17, vi: 171-181; + Lenin becomes President of Council of People's Commissaries, + vi: 181; + Trotzky becomes Commissary of Foreign Affairs, vi: 181; + Bolshevist program, vi: 181; + opposition of middle classes to Bolshevik rule, vi: 181; + Constituent Assembly dissolved by Bolsheviki, Jan., '18, vi: 185; + Congress of Soviets substituted for Constituent Assembly, vi: 185; + reign of terror under Bolshevist regime, vi: 187. + Navy, Black Sea fleet bombards Bosphorus forts, iv: 49; + strength of Black Sea fleet, iv: 50; + development, iv: 364; + strength of Baltic fleet, iv: 364; + war record, iv: 364-366; + part in Revolution, iv: 366, vi: 164. + Peace negotiations, + Brest-Litovsk Treaty ends war with Central Powers, Mar., '18, + ii: 63, 273, vi: 183; + armistice with Germany signed, Dec. 6, '17, v: 113; + movement for peace by radicals and conservatives, '15, vi: 138; + Soviet demands immediate Socialist peace conference, vi: 161; + nature of Bolshevik peace propaganda, vi: 171-175; + Versailles Treaty, provisions on, Russo-German relations, + xii: 205; + treaties with Germany abrogated by Versailles Treaty, xii: 232. + Prisoners of war, iii: 404. + Railroads, military, iii: 105; + Petrograd-Berlin line, iii: 111; + importance of Warsaw as junction, iii: 138; + Brest-Litovsk line, military importance, iii: 138; + collapse under war stress, viii: 283. + Royal family, xi: 145-149; + _see also_ Nicholas II. + War cost, currency inflation by Bolsheviki, xii: _Intro. xiii_; + financial position at start of War, xii: 1; + loans floated in U. S., Aug., '14--Jan., '17, xii: 2; + debt to U. S., xii: 18; + money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25; + value of property loss, xii: 26; + average daily cost, xii: 106; + total cost, Aug., '14--Oct., '17, xii: 107; + taxation, xii: 109; + loans, xii: 113; + rise in national debt, xii: 113, 114. + + Russian Front, + German analysis of strength and strategic importance, + Aug., '14, ii: 12-16; + strategic plans of Russia and Central Powers, + ii: 22, 225 (Gen. Gourko's explanation), iii: 109-110; + Russian invasion of Galicia, '14--'15, + ii: 22-24, 26, iii: 118-124, 127, 132-134; + Lemberg captured by Russians, Sept. 3, '14, ii: 23, iii: 121; + operations in East Prussia, '14, + ii: 24, 227-229 (Gen. Gourko's account), + 353-357 (Ludendorff's account), iii: 110-116; + battle of Tannenberg, Aug., '14, ii: 24, iii: 112-116; + campaigns in Poland, + ii: 25, 26, 229, 361-365 (Ludendorff's account), + iii: 116-120, 124-127, 128-132, 137-141; + Przemysl, siege and capture by Russians, + ii: 26, iii: 123, 125, 127, 134, 292, xi: 16; + successful Teuton counter-offensive in Galicia under Mackensen, + May, '15, ii: 26, 233, 360 (Ludendorff's account), + iii: 135-137, 294-296, vi: 258, 311; + Warsaw, German attacks on and capture, + ii: 26, iii: 128-130, 131, 138; + Brusiloff's offensive in Galicia, '16, ii: 42-44, 235, iii: 141-145; + Russian collapse, '17, + ii: 54, 340 (Ludendorff on), + iii: 146, 267-270 (Gen. Denikin's report), v: 113, vi: 157, 164; + campaigns in Caucasus and Armenia, + ii: 91-92, iii: 260-263, vi: 331, xi: 29; + capture of Erzerum, Feb. 16, '16, ii: 91, iii: 262-263; + effect of invasion of East Prussia on first Marne battle, ii: 227; + reasons for weakness of Russian fortresses, ii: 230; + Przemysl recaptured by Teuton forces, June 1--2, '15, + ii: 234, iii: 136; + Lemberg recaptured by Austrians, June 22, '15, ii: 234, iii: 137; + topography, iii: 106-109; + last Russian offensive in Galicia, July, '17, iii: 146; + battle experiences on, iii: 316; + activities of A. E. F. against Bolsheviki, v: 394, vi: 187, 193; + description of Russian trenches, viii: 123; + _see also_ + East Prussia; + Galicia; + Mazurian Lakes; + Poland. + + Russky, Gen., commander of Russian forces invading Galicia, iii: 119. + + Ruthenians, clash with Poles for control of eastern Galicia, + vi: 217, 248; + cultural freedom under Austrian rule, vi: 241; + attempts at forced Russification during Russian occupation + of Galicia, vi: 243. + + Ryan, Michael J., Irish-American delegate to Peace Conference vi: 66. + + + S + + Saarbruecken, British air raid on, Oct. 25, '17, i: 392. + + Saarburg, occupied by French, Aug. 17, '14, i: 375. + + "Sacred Egoism," Italian foreign policy of, vi: 120. + + "Sacred Way, The," highway to Verdun, iii: 50. + + Sag paste, developed by U. S. Chemical Warfare Service + as protection against mustard gas, v: 324. + + Said Pasha Zagloul, Egyptian Nationalist leader, vi: 70. + + Sailly-Saillisel, objective in Somme battle, '16, iii: 58. + + St. Benoit, captured by 42nd Div., Sept. 13, '18, v: 211. + + St. Dunstan's Home for British blind, vii: 259. + + St. Etienne, captured by 71st Brig., Oct. 8, '18, v: 257. + + St. Gobain, German defensive system captured by + Allies in last drive, '18, ii: 214, xi: 52; + Germans bombard Paris from Forest of, iii: 88, viii: 45-47. + + _St. Louis_, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33. + + St. Maurice Ridge, captured by 27th Div., v: 296. + + St. Mihiel, + occupied by Germans, Sept. 26, '14, i: 376, iii: 37, v: 199; + recaptured and salient wiped out by A. E. F., Sept. 12--15, '18, + ii: 84, iii: 99, v: 65-72, 199-212, 384-386 (Pershing's report), + xi: 46; + strategic importance of A. E. F. operations, + ii: 84, v: 200, 208, 384, 385-386; + strength of A. E. F, and French troops attacking, Sept., '18, + iii: 99, v: 203, 385, 386; + German prisoners captured in operations against, Sept., '18, + iii: 99, v: 71, 207, 208, 212, 386; + German artillery captured at, Sept., '18, + iii: 99, v: 71, 207, 212, 386; + Allied casualties in reduction of salient, iii: 99, v: 71, 212, 386; + topography of salient, v: 65, 199; + list and disposition of A. E. F. and French divisions + in drive against, Sept., '18, v: 65, 202, 386; + strength of German troops defending sector, Sept., '18, v: 201, 208; + strength and activities of Allied air service in drive against, + Sept., '18, v: 206, 309, 386; + effect of victory on A. E. F. morale, v: 386. + + St. Nazaire, + debarkation and embarkation port for A. E. F., v: 339, 396. + + St. Pierremont, captured by 77th Div., Nov. 3, '18, v: 265. + + St. Quentin, German base in France, ii: 86; + Germans break through British lines at, Mar., '18, + ii: 70-74, 150-151, 190-197, + iii: 86-91, 381-390 (Philip Gibbs's account); + unsuccessful French attacks on, Mar., '17, iii: 68; + captured by British, iii: 101. + + St. Quentin Canal, part of Hindenburg Line defenses, v: 292, 301. + + St. Remy, captured by 26th Div. in St. Mihiel drive, + Sept. 12, '18, v: 69, 212. + + Saionji, Marquis, Japanese statesman, + causes fall of Terauchi Cabinet, vi: 388; + personal sketch, ix: 92. + + Sakharoff, Gen., Russian commander on Galician Front, iii: 142; + sent to defend Rumania against German invasion, '16, iii: 221, 223. + + Salandra, Antonio, Italian Premier, + pro-Ally policy brings Italy into war against Germany, + ii: 236-239, vi: 123-126; + Cabinet of, forced to resign, June, '16, vi: 127. + + Salonika Campaign, Maj.-Gen. Maurice on general military aspects of, + ii: _Intro. xix_; + Allies fail to defend Rumania, ii: 62; + Allies' reasons for undertaking, iii: 201-202; + attitude of Greece on Allied occupation of Greek territory, + iii: 202, 206; + strategy and military operations, iii: 202-213; + Allies land first troops, Oct. 3, '15, iii: 202; + Allied strength, Oct., '15, iii: 202; + Allies driven by Bulgars across Greek frontier, Oct.--Nov., '15, + iii: 204-205; + Uskub captured by Bulgars, Oct. 9, '15, iii: 204; + Allies fortify Salonika position, iii: 205; + Bulgars occupy Greek territory, May, '16, iii: 207; + Gen. Sarrail proclaims martial law in Salonika, iii: 207; + Allies increase forces, May--Aug., '16, iii: 207; + Monastir captured by Allies, Nov. 19, '16, iii: 208-210; + Gen. d'Esperey succeeds Gen. Sarrail in command of Allied armies, + iii: 212; + Allied and Bulgarian strengths, Sept., '18, iii: 212; + final Allied offensive crushes Bulgaria and forces surrender, + Sept.--Oct., '18, iii: 212-213. + + Salvage service, British, activities of, ii: 131; + A. E. F., activities of, v: 331, viii: 345-348; + general functions, xi: 308-313. + + Salvation Army, war work, vii: 379-400; + tales of experiences in war service, vii: 379-393; + "Ma" Burdick, soldiers' friend, vii: 384; + care of soldiers' graves in France, vii: 391; + home service, vii: 393; + huts and hostel service, vii: 395; + clothing bureau, vii: 397; + work with A. E. F., vii: 397; + as soldiers' forwarding agency, vii: 399; + employment bureaus, vii: 399; + finances, vii: 400. + + Samoa, German, captured by New Zealanders, vi: 38; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Samogneux, captured by Germans, Feb. 23, '16, iii: 48. + + _Samouprava_, Serbian journal, + denounces terms of Italian secret treaty with Allies, vi: 361. + + Sampler, Sgt. Samuel H., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397. + + Samsonoff, Gen., + commander of Russian forces invading East Prussia, + defeated and killed in battle of Tannenberg, Aug., '14, + ii: 24, 228, iii: 111-116; + Gen. Gourko's account of fate, ii: 228; + Ludendorff's account of fate, ii: 355; + _see also_ Tannenberg, battle of. + + San, battle of the, May 15--17, '15, iii: 136. + + _San Diego_, U. S. cruiser sunk by mine, iv: 216. + + _San Francisco_, U. S. cruiser + used in laying North Sea mine barrage, iv: 326. + + San Giovanni di Medua, concentration of Serbian refugees at, iii: 284. + + Sanders, Gen. Liman von, head of German Mission in Turkey, iii: 164. + + Sandlin, Pvt. Willie, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397. + + Sanitation, Red Cross Sanitary Service, vii: 31-32; + Division of Sanitation, U. S. Army Medical Corps, + war-time activities, vii: 191, 253; + prevention of infectious diseases among troops, viii: 392-397; + making drinking water safe for army, viii: 394-396; + taught by movies in war zone, xi: 89; + _see also_ + Disease; + Infection. + + Sanniyat, + British repulsed at, in attempt to relieve Kut-el-Amara, iii: 185. + + Santos-Dumont, development of aircraft by, xi: 221-223. + + Sapieha, Prince Eustace, + attempted _coup d'etat_ against Pilsudski fails, vi: 222. + + Sarajevo, _see_ Serajevo. + + Sarrail, Gen., commands a French Army at first Marne battle, ii: 184; + defender of Verdun, '14, ii: 188, iii: 303; + commander of French forces at Salonika, iii: 62, 202. + + Sarre, battle of the, Aug. 18, '14, iii: 18. + + Sarre Basin, Peace Treaty provisions concerning, xii: 189-194. + + Save River, + Austrians cross in invading Serbia, Aug. 12, '14, iii: 151. + + Savoy, + neutralized zone of, Peace Treaty provisions concerning, xii: 262. + + Sawelson, Sgt. William, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400. + + Saxony, Spartacide revolt in, Feb., '19, vi: 299. + + Sayville wireless station, taken over by U. S. Govt., July 8, '15, + i: 381. + + Sazonov, Serge, + resigns as Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, July 23, '16, + vi: 142; + biography, ix: 98-99. + + Scandinavia, neutrality, vi: 392. + + Scapa Flow, British naval base, iv: 93; + German warships interned at, iv: 143. + + Scarborough, bombarded by Germans, Dec. 16, '14, i: 376, iv: 245. + + Scarpe sector, British drive on, Aug., '18, ii: 158. + + _Scharnhorst_, German cruiser + in battle off Coronel, iv: 65, 66; + sunk in battle of Falkland Islands, + iv: 70, 72, 82 (eye-witness account), xi: 308. + + Scheidemann, Philip, + leader of German Social-Democratic majority, vi: _Intro. xii_; + member of Ebert Government, Nov., '18, vi: 277; + elected Chancellor, Feb., '19, vi: 292; + biography, ix: 135-138. + + Scheldt River, Belgian claims to Dutch territory at mouth of, vi: 89; + strategic position, vi: 375. + + Schleswig, Danish attitude toward, vi: 393; + plebiscite provisions of Peace Treaty for, vi: 394, xii: 204. + + Schlieffen, Gen. Count von, + author of plan of German campaigns, Aug., '14, ii: 345. + + Schmidt, Adm., German commander in battle of Riga Gulf, iv: 366. + + Scholz, Walter, + accomplice in German plot to blow up Allied ships, x: 371. + + School of the soldier, xi: 159; + of the squad, xi: 161. + + Schools, general educational program + for A. E. F. at army centers and European universities, + v: 106, vii: 281-283, 290; + for children in war zones, xi: 65-66; + U. S. Army training schools, _see_ U. S., Army. + + Schwab, Charles M., biography and war service, ix: 332-334. + + Science, in the War, Field-Marshal Haig's tribute, ii: 124; + displaces importance of military strategy, viii: _Intro. vii._ + + _Scots Wha Hae wi' Wallace Bled_, + Scottish national song, xi: 331. + + Scottish Women's Hospitals for Home and Foreign Service, vii: 101. + + "Scrap of paper," Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg's statement + on Belgian neutrality, i: 146. + + Seaplanes, _see_ Aeronautics. + + Sea Scouts, British, coast guard duty, xi: 94. + + Sea tanks, Italian, description, iv: 272. + + Sebastopol, importance as seaport, ii: 28. + + Secours National, American Committee of the, + organization and activities, vii: 105; + _see also_ War relief. + + Sector, defined, v: 14. + + Sedan, key-point in German lines of supply, ii: 87; + A. E. F. advance on, Nov., '18, iii: 103, v: 92, 269, 391, xi: 53; + _see also_ Mezieres-Sedan railroad. + + Sedd-el-Bahr, fort on Gallipoli, ii: 30, iv: 24, 42; + _see also_ Gallipoli Campaign. + + _Seeadler_, career as German raider, iv: 198. + + _Seed-Time_, poem by Josephine Preston Peabody, vii: 283. + + Seeger, Alan, poet-soldier, x: 142. + + Seibert, Sgt. Lloyd M., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 402. + + Seicheprey, + German raid on A. E. F. lines at, Apr. 20, '18, v: 28, 122, xi: 43. + + Seitz, Karl, + Austrian president, advocates union with Germany, vi: 322. + + Seleucia, ruins of ancient Greek capital, in Mesopotamia, iii: 331. + + "Self-determination," not recognized in Europe before War, i: 16. + + Seligman, Prof. Edwin R. A., on the cost of the War, xii: 105-114. + + Selivanoff, Gen., commands Russians besieging Przemysl, iii: 132. + + Selle, battle of the, Aug. 19, '14, iii: 18. + + Semenoff, Gen., Cossack commander under Kolchak, vi: 192. + + Semmer, Marcelle, French heroine, story of, x: 181. + + _Send Out the Army_, British soldiers' song, xi: 337. + + Senegalese, description as fighters, x: 116. + + Senlis, German atrocities at, iii: 334-337. + + Senussi, Moslem league, invades Egypt, Nov., '15, iii: 190. + + Septsarges Wood, + fighting at, in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept. 26, '18, v: 224. + + Serajevo, + Archduke Francis Ferdinand and consort murdered at, + i: 111, vi: 306, xi: 4; + attacked by Serbians, Sept., '14, iii: 153. + + Serapeum, Turkish attack near, in advance on Suez, iii: 190. + + Serbia, Balkan ambitions in conflict with + Austrian interests, i: 110, vi: 306, 354-357, 363; + Austria charges with responsibility for murder + of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, i: 112, 246; + Austrian ultimatum to, July 23, '14, i: 112, 375; + conciliatory reply to Austrian ultimatum, i: 113; + Russian pledge of aid against Austria, July 27, '14, i: 114; + Austria declares war on, July 28, '14, i: 115, 243, 375; + Austrian reasons for war against, i: 243, ii: 27, 33; + anti-Austrian societies, i: 244; + declares war on Germany, Aug. 9, '14, i: 375; + Bulgaria declares war on, Oct. 14, '15, i: 382; + conquest of, by Teutonic allies, + ii: 32-36, iii: 148-160, 281-286, 393-400, vi: 357-358, xi: 18; + Allies refuse aid against conquest by Central Powers, + ii: 35, iii: 156, 393, 400; + Allies prevent attack by, on Bulgaria, ii: 36, iii: 156; + unprepared for war, iii: 148, vii: 146; + lack of artillery and ammunition, iii: 148, 393; + size, organization, and fighting qualities of army, + iii: 148, vii: 144; + topography, iii: 150; + generalship during War, iii: 150; + typhus epidemics, iii: 155, 398-400, vi: 357, vii: 148; + retreat into Albania, '15, + iii: 158-160, 281-286, 400, vi: 357-358, vii: 151-158; + army and government take refuge at Corfu, iii: 160, 286; + effect of defeat on Allied cause, iii: 160; + casualties during retreat into Albania, iii: 284, vi: 358; + American and Allied relief work in, iii: 398, vii: 109, 144-168; + prisoners of war, iii: 404; + total war casualties, iii: 404, xii: 288; + early history, vi: 354; + Austrophile policy, vi: 355; + Russophile policy, vi: 355; + anti-Austrian expressions by press, vi: 356; + clash with Italy over Fiume and eastern Adriatic coast, + vi: 360-363, 364-370; + statement of war aims, vi: 363; + letters of appreciation for American relief, vii: 158-166; + debt to U. S., xii: 18; + money equivalent of man-power lost, xii: 25; + value of property loss, xii: 26; + war cost, July, '14--Oct., '18, xii: 107; + rise in national debt, xii: 114; + delegates to Peace Conference, xii: 180; + _see also_ Jugoslavs. + + _Serbia_, poem by Florence Earle Coates, vi: 353. + + Sergy, captured by 42nd Div., July, '18, v: 59, 188; + Gen. Degoutte commends A. E. F. for services at, v: 192. + + Serieux Farm, captured by 181st Brig., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229. + + Seringes-et-Nesles, captured by 42nd Div., v: 59, 188; + Gen. Degoutte commends A. E. F. for services at, v: 192. + + Serre, evacuated by Germans, Feb. 24, '17, iii: 64. + + Services of Supply (S. O. S.), _see_ U. S., Army. + + Seven Weeks' War, between Prussia and Austria, 1866, i: 41. + + _Severn_, British monitor, + in attack on German cruiser _Koenigsberg_, iv: 195, 282; + description, iv: 281. + + _Seydlitz_, German cruiser in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246. + + Shabatz, Austrians cross into Serbia at, Aug., '14, iii: 151. + + Shantung, Germany gains forced concessions in, 1897, i: 82; + Japan's desire for, iv: 367, vi: 382, 385; + Japanese demands for, at Peace Conference, xii: 160; + German rights in, transferred to Japan by Peace Treaty, xii: 209; + _see also_ Kiau-Chau. + + Shell-shock, treatment, vii: 179, viii: 368-369. + + Shells, _see_ Ammunition. + + Shipping, British position on status of armed merchantmen, i: 282; + German position on status of armed merchantmen, i: 282; + U. S. position on status of armed merchantmen, i: 283; + controversy between U. S. and Great Britain + on seizure of neutral cargoes, i: 312, 318, 339; + list of American ships attacked by German U-boats, i: 356; + list of ships sunk with loss of American lives, i: 357; + list of sinkings by German raider _Emden_, iv: 189; + tales of heroic captains of merchant ships, x: 322-324; + value of tonnage sunk, xii: 26; + statistics on world tonnage, Aug., '14--Dec., '17, xii: 91; + statistics on losses, Aug., 14--Dec., '17, xii: 92; + neutral, chartered by U. S. for war service, xii: 98; + war-time increase in neutral, xii: 100; + Peace Treaty provisions for replacement + by Germany of Allied shipping destroyed, xii: 222; + Peace Treaty provisions on privileges + to be granted to Allied shipping by Germany, xii: 230; + _see also_ Germany, Blockade of; + Submarine Warfare. + + "Shock" troops, German, viii: 144. + + Shotgun, use in modern warfare, viii: 114-116. + + Shrapnel, compared with high explosive shell, ii: 287, viii: 8; + invention, viii: 72; + description, viii: 72; + manufacture, viii: 72-74; + _see also_ Ammunition. + + Siam, delegates to Peace Conference, xii: 180; + German rights in, surrendered under Peace Treaty, xii: 208. + + Siberia, Russian expansion in, i: 20; + early history, vi: 189; + relations with Russia, vi: 189; + movement for autonomy, vi: 189; + Bolsheviki suppress Duma, vi: 189; + anti-Bolshevik elements form All-Russian Government at Omsk, + vi: 191; + "Cooperatives," nature of, vi: 191; + Gen. Horvath sets up bourgeois government at Harbin, vi: 192; + Czecho-Slovak prisoners in, form anti-Bolshevik army, vi: 192; + Vladivostok captured by Czecho-Slovaks, June, '18, vi: 192; + unofficial Allied intervention, vi: 192; + intervention in, by U. S. troops, vi: 192-193; + reactionary factions gain control, vi: 193; + Kolchak makes himself dictator, vi: 194; + anarchy and civil war, vi: 194; + Japanese policy in regard to, vi: 386; + American Y.M.C.A. in, vii: 293. + + Sibert, Maj.-Gen. William L., + commander of first American forces in France, June, '17, v: 106. + + Sidi Ahmed, heads Moslem forces invading Egypt, Nov., '15, iii: 190. + + Sidi Barrani, occupied by British, Feb., '16, iii: 191. + + Siebs, Paul, share in German plot to blow up ships at sea, x: 373. + + Siegfried Line, _see_ Hindenburg Line. + + Signalling, means of, viii: 322; + work of U. S. Army Signal Corps in France, viii: 322-329; + use of pigeons in, viii: 328; + _see also_ U. S. Army, Signal Corps. + + Silesia, Upper, + awarded to Poland by Peace Conference pending plebiscite, vi: 226. + + Silistria, retaken by Bulgaria, vi: 344. + + Silver, rise in value, due to War, xii: 32. + + Sims, Adm. William Snowden, biography, ix: 291-293. + + Sinai Desert, Turkish advance through, against Suez, iii: 191. + + Sinn Fein, _see_ Ireland. + + _Sirius_, British cruiser in Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 262. + + Siwa, captured by British, Feb. 5, '17, iii: 191. + + Sixtus, Prince, of Bourbon-Parma, + letter of Emperor Charles to, making peace offer + to Allies, Mar., '17, ii: 63, vi: 315. + + Sjorgen self-loading rifle, description, viii: 89. + + Skinker, Capt. Alexander R., + gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397. + + Skobelev, Minister of Labor in Prince Lvov's coalition cabinet, + vi: 160. + + Skoda howitzers, viii: 22; + _see also_ Artillery. + + Skoropadski, Gen., Cossack dictator in Ukraine, vi: 247. + + Slack, Pvt. Clayton K., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396. + + Slang, soldiers', expressions of, xi: 362. + + Slavs, distribution and culture, i: 238; + in Austro-Hungarian empire, vi: 306-307; + antagonism to Latins, vi: 359; + antagonism to Teutons, vi: 360; + _see also_ Jugoslavs; + Pan-Slavism; + Russia; + Serbia. + + Slovaks, _see_ + Bohemia; + Czechoslovakia. + + _Smile, Smile, Smile_, American soldiers' song, xi: 335. + + Smith, Lieut.-Col. Frederick E., + gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400. + + Smith, Maj.-Gen. W. R., commander, 36th Div., July, '18, v: 196. + + Smith-Dorrien, Gen. Sir Horace, + commander of British Second Corps, ii: 162, 174; + Viscount French's criticism of, + for fighting Le Cateau battle, Aug. 26, '14, ii: 162-164, 174; + Sir Henry Newbolt's account of stand at Le Cateau, ii: 174-182; + Viscount French's praise of, for stand at Le Cateau, iii: 28. + + Smoke screen, uses in naval warfare, iv: 311. + + Smoke shells, use in covering infantry advance, ii: 126. + + Smokeless powder, _see_ Ammunition. + + Smuggling of war supplies into Germany, xii: 100. + + Smuts, Gen. Jan Christaan, + sent by Peace Conference on mission to Hungary, vi: 326; + biography, ix: 187-190; + advocate of League of Nations, ix: 190, xii: 155. + + Sneezing gas, use in chemical warfare, viii: 171. + + Snowden, Philip, + British Labor Party leader, indorses Bolshevist peace aims, vi: 12; + defeated in Parliamentary elections, '18, vi: 17. + + Socialism, fallacy of, i: _Intro. xi_; + Socialists, _see_ under country. + + Soissons, occupied by Germans, May 29, '18, ii: 154, iii: 93; + Allied drive against, in Aisne-Marne counter-offensive, + July 18--21, '18, v: 130, 158-183; + recaptured by French, Aug. 2, '18, v: 188. + + Soldau, captured by Russians, Aug., '14, iii: 111; + recaptured by Germans, Aug., '14, iii: 114. + + _Soldier, The_, poem by Rupert Brooke, x: _facing p_. 1. + + Soldiers' and Workmen's Councils, in Germany, rise, vi: 280, 283; + dissolution ordered by Central Council of Delegates, + Dec., '18, vi: 283. + + Soldiers' Committees, in Russia, cause of army demoralization, + iii: 268. + + Soldiers' Councils, of Austria, + vote against soviet form of government, Apr. 10, '19, vi: 320; + seize control of Vienna, Apr. 18, '19, vi: 321. + + Soldier's creed, xi: 170. + + Soldiers' songs, xi: 335-339. + + Somme, battles of: + July--Sept., '16, ii: 44-47, 148, iii: 55-62, 63, 64, xi: 24; + Allies' aims, ii: 44, iii: 55; + battle line at start, ii: 46; + results, ii: 46-47 (Haig's report), iii: 56, 61, 63; + loss of German morale, ii: 47; + effect on battle of Verdun, ii: 47, iii: 61, 63, 314; + British artillery at, ii: 126; + Foch in command of French, ii: 148; + Inter-Allied Conference decides on unified offensive, Mar., '16, + iii: 55; + Allied man-power, iii: 55; + amount of ammunition used, iii: 56; + description of initial bombardment by John Buchan, July 1, '16, + iii: 57; + Allies' first objectives, iii: 58; + Maurepas captured by French, iii: 58; + Pozieres captured by British, iii: 59; + Thiepval stormed by British, iii: 59; + Combles evacuated by Germans, iii: 59; + works of tanks at, iii: 59, 64; + Germans captured, iii: 60; + extent of battle area, iii: 61; + casualties, German and Allied, iii: 61; + a "blood-bath" for Germans, iii: 63; + effect on Germany, iii: 63; + importance, iii: 63. + Mar.--Apr., '18, ii: 70-74, 150-151, 190-197, + iii: 86-91, + 381-390 + (Philip Gibbs's account of German break through British lines); + German method of attack, iii: 88; + Albert captured by Germans, iii: 89; + results in establishment of Allied unity of command under Foch, + iii: 89; + British casualties, iii: 390. + + Sommerance, captured by 1st Div., Oct. 11, '18, v: 248. + + Sommerville sector, held by Americans, '17, v: 111. + + _Song of the Dardanelles_, poem by D'Annunzio, ix: 343. + + Sonnino, Baron Sidney, + advocates Italy's entry into War on side of Allies, + ii: 236, vi: 120, 123; + becomes Italian Foreign Minister, vi: 120; + insists on fulfillment of secret treaty with Allies, vi: 362, 366; + policy at Peace Conference, vi: 369; + biography, ix: 82-85. + + Sothern, E. H., helps organize Over-There Theater League, vii: 339. + + Souchez, captured by French, Sept. 26, '15, iii: 46. + + Souchon, Adm., + Commander of German cruisers _Goeben_ and _Breslau_, + iv: 14. + + South Africa, Union of, + forces under Gen. Botha conquer German Southwest Africa, '14--'15, + iii: 253-255, vi: 50; + strength of army, iii: 405; + war casualties, iii: 405; + formation after Boer War, vi: 47; + British policy in, vi: 47; + political parties and policies, vi: 47-49; + Gen. Botha leader of loyal Afrikander Party, vi: 47; + Unionists, vi: 47; + Gen. Hertzog organizes Nationalist Party, vi: 47-49; + Nationalists oppose participation in War, vi: 49; + Boer rebellion under Maritz and De Wet suppressed by Botha, '14, + vi: 49-50; + parliamentary elections of '15 show strong anti-British sentiment, + vi: 50-52; + Nationalists' attitude prevents conscription, vi: 52; + Nationalists send delegation to Peace Conference + to plead for independence, vi: 52; + war cost, Aug., '14--Mar., '19, xii: 107; + rise in public debt, xii: 114; + delegates to Peace Conference, xii: 179. + + South Pacific Islands, German, acquired by Australia, '18, xii: 279; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Southwest Africa, German, conquered by Allies, iii: 253-255, vi: 50; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Soviet, _see_ Bavaria; + Bolshevism; + Hungary; + Russia; + Saxony; + Spartacides. + + Spad biplane, viii: 194. + + Spahis, description, xi: 189. + + Spain, as a naval power, i: 28; + loss of colonial empire, i: 35; + international position in '14, i: 62; + policy of neutrality during War, vi: 370; + growing dislike for Germans, vi: 371; + war-time prosperity, vi: 372; + German propaganda in, xii: 101. + + Spartacides, German, beginnings, vi: 260; + leaders, vi: 278; + excluded by Ebert from Provisional Government, Nov., '18, vi: 278; + urge social revolution, vi: 279; + allied with Russian Bolsheviki, vi: 280-281; + program rejected by Central Council of Delegates, Dec., '18, + vi: 283; + plan revolution against government of Majority Socialists, vi: 283; + insurrection of Jan., '19, vi: 287-290; + Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg killed, vi: 289; + defeated in elections for National Assembly, Jan., '19, vi: 290; + instigate labor strikes, vi: 294; + establish Soviet in Munich, Feb., '19, vi: 298, 300-301; + establish Soviet in Leipzig, Feb., '19, vi: 299; + second Berlin insurrection suppressed by Noske, Mar., '19, + vi: 299-300; + _see also_ Germany, Internal politics. + + Spee, Adm. Count Maximilian, + commander of German Far East Squadron, strategy of operations, + iv: 59-62; + defeats British in battle off Coronel, Nov. 1, '14, iv: 64-69; + biography, ix: 306-309. + + Sperry gyro-compass, viii: 348. + + Spheres of influence, of Great Powers, i: 18. + + Spies, German, in United States, x: 326-348, 350; + in England, x: 348; + the "spy mill," x: 355; + disclosure of tank secret by Mata-Hari, x: 360; + dynamiting of Canadian railroad bridge, x: 368; + plot to blow up Allied ships, x: 369-377; + within French lines, x: 379. + + _Spires of Oxford_, poem by Winifred M. Letts, xi: 210. + + Spitaals-Bosschen, captured by 91st Div., Oct. 31, '18, v: 279. + + Sports, in A. E. F., at Winchester Camp, vii: 288; + in Army of Occupation, vii: 293; + general athletic program under Y. M. C. A., vii: 313-317. + + Springfield rifle, standard arm of U. S. troops before War, v: 347; + reason for abandonment during War and adoption of British type, + v: 347, viii: 96; + comparison of new U. S. type with, viii: 102-105; + _see also_ Rifles. + + Spruce, use in aircraft construction, viii: 308. + + _Srpska Narodna Himna_, Serbian national anthem, xi: 328. + + Stage Women's War Relief, organization and activities, vii: 343-349. + + Stanislau, captured by Austrians, Feb., '15, iii: 132; + recaptured by Russians, Mar., '15, iii: 132; + recaptured by Austrians, June, '15, iii: 136. + + Star shells, iv: 334, viii: 334. + + _Star-spangled Banner_, American national anthem, xi: 325. + + Stark, Col. Alexander, Chief Surgeon, First Army, v: 346. + + Stefanik, Gen., + member of Czechoslovak provisional government, vi: 399. + + Stenay, captured by 90th Div., Nov. 10, '18, v: 272. + + Stern, Lieut.-Col. Sir A. G., + share in development of tanks, viii: 155. + + Stock Exchange, New York, effect of War on, xii: 32. + + Stokes, Anson Phelps, + Secretary of Yale University, educational survey of A. E. F., + vii: 281. + + Stokes mortar, use as "artillery of accompaniment," viii: 141. + + Stone, Lieut.-Com. A. J., + inventor of "Y" gun for launching depth bombs, iv: 332. + + Stonne, captured by 77th Div., Nov. 5, '18, v: 268. + + Storage tanks built by A. E. F. Engineers in France, v: 334. + + _Storstad, S. S._, Belgian relief ship + sunk by U-boat, Mar. 8, '17, iv: 229. + + _Strassburg_, German cruiser + in battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240. + + Strategy, of the War, + Maj.-Gen. Maurice on, ii: _Intro. vii-xxiv_; + Allied miscalculation of German strength, Aug., '14, + ii: _Intro. vii_; + British policy of combined land and naval attack, + ii: _Intro. viii_; + factors in formation of British military policy, + ii: _Intro. viii_; + importance of Eastern and Western theaters of war compared, + ii: _Intro. x-xxiii_, 11-14, 87-90, + 171-172 (Field-Marshal French's opinion); + Lloyd George favors aggressive campaign against Austria, + ii: _Intro. x, xx_; + comparative advantages for Allies of Dardanelles + and Austrian campaigns, ii: _Intro. xii_; + advantageous position of Central Powers, ii: _Intro. xiii_; + comparison of, in World War with that of Civil War, + ii: _Intro. xiii_; + value of Mesopotamian campaign, ii: _Intro. xvi_, 87-90; + reasons for British campaign in Palestine, + ii: _Intro. xviii, xxi_, 87-90; + British position in secondary theaters of war, '17, + ii: _Intro. xix_; + advisability of Salonika expedition, ii: _Intro. xix_; + Allies' problem, ii: _Intro. xxi_; + Allies at strategical advantage, Aug., '18, ii: _Intro. xxiii_; + general German war plans, '14, ii: 1-6, iv: 4-6, viii: 133; + French plans, '14, ii: 6-11; + German mistake in attacking France instead of Russia first, + Aug., '14, ii: 11-16; + probable results of a vigorous German offensive + against Russia in '14, ii: 13; + economic strategy, + Allied blockade and German U-boat warfare, ii: 16-22; + absence of unified Allied plan prior to '16, ii: 40; + German battle positions compared with Allied, ii: 41; + Allied plan for overcoming German advantage of position, ii: 41; + German plans for '17, ii: 53; + Allied plans for '17, ii: 54; + reasons for German offensive of '18 and choice of front, + ii: 63-69, 288; + object of war, ii: 68; + choice of Picardy front by Germans for final drive, '18, ii: 69; + importance of Amiens, ii: 69; + German operations in final drive, spring, '18, ii: 70-80, 97; + Foch's defense against German drive, spring, '18, ii: 76, 77; + theories of Foch on, ii: 80-82, 103-110, 137; + destruction of opposing army the essential, ii: 80; + of Foch, in Allied counter-offensive, July--Nov., '18, + ii: 82-87, 97, v: 213; + Allied, in Turkey, ii: 87-94; + causes for failure of German war plans, ii: 99; + German in '14, compared with that in wars of 1866 and 1870, ii: 115; + necessity of frontal attacks on Western Front, ii: 116; + Field-Marshal Haig's theories on, ii: 118-120; + war of position on Western Front, ii: 148; + task of Allied reserves during German offensive, '18, ii: 151; + Russian war plans, explained by Chief of Staff Gen. Gourko, ii: 225; + Germans defeated in open warfare, '18, ii: 288-290; + importance of Bagdad railway, ii: 290; + defined, iv: 1; + relation of naval, to land, iv: 2; + offensive defined, iv: 4; + essentials of naval, iv: 4; + criticism of Allied lack of action in Mediterranean, iv: 13; + British and German aims in North Sea, iv: 86; + Lord Fisher's criticism of British, iv: 140; + German alternatives, '17--'18, v: 3; + old-fashioned studies useless in present War, v: 40; + _see also_ + campaign, engagement, or front; + Foch; + Germany; + Tactics. + + Strauss, Rear-Adm. Joseph, + in command of U. S. mine laying operations, iv: 328. + + Stretchers, improved types, viii: 377. + + Strong, Maj.-Gen. Frederick S., + commander 40th Div., Aug., '18, v: 197. + + Strong, Dr. Richard P., + in charge of U. S. typhus relief in Serbia, iii: 398, vii: 148. + + Strumnitza, French headquarters established at, Oct., '15, iii: 204. + + Stryj, captured by Germans June 1, '15, iii: 136. + + Strypa River, crossed by Russians June 8, '16, iii: 144. + + Sturdee, Vice-Adm. Sir Frederick, + British commander at Battle of Falklands, iv: 69, ix: 308. + + Stuergkh, Carl, Austrian Premier, killed, Oct. 21, '14, vi: 312. + + Stuermer, Boris, Russian cabinet member, German agent, ii: 59; + succeeds Goremykin as Premier, vi: 140; + becomes Foreign Minister, vi: 142; + dismissed from office under charges of treason, vi: 142. + + Stuttgart, bombed by French airmen, Sept. 22, '15, i: 382; + Oct. 1, '17, i: 392. + + Sub-chaser _No. 28_, + experiences when disabled at sea, iv: 352-354. + + Sublime Porte, name for Turkish Foreign Office, i: 90. + + Submarines, development and early history, iv: 201-205, xi: 241-245; + voyage of German commerce submarine _Deutschland_ + across Atlantic, iv: 214, x: 271-274; + life aboard, iv: 235-239; + greatest achievement of War, viii: _Intro. viii_; + description, viii: 264-266; + _see also_ name of submarine. + + Submarine warfare, Lansing's proposal for regulation of, i: 281, 327; + comment of London _Times_ on Lansing proposal, i: 282; + German protest against U. S. position on armed merchantmen, i: 282; + Germany announces blockade of Great Britain, + effective Feb. 18, '15, i: 314, 358, ii: 21, iv: 217, vi: 256; + controversy between U. S. and Germany over, + i: 317-326, 328-335, 339, + 357-361 (chronological summary, with list of ships sunk, + Aug., '14--Apr., '16), iv: 223; + President Wilson's "Strict accountability" note, i: 317; + American ship _William P. Frye_ sunk, Jan. 28, '15, i: 319; + _Falaba_ sunk, Mar. 28, '15, i: 319, 358, iv: 218; + American tanker _Gulflight_ + torpedoed, May 1, '15, i: 319, 358, iv: 218; + German warning to neutrals to keep off Allied ships, + May 1, '15, i: 319; + _Lusitania_ sunk, May 7, '15, + i: 319, 358, 362-365 (Lord Mersey's official report), iv: 220; + controversy between U. S. and Germany on _Lusitania_ sinking, + i: 320, 323, 325, 326, 327, 358-361; + American steamer _Nebraskan_ attacked, May 25, '15, i: 320; + _Arabic_ sunk, Aug. 19, '15, i: 323, 360, iv: 223; + Germany pledges to warn before sinking, i: 325, 361; + _Hesperian_ torpedoed, Sept. 4, '15, i: 325; + controversy between U. S. and Austria-Hungary + over sinking of _Ancona_, Nov. 8, '15, i: 326, 361, iv: 223; + Germany to sink armed merchantmen without warning, Mar. 1, '16, + i: 327; + British passenger steamer _Sussex_ sunk, Mar. 24, '16, + i: 328, 361, iv: 223, x: 281-288 (survivor's description), xi: 20; + U. S. threatens to sever relations with Germany over _Sussex_ + sinking, i: 329-331, 361; + German apology for _Sussex_ sinking, i: 333; + activities of _U-53_ off U. S. coast, Oct., '16, i: 334; + freighter _Marina_ sunk, Oct. 28, '16, i: 334; + _Arabia_ sunk, Nov. 6, '16, i: 334; + Germany declares unrestricted warfare, Feb. 1, '17, + i: 339, 344, ii: 22, 272, + 306-307 (Ludendorff's account of decision), + iv: 223, vi: 265, xi: 35; + Bethmann-Hollweg's statement of reasons for unrestricted warfare, + i: 344; + U. S. severs diplomatic relations with Germany over, Feb. 3, '17, + i: 344-345; + U. S. merchantmen ordered armed, i: 347; + American steamer _Algonquin_ + sunk without warning, Mar. 2, '17, i: 348; + influence of unrestricted warfare in forcing U. S. into War, + i, 348, 368, ii: 53; + President Wilson's speech before Congress, + stating case against Germany and asking + for declaration of war, Apr. 2, '17, i: 348-355; + list of American ships attacked, i: 356; + list of ships sunk with loss of American lives, i: 357; + _Persia_ sunk, Dec. 30, '15, i: 361, iv: 224; + effectiveness, ii: _Intro. xvii_, 22, 54, iv: 239; + German purpose in, ii: 22, 53, iv: 7-8, 140; + British drive against German submarine bases, '17, ii: 56; + Ludendorff on failure of ruthlessness, ii: 308; + efforts to sink U. S. troopships, ii: 318; + methods of combating, + iv: _Intro. xi_, 284-287, 304-317, 324-334, + viii: 17-20, 266-282, 343-344, xi: 239; + North Sea mine barrage, iv, _Intro. xi_, 324-330, viii: 274; + _Aboukir_, _Cressy_, and _Hogue_ + sunk by _U-9_, Sept. 22, '14, iv: 205, x: 274-280; + exploits of British submarine _E-9_, iv: 207; + exploits of British submarines in Dardanelles, iv: 209-212; + _Laconia_ sunk, Feb. 25, '17, iv: 225; + Belgian Relief ship _Storstad_ torpedoed, Mar. 8, '17, iv: 229; + _Alnwick Castle_ sunk without warning, Mar. 19, '17, iv: 230; + hospital ships sunk without warning, iv: 232; + _Belgian Prince_ sunk July 31, '17, iv: 232; + use of air- and sea-planes for detecting U-boats, iv: 284-287; + net traps, iv: 305-307, 308, viii: 274; + torpedoes, description and method of use by U-boats, + iv: 307, viii: 266, xi: 245-248; + depth-bombs as anti-submarine weapon, + iv: 307, 312, 317, 330-332, viii: 281-282, xi: 239; + nets across British Channel, iv: 307, viii: 274; + use and description of sound-detecting devices for locating U-boats, + iv: 308-310, viii: 17-20, 279-281; + zigzagging, iv: 310; + smoke screen, iv: 311; + camouflaging ships, iv, 311, viii: 343; + arming merchant ships, iv: 314, viii: 278; + U. S. transport _Tuscania_ torpedoed, iv: 336; + U. S. transport _Covington_ sunk, July, '17, iv: 337; + U. S. transport _Mount Vernon_ + torpedoed, Sept. 5, '17, iv: 337; + U. S. transport _Antilles_ torpedoed, Oct. 17, '17, iv: 337; + U. S. transport _Finland_ torpedoed, Oct. 27, '17, iv: 337; + U. S. transport _President Lincoln_ + sunk, May 31, '18, iv: 337, 340; + U. S. destroyer _Cassin_ torpedoed, iv: 343; + U. S. destroyer _Jacob Jones_ sunk, Dec. 6, '17, iv: 346; + Italian cruisers _Amalfi_ and _Garibaldi_ sunk, iv: 369; + French cruiser _Leon Gambetta_ + sunk by Austrian U-boat, iv: 373; + French cruiser _Provence II_ sunk, Feb. 26, '16, iv: 376; + French battleship _Danton_ sunk, Mar. 19, '17, iv: 376; + French anti-submarine campaign, iv: 378; + first attack on American convoy, June 22, '17, v: 107; + effect on British food supply, vi: 10; + effectiveness of destroyers in combating, viii: _Intro. viii_; + fantastic proposals for fighting U-boats, viii: 266-274, 276-278; + account of experiences by survivor of a rammed U-boat, x: 295-297; + value of tonnage sunk, xii: 26; + _see also_ + Germany, Blockade of; + Shipping. + + Sudanese, defeated by British, May, '16, iii: 191. + + Suez Canal, neutralized, 1888, i: 16; + construction of, by French, 1869, i: 48; + Great Britain gains control, 1875, i: 48; + importance, ii: 27; + German designs on, ii: 27; + Turkish operations against, ii: 31, iii: 189-192. + + _Suffolk_, Adm. Craddock's flagship in West Atlantic, iv: 63. + + _Suffren_, French battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31; + mysterious disappearance, iv: 376. + + Sugar, shortage in England, xii: 34; + method of war-time distribution in U. S., xii: 46; + war-time shortage, xii: 138. + + Sugar Equalization Board, U. S., functions, xii: 46. + + Sukhomlinov, Russian Minister of War, + arrested and disgraced, '15, vi: 136. + + Summerall, Maj.-Gen. Charles P., + placed in command of Fifth Corps, Oct. 12, '18, v: 83, 250, 391; + as brigadier-general commands 1st Div. at Soissons, July, '18, + v: 167; + at St. Mihiel, Sept., 318, v: 202; + tribute to, by Frederick Palmer, v: 235; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, v: 391. + + Sunshine (40th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army. + + Supplies, lines of, to field armies, ii: 69. + + Support, line of, definition and description, v: 12. + + Supreme Naval Council, Allied, formed, Dec. 4, '17, i: 393. + + Supreme War Council, Allied, formed, Nov. 9, '17, i: 392, iii: 84. + + Surgery, early history, vii: 4-6; + in U. S. Army, vii: 219-224; + use of X-ray in war surgery, vii: 221, viii: 373-376; + war-time evolution in methods, viii: 361-365; + treatment of head wounds, viii: 365; + treatment of face wounds, viii: 366; + treatment of body wounds, viii: 366; + treatment of blood vessel lesions, viii: 366; + treatment of nerve-cord lesions, viii: 366; + treatment of fractures, viii: 367; + new method of amputation, viii: 367; + prevention of gas gangrene, viii: 367; + prevention of tetanus infection, viii: 367; + Carrel-Dakin treatment, viii: 369-372, xi: 289; + artificial arms, viii: 384-388; + artificial legs, viii: 388-390; + use of ambrine in treatment of burns, viii: 390; + reconstructing mutilated faces, viii: 390; + artificial eyes for war blind, viii: 391; + _see also_ Infection; + Medical Science; + Reconstruction of disabled; + U. S. Army, Medical Service. + + Surveillance, line of, definition and description, v: 12. + + _Sussex_, British passenger steamer sunk by U-boat, Mar. 24, '16, + i: 328, 361, iv: 223, x: 281-288 (survivor's description), xi: 20; + U. S. threatens to sever diplomatic relations + with Germany over sinking of, i: 329-331, 361; + German apology for sinking, i: 333. + + Suvla Bay, at Gallipoli, + Allied landing at, Aug. 7, '15, i: 381, iii: 173; + _see also_ Gallipoli Campaign. + + Suwalki, Russians cross into East Prussia near, iii: 111; + captured by Germans, iii: 116; + evacuated by Germans, Oct. 9, '14, iii: 118. + + Schwarzlose automatic pistol, description, viii: 90. + + Sweden, international position in, '14, i: 62; + policy of neutrality, vi: 394; + relations with Finland, vi: 395; + Crown Princess of, work for war prisoners, vii: 395. + + Swierzynski, Joseph, forms Polish cabinet, vi: 219; + declares Poland republic, vi: 219. + + _Swift_, British destroyer, + account of night battle with German destroyers, x: 293-295. + + Swift, Maj.-Gen. Eben, commands 82nd Div., June, '18, v: 143. + + _Swiftsure_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 33. + + Swinton, Maj.-Gen. E. D., + on development and war functions of tanks, ii: 273-290; + conceives idea of tank as war weapon, Oct., '14, + ii: 276, viii: 155, xi: 256. + + Switch position, defined, v: 16. + + Switzerland, system of citizen army, i: _Intro. xii_; + international position, '14, i: 62; + policy of armed neutrality during War, i: 140, vi: 379; + antagonism between French and German elements, vi: 379-380; + implication of Intelligence Dept. + of General Staff in unneutral conduct, vi: 380; + Foreign Minister Hoffman forced out of office + by neutralist sentiment, vi: 380; + Gustave Ador heads Foreign Office, vi: 380; + Red Cross activities, vi: 380; + Geneva designated as seat of League of Nations, vi: 382, xii: 183. + + _Sydney_, Australian cruiser, + destroys German raider _Emden_, Nov. 9, '14, iv: 185-190. + + Synchronizers, for timing machine-gun fire + through airplane propeller blades, viii: 86, 190-192, 208-210, 214. + + Syria, + placed under French control by secret treaties of '16--'17, vi: 334; + area and population, xii: 279. + + + T + + Tachometer, aero engine revolution counter, viii: 218. + + Tactics, battle of maneuver and of line compared by Foch, ii: 108; + new French plan of defense, June, '18, ii: 208; + trench warfare and "war of movement," + compared by German military critic, ii: 259; + German method of attack by infiltration, iii: 386, v: 17-19; + French trench defensive organization, v: 12-17; + parallel of resistance, v: 12; + line of resistance, v: 12; + line of surveillance, v: 12; + line of support, v: 12; + center of resistance, v: 14; + adaptation of American divisional organization + to French scheme of defense, v: 19-21; + elements of limitation in offensives, v: 23; + American patrolling activities, v: 27, 117; + use of gas-projector batteries by Germans, v: 28; + value of villages in stabilized warfare, v: 31; + method of overcoming machine-gun nests, v: 39; + von Hutier's method of surprise attack, v: 41, viii: 143-145; + Gen. Gouraud's system of defense against attack + by infiltration, v: 46, 155, viii: 146-148; + A. E. F. training for open warfare, v: 114; + new German tactics in drive of Mar., '18, v: 161; + use of masked machine-gun fire in defensive, v: 287; + _see also_ Strategy; + Trench warfare; + battle or campaign. + + Taft, William Howard, + statement on U. S. action on _Lusitania_ sinking, i: 320. + + Tagliamento River, + reached by Austro-Germans in invasion of Italy, Nov., '17, + ii: 58, iii: 248; + _see also_ Italian Front. + + Tailly, captured by 89th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 264. + + Talaat Bey, Turkish Minister of Interior, + responsibility for Armenian massacres, vi: 332. + + Talley, Sgt. Edward R., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396. + + _Tanine_, Turkish newspaper, + comment on Dardanelles expedition, vi: 330. + + Tanks, Field-Marshal Haig on effectiveness, ii: 123-124; + use in Allied counter-offensive, July 18, '18, ii: 210, 281; + development, description, and battle uses, + ii: 273-290 (Maj.-Gen. Swinton on), + v: 314, viii: 140-143, 148-161, xi: 251-264; + German opinion of value, ii: 273-274; + invention suggested by American farm tractors, ii: 274, xi: 256; + purpose in development of, ii: 275, viii: 140-141, xi: 253-256; + Maj.-Gen. Swinton conceives idea for, ii: 276, viii: 155, xi: 256; + fore-runners of idea, ii: 276; + British experimentation, '15--'16, ii: 277, viii: 155, xi: 257; + origin of word "tank," ii: 277; + first quantity production begun by British, Feb., '16, ii: 277; + first use in action at battle of the Somme, Sept., '16, + ii: 277, iii: 59, viii: 141, xi: 251-253; + successful surprise attack at battle of Cambrai, Nov. 20, '17, + ii: 280, 283, iii: 80, 337-340 (Philip Gibbs's description), + viii: 142,156; + use in Allied retreat, Mar.--June, '18, ii: 280; + British "Whippets," ii: 280, viii: 148, xi: 262; + use in Allied attack at Hamel, July 4, '18, ii: 281, 282; + lead in Allied surprise attack at Amiens, Aug. 8, '18, ii: 281; + use by Allies in second battle of Cambrai, Sept. 27--Oct. 10, '18, + ii: 281; + first time manned by Americans, Sept. 29, '18, ii: 281; + development by French, ii: 282, viii: 152-155, xi: 257; + German type, ii: 282, viii: 159; + effectiveness compared with field artillery, ii: 283; + saving of war material in use, ii: 284; + casualty rate among troops attacking with, ii: 284; + in drive against Soissons, July, '18, v: 177; + number in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept. 26, '18, v: 223, 388; + number of U. S. tanks in France, v: 350; + value as infantry support, viii: 141-143; + tank _vs._ machine gun, viii: 150-151; + decisive factor in smashing German trench system, + viii: 150-152, xi: 261; + uses in peace times, viii: 151; + French invention for crushing barbed-wire entanglements, viii: 153; + Boirault machine, viii: 153; + French electric tank, viii: 155; + French "baby" Renaults, viii: 156, xi: 260; + British and French types compared, viii: 156; + U. S. types, viii: 158; + requirements for successful tank, viii: 158; + future possibilities, viii: 160; + account of an American tank-man, x: 58-62; + German method of defense against, xi: 264; + account of battle between, xi: 265-266; + sensation of riding in, xi: 269-270; + for U. S. Tank Corps, _see_ U. S., Army. + + Tannay, captured by 78th Div., Nov. 5, '18, v: 268. + + Tannenberg, battle of, + Hindenburg crushes Russian armies + invading East Prussia, Aug., '18, + ii: 24-25, 228-229 (Gen. Gourko's account), + 353-354 (Ludendorff's comments on), iii: 112-116. + + Tardenois salient, + strategic aspects, with description of terrain, + ii: 210-212, v: 42-43, 58; + _see also_ Marne, battles of, July, '18. + + Tarnopol, captured by Russians, Sept. 27, '14, iii: 120. + + Tatarli, captured by Allies, Oct., 15, iii: 204. + + Taube airplanes, record flights by, viii: 206. + + Taxation, in paying for cost of War, xii: 108-114; + _see also_ under each country. + + Tchitcherin, Russian Soviet Commissary for Foreign Affairs, vi: 187. + + Tear gas, _see_ Chemical warfare; + Chlorpicrin; + Zylyl bromide. + + Teleferica, Italian aerial cableway in the Alps, viii: 303-306. + + Telegraphy, development and use of wireless, + in the War, viii: 315-318, 320-322; + U. S. Army system in France, viii: 323, 325. + + Telephones, development and use of wireless, + in the War, viii: 316-320; + U. S. Army system in France, viii: 323-326. + + Terauchi, Count, Japanese Prime Minister, + militarist policy, vi: 386-388; + biography, ix: 90. + + Tereschenko, Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs + in Prince Lvov's coalition cabinet, vi: 160. + + Teschen, dispute between Poland and Czechoslovakia + for possession of, vi: 400. + + Tetanus, causes and treatment of, + in army, vii: 253, viii: 367, xi: 287. + + Teutonic Allies, _see_ Central Powers. + + Thann, captured by French, Aug. 7, '14, iii: 16. + + Theatricals, for service men, _see_ Entertainment. + + Thenault, Capt., French commander of Lafayette Escadrille, iii: 391. + + _There Will Come Soft Rains_, poem by Sara Teasdale, ix: 274. + + _These Be the Days That Call for Men_, + poem by John Trotwood Moore, iii: _Intro. x._ + + _Thetis_, British cruiser + blown up at Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 262, 264. + + "They shall not pass," + French watchword at Verdun, ii: 189, iii: 304, xi: 21. + + Thiaucourt, captured by 2nd Div., Sept. 12, '18, v: 68, 206, 210; + American cemetery at, v: 400. + + Thiaumont, captured by Germans, June 23, '16, i: 386, iii: 55, 313; + recaptured by French, Oct. 24, '16, i: 388, iii: 61. + + Thiepval, Allied objective in Somme battle, iii: 58; + stormed by British, Sept, 26, '16, iii: 59. + + Thomas, Albert, + French Socialist leader, on French labor during War, ii: 373-382. + + Thomas, J. H., British labor leader, + conference with Lloyd George on strike by "Triple Alliance," vi: 22. + + Thrasher, Leon, U. S. citizen killed in sinking of _Falaba_ + by U-boat, Mar. 28, '15, i: 319. + + Three Emperors' League, 1872, i: 95. + + _Thuringen_, German battleship, + crew first to mutiny, Oct. 31, '18, iv: 381. + + _Tiger_, British cruiser, hit at battle of Jutland, iv: 108; + in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 246. + + Tilsit, occupied by Russians, Aug. 24, '14, iii: 111. + + Timber, war uses, viii: 306-309. + + Tirailleurs, description, xi: 191. + + Tirgu-jiuly, Rumanians defeated at, by Germans, iii: 221. + + Tirpitz, Adm. Alfred von, + share in developing German navy, iv: 363, ix: 301; + biography, ix: 298-306; + submarine policy, ix: 302. + + Tisza, Count Stephan, Hungarian Premier, attitude on War, vi: 306; + political opposition to, '16, vi: 311; + Rumanian policy assailed in Parliament, vi: 313; + biography, ix: 144-147. + + T. N. T., _see_ Trinitrotoluol. + + Togoland, conquered by Allies, Aug.,'14, iii: 252; + area and population, xii: 279. + + "Tommy Atkins," nickname for British soldier, origin, vi: 230; + description as fighting-man, xi: 181-189. + + Torcy, location, v: 37, 133; + Gen. Degoutte's commendation of A. E. F. fighting at, v: 192; + captured by First Corps, July 18, '18, v: 383. + + Torpedoes, description and use, iv: 307, viii: 266, xi: 245-258; + device for launching from air, iv: 335. + + Toul, headquarters of First Army, Aug., '18, v: 193; + important fortified city, v: 199. + + Toul sector, taken over by A. E. F., Jan. 19, '18, v: 115. + + Tours, A. E. F. Air Service Training School at, v: 313; + headquarters of S. O. S., v: 332. + + Towers, Commander, + in command of N-C flying boats on trans-Atlantic flight, viii: 240. + + Townshend, Gen. Sir Charles, + besieged in Kut-el-Amara by Turks, iii: 183, 318-320, xi: 29; + forced to surrender Apr. 29, '16, iii: 183, 319, xi: 29; + biography, ix: 194. + + Tracer bullets, viii: 211. + + Tractors, artillery, U. S., number in use in France, v: 350; + supplant horses, viii: 40. + + Transloy-Loupart line, captured by British, Mar.,'17, iii: 66. + + Transports, + Ludendorff's account of German efforts to sink U. S. troopships, + ii: 317-318; + account by Adm. Gleaves of first expedition of U. S. troops + to France, June,'17, iv: 157-162; + list of ships carrying U. S. troops across Atlantic + for first time, June,'17, iv: 160; + equipment and escort of, by U. S. Navy, iv: 160, 165; + transportation of A. E. F. overseas, + with statistics on number of troops carried + and number and nationality of troopships and convoys used, + iv: 162-165, v: 285, 379, xii: 94-95, 283; + British, statistics on troops carried, iv: 239; + U. S., attacked by submarines, accounts of, iv: 335-343. + + Transvaal, _see_ South Africa, Union of. + + Transylvania, + invasion of, by Rumanians, Aug.,'16, ii: 60, iii: 217-218; + desire for possession cause of Rumania's entry into War, + iii: 214, vi: 349; + topography of frontier, iii: 214; + Rumanians defeated and expelled from, by Falkenhayn, + Sept.--Oct.,'16, iii: 220; + attitude of inhabitants to Rumanian invasion, vi: 313. + + Trawlers, use in patrol and minesweeping, iv: 292; + battle with submarine, iv: 294. + + Treaties, + Allied agreement not to make separate peace, i: 146; + treaty of Brest-Litovsk between Russia and Germany, Mar.,' 18, + ii: 63, 273, vi: 183, 268; + Quadruple Treaty (Treaty of London) between Italy and Allies, + price for Italian participation in War, Apr., '15, vi: 122, 361; + Trotzky publishes Russian secret treaties, vi: 183, ix: 118; + secret agreements among Allies for partition of Turkey, + '16--'17, vi: 334; + agreement between Rumania and Allies as price + for Rumanian entry into War, '16, vi: 349; + treaty of Bucharest between Rumania and Central Powers, + May,'17, vi: 352; + pre-War agreements between Germany and Allies + revived by Treaty of Versailles, xii: 231; + agreements among Central Powers abrogated + by Treaty of Versailles, xii: 232; + treaties between Germany and Rumania + abrogated by Treaty of Versailles, xii: 232; + treaties between Germany and Russia abrogated by + Treaty of Versailles, xii: 232; + _see also_ Alliances; + Peace Treaty with Germany, Versailles, '19. + + Trebizond, captured by Russians, Apr. 18,'16, ii: 92, iii: 263. + + Treitschke, Heinrich von, + German historian, exposition of Kultur, i: 66; + theory of supremacy of State, i: 148; + biography, i: 174; + philosophy compared with Carlyle's, i: 175; + theory of German greatness, i: 175; + hatred for England, i: 175; + summary of political philosophy, i: 177; + American student's recollection of, i: 178. + + _Trench Duty_, poem by Siegfried Sassoon, ix: 282. + + Trench feet, viii: 396. + + Trench warfare, + adoption by Germans after retreat from Marne, Sept., '14, + ii: _Intro. vii_, 11, iii: 37, viii: 134, xi: 12, 253; + opposed by Field-Marshal French, ii: 171; + compared with "war of movement" by German military critic, ii: 259; + description of German trench system, ii: 275, viii: 124-130; + use of barbed wire as defensive barrier, ii: 276, viii: 136, 152; + value of tanks in, ii: 276, viii: 140-143, 150, 161; + use of machine guns in, ii: 288, viii: 134-136; + life in, iii: 286, x: 65-71, xi: 171-173; + French defensive system, v: 12-17; + night fighting, viii: 74; + reasons for adoption in place of open warfare, viii: 123; + kinds of trenches, viii: 123; + description of Russian trenches, viii: 123; + disadvantages of trenches as defensive system, viii: 129; + "pill-boxes," viii: 130-132; + use of artillery in, viii: 132-133, 136-141; + _see also_ Barbed wire; + Machine gun; + Tanks. + + Trentino, _see_ Italian Front. + + Trepov, Russian Premier, forced to resign, '17, vi: 143. + + Treves, bombed by French airmen, Sept. 13, '15, i: 382; + Oct. 1, '17, i: 392. + + _Trevier_, Belgian relief ship sunk by U-boat, iv: 230. + + Trieste, + unsuccessful Italian offensives against,' 16--'17, + ii: 52, 246, iii: 246, xi: 26; + promised by Allies to Italy as war prize, vi: 122, 361; + American troops landed at, + to preserve peace between Italians and Jugoslavs, vi: 366; + sinking of Austrian battleships _Wien_ and _Monarch_ + in harbor of, by Italians, x: 290. + + Trinitrotoluol (T. N. T.), + composition and explosive properties, viii: 6; + American output of, xii: 285. + + Triple Alliance, of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, + formation, 1882, i: 95; + terms, i: 95; + military strength, i: 95; + solidity of union between Germany and Austria, i: 208; + Italian position in, i: 255; + French estimate of, ii: 4; + repudiated by Italy, ii: 48, vi: 115; + _see also_ Foreign policy, under name of country. + + Triple Entente, of France, Russia, and Great Britain, + formation, i: 98, 106; + not a treaty-bound alliance, i: 103, 218; + Franco-Russian treaty of July,'12, i: 107; + Anglo-French agreement for united action + against "third power," Nov., '12, i: 107, 220; + attitude to outbreak of War, i: 129; + agreement not to make separate peace, Aug. 4,'14, i: 146; + German estimate of military effectiveness, ii: 2; + _see also_ Foreign policy, under name of country. + + Tripoli, Turkish territory in north Africa, seized by Italy, i: 109; + town in Syria, captured by Allies, Oct.,'18, iii: 199. + + Tritton, Sir William, + share in developing tank as fighting machine, viii: 155, xi: 257. + + _Triumph_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31; + sunk by U-boat, May 26, '15, iv: 50. + + Trois Fontaines, conference between Marshal Foch and Secretary Baker + at, Oct. 4, '18, xii: 285. + + Tronsol Farm, captured by 182nd Brig., Sept. 28, '18, v: 229. + + Trophies of War, Peace Treaty provisions for return of, + by Germany, to France, xii: 225. + + Trotzky, Leon, + becomes Commissary of Foreign Affairs of Soviet Russia, + Nov., '17, vi: 181; + publishes Russian secret treaties, vi: 183; + as Minister of War raises Red Army, vi: 185; + biography, ix: 116-119; + bibliography, ix: 119. + + Troubridge, Adm., takes charge of Serb refugees at Medua, iii: 284; + in command of British naval forces in Mediterranean, Aug., '14, + iv: 13. + + Trugny Wood, evacuated by Germans, July 24, '18, v: 186. + + Tsing Tau, _see_ Kiau-Chau. + + Tuilerie Farm, captured by 42nd Div., Oct., 15, '18, v: 252. + + Turkestan, Republic of, established, Jan., '18, xii: 279; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Turkey: + Army, Germanization under von der Goltz, i: 207; + organization, iii: 164; + Liman von Sanders appointed to reorganize, vi: 330; + for military operations, _see_ + Caucasus; + Gallipoli Campaign; + Mesopotamian Campaign; + Palestine; + Suez Canal. + Casualties, total in War, iii: 404; + money equivalent of manpower lost, xii: 25; + battle deaths, xii: 288. + Declarations of war, + renewal of age-old struggle between Europe and Asia, i: 11; + by Russia against, Oct. 30, '14, i: 376; + by France and Great Britain against, Nov. 5, '14, i: 378; + Holy War declared against Allies, Nov. 17, '14, + i: 376, ii: 31, vi: 330, xi: 14; + by Italy against, Aug. 21, '15, i: 381; + on Rumania, Aug. 29, '16, i: 386; + diplomatic relations with U. S. severed, Apr. 20, '17, i: 390; + strategic victory for Germany, ii: _Intro. viii_, 27-28; + welcomed by Russia, vi: 134; + welcomed by Turkish press, vi: 330. + Foreign relations, + extraterritorial rights for foreigners withdrawn, i: 18; + continuance as European Power assured by Paris Conference, 1856, + i: 39; + international position, '14, i: 63; + subjugation and misrule of Christian races, i: 89-93, iv: 17-18; + settlement of Congress of Berlin, 1878, i: 93; + pre-War relations with Germany, i: 98, 207, vi: 328-330; + strategic importance as Germanic ally, + ii: _Intro. viii_, 27-28, 87-90; + Dardanelles closed, Sept.,'14, ii: 28; + escape of German cruisers _Goeben_ and _Breslau_ + into Turkish waters and their purchase by Turkey, + iv: 14-17, vi: 330; + Allied agreements for partition, vi: 334; + Demotika ceded to Bulgaria, vi: 344; + dispute with Bulgaria, '18, vi: 345. + Internal affairs, form of government, i: 90; + constitution proclaimed, 1839, i: 92; + Young Turk revolution, '08, i: 109; + Armenian massacres, iii: 405, vi: 331-333; + war sentiment, vi: 330; + Arab revolt, '16, vi: 333. + Navy, purchase of German cruisers _Goeben_ and _Breslau_, + iv: 16-17, vi: 330; + strength, iv: 50. + Peace negotiations, capitulation, and armistice with Allies, + Oct. 31, '18, ii: 94, vi: 334. + Prisoners of war, iii: 404. + War cost, Nov., '14--Oct., '19, xii: 107; + rise in national debt, xii: 114. + + Turner, Corp. Harold L., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397. + + Turner, 1st Lieut. William S., + gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393. + + Turner, William Thomas, captain of torpedoed _Lusitania_, i: 362. + + _Turtle_, submarine used in American Revolution, iv: 201. + + _Tuscania_, U. S. transport torpedoed, Feb. 5, '18, + i: 393, iv: 336. + + Tutrakan, captured by Bulgarians, Sept. 6, '16, iii: 218. + + Typhoid, U. S. Army statistics, vii: 195; + immunization against, vii: 246, 253, viii: 393; + manufacture of anti-typhoid vaccine, viii: 393. + + Typhus, epidemic of, in Serbia, iii: 155, 398-400, vi: 357, vii: 148. + + _Tyulen_, Russian submarine, + captures Turkish transport in Black Sea, iv: 366. + + + U + + _U-9_, German submarine, + sinks British cruisers _Aboukir_, _Cressy_, _Hogue_, + Sept. 22, '14, iv: 205. + + _U-15_, first German submarine sunk in War, iv: 305. + + _U-29_, German submarine, + rammed by British battleship _Dreadnought_, Mar., '15, iv: 305. + + _U-53_, German submarine, + activities off U. S. coast, Oct., '16, i: 334, iv: 216. + + _U-58_, German submarine, + captured by U. S. destroyers _Fanning_ and _Nicholson_, + iv: 349. + + _U-117_, German submarine, + activities off U. S. coast, '18, iv: 216. + + U-boats, _see_ Submarines; + Submarine warfare. + + Udine, bombed by Austrian airmen, Nov. 19, '15, i: 382; + captured by Austro-Germans, Oct., '17, iii: 247. + + Uhlans, German cavalry, description, xi: 196. + + Ukraine, early history, vi: 239-241; + pre-War movement for independence, vi: 241-243; + Russian attempts at suppression of nationalist feeling, vi: 243; + autonomy proclaimed, June 24, '17, vi: 243; + movement for establishment of federal Russia, vi: 244; + struggle with Bolsheviki, vi: 244-246, 248; + conclusion of separate peace with Germans at Brest-Litovsk, + vi: 246-247; + revolt against German domination, '18, vi: 247-248; + war with Poland for possession of Cholm, vi: 248; + population and area, xii: 279. + + Ulianov, Vladimir, _see_ Lenin, Nicolai. + + Ulster, _see_ Ireland. + + Uniforms, military, + invisibility of French, ii: 286; + invisibility of German, + ii: 286, iii: 272 (description by Richard Harding Davis). + + United Kingdom, _see_ Great Britain. + + United States: + Army, morale, i: 369, v: _Intro. xii_, 9, 71-72; + National Army ordered mobilized, Aug. 13, '17, i: 390; + strength in France, Mar., '18, ii: 66, v: 380; + nearing end of offensive force at Armistice, ii: 98; + A. E. F. put at disposal of Foch by Pershing, Mar. 28, '18, + ii: 152, v: 120, 380; + transportation overseas, with statistics on rate and means of, + ii: 317 (Ludendorff's comment on), iv: 10-12, + 157-165 (Adm. Gleaves' account of first convoy across Atlantic), + v: 106, 128, 284, 373-379 (Pershing's report), + xii: 94-95, 283, Ludendorff's opinion of fighting qualities, + ii: 326; + first contingent arrives in France, June 26, '17, + iii: 83, iv: 162, v: 106; + first shot fired against Germans, Oct. 23, '17, iii: 84, v: 112; + first American prisoners captured by Germans, Nov. 3, '17, + iii: 84, v: 112; + on Italian Front, iii: 249, v: 394; + total strength, iii: 403, xii: 280-281, 282; + strength overseas, iii: 403, 405, v: 128, xii: 280-281, 282, 287; + combat value, v: 4; + training in France, + v: 6-12, 100, 102-106, 107-108, 111-113, 114-119, 233, 312, + 314, 325, 327, + 373-378 (Pershing's report on arrangements + with French and British), xi: 171-173, + _see also_ under each Division; + living conditions in France, v: 8; + first divisions enter front lines, Jan., '18, v: 10; + supplies for, + with statistics on quantity consumed and methods of procurement, + v: 11, 110, 115, 285, 328-332, 396-398, 400, + xii: 283-284, + _see also_ under U. S. Army, Services of Supply; + size and organization of division, v: 19-21, 108, xii, 282, 287; + size and organization of regiment, v: 20, 108, 281, xi: 163; + adaptation of American divisional organization + to French system of trench warfare, v: 21; + offensive spirit, v: 22, 26, 29; + patrolling activities at the front, v: 27, 117; + distribution of A. E. F. divisions in battle area, + June, '18, v: 41, 141-147; + combat units in France organized into First Army + under tactical command of Pershing, Aug., '18, v: 64, 192, 384; + Pershing arrives overseas, June, '17, v: 97; + General Staff, A. E. F., organization and personnel, v: 98-102; + training of officers, with statistics, + v: 100, 102-104, 108, 312, 325, xii: 280, 282; + general educational program for A. E. F. + at army centers and European universities, + v: 106, vii: 281-283, 290; + organization of corps, v: 109; + number and distribution of A. E. F. combat divisions, + Sept., '18, v: 197; + number and distribution of A. E. F. combat divisions, + Nov. 1, '18, v: 253; + divisions serving in Allied armies, v: 254, 279, 373-379, 393; + American soldier's attitude towards British soldier, v: 288; + air service training schools, in U. S. and overseas, + v: 312, xii: 285; + tank schools, v: 314; + gas warfare training, v: 325, 327; + statistics on health and disease in, + v: 344, 402, vii: 179, 193-195, + _see also_ under U. S. Army, Medical Service; + rifle equipment, description and reasons for adoption of type, + v: 347, viii: 96, 102-105; + Pershing's message to each member of A. E. F., v: 353; + list of A. E. F. divisions, with histories, v: 354-372; + replacement (depot) divisions, v: 368-372, 399; + Pershing's official report on A. E. F. operations, v: 373-404; + on Russian Front against Bolsheviki, v: 394, vi: 187, 193; + return of A. E. F. to U. S., v: 395; + procuring of remounts, v: 399; + A. E. F. mail service, v: 402; + system of keeping records of A. E. F., v: 402; + military justice in, v: 403; + punishments in, v: 403; + intelligence tests for recruits, vii: 216, viii: 349-351; + training camps in U. S., number and system of instruction, + xi: 155-165, xii: 282; + soldier's equipment, xi: 167-168; + pay, xi: 168; + cantonment construction, xii: 125, 282; + statistics on participation in War, xii: 280-289; + total battles fought by A. E. F., xii: 280, 287; + total days in battle, xii: 280, 287; + number of troops in battle, xii: 280, 287; + total of ordnance and prisoners captured, xii: 288; + for branches and units, _see_ below; + for detail of military operations, + _see_ name of battle or campaign. + + Adjutant General's Department, functions, v: 402. + Air Service, record in France, v: 309-313, xii: 285-286; + losses, v: 309; + number of enemy planes and balloons shot down by, v: 309; + strength at the front, Nov. 11, '18, v: 309, xii: 285, 286; + strength and activities of balloon companies, v: 311-312; + growth, v: 312, xii: 285; + total personnel, v: 312, xii: 285; + training schools, v: 312, xii: 285; + dependence on Allies, v: 401 (Pershing's report); + types of aerial navigating instruments, viii: 217-221; + work of aerial photographers, viii: 228-235; + airplane production, xii: 285; + types of aero squadrons, xii: 286; + for N-C flying boats and dirigibles, _see_ U. S., Navy. + Artillery, + first shot of War fired by A. E. F., Oct.27, '17, + i: 392, iii: 84, v: 112; + dependence of A. E. F. on French and British for, + v: 111, 348, 401, xii: 284; + heavy artillery (Coast Artillery Corps), + battle activities in France, v: 303-308; + organization and units of Railway Artillery Reserve, v: 305; + Naval Batteries on Western Front, v: 306, viii: 42-45; + anti-aircraft batteries, v: 308; + trench mortar battalions, v: 308; + number of cannon and trench mortars at the front, + Nov. 11, '18, v: 350; + description of types of field guns, viii: 22-28; + description of types of heavy guns, viii: 36-42; + description of prospective 121-mile range gun, viii: 48-51; + production figures, xii: 284; + captured by A. E. F., xii: 288. + Chemical Warfare Service, + organization and activities, + v: 321-327, 401 (Pershing's report), viii: 179-187; + poison gases used, v: 321-322; + experimentation and development, v: 323-324; + gas masks and other defense equipment issued to A. E. F., + v: 324; + gas shell production, v: 325, viii: 186; + gas defense training, v: 325; + duties of gas officer, v: 325; + deloading and examination of unexploded German shells, + v: 325-326; + use of poison gas by artillery and infantry, v: 326; + activities of A. E. F. gas troops, v: 327; + invention of Lewisite, deadliest poison gas, viii: 172; + poison gas production at Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 179-187; + daily output compared with German, French, British, viii: 179. + Dental Corps, organization and activities, vii: 209-210. + Engineer Corps, + heroic stand by A. E. F. engineer troops against German break + through British lines, Mar., '18, iii: 89, v: 123; + organization and activities overseas, + v: 332-336, 399-400, xii: 283, 287; + construction of barracks, v: 332, 400; + construction of hospitals, v: 332, 400; + construction of docks, v: 332, 400, xii: 283; + railroad construction, v: 333, 334, 400, xii: 283; + insuring clean water supply for A. E. F., v: 333; + construction of refrigerating plants, v: 333, 400; + construction of bakeries, v: 333, 400; + activities of Forestry Division, v: 334, 400, xii: 287; + work with combat troops, v: 335; + Pershing's tribute to, v: 336; + road construction in France, v: 400. + Graves Registration Service, + _see_ U. S. Army, Quartermaster Corps. + Inspector General's Department, functions of, v: 402-403. + Judge Advocate General's Department, functions of, v: 403. + Medical Service, + war-time organization and activities, + v: 336-347, 402, vii: 175-239, 245-254; + field hospitals and medical work at the front, + v: 337-338, vii: 178, 230-233, 249-254; + evacuation hospitals, v: 338, vii: 178, 251; + hospital trains, v: 339, vii: 199, 251, viii: 380; + hospital construction in France, 340-342; + A. E. F. base hospitals, v: 340, 400; + "Hospital Centers," v: 341, 400; + capacity of A. E. F. hospitals, v: 342; + statistics on patients treated in A. E. F. hospitals, + v: 342, 352, 402; + statistics on personnel, v: 343-344, vii: 177, 201-203; + statistics on disease and wounded, + v: 344, 402, vii: 179, 193-196, 208-209; + procurement of supplies for use overseas, v: 344, vii: 222-224; + volunteer organizations co-operating with, + v: 344, vii: 187-189, 219, _see also_ Red Cross; + organization in France, v: 345-346; + letter of commendation from Pershing, v: 346; + total number of hospital patients treated during War, v: 352; + number of hospitals and patients treated in U. S., v: 352, + vii: 201; + venereal disease, statistics on, and methods of combating, + v: 402, vii: 208-209; + physical reconstruction of disabled and mutilated, + vii: 175-176, 180-186, 210-216, 233-239, + _see also_ Reconstruction of disabled; + war-time mobilization of medical profession of U. S., + vii: 187-189, 203, 219-222; + Medical Reserve Corps and Volunteer Medical Service Corps, + vii: 187, 203; + work of women physicians, vii: 188; + system of war-time organization, vii: 191, 203; + activities of Division of Sanitation, vii: 191-196; + construction of hospitals in U. S., vii: 196-198; + number of patients returned from overseas + for treatment in U. S., vii: 200; + army nurses, number and organization, vii: 203; + work of Division of Laboratories and Infectious Diseases + in control of communicable diseases, vii: 203-209; + functions of Division of Medicine, vii: 216-219; + testing mentality of recruits, vii: 216, viii: 349-351; + classification of soldiers by vocations, vii: 216-217; + physical examination of drafted men, vii: 217, xii: 281; + treatment of special diseases and injuries, vii: 218, 222; + training of personnel, vii: 222, 225. + Military Police, + _see_ U. S. Army, Provost Marshal General's Department. + Motor Transport Corps, + organization and functions, v: 328, 351, 401. + Nurse Corps, organization and personnel, vii: 203. + Ordnance Department, + functions and war-time activities, + v.: 347-351, 401 xii: 284-285; + size of personnel at start of War, v: 347; + reasons for adoption of type of rifle used by A. E. F., + v: 347, viii: 96, 102; + rifle production figures, v: 347, xii: 284; + statistics of ammunition and explosive production, + v: 350, xii: 284, 285; + artillery production figures, + v: 350, xii: 284, _see also_ under U. S. Army, Artillery; + machine-gun production, v: 350, xii: 284; + number of tanks sent to the front, v: 350; + mobile repair shops, v: 350, viii: 294-298; + supply bases and workshops, v: 350; + strength of A. E. F. personnel, v: 350; + letter of praise from Pershing, v: 351. + Provost Marshal General's Department, functions, v: 403. + Quartermaster Corps, + organization and functions, v: 328-332, 400, xii: 283; + growth of personnel in France, June, '17--Dec., '18, v: 328; + scope of duties, v: 328, 400; + methods of procuring supplies, v: 328; + supply depots in France, v: 329-330; + amount of bread consumed by A. E. F., v: 330; + statistics on oil and fuel for A. E. F., v: 331; + Salvage Service, activities of, v: 331, 400, viii: 345-348; + delousing facilities for A. E. F., v: 331; + acquisition of burial grounds for A. E. F. dead + and care of graves (Graves Registration Service), v: 331, 400; + A. E. F. expenditures, v: 332; + statistics on issue of blankets and clothing, xii: 283. + Salvage Service, _see_ U. S. Army, Quartermaster Corps. + Services of Supply (S. O. S.), + establishment and functions, + iii: 83, v: 328-352, 396-401 (Pershing's report on); + coordination of procurement and distribution + of supplies for A. E. F., v: 396-397; + purchasing activities overseas, v: 397; + reclassification system for A. E. F., v: 399; + personnel, Nov. 11, '18 v: 401; + _see also_ under U. S. Army, + Engineer Corps, + Motor Transport Corps, + Ordnance Department, + Quartermaster Corps, + Transportation Corps. + Signal Corps, + activities in France, v: 317-320, 401, + viii: 322-331, xi: 303-308, xii: 283, 286-287; + A. E. F. telephone and telegraph system + at the front and behind the lines, + with statistics on number of exchanges, + miles of wire, etc., + v: 317, 318, 320, 401, viii: 322-326, xii: 283, 287; + statistics on personnel, v: 317; + American women operators with A. E. F., v: 317; + organization of field signal battalions, v: 317; + devices for communication used at the front, v: 318, viii: 322; + "listening-in" and detection of enemy codes, v: 319; + work of Photographic Division in making moving-pictures of War, + v: 319-320, viii: 329-331; + laying of cable across English Channel, v: 320, 401; + supplying A. E. F. with field glasses, viii: 326; + supplying A. E. F. with wrist-watches, viii: 327; + use of pigeons as messengers, viii: 328-329. + Tank Corps, + man British tanks in action for first time, Sept. 29, '18, + ii: 281; + organization, v: 314; + tank schools overseas, v: 314; + American tanks in action, v: 315-316, 401; + number of tanks sent to the front, v: 350; + dependence on French and British, v: 401. + Transportation Corps, functions, v: 400. + Veterinary Corps, activities, vii: 225-227. + First Army, formation, Aug. 10, '18, v: 64, 192-195, 384; + reorganized and divided into First and Second Armies, + Oct. 9, '18, v: 83, 246, 274; + drive against and reduction of St. Mihiel salient, Sept. 12--15, + _see_ St. Mihiel; + Meuse-Argonne drive, _see_ Meuse-Argonne Offensive. + Second Army, formation, Oct., '18, v: 83, 246, 274; + operations in direction of Briey Iron Basin and Metz, + v: 274-279, 390, 393; + casualties, v: 279. + Third Army (Army of Occupation), + formation, Nov. 14, '18, v: 280, 395; + occupation of Coblenz bridgehead, v: 394-395. + First Corps, + operations in Allied counter-offensive in Marne salient, + July, '18, v: 56, 191-192 + (commendations from Pershing and Degoutte), 383; + shifted to Toul sector, Aug. 13, '18, v: 62; + in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. 12--15, '18, v: 65, 202, 386; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Nov., '18, + v: 74, 78, 90, 91, 92, 220, 388, 390, 391; + reaches heights opposite Sedan, Nov. 6, '18, v: 92; + formation, Jan., '18, v: 109. + Second Corps, + breaks through Hindenburg Line + in co-operation with British, Sept.--Oct., '18, v: 87, 393; + prisoners captured, v: 87, 393; + formation, v: 382. + Third Corps, + operations in valley of the Vesle in Allied counter-offensive, + Aug., '18, v: 62, 191-192 + (commendations from Pershing and Degoutte), 383; + transferred to Verdun region, Sept., '18, v: 62, 384; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Nov., '18, + v: 74, 78, 90, 219, 260, 388, 390, 391; + in Army of Occupation, v: 395. + Fourth Corps, + in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 202, 206, 386; + co-operation in Meuse-Argonne attack, Sept., '18, v: 220; + forms part of Second Army, v: 275; + in Army of Occupation, v: 395. + Fifth Corps, + in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 69, 202, 386; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Nov., '18, + v: 74, 90, 92, 219, 388, 390, 391. + Sixth Corps, part of Second Army, v: 275. + Seventh Corps, in Army of Occupation, v: 395. + 1st Division, + training in France, v: 6-12, 106-108, 111-117; + transferred from Lorraine to relieve + French on Montdidier front, Apr., '18, v: 29, 121, 380; + captures Cantigny, May 28, '18, v: 31-34, 124-128, 380; + in drive on Soissons flank in Allied counter-offensive + on Marne salient, July 18--22, '18, + v: 53-56, 130, 158-182, 191 (Pershing's commendation), 382; + casualties during operations in Marne salient, July, '18, + v: 55, 181; + captures Berzy-le-Sec, July 21, '18, v: 55, 180, 383; + in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. 12--15, '18, v: 65-70, 202, 211, 386; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Nov., '18, + v: 74, 80-81, 83, 88, 91-92, 231, 234, 237, + 240-246, 248-250, 268-270; + relieved in Meuse-Argonne by 42nd Div., Oct. 12, '18, + v: 83, 248; + record march for relief of 80th Div. and advance on Sedan, + Nov. 5--7, '18, v: 91, 92, 269; + arrival and organization in France, v: 106-108, 109; + enters front-line trenches for first time, Oct., '17, v: 111; + artillery unit fires first shot of War for A. E. F., + Oct. 23, '17, v: 112; + casualties in Cantigny sector, Apr. 25--July 7, '18, + v: 128, 141; + in support of French in Montdidier-Noyon defensive, + June, '18, v: 129, 139; + makes first capture of German guns by A. E. F., + July 18, '18, v: 174; + casualties in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 211; + tribute to bravery from a German colonel, v: 246; + captures Sommerance, Oct. 11, '18, v:248; + casualties in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Oct., '18, v: 248; + citation for record in Meuse-Argonne by Pershing, v: 248; + summary of history, v: 355; + units composing, v: 355; + total casualties, v: 355; + prisoners and war material captured, v: 355; + in Army of Occupation, v: 395. + 2nd Division, training in France, v: 6-12, 119; + goes into front line position on Marne salient, + June 4, '18, v: 37, 132, 136; + in battle of Belleau Wood, June 6--26, '18, + v: 39, 129, 135-139, 192, 382, + x: 1-10 (account of Marines in action); + captures Bouresches, June 6, '18, v: 39, 138, x: 8-9; + in Allied counter-offensive on Marne salient, + July 18--22, '18, v: 55, 130, 158-182, + 191 (Pershing's commendation), 382; + captures Vierzy, July 18, '18, v: 55, 174; + in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. 12--15, '18, v: 65-70, 202, 210, 386; + operations in Champagne as part of Gouraud's French Fourth Army, + Oct. 1--6, '18, v: 79, 241, 254-258, 393; + captures Blanc Mont, Oct. 5, '18, v: 79, 241, 257, 393; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Nov., '18, + v: 88, 90, 92, 95, 262-270, 274, 391; + capture of and drive through Landres-St. George, + Nov. 1, '18, v: 90, 262-263; + arrival and organization in France, v: 108; + captures Vaux, July 1, '18, v: 138, 382; + casualties in Marne offensive, July, '18, v: 179; + prisoners and guns captured in Marne offensive, v: 179; + captures Beaumont, v: 266; + summary of history, v: 355; + units composing, v: 355; + total casualties, v: 355; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 355; + in Army of Occupation, v: 395. + 3rd Division, + repulses German attempts to cross Marne at Chateau-Thierry, + May 31--June 3, '18, v: 35, 132-135, 381, xi: 43; + in second battle of the Marne, July 15--29, '18, + v: 52-53, 56, 143, 148-153, 183-186, 187-188, + 191-192 (tributes of Pershing and Degoutte), 382, 383, + x: 381-387; + stand of 38th Inf. Regt. against German attempts to cross Marne, + July 15, '18, v: 2, 150-153, x: 381-387; + captures Jaulgonne and Charteves during second Marne battle, + July, '18, v: 56, 383; + in reserve in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 202, 211; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Oct., '18, + v: 74, 80, 81, 83, 85, 231, 233, 234, 237, 239, 241, 245, + 247, 248, 250, 251, 252, 389; + arrival in France, v: 128; + occupies Chateau-Thierry, July 21, '18, v, 184; + casualties during battles in Marne salient, June--July, '18, + v: 188; + summary of history, v: 356; + units composing, v: 356; + total casualties, v: 356; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 356; + in Army of Occupation, v: 395. + 4th Division, + in Aisne-Marne Allied counter-offensive, July 18--Aug. 12, '18, + v: 60, 61-62, 130, 168, 183, 184, 191, 383; + in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 69, 202, 212, 386; + reaches Vesle River in pursuit of Germans, Aug., '18, + v: 62, 191; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Oct., '18, + v: 74, 78, 219, 220, 224, 226, 228, 236, 239, 245, 246, + 248, 250, 252, 388; + arrival in France, v: 128; + training in France, v: 143; + casualties during Aisne-Marne offensive, July--Aug., '18, + v: 191; + summary of history, v: 356; + units composing, v: 356; + total casualties, v: 356; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 356; + in Army of Occupation, v: 395. + 5th Division, + in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 202, 210, 386; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.--Nov., '18, + v: 85, 90, 92, 93-95, 248, 250, 262, 264, 270, 271, 272, 391; + captures Clery-le-Grand, Nov. i, '18, v: 90, 262; + captures Clery-le-Petit and Doulcon, Nov. 2, '18, v: 92, 264; + forces crossing of Meuse in Meuse-Argonne battle, + Nov. 3--5, '18, v: 92, 93-94, 264, 270; + captures Mouzay, Nov. 9, '18, v: 94, 272; + captures Dun-sur-Meuse, Nov. 5, '18, v: 94, 271, 391; + arrival and training in France, v: 128; + enters trenches in the Vosges, June, '18, v: 128, 381; + casualties in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 210; + captures Cunel and clears Bois de la Pultiere, Oct. 14, '18, + v: 250; + position at Armistice, Nov. 11, '18, v: 272; + summary of history, v: 357; + units composing, v: 357; + total casualties, v: 357; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 357; + in Army of Occupation, v: 395. + 6th Division, arrival and training overseas, v: 197; + summary of history, v: 357; + units composing, v: 357; + casualties, v: 357. + 7th Division, arrival and training in France, v: 198; + starts first offensive as part of Second Army, Nov. 10, '18, + v: 277, 279; + summary of history, v: 357; + casualties, v: 357; + units composing, v: 358. + 8th Division, summary of history, v: 368; + in Siberia, v: 368; + in Germany, v: 368; + units composing, v: 368. + 26th Division, arrival and training in France, + v: 6-12, 108, 117-118; + raided by Germans at Seicheprey, Apr. 20, '18, v: 28, 122; + goes into position on Marne sector, July 9, '18, v: 46, 138; + in second battle of the Marne, July 15--24, '18, + v: 56, 58, 130, 155, 168, 183, 184, 185, 186, + 191-192 (tributes from Pershing and Degoutte), x: 76-78; + in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 202, 211, 386; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.--Nov., '18, + v: 86-87, 220, 252, 270, 271, 272, x: 78-79; + goes into Toul sector, Apr., '18, v: 120; + casualties in second Marne battle, July, '18, v: 186; + summary of history, v: 358; + units composing, v: 358; + total casualties, v: 358; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 358. + 27th Division, + organization and training in U. S., v: 196, 281-284, 358; + arrival and training in France, v: 196, 284-286; + war record, v: 281-300 (by Maj.-Gen. O'Ryan), 358, 393; + with Gen. Byng's Third British Army, July, '18, v: 286; + operations with British in Flanders, July--Aug., '18, + v: 286-290; + breaks through Hindenburg Line with British Fourth Army, + Sept.--Oct., '18, v: 290-297, 393; + casualties in assault of Hindenburg Line, v: 295; + return to U. S., v: 299; + commendation from Field-Marshal Haig, v: 299; + total casualties, v: 358; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 358. + 28th Division, + in second battle of the Marne and pursuit of Germans across + Vesle River, July--Aug., '18, v: 53, 56, 60, 62, 130, 153-154, + 183-184, 188, 190, 191-192, (praise by Pershing and Degoutte), + 383; + drives Germans from the Vesle to the Aisne, Aug.--Sept., '18, + v: 62, 260, 383-384; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Oct., '18, + v: 74, 78, 218, 220-221, 225, 227, 229, 231, 237-239, 241, + 243, 388; + arrival in France, v: 128; + training in France, v: 143; + sent to Marne sector as reserve to French army + defending road to Paris, June, '18, v: 143, 153; + casualties in second Marne battle, July 15--21, '18, v: 184; + captures Apremont, Sept. 28, '18, v: 229; + captures Le Chene Tondu, Oct. 4, '18, v: 239; + captures Chatel Chehery, Oct. 7, '18, v: 243; + operations as part of Second Army in direction of + Metz and Briey, Nov., '18, v: 274-279; + summary of history, v: 358; + units composing, v: 359; + total casualties, v: 359; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 359. + 29th Division, + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, + Sept.--Oct. '18, v: 74, 86, 244, 246, 252; + captures Etraye ridge, Oct. 23, '18, v: 86, 252; + organization and arrival in France, v: 146, 359; + casualties in Meuse-Argonne battles, v: 253; + summary of history, v: 359; + units composing, v: 359; + total casualties, v: 359; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 359. + 30th Division, arrival and training in France, v: 146, 300; + with British in Belgium, July--Aug., '18, v: 286, 300; + summary of organization, v: 300, 359; + breaks through St. Quentin Tunnel sector of Hindenburg Line, + Sept.--Oct., '18, v: 301-303, 393; + casualties, v: 359; + units composing, v: 360; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 360. + 31st Division, history, v: 368; + units composing, v: 368. + 32nd Division, + drives Germans to Vesle in Allied counter-offensive on + Marne salient, July--Aug., '18, + v: 60-61, 62, 130, 188-190, 191-192 + (praise by Pershing and Degoutte), 383; + captures Cierges, July 31, '18, v: 60, 188; + captures Fismes, Aug. 6, '18, v: 61, 189; + captures Juvigny, Aug. 30, '18, v: 62, 258-259, 384; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Oct., '18, + v: 74, 80, 83, 84-85, 231, 237, 240, 241, 245, 247, + 248, 250, 252, 389; + captures Gesnes, Oct. 5, '18, v: 81, 240; + captures Bantheville, Oct. 18, '18, v: 84-85, 252; + arrival in France, v: 119, 360; + casualties in Marne offensive, July--Aug., '18, v: 190; + captures Romagne, Oct. 14, '18, v: 250; + summary of history, v: 360; + units composing, casualties, v: 360; + in Army of Occupation, 360, 395. + 33rd Division, + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Oct., '18, + v: 74, 78, 83, 219, 224, 225, 228, 230, 234, 236, 244, + 246, 388; + arrival and training in France under British, v: 144, 260; + attack on Hamel with Australians, July 4, '18, v: 144, 260; + with British in attack near Amiens, Aug., '18, v: 260; + summary of history, v: 360; + units composing, v: 360; + casualties, v: 360; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 360. + 34th Division, summary of history, v: 368; + units composing, v: 369. + 35th Division, + in First Army reserve in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, + v: 66, 203; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18, + v: 74, 220, 225, 227, 229, 231, 388; + arrival and training in France, v: 128, 197; + captures Charpentry and Baulny, Sept. 27, '18, v: 227; + unsuccessful attack on Exermont, Sept. 29, '18, v: 231; + summary of history, v: 361; + units composing, v: 361; + casualties, v: 361; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 361. + 36th Division, arrival in France, v: 196; + operations with French Fourth Army in Champagne, Oct., '18, + v: 254, 257, 258, 393; + casualties in Champagne, v: 258; + summary of history, v: 361; + units composing, v: 361; + total casualties, v: 361; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 361. + 37th Division, in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18, + v: 74, 78-79, 219, 224, 227, 229, 230, 231, 388; + operations in Belgium, Oct.--Nov., '18, v: 83, 279-280, 393; + arrival in France, v: 145; + casualties in Belgian campaign, v: 280; + summary of history, v: 361; + units composing, v: 362; + total casualties, v: 362; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 362. + 38th Division, organization and summary of history, v: 369; + units composing, v: 369. + 39th Division (5th Depot), + organization and summary of history, v: 198, 369; + units composing, v: 369. + 40th Division (6th Depot), + organization and summary of history, v: 197, 369; + units composing, v: 370. + 41st Division (1st Depot), + organization and summary of history, v: 109, 370; + units composing, v: 370. + 42nd Division, + arrival and training in France, v: 6-12, 21, 109, 118, 142; + in the Vosges (Baccarat) sector, v: 21, 28, 118, 142; + joins French Fourth Army in Champagne defensive, July, '18, + v: 44-51, 129-130, 142-143, 155-158; + in Allied counter-offensive on Marne salient, + July 25--Aug. 2, '18, + v: 56, 58-61, 130, 186-187, 188-189, + 191-192 (praise by Pershing and Degoutte), 383; + takes Foret de Fere and crosses Ourcq in pursuit of Germans, + July 26--28, '18, v: 58-59, 187, 383; + captures Sergy, Seringes-et-Nesles, and Hill 212, + July 28, '18, v: 59, 188; + in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 202, 211, 386; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.--Nov., '18, + v: 83, 84, 88, 91, 92, 220, 248, 250-252, 262, 269, 390; + capture of Cote de Chatillon, Oct. 14--16, '18, v: 84, 250-252; + reaches heights opposite Sedan, Nov. 6, '18, v: 92, 269; + casualties in Marne offensive, July--Aug., '18, v: 189; + summary of history, v: 362; + units composing, v: 362; + total casualties, v: 362; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 362; + in Army of Occupation, v: 395. + 76th Division, summary of history, v: 196, 370; + units composing, v: 370. + 77th Division, + drives Germans from the Vesle to the Aisne after second Marne + battle, Aug.--Sept., '18, v: 62, 190, 260, 383-384; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept. 26--Nov. 11, '18, + v: 74, 78, 79, 81, 85, 88, 90-91, 92, 95, 220, 225, 227, 229, + 231-232, 234, 239, 241, 242, 243, 246, 247, 250, 252, 262, + 263, 264, 265, 266, 268, 269, 270, 388, 391, xii: 288; + outflanks German positions at Champigneulle in + Meuse-Argonne drive, Nov. 1--2, '18, v: 88, 263; + arrival and training in France, v: 141; + isolation and rescue of "Lost Battalion," Oct. 2--7, '18, + v: 231, 239, 241, 242, 243; + capture of St. Juvin, Oct. 12, '18, v: 250; + attack on Grand Pre, Oct. 16, '18, v: 252; + summary of history, v: 362; + units composing, v: 363; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 363; + casualties, v: 363. + 78th Division, + as reserve in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, + v: 65, 202, 210; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.--Nov., '18, + v: 85, 91, 220, 252, 262, 264, 266, 268, 391; + captures Briquenay, Nov. 2, '18, v: 91, 264; + arrival and training in France, v: 144; + casualties in Meuse-Argonne drive, v: 268; + summary of history, v: 363; + units composing, v: 363; + total casualties, v: 363; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 363. + 79th Division, + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Nov., '18, + v: 74, 78-79, 80, 219, 224, 225, 226, 228, 230, 231, 262, + 265, 270-272, 388; + captures stronghold of Montfaucon, Sept. 27, '18, v: 78-79, 225; + organization and arrival in France, v: 196, 363; + captures Nantillois, Sept. 28, '18, v: 228; + summary of history, v: 363, casualties, v: 363; + units composing, v: 364; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 364. + 80th Division, + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Nov., '18, + v: 74, 78, 83, 88, 91, 219, 224, 226, 227, 230, 234, 237, + 239, 241, 245, 246, 248, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266-268, + 388, 391; + captures Buzancy, Nov. 2, '18, v: 91, 264; + arrival and training in France, v: 144; + battle for Brieulles-sur-Meuse, Sept. 27--28, '18, v: 226, 227; + capture of Bois des Ogons, Oct. 4--5, '18, v: 237, 239; + repulsed in attacks on Madeleine Farm, Oct. 6, '18, v: 241; + Madeleine Farm captured, Oct. 9, '18, v: 245; + unsuccessful attacks on Cunel, Oct. 10--11, '18, v: 246, 248; + captures Beaumont with 2nd Div., Nov. 5, '18, v: 266; + casualties in Meuse-Argonne drive, v: 268; + summary of history, v: 364; + units composing, v: 364; + total casualties, v: 364; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 364. + 81st Division, arrival and training in France, v: 197; + operations in direction of Briey and Metz as part of + Second Army, v: 274-278; + captures Grimancourt, Nov. 10, '18, v: 277; + position at Armistice, Nov. 11, '18, v: 278; + summary of history, v: 364; + units composing, v: 364; + casualties, v: 364; + prisoners captured, v: 364. + 82nd Division, + in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. '18, v: 65, 68, 71, 202, 208, 386; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Oct., '18, + v: 74, 83, 241, 242, 246, 247, 248, 251, 252, 390; + arrival and training in France, v: 143; + composite character, v: 143; + summary of history, v: 143, 365; + units composing, v: 365; + casualties, v: 365; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 365. + 83rd Division, summary of history, v: 146, 371, 399; + units composing, v: 371. + 84th Division, summary of history, v: 198, 371, 399; + units composing, v: 371. + 85th Division, summary of history, v: 197, 371; + units composing, v: 371. + 86th Division, summary of history, v: 372; + units composing, v: 372. + 87th Division, summary of history, v: 198, 372; + units composing, v: 372. + 88th Division, summary of history, v: 198, 365; + units composing, v: 365; + casualties, v: 365. + 89th Division, + in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 70, 202, 210, 386; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.--Nov., '18, + v: 90, 92, 95, 220, 252, 262, 264, 266, 268, 270, 274, 391; + organization and arrival in France, v: 146, 365; + in Army of Occupation, v: 274, 366, 395; + summary of history, v: 365; + units composing, v: 366; + casualties, v: 366; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 366. + 90th Division, + in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 65, 68, 202, 208-210, 386; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct.--Nov., '18, + v: 90, 92, 95, 220, 252, 262, 264, 272, 274, 391; + arrival and training in France, v: 196; + casualties in St. Mihiel drive, v: 210; + captures Stenay, Nov. 10, '18, v: 272; + in Army of Occupation, v: 274, 366, 395; + summary of history, v: 366; + units composing, v: 366; + total casualties, v: 366; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 366. + 91st Division, + as reserve in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 66, 203; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept.--Oct., '18, + v: 74, 78, 220, 225, 227, 229, 231, 232, 246, 388; + transferred to Belgium under French Sixth Army, Oct., '18, + v: 83, 279, 393; + operations in Belgium, Oct.--Nov., '18, v: 83, 279, 393; + organization and arrival in France, v: 196, 366; + captures Spitaals-Bosschen, Oct. 31, '18, v: 279; + captures Audenarde, Nov. 2, '18, v: 279; + summary of history, v: 366; + units composing, 367; + casualties, v: 367; + prisoners and guns captured, v: 367. + 92nd Division (colored), + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept., '18, v: 74, 233; + organization and arrival in France, v: 145, 367; + summary of history, v: 367; + units composing, v: 367; + casualties, v: 367. + 93rd Division (colored), summary of history, v: 367; + units composing, v: 367; + casualties, v: 368. + Casualties, in submarine warfare during neutrality, i: 357; + first time in War, Nov., '17, i: 392, v: 113; + total in War, iii: 404; + total dead, iii: 404, xii: 280; + number wounded, iii: 404, v: 344, xii: 280; + prisoners or missing, iii: 404; + in St. Mihiel drive, Sept., '18, v: 71, 212, 386; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Sept. 26--Nov. 11, '18, v: 393, + xii: 280; + on Russian Front, v: 394; + total deaths overseas, classified according to cause, v: 402; + battle deaths, v: 402, xii: 280, 289; + deaths from disease, v: 402, vii: 179, 195, xii: 280; + money equivalent of manpower lost, xii: 25; + _see also_ U. S. Army, Medical Service. + Coal, production, '13--'17, xii: 47; + war-time shortage, xii: 48; + conservation measures under Fuel Administration, xii: 48-50; + extent of mining operations, xii: 50; + production compared with other staples, xii: 50; + waste in use, xii: 51; + Fuel Administration priority list, xii: 75; + production for '18--'19, xii: 146. + Conscription, Franklin Lane on lessons taught by, i: 370; + Conscription Act passed, Apr. 28--May 18, '17, + i: 390, iii: 83, xii: 280-281; + health statistics of drafted men, vii: 217, xii: 281-282; + total number of registrants, xii: 280, 281; + number inducted into service, xii: 280, 281. + Cost of living, + high prices most striking economic effect of War, + xii: _Intro. vii_; + "index numbers" as measure of price changes, + xii: _Intro. vii_; + comparison of index numbers, '13--'19, xii: _Intro. vii-viii_; + chart of price movements in U. S. and England since 1780, + xii: _Intro. viii-x_; + rise in, '14--'18, xii: _Intro. x_, 56-59; + existing high prices not due to scarcity, xii: _Intro. x-xi_; + currency inflation, xii: _Intro. xiii_, 143; + chart showing relation of, to money in circulation, '14--'18, + xii: _Intro. xiii_; + high prices as breeder of Bolshevism, xii: _Intro. xiii-xiv_; + purchasing power of wages, '13--'18, xii: _Intro. xiv_; + remedies proposed for reducing high cost of living, + xii: _Intro. xiv-xv_, 147; + standardized dollar as remedy for fluctuations in, + xii: _Intro. xv_; + scarcity as cause of high prices, xii: 39, 142; + "fair price" lists, xii: 54; + profiteering, xii: 55, 143; + meat-packers' profits before and during War, xii: 56; + present, compared with Civil War prices, xii: 57, 75; + rise in clothing prices, xii: 58, 142, 145; + government price-fixing, xii: 59; + monthly price changes, '12--'18, xii: 60; + analysis of, by Council of National Defense, xii: 142-148; + relation between wages and prices in estimating, xii: 142; + housing problem, xii: 142; + curtailed production since Armistice, xii: 142; + food consumption statistics, xii: 142; + influence of War on prices, xii: 143; + food supply statistics, '18--'19, xii: 143-144; + reasons for high food prices, xii: 144; + reduction in shoe output for '19, xii: 146; + coal production, '18--'19, xii: 146; + reduction in iron and steel production, '19, xii: 147; + reasons for high cost of living, + summarized by Council of National Defense, xii: 147; + _see also_ + Prices; + U. S., Food. + Council of National Defense, + activities of General Medical Board of, vii: 187-189; + creation by Congress, '16, xii: 115; + duties, xii: 116; + members, xii: 116; + Advisory Commission of, pre-War activities, xii: 117; + committees, xii: 122; + distinguished membership of committees, xii: 122; + non-partisanship of, xii: 124; + expenses, xii: 124; + work of Field Division, xii: 124; + results of activities, xii: 124; + War Industries Board established, xii: 125; + cantonment construction, xii: 125; + share in victory, xii: 126; + analysis of causes of and remedies for high cost of living, + xii: 142-148. + Declarations of war, + transition from neutral to belligerent, i: 300-308; + impelling causes for, i: 301, 341, 348, 368, ii: 53; + effect of '16 Presidential campaign on, i: 305; + diplomatic relations with Germany severed, Feb. 3, '17, + i: 344-345, 389; + text of President Wilson's speech before Congress asking for + declaration of war with Germany, Apr. 2, '17, i: 348-355; + text of declaration of war with Germany, Apr. 6, '17, i: 355; + Franklin Lane on effects of entry into War on American life, + i: 366-373; + diplomatic relations with Austria-Hungary severed, Apr. 8, '17, + i: 389; + diplomatic relations with Turkey severed, Apr. 20, '17, i: 390; + declaration of war on Austria-Hungary, Dec. 7, '17, i: 393; + effect on final result of War, + ii: 220, 273 (a German military critic's view), iii: 83; + Ludendorff's comments on, ii: 341; + effect on French, ii: 387; + effect on British, vi: 11; + _see also_ under Submarine warfare. + Employment Service, war-time activities, xii: 67. + Food, + Herbert Hoover appointed Food Administrator, May 19, '17, i: 390; + position of U. S. as producer, '17, xii: 35; + wheat production _vs._ consumption, 1890--1914, xii: 35; + corn production _vs._ consumption, 1890--1914, xii: 35; + voluntary rationing, xii: 35; + exports to Europe before and during War, xii: 36, 135; + conservation, xii: 37, 40, 141; + war-time increase in production, statistics, xii: 37; + increased production more important than conservation, xii: 38; + crop acreage, '10--'18, xii: 38; + crop yields, '10--'18, xii: 39; + Hoover's report on European relief, xii: 42; + war-time government control, xii: 46, 59, 140; + Sugar Equalization Board, functions, xii: 46; + war-time sugar distribution, xii: 46; + potato crop, xii: 47; + "fair price" lists, xii: 54; + functions of Food Administration, xii: 59, 140; + statistics on quantity and prices, June, '18--June, '19, + xii: 61-65; + price comparisons, '13--'19, xii: 64; + wheat exports to Allies, July 1, '17--July 1, '18, xii: 141; + consumption statistics, xii: 142; + production statistics, '18--'19, xii: 143; + wheat production, '18--'19, xii: 143; + meat production, '18--'19, xii: 144; + corn crop, '18, xii: 144; + reasons for high prices, xii: 144; + _see also_ under U. S., Cost of living. + Food Administration, _see_ under U. S., Food. + Foreign relations, policy of isolation, i: 50; + abandonment of policy of isolation, i: 52-58; + early relations with China and Japan, i: 53; + African interests, i: 54; + Congo policy, i: 54; + armed expeditions sent beyond borders, 1836--1861, i: 54; + intervention in Cuba, i: 56; + "open door" policy in China, i: 57; + Root-Takahira agreement, '08, i: 57; + Lansing-Ishii Note, '17, i: 58; + policy in Venezuelan controversy with Germany, '02, i: 86; + participation in European conferences, i: 86; + participation in Algeciras Conference, '06, i: 86; + German plans for subjugation of U. S., i: 87-88; + arbitration treaties, i: 103; + emergence from War as World Power, i: 371; + after-War mission, i: 372. + Fuel Administration, _see_ under U. S., Coal. + German-owned property, extent, xii: 33-34. + Industries during War, + regulations for conservation of leather by War Industries Board, + xii: 53; + duties and powers of War Industries Board, xii: 72; + priority system, xii: 73-75; + distribution of war contracts, xii: 74; + response to war needs, xii: 115; + creation of Council of National Defense, xii: 115; + duties of Council of National Defense, xii: 116; + pre-War movement for industrial preparedness, xii: 117; + pre-War activities of Advisory Commission, + Council of National Defense, xii: 118; + committees of Council of National Defense, xii: 122; + organization and personnel of War Industries Board, xii: 125; + share in final victory, xii: 126; + _see also_ under U. S., Council of National Defense, Labor. + Labor, women in war industries, xii: 25; + war-time safeguards for workers, xii: 66; + organizing for war production, xii: 67; + Employment Service of Department of Labor, war-time activities, + xii: 67; + war-time strikes, xii: 68; + importance in winning War, xii: 68-69; + size of working population, xii: 71; + immigration as source of labor supply, xii: 71; + war-time dislocation, xii: 71; + Mediation Commission for settling labor unrest, xii: 71; + activities of Advisory Labor Council, xii: 71; + Gen. Crowder's "Work or fight" order, xii: 72; + women as railway workers during War, xii: 84; + settlement of war-time disputes in shipyards, xii: 94; + attitude to War, xii: 121. + Marine Corps, strength, Nov. 11, '18, iii: 403; + in battle of Belleau Wood, June 6--26, '18, + v: 39, 130, 135-139, 382, x: 1-10; + capture of Bouresches, June 6, '18, v: 39, 138, x: 8-9; + in second battle of the Marne, July 18--19, '18, + v: 55, 130, 159, 167-170, 174-175, 178-179; + capture of Vierzy, July 18, '18, v: 55, 174-175; + in Champagne as part of Gouraud's French Fourth Army, Oct., '18, + v: 79, 241, 255-257; + capture of Blanc Mont, Oct. 5, '18, v: 79-80, 241, 257; + in Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Nov., '18, + v: 95, 262-263, 266, 270, 274; + arrival in France, v: 106, 108; + incorporated in 2nd Div., v: 108; + not in Chateau-Thierry battle of May 31--June 3, '18, + as popularly supposed, v: 130, 135; + casualties at Belleau Wood, June, '18, v: 139; + name of Belleau Wood changed by French + to _Bois de la Brigade de Marine_, v: 139; + casualties in second Marne battle, July, '18, v: 179; + in St. Mihiel drive, Sept. '18, v: 210; + in drive through Landres-St. George, Nov. 1, '18, v: 262-263; + force crossing of Meuse, Nov. 10, '18, v: 270, 274; + _see also_ under U. S. Army, 2nd Division. + Navy, + Rear-Adm. Mayo on war-time accomplishments of, + iv: _Intro. vii-xiii_; + supplying guns and gun crews for merchant ships, + iv: _Intro. viii_, 314; + laying of North Sea mine barrage, iv: _Intro. xi_, 324-330; + anti-submarine coast patrol, iv: _Intro. xii_; + Naval gunners on Western Front, + iv: _Intro. xii_, 323, v: 306, viii: 42-45; + transportation of A. E. F. to France, + iv: _Intro. xii_, 157-165 (account of first + expedition across Atlantic, June, '17, by Adm. Gleaves), + xii: 94-95, 283; + lessons of the War, iv: _Intro. xiii_; + destroyer flotilla on anti-submarine patrol duty in war zone, + iv: 157, 315-317, 343; + development of depth bomb by, iv: 307, 330; + strength of personnel before War and at armistice, iv: 317; + training of new personnel, iv: 317; + war-time expansion in ships and equipment, iv: 318-319; + repair of damaged interned German liners, iv: 319-321; + laying of oil pipe line across Scotland, iv: 322; + invention of "Y" gun for discharge of depth bombs, iv: 331; + development of aerial bombs for use by seaplanes against U-boats, + iv: 332; + development of star shells for illuminating enemy positions + in dark, iv: 334; + invention of torpedo plane, iv: 335; + adventures of transports in war zone, iv: 335-343; + capture of German submarine _U-58_, Nov. 18, '17, iv: 349; + Secretary Daniels' report on activities in European waters, + iv: 356-359; + co-operation with British, + iv: 356 (Secretary Daniels on), + 359-361 (tributes by Sir Eric Geddes and Adm. Beatty); + development and description of N-C flying boats, viii: 236-240; + _N-C-4_ first airplane to cross Atlantic, viii: 240; + types of dirigibles used by, viii: 245, 255-257. + Neutrality, + Dr. Eliot's summary of reasons for pro- and anti-German feeling, + i: 270-273; + von Jagow's defense against anti-German criticisms, i: 273; + Maximilian Harden's views on, i: 274; + German protest against U. S. position on armed merchantmen, + i: 282; + position on status of armed merchantmen, i: 283; + French opinion of, i: 287; + unpopular with all belligerents, i: 288; + British opinion of, i: 289; + Gabriel Hanotaux's views on, i: 290; + conflict of sympathies, i: 297; + psychology of, i: 297; + increasing pro-Ally sentiment, i: 299; + attitudes of Wilson and Roosevelt compared, i: 299, 302; + German violations against, i: 300; + transition from neutral to belligerent, i: 300-308; + effect of '16 Presidential campaign on, i: 305; + attitude of press, i: 309; + Austro-Hungarian protest of unfairness of, i: 309; + Maximilian Harden's views on American war prosperity, i: 310; + Bryan's statement on, Jan. 20, '15, i: 311; + controversy with Great Britain over British seizure of + neutral cargoes, i: 312, 318, 339; + controversy with Germany on submarine warfare, + i: 317-326, 328-335, 339, 357-361 + (chronological summary with list of ships sunk); + President Wilson's "Strict accountability" note to Germany, + i: 317; + President Wilson's "Too proud to fight" statement, i: 320, v: 372; + controversy with Germany on _Lusitania_ sinking, + i: 320, 323, 325, 326, 327, 358-361; + statements of Taft and Roosevelt on _Lusitania_ sinking, + i: 320; + note to Germany on "Freedom of the seas," July 21, '15, i: 322; + attitude of press on torpedoing of _Arabic_, i: 323; + controversy with Austria-Hungary on torpedoing of _Ancona_, + i: 326, 361; + McLemore Resolution warning Americans not to travel on + belligerent ships, i: 327; + McLemore Resolution defeated, i: 328; + note threatening severance of diplomatic relations + with Germany over sinking of _Sussex_, Apr. 18, '16, + i: 329-331; + issues of '16 Presidential campaign, i: 334; + controversy with Great Britain over British seizure of + neutral mail, i: 335; + President Wilson asks belligerents to state war aims, + Dec. 18, '16, i: 336; + Lansing's statement of problems of, i: 339; + diplomatic relations with Germany severed, Feb. 3, '17, + i: 344-345, 389; + President Wilson orders U. S. merchantmen armed, i: 347; + American casualties from submarine warfare during, i: 357; + President Wilson issues proclamation of, Aug. 4, '14, i: 375; + _see also_ Germany, Blockade of; + Submarine warfare. + Peace Conference, delegates sail for, Dec. 4, '18, i: 400; + list of delegates, xii: 179; + for work of delegates at, _see_ Peace Conference; + _also_ under name of delegate. + Peace Treaty, fight against, in Senate, xii: 264-278; + Fall amendments to, defeated, Oct. 2, '19, xii: 264; + ratification with original Lodge reservations defeated, + Nov. 19, '19, xii: 265-266; + text of original Lodge reservations, xii: 265; + defeated in Senate for second time, Mar. 19, '20, xii: 266-269; + President Wilson's opinion of Lodge reservations, xii: 267; + text of revised Lodge reservations, xii: 269; + efforts to declare peace by Congressional resolution, + xii: 271-278; + text of peace resolution introduced in House of Representatives, + Apr. 1, '20, xii: 271; + Knox resolution declaring peace with Germany passed by Congress, + May 15--21, '20, xii: 273-277; + text of original Knox resolution proposing separate peace + with Germany and successors of Austria-Hungary, xii: 273; + text of amended Knox resolution, xii: 277; + President Wilson vetoes Knox resolution, xii: 277; + text of President Wilson's veto message, xii: 278. + Population, European immigration, i: 37; + German immigration in 1882 and 1910, i: 75; + size, characteristics, and distribution of German element in, + i: 79, 277-279; + ratio of increase in urban and rural, 1890--1910, xii: 35. + Press, attitude on neutrality, i: 309; + attitude on _Lusitania_ sinking, i: 320; + attitude on torpedoing of _Arabic_, i: 323; + views on German indemnity, xii: 24. + Prisoners of war, first captured by Germans, Nov. 3, '17, + iii: 84, v: 112; + total lost in War, iii: 404. + Railroads, war-time operation under government control, xii: 87-90; + reasons for government control, xii: 88; + defects in management, xii: 89; + equipment sent to France, xii: 95; + pledge of maximum war-time service by, xii: 121. + Shipping, war-time building program, with statistics, xii: 92-94; + war losses, xii: 94; + neutral tonnage chartered for war service, xii: 98; + war-time cargo fleet, statistics on tonnage and shipments, + xii: 283, 286. + Trade, with Germany through neutrals, ii: 21; + increase in exports, '12--'17, xii: 1; + luxury imports, xii: 8-9; + decrease in luxury imports, '14--'18, xii: 58; + hostility to trade with Germany, xii: 99; + War Trade Board export license system, xii: 99. + War cost, currency inflation, xii: _Intro. xiii_, 28-31, 143; + loans floated in U. S. by foreign countries, Aug., '14--Jan., '17, + xii: 2; + sources and amounts of war-time taxation, xii: 2-9, 109-111; + income taxes, with comparison of rates in England and France, + xii: 2-6; + criticisms of war tax law, xii: 5-6; + President Wilson's tax program, xii: 6-7; + luxury taxes, xii: 7-9; + war-time prosperity, xii: 9-10; + loans in early U. S. history, xii: 10; + Liberty Loans, floating of, with statistics on amounts raised + and number of subscribers, xii: 10-16, 113, 126-135; + repayment of loans made to Allies, xii: 11; + Liberty Loan subscriptions by Federal Reserve Districts, xii: 12; + Liberty Loan subscriptions in New York City, xii: 12; + comparison of war debt with pre-War national debt, + xii: 16, 113, 114; + hourly war expenditures, xii: 16; + comparison of war cost with previous expenditures, xii: 16; + distribution of war expenditures, xii: 16; + amount of loans to Allies, xii: 16, 18, 31; + short-term certificates of indebtedness, xii: 16; + War Savings Stamps, amount raised by, xii: 18,134; + problem of liquidating national debt, xii: 18; + accumulation of Europe's gold supply in U. S., xii: 29; + credit expansion, xii: 30; + pre-War cash reserves, xii: 30; + transition from debtor to creditor nation, with statistics, + xii: 31; + daily, monthly, and total war cost, Apr., 17--June, '19, + xii: 106-108. + War Industries Board, _see_ under U. S., Industries during War. + + Uruguay, failure of soviet plot in, vi: 392; + delegate to Peace Conference, xii: 180. + + Uskub, captured by Bulgarians, Oct., '15, i: 382, iii: 158, 204; + recaptured by Allies, Sept., '18, iii: 213. + + + V + + _V-187_, + German destroyer sunk at battle of Heligoland Bight, iv: 240. + + Vaccine, manufacture of anti-typhoid, viii: 393; + _see also_ Disease. + + Vacuum tubes, in wireless telephony, viii: 318-320. + + Valenciennes, Germans use as gateway into France, v: 215. + + Valley, Count Arco, assassin of Kurt Eisner, vi: 298. + + Van, occupied by Russians, May 23, '15, iii: 262. + + Van Iersal, Sgt. Louis, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 389. + + Vanquois, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 225. + + Varennes, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 225. + + Vaux, town in Marne salient, location, v: 133; + captured by 2nd Div., July 1, '18, v: 138, 382. + + Vaux, Fort, at Verdun, captured by Germans, June 7, '16, + i: 385, iii: 54, 313; + evacuated by Germans, Nov. 2, '16, i: 388, iii: 62; + German efforts at capture repulsed, Mar., '16, + ii: 189, iii: 52, 306, + 327-329 (description by French officer participating in defense); + Major Raynal, defender of, awarded Legion of Honor, iii: 313; + _see also_ Verdun. + + Veles, captured by Bulgarians, Oct. 28--29, '15, i: 382, + iii: 158, 204; + recaptured by Allies, Sept. 26, '18, i: 397. + + Velocity of projectiles, viii: 111. + + Vencheres Wood, captured by 179th Inf. Brig., Sept. 13, '18, v: 209. + + Vendieres, captured by A. E. F., Sept. 14, '18, v: 210. + + Venereal diseases, + statistics on, and methods of combating in U. S. Army, + v: 402, vii: 208-209. + + Venezuela, pro-German attitude during War, vi: 392. + + _Vengeance_, British battleship at Gallipoli, iv: 31. + + Venizelos, Eleutherios, pro-Ally policy during Greek neutrality, + iii: 202; + establishes revolutionary government in Crete, Sept., '16, iii: 210; + biography, ix: 76-82; + bibliography, ix: 81. + + Verdun, + strategic value and reasons for German campaigns against, + i: 268, ii: 6, 13, 36-39, 188, 189, iii: 46, 302, + v: 199, 215, xi: 21; + effect of battle of the Somme on German offensive against, + ii: 47, iii: 61, 63, 314; + eliminated by Germans as scene of '18 offensive, ii: 67; + battles of, Feb., '16--Sept., '17, + ii: 186-189, iii: 46-55, 61-62, 79, 302-315, 327-329, + viii: 289-291, xi: 21-22; + comparison of German attack, Feb., '16, + with tactics at first battle of the Marne, ii: 186; + "They shall not pass," French watchword of defense at, + ii: 189, iii: 304, xi: 21; + Petain commands defenders, Feb.--May, '16, ii: 189, iii: 50, 304; + Germans capture Fort Douaumont, Feb. 25, '16, + ii: 189, iii: 48, 304-305; + German attacks on Fort Vaux repulsed, Mar., '16, + ii: 189, iii: 52, 306, 327-329 + (described by French officer taking part in defense); + German Crown Prince in command of attacking forces, + iii: 47, 48, 303; + use of motor transports in defense of, iii: 50, viii: 289-291; + battles for Dead Man's Hill (Le Mort Homme), Mar.--May, '16, + iii: 51, 53-54, 306-307, 308, 310-313; + Cumieres captured and lost by Germans, May, '16, iii: 54, 312; + Gen. Nivelle appointed to command of French defenders, May, '16, + iii: 54, 310; + Fort Vaux captured by Germans, June 7, '16, iii: 54, 313; + German efforts to capture Fort Souville defeated, iii: 55; + Thiaumont captured by Germans, June 23--24, '16, + and recaptured by French, iii: 55, 313; + Nivelle's surprise attack, Oct., '16, iii: 61; + Fort Douaumont recaptured by French, Oct., '16, iii: 61; + Fort Vaux evacuated by Germans, Nov. 2, '16, iii: 62; + Gen. Mangin succeeds Nivelle as French commander at, + Dec., '16, iii: 62; + Mangin launches successful offensive, Dec., '16, iii: 62; + final French victories regain all important positions, + Aug.--Sept., '17, iii: 79; + Ludendorff's comment on German blunder at, iii: 302; + description of intensity of fighting at, by French participant, + iii: 308; + Major Raynal, defender of Fort Vaux, awarded Legion of Honor, + iii: 313; + freed from threat of further German attacks by suppression of + St. Mihiel salient, Sept., '18, v: 208. + + Verrieres, captured by 78th Div., Nov. 4, '18, v: 266. + + Versailles Treaty, _see_ Peace Treaty with Germany. + + Very, captured by 35th Div., Sept. 26, '18, v: 225. + + Very pistol, use in signalling, v: 319. + + Vesle River, + Germans driven across, in Allied counter-offensive on Marne salient, + July--Aug., '18, v: 60-62, 188-191, 383; + Germans driven from, to the Aisne, Aug.--Sept., '18, + v: 62, 260, 383-384. + + Vesnitch, Dr. M. R., Serbian diplomat, + statement of Jugoslav attitude toward Italian aggrandizement, + vi: 366. + + Veterinary, + treatment of sick and injured animals in War, + vii: 225-227, viii: 397-399. + + Vickers machine-gun, use on airplanes, viii: 87; + U. S. production figures, xii: 284. + + Victor Emanuel, King of Italy, biography, ix: 395-398. + + Victory Way, in New York City, xii: 133. + + Vienna, war-time privation in, vi: 312; + riots, '18, vi: 316; + after-War distress, vi: 318; + Bolshevik uprising suppressed, Apr., '19, vi: 320-321. + + Vierstaat Ridge, + captured by British and 27th Div., A. E. F., Sept. 1--2, '18, + v: 290. + + Vierzy, captured by 2nd Div., July 18, '18, v: 55, 174. + + Vigneulles, + junction of 1st and 26th Divs. at, closes St. Mihiel salient, + Sept., '18, v: 69, 211, 212. + + Ville-devant-Chaumont, captured by 26th Div., Nov. 10, '18, v: 272. + + Villepigue, Corp. John C., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396. + + Villers Wood, captured by A. E. F., Sept. 15, '18, v: 210. + + Villers-Cotterets, concentration of Allied forces near, + for Marne counter-offensive, July, '18, ii: 154, v: 161. + + Villers-devant-Dun, captured by 90th Div., Nov. 2, '18, v: 92, 264. + + Villers-sous-Preney, captured by A. E. F., Sept. 14, '18, v: 210. + + Vilna, captured by Germans, Sept., '15, iii: 141. + + Vilosnes-sur-Meuse captured by 60th Inf., Nov. 5, '18, v: 94, 271. + + Vimy Ridge, captured by Canadians, Apr. 9, '17, iii: 70, 343-349; + strategic importance, iii: 343; + London _Times'_ account of battle, iii: 346-348; + decorations for gallantry at, iii: 349. + + _Vindictive_, British cruiser at Zeebrugge raid, iv: 262; + sunk in Ostend Channel, iv: 279; + _see also_ Zeebrugge Raid. + + _Viribus Unitis_, Austrian battleship + sunk by Italians in Pola harbor, May 15, '18, i: 395, x: 297-303. + + _Vive La France!_ poem by Charlotte H. Crawford, vi: 94. + + Viviani, Rene, French statesman, biography, ix: 19-21. + + Vladivostok, seized by Czechoslovak troops, June, '18, vi: 192; + Allies send troops to, vi: 193; + _see also_ Siberia. + + Vocational training, + for war cripples, American help for French disabled, vii: 79, 92-95; + for American disabled, vii: 180-182, 210-216, 236-239; + modern attitude on, viii: 387; + _see also_ Reconstruction of disabled. + + Vodka, war-time prohibition of, in Russia, iii: 265, vi: 135; + use of harmful substitutes for, vi: 138. + + Voisin bombing planes, viii: 223. + + Voldemaras, Prof., + forms first independent Lithuanian cabinet, vi: 236. + + Vologodsky, Peter, + head of liberal Siberian government at Omsk, vi: 191. + + Voormezeele, captured by 30th Div., Aug. 31--Sept. 1, '18, v: 300. + + Vosges Mountains, military importance, ii: 6; + place in scheme of general French strategy, ii: 9; + French occupy passes of, Aug., '14, iii: 16; + French offensive in, Dec., '15, iii: 46; + as training area for A. E. F., + v: 118, 197, _see also_ under each Division. + + + W + + Waalker, Sgt. Reider, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 393. + + _Wacht am Rhine, Die_, German national song, xi: 332. + + Wales, Prince of, personal sketch, ix: 395, xi: 150-152. + + Walker, Col. William H., + head of U. S. poison-gas plant at Edgewood Arsenal, viii: 181. + + Wallace, Gen., British commander in western Egypt, iii: 191. + + Wallachia, German offensive in, iii: 221. + + Walsh, Frank P., + member of Irish-American delegation to Peace Conference, vi: 66; + biography, ix: 337-339. + + War, as a simple art, iii: 137; + definition of, iv: 1; + desirability, v: _Intro. x_; + extent of modern, v: _Intro. x_; + German policy of, _see_ Germany, Kultur, Militarism. + + War Babies' Cradle, + organization and relief activities of, vii: 107, xi: 56. + + War Committee (or Council) of British Cabinet, + members, Nov., '14, ii: 198; + responsibility for Gallipoli disaster, ii: 200; + responsibility for Mesopotamian failure, iii: 364. + + War Industries Board, U. S., _see_ U. S., Industries during War. + + War relief: + American, plan of _Stars and Stripes_ for adoption of + French orphans, vii: 72, xi: 80; + Children's Bureau of American Red Cross, relief activities for + Allied children, vii: 72, 76-79, xi: 85-90; + vocational training for French war cripples, vii: 79, 92-95; + beginnings of American relief work, vii: 85; + Herbert Hoover's activities, vii: 85, 119, xii: 136, 141; + Lafayette Fund, vii: 85; + Committee of Mercy, vii: 87; + American Women's War Relief Fund, vii: 87, 91; + National Allied Relief Committee, vii: 87-90; + John Moffat's activities in early development of, vii: 87; + American Committee for Relief of Belgian Prisoners in Germany, + vii: 88, 96; + Allied Home for Munition Workers, vii: 88, 108; + French Heroes Lafayette Memorial Fund, vii: 90, 110-116; + benefit bazaars, vii: 90; + "Hero Land" bazaar, vii: 90; + American Fund for French Wounded, vii: 91, xi: 85; + American Committee for Devastated France, vii: 92; + American Committee for Armenian and Syrian Relief, vii: 92; + War Relief Clearing House for France and Her Allies, vii: 95; + Le Bien-Etre du Blesse, vii: 96; + French Tuberculosis War Victims' Fund, vii: 97; + American Committee of the Charities of the Queen of the Belgians, + vii: 98; + for war blind, vii: 99, 255-260 (Permanent Blind Relief War Fund); + Franco-American Committee for the Protection of + Children of the Frontier, vii: 101, xi: 85; + American Committee of the Secours National, vii: 105; + Committee for Fatherless Children of France, vii: 105, xi: 84; + aid for French victims of shell-shock and nervous derangements, + vii: 106; + War Babies' Cradle, vii: 107, xi: 56; + relief work of American alumni of Ecole des Beaux Arts, vii: 108; + relief for Serbia, vii: 109, 144-168; + relief for Rumania, vii: 109; + Commission for Relief in Belgium, organization and activities, + vii: 116-144; + Millard Shaler, early organizer of Belgian relief, vii: 119; + Stage Women's War Relief, vii: 343-349; + for Jewish war sufferers, vii: 349-376; + Free Milk for France fund, vii: 376-379; + American Relief Administration for feeding newly liberated + peoples, xii: 141. + Belgian, Charities of the Queen of the Belgians, vii: 98. + British, in Serbia, iii: 398; + Association of Highland Societies of Edinburgh, vii: 95; + British and Canadian Patriotic Fund, vii: 99; + British American War Relief Fund, vii: 99; + Scottish Women's Hospitals for Home and Foreign Service, vii: 101; + Chelsea War Refugees Fund for Belgian refugees in England, + vii: 106; + London Volunteer Motor Corps, vii: 107; + St. Dunstan's Home for blind, vii: 259. + Dutch, for Belgian refugees and interned soldiers, vii: 168-175. + French, vocational training for disabled, vii: 92-95; + Le Bien-etre du Blesse, vii: 96; + Secours National, vii: 105; + Committee for Fatherless Children of France, vii: 105, xi: 84; + relief for victims of shell-shock and nervous derangement, + vii: 106; + War Babies' Cradle, vii: 107, xi: 56. + _See also_ Knights of Columbus; + Red Cross; + Salvation Army; + Young Men's Christian Association. + + War Risk Insurance, Bureau of, for U. S. fighting men, vii: 176. + + War Savings Stamps, U. S., amount sold, xii: 18, 134. + + War terms and soldier slang, definitions of, xi: 359-362. + + War Trade Board, U. S., _see_ U. S., Trade. + + War Zone, _see_ + Germany, Blockade of; + Submarine warfare. + + Warburg, Felix M., treasurer American Jewish Relief Committee, + vii: 354. + + Ward, Pvt. Calvin, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 396. + + Warehouses, location of great A. E. F. supply depots in France, + v: 330; + construction of, by A. E. F. in France, v: 333, 400. + + Warfare, _see_ Strategy; + Tactics; + Trench warfare. + + Warneford, Flight Sub-Lieut. R. A. J., brings down first Zeppelin, + ii: 269, x: 223. + + _Warrior_, British cruiser sunk at Jutland, iv: 260. + + Warsaw, German attacks on and capture of, Aug. 5, '15, + i: 381, ii: 26, iii: 128-130, 131, 138. + + _Warspite_, British warship at battle of Jutland, iv: 260. + + Washington Inn, for American officers in London, vii: 288. + + _Wasted_, poem, xi: 100. + + Watches, for A. E. F., viii: 327. + + Water supply, for A. E. F., construction of facilities for, v: 333; + modern methods for making safe for use of armies, viii: 394-396. + + _We Are Fred Karno's Army_, British soldiers' song, xi: 338. + + _Wearing of the Green_, Irish patriotic air, xi: 334. + + Weather forecasting, importance of, in war, xi: 296-303. + + Weddigen, Lieut.-Com. Otto, commander of _U-9_, + sinks British cruisers _Aboukir, Cressy_, and _Hogue_, + iv: 205, x: 274-280. + + Wedell, Hans von, leader in German passport frauds in U. S., x: 333. + + Weimar, meeting place of German National Assembly, Feb., '19, vi: 291. + + Wekerle, Dr., succeeds Count Tisza as Premier of Hungary, vi: 314; + suppresses Jugoslav congress at Agram, Mar., '18, vi: 363. + + Welland Canal, German plot for destruction of, i: 318. + + Wellborn, Col., director of U. S. Tank Corps, v: 314. + + Wemyss, Sir Rosslyn, + succeeds Jellicoe as British First Sea Lord, Dec. 26, '17, i: 393. + + West, Sgt. Chester H., gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 402. + + West Prussia, award to Poland by Peace Conference, vi: 226. + + Western Front, + establishment by Germans of trench lines from + North Sea to Swiss border following first Marne battle, + Sept., '14, ii: _Intro. vii_, 11, iii: 37, + viii: 134, xi: 12, 253; + relative importance compared with Eastern theatre of war, + ii: _Intro. x-xxiv_ (Gen. Maurice on), 11-14, 87-89, + 171 (opinion of Field-Marshal French); + the _vital_ front, ii: _Intro. xxiii_; + Allied retreat to the Marne, Aug.--Sept., '18, + ii: 9, 166, 183, iii: 20-30; + German "strategic" retreat to Hindenburg Line, '17, + ii: 53, iii: 66-70; + reasons for German offensive of Mar.--July, '18, ii: 65-67; + German strength, Mar., '18, ii: 65, 75, iii: 383, v: 120; + Allied strength Mar., '18, ii: 66; + choice of sector by Germans for great offensive of Mar., '18, + ii: 67-69, 311, iii: 86; + great German offensive begun, Mar. 21, '18, + ii: 70, 150, 308-316 (Ludendorff's account), + iii: 86, 359, v: 23, 120, 130, 380, vi: 270; + break through Allied line and rout of British Fifth Army near + St. Quentin in great German drive, Mar., '18, + ii: 70-74, 150-152, 190-197, iii: 86-91, + 381-390 (account by Philip Gibbs), v: 373; + German drive against Channel ports, Apr., '18, + ii: 75, 153, iii: 91, 359-363; + German casualties in offensive of Mar.--Apr., '18, ii, 75; + German drive to the Marne, May--July, '18, + ii: 76-79, 154, 320, iii: 92-96, v: 35, 41-53, 129, 130; + Allied counter-offensive and retreat of Germans out of + France and Belgium, July 18--Nov. 11, '18, + ii: 80-87, 154, 156-159, 209-216 + (resume by Gen. Malleterre), 324-326 (Ludendorff's account), + 331-340 (Ludendorff's account), iii: 96-104, v: 72, 192, 213; + battle line, July 18, '18, ii: 82; + German bases in France captured in Allied counter-offensive, + July--Nov., '18, ii: 86; + campaigns on, first phase, maneuvering for position, ii: 112; + second phase, war of attrition, ii: 112; + third phase, final stroke, ii: 113; + necessity for frontal attack on, ii: 116; + Foch's analysis of weakness of German position, July, '18, ii: 154; + Allied and German man-power, Oct., '18, ii: 159; + British man-power, Aug., '18, ii: 214; + British shell supply, Aug., '18, ii: 214; + military situation, Nov., '18, ii: 215; + general topography, iii: 2; + battle line, Jan., '15, iii: 41; + German prisoners and guns captured by Allies, + July--Nov., '18, iii: 104; + A. E. F. deciding factor in last campaigns on, v: 23-25; + first American sector established, Aug., '18, v: 64, 192-193, 384; + American front, Nov. 11, '18, v: 95; + five major German offensives on, v: 96; + effect of Russian withdrawal from War on, v: 113; + German lines of defense and communications, v: 214-216; + for details of engagements or sectors, _see_ name of battle, + campaign, or sector. + + Wet, Gen. Christian de, + leader of Boer rebellion against British, '14, vi: 50. + + Wettig, Carl, discloses German plot to blow up ships, x: 374. + + Wexford, Ireland, U. S. naval air station at, iv: 357. + + Wheat, production and imports by Germany, ii: 17; + government price-fixing in U. S., xii: 59; + U. S. exports to Allies, July, '17--July,'18, xii: 141; + statistics on production in U. S., '18--'19, xii: 143; + _see also_ Food. + + _Where Do We Go From Here, Boys?_, + American soldiers' song, xi: 337. + + Whiddy Island, Ireland, U. S. naval air station at, iv: 357. + + Whippets, British baby tanks, ii: 280, viii: 148, xi: 262; + _see also_ Tanks. + + Whitby, bombarded by German fleet, Dec. 16, '14, i: 376, iv: 245. + + White Russia, Republic of, established, May, '18, xii: 279; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Whittlesey, Major Charles W., + commander of "Lost Battalion," isolation and rescue in + Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Oct. 2--7, '18, v: 231, 239, 241, 242, 243; + gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400. + + _Why Did We Join the Army?_, British soldiers' song, xi: 337. + + Wickersham, Geo. W., + analysis of Peace Treaty with Germany, xii: 170-178. + + Wickersham, 2nd Lieut. J. Hunter, + gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 401. + + _Wien_, Austrian battleship torpedoed by + Italians in Trieste harbor, i: 393, x: 290. + + Wieringen, + German Crown Prince's home at, after flight from Germany, vi: 278. + + Wilhelm, Kaiser, _see_ William II. + + Wilhelmina, Queen of Netherlands, biography, ix: 401-405. + + Wilhelmshaven, revolt of German navy at, Oct. 31, '18, iv: 381. + + Willard, Daniel, chairman of Advisory Commission, + U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 116. + + William I, becomes first German Emperor, Jan. 18, 1871, i: 44. + + William II, of Germany, + abdicates throne, Nov. 9, '18, i: 399, ii: 340, vi: 273; + conception of powers as Emperor, i: 73; + becomes Emperor, 1888, i: 97, 185, ix: 358; + arrogance, i: 97; + visits Turkey, i: 98, 207; + famous speech at Tangier, Mar., '05, i: 99; + complicity in Austrian ultimatum to Serbia, July, '14, + i: 133-136, 252; + interview in London _Daily Telegraph_ declaring friendship for + England, Oct. 28, '18, i: 186; + advice to troops to be "terrible as Huns," i: 186; + reprimanded by Reichstag and Bundesrat for _Daily Telegraph_ + interview, i: 189; + Lloyd George's opinion of, i: 189; + Kruger telegram supporting cause of Boers against Great Britain, + Jan. 3, 1898, i: 192; + statement about "sharpness of German sword," ii: 161; + Ludendorff's estimate of weakness, ii: 317; + Supreme War Lord, ii: 331; + author of phrase "Yellow peril," vi: 248; + retirement to Amerongen after abdication, Nov., '18, vi: 277; + biography and sketch of personality, ix: 355-367, xi: 139-141; + bibliography, ix: 367; + Peace Treaty provisions for trial for war guilt, xii: 217. + + William of Wied, becomes ruler of Albania, i: 206. + + _William P. Frye_, + American ship sunk by Germans, Jan. 28, '15, i: 319, 378. + + Wilson, Adm. Henry B., biography, ix: 295-296. + + Wilson, Gen., + British representative on Inter-Allied General Staff, iii: 84. + + Wilson, Major, + develops idea of tank as fighting machine, viii: 155. + + Wilson, William B., + U. S. Secretary of Labor, on anti-war spirit of laboring classes, + xii: 65. + + Wilson, Woodrow, + assumes leadership of liberal Democrats, i: 295; + temperament contrasted with Roosevelt's, i: 299; + "Strict accountability" note to Germany on U-boat warfare, i: 317; + "Too proud to fight" statement, i: 320, v: 372, ix: 62; + opposition to McLemore Resolution, i: 327; + note to belligerents to state war aims, Dec. 18,. '16, i: 336; + "Peace without victory" speech, Jan., '17, i: 337, ix: 64; + speech before Congress asking for declaration of war with Germany, + Apr. 2, '17, i: 348-355; + effects of diplomacy, ii: 390; + position in Fiume dispute, vi: 369; + biography and personal sketch, ix: 55-69, xi: 131-135; + "Fourteen Points," ix: 67, xii: 163-165; + bibliography, ix: 69; + stricken ill during tour for ratification of Peace Treaty, + Sept., '19, xii: 264; + opinion of Lodge reservations, xii: 267; + message vetoing Knox Resolution, xii: 278; + for relations with belligerents during neutrality, + _see_ Germany, Blockade of; + Submarine warfare; + for work at Peace Conference, _see_ Peace Conference. + + Winchester self-loading rifle, description, viii: 89. + + Windhoek, captured by British, May 12, '15, i: 380, iii: 255. + + Wire entanglements, _see_ Barbed wire. + + Wireless, use by A. E. F. Signal Corps, v: 317, 318-319; + development under war needs, viii: 315; + apparatus for generation and transmission of radio waves, + viii: 315-318; + Goldschmidt alternator, viii: 316; + Alexanderson alternator, viii: 316-318; + use of vacuum tubes in wireless telephony, viii: 318-320; + types of aerials, viii: 320; + U. S. Navy wireless stations, location and method of operation, + viii: 320-322. + + Wisloka River, + battle between Germans and Russians on banks of, May, '15, iii: 136. + + Woevre River, + Germans driven into plains of, by A. E. F. advance in + Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Nov., '18, v: 94. + + Wold, Pvt. Nels, gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 397. + + _Wolf_, seaplane-carrier German raider, activities, iv: 198. + + Women in War, French munition workers, ii: 376; + Pershing's tribute, v: 404; + as Y. M. C. A. workers in Europe, vii: 267-271; + Russian Battalion of Death, x: 183-185, xi: 205-210; + British, in war industries, xii: 25; + American, in war industries, xii: 26, 84-85; + British, as farm laborers, xii: 40; + effects of entry into industries on social organization, xii: 83-84; + _see also_ Nurses; + Red Cross; + Salvation Army; + War relief; + Young Men's Christian Association. + + Wood, Maj.-Gen. Leonard, + on lessons of the War, iii: _Intro. vii-x_; + in command of 89th Div., during training period, v: 146, 365. + + Woodfill, 1st Lieut. Samuel, + gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 391. + + World empires, development toward, before War, i: 23; + rivalry of ambitions for, i: 25. + + World federation, ideal of, i: 25; + religious diversity an obstacle to, i: 25. + + World League of Red Cross Societies, organization and objects, vii: 3. + + World War, results, + i: _Intro. ix-xiv_ (summary by Dr. Eliot), + vii: _Intro. ix_ (Dr. Manning on spiritual); + areas involved, i: 9; + effect on population, xii: 25; + _see also_ Causes of War; + Cost of War; + Germany, Responsibility for War. + + Wounded, _see_ + Ambulance; + Carrel-Dakin treatment; + Hospitals; + Infection; + Medical Science; + Reconstruction of disabled; + Surgery; + U. S. Army, Medical Service. + + Wright, Maj.-Gen. William M., commander of 35th Div., v: 128, 361; + commander of 89th Div., v: 146, 365; + commander of Seventh Corps, v: 395; + biography, ix: 221-223. + + Wuerttemberg, Duke of, in command of German Northern Armies, iii: 61. + + Wynne, Mrs. Hilda, + experiences as ambulance driver, vii: 105, x: 186-188. + + + X + + Xivray, location in St. Mihiel salient, v: 199. + + X-ray, use in war surgery, vii: 221, viii: 373-376. + + Xylyl bromide (tear gas), use in chemical warfare, viii: 170. + + + Y + + "Y" gun, for launching depth bombs, iv: 331. + + Yachts, converted, work in anti-submarine patrol, iv: 292. + + Yakutsk Republic, established, May, '18, xii: 279; + area and population, xii: 279. + + Yankee (26th) Division, _see_ U. S., Army. + + Yarmouth, bombarded by German raiders, Nov. 3, '14, iv: 244. + + Yemen, Imamate of, established, '18, xii: 279. + + York, Sgt. Alvin C., account of exploits as fighter, x: 13-18; + gets Congressional Medal of Honor, x: 400. + + Young, Lt.-Com. E. Hilton, account of Zeebrugge Raid, iv: 269-279. + + Young, Lieut. I. E. R., + account of air battle against German raiders over London, x: 215. + + Young Men's Christian Association: + American, organization for war work and program of activities, + vii: 261-266; + recognition by War Department as welfare agency, vii: 262; + personnel, number and character, vii: 266; + casualties in overseas service, vii: 267; + women's work with, overseas, vii: 267-271; + Work in A. E. F. leave areas, vii: 269; + at the front with combat troops, vii: 271-277; + award of Distinguished Service Crosses to workers, vii: 272; + with the "Lost Battalion," vii: 273; + huts used as targets by Germans, vii: 274; + awards of _Croix de Guerre_ to workers, vii: 275, 313; + hotels for service men, vii: 277; + entertainment for service men, vii: 277-279; + educational work for A. E. F., vii: 280-283, 290; + religious activities among troops, vii: 283-285; + activities for A. E. F. in United Kingdom, vii: 286-290; + Eagle Hut in London, vii: 288, 300; + in Italy, vii: 290; + with Army of Occupation, vii: 291-293; + with A. E. F. in Russia and Siberia, vii: 293-298; + Navy service, vii: 298-302; + Navy Hut at Brest, vii: 302; + work among prisoners of war, Allied and Teuton, vii: 302-310; + care of American war prisoners in Germany, vii: 309; + _Foyers du Soldats_ for French soldiers, vii: 310-313; + _Foyers du Marin_ for French sailors, vii: 313; + athletics for A. E. F., vii: 313-317; + work for Russian army and civilians, vii: 318-319. + British, in Egypt, vii: 321, 322; + at Gallipoli, vii: 321; + in Sudan, vii: 322; + in Palestine and Jerusalem, vii: 322-323; + in Mesopotamia, vii: 324. + Indian, welfare work in India, vii: 327. + International, in Egypt, vii: 322; + in Mesopotamia, vii: 324-327. + + Young Turks, force constitutional government in Turkey, '08, i: 109. + + Ypres, battles of: + Oct.--Nov., '14, ii: 144, 170-171 (Field-Marshal French's account), + iii: 41. + Apr., '15, first use of gas in warfare by Germans, + ii: 222, iii: 42, 288, 320, xi: 316. + July--Oct., '17, ii: 128 (Haig's account of use of artillery in), + iii: 78-79. + Apr., '18, ii: 153, iii: 360-363 (description by Philip Gibbs). + + Yser, battles of, Oct., '14, ii: 220, iii: 40; + July, '17, iii: 77-78. + + Yudenitch, Gen., Russian commander, + campaign against and capture of Erzerum, iii: 262-263. + + + Z + + Zabern incident, i: 72. + + Zeebrugge Raid, British exploit in blocking German submarine + base on Belgian coast, Apr., '18, iv: 261-279; + ships participating, iv: 262; + official Admiralty report, iv: 262-265; + Capt. Carpenter's account, iv: 266-268; + British casualties, iv: 268; + account of Lieut.-Com. Young of _Vindictive_, iv: 269-279. + + Zemstvos, Russian, congress of, prohibited by Protopopov, vi: 143; + succeeded by local "soviets," vi: 164; + war-time activities, xii: 82. + + _Zemtchug_, Russian cruiser sunk by German raider _Emden_, + Oct. 28, '14, iv: 179. + + Zeppelin, Count Ferdinand von, + inventor of Zeppelin dirigible airships, biography, ix: 250-252. + + Zeppelins, description of structural features, + with discussion of utility during war and peace, + ii: 262-269, viii: 241-254; + raids on England, ii: 266, iii: 41, + viii: 246, _see also_ Air raids; + exploit of Sub-Lieut. Warneford in bringing down first + Zeppelin of War, ii: 269, x: 223-225; + development in construction, '14--'18, viii: 241; + compared with airplanes, viii: 241-245; + flight of _L-59_ to Egypt, viii: 243. + + Zigzagging, as defense against U-boat attack, iv: 310. + + Zimmermann, Dr. Alfred F. M., German Foreign Secretary, + attempt to force from Ambassador Gerard + guarantees for German-owned property in U. S., i: 345; + text of note attempting to involve Mexico and Japan + in war against U. S., i: 347. + + Zouaves, description, xi: 189. + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + +I.--PORTRAITS + + + A. + + Adams, Sgt, Harry J., x: 42. + + Ador, Gustave, President of Switzerland, + with President Poincare of France, xii: 154. + + Ahmed, Sultan, Shah of Persia, i: 104. + + Albert, King of the Belgians, at the front, ii: 5; + with Queen Elizabeth, ii: 157, vii: 140; + inspecting British tank, ii: 278; + equestrian statue, iii: 379; + portrait studies, vii: 121, ix: 386; + symbolic painting of, ix; + _facing p._ 386 (in color); + entry into Bruges, ix: 390; + inspecting U. S. sailors, xi: 129. + + Albert, Prince, of England, xi: 150, 151 (as aviator). + + Alexander, King of Greece, iii: 206. + + Alexander I, Czar of Russia, i: 35. + + Alexander, Prince Regent of Serbia, vi: 357, vii: 147. + + Alexander, Maj.-Gen. Robert, v: 221. + + Alexandra, former Czarina of Russia, ix: 377; + with royal family, xi: 146. + + Alexandra, Dowager Queen of England, ix: 394. + + Alexandrina Irene, Princess, daughter of German Crown Prince, xi: 149. + + Alexis, Czarevitch, of Russia, + ii: 227, xi: 145, 146, 148 (last photograph). + + Alfonso, King of Spain, with son, vi: 371. + + Allen, B. S., vii: 115. + + Allen, Maj.-Gen. Henry T., v: 201. + + Allenby, Gen. Sir Edmund H. H., + ii: 89, 177, iii: 323 (entering Jerusalem), ix: 197. + + Allied Food Council, members of, ix: 322. + + Ames, Winthrop, vii: 340. + + Anastasia, Grand-Duchess, of Russia, xi: 146. + + Andrews, Brig.-Gen. Avery D., v: 93. + + Aonzo, Lieut., iv: 365. + + Aosta, Duke of, iii: 240. + + Armenian Patriarch, of Jerusalem, vi.: 332. + + Arnim, Count von, ii: 222. + + Arnim, Gen. Sixt von, iii: 88. + + Arthur, Julia, vii: 344. + + Asquith, Herbert H., ix: 31. + + Astor, Mrs. Vincent, as Y. M. C. A. canteen worker, vii: 270. + + Atkinson, Sgt. Ralph M., x: 61. + + Averescu, Gen., iii: 216. + + + B + + Bailey, Maj.-Gen. C. J., v: 275. + + Bain, H. F., vii: 115. + + Baker, Newton D., + v: 39 (with Gen. Pershing), 375, ix: 324, + xii: 117 (with members of Council of National Defense), + xii: 289 (drawing first draft number). + + Baldwin, Dr. E. R., vii: 69. + + Balfour, Arthur James, ix: 41; + at Peace Conference, xii: 160. + + Barker, Col. William, vii: 391. + + Barton, Clara, vii: 12. + + Baruch, Bernard M., + xii: 117 (with members of U.S. Council of National Defense), 119. + + Bates, Blanche, vii: 344. + + Bauer, Gustav, vi: 304. + + Beatty, Adm. Sir David, + iv: 11 (coming on board U. S. battleship _New York_), + 102, 149 (with King George), ix: 284. + + Belgian royal children, xi: 130. + + Bell, Maj.-Gen. George, Jr., v: 219. + + Belrose, L., vii: 115. + + Benedict XV, Pope, i: 164. + + Benson, Adm., with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi_; + with Secretary Daniels and Sir Eric Geddes, iv: 357. + + Benson, 1st Lieut. Philip, x: 210. + + Berchtold, Count, i: 137, ix: 143. + + Bergmann, Gen., ix: 267. + + Bernhardi, Gen, Frederick von, i: 169. + + Bernstorff, Count Johann von, ix: 134, x: 327. + + Bertle, Sir Francis L., ii: 131. + + Bethel, Brig.-Gen. Walter A., v: 38. + + Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von, + i: 130 (with Kaiser and leading German generals), + iii: 2, vi: 265, ix: 123. + + Bigelow, member of Lafayette Escadrille, x: 197. + + Biggs, Dr. H. M., vii: 69. + + Binkley, Sgt. David U., x: 97. + + Birdwood, Lieut.-Gen. Sir William, iii: 375. + + Bishop, Col. William A., x: 216, 219. + + Bismarck, Prince Otto von, i: 43; + with Napoleon III, i: 44; + at Congress of Berlin, i: 49; + at proclamation of German Empire, i: 55; + dictating surrender of French in Franco-Prussian War, i: 163; + dictating terms of peace to French after Franco-Prussian War, + i: 212. + + Bissing, Gen. von, ii: 99. + + Bliss, Gen, Tasker H., v: 110; + at Peace Conference, xii: 160. + + Bohlen, Krupp von, i: 135. + + Bonstelle, Jessie, vii: 344. + + Booth, Miss Evangeline, vii: 392. + + Boothby, George, vii: 335. + + Borden, Sir Robert, vi: 25. + + Botchkareva, Marie, x: 184. + + Botha, Gen. Louis, vi: 49, ix: 192. + + Brent, Bishop, xi: 250. + + Breshkovsky, Catherine, vi: 150, ix: 348. + + Briand, Aristide, + i: 398 (presiding at first Allied Conference, Mar., '16), ii: 386. + + Brockdorff-Rantzau, Count, ix: 137, xii: 169. + + Brown, Brig.-Gen. Preston, v: 86. + + Brunswick, Duke and Duchess of, i: 168. + + Brusiloff, Gen. Alexei, iii: 143, ix: 233. + + Bullard, Lieut.-Gen. Robert Lee, + v: _facing p._ 396 (in color), ix: 220, x: 17 (with staff). + + Buelow, Prince Bernhard von, ix: 129. + + Bunch, Maj. Henry E., x: 83. + + Bundy, Maj.-Gen. Omar, v: 249, ix: 226. + + Bunsen, Sir Maurice de, i: 126. + + Burdick, "Mother," vii: 385. + + Burr, Sgt. George E., x: _facing p._ 102 (in color). + + Butterfield, Sgt. William M., x: 343. + + Byng, Sir Julian, iii: 338. + + + C + + Cadorna, Gen. Luigi, iii: 229, 231, 233, ix: 228. + + Caillaux, M., vi: 104. + + Cambon, Jules, i: 128. + + Cambon, Paul, ii: 384. + + Cameron, Pvt. Charles, x: 144. + + Campbell, Capt. Douglass, x: _facing p._ 152 (in color). + + Canterbury, Archbishop of, vii: 299. + + Carden, Vice-Adm., iii: 174. + + Carney, Pvt. Fred, x: 53. + + Carpenter, Capt., iv: 266, 267. + + Carpentier, Georges, as airman, x: 207. + + Carranza, Gen. Venustiano, i: 320. + + Carrel, Dr. Alexis, ix: 311, xi: 289. + + Carson, Sir Edward, vi: 66, ix: 51. + + Carty, Col., x: 48. + + Casement, Sir Roger, vi: 56, 57 (on trial for treason), ix: 54. + + Castelnau, Gen. de, with Gen. d'Esperey, ii: 141. + + Castlereagh, Lord, i: 29. + + Cavour, Count Camillo, i: 43. + + Cecil, Lord Robert, xii: 207. + + Chamberlain, Austen, ii: 90. + + Chapman, Victor, x: 170. + + Charles I, Emperor of Austria-Hungary, + ii: 65, iii: 140 (in Warsaw), ix: 373. + + Charles Theodore, Prince, son of King Albert of Belgium, xi: 130. + + Churchill, Winston Spencer, vi: 10, ix: 45 (with wife). + + Churchill, Mrs. Winston Spencer, ix: 45. + + Clarkson, Grosvenor B., + with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117. + + Clausewitz, Carl von, i: 166. + + Clayburgh, Mme., vii: 344. + + Clemenceau, Georges, near the front, iii: 35; + decorating a priest, iii: 85; + portrait study, ix: 3; + leaving Peace Conference, ix: 6; + in his study, ix: 11; + in uniform of a poilu, ix: 12; + visiting a liberated French village, xi: 126; + at Somme battle front, xi: 127; + presiding at Peace Conference, xii: 160. + + Clementel, French Minister of Commerce, xii: 106. + + Clifford, Rev. J. H., x: 33. + + Coffin, Howard E., + with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117. + + Colmar, Mayor of, i: 328. + + Commission for Relief in Belgium, members of, vii: 115. + + Connaught, Duke of, with King George, i: 124; + inspecting troops, vi: 33; + with Archbishop of Canterbury at a Y. M. C. A. hut, vii: 299. + + Conner, Brig.-Gen. Fox, v: 104. + + Constantine, former King of Greece, iii: 203, ix: 381 (with family). + + Council of National Defense, + U. S., with Advisory Commission, members of, xii: 117. + + Cozens, W. J., vii: 115. + + Cradock, Adm. Sir Christopher, iv: 63. + + Craig, Capt., vi: 66. + + Craig, Brig.-Gen. Malin, v: 80. + + Crile, Dr. George W., vii: 68. + + Cronkhite, Maj.-Gen. Adelbert, v: _facing p._ 146 (in color). + + Currie, Lieut.-Gen. Sir Arthur, iii: 346 (with Pershing), 377, vi: 28. + + Czar of Russia, _see_ Nicholas II. + + + D + + + D'Amade, Gen., ii: 163. + + Daniels, Josephus, with Franklin Roosevelt, i: 359; + with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi_; + with Sir Eric Geddes and Adm. Benson, iv: 357; + portrait study, x: 327; + with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117. + + Danilo Alexander, Prince, of Montenegro, iii: 153. + + D'Annunzio, Gabriele, vi: 121. + + Dasch, Pvt. Carl W., x: 50. + + Davis, Brig.-Gen. Robt. C., v: 291. + + Davison, Henry P., vii: 3, 17. + + Dawson, Sgt. Clarence W., x: 310. + + De La Ray, Gen., vi: 49. + + Derby, Dr. Richard, x: 242. + + Dernburg, Dr. Bernhard, vi: 297. + + D'Esperey, Gen., with Gen. Castelnau, ii: 141. + + Devereaux, Pvt. Harold J., x: 134. + + De Wet, Gen. Christian, vi: 49. + + Diaz, Gen., ii: 367. + + Dickman, Maj.-Gen. Joseph T., v: 52. + + Disraeli, Benjamin, i: 50. + + Djavid Bey, ii: 28. + + Djevad Bey, Col., iii: 356. + + Dmitrieff, Gen. Radko, iii: 136. + + Dougherty, Color Sgt. Hardy C, x: 110. + + Doumergue, French Minister of Colonies, vi: 104, xii: 106. + + Drummond, Sir Eric, xii: 202. + + Dubail, Gen. and Madame, xi: 47. + + Duffy, Father, vii: 335. + + Dugan, Maj.-Gen. Thomas B., v: 226. + + Dumba, Dr. Constantin, x: 328. + + Dunant, Henri, vii: 10. + + Duncan, Maj.-Gen. George B., v: 10. + + + E + + Earle, Rear-Adm., + with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._ + + Ebert, Friedrich, + vi: 293 (delivering speech of acceptance to election as + German President), ix: 136. + + Edward VII, of England, + with Kaiser, i: 188; + with son (present King George V) and + grandson (present Prince of Wales), ii: 3. + + Edwards, Maj.-Gen. Clarence R., + v: 66 (with Gen. Liggett), 253. + + Eggeman, Judge, vii: 335. + + Eggers, Sgt., x: 105. + + Einem, Gen. von, + with Kaiser and other leading German generals, i: 130. + + Eisner, Kurt, vi: 289. + + Eitel, Prince, of Prussia, i: 168. + + Eitel Friedrich, Princess, of Prussia, i: 168. + + Elena, Queen of Italy, xi: 142. + + Elizabeth, Queen of Belgium, + ii: 157, vii: 140, ix: 389, xi: 130 (with her children). + + Ellis, Pvt. M. B., x: 119. + + Eltinge, Brig.-Gen. Leroy, x: 283. + + Ely, Maj.-Gen. Hanson E., v: 123. + + Enver Pasha, iii: 262, ix: 271. + + Erzberger, Mathias, meeting with Foch to arrange armistice, v: 392. + + Eugene, Archduke, of Austria, with staff, i: 139. + + + F + + Falkenhayn, Gen. Erich von, + i: 130 (with other leading German generals), iii: 223, ix: 262. + + Fallow, Capt. Thomas H., x: 161. + + Feng Kuo-Chang, Gen., i: 58. + + Ferdinand, former Czar of Bulgaria, iii: 156, 211, ix: 379. + + Ferdinand, King of Rumania, + iii: 219 (decorating troops), 221, ix: 400. + + Ferguson, Sgt. Dugald E., x: 77. + + Ferguson, Elsie, vii: 341. + + Fernandez, Bijou, vii: 344. + + Fisher, Adm. Lord John, ix: 289. + + Fiske, Brig.-Gen. Harold B., v: 103. + + Fitzgerald, John, vii: 335. + + Flagler, Maj.-Gen. Clement A. F., v: 209. + + Foch, Marshal Ferdinand, + ii: 86 (inspecting Rhine fortifications with Gen. Mangin), + 139, 142 (reviewing guards at St. Germain-en-Laye), + v: 392 (meeting German armistice delegates), + ix: 148, 151 (an early portrait), xi: 47, 136. + + Forstner, Lieut. von, i: 73. + + Foulois, Brig.-Gen Benjamin D., v: 310. + + Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, of Austria, + i: 3 (with family), 111, 113 (shortly before assassination), + vi: 360 (with Kaiser). + + Francis Joseph I, late Emperor of Austria-Hungary, ix: 371. + + Frederick, Archduke, of Austria, ii: 24. + + Frederick, King of Denmark, vi: 393. + + Frederick the Great, i: 22. + + Frederick III, German Emperor, i: 183. + + Frederick William, former Crown Prince of Prussia and of Germany, + with Crown Princess, i: 117; + with leading German generals, i: 130; + with members of royal family, i: 168; + bestowing decorations, ii: 38; + portrait studies, ii: 311, 339, ix: 368 (with one of his children); + on Verdun front, iii: 48, 307; + with staff, iii: 304; + with father and son, vi: 263. + + Frederick William III, King of Prussia, i: 34. + + French, Field-Marshal Viscount John, iii: 24, ix: 178, xi: 360. + + French cabinet, members of, '13, vi: 304. + + Freytag-Loringhoven, Baron von, ii: 255. + + Fritz, Pvt. Albert, x: 80. + + + G + + Gallieni, Gen. Joseph Simon, ix: 162. + + Galopin, Gen., xi: 47. + + Garfield, Harry A., xii: 49. + + Garibaldi, Capt., x: 64. + + Garibaldi, Gen., x: 64. + + Gasette, Miss Grace, vii: 190. + + Gaultney, Corp. Walter E., x: _facing p._ 200 (in color). + + Gay, G. I., vii: 115. + + Geddes, Sir Eric, + iv: 357 (with Josephus Daniels and Adm. Benson), ix: 314. + + George, Prince, of England, xi: 151. + + George V, King of England, + with Duke of Connaught, i: 124; + with father (Edward VII) and Prince of Wales, ii: 3; + aboard U. S. battleship _New York_, iv: 11, 85; + with Adm. Beatty, iv: 149; + inspecting gun on a U. S. battleship, iv: 346; + decorating a U. S. soldier, v: 383; + bust presented to American Y. M. C. A. in London, vii: 286; + with Lloyd George, ix: 29; + portrait study, ix: 393; + at baseball game between U. S. service teams in London, xi: 153; + on tour of inspection, xi: 314. + + Gerard, James W., i: 303 (with embassy staff in Berlin), 322. + + German Crown Princess, with Crown Prince, i: 117; + with members of royal family, i: 168; + with daughter and German Empress, xi: 149. + + Gibbons, Cardinal James, vii: _Intro. vi._ + + Gibson, Harvey D., vii: 103. + + Gibson, Hugh, vi: 88, vii: 115. + + Gifford, Walter S., + with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117. + + Giovanna, Princess, of Italy, xi: 144. + + Gleaves, Vice-Adm. Albert, iv: 159. + + Glossop, Capt. John C. T., iv: 186. + + Godfrey, Dr. Hollis, + with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117. + + Goltz, Field-Marshal Baron von der, ix: 269. + + Gompers, Samuel P., xii: 87. + + Gordon, Maj.-Gen. Walter H., v: 223. + + Gorgas, Surgeon-General William C., vii: 192. + + Gori, Lieut., with Commander Rizzo and Lieut. Aonzo, iv: 365. + + Gortchakoff, Prince, i: 181. + + Goschen, Sir Edward, i: 125. + + Gough, Lieut.-Gen. Sir Hubert de la Poer, iii: 376. + + Gouraud, Gen. Henri, ii: 122, 210, iii: 229, v: 44. + + Gourko, Gen. Basil, ii: 226. + + Graham, Sgt. Clyde, x: 166. + + Grayson, Rear-Adm., xii: _Intro. xvii._ + + Greek delegates to Paris Peace Conference, ix: 80. + + Greek royal family, ix: 381. + + Grey, Sir Edward, ix: 36. + + Griffin, Rear-Adm., + with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._ + + Grismer, Mrs. Joseph, vii: 344. + + Grouitch, Madame Slavko, vii: 145. + + Guendele, Gen. von, + with German armistice delegates, meeting Foch, v: 392. + + Gustav, King of Sweden, vi: 395. + + Guynemer, Capt. Georges, x: 203. + + + H + + Haakon VII, King of Norway, i: 133. + + Haan, Maj.-Gen. William G., v: 24. + + Haeseler, Gen. von, with Kaiser and leading German generals, i: 130. + + Haig, Field-Marshal Sir Douglas, ii: 113, 114, iii: 374, ix: 182. + + Haldane, Lord, i: 108. + + Hall, Capt. James Norman, x: 201. + + Hamill, Dr. Samuel M., vii: 69. + + Hamilton, Gen. Sir Ian, ii: 30, iii: 162. + + Harbord, Maj.-Gen. James G., v: _facing p._ 36 (in color). + + Harden, Maximilian, vi: 303. + + Hartman, Sgt. William A., x: 167. + + Hartz, Gen. William W., v: 255. + + Hay, Maj.-Gen. William H., v: 279. + + Helfferich, Dr. Karl, iii: 2, ix: 354. + + Helmick, Maj.-Gen. Eli, v: 268. + + Heming, Violet, vii: 344. + + Henderson, Arthur, ix: 48. + + Herren, Sgt. William, x: 323. + + Hertling, Count von, + i: 273, vi: 259 (addressing Prussian Chamber of Deputies). + + Hill, R. F., vii: 115. + + Hindenburg, Field-Marshal Paul von, + i: 130 (with Kaiser and other leading German generals), + ii: 207, 299 (with Ludendorff), 325 (with Ludendorff), 361, + iii: 113, vi: 291, ix: 243, 248 (wooden statue of), + 364 (with Kaiser and Ludendorff). + + Hinds, Maj.-Gen. Ernest, v: 320. + + Hines, Maj.-Gen. John L., v: 182. + + Hines, Walker D., xii: 90. + + Hinkle, member of Lafayette Escadrille, x: 197. + + Hohenberg, Duchess of, + i: 3 (with husband, Archduke Francis Ferdinand + of Austria, and family), 111, 113 + (with husband, shortly before assassination). + + Holt, Dr. L. Emmett, vii: 69. + + Honnold, W. L., vii: 115. + + Hood, Rear-Adm. Horace, iv: 120. + + Hoover, Sgt. Charles S., x: 126. + + Hoover, Herbert C., vii: 115, 122, ix: 317. + + Horton, Lieut.-Com. Max K., iv: 207. + + House, Col. Edward M., + ix: 71 (with Mrs. House), 74, xii: 160 (at Peace Conference). + + Houston, David F., + with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117. + + Howe, Capt. Maurice W., x: 312. + + Howze, Maj.-Gen. Robert L., v: 185. + + Hsauen Tung, ex-Emperor of China, i: 17. + + Hughes, Sir Sam, vi: 35. + + Hughes, William Morris, vi: 39. + + Hurley, Edward N., with Charles M. Schwab, ix: 336. + + + I + + Ingenohl, Vice-Adm., iv: 68. + + Ireland, Maj.-Gen. Merritt A., vii: 194. + + Ishii, Viscount, ix: 89. + + Italian royal children, xi: 142. + + Italian War Mission to United States, members of, vi: 118. + + Ivanoff, Gen., iii: 127. + + + J + + Jagow, Gottliev von, iii: 2, ix: 127. + + Janeway, Dr. Theodore C., vii: 250. + + Janis, Elsie, vii: 294. + + Jellicoe, Adm. Sir John, v: 100, ix: 276. + + Joan of Arc, i: _frontispiece_ (in color). + + Joffre, Marshal Joseph Jacques Cesar, with Gen. Nivelle, ii: 12; + in trenches with Kitchener, ii: 164; + examining German prisoners, ii: 173; + at Verdun, iii: 50; + with Gen. Pershing, v: 57; + painting in color, ix: _facing p._ 154; + decorating French officer, ix: 158; + at West Point, ix: 160; + at Lafayette statue in Brooklyn, xi: 7; + portrait studies, xi: 11, 268; + with other leading French generals and Pershing, xi: 47. + + Jones, R. H., vii: 115. + + Jutta, Princess, of Montenegro, iii: 153. + + + K + + Kaiser, _see_ William II. + + Karolyi, Count, ix: 146. + + Kei Hara, vi: 387. + + Kenney, Maj., with Maj. Whittlesey, v: 238. + + Kerensky, Alexander Feodorovitch, vi: 145, ix: 105. + + Key, Francis Scott, xi: 325. + + Kitchener, Field-Marshal Earl Horatio Herbert, + ii: 164 (in trenches with Joffre), 165, 203, ix: 169, 171. + + Klotz, Louis, at Peace Conference, xii: 160. + + Kluck, Gen. Alexander von, + i: 130 (with Kaiser and group of German generals), 377, + ii: 9, ix: 267 (with staff). + + Koenig, Capt. Paul, iv: 214. + + Kolchak, Adm. Aleksandr Vasiliyevich, ix: 240. + + Korniloff, Gen., ii: 235, vi: 168. + + Korth, Sgt. Herman, x: _facing p._ 254 (in color). + + Krauss, Gen. F. M. C., with Archduke Eugene of Austria, i: 139. + + Kreger, Brig.-Gen. Edward A., v: 230. + + Krobatin, Austrian Minister of War, with Archduke Eugene, i: 139. + + Kropotkin, Prince Peter, vi: 136. + + Kruger, Oom Paul, i: 192. + + Krupp, Alfred, i: 160. + + Krupp, Bertha, ix: 353. + + Krupp von Bohlen, i: 135. + + Kuhl, Gen. von, ix: 267. + + Kuhn, Maj.-Gen. Joseph E., v: 224. + + Kuropatkin, Gen., iii: 269. + + + L + + Lafayette, Marquis de, xi: 6. + + Lafayette Escadrille, members, x: 197, 200. + + Lane, Franklin K., + with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117. + + Langfitt, Maj.-Gen. W. C., v: 343. + + Langham, Pvt. George W., x: 99. + + Lansing, Robert, at Peace Conference, xii: 160. + + Lassiter, Maj.-Gen. William, v: 145. + + Latham, Sgt., x: 105. + + Lathrop, Mrs. Benjamin G., vii: 94. + + Laurier, Sir Wilfred, vi: 26. + + Law, Andrew Bonar, conferring with French cabinet members, xii: 106; + at Peace Conference, xii: 160. + + Le Jeune, Maj.-Gen. John A., v: 256. + + Leman, Gen., i: 144. + + Lenihan, Brig.-Gen. Michael J., vii: 335. + + Lenin, Nicolai, ix: 111. + + Leonard, Benny, viii: 108. + + Leopold, Crown Prince of Belgium, xi: 130, 145. + + Leopold, Prince, of Bavaria, + i: 130 (with group of German generals), iii: 140 (in Warsaw). + + Lepley, Sgt. James B., x: 251. + + Lewis, Sgt. Stacy A., x: 302. + + Lichnowsky, Prince Karl Maximilian, i: 196, ix: 132. + + Liebknecht, Karl, ix: 139. + + Liggett, Lieut.-Gen. Hunter, + v: _facing p._ 108 (in color), 66 (with Maj.-Gen. Edwards), + ix: 219. + + Lincoln, Tribitsch, x: 345. + + Lipton, Sir Thomas, + with Duchess of Westminster and her Red Cross nurses on board the + yacht _Erin_, vii: 136. + + Li Yuan-Hung, Gen., i: 57. + + Lloyd George, David, addressing a crowd, vi: 5; + return to London from Peace Conference, vi: 21; + portrait studies, ix: 22, xii: 151; + with King George, ix: 29; + at Peace Conference, xii: 160. + + Lloyd George, Mrs. David, ix: 24. + + Lloyd George, Miss, xi: 121. + + Lodge, Senator Henry Cabot, xii: 239. + + Lohvitsky, Gen., vi: 144. + + Londonderry, Lord, vi: 66. + + Lovett, Judge Robert S., vii: 90. + + Ludendorff, Gen. Erich von, + with Kaiser and group of German generals, i: 130; + with Hindenburg, ii: 299, 325; + portrait study, ix: 251; + with wife, ix: 253; + with Kaiser and Hindenburg, ix: 364. + + Lufberry, Maj. Raoul, x: 192, 197, xi: 228, 229. + + Luke, Lieut. Frank, x: 212. + + Luxemburg, Rosa, vi: 281. + + Lvoff (Lvov), Prince George E., vi: 159, ix: 101. + + + M + + MacArthur, Maj.-Gen. Douglas, v: _Intro. viii_, ix: 213. + + MacDonald, Ramsay, vi: 3. + + Mackensen, Field-Marshal August Anton Ludwig von, + i: 130 (with Kaiser and group of leading German generals), + iii: 137, 222, ix: 258. + + Mafalda, Princess, of Italy, xi: 144. + + Maja Vajiravudth, King of Siam, vi: 80. + + Malvy, M., vi: 104. + + Mangin, Gen., inspecting Rhine fortifications with Foch, ii: 86. + + Manning, Corp. Sidney E., x: 122. + + Manning, Rev. Dr. William T., vii: _Intro. viii._ + + Mapes, L. D., vii: 115. + + March, Gen. Peyton C., ix: 211. + + Maria, Princess, of Italy, xi: 144. + + Marie, Grand-Duchess, of Russia, xi: 146. + + Marie, Queen of Rumania, vii: 111, ix: 402. + + Marie Adelaide, Grand-Duchess of Luxemburg, i: 78, ix: 383. + + Marie Jose, Princess, of Belgium, xi: 130, 144. + + Marlborough, Duchess of, vii: 131. + + Marshall, Lieut.-Gen. Sir William R., iii: 333. + + Martin, Dr. Franklin, + with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117. + + Mary, Princess, of England, xi: 150. + + Mary, Queen of England, ix: 394. + + Maude, Gen. Sir Frederick Stanley, iii: 184, ix: 195. + + Maudhuy, Gen. de, ii: 144. + + Maurice, Maj.-Gen. Sir Frederick B., ii: _Intro. ix._ + + Max, Burgomaster, of Brussels, iii: 272. + + Max, Prince, of Baden, vi: 302. + + Mayhew, 2nd Lieut. Carl C., x: 136. + + Mayo, Adm. Henry Thomas, iv: _Intro. ix_, ix: 297. + + McAdoo, Eleanor, xi: 133. + + McAdoo, William G., ix: 330, xii: _Intro. xi._ + + McAlexander, Brig.-Gen. Ulysses G., v: 389, ix: 217. + + McAndrew, Maj.-Gen. James W., v: 101, ix: 215. + + McGlachlin, Maj.-Gen. Edward F., v: 228. + + McGowan, Rear-Adm., + with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._ + + McIntrye, Miss Gladys and Irene, + being decorated for distinguished service at the front, vii: 395; + collecting funds for Salvation Army, vii: 398. + + McKaig, Corp. F. H., x: 300. + + McKeogh, Lieut. Arthur, x: 140. + + McRae, Maj.-Gen. James H., v: 251. + + Meissner, Maj. James A., x: 231. + + Menoher, Maj.-Gen. Charles J., v: 190. + + Mercier, Cardinal Desire, + i: 235, ix: _facing p._ 340 (in color), 342. + + Metternich, Count von, i: 34. + + Michaelis, Georg, ii: 302. + + Millerand, Alexandre, i: 333, ii: 388. + + Milyukov, Paul, v: 158. + + Minkiewicz, Secretary of Provisions for Poland, vii: 355. + + Mishich, Gen. Voivode, with staff, ii: 35. + + Mitchel, Col., vii: 335. + + Moffat, John, vii: 86. + + Mohammed V, Sultan of Turkey, iii: 357. + + Moltke, Field-Marshal von, i: 48, 55. + + Moltke, Lieut.-Gen. Helmuth von, + i: 130 (with Kaiser and leading German generals), ix: 265. + + Montenegro, royal family, iii: 153. + + Moore, Mast.-Sig.-Elect. E. J., x: _facing p._ 304 (in color). + + Morgan, Miss Anne, vii: 93. + + Morgan, John Pierpont, xii: _Intro. xiv._ + + Mosley, Brig.-Gen. George V. H., v: 341. + + Mueller, Commander Karl von, iv: 168, 173. + + Muir, Maj.-Gen. Charles H., v: 205. + + Muensterberg, Prof. Hugo, vi: 268. + + + N + + Napoleon I, Emperor of France, + i: 7 (retreating after Waterloo), ii: 88. + + Napoleon III, Emperor of France, i: 36, 44. + + Nash, J. A., vii: 115. + + Nellmond, Earl Edler von, + with Archduke Eugene of Austria and staff, i: 139. + + Netherlands, royal family, vii: 172. + + Neville, Gen., decorating colors of 6th Marine Regt., x: 199. + + Nicholas, Grand-Duke, Nicolaevitch, + of Russia, with Czar, iii: 112, vi: 154; + portrait studies, iii: 115, ix: 230. + + Nicholas, former King of Montenegro, i: 114, iii: 153 (with family). + + Nicholas II, former Czar of Russia, + with Grand-Duke Nicholas, iii: 112, vi: 154; + inspecting Red Cross workers, vii: 359; + portrait study, ix: 375; + with royal family, xi: 146, 148 (last photograph). + + Nightingale, Florence, vii: 11. + + Nivelle, Gen., with Marshal Joffre, ii: 12. + + Nolan, Brig.-Gen. Dennis E., v: 105. + + Northcliffe, Lord, vi: 12. + + Nourey Bey, Capt., iii: 356. + + Nugent, Sgt. John F., x: 23. + + + O + + Oberndorff, Count von, + German armistice delegate, meeting with Foch, v: 392. + + O'Brien, Corp. John J., x: _facing p._ 354 (in color). + + O'Brien, Lieut. Pat, x: 256. + + Okuma, Count, i: 19, vi: 385, ix: 88 (with wife). + + Olga, Grand-Duchess, of Russia, xi: 146. + + O'Neil, Peggy, vii: 342. + + Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele, ix: 86. + + O'Ryan, Maj.-Gen. John F., v: 282. + + Oscar, Prince, of Prussia, i: 168, vi: 221. + + Oshima, Gen., vi: 385. + + Owen, H., vii: 115. + + + P + + Paderewski, Ignace, vi: 206 (with Polish Mission in New York), ix: 97. + + Painleve, Paul, iii: 83. + + Palmer, Rear-Adm., + with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._ + + Papen, Capt. Franz von, x: 328. + + Parrish, Sgt. Grady, x: 25. + + Pashitch, N., iii: 151. + + Passard, Jean, xi: 74. + + Patriquin, Jean, vii: 344. + + Pelltier, Gen., xi: 47. + + Pendleton, Lieut. George H., x: 154. + + Pershing, Gen. John J., with Gen. Currie, iii: 346; + painting in color, v: _frontispiece_; + with Secretary of War Baker, v: 39; + with Joffre, v: 57, ix: 208; + with Marshal Petain, v: 98; + at tomb of Lafayette, v: 99; + with U. S. nurses in France, vii: 78; + portrait study, ix: 200; + on Mexican border, ix: 206; + with group of French generals, xi: 47; + as a boy, xi: 123; + in the field, xi: 124. + + Petain, Marshal Henri Philipp, + ii: 149, 186 (on Verdun front), iii: 52, + v: 99 (with Pershing), ix: 165. + + Peter, King of Serbia, iii: 149. + + Pichon, Stephen, xii: 160 (at Peace Conference), 233. + + Pilsudski, Gen. Joseph, ix: 93, 95. + + Pius X, Pope, i: 27. + + Plumer, Gen. Sir Herbert. C. O., ii: 162. + + Poincare, Raymond, visiting the front, ii: 218; + portrait study, ix: 15; + with President Ador of Switzerland, xii: 154. + + Poincare, Mme. Raymond, ix: 16. + + Poland, W. B., vii: 15. + + Polish Military Mission to U. S., vi: 206. + + Politis, Nicholas, ix: 80. + + Popes, _see_ + Benedict XV; + Pius X. + + Porro, Gen., iii: 229. + + Prince, Norman, x: 170. + + Princip, slayer of Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand, + arrest following crime, i: 5. + + Pringle, Capt., with Vice-Adm. Wemyss, iv: 323. + + Prussian royal family, i: 168. + + Puryear, 1st Lieut. George W., x: 179. + + + R + + Rasputin, vi: 142 (surrounded by female admirers), ix: 346. + + Rathenau, Dr. Walter, vi: 275. + + Rawlinson, Gen. Sir Henry, ii: 171, iii: 88. + + Read, Maj.-Gen. George W., ix: 224. + + Reading, Lord Rufus, xii: 110. + + Rennenkampf, Gen., ii: 25, iii: 110. + + Rickard, E., vii: 115. + + Rickenbacker, Capt. "Eddie," with mother and sister, x: 260. + + Rizzo, Com., with Lieuts. Aonzo and Gori, iv: 365. + + Robeck, Vice-Adm. de, iv: 35. + + Roberts, Field-Marshal Earl, i: 315, iii: 371, vi: 2. + + Robertson, Gen. Sir William R., iii: 373, ix: 185. + + Rockenbach, Brig.-Gen. Samuel D., v: 315. + + Rodman, Rear-Adm. Hugh, + welcoming King George on U. S. battleship _New York_, iv: 11; + with Adm. Sims on _New York_, iv: 95; + portrait study, ix: 294. + + Romanos, Athos, ix: 80. + + Roosevelt, Capt. Archie, x: 245. + + Roosevelt, Franklin D., with Josephus Daniels, i: 359; + with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._ + + Roosevelt, Capt. Kermit, x: 243. + + Roosevelt, Lieut. Quentin, x: 244. + + Roosevelt, Theodore, + i: 161 (with Kaiser at military maneuvers), + x: 239, 240 (with family), + xi: 114 (reviewing Boy Scouts at Sagamore Hill), + 400 (with grandchild). + + Roosevelt, Lieut.-Col. Theodore Jr., x: 241, 247. + + Root, Elihu, in Moscow, vi: 166. + + Rosenfelt, Henry H., vii: 350. + + Rosenwald, Julius, + with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117. + + Rubinstein, Madam Ida, vii: 374. + + Ruprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria, + i: 130 (with Kaiser and leading German generals), ii: 217, iii: 382. + + Russell, Brig.-Gen. Edgar, v: 318. + + Russell, Col. F. F., vii: 69. + + Russian Princesses, as war nurses, xi: 147. + + Russian royal family, xi: 146, 148 (last photograph.). + + Russian War Mission to United States, members of, vi: 174. + + Russky, Gen., iii: 105. + + Ryan, John D., xii: 125. + + + S + + Salisbury, Lord, i: 56. + + Samsonoff, Gen., ii: 223, iii: 111. + + Sanders, Gen. Liman von, vi: 286. + + Sarrail, Gen., iii: 207. + + Sazonov, Serge, i: 119, vi: 141. + + Scheidemann, Philipp, ix: 136, 137 (with members of cabinet). + + Schurz, Carl, i: 53. + + Schwab, Charles M., ix: 333, 336 (with Edward N. Hurley). + + Seeger, Alan, x: 142. + + Sengier, E., vii: 115. + + Shaler, M. K., vii: 115. + + Sherman, Corp. Whitney D., x: 66. + + Shimamura, Adm., vi: 385. + + Sims, Adm. William S., + i: 391, iv: _frontispiece_ (in color), + 95 (on board battleship _New York_ with Adm. Rodman), + ix: 292 (with family). + + Skinner, Mrs. Otis, vii: 344. + + Smith, Brig.-Gen. Harry A., v: 45. + + Smith, Margaret, vii: 344. + + Smith, Capt. Richard T., x: 69. + + Smith, Maj.-Gen. William R., v: 207. + + Smith-Dorrien, Gen. Sir Horace, ii: 175. + + Smuts, Gen. Jan Christiaan, iii: 256, ix: 188. + + Snow, Maj. William A., x: 320. + + Sonnino, Baron Sidney, ix: 83. + + Sothern, E. H., vii: 340. + + Soukhomlinoff, Gen., iii: 122. + + Sparks, Rear-Adm., + with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._ + + Sparrows, Com., + with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._ + + Spee, Adm. Count von, iv: 60, ix: 307. + + Stage Women's War Relief Committee, members of, vii: 344. + + Stebbins, Miss Katherine, vii: 276. + + Steidl, Sgt. August, x: 93. + + Stein, Corp. Fred C., x: 182. + + Stewart, Lieut.-Col. John W., x: 163. + + Stowers, Sgt. Joseph H., x: 90. + + Sturdee, Vice-Adm. Sir Frederick C. D., iv: 79. + + Sturgis, Maj.-Gen. Samuel D., v: 194. + + Sultans, of Turkey, iii: 357, vi: 331. + + Summerall, Maj.-Gen. Charles P., v: 85. + + Sutherland, Duchess of, at her hospital in France, vii: 109. + + Swinton, Maj.-Gen., ii: 274. + + Symington, 1st Lieut. James M., x: 88. + + + T + + Taft, William Howard, xii: 175. + + Talbot, Dr. F. B., vii: 69. + + Talleyrand, i: 32. + + Tardieu, Andre, i: 286, xii: 160 (at Peace Conference). + + Tatiana, Grand-Duchess, of Russia, xi: 146. + + Taylor, Rear-Adm., + with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._ + + Terauchi, Count, ix: 91. + + Thaw, Maj. William, x: 197. + + Thenault, Capt., x: 197. + + Tirpitz, Adm. Alfred von, + i: 130 (with Kaiser and leading German generals), + ii: 261, iv: 2, 221, ix: 299. + + Townshend, Gen., iii: 365. + + Treitschke, Prof. Heinrich von, i: 174. + + Trotzky, Leon, ii: 232, ix: 111. + + Turkish Crown Prince, iii: 356. + + Turkish Sultans, iii: 357, vi: 331. + + Turner, Lieut. Benjamin E., x: 159. + + Turner, Pvt. Robert I., x: 159. + + Tyrwhitt, Commodore, iv: 251 (with officers of _Arethusa_), 259. + + + U + + Uehara, Gen., vi: 385. + + Umberto, Crown Prince, of Italy, xi: 143. + + Usher, Rear-Adm. Nathaniel R., iv: 320. + + + V + + Venizelos, Eleutherios, iii: 202, ix: 77, 80. + + Victor Emanuel, King of Italy, + iii: 229, vi: 122, ix: 396, xi: 152 (with Prince of Wales). + + Victoria, former Empress of Germany, i: 187, ix: 366, xi: 149. + + Vincent, Mrs. Walter, vii: 344. + + Viviani, Rene, ii: 161, vi: 104, ix: 20. + + + W + + Wadehouse, British Commissioner, at Cyprus, i: 176. + + Wales, Prince of, + ii: 3 (with father and grandfather), + xi: 149, 150 (at age of sixteen), 152 (with King of Italy). + + Walker, Brig.-Gen. Meriweather I., v: 353. + + Wallace, Maj.-Gen., iii: 372. + + Walsh, Frank P., ix: 338. + + Walsh, Sgt. Patrick, x: 101. + + Watson, Lieut.-Col. George L., x: 151. + + Watts, Capt., with members of Navy War Council, iv: _Intro. xi._ + + Weddigen, Lieut.-Com. Otto, iv: 305. + + Weigel, Maj.-Gen. William, v: _facing p._ 308 (in color). + + Welch, Dr. W. H., vii: 69. + + Wemyss, Adm. Sir Rosslyn, on board a U. S. battleship, iv: 323; + meeting German armistice delegates, v: 392. + + Westminster, Duchess of, with her nurses, vii: 136. + + Weygand, Gen., meeting German armistice delegates, v: 392. + + Wharton, Mrs. Edith, vii: 100. + + Wheeler, Margaret, vii: 344. + + White, Henry, xii: 160 (at Peace Conference), 167. + + White, J. B., vii: 115. + + Whitlock, Brand, vi: 83, vii: 117 (with wife), x: 175. + + Whittlesey, Maj. Charles, with Maj. Kenney, v: 238. + + Wilhelmina, Queen of Netherlands, + vii: 172 (with heir and Prince Consort), ix: 404. + + Willard, Daniel, + xii: 117 (with members of U. S. Council of National Defense), 122. + + William I, + Emperor of Germany, portrait study, i: 45; + entry into Versailles, 1871, i: 46; + being proclaimed German Emperor, 1871, i: 55; + triumphal return to Berlin after Franco-Prussian War, i: 150. + + William II, former Emperor of Germany, at age of nineteen, i: 70; + entering Jerusalem, 1898, i: 97; + with leading German generals, i: 130; + with Theodore Roosevelt, watching military maneuvers, i: 161; + in coronation robes, i: 185; + with Edward VII of England, i: 188; + statue as monk in Metz Cathedral, i: 211; + watching troop movements in France, i: 217; + parading with sons in Berlin, ii: 258; + on way to memorial service with family, ii: 261; + portrait studies, ii: 306, ix: 359; + on visit to the front, ii: 330; + with Gen. von Einem, iii: 117; + on Eastern Front, vi: 221, ix: 356; + with Crown Prince and grandson, vi: 263; + with six sons, vi: 298; + with Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, vi: 360; + with Hindenburg and Ludendorff, ix: 364; + in conversation with a German officer, ix: 365; + with the Empress, ix: 366; + at age of six, xi: 140; + at age of sixteen, xi: 141. + + Wilson, Gen. Sir Henry, ii: 71. + + Wilson, William B., + with members of U. S. Council of National Defense, xii: 117. + + Wilson, Woodrow, + addressing Congress, i: 329; + portrait studies, ix; + _frontispiece_ (in color), 57, 59, xi: 132, xii: 181; + delivering speech of acceptance of renomination for Presidency, + '16, ix: 61; + delivering second inaugural address, ix: 65; + marching with service men, xi: 134; + with Adm. Grayson in Brussels, xii: _Intro. xvii_; + on board _George Washington_ on way to Peace Conference, + xii: 187. + + Wilson, Mrs. Woodrow, + ix: 63, + xii: 187 (on board _George Washington_ on way to France). + + Wines, Sgt. Pearl J., x: 236. + + Winn, Maj.-Gen. Frank L., v: 187. + + Winterfeld, Gen. von, + German armistice delegate, meeting with Foch, v: 392. + + Witenmeyer, Maj.-Gen. Edmund, v: 215. + + Wood, Maj.-Gen. Leonard, + iii: _Intro. ix_, ix: 160 (at West Point with Joffre). + + Woyrsch, Gen. von, iii: 140. + + Wright, Maj.-Gen. William M., v: 127, ix: 222. + + + X + + Xenia, Princess, of Montenegro, iii: 153. + + + Y + + Yankoff, Gen., vi: 341. + + Yanushkevitch, Gen., ii: 231. + + Yolanda, Princess, of Italy, xi: 143. + + York, Sgt. Alvin C., x: 14, 15. + + Yuan Shih-k'ai, i: 57. + + + Z + + Zeppelin, Count von, ii: 263. + + + + +II.--GENERAL + + + _Aboukir_, British cruiser, iv: 206. + + Aden, harbor of, vi: 330. + + Aerial photographs, + being assembled to form map of enemy country, viii: 235. + + Aeronautics: + Airplanes, Wright-Martin reconnaissance plane, ii: 124; + directing artillery fire, ii: 129; + in Palestine, ii: _facing p._ 220 (in color); + target as seen from height, ii: 354; + Italian fighting plane, iii: 243; + British airplanes in mass formation, iii: 383; + attacking submarine, iv: 83, 198, 285; + mechanism for launching from deck of battleship, iv: 141; + construction of, iv: _facing p._ 286 (in color), viii: 218; + torpedo-plane, iv: 306; + aviator "true-ing" plane, v: 311; + assembling Liberty planes in France, v: 313; + British flyer dropping wreath on comrade's grave inside + German lines, vii: 188; + aviator dropping bombs, viii: _frontispiece_ (in color), 219; + plane starting flight, viii: _facing p._ 188 (in color); + Spad plane, viii: 190; + Richthofen's "Traveling Circus," viii: 191; + De Haviland-4, viii: 192, xi: 217; + machine-gun mountings on, viii: 193, 209, 211; + German armored plane, showing detail of construction, viii: 195; + German night bomber, viii: 202; + German hydroplane, viii: 203; + Handley-Page bomber, viii: 204, 220; + manufacture of propellers, viii: 205, 239; + Leoning monoplane, viii: 207; + Curtis triplane, viii: 210; + British seaplanes, viii: 213, 237; + camouflaged carrier-ship for, viii: 215; + bomb-carrying devices on, viii: 219, 224, 227; + German Albatross, viii: 222; + Caproni triplane, viii: 223; + Martin bomber, viii: 234; + a U. S. two-seater, viii: _facing p._ 348 (in color); + airplane ambulance, viii: 368; + A. E. F. hangar in France, x: 124; + an air duel, x: 204; + in battle formation, x: 217, 228; + Burgess tractor, x: 392; + patrolling over A. E. F. sector, xi: 138; + Curtiss biplane, xi: 215; + Wright warplane, xi: 218; + inspection before flight, xi: 220; + testing engine before installation, xi: 221; + circling above U. S. battleship _Connecticut_, xi: 223; + U. S. pursuit plane, xi: 225; + skeleton of airplane body, xi: 227; + planes used for carrying Pershing's mail, xi: 348. + Balloons, French sausage type, iii: 305, viii: 260; + operating with naval convoy, iv: 289; + uses of hydrogen vs. helium for inflation of, viii: 244; + U. S. sausage type, viii: 258; + French spherical type, viii: 261; + cable reel of kite balloon, viii: 262. + Dirigibles, Zeppelin being guided by lighthouse, ii: 265; + interior of a Zeppelin, ii: 269; + British dirigible convoying U. S. troopship, iv: 291; + French type, viii: 242; + repairing a French type, viii: 245; + early type of Zeppelin, viii: 247; + Zeppelin _L-49_ shot down by French, viii: 249; + interior of British _R-34_, viii: 251; + fuel tanks on Zeppelin _L-49_, viii: 253; + _R-34_ being filled with gas at Mineola, viii: 255; + U. S. type, viii: 256; + pilot's gondola on a Zeppelin, x: 226; + Zeppelin _L-15_ sinking, x: 361. + + Aeroplanes, _see_ Aeronautics, Airplanes. + + Africa, battle scene in, iii: 251; + scene in German East Africa, iii: 255; + natives, vi: 48. + + Agadir, i: 106. + + Airplanes, _see_ Aeronautics. + + Air raids, funeral of English victims, ii: 300; + London school children seeking shelter under desks, vii: 361; + protection of French works of art against, x: 364. + + Airships, _see_ Aeronautics, Balloons, Dirigibles. + + Aisne River, A. E. F. advance trenches near, v: 259; + airplane view of French hospital on, vii: 63. + + Albatross airplane, viii: 222. + + Albert, ruins of, i: _facing p._ 300 (in color); + ruins of Church of Notre Dame, xi: 23. + + Algeciras Conference, i: 99. + + _Alnwick Castle_, British liner, iv: 231. + + Alpini, iii: 228. + + Alps, scene on Austro-Italian border, ii: 237; + Austrian stronghold on, ii: 241. + + Alsace, a valley in, iii: 21; + forest behind trenches, iii: 47; + American troops entering, May 27, '18, v: 267. + + Alsace-Lorraine, German lookout tower, i: 221; + reunion with France symbolized, ii: 391. + + Ambulances, group of American drivers and cars, vii: 31, 213; + French, mounted on auto trucks, vii: 202; + American, at Verdun, vii: 207, 251; + improvised British, in Mesopotamia, vii: 260; + gathering wounded after battle, vii: 400, xi: 209; + dog-drawn, viii: 378; + woman driver, x: 186; + _see also_ under country, Army; + Hospitals; + Wounded. + + "America," painting by Rene Mal, v: 50. + + American Fund for French Wounded, a Paris fete for, vii: 59; + distributing clothing to refugees, vii: 102; + surgical dressing department, vii: 221; + packing kits for soldiers, vii: 246. + + American Jewish War Relief, bureau of information, vii: 351. + + Amerongen, former German Kaiser's residence at, + after abdication, ix: 358. + + _Amethyst_, British cruiser, iv: 255. + + Amherst College, Army Training Corps at drill, xi: 170. + + Amiens, protecting art treasures from German bombardment, ii: 68. + + Amsterdam, a food riot, vi: 377. + + _Anglia_, British hospital ship, vii: 253. + + Annapolis, U. S. Naval Academy students, xi: 165. + + Anti-aircraft guns, v: 11, viii: 10, 13, 16, xi: 188. + + Antwerp, town hall, ii: 169; + barbed-wire entanglements in streets, ii: 345; + Red Cross trains at, vii: 118. + + _Arabic_, sinking of, iv: 224. + + Arabs, iii: 332; + gun dance, iii: 368. + + _Arethusa_, British destroyer, officers of, iv: 251. + + Argonne Forest, + territory lying before A. E. F. to advance through, v: 75; + U. S. infantrymen advancing through, v: 82, 247; + inside German trenches, v: 214; + A. E. F. officers' headquarters, v: 217; + captured German dugout, v: 235; + men of 77th Div. in, v: 244; + concealed German artillery, xi: 53. + + _Arkansas_, U. S. battleship, + close-up, showing gun fire, iv: 361; + cleared for action, iv: 392. + + Armenians, murdered by Turks, vii: 96. + + Armentieres, British clearing ruins of, i: 240. + + Armies, _see_ name of country; + _also_ Battle scenes. + + Armistice, + German delegates passing through French lines on way to meet Foch, + ii: 390, xii: 251; + first meeting of Allied and German delegates, v: 392; + Paris celebration, vi: 107. + + Armor, + breast-plate for soldier as protection against bullet, viii: 68. + + Armor plate, forging of, viii: 62, xii: 70. + + Arras, town hall, ii: 85; + ruins of Cathedral, ii: 351, iii: 67; + ruins of, iii: 279. + + Artificial hands and arms for war cripples, + eating with mechanical hands, vii: 234; + doing farm work, vii: 235; + doing carpenter work, viii: 383; + manufacture of artificial arms and legs, viii: 385; + doing mechanical work, xi: 290. + + Artillery, manufacturing 16-in. guns at Watervliet Arsenal, i: 304; + line of howitzer fire, ii: 129, iii: 159; + heavy guns on way to front, ii: 147; + ricochet and non-ricochet shells, i: 333; + disappearing gun, v: 307; + mortar battery, viii: 3; + railway-mount guns, viii: 29, xi: 278; + big gun in position for action, viii: 31; + 8-in. howitzer with caterpillar mount, viii: 40; + tractor for hauling, viii: 42; + breech-block and bore of big gun, viii: 44; + construction of long-range gun, viii: 47, 55; + field guns, old and new types, viii: 56; + manufacture of shells, viii: 73; + path of shrapnel fire, viii: 74; + huge naval gun, xi: 273; + shrapnel exploding, xi: 275; + heavy shells on way to front, xi: 279; + camouflaged gun and gunners, xi: 292, 293; + construction of howitzers, xii: 73; + of different belligerents, _see_ name of country; + in action, _see_ Battle scenes; + _also_ Shells. + + Assouan, vi: 78. + + Astronomical instruments, Chinese, + carried by Germans from Peking, vi: 255. + + _Asturias_, hospital ship, i: 293. + + Athens, war-time crowds, iii: 155. + + Australia, army, embarking for overseas, ii: 201, vi: 38, 40; + landing at Gallipoli, iii: 167, iv: 40; + charging at Gallipoli, iii: 353. + + Austria-Hungary, army, + reservists in New York reporting for service, i: 281; + Alpine defenses, ii: 241; + artillery captured by Italians, ii: 287; + cavalry entering Polish village, iii: 123; + in Carpathian trenches, iii: 142; + on Isonzo front overlooking Italian positions, iii: 236; + resting, vi: 211; + at field mass, vi: 308; + in Tyrol stronghold, vi: 309; + siege gun, viii: 26. + + Auteuil, tent hospital at, vii: 205, 206; + hospital workers serving coffee to convalescents, vii: 243. + + _Ayesha_, schooner + used by crew of _Emden_ to escape in, iv: 191. + + + B + + _B-2_, British submarine, iv: 58. + + Badges and medals of American Red Cross, + vii: _facing p._ 50 (in color). + + Badonville, raid on German trenches near, v: 232. + + Bagdad, iii: 186; + Arabs in, iii: 332. + + Bairnsfather, Capt. Bruce, cartoons by, ii: 116, iii: 22, 23, 26. + + Balloons, _see_ Aeronautics. + + _Baltic_, life-boats, iv: 234. + + _Baltimore_, U. S. cruiser, iv: 329. + + Barbed-wire, as trench protection, ii: 284; + entanglements of, in Antwerp streets, ii: 345; + in Tsing-Tau defenses, iv: 61; + cutting device, viii: 154; + cutting entanglements by hand, xi: 254. + + Barcy, battlefield of, iii: 25. + + Baseball, U. S. army men playing, vii: 315; + King George at game between U. S. Army and Navy teams in London, + xi: 153. + + Battalion of Death, Russian women's, iii: 125, vi: 162, xi: 206, 208; + Polish women's, vi: 218. + + Battle scenes, + charge by Prussian cuirassiers in Franco-Prussian War, i: 214; + French soldiers in the Vosges charging on skis, i: 216; + Belgians behind street barricades repulsing Germans, i: 312; + French machine gunners at Mancourt, ii: 43; + night bombardment by artillery, ii: 102; + airplane view during action on Western Front, ii: 105; + the dead after battle in Flanders, ii: 117; + British charge at Montaubon, ii: 121; + holes shot by shell fire, ii: 133, v: 236; + fight for Kemmel Hill, ii: 152; + poilus charging, ii: 185; + Allied dead on battlefield, ii: 194; + Highlanders attacking near Ypres, ii: 213; + Belgians on skirmish duty, ii: 347; + killed and debris on Marne battlefield, iii: 27, 94; + Germans crossing Marne River, iii: 32; + flash-light photograph at night, iii: 44; + British charging during battle of the Somme, iii: 57; + German charge at Chemin des Dames, iii: 73; + British bombardment of Passchendaele Ridge, iii: 78; + in Meuse-Argonne, iii: 101; + on Russo-German front, iii: 119; + in African jungle, iii: 251; + fight for Erzerum, iii: 263; + heap of Serbian dead, iii: 283; + cavalry charge, iii: 289; + killed German outposts, iii: 291; + directing battle by telephone, iii: 314; + Australians charging at Gallipoli, iii: 353; + at Messines Ridge, iii: 360; + battle wreckage, iii: 361, vi: 367, xi: 302, 309; + British blowing up ammunition dumps, iii: 384; + wounded awaiting transportation, iii: 385; + Scots on outpost duty, iii: 389; + naval action, iv: 17; + warship struck by torpedo, iv: 55; + British landing party at Zeebrugge, iv: 265; + U. S. Marines at Belleau Wood, v: 137; + Russian retreat from Galicia, vi: 180; + Russians charging through barbed wire, vi: 186; + Italian killed, vi: 310; + vision of Christ on battlefield, vii: 5; + ambulance men gathering wounded, vii: 400, xi: 209; + effect of howitzer fire on fort, viii: 135; + British Rifle Brigade at Neuve Chapelle, x: 11; + liquid fire attack, x: 19; + attack with grenades, x: 21; + night naval attack at Dardanelles, x: 36; + British meeting Turk attack at Gallipoli, x: 39; + charge of London Scottish at Messines, x: 45; + tanks advancing, x: 59; + Italians hard pressed by enemy, x: 63; + winning a Victoria Cross, x: 72; + British artillery in action, x: 107, 129; + Highlanders fighting through Loos, x: 157; + long-range bombardment of Austrian positions by Italians, x: 359; + hand-to-hand fight on destroyer _Broke_, x: 370; + Gurkhas capturing German trench, xi: 192; + tanks in action, xi: 252, 256, 263; + shrapnel explosion, xi: 275; + gas attack, xi: 319; + _see also_ Dead; + Wounded. + + Battleship in process of construction, + iv: _facing p._ 126 (in color). + + _Bayern_, German battleship, iv: 389. + + Beersheba, iii: 199. + + Belgium, + triumphant, symbolic painting, iii: _facing p._ 380 (in color). + Army, cavalry troops after defense of Liege, i: 208; + at mess with French soldiers, i: 241; + behind street barricade fighting Germans, i: 312; + cavalryman, ii: 160; + scouting, ii: 286; + on skirmish duty, ii: 347; + a "fighting priest" in trenches, iii: 15; + cavalry in trenches, iii: 19; + a sentry, iii: 285; + snipers, iii: 287; + anti-aircraft gun, viii: 13; + field gun, viii: 24. + Neutrality, facsimile of signatures to Treaty of 1839 guaranteeing, + i: 147. + Relief, supply ship on way from U. S., vii: 120; + relief packages, vii: 126; + making cradles for babies, vii: 141; + warehouse full of supplies, vii: 143; + relief workers in New York packing clothing for, vii: 165; + home return of refugees, ix: _facing p._ 368 (in color); + Queen Elizabeth medal for workers, ix: 391. + + Benet-Mercier machine gun, viii: 82. + + Berlin, victorious entry of William I, 1871, i: 150; + royal palace, i: 158; + soldiers leaving for the front, i: 191; + wreckage after food riots, vi: 256; + a public square, Nov., '18, vi: 257; + Brandenburger Gate, vi: 272; + Reichstag Building, vi: 277, xi: 3; + proclamation of German Republic, Nov. 8, '18, vi: 277; + barricaded streets during revolution, vi: 279; + transporting food by tram, vi: 282; + Spartacan demonstration, Feb., '19, vi: 290; + fighting between government troops and radicals, vi: 299; + demonstrations against Peace Treaty, vi: 301, xii: 214. + + Berlin, Congress of, 1878, i: 49; + British caricature of, i: 51. + + Bethlehem, Pa., a steel plant at, xii: 67. + + Bethune, airplane view of, ii: 127. + + Bibles, for U. S. service men, vii: 284. + + "Big Bertha," German long-range gun, + fragment of shell used in bombarding Paris, + viii: 46, 48, 58, 63, xi: 272; + diagram of shell, viii: 53; + prepared base for, viii: 61. + + Black Watch Regiment, British, x: 56. + + Blind, learning modelling in clay, vii: 256; + benefit entertainment in New York for aid of, vii: 258; + learning basketry, vii: 259. + + _Bluecher_, German cruiser, iv: 247; + sinking of, in battle of Dogger Bank, iv: 249. + + Blue Cross, care of horses wounded in battle, vii: 227, 228. + + "Blue Devils," French, iii: 49, v: 151. + + Bolsheviki, agitator addressing troops, vi: 165; + Madrid demonstration, vi: 372. + + Bombs, bomb-room in a British fuse factory, ii: 119; + illuminating bombs exploding, v: 133; + aviator dropping, viii: _frontispiece_ (in color), + 219 (apparatus for, on German plane); + devices for carrying, on airplanes, viii: 224, 227; + French women manufacturing, xi: 283; + _see also_ Depth charge. + + Bosphorus, i: 12, iii: 369. + + Bouillonville, street scene, v: 160. + + _Bouvet_, French battleship, iv: 48. + + Boy Scouts, + Red Cross men of future, xi: _frontispiece_ (in color); + daily good turn, xi: _facing p._ 96 (in color); + pledging allegiance to flag, xi: 97; + at salute, xi: 98; + wounded scout, xi: 99; + as war gardeners, xi: 101, 115, 116; + on visit to White House, xi: 102; + bridging stream, xi: 103; + learning cooperation, xi: 104; + camping, xi: 105; + as town cleaners, xi: 106; + as wireless operators, xi: 107; + in hiking outfit, xi: 108; + Third Liberty Loan poster, xi: 109; + field map making, xi: 110; + signalling, xi: 111, _facing p._ 224 (in color); + encampment, xi: 112; + emergency coast guards, xi: 113; + on review before Theodore Roosevelt, xi: 114; + as wood cutters, xi: 117; + listening to scoutmaster around the camp-fire, + xi: _facing p._ 118 (in color). + + Brandenburger Gate, Berlin, vi: 272. + + Bread tickets, German, vi: 261. + + Brest, debarkation of A. E. F., v: 3. + + Breton peasant, v: 160. + + Breton-Pretot machine, for cutting barbed wire, viii: 153. + + Brialmont type of fort, ii: 350. + + _Britannia_, British tank in U. S., viii: 137, 138, 142. + + Brown University, Army Training Corps, xi: 163. + + Browning machine-gun, light type, viii: 85; + heavy type, viii: 85. + + Bruges, airplane view, viii: 232; + entry of King Albert into, ix: 390. + + Brussels, town hall, i: 140; + bird's-eye view, i: 201; + during German occupation, i: 253; + Senate chamber used as church by Germans, i: 311; + German soldiers visiting Art Museum, ii: 344; + Palace of Justice, iii: 271; + King Albert's palace, ix: 387. + + Bucharest, royal palace, ii: 62; + bird's-eye view, vi: 352. + + Buckingham Palace, London, i: 127; + on night of declaration of war, i: 138. + + Budapest, the quay, vi: 325. + + Bulgaria, mountain village, vi: 339; + peasant women, vi: 340; + army, supply train behind the lines, vi: 343. + + Bullets, diagram showing path of, viii: 93; + types of, used by airmen, viii: 212. + + Burgess tractor, in flight, x: 392. + + Burmese troops, vi: 6. + + + C + + Cambrai, Canadians in, iii: 80. + + Camels, as cavalry mounts, iii: 192; + caravan resting, iii: 367; + use by British in Egyptian campaign, vi: 68; + for carrying wounded, vi: 71; + as transport train in Asia Minor, vi: 333. + + Cameroons, battle scene, iii: 251; + native market, vi: 52. + + Camouflage, concealed British guns, ii: 123, 128; + wooden cannon, vi: 238; + screened railroad tracks, vi: 247, viii: 337; + over roadway, vi: 368; + example of need for, viii: 338; + soldier disguised by, viii: 339, 342; + for railway-mount guns, viii: 343, 347; + _Mauretania_ in "dazzle" paint, viii: 344; + protected gun and gunners, xi: 292; + camouflaged mortar, xi: 293. + + Canada, army recruiting by phonograph, i: 314; + veterans of second battle of Ypres, i: 379; + being reviewed by Field-Marshal Haig, ii: 114; + forestry unit, ii: 130; + presentation of colors, ii: 342; + going over top at Vimy Ridge, iii: 69; + in Cambrai, iii: 80; + in Flanders, iii: 345; + on hike, iii: 346; + artillery at the front, iii: 348; + 90th Winnipeg Rifles, vi: 24; + 1st Battalion, vi: 29; + guarding International Bridge, Niagara Falls, vi: 31, 34; + encamped at Toronto, viii: 305; + digging trenches, viii: 140. + + Canteens, + for service men, scenes in, vii: 7, + 56, _facing p._ 96 (in color), 268, 270, 394; + Red Cross automobile canteen, vii: 248; + group of Y. M. C. A. women workers, vii: 269. + + Cantigny, men of 1st Div., A. E. F., advancing at, ii: 271; + French flame throwers after the attack, v: 32; + French sappers at ruins of, v: 33; + French and American veterans of, v: 125. + + Cape Town, parade to aid recruiting, i: 383; + bird's-eye view, vi: 50. + + Caproni triplane, viii: 223. + + Carbon monoxide producer, viii: 187. + + Carrel-Dakin treatment ward in a war hospital, xi: 288. + + Cartoons: + American, civilization obscured by war, i: 87; + burning of American manufacturing plants, i: 275; + response to Europe's appeal for aid, i: 276; + on preparedness, i: 280, 297, 335, iv: 315; + German submarine warfare, i: 300, iv: 227; + responsibility of rulers for war, i: 314; + futility of diplomacy, i: 325, 326; + German hatred of U. S., i: 330; + barbarian's contempt for warring Europe, i: 335; + war debt for future generations, ii: 297; + German intrigue with Mexico, ii: 341; + disregard of international law by belligerents, iv: 230; + Iron Cross, v: 23; + Red Cross, vii: 28; + effect of U. S. loans to Allies, xii: 10; + Europe's dependence on American food supply, xii: 144. + Austrian, conception of hatred, i: 149; + Zeppelin attacks on England, i: 302. + Belgian, on German brutality, vii: 129. + British, Kaiser's project of Mittel-Europa, i: 10; + Bismarck's resignation from Chancellorship, from _Punch_, + i: 74; + German hypocrisy, _Punch_, Sept. 9, '14, i: 90; + U. S. indifference to German outrages, _Punch_, + Sept. 23, '14, i: 91; + Kaiser as protector of Islam, _Punch_, Apr. 5, '15, i: 100; + Germany's naval aspirations, _Punch_, July 12, '05, i: 105; + German advances to Holland, _Punch_, Jan. 11, '11, i: 118; + French desire to revenge 1870, i: 121; + French alarm over Austrian defeat, 1866, from _Punch_, + i: 123; + frightfulness of war, i: 195; + Kaiser's Eastern policy, _Punch_, May 10, 1890, i: 203; + German use of frightfulness, _Punch_, Feb. 17, '15, i: 284; + Kaiser world's enemy, _Punch_, Aug. 19, '14, i: 294; + U. S. protests at British maritime acts, _Punch_, + Jan. 6, '15, i: 298; + Kaiser's attitude on peace, _Punch_, Sept. 23, '18, i: 316; + U. S. relations with Germany, _Punch_, Apr. 21, '15, i: 324; + German atrocities, i: 351; + Capt. Bruce Bairnsfather's caricatures of life at the front, + ii: 116, iii: 22, 23, 26; + Belgium's defiance of Germany, _Punch_, Oct. 21, '14, + iii: 9, Aug. 12, '14, iii: 275; + German military failures, _Punch_, Nov. 4, '14, iii: 29; + Kaiser outcast from civilization, Feb. 19, '15, iii: 299; + Kaiser's plan for invasion of England, _Punch_, + Oct. 28, '14, iv: 3; + German alliance with Austria and Bulgaria, iv: 6; + Germany's attempted blockade of England, _Punch_, + Feb. 17, '15, iv: 9; + loyalty of India, _Punch_, Sept. 9 '14, x: 341. + Dutch, Raemaekers' conception of Kultur, i: 222; + Reims Cathedral as temple of war, i: 231; + Germany's decline in strength, '17, i: 307; + Raemaekers on German deportation of Belgian workmen, i: 363; + Flemish "prosperity," Raemaekers' view of, vi: 85; + Raemaekers' conception of Kaiser haunted by sins, vi: 285. + French, "They shall not pass," i: 230. + German, British policy with regard to Asiatics, i: 54; + Hague Temple of Peace, i: 94; + British difficulties with India, i: 101; + caricature of Sir Edward Grey, i: 198; + influences forcing U. S. into war, i: 289; + injustice of U. S. war against Germany, i: 290; + Japanese menace against U. S., i: 290; + on Allied Somme offensive, '16, i: 301; + U. S. munition trade, i: 307; + British advances to Bulgaria, i: 310; + Dr. Karl Helfferich, i: 318; + U. S. difficulties with Mexico, i: 323; + mailed fist, ii: _Intro. xix_; + on British censorship, ii: 101; + on British slackers, ii: 180; + on spy scare in England, ii: 260; + on U. S. neutrality, ii: 304; + British failure to accomplish war aims, iv: 192; + on submarine success, iv: 217; + British indifference to American submarine losses, iv: 229; + frightfulness of war, iv: 232; + use of works of art as defense, v: 13. + Italian, extent of British Empire, i: 122; + on U. S. entry into war, i: 299; + on Italian neutrality, ii: 359; + Germany's invasion of Belgium, iii: 274. + Japanese, German reverses, iv: 175. + Norwegian, German conception of freedom of the sea, i: 357. + Unidentified, intervention of Powers to save Turkey, 1878, i: 41. + + Cartridges, kinds, viii: 60. + + Casement, Sir Roger, German passport of, ix: 52. + + Castle, Vernon, flying, xi: 214. + + Catapult, used for launching airplanes, iv: 141; + use in hauling grenades, viii: 119. + + Cavell, Edith, funeral procession entering Westminster Abbey, x: 177; + Norwich memorial to, x: 180. + + Chamber of Deputies, French, xi: 2. + + Chasseur Alpin, ii: _frontispiece_ (in color). + + Chateau-Thierry, river front, ii: 82; + bird's-eye view, ii: 156, v: 34: x. 4; + ruins of, ii: 272; + street barricade, v: 61; + company of 26th Div. going out of action at, v: 153. + + Chaumont, Pershing's headquarters at, vii: 317. + + Chavaniac, Chateau of, Lafayette's birthplace, vii: 110, xi: 6; + interior view, vii: 113. + + Chemical warfare, gas mask adjusted for use, v: 140; + filling tanks with phosgene, v: 322; + filling shells with mustard gas, v: 323, viii: 165; + testing an American gas mask, v: 325; + American "Model 1919" gas mask, v: 326; + gas training for American troops, viii: 121; + poison gas in iron drums, viii: 163; + effect of gas on leather gloves, viii: 167; + filling shells with phosgene, viii: 169; + frozen cube of mustard gas, viii: 172; + early types of gas masks, viii: 174, 175; + French "Model M-2" gas mask, viii: 175; + American "Model K. T." gas mask, viii: 176; + types of gas masks used by different belligerents, viii: 177; + diagram of gas mask, viii: 178; + views of U. S. poison gas plant at Edgewood Arsenal, + viii: 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187; + gas masks for horses, xi: 315; + Germans under gas attack, xi: 317; + a gas attack before invention of masks, xi: 319. + + Chemin des Dames, soldiers exploring captured territory, ii: 78. + + Children in war: + American, cultivating war garden, ii: 17; + new commander-in-chief, xi: _facing p._ 368 (in color). + Armenian, refugees from Turkey at Salonika, vii: 369. + Belgian, greeting British relief worker, vii: 134; + wounded, vii: 242; + under care of Red Cross, xi: 85; + refugees in France, xi: 86. + British, London school-children in air raid drill, vii: 361; + as war gardeners, xi: 364, 367. + French, making friends with American soldiers, v: 164, xi: 81; + outfitted with clothing by American Fund for French Wounded, + vii: 102; + cared for by Red Cross, vii: 200, 201, 368; + war nurseries, vii: 211, 217; + going to school with gas masks, vii: 352; + being photographed with mothers by Germans for identification, + xi: 59; + school in war zone, xi: 66; + little soldier asleep, xi: 70; + repatriated war refugees, xi: 75; + seeking safety in cellars, xi: 76; + offering prayers of thanksgiving, xi: 78; + treasuring presents of toys, xi: 79; + American Red Cross worker with little refugee, xi: 87; + Red Cross sketches used in educational campaign + for proper care of, xi: 87-90; + refugees at La Jonchere Sanatorium, xi: 91; + playing at war, xi: 120, 374, 376, 379, 381, 383, 385; + posing for doughboy, xi: _facing p._ 270 (in color); + tribute to marching U.S. soldiers, + xi: _facing p._ 324 (in color); + school-girls waiting to welcome Gen. Petain, xii: 114. + German, day home for soldiers' children in Berlin, xi: 64. + Italian, group of war refugees, xi: 67; + young hero, xi: 68; + in underground Venetian school, xi: 69; + refugees in London, xi: 92. + Russian, Archangel school-children, xi: 379. + Serbian, war orphans, vii: 148; + the little sergeant, xi: 71; + war sufferers, xi: 73. + _See also_ + Boy Scouts; + Refugees. + + Christmas card for Kaiser from Uncle Sam, + xi: _facing p._ 248 (in color). + + _City of Portland_, U. S. motor ship, launching of, xii: 96. + + Clemenceau, Georges, boyhood home, ix: 4; + scene of attempted assassination, ix: 9; + pen with which signed Peace Treaty, ix: 13. + + Cleveland, view of docks and shipping, xii: 148. + + Colmar, iii: 66. + + Cologne, bridge across Rhine at, i: 157. + + Colt machine-gun, viii: 80; + mounted on motor cycle, viii: 81; + use against air craft, viii: 83. + + Committee of Mercy, caring for Belgian children, vii: 134; + helping refugees from Louvain, vii: 137. + + Congress, U. S., President Wilson addressing, i: 329. + + _Connecticut_, U. S. battleship, xi: 222. + + Constantinople, general view, i: 60, iii: 369, vi: 345; + Galata Bridge, iii: 165; + Golden Horn, iv: 29, vi: 337; + Mosque of St. Sophia, vi: 232; + Imperial Treasury, vi: 233. + + Constanza, harbor of, i: 199. + + Convoy system, Allied, iv: 7. + + Copenhagen, bird's-eye view, i: 132. + + Cornell University, machine-gun squad, xi: 157. + + _Cornwallis_, British, + battleship in action at Dardanelles, iv: 42. + + Cossack troops, ii: 233, iii: 130, vi: 195. + + Cracow, Florian Gate, vi: 203; + Cathedral, vi: 204. + + Craonne, ruins of French church after bombardment, i: 396. + + Crillon, Hotel, + headquarters of American peace delegation at Paris, xii: 245. + + Culebra Cut, Panama Canal, i: 85. + + Curtis triplane, viii: 210. + + Curtiss biplane, xi: 215. + + Cyprus, scene during ceremonies of British annexation of, i: 176. + + Czechoslovak girls in native dress, vi: 398. + + + D + + _Daffodil_, British ferry boat, after Zeebrugge raid, iv: 270. + + _Danton_, French battleship, iv: 377. + + Danube River, iii: 217. + + Danzig, vi: 296. + + Dardanelles, iv: 21, vi: 329; + night bombardment at, by British warships, x: 36. + + Dartmouth College, student regiment at drill, xi: 157. + + De Haviland-4 airplane, viii: 192, xi: 217. + + De Wet, Gen., surrender to Gen. Botha, iii: 254. + + Dead, after a battle in Flanders, ii: 117; + field strewn with Allied dead, ii: 194; + poilu saluting grave of comrade, + iii: _facing p._ 100 (in color); + Serbians killed in defending Belgrade, iii: 283; + German outposts killed on Galician front, iii: 291; + loading trawlers with the killed in + Gallipoli fighting for burial at sea, iv: 52; + Italians killed in front of Austrian positions, vi: 310; + Armenians murdered by Turks, vii: 96; + gravestones for A. E. F. buried in France, x: 115; + cartload of, from battlefield, x: 349. + + Decorations, German Crown Prince bestowing Iron Cross, ii: 39; + first recipients of Croix de Guerre, iii: 12; + Clemenceau decorating a priest, iii: 85; + Rumanian King decorating troops, iii: 219; + Gen. Helmick awarding D. S. C. to colored troops, v: 268; + King George of England decorating U. S. soldier, v: 383; + badges and medals of American Red Cross, + vii: _facing p._ 50 (in color); + Salvation Army girls being decorated by Gen. Edwards, vii: 395; + Marshal Joffre decorating officers, ix: 158; + honoring French war heroes, x: _frontispiece_ (in color); + Gen. Neville decorating colors of 6th U. S. Marine Regt., x: 199. + + Delhi, vi: 74. + + Depth charge exploding, iv: 198, x: 307. + + Detroit, automobiles ready for shipment, xii: 17. + + _Deutschland_, German merchant submarine, iv: 215, xi: 236; + at Baltimore, x: 270; + returning to Bremen, x: 273. + + Dinant, fortress and town of, i: 143, ii: 349; + a chateau near, iii: 13. + + Dixmude, destruction of, i: _facing p._ 198 (in color). + + Dogs in war, drawing Belgian artillery, ii: 196; + searching for Germans, iii: 18; + as Red Cross workers, vii: 156, 222; + pulling ambulance, viii: 378; + French war dogs, xi: 341; + Dutch war dogs pulling machine gun, xi: 343; + training French war dogs, xi: 345; + Italian despatch dogs, xi: 347; + Italian war dogs carrying supplies to Front, xi: 363. + + Douaumont, Fort, view from air, viii: 228. + + Dublin, ruins of Sinn Fein Rebellion, '16, vi: 55, 61; + street fighting, '16, vi: 58. + + Duma, Russian, meeting-place, vi: 173. + + Dynamos, carried away by Germans from French and Belgian factories, + vi: 250. + + + E + + Eagle Hut, American Y. M. C. A. honor for service men in London, + vii: 264, 288, 320. + + Eagle Hut, Y. M. C. A. house for service men in + Bryant Park, New York City, vii: 265. + + East Africa, German, Hindu shop, vi: 51; + native troops, vi: 253; + rural scene, vi: 254. + + Echternach, vi: 92. + + Egypt, supply depot, vi: 67; + native troops, vi: 69; + laborers in France, vi: 70; + northern, vi: 81. + + Ehrenbreitstein, German fortress at, i: 156. + + Eiffel Tower, equipped with searchlight, ii: 267. + + _Emden_, German cruiser, iv: 171; + before the war, iv: 173; + ashore on Keeling Island, Nov. 9, '14, iv: 182. + + Enfield rifle, viii: 98, 100, 103, 104. + + Erzerum, fight for, iii: 263; + general view of, iii: 268. + + Essey, ruins of, v: 156. + + + F + + _Falaba_, sinking of, by U-boat, x: 287. + + "Fantom of Death," xi: 395. + + Fere-en-Tardenois, ruins of, ii: 323. + + _Feuta_, Austrian cruiser, iv: 283. + + Fismes, Hotel de Ville, ruins of, v: 191. + + Fiume, vi: 315. + + Flanders, German trenches, ii: 109; + the killed after a battle, ii: 117; + French and Belgian ammunition trains on way to front, ii: 193; + German artillery in, iii: 36. + + Flirey, ruins of, v: 151. + + _Florida_, U. S. battleship, guns of, iv: 350. + + Food conservation, drying fruits and vegetables, xii: 52; + municipal canning station, xii: 61; + a community conference on, xii: 140. + + Ford baby tank, xi: 262. + + Foreign Legion, vi: 229, x: 28, xi: 194. + + France: + Army, advancing in the Vosges on skis, i: 216; + at mess with Belgian troops, i: 241; + on guard on Swiss border, i: 259; + Chasseur Alpin ("Blue Devils"), + ii: _frontispiece_ (in color), iii: 49, v: 151; + machine gunners at Mancourt, ii: 43; + scouts on the Meuse, ii: 45; + sappers at work, ii: 73; + poilu on guard in Alsace, ii: _facing p._ 136 (in color); + receiving instructions before going into trenches, ii: 153; + poilus charging, ii: 185; + grenadiers at Chemin des Dames, ii: 215; + on march with American soldiers, ii: 219; + soldiers' wives waiting in line to get government allowance, + ii: 378; + poilu, iii: _frontispiece_ (in color); + first recipients of Croix de Guerre, iii: 12; + Clemenceau decorating a priest, iii: 85; + field kitchen, iii: 311; + flame throwers at Cantigny, v: 32; + sappers at Cantigny, v: 33; + wounded poilu being supported by doughboy, v: 50; + sketches of poilu types, v: 156; + supply train on way to front, v: 302; + wounded soldier being brought in by American comrade, v: 386; + North African trooper, vi: _facing p._ 378 (in color); + wounded soldiers in Switzerland, vi: 381; + types of infantry equipment, viii: 71; + soldiers watching bombardment in the Vosges, + viii: _facing p._ 122 (in color); + testing fitness of soldiers, viii: 352, 353; + Marshal Joffre decorating officers, ix: 158; + decorating war heroes, x: _frontispiece_ (in color); + brave wounded, x: 112; + spahis, x: 117; + group of airmen, x: 207; + soldiers resting, x: 367, xi: 190; + cavalry on march, xi: 49; + sappers with tools, xi: 312; + war-dogs, xi: 341, 345; + _see also_ Battle scenes. + Artillery, on Champagne front, ii: 66; + heavy guns on way to front, ii: iii, v: 349; + bringing shells to advanced positions, iii: 59; + big railway-mount guns, iii: 65, v: 166, viii: 35; + famous "75's," iii: 93; + supply of shells, iii: 312; + 155-mm. guns, v: 172; + biggest gun used in war, viii: 52; + a big shell, viii: 57. + Industry, ruined machinery of a manufacturing plant, ii: 77; + dynamos carried away by Germans, vi: 250. + Navy, warship taking on provisions, iv: 177; + device for detection of U-boats, iv: 308; + battleships in battle order, iv: 374; + naval guns on Western Front, viii: 341, 343; + _see also_ name of war vessel. + Parliament, Chamber of Deputies, xi: 2. + + "France Aroused," sculpture, i: 142. + + Free Milk for France, poster, vii: 377; + American girls raising funds for, vii: 378. + + Freiburg, vi: 288. + + Fryatt, Capt. Charles, body being escorted through Dover streets, + x: 267; + funeral cortege entering St. Paul's Cathedral, London, x: 268; + grave, x: 269. + + _Furious_, British floating aerodrome, iv: 287. + + + G + + Galicia, oil wells, iii: 144; + ruined oil fields, iii: 265; + German soldiers marching through, xi: 17. + + Gallipoli, British troops landing, iii: 167, iv: 37, 40; + wounded Anzacs, iii: 169, 172; + Anzac trenches, iii: 170, 171, 342; + Sedd-ul Bahr fortress, iii: 341; + Anzac camp, iii: 351; + Australians charging, iii: 353; + loading trawlers with Allied dead for burial at sea, iii: 354; + bombardment of fortifications by Allied warships, iv: 38; + signaling by heliograph at, vi: 228; + British meeting Turkish attack, x: 39; + scene behind Anzac lines, xi: 15. + + Gas masks, types of, v: 326, viii: 174, 175, 176, 177, 178. + + Geneva, interior of Victoria Hall, xii: 172. + + _George Washington_, U. S. transport used by President Wilson + for trip to France for Peace Conference, xii: 162; + starting on first trip across with the President, xii: 187. + + Germany: + Army, Southwest African cavalry, i: 11; + Southwest African camel corps, i: 96; + machine-gun abandoned in Belgium, i: 237; + reservists reporting to colors, i: 248; + soldiers bivouacked in ballroom, i: 252; + infantry marching to Ostend, i: 349; + firing from behind defensive shelter, ii: 29; + signal corps at work, ii: 100; + in trenches in Flanders, ii: 109; + in underground quarters, ii: 256; + soldier surrendering, ii: 295, v: 48; + group of airmen, ii: 336; + at mess on Eastern Front, ii: 362; + in Poland, iii: 108, vi: 207; + entrenched machine-gun battery, iii: 131; + staff officers observing bombardment, iii: 134; + field telephone station, iii. 295; + struggling through Serbian mud, iii: 399; + in trenches in Argonne, v: 214; + in a Russian forest, vi: 212; + building trenches, vi: 245; + war booty, vi: 250; + soldier harvesting, vi: 251; + East African troops, vi: 253; + pay-day, vi: 267; + wounded being gathered by ambulance men, vii: 208; + plan of underground village for troops, viii: 126; + first line trench shelters at Pleimont, viii: 131; + "pill-boxes," viii: 132; + officer's underground bed-room, viii: 133; + a trench, viii: 134; + infantry resting, xi: 10, 199; + in Galicia, xi: 17; + bridging a river, xi: 27; + entering bombarded Russian town, xi: 34; + Uhlans, xi: 196; + troops returning to rear, xi: 197; + troops on church parade, xi: 201; + entering Lemberg, xi: 203; + _see also_ Battle scenes. + Artillery, anti-aircraft gun, ii: 364; + in Flanders, iii: 36; + howitzers, iii: 128, viii: 32; + observation tower, viii: 15; + fragment of long-range shell used in bombarding Paris, + viii: 46, 48, 58, 63, xi: 272; + diagram of long-range shell, viii: 53; + prepared position for "Big Bertha," viii: 61. + National Assembly, in session, vi: 274. + Navy, naval base at Kiel, ii: 56; + battle cruisers, iv: 146; + submarine dry-dock in Kiel Canal, iv: 202; + coat of arms on captured U-boat, iv: 212; + interior of a U-boat, iv: 237; + officers and men of captured U-boat, iv: 238; + captured U-boats in Brooklyn Navy Yard, iv: 297; + surrender of fleet to Allies at Scapa Flow, + iv: 381, 382, 383, 386, 390; + naval gun captured on Western Front, viii: 30; + details of U-boats, viii: 265, 267; + aboard a torpedo boat, x: 278; + _see also_ Submarines; + _also_ name of vessel. + Reichstag Building, vi: 277, xi: 3. + Ship-building yard, ii: 19. + + Gibraltar, Rock of, ii: _Intro. xiv._ + + _Gloucester Castle_, British hospital ship, iv: 233. + + _Goeben_, German cruiser, v: 15. + + Gold $5,000,000 in kegs on way from U. S. to Europe, i: 269. + + Golden Horn, Constantinople, iv: 29, vi: 337. + + Grand Pre, ruins of, v: 263. + + "Gratitude March," + Polish school-boy's tribute to American children, xi: 390, 392. + + Great Britain: + Army, in German East Africa, i: 14, iii: 252; + New Guinea colonials, i: 81; + railroad construction in France, ii: 44, v: 296; + machine-gun unit on Western Front, ii: 125; + regiment of Highlanders, ii: 172; + motor lorries on way to front, ii: 192, iii: 5; + street barricade against Germans in a French town, ii: 289; + assisting in recruiting, ii: 310; + descending Mount of Olives in Palestine, + ii: _facing p._ 332 (in color); + cavalry in trenches, ii: 19; + on Italian Front, iii: 241; + in Cameroons, iii: 251; + supply train, iii: 317; + advance medical station in Palestine, iii: 326; + cavalry resting, iii: 362; + wounded awaiting transportation, iii: 385, vii: 196, 238; + bringing up pontoons for use at front, iii: 387; + "Die Hards," iii: 388; + Scots on outpost duty, iii: 389; + on Salonika Front, iii: 397; + going over the top, flash-light photo, v: 293; + recruiting posters, vi: 6, 63, vii: 129, xi: 334; + in trenches, vi: 62; + on march, vi: _facing p._ 130 (in color); + supplies at Salonika, vi: 225; + bandaging wounded on Western Front, vii: 97; + "Tommy" making friends with Belgian children, vii: 134; + Sudanese troops in Egypt, vii: 323; + entering Bagdad, vii: 326; + troop train in France, vii: 388; + field oven viii: 291; + Rifle Brigade fighting way through Neuve Chapelle, x: 11; + charge of London Scottish at Messines, x: 45; + Black Watch Regiment, x: 56; + Scots fighting through Loos, x: 157; + soldiers with captured souvenirs, xi: 182; + cavalry camp, xi: 184; + smiling Tommies going to battle, xi: 185; + wounded soldiers at Neuve Chapelle, xi: 187; + awaiting inspection, xi: 297; + Highlander with doughboy, xi: 361; + _see also_ Australia; + Battle scenes; + Canada; + India; + New Zealand; + South Africa. + Artillery, in action, ii: 128, 132, x: 107, 129; + returning from front, ii: 158; + big guns on way to front, vi: 65; + hauling big gun into position, vi: 90; + howitzer, viii: 33. + Navy, on board a battleship, iv: 25; + on board a monitor, iv: 26; + gun and gun crew of monitor, iv: 34, 281; + mine-sweepers, iv: 51; + patrol boat on duty, iv: 73; + veterans of battle of Jutland, iv: 122, 155; + recruiting poster, iv: 139; + battle cruisers, iv: 151; + heroes of Zeebrugge raid, iv: 155; + submarine officer watching for target, iv: 236; + monitor in action, iv: 282; + destroyer on patrol duty, iv: 295; + treating wounded in Mesopotamia, vii: 327; + shell of super gun, viii: 4; + Grand Fleet, xi: 32; + _see also_ name of war vessel. + Parliament, Houses of, xi: 2. + + Greek reservists in U. S. reporting for duty, i: 261. + + Grenades, filling, viii: 171; + throwing, x: 21. + + _Grosser Kurfuerst_, German battleship + surrendered at Scapa Flow, iv: 389. + + Gurkhas, at English entertainment, vi: 17; + at battle front, x: 87; + capturing German trench, xi: 192; + pipers, xi: 333. + + + H + + Hague, Peace Palace at, i: 102. + + Hamburg, river front, vi: 269. + + _Hamidieh_, Turkish cruiser, officers and crew, iv: 46. + + Handley-Page bombing plane, viii: 204, 220. + + Heligoland, harbor of, iv: 241; + street scene, iv: 242. + + Heliograph, signalling by, vi: 228. + + Helmets, manufacture of, viii: 65; + use by war photographers, viii: 67; + + Helsingfors, market scene, vi: 197; + general view, vi: 199. + + Hermannstadt, iii: 220. + + Herzegovina, town scene, vi: 361. + + _Hindenburg_, German battleship, iv: 385, 389. + + Hindenburg Line, tunnel entrance, v: 294. + + Hindu Maharajah, vi: 79. + + Hindu shop in East Africa, vi: 51. + + Hochoffen Company's smelters, Luebeck, Germany, i: 364. + + Hohenzollern, Castle, i: 33; + coat of arms, i: 153. + + "Home from France," iii: _facing p._ 348 (in color). + + Horses, treatment of, wounded in battle, vii: 227, 228. + + Hospitals: + American reading to sick and wounded, v: 339; + an evacuation hospital, v: 345; + at Neuilly, vii: 38, 77, 199; + on board battleship, vii: 41; + hospital trains, vii: 58, 107, 252, viii: 380; + Walter Reed Hospital, Washington, vii: 64; + tent hospital at Auteuil, vii: 205, 206, 243; + Debarkation Hospital No. 5, New York City, vii: 347; + gassed soldier at a field hospital, vii: 354; + hospital ship _Mercy_, viii: 370, 371, 374. + British, American women's, in London, vii: 30; + bombarded by Germans, vii: 82; + home of Duke of Westminster as, vii: 89; + on Astor estate at Cliveden, vii: 106, 281; + Prince of Wales Hospital at Tottenham, vii: 108; + Duchess of Sutherland's, in France, vii: 109; + University College, Oxford, turned into, vii: 198; + hospital trains, vii: 241, viii: 379; + hospital ships, vii: 253, 396. + Dutch, German wounded being cared for at Maastricht, vii: 174. + French, barges converted as, vii: 49, 236, 244; + near Soissons, airplane view, vii: 63; + box-car converted into, vii: 239. + German, hospital train, vii: 220. + Rumanian, anti-typus bath and disinfectant train, vii: 212. + Russian, scenes in, vii: 363, xi: 147. + Salonikan, bombarded by Germans, vii: 159. + Swiss, for treatment of tubercular patients, at Leysin, vii: 247. + + Howitzers, + path of trajectory and effect of fire, ii: 129, iii: 159, viii: 135; + German, iii: 128, viii: 32; + British, viii: 33; + 8-in., with caterpillar mount, viii: 40; + construction of, xii: 73. + + Hungary, celebrating establishment of Republic, vi: 323. + + Hydrophones, for detection of U-boats, viii: 17, 19. + + + I + + _Indefatigable_, British battle cruiser, iv: 148. + + India, army, behind the lines in France, i: 219; + sepoys, iii: 182; + at a listening post in the desert, iii: 190; + Gurkhas at English entertainment, vi: 17; + detachment standing at attention, vi: 73; + in desert trenches, vi: 75; + Hindu servants of British officers, vi: 77; + Gurkhas at battle front, x: 86; + Gurkhas capturing German trench, xi: 192; + Gurkha pipers, xi: 333. + + Indians, American, in U. S. Army, xi: 176, 177. + + _Inflexible_, British battleship, iv: 44. + + International Bridge, Niagara Falls, vi: 31, 34. + + _Invincible_, British battle cruiser, iv: 72, 145. + + Ireland, recruiting scene, vi: 54; + ruins of Dublin Rebellion, '16, vi: 55, 61; + street fighting in Dublin, '16, vi: 58. + + _Iris_, British ferry boat, + returning after Zeebrugge raid, iv: 270. + + Isonzo valley, iii: 238. + + Italy: + Army, group of Italian and U. S. airmen, i: 257; + at Mass before battle, ii: 50; + machine gunners at front, ii: 95, 238; + in trenches, prepared to repulse attack, ii: 150; + mountain sentinel, ii: 237, vi: 318; + in first line trenches overlooking Austrian position, ii: 243; + Arditi shock troops in action, ii: 247; + climbing to mountain positions, ii: 251, iii: 242; + first line troops under bombardment, ii: 253; + digging trenches in the Alps, iii: 225; + Alpini, iii: 228; + an outpost visited by Cadorna, iii: 233; + sharpshooters on Mount Nero, iii: 237; + entrenched, vi: 115; + mobilization, vi: 125; + recruits, vi: 126; + directing artillery fire from a mountain crag, vi: 307; + in mountain dugout, vi: 314; + hard pressed in battle, x: 63; + fording mountain torrent, xi: 28. + Artillery, big guns, ii: 249, iii: 245; + hoisting guns up mountain, viii: 5; + anti-aircraft, viii: 10, 16; + a gun used against Austrian offensive, viii: 38; + long-range bombardment, x: 359; + artillery crossing mountains, xi: 40. + Declaration of war, symbolized, + iii: _facing p._ 230 (in color); + crowds celebrating, vi: 116; + anti-German demonstration in Rome, vi: 117. + Navy, motor boat sinking Austrian battleship, iv: 370; + sea tank breaking through enemy harbor defense, iv: 371; + mine layer, iv: 372. + + + J + + Japan, artillery advancing on Tsing Tao, ii: 358; + torpedo boats off Yokohama harbor, iv: 169; + state procession, vi: 383. + + _Jason_, in Plymouth harbor, vii: 135. + + Jerusalem, Kaiser's entry, 1898, i: 97; + British tank in streets of, ii: _facing p._ 280 (in color); + walls, ii: _facing p._ 370 (in color); + surrender of, iii: 195; + Gen. Allenby's entry, iii: 323. + + Jutland, battle of, British veterans of, iv: 122, 155; + British warships shelling German cruiser, iv: 130; + night action, iv: 132. + + Juvigny, German machine gun nests at, v: 261. + + + K + + Kemmel Hill, fight for, ii: 152; + French post on, v: 289. + + Kiel, harbor of, ii: 56; + U-boat dry dock in Canal, iv: 202. + + Kiev, street scene, vi: 240; + history museum, vi: 244. + + Knights of Columbus, + serving members of "Lost Battalion" after rescue, vii: 329; + group of secretaries at Lafayette Monument, Paris, vii: 330; + providing music for troops on leave, vii: 332; + hut on Broadway, New York City, vii: 333; + group of workers in battle area, vii: 335; + helping wounded, vii: 336; + in Verdun, vii: 337; + in the Argonne, vii: 338. + + Knitting, in Central Park, New York, vii: 123; + New York firemen doing their bit, vii: 125. + + Koeniggraetz, defeat of Austrians by Prussians in battle of, i: 42; + occupation by Prussians, 1866, i: 47. + + Koenigsberg, iii: 290. + + Kremlin, the, Moscow, ii: 234. + + _Kronprinz Wilhelm_, German sea raider, iv: 196. + + Krupp works, Essen, ii: 106. + + Kut-el-Amara, native bazaar, iii: 181; + banks of Tigris at, iii: 183; + group of venerable inhabitants, iii: 318. + + + L + + _L-15_, German Zeppelin, sinking, x: 361. + + _L-49_, Zeppelin, captured by French, viii: 249; + fuel tanks on, viii: 253. + + Lafayette, Marquis de, tomb, Pershing's visit to, v: 99; + birthplace, vii: 110, xi: 7; + Paris Monument, vii: 330; + Brooklyn Monument, xi: 7. + + Lafayette Fund, soldier's kit, vii: 88. + + Laundry, on wheels for army, viii: 288. + + Le Mans, Y. W. C. A. hostess house at, vii: 272. + + _Leipzig_, German cruiser, iv: 75. + + Lemberg, iii: 121, vi: 160; + German troops entering, xi: 203. + + Leoning monoplane, viii: 207. + + _Leviathan_, U.S. transport, bringing home 27th Div., v: 298; + entering N.Y. harbor, vii: 382. + + Lewis machine-gun, v: 240, viii: 86. + + Liberty Bell, vi: 227. + + Liberty Loan, posters, x: 339, 353, xi: 109, xii: 7, 14, 128, 131. + + Liberty Motor, viii: 194, 197, 198, 199. + + Liege, bird's-eye view, i: 336; + Meuse bridge, iii: 6. + + Ligny, battle of, in Franco-Prussian War, i: 65. + + Lille, German troops in, i: 172; + airplane view of, viii: 231. + + _Lion_, flagship of Adm. Beatty, at battle of Jutland, iv: 147; + after battle off Dogger Bank, iv: 252. + + Liquid fire, x: 19. + + Lisbon, celebrating declaration of war, vi: 374. + + Locomotives, U. S., ready for shipment overseas, v: 195; + building of, viii: _facing p._ 282 (in color); + being assembled in France x: 391. + + Locust Point, + ruins of fire suspected of German incendiary origin, i: 279. + + London, + Buckingham Palace and Queen Victoria's monument, i: 127; + scene in front of Buckingham Palace on night of declaration of war, + i: 138; + crowd in front of Royal Exchange listening to + King's reading of war proclamation, i: 145; + night illumination for search of German air raiders, i: 151; + mass meeting to urge internment of Germans, ii: 259; + view from Westminster Abbey, vi: 4; + anti-conscription demonstration, vi: 7; + recruiting scene, vi: 8; + Lord Mayor's Show, vi: 9; + Tower of, vi: 11; + anti-German riot, x: 334. + + London Scottish, charging at Messines, x: 45. + + "Lost Battalion," members of, + being fed at Knights of Columbus field kitchen, vii: 329. + + Louvain, ruins of Library, i: 239; + refugees from, vii: _Intro. xii._ + + Lucy-le-Bocage, ruins of, v: 134. + + Luresnes, American Cemetery at, vii: 224. + + _Lusitania_, sinking of, i: 291; + float representing sinking, i: 296; + facsimile of German warning against sailing on, i: 319; + attempt to save passengers while sinking, iv: 219; + popular German postcard depicting torpedoing, iv: 221; + German medal celebrating destruction, iv: 222; + appeal to revenge sinking of, iv: _facing p._ 222 (in color); + funeral procession of victims, iv: 225; + on last voyage, iv: 226, xi: 20. + + Luxemburg, City of, vi: 93. + + + M + + Machine-guns, Lewis, v: 240, viii: 86; + Colt, viii: 80, 81, 83; + Benet-Mercier, viii: 82; + German, viii: 85; + Browning, viii: 85; + on airplanes, viii: 193, 209, 211. + + Madrid, Bolshevik demonstration, vi: 372. + + Mainz, vi: 295. + + _Mainz_, German cruiser, sinking off Heligoland, iv: 243. + + _Majestic_, British battleship, ii: 204. + + Matines, Cathedral, vi: 102. + + Malingering, tests for detection of, viii: 359, 363. + + Malmaison, Fort, German defenses at, ii: 41. + + Mancourt, French machine gunners repulsing German attacks, ii: 43. + + Marines, U. S., _see_ U. S., Marines. + + _Markgraf_, German battleship surrendered at Scapa Flow, iv: 389. + + Marne, battles of, dead and debris on battlefield, iii: 25, 94; + Germans forcing crossing of river, iii: 32; + French celebrating anniversary of, iii: 34. + + Marne River, at Chateau-Thierry, ii: 82, x: 4; + Allied airplanes flying over, ii: 83; + Germans crossing, iii: 32; + U. S. troops resting near, v: 42. + + _Marseillaise_, singing of, xi: 327. + + Marseilles, arrival of Russian troops at, i: 251. + + Martin bombing plane, viii: 234. + + Mascots, lion mascots of Maj. Lufberry, xi: 229; + baboon mascot of Royal Engineers, xi: 230. + + Masks, for shell-torn faces, viii: 389, 391. + + Maubeuge, ruin of fort at, ii: 11. + + Maude, Gen., grave of, iii: 187. + + McPherson, Fort, U. S. army student officers at, v: 301. + + Melbourne, Australian army embarking for Gallipoli, ii: 201; + Alexandra Gardens, vi: 43. + + _Mercy_, U. S. hospital ship, view of a ward, viii: 370; + operating room, viii: 371; + X-ray apparatus, viii: 374. + + Mesopotamia, New Zealanders digging trenches, ii: 91; + bridge across Tigris, iii: 319; + native silver-smiths, iii: 330; + camel caravan, iii: 367; + bridge across Narin River destroyed by Turks, vi: 222. + + Messines, battle of, iii: 360. + + Metz, i: 332. + + Meuse River, ruins of bridge destroyed by Germans, i: 313; + at Verdun, ii: 37, iii: 61, 303; + French scouts reconnoitering on, ii: 45; + at Liege, iii: 6; + near Dinant, iii: 13; + passing through country north of Verdun, iii: 309; + wreckage on banks, iii: 328. + + Milan, pro-war demonstration, vi: 119, 124. + + Mine-field, viii: 273, 275. + + Mine-layers, + iv: 200, 329, 372, viii: 267 (plan of German mine-laying submarine). + + Mine-laying, iv: 324, 326, 331. + + Mines, iv: 325, 327; + floating, xi: 247. + + Mine-sweepers, iv: 51, 260. + + Mobile repair shop, viii: 295. + + _Moltke_, German battle cruiser, with crew, iv: 257. + + Monastir, vi: 355. + + Monitors, _see_ Great Britain, Navy. + + Mortars, viii: 3, xi: 293. + + Moscow, the kremlin, ii: 234; + Red Square, vi: 167. + + Moselle River, v: 81. + + "Mothers of France," vi: _frontispiece_ (in color). + + Motor truck, equipped with apparatus for crossing trenches, viii: 292. + + Motor boats, construction of, in New Jersey shipyard, xii: 102. + + Mouilly, battlefield near, in St. Mihiel salient, v: 204. + + Muelhausen, street scene, ii: 183. + + Murat, Prince, palace of, President Wilson's Paris residence + during Peace Conference, ix: 67, 68. + + Mustard gas, filling shells with, v: 323, viii: 165; + frozen cube of, viii: 172. + + + N + + Nancy, bird's-eye view, ii: 140. + + Napoleon, tomb of, x: 233. + + _Nautilus_, Fulton's submarine, iv: 203. + + Naval scenes, general, firing a salvo, iv: 77; + lookout in crow's nest, iv: 163; + destroyer on patrol, iv: 193; + torpedo boat on patrol, x: 284; + target practice, xi: 281; + winter patrol, xi: 298; + battleship in rough sea, xi: 300; + _see also_ under name of country, Navy; + _also_ particular references such as Submarines; + etc. + + _N-C-I_, U. S. seaplane, viii: 238. + + _Nebraska_, U. S. battleship, + crew preparing to sow mine field, iv: 326. + + Netherlands, mobilized soldiers reading war news, i: 263; + military maneuvers, ii: 181; + troops at machine-gun practice, vi: 376; + war refugees in, vii: 169; + Red Cross volunteers, vi: 170. + + Neufmaisons, street scene, v: 54. + + Neuilly, American hospital at, vii: 38, 77, 199. + + New Guinea, native troops in British service, i: 81; + native women as plantation workers, i: 82. + + New York, parade of German-Americans, '14, i: 272; + Austrian reservists reporting at consulate at outbreak of war, + i: 281; + display of flags on Armistice Day, Nov. 11, '18, iii: 401; + Victory Parade, iv: 138; + Red Cross Parade, vii: 2; + women of Motor Corps of America parading, vii: 57; + Victory Way, xii: 133. + + _New York_, U. S. battleship, + visited by King George and Adm. Beatty, iv: 11, 85, 345; + airplane view, iv: 358; + in a storm, iv: 395. + + New Zealand, army, digging trenches in Mesopotamia, ii: 91; + in Egypt, vi: 46. + + _North Carolina_, + U. S. battleship, crew visiting Pyramids, iv: 353. + + _North Dakota_, U. S. battleship, iv: 344. + + North Sea Allied patrol, x: 285, 294. + + Notre Dame, Church of, at Albert, after German bombardment, xi: 23. + + Noyon, French entering, '18, iii: 102. + + Nurses, French, vii: _frontispiece_ (in color); + reading to convalescent, vii: 21; + Japanese, vii: 44; + British, vii: 52; + Red Cross, treating Allied wounded, vii: 65; + reading last rites over the dead, vii: 76; + Polish, recruited in America, vii: 353; + Russian, vii: 362; + French Sister of Mercy, x: _facing p._ 48 (in color); + writing letters for wounded, x: 380; + _see also_ Red Cross. + + + O + + Observation tower, German collapsible type, viii: 15. + + Oglethorpe, Fort, U. S. army student officers at, ii: 319. + + Olives, Mount of, ii. _facing p._ 332 (in color). + + Oppressed nations, representatives of, + at Independence Hall, Philadelphia, vi: 227. + + Ostend, esplanade, ii: 224; + bird's-eye view of harbor, iv: 275; + British cruiser _Vindictive_ being sunk at, iv: 276. + + + P + + Palestine, British troops with captured Turkish plane, ii: 93; + Mount of Olives, ii: _facing p._ 332 (in color); + native market, iii: 194; + dressing-station for British wounded, iii: 326; + _see also_ name of towns in, as Jerusalem, etc. + + Parachute, French type, viii: 263. + + Parades, German-Americans in New York, '14, i: 272; + in Cape Town, to help recruiting, i: 383; + in London, recruits passing Whitehall, i: 387; + A. E. F. in Paris, July 4, '17, ii: _Intro. xxiv_; + in Petrograd celebrating capture of Lemberg, ii: 230; + in Berlin, on birthday of Kaiser, ii: 258; + in New York, Victory parade, iv: 138; + recruits at Chicago, v: 377; + Lord Mayor's Show, London, vi: 9; + women's, in London, '15, vi: 18; + Dominion Day in Winnipeg, vi: 27; + Anzac Day in Sydney, '18, vi: 44; + Allies in Vladivostok, vi: 193; + Red Cross in New York, vii: 2; + women of American Motor Corps, in New York, vii: 57; + Russian troops in Paris on Bastille Day, x: 376; + U. S. troops in Paris, July 4, '19, x: 389. + + Paris, group of Americans stranded in, by outbreak of war, i: 277; + congestion at railroad station on declaration of war, i: 278; + interior of American embassy, i: 288; + Allied conference at French Foreign Ministry, March, '16, i: 398; + Eiffel Tower, ii: 267; + crowd outside Bank of France on outbreak of War, ii: 382; + bird's-eye view, v: 379, xii: 258; + on watch for enemy with searchlights, vi: 97; + Bois de Boulogne, vi: 100; + Armistice celebration, vi: 107; + Joan of Arc anniversary celebration, vi: 108; + Bourse, vi: 109; + May Day riots, May 1, '19, vi: 111; + poor getting coal allotment, vi: 112; + theatre turned into relief warehouse, vii: 114; + crowd in Place de la Concorde to greet President Wilson, xii: 164; + crowd at Place de l'Etoile welcoming Wilson, xii: 193. + + Parliament, British, Houses of, xi: 2. + + Passchendaele Ridge, British bombardment of, iii: 78. + + Peace Treaty, Clemenceau's pen in signing, ix: 13; + table and chair used in signing, xii: 157. + + _Pegasus_, British airplane carrier, iv: 81. + + _Pennsylvania_, U. S. battleship, airplane view of, iv: 360. + + Periscope, land use, ii: 179. + + Permanent Blind Relief War Fund, + Italian fiesta for, at New York Public Library, vii: 258. + + Persia, Christian inhabitants, vi: 336. + + Petrograd, celebrating capture of Lembery, ii: 230; + war-time crowds, vi: 137; + burning, vi: 146; + celebrating Kerensky revolution, vi: 152; + along the Canal, vi: 155; + view from St. Isaac's Cathedral, vi: 163; + street orators, vi: 165, 172; + Tauris Palace, vi: 173; + crowds awaiting food rations, vii: 372, 373. + + Phosgene, filling shells with, viii: 169. + + Pigeons, as military messengers, viii: 327, 328. + + Pill-boxes, viii: 132, xi: 253. + + Place de la Concorde, Paris, welcoming President Wilson, xii: 164. + + Place de l'Etoile, Paris crowds welcoming President Wilson, xii: 193. + + Plymouth, England, harbor, vii: 135. + + "Poilu," iii: _frontispiece_ (in color). + + Pola, harbor, iv: 369, vi: 312. + + Poland, German trenches in, iii: 108; + troops in Warsaw, vi: 205; + Women's Battalion of Death, vi: 218; + unloading food supplies from U. S. in Warsaw, vii: 355; + shipping kosher meat for Jewish war sufferers in, vii: 357. + + Pontoons, iii: 387. + + Pope's palace, interior of, ix: 406. + + Port Said, i: 16, iii: 200. + + Posters: + American, for Navy recruiting, iv: 316; + for Marine recruiting, v: 131, x: 316; + for Red Cross, vii: 20, 21, 23, 26, 132, xi: 285; + for Free Milk for France fund, vii: 377; + for Liberty Loans, x: 339, 353, xi: 109, xii: 7, 14, 128, 131; + War Savings Stamps, prize poster, x: 346. + British, recruiting, vi: 6, 63, vii: 129, xi: 334; + for Women's Land Army, vi: 13; + for Belgian relief, vii: 128. + French, War Loan, vi: 96, 98; + for soldiers' relief, vi: 99, 103; + war exposition, vi: 113. + Italian, War Loan, vi: 327. + + Potsdam, throne room of royal palace at, i: 159. + + Prague, vi: 397. + + _Prinz Eitel Friedrich_, German sea raider, iv: 196. + + Prisoners of war: + Austrian, in Italy ii: 97; + in Serbia, iii: 154; + captured by Russians, iii: 293, vi: 182. + Belgian, snipers on way to execution by Germans, i: 236. + British, at Goettingen, iii: 301; + condition on being released from German prison camp, vii: 39. + German, captured in first Marne battle, ii: 143, 173; + on way to prison camp, ii: 328; + serving as stretcher bearers, ii: 334; + captured at Verdun, iii: 315; + U-boat crew captured by Americans, iv: 238; + captured by Russians, vi: 177; + being searched for concealed weapons, vi: 284; + group under British guard, vii: 104; + in prison camp, vii: 303; + at Fort McPherson, x: 373. + Russian, having mess, vi: 139; + as street laborers, vi: 184, 217. + Serbian, on way to Austria, vii: 154. + Turkish, on march, vi: 232. + + Propaganda, dropped by British in German lines, ii: 320; + device for releasing from aircraft, ii: 321. + + Prussian Chamber of Deputies in session, vi: 259. + + Przemysl, vi: 135. + + + Q + + _Queen Elizabeth_, British super-dreadnought, iii: 175, iv: 31. + + Queen Elizabeth Medal, Belgian, ix: 391. + + Quirinal Palace, Rome, vi: 128. + + _Quistconck_, launching of, at Hog Island, xii: 26. + + + R + + _R-34_, British dirigible, viii: 251, 255. + + Raemaekers, Louis, cartoons by, i: 222, 363, vi: 85, 285. + + Raines Foundation Schools, + London, converting crates into baby cradles, vii: 141. + + Ramsgate, after an air raid, ii: 268. + + Red Cross: + American, New York parade, vii: 2; + a large flag, vii: 13; + national headquarters, Washington, vii: 18; + posters, vii: 20, 21, 23, 26, 132, xi: 285; + reading to convalescents, vii: 21, 204; + Kaiser's trophy donated to, vii: 25; + rolling kitchens, vii: 33; + knitting for soldiers, vii: 34; + Paris headquarters, vii: 36; + sightseeing with convalescent U. S. soldiers in London, vii: 40; + hospital ship _Red Cross_, vii: 45; + medal and badges of, vii: _facing p._ 50 (in color); + preparing Christmas packages for A. E. F., vii: 55, 279; + hospital train, vii: 58; + advance station in France, vii: 61; + sightseeing with U. S. sailors on leave in London, vii: 62; + distributing cigarettes to Russian wounded, vii: 79; + field canteen in France, vii: _facing p._ 96 (in color); + looking after Belgian refugees in Paris, vii: 112; + worker among refugees, vii: _facing p._ 158 (in color); + supplies at Brest, vii: 171; + making bandages, vii: _facing p._ 198 (in color); + caring for French children, vii: 200, 201; + distributing gifts to French children, vii: 229; + caring for wounded Belgian boy, vii: 242; + coffee and cakes for convalescent A. E. F. at Auteuil Hospital, + vii: 243; + loading supplies for overseas, + vii: _facing p._ 250, 350 (in color); + mailing letters for departing soldiers, vii: 297; + in Italy, vii: _facing p._ 300, 374 (in colors); + canteen at Trieste, vii: 301; + Red Cross men in the making, xi: _frontispiece_ (in colors); + nurse visiting poor of Marseilles, xi: 83; + nurse bathing Belgian baby, xi: 85; + educational cartoons for child welfare in France, xi: 87-90. + Belgian, hospital trains, vii: 118. + British, serving food to Germans, vii: 7; + wounded soldiers at Gift House, vii: 70; + in Mesopotamia, vii: 260. + Dutch, volunteers, vii: 170. + French, canteen, vii: 48; + barge hospitals on the Seine, vii: 49, 236; + giving refreshments to soldiers on troop train, vii: 226; + hospital train, vii: 239; + motor canteen, vii: 248; + caring for wounded children, vii: 368. + Japanese, nurses assisting at operation, vii: 44. + Russian, group of nurses, vii: 362. + + _Red Cross_, hospital ship, vii: 45. + + Refugees of war: + American, tourists fleeing from war zone, i: 271. + Belgian, wives seeking news of deported husbands, i: 177; + fleeing before German invasion, i: 355, 356; + gathered in front of town hall, Antwerp, ii: 169; + fleeing from Antwerp, iii: 17, xi: 60; + Germans deporting women, vi: 86; + fleeing from Louvain, vii: _facing p._ 1; + assisted at Paris railroad station by Red Cross, vii: 112; + relief bundles for, vii: 126; + two aged refugees from Louvain, vii: 137; + finding food and shelter in Holland, vii: 169; + returning home, ix: _facing p._ 368 (in color); + children in France, xi: 86. + French, under escort of German guards, i: 205, x: 351; + going into Holland, i: 224; + fleeing out of war zone, i: 270, xi: 57, 58; + on road to Amiens, ii: 151; + in Marne district, iii: 298; + among ruins of Termonde, vii: 74; + getting clothing in Paris from American Fund for French Wounded, + vii: 102; + old peasant woman among ruins of home, vii: 150; + Red Cross relief worker among, + vii: _facing p._ 158 (in color); + from Chateau-Thierry, vii: 312; + children found at Chateau-Thierry by Allied soldiers, xi: 61; + child seeking safety in barn, xi: 65; + repatriated French children, xi: 75; + children at La Jonchere Sanatorium, xi: 91; + arriving in Paris with the family goat, xi: 178. + German, from East Prussia, arriving in Berlin, Aug., '14, ii: 23. + Italian, children, xi: 67, 69. + Rumanian, vi: 350. + Salonikan, vii: 163, 164, 166, 369, 371. + Serbian, tramping along railway tracks, vii: 158; + finding shelter in caves, vii: 160; + destitute children, xi: 73. + + Reichstag Building, Berlin, vi: 277, xi: 3. + + Reims (Rheims), Cathedral, i: 76; + Cathedral being bombarded by Germans, i: 225, 245; + bird's-eye view, ii: 155; + ruins of, ii: 211. + + Renault tank, viii: 159, xi: 260. + + "Reunited," home return of soldier, + xi: _facing p._ 188 (in color). + + Rifle Brigade, British, fighting way through Neuve Chapelle, x: 11. + + Rifles, diagram showing path of bullet, viii: 93; + U. S. types, viii: 98, 99, 100, 103, 104; + German anti-tank, viii: 139. + + Riga castle, iii: 146. + + Rio de Janeiro, vi: 391. + + Riva, Porta San Marco, ii: 49. + + Road construction behind the lines in France, v: 398. + + Romagne, A. E. F. cemetery at, v: 233. + + Rome, anti-German demonstration, vi: 117; + crowds celebrating King's birthday, vi: 127; + Quirinal Palace, vi: 128. + + Roosevelt, Quentin, entrance card into Ecole de Tir Aerien, x: 242; + record card at Ecole de Tir Aerien, x: 245. + + Roosevelt, Theodore, Sagamore Hill home, x: 248. + + Rotterdam, harbor, vii: 139. + + Ruggles orientator, + machine for testing aviation applicants, viii: 357. + + Rumania, artillery detachment passing in review before King Ferdinand, + vi: 351. + + Russia: + Army, marching through Marseilles, i: 251; + entering burning town in Eastern Galicia, ii: 26; + Cossack troops, ii: 233, iii: 130, vi: 195; + field guns, ii: 352, vi: 170; + outposts encountering Germans, ii: 356; + women's Battalion of Death, iii: 125, vi: 162, xi: 206, 208; + reserves on march, iii: 266; + at field Mass, iii: 270, vi: 144; + military funeral, vi: 133; + troops in panic, vi: 143; + reservists mobilizing, vi: 149; + greeting news of Czar's overthrow, vi: 157; + on way to front without rifles, vi: 176; + artillery retreating, vi: 209; + attacking with hand grenades, vi: 213; + riflemen, vi: 215; + an impromptu orchestra, vii: 152; + trenches on Eastern Front, viii: 127; + on parade in Paris, x: 376. + General scenes, rural district, vi: 138; + children's procession demanding education, vi: 147; + group of radicals, vi: 178; + winter scene, vi: 191; + peasant gathering herbs, vii: 367. + + + S + + _S-126_, German destroyer, + torpedoing of, by British submarine, iv: 208. + + Sagamore Hill, Roosevelt home at, x: 248. + + St. Mark's, Venice, vi: 320. + + St. Mihiel sector, "dead acres," iii: 98; + trenches, iii: 99; + tank in action at Mont Sec, v: 202; + battleground near Mouilly, v: 204. + + St. Nazaire, first A. E. F. camp at, v: 107. + + St. Paul's Cathedral, London, U. S. flag in, x: 30. + + St. Quentin, Germans in, xi: 51. + + St. Sophia, Mosque of, vi: 232. + + Salonika, withdrawal of Greek troops, iii: 205; + Greek troops camping in Turkish cemetery, iii: 209; + Alexander's Arch, iii: 394; + British supplies, vi: 225; + war refugees, vii: 163, 164, 166, 369, 371; + rag-picker, xi: 62; + water-boy, xi: 63. + + Salonika Front, sandbag bridge, iii: 210; + British labor battalion at work, iii: 397. + + Salvation Army, the "doughnut girl," vii: 380; + at the front with British, vii: 381; + soft drink bar for service men, vii: 384; + women workers cooking doughnuts near front lines, vii: 386, x: 189; + women workers being decorated by Gen. Edwards, vii: 395; + collecting funds in New York, vii: 398; + hut in Union Square, New York City, vii: 399. + + Scarborough, England, after a German naval raid, iv: 244. + + Scheldt River, pontoon bridge across, ii: 167. + + Sea Scouts, British, boy signalmen, xi: 96. + + Searchlight, mounted on motor truck, viii: 76. + + Sedan, view of, v: 94. + + Sedd-ul Bahr fortress, after Allied bombardment, iii: 341, iv: 49. + + Senegalese soldier, vi: _facing p._ 270 (in color). + + Senlis, Cathedral, iii: 335. + + Sepoys, iii: 182. + + Serajevo, view of, i: 4. + + Serbia: + Army, group of officers, i: 244, vi: 357; + type of soldier, ii: 33; + outposts on guard, iii: 282; + abandoned artillery, iii: 395; + artillery on way to front, iii: 396; + troops on march, vi: 246; + in camp, vi: 356; + artillery in action, vi: 358; + campaigning in winter, vii: 157; + lack of equipment, vii: 161. + General, Germans struggling through Serbian mud, iii: 399; + relief boxes for, vii: 114; + war medal, vii: 146; + packing clothing for war sufferers of, at Bush Terminal, Brooklyn, + vii: 165; + monument to mark where Serbs reentered their country after exile, + vii: 167; + group of peasants, vii: 370; + selling wood in market place, xi: 72. + + _Seydlitz_, German battleship surrendered at Scapa Flow, iv: 389. + + Shells, path of howitzer fire, ii: 129, iii: 159; + French, iii: 312, viii: 57; + ricochet and non-ricochet, iv: 333; + fragments of German, used in long-range bombardment of Paris, + viii: 46, 48, 58, 63, xi: 272; + line of flight of German, used in bombardment of Paris, viii: 49; + path of trajectory of 120-mile range U. S. gun, viii: 50; + construction of German, used in long-range bombardment of Paris, + viii: 53; + manufacture of, viii: 73; + path of shrapnel fire, viii: 74; + shrapnel exploding, xi: 275; + heavy shells on way to front, xi: 279. + + Sherman, Fort, U. S. soldiers on parade, xi: 36. + + Shrapnel, line of flight, viii: 74; + exploding, xi: 275. + + Siberia, station on trans-Siberian railroad, vi: 190. + + Sirens, for warning of German air raids, viii: 216. + + Sister of Mercy, x: _facing p._ 48 (in color). + + Smoke screens, ii: 198, iv: 57, viii: 269, 325, xi: 402. + + Soissons, ruins of Cathedral, iii: 92. + + Somme, battlefield of, ii: 146, iii: 56; + British charging during battle of, iii: 57; + front visited by Clemenceau, xi: 127. + + Sound horns, for detection of airplanes, viii: 18. + + Sound-mirror, for detection of airplanes, viii: 21. + + South Africa, Union of, troops embarking for Gallipoli, iii: 176. + + Southwest Africa, German, native village, vi: 260. + + Spad airplane, viii: 190. + + Spahis, x: 117. + + Spies, German, English mob attacking shop of suspect, i: 227; + under French guard, x: 332. + + Springfield rifle, viii: 98, 99, 103, 105. + + Stage Women's War Relief, + supplying service men with newspapers, vii: 345; + Service House in New York, vii: 346; + theatricals at New York Debarkation Hospital, vii: 347. + + _Stamboul_, Turkish transport struck by torpedo, iv: 209. + + Stanford University, cadets at trench drill, xi: 167. + + _Star-spangled Banner_, + singing of, by U. S. service men, xi: 331. + + Stelvio Pass, in the Alps, xi: 42. + + Stockholm, bird's-eye view, i: 134. + + Strassburg, i: 306. + + Strassburg statue, Paris, vi: 105. + + Stretchers, types, v: 338, viii: 377; + struck by shell, vii: 51. + + Submarines, rising to surface, iv: 56; + anti-submarine patrol, iv: 193, 379, xi: 30; + German dry-dock for, in Kiel Canal, iv: 202; + development of Holland submarines, 1895--1915, iv: 204; + British submarine sinking German destroyer, iv: 208; + interior, showing torpedo tubes and mechanisms, iv: 210, 237; + coat of arms on captured U-boat, iv: 212; + U-boat being sunk by destroyer, iv: 213; + salvaging torpedoed merchantmen, iv: 218; + use of decoys to lure freighters, iv: 254, 276; + captured U-boats at Brooklyn Navy Yard, iv: 297; + U. S. types, iv: 299, viii: 280, xi: 240; + details of German U-boats, viii: 265, 267; + use of nets for trapping, viii: 268, 270, 272, xi: 238; + use of hinged plates on sides of ships for protection against, + viii: 271; + mine fields for destruction of, viii: 273, 275; + detail of periscope, viii: 277, 282; + crew's quarters on board U-boat, x: 275; + British type, x: 296; + torpedoed ship settling into water, xi: 19; + U-boat submerged, xi: 234; + U-boat on surface, xi: 235; + close-up view of conning-tower, xi: 242; + submerged, with conning-tower and periscope projecting, xi: 244; + placing torpedo in tube, xi: 246. + + Sudanese troops, in Egypt, vii: 323. + + Suez Canal, British supply depot on, vi: 223; + launching of first British seaplane on, vi: 224. + + _Suffolk Coast_, disguised British warship, iv: 301, 303. + + _Suffren_, French battleship, iv: 22. + + Surgical dressing, making of, by volunteer women workers, + vii: _facing p._ 198 (in color); + warehouse of, vii: 219. + + _Sussex_, Channel ferryboat, torpedoed by U-boat, x: 281. + + Sweden, food riots, xii: 46. + + Switzerland, medal cast in honor of President Wilson, ix: 69. + + Sydney, Australia, town hall, vi: 37; + recruiting scene, vi: 41. + + + T + + Tanks, early type, ii: 276; + camouflaged, ii: 276; + in action, ii: 279, v: 157, xi: 252, 256, 263; + sketch drawing, iii: 339; + dragging camouflaged gun, v: 316; + German anti-tank rifle, viii: 139; + framework of first tank, viii: 156; + "baby" tank, xi: 270. + British, being inspected by King Albert, ii: 278; + in Jerusalem, ii: _facing p._ 280 (in color); + approaching Gaza, ii: 282; + replica of first tank used, vii: 300; + _Britannia_ in U. S., viii: 137, 138, 142; + a whippet, viii: 140; + in action, viii: 149, x: 59; + tank gun, viii: 150. + French, St. Chamond type, ii: 275; + "baby" tanks, ii: 281, + viii: 158, 159 (interior view of Renault tank), + xi: 260 (exterior view of Renault tank); + supporting advancing U. S. troops, v: 193; + tractors for transporting Renaults, viii: 141; + interior views, viii: 144, 145, 147, 159 (Renault); + predecessor of tank, viii: 155; + in action, viii: 157; + Renault type, viii: 159 (interior view), xi: 260. + German, overturned, viii: 160; + miniature one-man tank, viii: 161. + U. S., supporting infantry attack, v: 181; + going over the top at St. Mihiel, v: 202; + tank troops training, v: 287; + largest in world, viii: 146; + first, xi: 258; + Ford "baby" tank, xi: 262. + + Targets, range-finding on U. S. battleship, viii: 11; + for long-range, viii: 94; + for rapid fire, viii: 95; + for 200 and 300 yards, viii: 97; + for mid-range, viii: 101; + spotting disk, viii: 101. + + Tauris Palace, Petrograd, vi: 173. + + Teleferica, cableways used by Italians to cross chasms, viii: 304. + + Telegraph, field headquarters station, i: 353; + linesman repairing wires under fire, x: 148. + + Telephone in war, first unit of U. S. women operators, ii: 309; + German field telephone, iii: 295; + central at French army headquarters, viii: 323; + "listening in," x: 394. + + Termonde, ruins of, i: 340, 341. + + Thiaucourt, street scene, v: 162. + + _Thomas_, U. S. transport, at Vladivostok, vi: 188. + + Tigris, iii: 319. + + _Tipperary_, vi: _facing p._ 130 (in color). + + Tokyo, celebrating capture of Kiau Chau, vi: 384. + + Torpedo, at moment of discharge, iv: 16, 400, x: 330; + torpedo tubes being turned on target, iv: 153; + destroyer dodging, iv: 188; + torpedo tubes on submarine, iv: 210; + being placed in position on submarine, xi: 246. + + Torpedoplane, iv: 306. + + Toul, Cathedral corner, v: 160. + + Tower of London, vi: 11. + + Tractors, for hauling artillery, viii: 42; + for transporting tanks, viii: 141; + tractor motor truck, viii: 290; + use in plowing, xii: 76. + + Treaty of 1839, facsimile of signatures to, guaranteeing + Belgian neutrality, i: 147. + + Trench stoves, captured from Germans, vi: 87. + + Trenches, construction of, i: 360; + barbed-wire entrance to, ii: 284; + soldiers in entrance to dugout, v: 76; + diagram of, showing method of attack in reducing forts, viii: 125; + hallway of underground dwelling, viii: 129; + machinery used in digging, viii: 130; + communicating, viii: 330; + _see also_ under name of country, Army. + + Trent, river front, vi: 130. + + Trieste, water front, ii: 52; + market scene, ii: 245. + + Troopship, religious service on board, iv: 228. + + Trudeau Sanitarium, French children under Red Cross care at, vii: 200. + + Tsing Tau, wireless station wrecked by Japanese fire, iii: 259; + barbed-wire entanglements outside walls of, iv: 61. + + Turkey, army, leaving for the front, ii: 31; + infantry at attention, iii: 166; + artillery on way to Suez Canal, iii: 189; + putting up hospital tents, vii: 365. + + Tyrol, Italians advancing, iii: 242; + Austrian stronghold, vi: 309. + + U + + _U-58_, German submarine captured by U. S. destroyer, iv: 349. + + _U-65_, German submarine, ii: 20. + + _U-105_, German submarine, interior of, iv: 237. + + Uhlans, German, in Belgium, xi: 196. + + Ukrainian peasants, vi: 242. + + United States: + Agriculture, in war time, xii: 84, 137, 147. + Army, setting-up exercises, i: 308, 365; + training for trench warfare, i: 338; + equipment, i: 352, xi: 169 (with cost of each item); + field headquarters telegraph station, i: 353; + student officers in training, i: 367, v: 285; + on Mexican border, i: 368; + Signal Corps men at work, i: 372, v: 319; + marching in Paris, July 4, '17, ii: _Intro. xxiv_; + on march over French roads, ii: 219; + advancing at Cantigny, ii: 271, x: 75; + on regimental parade, ii: 305; + first unit of women telephone operators, ii: 309; + recruits drilling, ii: 313; + military lecture, ii: 315; + first troops reaching France, ii: 316, iii: 81, iv: 158, 162; + student officers at Fort Oglethorpe, ii: 319; + return from France, iii: _facing p._ 348 (in color); + debarking at Brest, v: 3; + machine gunners at rest, v: 20; + resting after march, v: 26; + an infantry-man, v: 30; + resting near Marne front, v: 42; + supporting wounded poilu, v: 50; + on way to front, v: 60, 63, 381; + marching through ruined town, v: 68; + territory to advance through in Meuse-Argonne region, v: 75; + advancing through Argonne forest, v: 82, 247; + officer's dugout, v: 89; + first camp in France, v: 107; + graves of first killed in France, v: 111; + hand grenade practice, v: 112; + boxing match for recreation, v: 114, vii: 314; + veterans of Cantigny, v: 125; + motorized machine-gun unit, v: 142; + infantry in firing trenches, v: 144; + washing day, v: 149; + sketches of A. E. F. types, v: 151; + troops coming out of action at Chateau-Thierry, v: 153; + passing through Thiaucourt, v: 162; + making friends with French children, v: 164; + advancing over open field, v: 169; + infantry advancing with tank protection, v: 181, 193; + billeted in French farmhouse, v: 189; + M. P. quarters, v: 200; + officers' quarters in the Argonne, v: 217; + advancing near Badonville, v: 232; + A. E. F. cemetery at Romagne, Argonne, v: 233; + men of 77th Div. in the Argonne, v: 244; + A. E. F. positions on the Aisne, v: 259; + marching into Alsace, v: 267, xii: 288; + negro troops being decorated, v: 268; + N. Y. National Guardsmen in training at Camp Wadsworth, v: 283; + a tank unit in training, v: 287; + 27th Div. returning home on _Leviathan_, v: 298; + student officers at Fort McPherson, v: 301; + aviator "true-ing" plane, v: 311; + assembling Liberty planes in France, v: 313; + supplies for A. E. F. on Brest docks, v: 329; + field of auto trucks, v: 333; + salvage unit at work, v: 334, viii: 346; + assembling locomotives in France, v: 335; + reveille, v: _facing p._ 354 (in color); + parade and inspection, v: _facing p._ 358 (in color); + visitors' day at camp, v: _facing p._ 362 (in color); + taps, v: _facing p._ 366 (in color); + soldier saluting grave of poilu, v: 374; + off duty, v: 376; + Chicago recruits on way to training camp, v: 377; + bringing in wounded French soldier, v: 386; + in a bombarded village, v: 387; + in Genoa, v: 394; + group of ambulances and drivers, vii: 31; + convalescent soldiers sightseeing in London, vii: 40; + medical officers treating wounded on field, vii: 46; + hospital trains, vii: 58, 107, 252, viii: 380; + type of Scotch member, vii: 176; + type of Scandinavian member, vii: 177; + type of negro member, vii: 178; + type of English member, vii: 179; + type of Armenian member, vii: 180; + type of Greek member, vii: 181; + type of Irish member, vii: 183; + type of Italian member, vii: 184; + type of Jewish member, vii: 185; + in line for inoculation at training camp, vii: 195; + dental officers at work, vii: 210, 223; + convalescing wounded soldiers in workshop, vii: 214; + A. E. F. cemetery at Luresnes, vii: 224; + entertainment for wounded, vii: 231, 347; + wounded soldier under operation, vii: 257; + class of illiterate recruits being taught, vii: 280; + 42nd Div. on march, vii: 292; + playing ball, vii: 315; + soldier-students at Eagle Hut, London, vii: 320; + type of Polish member, vii: 356; + wounded arriving in New York, vii: 390; + types of rifles, viii: 98, 99, 100, 103, 105; + bayonet practice, viii: 106, 107, 108, 109, xi: 162, 166; + gas training, viii: 121; + motorized kitchen, viii: 287; + in Vaux, x: 7; + machine gunners in action, x: 103; + gravestones of A. E. F. dead, x: 115; + bugler, x: 386; + parading in Paris, July 4, '19, x: 389; + charging drill, x: 398; + National Army men in camp in winter, xi: 5; + on march at Fort Sherman, xi: 36; + training to go "Over the top," xi: 38; + French soldiers instructing Americans, xi: 44; + National Army draftees arriving at camp, xi: 156; + recruits learning manual of arms, xi: 160; + army mule getting hair-cut, xi: 164; + cavalry stunts, xi: 171; + type of American Indian in, xi: 177; + firing practice, xi: 304; + repairing telephone lines in France, xi: 305; + field telephoning, xi: 307; + operating sawmill behind the lines in France, xi: 311; + group singing, xi: 336, 338; + drilling awkward squad, xii: 104; + Secretary Baker drawing draft numbers, xii: 289. + Artillery, coast defense guns, i: 346, v: 307, viii: 27, 41; + mountain-guns, i: 371, viii: 25; + guns which took part in second Marne battle, iii: 95; + A. E. F. battery on way to front, v: 64; + heavy French gun manned by U. S. Coast Artillery + gunners in action in France, v: 166; + Marine gunners with field piece, v: 171; + French guns for A. E. F. use, v: 172; + storing shells, v: 173; + gun which fired last shot of war, v: 276; + at practice, v: 304, xi: 162; + naval gun on caterpillar mount for use on Western Front, v: 306; + training artillery officers, viii: 9; + telescopic sight on field guns, viii: 12; + 3-in. gun, viii: 23; + 6-in. railway-mount gun, viii: 37; + 16-in. railway-mount howitzer, viii: 39; + path of shell flight of proposed 121-mile range gun, viii: 50; + sketch of 121-mile range gun, viii: 51; + range-finding, x: 132; + type of heavy railway-mount gun, xi: 276. + Congress, President Wilson addressing, on relations with Germany, + i: 329. + Declaration of war on Germany, facsimile copy, ii: 55. + Flag, presented to President Wilson by Frenchwomen, i: 394; + used by American ambulance workers in Franco-Prussian War, + vii: 319; + in St. Paul's Cathedral, London, x: 30; + original Star-spangled Banner, xi: 330. + Marines, embarking for overseas, ii: 223; + operating anti-aircraft gun on warship, iv: 338; + operating anti-aircraft machine gun on land, v: 11; + recruiting poster, v: 131, x: 316; + in Belleau Woods, v: 137; + with 3-in. field artillery, v: 171; + storing ammunition in dugout, v: 173; + advancing with hand grenades, v: 176; + in artillery contest, v: 304; + in bayonet drill, viii: 108; + scene of first stand against Germans, x: 3; + Gen. Neville decorating colors of 6th Regt., x: 199; + advancing to Belleau Woods, xi: 45. + Navy, members of War Council, iv: _Intro. xi_; + sailors in Victory Parade, New York City, iv: 138; + battleships of Atlantic fleet, iv: 161, 336; + submarine chaser, iv: 293; + types of submarines, iv: 299, viii: 280, xi: 240; + recruiting poster, iv: 316; + recruits learning to make knots, iv: 318; + returning from torpedo practice, iv: 321; + mine-laying, iv: 324, 325, 326, 327, 331, 332; + taps, iv: 334; + sailors dancing on board ship, + iv: _facing p._ 334 (in color); + anti-aircraft guns on board ship manned by marines, iv: 338; + sailors washing clothes, iv: 339; + sailors in "crow's nest," iv: 342; + supply ship taking on cargo for A. E. F., iv: 347; + naval militiamen off for service, iv: 351; + sailor's Christmas box from home, + iv: _facing p._ 366 (in color); + patrol boat in French waters, iv: 378; + signalling practice, iv: 402; + battleship taking on provisions, v: 330; + students at naval radio school at Harvard University, viii: 318; + fleet on high seas, xi: 30; + strong man of Norfolk Training Station, xi: 158; + dreadnaughts saluting President Wilson, xii: 227; + _see also_ name of vessels. + Ship-building, at Camden, N. J., xii: 30; + at Seattle, Wash., xii: 93; + at Bayonne, N. J., xii: 102. + + _Utah_, U. S. battleship, iv: 341. + + + V + + Vaux, Fort, at Verdun, ruins of, ii: 187. + + Vaux, village in Marne sector, airplane view, v: 36; + ruins of, x: 6; + American troops in, x: 7. + + Venice, guarding art treasures against air attack, vi: 316; + Campanile of St. Mark's, vi: 319, 320. + + Verdun, views on banks of Meuse, ii: 37, iii: 61, 303; + German Crown Prince decorating troops at, ii: 38; + battlefield, ii: 39; + behind German lines at, ii: 46; + ruins of Fort Vaux, ii: 187; + trenches on Hill 304, ii: 188; + Cathedral, iii: 53; + main gateway, iii: 54; + captured German positions, iii: 315; + aviation camp near, viii: 233. + + Versailles, + entry of King William of Prussia into, 1871, i: 46; + proclamation of German Empire at, 1871, i: 55; + Palace of, vi: 101, xii: 157 (Hall of Mirrors), + 160 (signature of Peace Treaty); + German press representatives at, xii: 220. + + Victory Way, New York City, xii: 133. + + Vienna, Congress of, i: 31. + + _Ville de Paris_, French dirigible, viii: 242. + + Vilna, vi: 235. + + Vimy Ridge, Canadians going over top, iii: 69. + + _Vindictive_, British cruiser, + after Zeebrugge raid, iv: 263, 271, 273, 278; + officers of, iv: 267; + crew of, iv: 271; + being sunk in Ostend harbor, iv: 276. + + _Viribus Unitis_, Austrian dreadnought, x: 298. + + Vladivostok, A. E. F. base at, vi: 188; + U. S. consulate at, vi: 192; + Allied troops on parade, vi: 193. + + Volunteer Motor Service, members of, vii: 32. + + _Von Der Tann_, German battleship + surrendered at Scapa Flow, iv: 389. + + Vosges Mountains, + French "Blue Devils" watching long-range bombardment, + viii: _facing p._ 122 (in color). + + War Savings Stamps, prize poster, x: 346. + + Warneford, Lieut, R. A. J., death of, x: 224. + + Warsaw, iii: 126; + unloading American relief supplies, vii: 355. + + Water, canvas pipe-line for supplying troops in the field, viii: 395. + + Water-boy at Salonika, xi: 63. + + Waterloo, Napoleon's retreat from, i: 7. + + Watervliet Arsenal, U. S. gun shop, i: 304. + + Westminster, home of Duke of, transformed into war hospital, vii: 89. + + William II, former Emperor of Germany, + residence at Amerongen, Holland, ix: 358. + + Wilson, Woodrow, Princeton home, ix: 60; + Paris residence, ix: 67, 68; + Swiss medal cast in honor of, ix: 69. + + Wireless, talking from airplane to ground by means of, viii: 316; + U. S. Naval Radio School at Harvard, viii: 318; + German station at Metz, viii: 319; + arc transmitter at Metz wireless station, viii: 321. + + Wisconsin, University of, Army Training Corps on hike, xi: 172. + + Woevre, plain of the, iii: 309. + + Women in war industries: + American, munition workers, xii: 3; + raising hogs, xii: 54; + farm workers, xii: 84, 147 (plowing with tractor). + British, Women's Land Army recruiting poster, vi: 13; + in iron foundry, vi: 15, 22; + as munition workers, vi: 16, 59, xii: 23; + as war gardeners, vi: 19, xii: 41; + building roads, xii: 20. + Canadian, making shell fuses, vi: 32. + French, as farm laborers, ii: 375, iii: 276; + as munition workers, xi: 283. + Unidentified, girl munition worker, ii: 327; + as railroad workers, vii: 296. + For women in war activities, + _see_ American Fund for French wounded; + Canteens; + Nurses; + Red Cross; + Salvation Army; + Young Men's Christian Association. + + "Workshop for Working Girls," established by Edith Wharton in France, + vii: 101. + + Wounded: + American, + loading on ambulance train for transportation to + debarkation point, vii: 58; + visited by Red Cross worker on train, vii: 107; + wounded Scotch member, vii: 176; + wounded Scandinavian member, vii: 177; + wounded negro member, vii: 178; + wounded English member, vii: 179; + wounded Armenian member, vii: 180; + wounded Greek member, vii: 181; + wounded Irish member, vii: 183; + wounded Italian members, vii: 184; + wounded Jewish members, vii: 185; + being carried to first aid station, vii: 218; + at entertainment for, vii: 231; + in hospital car, vii: 252; + being helped by Knights of Columbus, vii: 336, 338; + at Debarkation Hospital No. 5, New York City, vii: 347; + wounded Polish member, vii: 356; + arriving at New York, vii: 390; + being carried on airplane ambulance, viii: 368; + on board hospital ship _Mercy_, viii: 370. + British, + being served food in France, ii: _facing p._ 190 (in color); + wounded Anzacs, iii: 169, 172; + at advance dressing-station in Palestine, iii: 326; + after a battle in Flanders, iii: 385; + being carried to dressing-station on Western Front, vii: 50; + being treated at dressing-station behind the lines, vii: 65, 97; + making souvenirs at Red Cross Gift House, London, vii: 70; + at home of Duke of Westminster, vii: 89; + at Prince of Wales Hospital, Tottenham, vii: 108; + awaiting first aid, vii: 196; + being carried by French soldiers to dressing-station, vii: 232; + awaiting transportation, vii: 238; + method of transporting in Mesopotamia, vii: 260; + Canadians at home of Lady Astor, vii: 281; + at Neuve Chapelle, xi: 187. + French, first recipients of Croix de Guerre, iii: 12; + being supported by American soldier, v: 50; + being brought in by American soldiers, v: 386; + being greeted in Switzerland, vi: 381; + being removed from field, vii: 8; + receiving first aid on field, vii: 53; + at a fete for, vii: 59; + being treated at dressing-station behind the lines, vii: 65; + at Verdun, vii: 66; + promenading with their nurses, vii: 98; + in a hospital train, vii: 239; + resting, x: 112. + German, being treated by A. E. F. medical officers, vii: 46; + too seriously wounded to be transported, vii: 80; + being brought in on improvised stretcher, vii: 88; + being nursed by Dutch nuns at Red Cross Hospital, Maastricht, + vii: 174; + getting a smoke from British Tommy, vii: 186; + being removed from field, vii: 208; + awaiting transportation, vii: 238. + Italian, being cared for by American Red Cross workers, + vii: _facing p._ 300 (in color), + _facing p._ 374 (in color). + Russian, in Siberian hospital, vii: 79; + too seriously wounded to be transported, vii: 80; + Cossack officer, vii: 363. + Unclassified, being helped by comrades, vi: 237; + being attended by medical unit men on field, vii: 182; + blind learning modelling, vii: 256; + blind learning basket-making, vii: 259; + being visited in hospitals by Y. M. C. A. workers, vii: 289, 311; + being brought to surface from dugout by windlass, vii: 304; + moved by means of trench trolley, vii: 306; + awaiting the stretcher bearers, vii: 309; + on board hospital ship, vii: 396; + being picked up by ambulance men, vii: 400. + _See also_ Ambulances; + Battle scenes; + Dead; + Hospitals; + _also_ Army under country. + + Wright warplane, xi: 218. + + Wright-Martin reconnaissance airplane, ii: 124. + + _Wyoming_, U. S. battleship, iv: 397, x: 336. + + + X + + X-ray, apparatus on U. S. hospital ship _Mercy_, viii: 374; + use by custom inspectors to detect smuggling, xii: 99. + + + Y + + "Y" gun, for launching depth bombs, iv: 332. + + Yarmouth, England, after German air raid, ii: 257. + + Young Men's Christian Association: + American, motor kitchen, vii: 216; + Chicago gymnasium turned into sleeping quarters for service men, + vii: 262; + Brooklyn hospital unit in training, vii: 263, 278; + Eagle Hut, London, vii: 264, 288, 320; + Eagle Hut, New York City, vii: 265; + women canteen workers, vii: 269, 270; + ruins of hut blown by German mine, vii: 273; + in zone of German bombardment, vii: 274; + visiting wounded in hospitals, vii: 289, 311; + in Italy, vii: 291; + baths and beds for service men, vii: 295; + in dugouts, vii: 307; + sports for service men, vii: 315. + British, leading party of service men sightseeing in London, + vii: 285; + providing service men in London with over-night accommodation, + vii: 287; + in Egypt, vii: 325. + Canadian, at a Toronto camp, vii: 305. + + Young Women's Christian Association, American, + Hostess House at Le Mans, France, vii: 272; + social center for negro troops, vii: 275; + Inter-Allied Club for Women at Le Havre, France, vii: 276; + vacation house for American women at Chaumont, France, vii: 317. + + Ypres, ruins of, i: _facing p._ 98 (in color), ii: 145, x: 356; + veterans of second battle of, i: 379; + Highlanders attacking at, ii: 213. + + Yser River, a Belgian bridge across, iii: 77. + + + Z + + Zeebrugge raid, + British cruiser _Vindictive_ at, iv: 263, 271, 273, 278; + British landing party battling, iv: 265; + officers and men of _Vindictive_, iv: 266, 267, 273; + British ships sunk in canal to block channel, iv: 269; + British ferry-boats _Iris_ and _Daffodil_ + after taking part in, iv: 270. + + Zeppelins, being guided by lighthouse, ii: 265; + interior, ii: 269; + early type, viii: 247; + _L-49_ brought down by French, viii: 249; + fuel tanks on _L-49_, viii: 253; + pilot's gondola, x: 226; + _L-15_ sinking, x: 361. + + _Zrinyi_, Austrian battleship, iv: 363. + + + + +MAPS + + + Africa, European colonies in, iii: 253. + + Albania, ii: 34, 61, 239, iii: _facing p._ 212 (in color). + + Amiens, German drive on, Mar., '18, ii: 191; + battle lines, '14--'18, ii: 312. + + Armistice, Nov. 11, '18, + battle lines on all fronts in Europe, + ii: _facing p. xxiv_ (in color); + battle line on Western Front, + ii: _facing p._ 86 (in color), + v: _facing p._ 372 (in color); + battle line on A. E. F. sector, + v: _facing p._ 72 (in color), 273. + + Arras, area of British offensive, Apr., '17, iii: 71. + + Arras-Neuve Chapelle sector, iii: 45. + + Atlantic Ocean, + area of German submarine blockade, + i: _facing p._356 (in color), ii: 21. + + Austro-Italian Front, + Alpine frontier, showing fortresses and mountain passes, iii: 227; + the Trentino, iii: 232; + Isonzo district, iii: 235; + battle lines, showing furthest Italian and Austrian advances, + with topography and rail communications, + iii: _facing p._ 246 (in color); + north of Venice, xi: 25; + Italian advance on Trieste, xi: 26. + + Austro-Russian Front, iii: 120, 133; + battle line, Aug. 5, '15, iii: 139. + + Austro-Serbian frontier, iii: 152. + + + Bagdad Railway, route of, ii: 293. + + Balkans, national boundaries in '14, ii: 34; + territorial adjustments resulting from Balkan Wars, ii: 61; + southeastern, and Dardanelles, topography of, ii: 199; + western, and Italy, ii: 239; + topography, boundaries, and railroads, '14, + iii: _facing p._ 212 (in color). + + Belgian Front, June, '17, iii: 40; + for particular sector or locality, _see_ under name. + + Belgium, + German and French frontiers, ii: 7; + concentration of German armies along border before invasion, + Aug., '14, iii: 7; + and northern France, iii: 11. + + Boy Scouts, distribution of, in U. S., xi: 95. + + Bulgaria, in '14, ii: 34, iii: _facing p._ 212 (in color); + boundaries before and after Balkan Wars, ii: 61. + + + Cambrai, battle of, iii: 82. + + Cantigny, battle line near, v: 124. + + Carpathian passes, iii: 120, 133. + + Caucasus Front, iii: 261. + + Chateau-Thierry sector, v: 136. + + Coronel, battle of, + with chart of position and movements of opposing warships, iv: 65. + + + Dardanelles, with topography of shores, ii: 199; + showing mine fields, location of Allied ships sunk, + and fortifications and roads on Gallipoli Peninsula, ii: 291; + with detail of southern Gallipoli, iii: 163; + with Sea of Marmora and Bosphorus, iv: 19; + with topography of shores, showing Turkish positions, + iv: _facing p._ 38 (in color). + + Dixmude-Ypres line, June, '17, iii: 40. + + + East Prussia, iii: 107, 109. + + Europe, and Near East, + showing projected German expansion from North Sea to Persian Gulf, + i: 6; + areas of German occupation, '16, i: 10; + in '14, ii: _Intro. xi_; + armistice lines, Nov. 11, '18, + ii: _Intro. facing p. xxiv_ (in color); + southeastern topography, boundaries, and railroads of, + iii: _facing p._ 212 (in color); + important battles and events of war, '14--'17, xi: 13; + food conditions after Armistice, Nov. 11, '18, xii: 43. + + Falkland Islands, battle of, + with chart of position and movements of opposing fleets, iv: 71. + + France, German and Belgian frontiers, ii: 7; + Marne-Aisne-Oise district, ii: 10; + northern, and Belgium, iii: 11; + A. E. F. supply depots and lines of communications, v: 5; + principal ports, v: 5; + for battle lines, _see_ name of sector or locality; + _also_ Western Front. + + + Gallipoli, topography, ii: 199; + with detail of elevations, roads, Turkish fortifications, + and areas of Allied occupation, ii: 291, iii: 163; + and northwestern Turkey, iv: 19; + topography with Turkish lines and forts, + iv: _facing p._ 38 (in color). + + Germany, projected expansion from North Sea to Persian Gulf, i: 6; + Empire before war, i: 39; + Empire after war, i: 40; + Belgian and French frontiers, ii: 7; + Russian frontier, iii: 107, 109. + + Great Britain, + showing areas of German submarine blockade around, + i: _facing p._ 356 (in color), ii: 21; + German sea raid on coast, Dec., '14, iv: 245. + + Greece, in '14, ii: 34, iii: _facing p._ 212 (in color); + boundaries before and after Balkan Wars, ii: 61. + + + Iceland, Allied patrol areas off coast of, iv: 90. + + Indian Ocean, showing trade routes and British possessions, iv: 179. + + Isonzo, region of, iii: 227, 235, _facing p._ 246 (in color). + + Italian Front, _see_ Austro-Italian Front. + + Italy, and territories claimed under Treaty of London, ii: 239; + distribution of American Red Cross relief work in, vii: 83. + + + Jutland, battle of, + showing position of opposing fleets before start of engagement, + iv: 103; + charts of movements of opposing fleets during course of battle, + iv: 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 116, 117, 118, + 120, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 134. + + + Keeling Island, iv: 185. + + Kiau-Chau, iii: 258. + + + Luxemburg, ii: 7. + + Lys salient, iii: 90. + + + Marne, first battle of, + showing position of opposing armies, iii: 30, 31. + + Marne salient, battle lines, Jan.--June, '18, ii: 72; + battle lines, May 26--June 12, '18, ii: 79; + position of German armies, July, '18, ii: 322; + extent of German advance, July, '18, v: 43; + German retreat to the Vesle, July 18--Aug. 5, '18, v: 59; + battle lines, June 1--Aug. 4, '18, with position of French and + A. E. F. divisions, v: _facing p._ 184 (in color); + _see also_ Western Front. + + Marne-Aisne-Oise district, ii: 10. + + Mediterranean Sea, + area of German submarine blockade, + i: _facing p._ 356 (in color). + + Mesopotamia, iii: 179, _facing p._ 190 (in color), xi: 50. + + Messines Ridge, iii: 76. + + Meuse-Argonne, + A. E. F. advance, Sept. 26--Nov. 11, '18, + with positions of divisions participating, v: 72; + towns and roads of district, v: 77; + A. E. F. advance, Sept. 26--Oct. 4, '18, + with positions of divisions participating, + v: _facing p._ 222 (in color); + A. E. F. advance, Sept. 26--Nov. 1, '18, + with positions of divisions participating, + v: _facing p._ 260 (in color); + battle line, Nov. 11, '18, with positions of A. E. F., French, + and German divisions, v: 273. + + Montenegro, in '14, ii: 34, iii: _facing p._ 212; + before and after Balkan Wars, ii: 61. + + + Naval operations, of war, locations of, + iv: _facing p._ 166 (in color). + + Neuve Chapelle-Arras sector, iii: 45. + + North Sea, + area of German submarine blockade, + i: _facing p._ 356 (in color), ii: 21; + Allied mine barrage, German naval bases, + and scenes of naval battles in, iv: _facing p._ 86 (in color); + British cruising areas, iv: 89, 91. + + + Palestine, + iii: _facing p._ 190 (in color), 193, 197, 198, 325, xi: 50. + + + Red Cross, American, sectional divisions of U. S., vii: 16; + distribution of relief work in Italy, vii: 83. + + Reims (Rheims)-Soissons sector, iii: 75. + + Riga, Gulf of, iv: 137. + + Rumania, in '14, ii: 34, iii: _facing p._ 212 (in color), 215; + before and after Balkan Wars, ii: 61. + + Russia, + showing territories under German and Allied control, '18, ii: 67; + German frontier, iii: 107, 109; + Austrian frontier, iii: 120, 133; + Russo-Teuton battle line, Aug. 5, '15, iii: 139. + + + St. Mihiel salient, + showing battle lines and course of A. E. F. advance against, + Sept., '18, ii: 338, v: 70, _facing p._ 210 + (in color, and giving positions of French and A.E.F. divisions), + 385; + detail of terrain, v: 69. + + Salonika Front, iii: 204. + + Scapa Flow, iv: 93. + + Scotland, British cruising areas off coasts of, iv: 89, 90, 91. + + Serbia, in '14, ii: 34, iii: _facing p._ 212 (in color); + boundaries before and after Balkan Wars, ii: 61; + Austrian frontier, iii: 152; + encirclement by Teuton armies, iii: 157. + + Sinai Peninsula, iii: 193. + + Soissons, and region to the south, v: 178. + + Soissons-Reims (Rheims) sector, iii: 75. + + Somme, first battle, '16, area of, iii: 60; + second battle, '18, area of, iii: 87. + + Somme-Oise sector, + battle lines during Allied offensive, Aug. 8--18, '18, ii: 332. + + Suez Canal, iii: 193, xi: 50. + + Syria, iii: _facing p._ 190 (in color), 198, xi: 50. + + + Tonnenberg, battle of, showing maneuvers of opposing armies, iii: 114; + _see also_ East Prussia. + + Transylvania, iii: 215. + + Trentino, iii: 227, 232, _facing p._ 246 (in color). + + Trieste, Italian advance on, xi: 26. + + Tsing Tau, iii: 258. + + Turkey, + as part of German plan of Empire from North Sea to + Persian Gulf, i: 6; + with reference to Balkans, + ii: 34, 61 (territory in Europe before and after Balkan Wars), + iii: _facing p._ 212 (in color); + Dardanelles region, ii: 199, iv: 19; + route of Bagdad Railway, ii: 293; + route of British campaigns in, iii: _facing p._ 190 (in color); + in Asia, xi: 50. + + + United States, Red Cross sectional divisions, vii: 16; + distribution of Boy Scouts, xi: 95. + + + Verdun, + perspective of battlefield with battle lines, + Feb. 20--June 14, '16, iii: _facing p._ 50 (in color); + battle lines and positions of opposing armies, iii: 306. + + Vimy Ridge, iii: 344. + + + Western Front, + battle line from North Sea to Reims, Apr., '17, ii: 54; + battle line, Mar., '18, + compared with line of furthest German advance, Sept., '14, ii: 64; + battle lines, Sept., '14--June, '18, ii: 72; + battle lines, Sept. 19--Oct. 2, '18, ii: 81; + battle line at Armistice, Nov. 11, '18, + compared with line of furthest German advance, + ii: _facing p._ 86 (in color); + plan of German concentration, Aug., '14, iii: 7; + battle line, Nov. 11, '14, iii: 39; + battle lines, Sept., '14--Sept., '18, iii: 97; + German advance, Aug.--Sept., '14, + with positions of German armies, iii: 278; + battle line, July, '18, v: 5; + position of A. E. F. divisions at Armistice, Nov. 11, '18, v: 273; + battle lines, July 18, '18, and Nov. 11, '18, + with dates and localities of principal operations + and A. E. F. divisions participating, + v: _facing p._ 372 (in color); + for particular sectors or localities, _see_ name. + + World, areas inhabited by peoples not self-governing, i: 24; + sources of coal and oil supply in '14, ii: 15; + centers of live-stock production, xii: 36. + + + Ypres, and neighborhood, iii: 11. + + Ypres-Dixmude line, June, '17, iii: 40. + + Yser, battle of, iii: 43. + + + Zeebrugge, German submarine base, iv: 262. + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +Italics are rendered with underlines at the beginning and end e.g. +_italics_. + +Bold font is rendered with equal signs at the beginning and end e.g. +=bold=. + +Small caps have been replaced with all caps e.g. SMALL CAPS. + +The following are believed to be typos and have been corrected. + + +----+--------------+--------------+ + |Page| Changed from | Changed to | + +----+--------------+--------------+ + | 11| out | our | + | 15| finanical | financial | + | 17| the | be | + | 17| be | the | + | 22| Reichbank | Reichsbank | + | 24| statiticians | statisticians| + | 24| ought to to | ought to | + | 25| soliders | soldiers | + | 27| Jourial | Journal | + | 28| bonsuses | bonuses | + | 31| 311,070,250 | 60,000,000 | + | 31| 50,000,000 | 60,000,000 | + | 31| Canadaian | Canadian | + | 41| prorable | probable | + | 53| Men't | Men's | + | 54| offorded | afforded | + | 56| there | their | + | 56| pears' | years' | + | 57| everage | average | + | 59| sacrifce | sacrifice | + | 59| drastice | drastic | + | 75| exclusivevly | exclusively | + | 77| accesible | accessible | + | 77| comsumpton | consumption | + | 80| somethink | something | + | 81| rsesources | resources | + | 82| beween | between | + | 98| known | know | + | 101| urpassed | surpassed | + | 102| negotiatd | negotiated | + | 114| 743,556 | 74,556 | + | 126| oversea | overseas | + | 130| ito | into | + | 132| ecstacy | ecstasy | + | 166| show | shoe | + | 184| mmber | member | + | 199| Asociated | Associated | + | 204| givn | given | + | 205| Asociated | Associated | + | 215| space | spare | + | 216| nutral | neutral | + | 221| patricular | particular | + | 235| of | if | + | 252| that | the | + | 254| line | lines | + | 260| case | cast | + | 263| occured | occurred | + | 332| Maestricht | Maastricht | + | 353| Jaulognne | Jaulgonne | + +----+--------------+--------------+ + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Harper's Pictorial Library of the +World War, Volume XII, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HARPER'S PICTORIAL LIBRARY, VOL XII *** + +***** This file should be named 44213.txt or 44213.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/2/1/44213/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Martin Mayer and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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