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diff --git a/44215-0.txt b/44215-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a6156ff --- /dev/null +++ b/44215-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6456 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44215 *** + +CAMP-LORE AND WOODCRAFT + + + + +THE BOOK OF CAMP-LORE + +AND WOODCRAFT + + +BY + +DAN BEARD + +FOUNDER OF THE FIRST BOY SCOUTS SOCIETY + + +_WITH 377 ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE AUTHOR_ + + +[Illustration] + + + GARDEN CITY PUBLISHING CO., INC. + GARDEN CITY NEW YORK + + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY BEATRICE ALICE BEARD + _THE RIGHTS OF TRANSLATION ARE RESERVED_ + PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA + + + + + TO + + GEORGE DU PONT PRATT + + COMMISSIONER OF CONSERVATION, STATE OF NEW YORK + SCOUT, SPORTSMAN AND OUTDOOR MAN + + + + +FOREWORD TO THE SECOND EDITION + + +BOYS, if this foreword is too "highbrow" for your taste, skip it, +but the author don't believe you will, and even if he has used some +dictionary words he feels that you will forgive him after he tells you +that he did so only because of the lack of time to think up more simple +terms. What he wants to say is that.... + +_Boyhood_ is a wonderful and invaluable asset to the nation, for in the +breast of every boy there is a divine spark, materialists call it the +"urge of youth," others call it the "Christ in man," the Quakers call +it the "inner light," but all view it with interest and anxiety, the +ignorant with fear and the wise with understanding sympathy, but also +with a feeling akin to awe. + +Those of us who think we know boys, feel that this "inner light" +illuminating their wonderful powers of imagination, is the compelling +force culminating in the vigorous accomplishments of manhood. It is +the force which sent Columbus voyaging over the unknown seas, which +sent Captain Cook on his voyage around the world, the same force which +carried Lindbergh in his frail airship across the Atlantic. Yes, it +is the sublime force which has inspired physicians and laymen to +cheerfully risk and sacrifice their lives in search of the cause of +Yellow Fever, Anthrax, Hydrophobia and other communicable diseases ... +no, _not_ for science but for + + HUMANITY! + +As a boy, the author dreamed of wonderful municipal playgrounds, +of organizations giving the boys opportunity to camp in the open, +of zoological and botanical gardens planned and adapted to the +understanding of youth. His busy life as a civil engineer, surveyor, +and work in the open gave him no opportunity to develop his dreams, but +at the end of a five year tour of the United States and Canada, made +over fifty years ago, he drifted into New York City and was shocked +beyond expression by the almost total lack of breathing spaces for our +boys, in the greatest of American cities. True, it then had Central +Park; but fifty years ago Central Park was out among the goats, only to +be reached by a long and tiresome horse car journey. + +This lamentable state of affairs caused the writer so much real pain +and concern that he then and there inaugurated a personal crusade for +the benefit of the boys, a crusade with the avowed object of winning +for them the peoples' interest in the big outdoors. + +The most difficult part of his task was to convince the men of the +swivel chairs that boys' leisure should be spent in the open; that the +blue sky is the only proper roof for a normal boy's playground; also +that the open spaces are the places where God intended young people to +live, work and play. + +No great crusade, no great movement of any kind is one man's work, +nevertheless, every successful movement must have _one enthusiast_ in +the front rank, one who knows the trail and comprehensively envisions +the objective--_objectum quod complexum_. Others may and will join him, +and occasionally spurt ahead of the leader, like the hare in the fable, +but the enthusiast keeps right on just the same. + +Pray do not understand by this that the writer claims that he alone is +responsible for this bloodless revolution. No, no, his propaganda work +did however win for him the moral support of the editorial staff of +_St. Nicholas_, _Youth's Companion_ and _Harpers_. Later he was openly +backed and encouraged by such distinguished sportsmen as President +Roosevelt, his chief forester Governor Pinchot, and his Chief of Staff +Major General Bell. While the stalwart men of the Camp Fire Club of +America worked hand and glove with him, all similar organizations +failed not in voicing their approval. Furthermore he was always helped +by his loyal friends of the daily press. Many famous writers lent their +influence, all working consciously or unconsciously to help the great +cause of boyhood. + +The author only claims that, in all these fifty long years, he has +never ceased to work for the boys, never wavered in his purpose, and +now?--well, when he marched at the head of fifty thousand Scouts in the +great muddy outdoor Scout camp at Birkenhead, England, he realized that +his ephemeral air castles had settled down to a firm foundation upon +Mother Earth. + +Yes, boys we have won a great victory for _boyhood_! We have won it +by iteration and reiteration, in other words, by shouting _outdoors_, +talking _outdoors_, picturing _outdoors_, singing _outdoors_ and above +all by writing about the _outdoors_, and constantly hammering on one +subject and keeping one purpose always in view. By such means we have +at last, not only interested the people of the United States in the +open, but stampeded the whole world to the forests and the fields. So +let us all join in singing the old Methodist hymn:-- + + "Shout, shout, we are gaining ground, + Glory, Hallelujah! + The Devil's kingdom we'll put down, + Glory, Hallelujah!" + +The Devil's kingdom in this case is the ill-ventilated school rooms, +offices and courts. + +It is well to note that the work in this book was not done in the +library, but either in the open itself or from notes and sketches made +in the open. When telling how to build a cooking fire, for instance, +the author preferred to make his diagrams from the fires built by +himself or by his wilderness friends, than to trust to information +derived from some other man's books. It is much easier to make pictures +of impractical fires than to build them. The paste pot and scissors +occupy no place of honor in our woodcraft series. + +So, Boys of the Open, throw aside your new rackets, your croquet +mallets, and your boiled shirts--pull on your buckskin leggings, give +a war whoop and be what God intended you should be; healthy wholesome +boys. This great Republic belongs to you and so does this + + BOOK OF CAMP-LORE AND WOODCRAFT. + + DAN BEARD + + Suffern, New York, + December first, + 1930. + + + + +FOREWORD + + +HIDDEN in a drawer in the antique highboy, back of the moose head in +my studio, there are specimens of Indian bead work, bits of buckskin, +necklaces made of the teeth of animals, a stone calumet, my old hunting +knife with its rawhide sheath and--carefully folded in oiled paper--is +the jerked tenderloin of a grizzly bear! + +But that is not all; for more important still is a mysterious wooden +flask containing the castor or the scentgland of a beaver, which is +carefully rolled up in a bit of buckskin embroidered with mystic Indian +signs. + +The flask was given to me as "big medicine" by Bow-arrow, the Chief of +the Montinais Indians. Bow-arrow said--and I believe him--that when one +inhales the odor of the castor from this medicine flask one's soul and +body are then and forever afterwards permeated with a great and abiding +love of the big outdoors. Also, when one eats of the mystic grizzly +bear's flesh, one's body acquires the strength and courage of this +great animal. + +During the initiation of the members of a Spartan band of my boys, +known as the Buckskin Men, each candidate is given a thin slice of the +grizzly bear meat and a whiff of the beaver castor. + +Of course, we know that people with unromantic and unimaginative minds +will call this sentimentalism. We people of the outdoor tribes plead +guilty to being sentimentalists; but we _know_ from experience that old +Bow-arrow was right, because we have ourselves eaten of the grizzly +bear and smelled the castor of the beaver! + +While the writer cannot give each of his readers a taste of this +coveted bear meat in material form, or a whiff of the beaver medicine, +direct from the wooden flask made by the late Bow-arrow's own hands, +still the author hopes that the magical qualities of this great +medicine will enter into and form a part of the subject matter of this +book, and through that medium inoculate the souls and bodies of his +readers, purify them and rejuvenate them with a love of the WORLD AS +GOD MADE IT. + + DAN BEARD + +June, 1920 + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I. FIRE MAKING BY FRICTION 1 + + HOW TO MAKE A FIRE-BOARD, BOW, DRILL AND THIMBLE. INDIAN + LEGEND OF THE SOURCE OF FIRE. RECORD FIRE-MAKERS. RUBBING-STICK + OUTFIT. ESKIMO THIMBLE. BOW, BOW-STRING, THIMBLE, FIRE-BOARD, + FIRE-PAN. TINDER, CHARRED RAGS, PUFF BALLS. FIRE-MAKERS + OF THE BALKAN. FIRE WITHOUT A BOW, CO-LI-LI, THE FIRE SAW. + FIRE PUMPING OF THE IROQUOIS. PYROPNEUMATIC APPARATUS + + + II. FIRE MAKING BY PERCUSSION 21 + + THE WHITE MAN'S METHOD, HOW TO USE FLINT AND STEEL. WHERE + TO OBTAIN THE FLINT AND STEEL. CHUCKNUCKS, PUNK BOXES, SPUNKS + AND MATCHES. REAL LUCIFER MATCHES. SLOW MATCH. HOW TO + CATCH THE SPARK. SUBSTITUTES FOR FLINT AND STEEL + + + III. HOW TO BUILD A FIRE 33 + + HOW TO LAY AND LIGHT A FIRE. AN EXPERIENCE WITH TENDERFEET. + MODERN FEAR OF DOING MANUAL LABOR. MATCHES. FIRE-MAKERS + AND BABYLONIANS. THE PALPITATING HEART OF THE CAMP. GUMMY + FAGOTS OF THE PINE. HOW TO MAKE A FIRE IN WET WEATHER. BACKWOODSMEN'S + FIRE. THE NECESSITY OF SMALL KINDLING WOOD. GOOD + FIREWOOD. ADVANTAGE OF SPLIT WOOD. FIRE-DOGS. HOW TO OPEN + A KNIFE. HOW TO WHITTLE, HOW TO SPLIT A STICK WITH A KNIFE. + BONFIRES AND COUNCIL FIRES. CAMP MEETING TORCH FIRES. EXPLODING + STONES. CHARACTER IN FIRE. SLOW FIRES, SIGNAL FIRES + AND SMUDGES + + + IV. HOW TO LAY A GOOD COOKING FIRE 53 + + A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE ON SHORT RATIONS. THE MOST PRIMITIVE + OF COOKING OUTFITS. CAMP POT-HOOKS, THE GALLOW-CROOK, THE POT-CLAW, + THE HAKE, THE GIB, THE SPEYGELIA AND THE SASTER. TELEGRAPH + WIRE COOKING IMPLEMENTS, WIRE GRID-IRON, SKELETON CAMP + STOVE. COOKING FIRES, FIRE-DOGS, ROASTING FIRE-LAY. CAMPFIRE + LAY, BELMORE LAY, FRYING FIRE LAY, BAKING FIRE LAY. THE + AURES CRANE + + + V. CAMP KITCHENS 79 + + CAMP PIT-FIRES, BEAN HOLES. COWBOY FIRE-HOLE. CHINOOK COOKING + FIRE-HOLE. BARBECUE-PITS. THE GOLD DIGGER'S OVEN. THE + FERGUSON CAMP STOVE. THE ADOBE OVEN. THE ALTAR CAMPFIRE + PLACE. CAMP KITCHEN FOR HIKERS, SCOUTS, EXPLORERS, SURVEYORS + AND HUNTERS. HOW TO COOK MEAT, FISH AND BREAD WITHOUT POTS, + PANS OR STOVES. DRESSING SMALL ANIMALS. HOW TO BARBECUE + LARGE ANIMALS + + + VI. CAMP FOOD 101 + + HOW TO MAKE ASH CAKE, PONE, CORN DODGERS, FLAPJACKS, JOHNNY-CAKE, + BISCUITS AND DOUGHGOD. MAKING DUTCH OVENS. VENISON. + BANQUETS IN THE OPEN. HOW TO COOK BEAVER TAIL, PORCUPINES + AND MUSKRATS. CAMP STEWS, BRUNSWICK STEWS AND BURGOOS + + + VII. PACKING HORSES 23 + + HOW TO MAKE A PACK HORSE OF YOUR OWN. HOW TO MAKE AN + APAREJO. HOW TO MAKE A CINCHA. HOW TO MAKE A LATIGO. HOW + TO THROW A DIAMOND HITCH. HOW TO THROW A SQUAW HITCH. HOW + TO HITCH A HORSE IN OPEN LAND WITHOUT POST, TREE OR STICK OR + STONE. USE OF HOBBLES AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. HOW THE TRAVOIS + IS MADE AND USED. BUFFALO BILL AND GENERAL MILES. HOW TO + THROW DOWN A SADDLE. HOW TO THROW A SADDLE ON A HORSE. HOW + TO MOUNT A HORSE. HOW TO KNOW A WESTERN HORSE + + + VIII. THE USE OF DOGS. MAN PACKING 145 + + HIKING DOGS, PACK DOGS. HOW TO PACK A DOG. HOW TO THROW + THE DOG HITCH. HOW TO MAKE DOG TRAVOIS. DOG AS A BEAST OF + BURDEN IN EUROPE AND ARCTIC AMERICA. MAN PACKING. PACK RATS. + DON'T FIGHT YOUR PACK. PORTAGE PACK. GREAT MEN WHO HAVE + CARRIED A PACK. KINDS OF PACKS. ALPINE RUCKSACK. ORIGIN OF + BROAD BREAST STRAPS. MAKE YOUR OWN OUTFITS + + + IX. PREPARING FOR CAMPING TRIP 165 + + PORTERS OF THE PORTAGE. OLD-TIME INDIAN FIGHTERS AND WILD + ANIMALS. MODERN STAMPEDE FOR THE OPEN. HOW TO GET READY + FOR CAMP. CUT YOUR FINGER NAILS. GO TO YOUR DENTIST. GET A + HAIR CUT. A BUCKSKIN MAN'S POCKET. FLY DOPE. PROTECTION + AGAINST BLACK FLIES, MOSQUITOES, MIDGETS AND NO-SEE-UMS. THE + CALL OF THE WILD + + + X. SADDLES 183 + + HOW TO CHOOSE A SADDLE. EVOLUTION OF THE MEXICAN SADDLE. + BIRTH OF THE BLUFF FRONTED SADDLE. THE COWBOY AGE. SAWBUCKS + OR PACK SADDLES. STRAIGHT LEG AND BENT KNEE. NAMES OF PARTS + OF SADDLE. CENTER FIRE AND DOUBLE CINCH + + + XI. CHOOSING A CAMP SITE 196 + + 'WARE SINGLE TREES OR SMALL GROUPS OF TREES. SAFETY IN WOODS + OR FOREST. KEEP YOUR EYES OPEN FOR GOOD CAMP SITES. CROSS + STREAMS WHILE CROSSING IS GOOD. KEEP TO WINDWARD OF MOSQUITO + HOLES. 'WARE ANTS' NESTS. HOW TO TELL WHEN WIND BLOWS. EVOLUTION + OF THE SHACK. HOW TO SWEEP. HOW TO MAKE CAMP BEDS. + HOW TO DIVIDE CAMP WORK. TENT PEGS. HOW TO PITCH A TENT + SINGLE-HANDED. HOW TO DITCH A TENT. USE OF SHEARS, GINS + AND TRIPODS + + + XII. AXE AND SAW 217 + + OUR GREATEST AXEMAN. IMPORTANCE OF THE AXE. WHAT KIND OF + AXE TO USE. HOW TO SWING AN AXE. HOW TO REMOVE A BROKEN + AXE HANDLE. HOW TO TIGHTEN THE HANDLE IN THE HEAD. ACCIDENTS. + THE BRAINS OF AN AXE. ETIQUETTE OF THE AXE. HOW TO SHARPEN + AN AXE. HOW TO "FALL" A TREE. HOW TO SWAMP. HOW TO MAKE + A BEETLE OR MALL. HOW TO HARDEN GREEN WOOD. HOW TO MAKE A + FIREWOOD HOD. HOW TO MAKE A CHOPPING BLOCK. THE PROPER + WAY TO CHOP. HOW TO MAKE SAWBUCKS FOR LOGS. HOW TO USE A + PARBUCKLE. HOW TO SPLIT A LOG. HOW TO USE A SAWPIT + + + XIII. COUNCIL GROUNDS AND FIRES 245 + + CHEROKEE INDIAN COUNCIL BARBECUE. CAMP MEETING COUNCIL + GROUND. THE INDIAN PALISADED COUNCIL FIRE. INDIAN LEGENDS + OF THE FIRE. STEALING THE FIRE FROM THE SUN-MAIDENS OF THE + EAST. MYTHS OF THE MEWAN INDIANS. TOTEMS OF THE FOUR WINDS, + FOUR MOUNTAINS AND FOUR POINTS OF THE COMPASS. IMPRACTICAL + COUNCIL FIRES. ADVANTAGES OF THE OVAL COUNCIL GROUND. HOW + TO MAKE AN ELLIPSE. HOW TO DIVIDE THE COUNCIL GROUND IN FOUR + COURTS. COUNCIL CEREMONIES. GHOST WALK AND PATH OF KNOWLEDGE. + WHAT THE DIFFERENT COLORS STAND FOR. PATRIOTISM, POETRY + AND AMERICANISM. CAMP MEETING TORCH FIRES + + + XIV. RITUAL OF THE COUNCIL FIRE 265 + + PROGRAM OF A COUNCIL FIRE. INVOCATION. THE PLEDGE AND CREED + OF ALL AMERICANS. APPEAL + + + + +CHAPTER I + +FIRE MAKING BY FRICTION + + HOW TO MAKE A FIRE-BOARD, BOW, DRILL AND THIMBLE + INDIAN LEGEND OF THE SOURCE OF FIRE + RECORD FIRE-MAKERS + RUBBING-STICK OUTFIT + ESKIMO THIMBLE + BOW, BOW-STRING, THIMBLE, FIRE-BOARD, FIRE-PAN + TINDER, CHARRED RAGS, PUFF BALLS + FIRE-MAKERS OF THE BALKAN + FIRE WITHOUT A BOW, CO-LI-LI, THE FIRE SAW + FIRE PUMPING OF THE IROQUOIS + PYROPNEUMATIC APPARATUS + + + + +CAMP-LORE AND WOODCRAFT + + + + +CHAPTER I + +FIRE MAKING BY FRICTION + + +WHEN the "what-is-its" of Pithecantropus erectus age and other like +hob-goblin men were moping around the rough sketch of an earth, there +were no camp-fires; the only fire that these creatures knew was that +which struck terror to their hearts when it was vomited forth from +volcanic craters, or came crashing among them in the form of lightning. +No wonder that the primitive men looked upon fire as a deity, no doubt +an evil deity at first but one who later became good. + +When the vast fields of ice covered Europe during the glacier period +and forced men to think or die, necessity developed a prehistoric +Edison among the Neanderthal men, who discovered how to build and +control a fire, thus saving his race from being frozen in the ice and +kept on cold storage, like the hairy rhinoceros and elephant of Siberia. + +The fire of this forgotten and unknown glacier savage was the +forerunner of our steam-heaters and kitchen ranges; in fact, without +it we could have made no progress whatever, for not only the humble +kitchen range, but the great factories and power-plants are all +depending upon the discovery made by the shivering, teeth-chattering +savage who was hopping around and trying to keep himself warm among the +European glaciers. + +But we people of the camp-fires are more interested in primitive fires +just as the Neanderthal men built them, than we are in the roaring +furnaces of the steel works, the volcano blast furnaces, or any of the +scientific, commercialized fires of factory and commerce. + +[Illustration] + +What we love is the genial, old-fashioned camp-fire in the open, on +the broad prairie, on the mountainside, or in the dark and mysterious +forests, where, as our good friend Dr. Hornaday says, + + We will pile on pine and spruce, + Mesquite roots and sagebrush loose, + Dead bamboo and smelly teak, + And with fagots blazing bright + Burn a hole into the night-- + +Not long ago the author was up North in the unmapped lake country of +Canada, and while camping on the portage between two wild and lonely +lakes, Scout Joe Van Vleck made himself a fire outfit consisting of +Fig. 1, a thimble made of a burl, with which to hold Fig. 2, the +spindle made of balsam. Fig. 3 is a bow cut from a standing bush; not +an elastic bow, such as one uses with which to shoot arrows, but a bow +with a permanent bend to it. Fig. 4 is the fire-pan which is placed +under the fire-board to catch the charcoal dust as it falls through the +slot when the spindle is twirled. + +Fig. 5 is the fire-board, made of a dead balsam tree which was standing +within three yards of the camp-fire. + +In order to make his fire it was necessary for our Scout to have some +tinder, and this he secured from the bark of cedar trees, also within a +few yards of our camp. This indeed was a novel experience, for seldom +is material so convenient. The fire was built in a few seconds, much +to the wonderment of our Indian guide, and the delight of some moose +hunters who chanced to be crossing the portage on which our camp was +located. + +It was an American, Dr. Walter Hough of the U. S. National Museum of +Washington, who first proved that a modern up-to-date civilized white +man can make a fire with rubbing-sticks, as well as the primitive man. +But it was an Englishman who popularized this method of making fire, +introduced it among the Boy Scouts of England and America, and the +sister organizations among the girls. + +According to the American Indian legend the animal people who inhabited +the earth before the Redmen lived in darkness in California. There was +the coyote man, the vulture man, the white-footed mouse man, and a lot +of other fabled creatures. Away over East somewhere there was light +because the sun was over there, and the humming-bird man among the +animal people of our Indians is the one, according to Dr. Merriman, who +stole the fire from the East and carried it under his chin. The mark +of it is still there. The next time you see a humming-bird note the +brilliant spot of red fire under his chin. + +Now you understand why the king-pin in fire making at your camp +deserves the title of Le-ché-ché (the humming-bird). + +If one gets the fire from a fire-board, spindle and bow in record time, +then the title of Le-ché-ché is all the more appropriate because it +was the humming-bird man who hid the fire in the oo-noo tree, and to +this day, when the Indian wants fire, he goes to the oo-noo (buckeye) +tree to get it; that is, provided he has no matches in the pockets of +his store clothes and that some white boy, like the Scout previously +mentioned, has taught him how to make fire as did the Indian's own +ancestors. But even then the oo-noo[A] wood must be dead and dry. + +Austin Norton of Ypsilanti, Michigan, April, 1912, made fire in +thirty-nine and one-fifth seconds; Frederick C. Reed of Washington, in +December, 1912, made fire in thirty-one seconds; Mr. Ernest Miller of +St. Paul made fire in thirty seconds, but it was Mr. Arthur Forbush, +one of the author's Scouts of the Sons of Daniel Boone (the scout +organization which preceded both the English Boy Scouts and the Boy +Scouts of America) who broke the record time in making fire with +"rubbing-sticks" by doing it in twenty-nine seconds at the Sportsman's +Show at Madison Square Garden, New York. Mr. Forbush made this record +in the presence of the author and many witnesses. Since then the same +gentleman reduced his own world-record to twenty-six and one-fifth +seconds; by this time even that record[B] may have been broken. + +The "rubbing-stick" is a picturesque, sensational and interesting +method of building a fire, but to-day it is of little practical use +outside of the fact that it teaches one to overcome obstacles, to +do things with the tools at hand, to think and act with the vigor, +precision and self-confidence of a primitive man. + +[Illustration: "RUBBING-STICK" OUTFIT] + +Ever since the writer was a small boy he has read about making fire +by rubbing "two chips" or "two sticks" together, and he was under the +impression then, and is under the impression now, that no one can +build a fire in that manner. When we find reference to rubbing-sticks +it is probably a slovenly manner of describing the bow and drill and +the other similar friction fire implements. For the bow and drill one +requires first a + + +THIMBLE + +(Figs. 1, 1A, 1B, 1C and 1D). This is a half round stone or pebble, a +half round burl or knot of wood, or it may be made of soft wood with an +inlay of a piece of stone. In the bottom of the thimble there is always +a shallow hole or socket; see S on Figs. 1, 1A, 1B, 1C, and 1D. The +thimble is an invention of the Eskimos (Fig. 1C); they keep the spindle +upright by holding the pointed upper end of it in a hole (S) drilled +into a piece of serpentine, or soapstone. + +The author has a thimble personally made for him by Major David +Abercrombie. This beautiful implement is made of hard fine-grained +wood carved into the form of a beetle (Fig. 1B). It is inlaid with +copper and semi-precious stones. The socket hole was drilled into a +piece of jade (B), using for the purpose some sand and the drill shown +in Fig. 23. There was a piece of steel pipe set into the end of the +wooden drill with which to bore a hole into the hard jade. The jade was +then inlaid or set into the middle of the bottom of the thimble, and +cemented there, Fig. 1B. The author also has a thimble made for him +by Edmund Seymour of the Camp-fire Club of America. This thimble is a +stone fossil with a hole drilled in it, Fig. 1A. + +It is not necessary to tell the reader that when using the bow for +power, the twirling spindle cannot be held down with the bare hand, +consequently the use of the thimble for that purpose is necessary. Fig. +1C shows an Eskimo thimble so fashioned that it may be held in the +fire-maker's mouth. + + +THE BOW + +Is a stick or branch of wood (Figs. 3, 3E, 3F and 3G) about a foot and +a half long and almost an inch in diameter, which has a permanent bend +in it--the bend may be natural or may have been made artificially. To +the bow is attached a slack thong, or durable string of some kind. The +Eskimos, more inventive than the Indians, made themselves beautiful +bows of ivory, carving them from walrus tusks, which they shaved down +and strung with a loose strip of walrus hide. + + +THE BOW STRING + +The objection to whang string or belt lacing is that it is apt to be +too greasy, so if one can secure a strip of buckskin, a buckskin thong +about two inches wide, and twist it into a string, it will probably +best serve the purpose (Fig. 6). + + +THE SPINDLE + +The spindle is the twirling stick (Figs. 2, 2A, 2B and 2C) which is +usually about a foot long and was used by our American Indians without +the bow (Fig. 7). The twirling stick or spindle may be three-quarters +of an inch in diameter at the middle; constant use and sharpening will +gradually shorten the spindle. When it becomes too short a new one +must be made. The end of the spindle should not be made sharp like a +lead pencil, but should have a dull or rounded end, with which to bore +into the fire-board, thus producing fine, hot charcoal, which in time +becomes a spark: that is, a growing ember. + + +THE FIRE-BOARD + +The fire-board (Figs. 5 and 5A) should be made of spruce, cedar, +balsam, tamarack, cottonwood root, basswood, and even dry white pine, +maple and, probably, buckeye wood. It should not be made of black +walnut, oak or chestnut, or any wood which has a gummy or resinous +quality. The fire-board should be of dry material which will powder +easily. Dr. Hough recommends maple for the fire-board, or "hearth," +as it is called in the Boy Scout Handbook. Make the fire-board about +eleven inches long, two inches wide and three-quarters of an inch thick. + +Near the edge of the board, and two inches from the end, begin a row +of notches each three-quarter inch long and cut down through the +fire-board so as to be wider at the bottom. At the inside end of each +notch make an indenture only sufficiently deep to barely hold the end +of your spindle while you make the preliminary twirls which gradually +enlarge the socket to fit the end of your spindle. + + +THE FIRE-PAN + +The fire-pan is a chip, shingle or wooden dust-pan used to catch the +charred dust as it is pushed out by the twirling spindle (Fig. 4). The +use of the fire-pan is also an Eskimos idea, but they cut a step in +their driftwood fire-board itself (Fig. 8) to serve as a fire-pan. + + +TINDER + +When you can procure them, charred rags of cotton or linen make +excellent tinder, but the best fabric for that purpose is an old +Turkish towel. + + +HOW TO CHAR A RAG + +Find a flat stone (Fig. 10), a broad piece of board, a smooth, hard, +bare piece of earth; set your cloth afire and after it begins to blaze +briskly, smother it out quickly by using a folded piece of paper +(Fig. 9), a square section of birch bark or another piece of board. +This flapped down quickly upon the flames will extinguish them without +disturbing the charred portion (Fig. 10). Or with your feet quickly +trample out the flames. Keep your punk or tinder in a water-tight box; +a tin tobacco box is good for that purpose, or do like our ancestors +did--keep it in a punk horn (Fig. 30). + +[Illustration: 9, 10] + +Very fine dry grass is good tinder, also the mushroom, known as the +puff-ball or Devil's snuff-box. The puff-balls, big ones, may be found +growing about the edges of the woods and they make very good punk or +tinder. They are prepared by hanging them on a string and drying them +out, after which they are cut into thin slices, laid on the board and +beaten until all the black dust ("snuff") is hammered out of them, when +they are in condition to use as punk or tinder (Fig. 11). In olden +times there was a mushroom, toadstool or fungus imported from Germany, +and used as punk, but woodcraft consists in supplying oneself with the +material at hand; therefore do not forget that flying squirrels (Figs. +12 and 13), white-footed mice (Fig. 14) and voles, or short-tailed +meadow mice, are all addicted to collecting good + + +TINDER + +with which to make their warm nests: So also do some of the birds--the +summer yellow bird, humming-bird and vireos. While abandoned +humming-birds' nests are too difficult to find, last year's vireos' +nests are more easily discovered suspended like cups between two +branches, usually within reach of the hand, and quite conspicuous in +the fall when the leaves are off the trees. + +[Illustration: 11, 12, 13] + +Cedar bark, both red (Fig. 15) and white, the dry inner bark of other +trees, dry birch bark, when shredded up very fine, make good tinder. +Whether you use the various forms of rubbing-sticks or the flint and +steel, it is necessary to catch the spark in punk or tinder in order to +develop the flame. + + +HOW TO MAKE A FIRE WITH A DRILL AND BOW + +First find a level solid foundation on which to place your fire-board, +then make a half turn with the string of the bow around the spindle, +as in the diagram (Fig. 16); now grasp the thimble with the left hand, +put one end of the drill in the socket hole of the thimble, the other +end in the socket hole on the fire-board, with your left foot holding +the fire-board down. Press your left wrist firmly against your left +shin. Begin work by drawing the bow slowly and horizontally back and +forth until it works easily, work the bow as one does a fiddle bow when +playing on a bass viol, but draw the bow its whole length each time. +When it is running smoothly, speed it up. + +[Illustration: 14] + +[Illustration: 15] + +Or when you feel that the drill is biting the wood, press harder on +the thimble, not too hard, but hard enough to hold the drill firmly, +so that it will not slip out of the socket but will continue to bite +the wood until the "sawdust" begins to appear. At first it will show a +brown color, later it will become black and begin to smoke until the +thickening smoke announces that you have developed the spark. At this +stage you gently fan the smoking embers with one hand. If you fan it +too briskly, as often happens, the powder will be blown away. + +As soon as you are satisfied that you have secured a spark, lift the +powdered embers on the fire-pan and place carefully on top of it a +bunch of tinder, then blow till it bursts into flame (Fig. 8A). Or fold +the tinder over the spark gently, take it up in your hand and swing it +with a circular motion until the flame flares out. + +[Illustration: 16, 17] + +Even to this day peasantry throughout the Carpathian and Balkan +peninsulas build their fires with a "rubbing-stick." But these people +not being campers have a permanent fire machine made by erecting +two posts, one to represent the fire-stick and the other the socket +thimble. The spindle runs horizontally between these two posts and the +pressure is secured by a thong or cord tied around the two posts, which +tends to pull them toward each other. The spindle is worked by a bow +the same as the one already described and the fire is produced in the +same manner. + + +FIRE WITHOUT A BOW + +My pupils in the Woodcraft Camp built fires successfully by using +the rung of a chair for the spindle, a piece of packing case for a +fire-board, and another piece for the socket wood and the string from +their moccasins for a bow string. They used no bow, however, and two or +three boys were necessary to make a fire, one to hold the spindle and +two others to saw on the moccasin string (Fig. 17). + +[Illustration: 18, 19, 20, 21, 22] + + +CO-LI-LI--THE FIRE SAW + +is made of two pieces of bamboo, or fish pole. This is the oldest +instrument for fire making used by the Bontoc Igorot and is now seldom +found among the men of the Philippines. Practically all Philippine +boys, however, know how to make and use it and so should our boys here, +and men, too. It is called "co-li-li" and is made of two pieces of +dry bamboo. A two-foot section of dead and dry bamboo is first split +lengthwise and in one piece, a small area of the stringy tissue lining +of the tube is splintered and picked until quite loose (Fig. 18). Just +over the picked fibres, but on the outside of the bamboo, a narrow +groove is cut across it (Fig. 18G). This piece of bamboo is now the +stationary lower part or "fire-board" of the machine. One edge of the +other half of the original tube is sharpened like a chisel blade's edge +(Fig. 19); it is then grasped with one hand at each end and is slowly +and heavily sawed backward and forward through the groove in the board, +and afterwards worked more rapidly, thus producing a conical pile of +dry dust on the wad of tinder picked from the inside of the bamboo or +previously placed there. (Figs. 20 and 21). Fig. 22 is the fire-pan. + +"After a dozen strokes," says our authority, Mr. Albert Ernest Jenks, +"the sides of the groove and the edge of the piece are burned down; +presently a smell of smoke is plain and before three dozen strokes have +been made, smoke may be seen. Usually before a hundred strokes a larger +volume of smoke tells us that the dry dust constantly falling on the +pile has grown more and more charred until finally a tiny spark falls, +carrying combustion to the already heated dust cone." + +The fire-board is then carefully lifted and if the pinch of dust is +smouldering it may now be gently fanned with the hand until the tinder +catches; then it may be blown into a flame. + + +FIRE PUMPING OF THE IROQUOIS + +[Illustration: 23] + +Fig. 23 shows another form of drill. For this one it is necessary to +have a weight wheel attached to the lower part of the spindle. A hole +is made through its center and the drill fitted to this. The one in +Fig. 23 is fitted out with a rusty iron wheel which I found under the +barn. Fig. 23C shows a pottery weight wheel which I found many years +ago in a gravel-pit in Mills Creek bottoms at Cincinnati, Ohio. It was +brick-red in color and decorated with strange characters. For many, +many years I did not know for what use this unique instrument was +intended. I presented it to the Flushing High School (Long Island), +where I trust it still remains. The fire-drill is twirled by moving the +bow up and down instead of backward and forward. + + +THE TWIRLING STICK (American Indian) + +Fig. 7 is practically the same as Figs. 16 and 17, with this +difference: the bow and thong are dispensed with and the spindle +twirled between the palm of the hands, as formerly practised by the +California Indians, the natives of Australia, Caroline Islands, China, +Africa and India. + +Many of the American Indians made friction fire in this manner. They +spun the thin spindle by rolling it between the palms of their hands +and as pressure was exerted the hands gradually slid down to the thick +lower end of the spindle. To again get the hands to the top of the +drill requires practice and skill. Personally the writer cannot claim +any success with this method. + + +THE PLOW STICK (American Indian) + +[Illustration: 24] + +The simplest method of friction is that of the plow, which requires +only a fire-board with a gutter in it and a rubbing-stick to push up +and down the gutter (Fig. 24). Captain Belmore Browne of Mt. McKinley +fame made a fire by this last method when his matches were soaked with +water. It is, however, more difficult to produce the fire this way than +with the thong and bow. It is still used in the Malay Islands; the +natives place the fire-board on a stump or stone, straddle it and with +a pointed drill plow the board back and forth until they produce fire. +Time: Forty seconds. + +Of course it is unnecessary to tell anyone that he can start a fire +with a sunglass (Fig. 25) or with the lens of a camera, or with the +lens made from two old-fashioned watch crystals held together. But as +the sun is not always visible, as lenses are not supposed to grow in +the wild woods and were not to be found in the camps and log cabins +of the pioneers, and as watch crystals have short lives in the woods, +we will pass this method of fire making without matches as one which +properly belongs in the classroom. + +[Illustration: 25] + + +THE PYROPNEUMATIC APPARATUS + +Before or about the time of the American Revolution some gentleman +invented a fire piston (Fig. 26) with which he ignited punk made of +fungus by the heat engendered by the sudden compression of the air. + +The ancient gentleman describes his invention as follows: "The cylinder +is about nine inches long, and half an inch in diameter; it terminates +in a screw on which screws the magazine intended to hold a bougie, and +some fungus. A steel rod is attached to a solid piston, or plunger, not +shown in the figure, it being within the tube. This rod has a milled +head and there is a small hole in the tube to admit the air, when the +piston is drawn up to the top, where a piece unscrews, for the purpose +of applying oil or grease to the piston. I have found lard to answer +the end best." + + +METHOD OF USING IT + +"Take from the magazine a small piece of fungus, place it in the +chamber, screw the piece tight on and draw the piston up by the end, +till it stops. Hold the instrument with both hands in the manner +represented in Fig. 26, place the end on a table or against any firm +body, either in a perpendicular, horizontal or vertical direction, and +force the piston down with as much rapidity as possible. This rapid +compression of the air will cause the fungus to take fire. Instantly +after the stroke of the piston, unscrew the magazine, when the air +will rush in, and keep up the combustion till the fungus is consumed. +Observe, in lighting the tinder, the fungus must be lifted up a little +from the chamber, so as to allow the tinder to be introduced beneath +it, otherwise it will not kindle. + +[Illustration: 26] + +"Here it may be remarked that the instrument thus constructed has a +decided advantage over the fire-cane, where the fungus is inserted at +such a depth as not easily to be reached." + +But in Burmah they had the same idea. There the coolies still light +their cigarettes with a fire-piston. The Philippinos also use the same +machine and ignite a wad of cotton stuck on the end of the piston by +suddenly forcing the piston into air-tight cylinders, and when the +piston is quickly withdrawn the cotton is found to be aflame, so it may +be that the Colonial gentleman had traveled to the Indies and borrowed +his idea from the Burmahs, or the Philippinos. At any rate we do not +use it to-day in the woods, but it finds place here because it belongs +to the friction fires and may be good as a suggestion for those among +my readers of experimental and inventive minds. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[A] It is not the buckeye of the Ohio and Mississippi Valley, but is +the nut buckeye of California, Æsculus Californica. + +[B] The record is now eleven seconds. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +FIRE MAKING BY PERCUSSION + + THE WHITE MAN'S METHOD; HOW TO USE FLINT AND STEEL + WHERE TO OBTAIN THE FLINT AND STEEL + CHUCKNUNCKS, PUNK BOXES, SPUNKS AND MATCHES + REAL LUCIFER MATCHES + SLOW MATCH + HOW TO CATCH THE SPARK + SUBSTITUTES FOR FLINT AND STEEL + + + + +CHAPTER II + +FIRE MAKING BY PERCUSSION + + +THE preceding methods of producing fire by friction are not the white +man's methods, and are not the methods used by our pioneer ancestors. +The only case the writer can remember in which the pioneer white people +used rubbing-sticks to produce fire, is one where the refugees from an +Indian uprising and massacre in Oregon made fire from rubbing-sticks +made of the bits of the splintered wood of a lightning stricken tree. +On that occasion they evidently left home in a great hurry, without +their flints and steels. + +But this one instance in itself is sufficient to show to all outdoor +people the great importance of the knowledge and ability to make +friction fires. Like our good friend, the artist, explorer and author, +Captain Belmore Browne, one may at any time get in a fix where one's +matches are soaked, destroyed or lost and be compelled either to eat +one's food raw or resort to rubbing-sticks to start a fire. + +It is well, however, to remember that the flint and steel is + + +THE WHITE MAN'S METHOD + +And notwithstanding the fire canes of our Colonial dudes, or the +Pyropneumatic apparatus of the forgotten Mr. Bank, fire by percussion, +that is, fire by friction of flint and steel, was universal here in +America up to a quite recent date, and it is still in common use among +many of my Camp-fire Club friends, and among many smokers. + + +HOW TO USE FLINT AND STEEL + +In the age of flint and steel, the guns were all fired by this method. +Fig. 33 shows the gun-lock of an old musket; the hammer holds a piece +of flint, a small piece of buckskin is folded around the inside edge +of the flint and serves to give a grip to the top part of the hammer +which is screwed down. To fire the gun the hammer is pulled back at +full cock, the steel sets opposite the hammer and is joined to the +top of the powder-pan by a hinge. When the trigger is pulled the +hammer comes down, striking the flint against the steel, throwing it +back and exposing the powder at the same time to the sparks which +ignite the powder in the gun by means of the touch hole in the side +of the barrel of same. This is the sort of a hammer and lock used by +all of our ancestors up to the time of the Civil War, and it is the +sort of a hammer used by the Confederates as late as the battle of +Fort Donaldson. In the olden times some people had flint lock pistols +without barrels, which were used only to ignite punk for the purpose of +fire-building. But when one starts a fire by means of flint and steel +one's hands must act the part of the hammer, the back of one's knife +may be the steel, then a piece of flint or a gritty rock and a piece of +punk will produce the spark necessary to generate the flames. + +In the good old pioneer days, when we all wore buckskin clothes and +did not bother about the price of wool, when we wore coonskin caps and +cared little for the price of felt hats, everybody, from Miles Standish +and George Washington to Abraham Lincoln, used flint and steel. Fig. +27 shows ten different forms of steel used by our grandsires and +granddames. + +[Illustration: 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 32½, 33, 34, 35] + +Flint in its natural condition may be found in many states, but, as a +rule, any stone which was used by the Indians for arrowheads will +answer as a substitute for flint,[C] that is, any gritty or glassy +stone, like quartz, agate, jasper or iron pyrites. Soft stones, +limestones, slate or soapstones are not good for this purpose. + + +THE STEEL + +Most of the old steels were so made that one might grasp them while +thrusting one's fingers through the inside of the oval steel, Fig. 28 +(left handed). Some of the Scoutmasters of the Boy Scouts of America +make their own steels of broken pieces of flat ten-cent files, but this +is unnecessary because every outdoor man, and woman, too, is supposed +to carry a good sized jack-knife and the back of the blade of the +jack-knife, or the back of the blade of one's hunting knife is good +enough steel for anyone who has acquired the art of using it as a steel. + +But if you must have steels manufactured at the machine shop or make +them yourself, let them be an inch wide, a quarter of an inch thick, +and long enough to form an ellipse like one of those shown in Fig. 27. +Have the sharp edges rounded off. If you desire you may have your steel +twisted in any of the shapes shown in Fig. 27 to imitate the ones used +by your great granddaddies. + + +THE CHUCKNUCK + +But the neatest thing in the way of flint and steel which has come to +the writer's attention is shown by Fig. 31. This is a small German +silver box which still contains some of the original fungus used for +punk and an ancient, well-battered piece of flint. Around the box is +fitted the steel in the form of a band, and the whole thing is so small +that it may be carried in one's vest pocket. This was once the property +of Phillip Hagner, Lieutenant, of the City of Philadelphia at the time +of the Revolution, that is, custodian of city property. He took the +Christ Church bells from Philadelphia to Bethlehem by ox-cart before +the city was occupied by the British. Phillip Hagner came from Saxony +about 1700 and settled in Germantown, Philadelphia. This silver box +was presented to the National Scout Commissioner by Mr. Isaac Sutton, +Scout Commissioner for Delaware and Montgomery Counties, Boy Scouts of +America. + + +PUNK BOXES + +The cowhorn punk box is made by sawing off the small end and then the +point of a cow's horn (Fig. 30). A small hole is next bored through +the solid small end of the horn to connect with the natural open space +further down, a strip of rawhide or whang string larger than the hole +is forced through the small end and secured by a knot on the inside, +which prevents it from being pulled out. The large end of the horn +is closed by a piece of thick sole leather attached to the thong, by +tying a hard knot in the end and pulling the thong through a hole in +the center of the stopper until the knot is snug against the leather +disk; this should be done before the wet leather is allowed to dry. If +the thong and leather stopper are made to fit the horn tightly, the dry +baked rags, the charred cotton, or whatever substance you use for punk, +when placed in the horn will be perfectly protected from moisture or +dampness. + + +SULPHUR HEADED SPUNKS AND MATCHES + +These old sulphur "spunks" were nothing more than kindling wood or +tinder, because they would not ignite by rubbing but were lighted by +putting the sulphur end in the flame. According to our modern ideas +of convenience they appear very primitive. They were called "spunks" +in England and "matches" in America, and varied in length from three +to seven inches, were generally packed in bundles from a dozen to two +dozen and tied together with bits of straw. Some spunks made as late +as 1830 are considered rare enough to be carefully preserved in the +York Museum in England (Fig. 32½). The ones illustrated in Fig. 32 are +a Long Island product, and were given to the author by the late John +Halleran, the most noted antique collector on Long Island. These are +carefully preserved among the antiquities in the writer's studio. But +they are less than half the length of the ones formerly used on the +Western Reserve. With the ancient matches in the studio are also two +old pioneer tinder boxes with flints and steels. The tinder boxes are +made of tin and contain a lot of baked rags. The inside lid acts as an +extinguisher with which to cover up the punk or tinder in the box after +you have lighted the candle in the tin lid of the box (Fig. 32). + +The matches we use today are evolved from these old sulphur spunks. +When the writer was a little fellow up in the Western Reserve on the +shores of Lake Erie, he was intensely interested in an old lady making +sulphur matches. Over the open fire she melted the sulphur in an iron +kettle in which she dipped the ends of some pine slivers. The sulphur +on the end of the sticks was then allowed to cool and harden. These +matches were about the length of a lead pencil and could only be +lighted by thrusting the sulphur into the flame. So, although having +been born in the age of Lucifer matches, the writer was yet fortunate +enough to see manufactured and to remember the contemporary ancestors +of our present-day "safety" match. + + +THE REAL LUCIFER MATCH + +That is, the match which lights from friction, is the invention of +Isaac Holden, M. P. According to the _Pall Mall Gazette_, Mr. Holden +said, "In the morning I used to get up at 4 o'clock in order to pursue +my studies, and I used at that time the flint and steel, in the use of +which I found very great inconvenience. Of course, I knew, as other +chemists did, the explosive material that was necessary in order to +produce instantaneous light, but it was very difficult to obtain a +light on wood by that explosive material, and the idea occurred to me +to put sulphur under the explosive mixture. I did that and showed it in +my next lecture on chemistry, a course of which I was delivering at a +large academy." + +Because every real woodsman is a student, as well as a sentimentalist, +a brief history is given of these fire implements to entertain him as +we jog along the "trace." All these things are blazes which mark the +trail to the button in our wall which now produces the electric light. +Some of them, like the clay cylinders found in the ruins of Babylon, +are only useful in a historical sense, but many of them are essentially +practical for woodcraft. + + +HOW TO MAKE A CHUCKNUCK + +The slow match or punk rope to fit in the brass cylinder may be made of +candle wick or coach wick purchased at the hardware store; such wick +is about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Scout Commissioner John +H. Chase of Youngstown, Ohio, suggests that the rope may be made from +the wastes of a machine shop or a garage; but one of the best woodsmen +I know is Mr. Frederick K. Vreeland, and he uses the apparatus shown +by Fig. 34, which is made of the yellow fuse rope, or punk rope, which +may be purchased at cigar stores. He fastens a cork in one end of the +rope by a wire, he pulls the other end of the rope through the end of +the brass cartridge shell which has been filed off for that purpose. +The end of the fuse rope must be charred, so as to catch the spark. To +get the spark he takes the back of the blade of his knife (Fig. 35), +and strikes the bit of flint as you would with flint and steel, holding +the charred end of the punk against the flint, as shown by the diagram +(Fig. 29). Loose cotton and various vegetable fibers twisted into a +rope soaked in water and gunpowder will make good punk when dry. + + +TO GET THE SPARK + +Place the charred end of the rope on the flint, the charred portion +about one thirty-second of an inch back of the edge of the flint where +the latter is to be struck by the steel; hold the punk in place with +the thumb of the left hand, as in the diagram (Fig. 29). Hold the knife +about six inches above at an angle of about forty-five degrees from +the flint, turn your knife so that the edge of the back of the blade +will strike, then come down at an angle about thirty-five degrees with +a sharp scraping blow. This should send the spark into the punk at the +first or second blow. Now blow the punk until it is all aglow and you +are ready to set your tinder afire. Push the punk into the middle of a +handful of tinder and blow it until it is aflame, and the deed is done! + +All these pocket contrivances for striking fire were formerly known as +"striker-lights" or "chucknucks." + + +A SUBSTITUTE FOR FLINT AND STEEL + +The Malays having neither flint nor steel ingeniously substitute for +the flint a piece of broken chinaware, and for the steel a bamboo +joint, and they produce a spark by striking the broken china against +the joint of the bamboo, just as we do with the flint and steel. + +FOOTNOTE: + +[C] Today flint may be obtained at Bannermans, 501 Broadway, New York +City, where they also have ancient steels which were used by the U. S. +soldiers. The flints may also be purchased from Wards Natural Science +Establishment at Rochester, New York, and the author found a plentiful +supply of flints at one of the Army and Navy stores in New York. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +HOW TO BUILD A FIRE + + HOW TO LAY AND LIGHT A FIRE + AN EXPERIENCE WITH TENDERFEET + MODERN FEAR OF DOING MANUAL LABOR + MATCHES + FIRE-MAKERS AND BABYLONIANS + THE PALPITATING HEART OF THE CAMP + GUMMY FAGOTS OF THE PINE + HOW TO MAKE A FIRE IN WET WEATHER + BACKWOODSMEN'S FIRE + THE NECESSITY OF SMALL KINDLING WOOD + GOOD FIREWOOD + ADVANTAGE OF SPLIT WOOD + FIRE-DOGS + HOW TO OPEN A KNIFE + HOW TO WHITTLE; HOW TO SPLIT A STICK WITH A KNIFE + BONFIRES AND COUNCIL FIRES + CAMP MEETING TORCH FIRES + EXPLODING STONES + CHARACTER IN FIRE + SLOW FIRES, SIGNAL FIRES AND SMUDGES + + + + +CHAPTER III + +HOW TO BUILD A FIRE + + "By thy camp-fire they shall know thee." + + +A PARTY of twenty or thirty men once called at the author's studio and +begged that he would go with them on a hike, stating that they intended +to cook their dinner out-of-doors. We went on the hike. The author +asked the gentlemen to collect the wood for the fire; they did so +enthusiastically and heaped up about a quarter of a cord of wood. There +was no stick in the pile less than the thickness of one's arm, and many +as thick as one's leg. A fine misty rain was falling and everything was +damp. While all the other hikers gathered around, one of them carefully +lighted a match and applied it to the heap of damp cord wood sticks. +Match after match he tried, then turned helplessly to the writer with +the remark, "It won't light, sir," and none there saw the humor of the +situation! + +Had anyone told the writer that from twenty-five to thirty men could +be found, none of whom could build a fire, he would have considered +the statement as highly improbable, but if he had been told that any +intelligent man would try to light cord wood sticks, wet or dry, by +applying a match to them, he would have branded the story as utterly +beyond belief. It is, however, really astonishing how few people there +are who know how to build a fire even when supplied with plenty of fuel +and abundant matches. + + +MATCHES + +It may be well to call the reader's attention to the fact that it takes +very little moisture to spoil the scratch patch on a box of safety +matches and prevent the match itself from igniting. The so-called +parlor match, which snaps when one lights it and often shoots the +burning head into one's face or on one's clothes, is too dangerous +a match to take into the woods. The bird's-eye match is exceedingly +unreliable on the trail, but the old-fashioned, ill-smelling Lucifer +match, sometimes called sulphur match, the kind one may secure at the +Hudson Bay Trading Post, the kind that comes in blocks and is often +packed in tin cans, is the best match for woodcrafters, hunters, +explorers, and hikers. Most of the outfitting stores in the big cities +either have these matches or can procure them for their customers. When +one of these matches is damp it may be dried by running it through +one's hair. + +[Illustration: 36, 37, 38, 39] + +Nowadays manual labor seems to be looked upon by everyone more in the +light of a disgrace or punishment than as a privilege; nevertheless, +it _is a privilege_ to be able to labor, it _is a privilege_ to have +the vim, the pep, the desire and the ability to do things. Labor is a +necessary attribute of the doer and those who live in the open; no one +need attempt so simple a thing as the building of a fire and expect to +succeed without labor. + +One must use the axe industriously (Figs. 39, 42 and 43) in order to +procure fuel for the fire; one must plan the fire carefully with regard +to the wind and the inflammable material adjacent; one must collect and +select the fuel intelligently. + +The shirk, the quitter, or the side-stepper has no place in the open; +his habitat is on the Great White Way among the Babylonians of the +big cities. He does not even know the joys of a fire; he never sees a +fire except when some building is burning. His body is heated by steam +radiators, his food is cooked in some mysterious place beyond his ken, +and brought to him by subservient waiters. He will be dead and flowers +growing on his grave when the real fire-makers are just attaining the +full vigor of their manhood. + +Captain Belmore Browne says that the trails of the wilderness are its +arteries; we may add that all trails proceed from camp or lead to camp, +and that the camp-fire is the living, life-giving, palpitating heart of +the camp; without it all is dead and lifeless. That is the reason that +we of the outdoor brotherhood all love the fire; that is the reason +that the odor of burning wood is incense to our nostrils; that is the +reason that the writer cannot help talking about it when he should be +telling + + +HOW TO BUILD A FIRE + +Do not forget that lighting a fire in hot, dry weather is child's play, +but that it takes a real camper to perform the same act in the damp, +soggy woods on a cold, raw, rainy day, or when the first damp snow is +covering all the branches of the trees and blanketing the moist ground +with a slushy mantle of white discomfort! Then it is that fire making +brings out all the skill and patience of the woodcrafter; nevertheless +when he takes proper care neither rain, snow nor hail can spell failure +for him. + + +GUMMY FAGOTS OF THE PINE + +In the mountains of Pennsylvania the old backwoodsmen, of which there +are very few left, invariably build their fires with dry pine, or pitch +pine sticks. + +With their axe they split a pine log (Fig. 42), then cut it into sticks +about a foot long and about the thickness of their own knotted thumbs, +or maybe a trifle thicker (Fig. 40); after that they proceed to whittle +these sticks, cutting deep shavings (Fig. 37), but using care to leave +one end of the shavings adhering to the wood; they go round and round +the stick with their knife blade making curled shavings until the piece +of kindling looks like one of those toy wooden trees one used to find +in his Noah's Ark on Christmas morning (Fig. 37). + +When a backwoodsman finishes three or more sticks he sets them up +wigwam form (Fig. 38). The three sticks having been cut from the centre +of a pine log, are dry and maybe resinous, so all that is necessary +to start the flame is to touch a match to the bottom of the curled +shavings (Fig. 38). + +Before they do this, however, they are careful to have a supply of +small slivers of pitch pine, white pine or split pine knots handy (Fig. +36). These they set up around the shaved sticks, maybe adding some +hemlock bark, and by the time it is all ablaze they are already putting +on larger sticks of ash, black birch, yellow birch, sugar maple or oak. + +[Illustration: 40, 41, 41½, 42, 43, 44] + +For be it known that however handy pitch pine is for starting a fire, +it is not the material used as fuel in the fire itself, because the +heavy smoke from the pitch blackens up the cooking utensils, gives +a disagreeable taste to the food, spoils the coffee and is not a +pleasant accompaniment even for a bonfire. + +In the North woods, in the land of the birch trees, green birch bark is +universally used as kindling with which to start a fire; green birch +bark burns like tar paper. But whether one starts the fire with birch +bark, shaved pine sticks or miscellaneous dry wood, one must remember +that + + +SPLIT WOOD + +Burns much better than wood in its natural form, and that logs from +twelve to fourteen inches are best for splitting for fuel (Fig. 42); +also one must not forget that in starting a fire the smaller the +slivers of kindling wood are made, the easier it is to obtain a flame +by the use of a single match (Fig. 36), after which the adding of fuel +is a simple matter. A fire must have air to breathe in order to live, +that is a draught, consequently kindling piled in the little wigwam +shape is frequently used. + + +FIRE-DOGS + +For an ordinary, unimportant fire the "turkey-lay" (Fig. 54) is handy, +but for camp-fires and cooking fires we use andirons on which to rest +the wood, but of course in the forests we do not call them andirons. +They are not made of iron; they are either logs of green wood or stones +and known to woodsmen by the name of "fire-dogs." + +While we are on the subject of fire making it may be worth while to +call the reader's attention to the fact that every outdoor person +should know how to use a pocket knife, a jack-knife or a hunter's knife +with the greatest efficiency and the least danger. + +To those of us who grew up in the whittling age, it may seem odd or +even funny that anyone should deem it necessary to tell how to open +a pocket knife. But today I fail to recall to my mind a single boy of +my acquaintance who knows how to properly handle a knife or who can +whittle a stick with any degree of skill, and yet there are few men in +this world with a larger acquaintance among the boys than myself. Not +only is this true, but I spend two months of each year in the field +with a camp full of boys, showing them how to do the very things with +their knives and their axes described in this book. + + +HOW TO OPEN A KNIFE + +[Illustration: 45, 46, 47, 48, 49] + +It is safe to say that when the old-timers were boys themselves, there +was not a lad among them who could not whittle with considerable skill +and many a twelve year old boy was an adept at the art. I remember with +the keenest pleasure the rings, charms and knick-knacks which I carved +with a pocket knife before I had reached the scout age of twelve. +Today, however, the boys handle their knives so awkwardly as to make +the chills run down the back of an onlooker. + +In order to properly open a knife, hold it in your left hand, and with +the thumbnail of your right hand grasp the blade at the nail notch +(Fig. 45) in such a manner that the line of the nail makes a very +slight angle; that is, it is as near perpendicular as may be (Fig. +46), otherwise you will bend back your thumbnail until it hurts or +breaks. Pull the blade away from your body, at the same time drawing +the handle of the knife towards the body (Figs. 47 and 48). Continue +this movement until the blade is fully open and points directly from +your body (Fig. 49). + +Practise this and make it a habit; you will then never be in danger +of stabbing yourself during the process of opening your knife--you +will open a knife properly and quickly by what is generally termed +intuition, but what is really the result of training and habit. + + +HOW TO WHITTLE + +The age of whittling began with the invention of the pocket knife and +reached its climax about 1840 or '50, dying out some time after the +Civil War, probably about 1870. All the old whittlers of the whittling +age whittled _away_ from the body. If you practise whittling that way +it will become a habit. + +Indians use a crooked knife and whittle towards the body, but the +queer shape of their knife does away with the danger of an accidental +stab or slash. Cobblers use a wicked sharp knife and cut towards their +person and often are severely slashed by it, and sometimes dangerously +wounded, because a big artery runs along the inside of one's leg (Fig. +41½) near where most of the scars on the cobbler's legs appear. When +you whittle do not whittle with a stick between your legs as in Fig. +41, and always whittle away from you as in Fig. 44. + + +HOW TO SPLIT WITH A JACK-KNIFE + +Fig. 40 shows the proper way to use the knife in splitting a stick, so +that it will not strain the spring at the back of the handle of the +knife, and at the same time it will help you guide the knife blade and +tend to make a straight split. Do not try to pry the stick apart with +a knife or you will sooner or later break the blade, a serious thing +for a wilderness man to do, for it leaves him without one of the most +useful tools. + +Remember that fine slivers of wood make a safer and more certain start +for a fire than paper. All tenderfeet first try dry leaves and dry +grass to start their fires. This they do because they are accustomed +to the use of paper and naturally seek leaves or hay as a substitute +for paper. But experience soon teaches them that leaves and grass make +a nasty smudge or a quick, unreliable flame which ofttimes fails to +ignite the wood, while, when proper care is used, small slivers of dry +wood never fail to give satisfactory results. + +There are many sorts of fires used by campers and all are dependent +upon the local supply of fuel; in the deforested districts of Korea the +people use twisted grass for fuel, on our Western plains the hunters +formerly used buffalo chips and now they use cow chips, that is, the +dry manure of cattle, with which to build their fires for cooking +their meals and boiling their coffee. In the Zurn belt, in Tartary and +Central India cattle manure is collected, piled up like cord wood and +dried for fuel. A few years ago they used corn on the cob for firewood +in Kansas. It goes without saying that buffalo chips are not good for +bonfires or any fire where a big flame or illumination is an object. + + +BONFIRES AND COUNCIL FIRES + +Are usually much larger than camp-fires, and may be made by heaping the +wood up in conical form (Fig. 50) with the kindling all ready for the +torch in the center of the pile, or the wood may be piled up log cabin +style (Fig. 51) with the kindling underneath the first floor. + +[Illustration: 50, 51, 52, 53, 54] + +In both of these forms there are air spaces purposely left between the +sticks of wood, which insure a quick and ready draught the moment the +flames start to flicker in the kindling. + +The best form of council fire is shown by Fig. 52, and known as the + + +CAMP MEETING TORCH + +Because it was from a somewhat similar device at a camp meeting in +Florida, that the author got the suggestion for his "torch fire." The +platform is made of anything handy and is covered with a thick flooring +of sod, sand or clay for the fire-place. + +The tower is built exactly similar to the Boy Scout signal towers but +on a smaller scale (Fig. 52). + + +DANGER OF EXPLODING STONES + +However tempting a smooth rock may look as a convenient spot on which a +fire may be built, do not fail to spread a few shovels of sand, earth +or clay on the stone as a fire bed, for the damp rock on becoming +heated may generate steam and either expand with some violence or +burst like a bomb-shell and scatter far and wide the fragments, even +endangering the lives of those gathered around the fire. + + +CHARACTER IN FIRE + +The natives of Australia take dry logs, 6 ft. or more in length, and +laying them down 3 ft. or 4 ft. apart, set them on fire in several +places. Letting shorter logs meet them from the outside, and placing +good-sized pebbles around them, they then stretch themselves on the +ground and sleep between the two lines of fire, and when the wood is +consumed the stones continue for some time to radiate the heat they +have previously absorbed. Many tribes of American Indians have their +own special fashion of fire building, so that a deserted camp fire will +not infrequently reveal the identity of the tribe by which it was made. + + +SLOW FIRES + +The camper's old method of making a slow fire was also used by +housekeepers for their open fire-places, and consisted of placing three +logs with their glowing ends together. + +As the ends of the logs burned off the logs were pushed forward, this +being continued until the logs were entirely consumed. Three good +logs thus arranged will burn all day or all night, but someone must +occasionally push them so that their ends come together, when they send +their heat from one to the other, backwards and forwards, and thus keep +the embers hot (Fig. 53). But who wants to sit up all night watching a +fire? I prefer to use the modern method and sleep all night. + +Sharpen the ends of two strong heavy stakes each about 5 ft. in length, +cut a notch in the rear of each near the top, for the support or back +to key into, drive the stakes into the ground about 6 ft. apart. Place +three logs one on the other, making a log wall for the back of your +fire-place. Next take two shorter logs and use them for fire-dogs, and +on these lay another log and the arrangement will be complete. A fire +of this kind will burn during the longest night and if skillfully made +will cause little trouble. The fire is fed by placing fuel between the +front log and the fire-back. + + +SIGNAL FIRES + +When the greatest elevations of land are selected the smoke signals +may be seen at a distance of from twenty to fifty miles. Signal fires +are usually made with dry leaves, grass and weeds or "wiry willows," +balsam boughs, pine and cedar boughs, because such material produces +great volumes of smoke and may be seen at a long distance. The Apaches +have a simple code which might well be adopted by all outdoor people. +According to J. W. Powell, Director of U. S. Bureau of Ethnology, the +Indians use but three kinds of signals, each of which consists of +columns of smoke. + + +ALARM + +Three or more smoke columns reads impending danger from flood, fire or +foe. This signal may be communicated from one camp to another, so as +to alarm a large section of the country in remarkably quick time. The +greater the haste desired the greater the number of smokes used. These +fires are often so hastily made that they may resemble puffs of smoke +caused by throwing heaps of grass and leaves upon the embers again and +again. + + +ATTENTION + +"This signal is generally made by producing one continuous column and +signifies attention for several purposes, viz., when a band had become +tired of one locality, or the grass may have been consumed by the +ponies, or some other cause necessitated removal, or should an enemy +be reported which would require further watching before a decision as +to future action would be made. The intention or knowledge of anything +unusual would be communicated to neighboring bands by causing one +column of smoke to ascend." + + +ESTABLISHMENT OF A CAMP, QUIET, SAFETY + +"When a removal of camp has been made, after the signal for ATTENTION +has been given, and the party have selected a place where they propose +to remain until there may be a necessity or desire for their removal, +two columns of smoke are made, to inform their friends that they +propose to remain at that place. Two columns are also made at other +times during a long continued residence, to inform the neighboring +bands that a camp still exists, and that all is favorable and quiet." + +Therefore, THREE or more smokes in daylight, or THREE or more flames +at night, is a signal of alarm, ONE smoke a signal for attention, TWO +smokes tells us that all is well, peaceful and happy. + + +SMOKE SIGNALS + +The usual way of signalling with smoke is to make a smudge fire of +browse or grass and use a blanket as an extinguisher. By covering the +fire with the blanket and suddenly removing it, a large globular puff +of smoke is made to suddenly appear, and is certain to attract the +attention of anyone who happens to be looking toward the site of the +fire. + + +HOW TO BUILD A FIRE ON THE SNOW + +If it is practical it is naturally better to shovel away the snow, but +personally I have never done this except in case of newly fallen snow. +Old snow which is more or less frozen to the ground may be tramped +down until it is hard and then covered with a corduroy of sticks for +a hearth (Figs. 55 and 56) or with bark (Fig. 57) and on top of this +flooring it is a simple matter to build a fire. Use the turkey-"lay" in +which one of the sticks acts the part of the fire-dog (Fig. 56). + +Don't fail to collect a generous supply of small wood (Fig. 58) and +then start the fire as already directed (Fig. 58). + +The reader will note that in all these illustrations (Figs. 55, 56 +and 57), there is either a log or stone or a bank for a back to the +fire-place. When everything is covered with snow it is perfectly safe +to use a log for a back (Fig. 56) but on other occasions the log may +smoulder for a week and then start a forest fire. + +No one but an arrant, thoughtless, selfish Cheechako will use a live +growing tree against which to build a fire. A real woodcraft knows +that a fire can ruin in a few minutes a mighty forest tree that God +himself cannot replace inside of from forty to one hundred years. + +While we are talking of building fires in the snow, it may be well to +remark that an uninhabitable and inaccessible swamp in the summer is +often the best of camping places in the winter time. The water freezes +and falls lower and lower, leaving convenient shelves of ice (Fig. 57) +for one's larder. The dense woods and brush offer a splendid barrier to +the winter winds. Fig. 59 shows an arrangement for a winter camp-fire. + + +HOW TO MAKE A FIRE IN THE RAIN + +Spread a piece of bark on the ground to serve as a hearth on which +to start your fire. Seek dry wood by splitting the log and taking +the pieces from the center of the wood, keep the wood under cover +of your tent, poncho, coat or blanket. Also hold a blanket or some +similar thing over the fire while you are lighting it. After the blaze +begins to leap and the logs to burn freely, it will practically take a +cloud-burst to extinguish it. + +[Illustration: 55, 56, 57, 58] + +[Illustration: 59] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +HOW TO LAY A GOOD COOKING FIRE + + A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE ON SHORT RATIONS + THE MOST PRIMITIVE OF COOKING OUTFITS + CAMP POT-HOOKS, THE GALLOW-CROOK, THE POT-CLAW, THE HAKE, THE + GIB, THE SPEYGELIA AND THE SASTER + TELEGRAPH WIRE COOKING IMPLEMENTS, WIRE GRID-IRON, SKELETON + CAMP STOVE + COOKING FIRES, FIRE-DOGS, ROASTING FIRE-LAY, CAMP-FIRE LAY, + BELMORE LAY, FRYING FIRE LAY, BAKING FIRE LAY + THE AURES CRANE + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +HOW TO LAY A GOOD COOKING FIRE + + +NO matter where the old camper may be, no matter how long a time may +have elapsed since last he slept in the open, no matter how high or +low a social or official position he may now occupy, it takes but one +whiff of the smoke of an open fire, or one whiff of the aroma of frying +bacon, to send him back again to the lone trail. In imagination he will +once more be hovering over his little camp-fire in the desert, under +the shade of the gloomy pines, mid the snows of Alaska, in the slide +rock of the Rockies or mid the pitch pines of the Alleghenies, as the +case may be. + +That faint hint in the air of burning firewood or the delicious odor of +the bacon, for the moment, will not only wipe from his vision his desk, +his papers and his office furniture, but also all the artificialities +of life. Even the clicking of the typewriter will turn into the sound +of clicking hoofs, the streets will become canyons, and the noise of +traffic the roar of the mountain torrent! + +There is no use talking about it, there is no use arguing about it, +there _is_ witchcraft in the smell of the open fire, and all the +mysteries and magic of the Arabian Nights dwell in the odor of frying +bacon. + +Some years ago Mr. Arthur Rice, the Secretary of the Camp-fire Club +of America, and Patrick Cleary, a half-breed Indian, with the author, +became temporarily separated from their party in the Northern wilds. +They found themselves on a lonely wilderness lake surrounded by picture +mountains, and dotted with tall rocky islands covered with Christmas +trees, giving the whole landscape the appearance of the scenery one +sometimes sees painted on drop-curtains for the theatre. Everything +in sight was grand, everything was beautiful, everything was built on +a generous scale, everything was big, not forgetting the voyagers' +appetites! + +Unfortunately the provisions were in the missing canoe; diligent +search, however, in the bottom of Patrick Cleary's ditty bag disclosed +three small, hard, rounded lumps, which weeks before might have been +bread; also a handful of tea mixed with smoking tobacco, and that was +all! There was no salt, no butter, no pepper, no sugar, no meat, no +knives, no forks, no spoons, no cups, no plates, no saucers and no +cooking utensils; the party had nothing but a few stone-like lumps of +bread and the weird mixture of tea and tobacco with which to appease +their big appetites. But in the lake the trout were jumping, and it was +not long before the hungry men had secured a fine string of spotted +beauties to add to their menu. + +Under the roots of a big spruce tree, at the bottom of a cliff on the +edge of the lake, a fountain of cold crystal water spouted from the +mossy ground. Near this they built a fire while Mr. Rice fashioned a +little box of birch bark, filled it with water and placed it over the +hot embers by resting the ends of the box on fire-dogs of green wood. +Into the water in the birch bark vessel was dumped the tea (and--also +tobacco)! + +To the amazement and delight of the Indian half-breed, the tea was soon +boiling. Meanwhile the half-breed toasted some trout until the fish +were black, this being done so that the charcoal or burnt skins might +give a flavor to the fish, and in a measure compensate for the lack of +salt. The hunks of bread were burned until they were black, not for +flavor this time, but in order that the bread might be brittle enough +to allow a man to bite into it with no danger of breaking his teeth in +the attempt. + +To-day it seems to the author that that banquet on that lonely lake, +miles from the nearest living human being, was more delicious and more +satisfying than any of the feasts of Belshazzar he has since attended +in the wonder city of New York. + +Therefore, when taking up the subject of cooking fire and camp kitchen, +he naturally begins with + + +THE MOST PRIMITIVE OF COOKING OUTFITS + +Consisting of two upright forked sticks and a waugan-stick to lay +across from fork to fork over the fire. Or maybe a speygelia-stick +thrust slantingly into the ground in front of the fire, or perhaps a +saster-pole on which to suspend or from which to dangle, in front of +the fire, a hunk of moose meat, venison, mountain sheep, mountain goat, +whale blubber, beaver, skunk, rabbit, muskrat, woodchuck, squirrel or +whatsoever fortune may send. + + +CAMP POT-HOOKS + +Are of various forms and designs, but they are not the S shaped things +formerly so familiar in the big open fire-places of the old homesteads, +neither are they the hated S shaped marks with which the boys of +yesterday were wont to struggle and disfigure the pages of their +writing books. + +If any one of the camp pot-hooks had been drawn in the old-time writing +book or copybook, it would have brought down the wrath (with something +else) of the old-fashioned school-master, upon the devoted head of the +offending pupil. For these pot-hooks are not regular in form and the +shape and designs largely depend upon the available material from +which they are fashioned, and not a little upon the individual fancy of +the camper. For instance the one known as + + +THE GALLOW-CROOK + +Is not, as the name might imply, a human crook too intimately +associated with the gallows, but on the contrary it is a rustic and +useful bit of forked stick (Figs. 60, 61, 62 and 63) made of a sapling. +Fig. 60 shows how to select the sapling and where to cut it below a +good sturdy fork. Fig. 61 shows the bit of sapling trimmed down to the +proper length and with two forks, one at each end. On the upper fork +you will note that one prong is a slender elastic switch. Fig. 62 shows +how this switch may be bent down and bound with a string or tape made +of green bark, and so fastened to the main stem as to form a loop which +will easily slip over the waugan-stick as in Fig. 63. Fig. 62A shows a +handy hitch with which to make fast the bark binding. + +When the waugan-stick has been thrust through the loop of the +gallow-crook, the former is replaced in the crotches of the two forked +sticks, as in Fig. 63, and the pot or kettle, pail or bucket, is hooked +on to the lower fork. You will note that the lower fork is upon the +opposite side of the main stick from that from which the switch prong +of the upper fork springs. This arrangement is not necessary to make +the pot balance properly over the fire; the same rule holds good for +all the other pot-hooks.[D] + +[Illustration: 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 69A, 70, 71, 72, +73, 74] + + +THE POT-CLAW + +Will be best understood by inspecting the diagrams (Figs. 64, 65 and +66), which show its evolution or gradual growth. By these diagrams you +will see the stick is so cut that the fork may be hooked over the +waugan-stick and the cooking utensils, pots or kettles may be hung over +the fire by slipping their handles into the notch cut in the stick on +the side opposite to the fork and near the lower end of the pot-claw. +This is a real honest-to-goodness Buckskin or Sourdough pot-hook; it +is one that requires little time to manufacture and one that is easily +made wherever sticks grow, or wherever "whim" sticks or driftwood may +be found heaped upon the shore. + + +THE HAKE + +Is easier to make than the pot-claw. It is a forked stick like the +pot-claw, but in place of the notch near the lower end a nail is driven +diagonally into the stick and the kettle hung on the nail (Figs. 67 and +68). The hake possesses the disadvantage of making it necessary for +the camper to carry a supply of nails in his kit. No Sourdough on a +long and perilous trip loads himself down with nails. A hake, however, +is a very good model for Boy Scouts, Girl Pioneers, and hikers of all +descriptions who may go camping in the more thickly settled parts of +the country. + + +THE GIB + +Is possibly a corruption of gibbet, but it is a much more humane +implement. It requires a little more time and a little more skill to +make a gib (Fig. 69) than it does to fashion the preceding pot-hook. +It is a useful hook for stationary camps where one has time to develop +more or less intricate cooking equipment. Fig. 69A shows how the two +forked sticks are cut to fit together in a splice, and it also shows +how this splice is nailed together with a couple of wire nails, and +Fig. 70 shows how the wire nails are clinched. + +In a book of this kind the details of all these designs are given not +because any one camper is expected to use them all, but because there +are times when any one of them may be just the thing required. It is +well, however, to say that the most practicable camp pot-hooks are the +pot-claw and the hake. + +In making a pot-claw care should be taken to cut the notch on the +opposite side of the forked branch, and at the other end of the claw, +deep enough to hold the handle of the cooking utensils securely. + +While the author was on an extended trip in the blustering North land +his party had a pot-claw as crooked as a yeggman, and as knotty as a +problem in higher mathematics. While there can be no doubt that one of +the party made this hoodoo affair it has never yet been decided to whom +the credit belongs--because of the innate modesty of the men no one +claims the honor. This misshapen pot-claw was responsible for spilling +the stew on several occasions, not to speak of losing the boiled rice. +Luckily one of the party was a stolid Indian, one a consistent member +of the Presbyterian church, one a Scout and one a member of the Society +of Friends, consequently the air _was not blue_ and the only remarks +made were, "Oh my!" "Bless my soul!" and "Gee willikens!" + +The cook in despair put the wicked thing in the fire with muttered +hints that the fire might suggest the region where such pot-hooks +belong. While it burned and its evil spirit dissolved in smoke, the +Indian made a new pot-claw, a respectable pot-claw with a straight +character, and a more secure notch. This one by its benign presence +brought peace and good will to the camp and showed the necessity of +taking pains and using care in the manufacture of even so lowly a thing +as a pot-claw. + +The camp pot-hooks should be of various lengths; long ones to bring +the vessels near the fire where the heat is more intense; short ones to +keep the vessels further from the fire so that their contents will not +cook but only keep warm; and medium ones for simmering or slow cooking. + + +THE SPEYGELIA + +Is not an Italian, but is a long name for a short implement. The +speygelia is a forked stick or a notched stick (Figs. 71, 72 and 73), +which is either propped up on a forked stick (Fig. 71) and the lower +end held down by a stone in such a manner that the fork at the upper +end offers a place to hang things over, or in front of the fire, +sometimes a notched stick is used in the same manner as Fig. 73. +Where the ground is soft to permit it, the stick is driven diagonally +into the earth, which may hold it in place without other support. The +speygelia is much used by cow-punchers and other people in places where +wood is scarce. + + +THE SASTER + +The saster is a long pole used in the same manner as the speygelia. +Meat is suspended from it in front of the fire to roast (Figs. 74½ and +75), or kettles are suspended from it over the fire to boil water (Fig. +74). + + +TELEGRAPH WIRE COOKING IMPLEMENTS + +Many campers are fond of making for themselves cooking utensils +improvised from ordinary telegraph wire. In the old time open +fire-places of our grandsires' kitchen there were trammels consisting +of chains hanging down the chimney on which things were hooked by +short pot-hooks to hang over the fire; there were also rakens made of +bands of iron with holes punched in them for the attachment of short +iron pot-hooks (Fig. 76). With these ancient implements in their +minds, some ingenious campers manufacture themselves rakens and short +pot-hooks from telegraph wire (Fig. 77). By twisting the wire in a +series of short loops, each loop can be made to serve as a place for +attaching the pot-hooks as did the holes in the old-fashioned rakens. +The advantages they claim for the telegraph wire raken are lightness +and its possibility of being readily packed. + +[Illustration: 74½, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80] + +On one of these rakens one may hook the pail as high or as low as one +chooses (Fig. 78); not only that but one may (Fig. 79) put a small pail +inside the larger one, where later it is full of water, for the purpose +of cooking cereal without danger of scorching it. + +[Illustration: 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 88A, 88B, 89, 90] + +The disadvantage of all these implements is that they must be toted +wherever one goes, and parts are sure to be lost sooner or later, +whereupon the camper must resort to things "with the bark on 'em," like +the gallow-crook, the pot-claw, the hake, the gib, the speygelia, or +the saster, or he may go back to the first principles and sharpen +the forks of a green wand and impale thereon the bacon, game or fish +that it may be thus toasted over the hot embers (Fig. 80). We do not +put meat _over_ the fire because it will burn on the outside before it +cooks and the fumes of the smoke will spoil its flavor. + +According to Mr. Seton, away up in the barren lands they use the +saster with a fan made of a shingle-like piece of wood, fastened with +a hitch to a piece of wire and a bit of string; the wind--when it is +good-natured--will cause the cord to spin round and round. But the same +result is secured with a cord which has been soaked in water to prevent +it from burning, and which has also been twisted by spinning the meat +with one's hands (Fig. 75). Such a cord will unwind and wind more or +less slowly for considerable time, thus causing the meat to expose all +sides of its surface to the heat of the roasting fire in front of which +it hangs. You will note we say in front; again let us impress upon the +reader's mind that he must not hang his meat over the flame. In Fig. 75 +the meat is so drawn that one might mistake its position and think it +was intended to hang over the fire, whereas the intention is to hang it +in _front_ of the fire as in Fig. 74. In the writer's boyhood days it +was his great delight to hang an apple by a wet string in front of the +open fire, and to watch it spin until the heat sent the juices bubbling +through the skin and the apple gradually became thoroughly roasted. + + +THE GRIDIRON + +Campers have been known to be so fastidious as to demand a broiler +to go with their kit; at the same time there was enough of the real +camper in them to cause them to avoid carrying unwieldy broilers such +as are used in our kitchens. Consequently they compromise by packing a +handful of telegraph wires of even length with their duffel (Fig. 81), +each wire having its ends carefully bent in the form of a hook (Fig. +82), which may be adjusted over two green sticks resting upon two log +fire-dogs (Fig. 83), and upon the wires, so arranged, meat and fish may +be nicely broiled. + +This is not a bad scheme, but the campers should have a little canvas +bag in which they may pack the wires, otherwise the camper will sooner +or later throw them away rather than be annoyed by losing one every now +and then. Figs. 84, 85, 86, 87 and 88 show a little + + +SKELETON CAMP STOVE + +Ingeniously devised by a Boy Pioneer. Two pieces of telegraph wire +are bent into a triangular form (Figs. 84 and 85), and the ends of +the triangle at A are left open or unjoined, so that they may readily +be slipped through the loops in the upright wires, B and C (Fig. 87), +and thus form a take-a-part skeleton stove (Fig. 86). The young fellow +from whom this device was obtained was at the time using an old tin +kerosene-lamp (Fig. 88A) which he forced into the lower triangle of the +stove (Fig. 86), and which the spring of the wire of the triangle held +in position (Fig. 88B). + +But if one is going to use the telegraph wire camp stove there is no +necessity of carrying a lamp. The stove is made so that it may be taken +apart and packed easily and the weight is trifling, but a lamp of any +kind, or even a lantern, is a nuisance to carry. + +The telegraph wire camp stove, however, may be made by bending the +wires as shown in Fig. 90, but the only object in so doing is to +develop one's ingenuity, or for economy sake, otherwise one may +purchase at the outfitter's folding wire camp broilers for a trifle, +made on the same principle and with legs which may be thrust into the +ground surrounding the fire, as in Figs. 88 and 89, and, after the +broiler is folded in the middle, the legs may be folded back so that +it will all make a flat package. But leaving the artificialities of +telegraph wire let us go back to the real thing again and talk about +laying and lighting a genuine + + +CAMP COOKING FIRE + +The more carefully the fire is planned and built the more easily will +the cooking be accomplished. The first thing to be considered in laying +one of these fires is the + + +FIRE-DOGS + +Which in camp are the same as andirons in the open fire-places of our +homes, and used for the same purpose. But domestic andirons are heavy +steel bars usually with ornamental brass uprights in front and they +would be most unhandy for one to carry upon a camping trip, while it +would be the height of absurdity to think of taking andirons on a real +hunting or exploring expedition. Therefore, we use green logs, sods or +stones for fire-dogs in the wilderness. Frequently we have a back-log +against which the fire-dog rests; this back-log is shown in Fig. 91. +In this particular case it acts both as a back-log and a fire-dog. In +the plan just above it (Fig. 92), there are two logs side by side which +serve the double purpose of fire-dogs and for sides of the kitchen +stove (Fig. 93). Fig. 94 shows + + +THE LAY OF A ROASTING FIRE + +Sometimes called the round fire. The back is laid up log-cabin style +and the front is left open. In the open enclosure the fire is built by +sticks being laid up like those in Fig. 91. The logs on all three sides +radiate the heat and when the meat is hung in front of this, suspended +from the end of the saster (Fig. 74½), it is easily and thoroughly +roasted. + + +THE CAMP-FIRE + +Is built with an eye to two purposes: one is to reflect heat into the +open tent in front, and the other is to so construct it that it may +last a long time. When one builds a camp-fire one wants to be able to +roll up in one's blanket and sleep with the comforting conviction that +the fire will last until morning. + +The camp-fire is made with two fire-dogs pushed back against a back +log (Fig. 95A and B), which form the foundation for the camp-fire. Two +upright green sticks C (Fig. 95) are placed in a slanting position and +supported by other sticks, D (Fig. 95), the top ends of which rest in +notches cut in C stick at E (Fig. 95), and the bottom ends of which are +thrust into the ground. Against the upright sticks C, and the logs F +are heaped to form the back of the fire. The fire is then built on the +two fire-dogs AA, and against the F logs, the latter will burn slowly +and at the same time reflect the heat into the open tent front. This +same fire is sometimes used for a baking fire, but the real fire for +this purpose is made by the + + +BELMORE LAY + +Figs. 96 and 97. The first sketch shows the plan and the second the +perspective view of the fire. The stove is made by two side logs or +fire-dogs over which the fire is built and after it has fallen in, a +mass of red hot embers, between the fire-dogs, two logs are laid across +the dogs and one log is placed atop, so that the flame then comes up +in front of them (Fig. 97) and sends the heat against the bread or +bannock. + +[Illustration: 93, 94, 95, 96, 97] + +At a convenient distance in front of the fuel logs, a waugan-stick is +placed, reaching from one fire-dog to the other. + +In wilderness work the frying pan is about the only domestic utensil +carried and is used as a toaster, a baker, a broiler, a fryer, and a +stew pan all combined. In it the Buckskin man and the Sourdough make +their bread, and after the bread has been baked over the coals on the +bottom, it is browned nicely on its top by tilting the pans in front +of the fire and resting their handles against the waugan-stick (Fig. +97). I have seen the baking fire used from British Columbia to Florida, +but it was the explorer, Captain Belmore Browne, who showed me the use +of the waugan-stick in connection with the baking fire, hence I have +called this the Belmore Lay. + + +A FRYING FIRE + +Is built between two logs, two rows of stones, or sods (Figs. 98, 99 +and 100); between these logs the fire is usually built, using the sides +as fire-dogs, or the sticks may be placed in the turkey-lay (Fig. 100), +so that the sticks themselves make a fire-dog and allow, for a time, +a draught until the fire is burning briskly, after which it settles +down to hot embers and is in the proper condition for frying. For be it +known that too hot a griddle will set the grease or bacon afire, which +may be funny under ordinary circumstances, but when one is shy of bacon +it is a serious thing. The + + +ORDINARY BAKING FIRE LAY + +Is shown by Fig. 101. In this instance, the frying pans being used as +reflector ovens are propped up by running sticks through the holes in +their handles. + + +THE AURES + +Is a rustic crane made exactly of the same form as are the cranes of +the old-fashioned open fire-places, but ingeniously fashioned from a +carefully selected green stick with two forks (Fig. 102). The long end +of the main branch is severed at A (Fig. 102), care being taken not to +cut through the green bark, B (Fig. 102). The bark of the latter, B, is +then bent over the stub, A (Fig. 102), forming a loop, C (Fig. 103), +which is lashed with green bark to the main stick and slipped over the +upright, D (Fig. 104). The fork at E braces the crane and holds it in +a horizontal position, resting on a stub left on D for that purpose. +How practicable this thing may be depends altogether upon the time and +skill one has at one's disposal. One would hardly use the Aures for a +single night camp, but if one were to spend a week in the same camp, it +would be well worth while and at the same time very interesting work +to manufacture a neat Aures crane for the camp kitchen. The next step +in camp kitchen fires will include what might be termed the pit fires, +which will be described in the following chapter. + +You have been told how to select the firewood, make the kindling and +start a fire in the preceding chapter on how to build a fire; all you +have to remember now is that in certain particulars _all_ fires are +alike; they all must have _air_ to breathe and _food_ to eat or they +will not live. + +In the case of the fire we do not call the air breath, but we give +it a free circulation and call it a draught. Wood is the food that +the fire eats and it must be digestible, a fire with indigestion is a +fire fed with punky, damp wood carelessly thrown together in place of +well-selected dry split wood which the fire can consume cleanly, digest +evenly, and at the same time give out the greatest amount of heat. + +[Illustration: 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104] + +To produce a draught the fire must, of course, be raised from the +ground, but do not build it in a careless manner like a pile of +jack-straws. Such a fire may start all right, but when the supporting +sticks have burned away it will fall in a heap and precipitate the +cooking utensils into the flames, upsetting the coffee or teapot, and +dumping the bacon "from the frying pan into the fire." + +Be it man, woman, boy or girl, if he, she or it expects to be a +camper, he, or she or it must learn to be orderly and tidy around +camp. No matter how soiled one's clothes may be, no matter how grimy +one's face may look, the ground around the camp-fire must be clean, +and the cooking utensils and fire wood, pot-hooks and waugan-sticks, +all orderly and as carefully arranged as if the military officer was +expected the next minute to make an inspection. + +All my readers must remember that BY THEIR CAMP-FIRE THEY WILL BE KNOWN +and "sized up" as the real thing or as chumps, duffers, tenderfeet and +cheechakos, by the first Sourdough or old-timer who cuts their trails. + +FOOTNOTE: + +[D] The pots will balance better if the notches are on the same side. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +CAMP KITCHENS + + + CAMP PIT-FIRES, BEAN HOLES + COW-BOY FIRE-HOLE + CHINOOK COOKING FIRE-HOLE + BARBECUE-PITS + THE GOLD DIGGER'S OVEN + THE FERGUSON CAMP STOVE + THE ADOBE OVEN + THE ALTAR CAMPFIRE PLACE + CAMP KITCHEN FOR HIKERS, SCOUTS, EXPLORERS, SURVEYORS, AND HUNTERS + HOW TO COOK MEAT, FISH, AND BREAD WITHOUT POTS, PANS OR STOVES + DRESSING SMALL ANIMALS + HOW TO BARBECUE LARGE ANIMALS + + + + +CHAPTER V + +CAMP KITCHENS + + +REAL camp kitchens are naught but well arranged fire-places with rustic +cranes and pot-hooks as already described, but in deforested countries, +or on the plains and prairies, pit-fires are much in vogue. The pit +itself shelters the fire on the windswept plain, which is doubly +necessary because of the unprotected nature of such camping places, and +because of the kind of fuel used. Buffalo-chips were formerly used on +the Western plains, but they are now superseded by cattle chips. The +buffalo-chip fire was the cooking fire of the Buckskin-clad long-haired +plainsmen and the equally picturesque cowboy; but the buffalo herds +have long since hit the trail over the Great Divide where all tracks +point one way, the sound of the thunder of their feet has died away +forever, as has also the whoop of the painted Indians. The romantic and +picturesque plainsmen and the wild and rollicking cowboys have followed +the herds of buffalo and the long lines of prairie schooners are a +thing of the past, but the pit-fires of the hunters are still in use. + + +THE MOST SIMPLE PIT-FIRE + +Is a shallow trench dug in the ground, on each side of which two logs +are placed; in the pit between the logs a fire is built (Fig. 105), but +probably the most celebrated pit-fire is the fireless cooker of the +camp, known and loved by all under the name of + + +THE BEAN HOLE + +Fig. 106 shows a half section of a bean hole lined with stones. The +bean hole may, however, be lined with clay or simply the damp earth +left in its natural state. This pit-fire place is used differently from +the preceding one, for in the bean hole the fire is built and burns +until the sides are heated good and hot, then the fire is removed and +the bean pot put in place, after which the whole thing is covered up +with ashes and earth and allowed to cook at its leisure. + + +THE COWBOY PIT-FIRE + +The cowboy pit-fire is simply a trench dug in the earth (Fig. 107), +with a basin-shaped hole at the beginning. When obtainable, sticks are +laid across the trench and sods laid upon the top of the sticks. Fig. +107 shows a section of view of the pit-fire and trench chimney, and +Fig. 108 shows the top view of the same. + +In removing the sod one should be careful not to break them, then even +though there be no sticks one may be able to cover the draught chimney +with the sods themselves by allowing them to bridge the trench. At the +end of the trench the sods are built up, making a short smokestack. + +[Illustration: 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113] + + +THE CHINOOK FIRE-PIT + +The chinook fire-pit is one which is used in the northwestern part of +the United States, and seems to be a combination of the ordinary camp +fire-dogs with cross logs and the cowboy fire-pit. Fig. 109 shows a +perspective view of this lay. Fig. 110 shows the top view of plan of +the lay. Fig. 111 shows a steeper perspective view than that of Fig. +109, and Fig. 112 shows a sectional view. By examining the sectional +view and also the deeper perspective view, as well as the plan, you +will note that the two logs are placed across the fire-dogs with space +between. The back-log is placed upon the top of another back-log A +and B (Fig. 112). The fire-dogs have their ends shoved against the +bottom back-logs B, the two back-logs are kept in place by the stakes +C, C. Between the two top logs D and A (Figs. 112 and 110), the smaller +fuel or split wood is placed. + +As the fire burns the hot coals drop into the pit, and when sufficient +quantity of embers are there they may be raked forward and the frying +pan placed on top of them (Fig. 112). The chinook fire is good for +baking, frying, broiling, toasting, and is an excellent all-around +kitchen camp stove. + + +THE HOBO + +Is carelessly built, a fire-place usually surrounding a shallow pit, +the sides built up with sods or stones. The hobo answers for a hasty +fire over which to boil the kettle (Fig. 113). + +At the old-fashioned barbecue where our ancestors roasted whole oxen, +the ox was placed on a huge spit, which was turned with a crank handle, +very similar to the old-fashioned well handle as used with a rope or +chain and bucket. + + +THE BARBECUE-PIT + +Is used at those feasts (Fig. 114), where they broil or roast a whole +sheep, deer or pig. At a late meet of the Camp-fire Club of America +they thus barbecued a pig. + +The fire-pit is about four feet wide and four feet deep and is long +enough (Fig. 114) to allow a fire to be built at each end of the pit, +there being no fire under the meat itself for the very good reason that +the melted fat would drop into the fire, cause it to blaze up, smoke +and spoil the meat. + +The late Homer Davenport (the old-time and famous cartoonist) some +years ago gave a barbecue at his wild animal farm in New Jersey. When +Davenport was not drawing cartoons he was raising wild animals. At the +Davenport barbecue there was a fire-pit dug in the side of the bank +(Fig. 115); such an arrangement is known as + + +THE BANK-PIT + +In the diagram it will be seen that the carcass is fastened to a spit +of green wood, which runs thru a hole in a cross log and fits in the +socket D in the bottom log; the spit is turned by handles arranged like +A, B or C. The pit is lined with either stones or bricks, which are +heated by a roaring big fire until hot enough to bake the meat. + +[Illustration: 114, 115, 116, 117] + + +THE GOLD DIGGER + +Is another bank pit, and one that I have seen used in Montana by +Japanese railroad hands. It is made by digging a hole in the bank and +using shelves either made of stones or old pieces of iron. Fig. 116 +shows the cross section of the Gold Digger with the stone door in +place. Fig. 117 shows a perspective view of the gold digger with the +stone door resting at one side. + +[Illustration: 118, 119 THE FERGUSON CAMPSTOVE] + +We next come to the ovens, the first of which is known as + + +THE FERGUSON CAMP STOVE. + +It is made by building a rounded hut of stones or sod (Fig. 118), and +covering the same with branches over which sod, or clay, or dirt is +heaped (Fig. 119). The oven is heated by building the fire inside of +it, and when it is very hot and the fire has burned down, the food is +placed inside and the opening stopped up so as to retain the heat and +thus cook the food. + + +THE ADOBE + +Is one that the soldiers in Civil War days taught the author to build. +The boys in blue generally used an old barrel with the two heads +knocked out (Fig. 121). This they either set in the bank or covered +with clay (Fig. 120), and in it they built their fires which consumed +the barrel but left the baked clay for the sides of the oven. The head +of the barrel (Fig. 121A) was saved and used to stop up the front of +the oven when baking was being done; a stone or sod was used to cover +up the chimney hole. Figs. 122, 123, 124 and 125 show how to make an +Adobe by braiding green sticks together and then covering the same with +clay, after which it is used in the same manner as the preceding barrel +oven. + + +THE MATASISO + +Is a camp stove or fire-place, and a form of the so-called Altar +Fire-place, the object of which is to save one's back while cooking. +The matasiso is built up of stones or sods (Fig. 126) and used like any +other campfire. + + +THE BANK LICK + +Is a camp stove which the boys of the troop of Boone Scouts, who +frequented Bank Lick in old Kentucky, were wont to build and on it to +cook the big channel catfish, or little pond bass or other food. The +Bank Lick is made of flat stones and is one or two stories high (Figs. +127 and 128). The Boone Scouts flourished in Kenton County, Kentucky, +fifty odd years ago. + +[Illustration: 120, 121, 121A, 122, 123, 124, 125] + + +THE ALTAR FIRE-PLACE + +Is built of logs (Fig. 132), of stones, of sod, or of logs filled with +sods or stone (Fig. 131), and topped with clay (Figs. 130 and 132). The +clay top being wider at one end than the other, on the plan of the +well-known campfire (Fig. 129), is made with stones and sometimes used +when clay is unobtainable. + +[Illustration: 126, 127, 128] + +[Illustration: 129, 130, 131, 132] + + +THE ALTAR CAMP FIRE-PLACE + +The advantage of the altar fire and the matasiso is that the cook does +not have to get the backache over the fire while he cooks. All of these +ovens and fire-places are suitable for more or less permanent camps, +but it is not worth while to build these ovens and altar fire-places +for quick and short camps. + + +COOKING WITHOUT POTS, PANS OR STOVES + +It is proper and right in treating camp cooking that we should begin +with the most primitive methods. For when one has no cooking utensils +except those fashioned from the material at hand, he must, in order to +prepare appetizing food, display a real knowledge of woodcraft. + +[Illustration: 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, +144, 145, 146 + +PRIMITIVE COOKING UTENSILS] + +Therefore, start by spearing the meat on a green twig of sweet birch, +or some similar wood, and toast it before the fire or pinch the meat +between the split ends of a twig (Fig. 133) or better still + + +FORK IT + +In order to do this select a wand with a fork to it, trim off the +prongs of the forks, leaving them rather long (Fig. 134), then sharpen +the ends of the prongs and weave them in and out near the edges of the +meat (Fig. 135), which is done by drawing the prongs slightly together +before impaling the meat on the second prong. The natural spring and +elasticity of the branches will stretch the meat nice and flat (Fig. +135), ready to toast in front of the flames, _not over the flame_. + +A very thick steak of moose meat or beef may be cooked in this manner. +Remember to have fire-dogs and a good back log; there will then be hot +coals under the front log and flame against the back log to furnish +heat for the meat in front. Turn the meat every few minutes and do not +salt it until it is about done. Any sort of meat can be thus cooked; +it is a favorite way of toasting bacon among the sportsmen, and I have +seen chickens beautifully broiled with no cooking implements but the +forked stick. This was done by splitting the chicken open and running +the forks through the legs and sides of the fowl. + + +PULLED FIREBREAD OR TWIST + +Twist is a Boy Scout's name for this sort of bread. The twist is made +of dough and rolled between the palms of the hands until it becomes a +long thick rope (Fig. 138), then it is wrapped spirally around a dry +stick (Fig. 139), or one with bark on it (Fig. 137). The coils should +be close together but without touching each other. The stick is now +rested in the forks of two uprights, or on two stones in front of the +roasting fire (Figs. 140 and 141), or over the hot coals of a pit-fire. +The long end of the stick on which the twist is coiled is used for a +handle to turn the twist so that it may be nicely browned on all sides, +or it may be set upright in front of the flames (Fig. 142). + + +A HOE CAKE + +May be cooked in the same manner that one planks a shad: that is, by +plastering it on the flat face of a puncheon or board, split from the +trunk of a tree (Fig. 145), or flat clean stone, and propping it up +in front of the fire as one would when cooking in a reflecting oven +(Fig. 146). When the cake is cooked on one side it can be turned over +by using a hunting knife or a little paddle whittled out of a stick +for that purpose, and then cooked upon the opposite side. Or a flat +stone may be placed over the fire and used as a frying pan (Figs. 116 +and 128). I have cooked a large channel catfish in this manner and +found that it was unnecessary to skin the fish because, there being no +grease, the skin adhered firmly to the hot stone, leaving the white +meat flaky and delicate, all ready to be picked out with a jack-knife +or with chopsticks, whittled out of twigs. + + +MEAT HOOKS + +May be made of forked branches (Figs. 151, 152, 153, 154 and 155). Upon +this hook meat maybe suspended before the fire (Fig. 153) by a piece +of twine made from the twisted green bark of a milkweed or some other +fibrous plant stalk or tree bark, or a wet string will do if you have +one. + + +HOW TO DRESS SMALL ANIMALS + +Dressing in this case really means undressing, taking their coats off +and removing their insides. In order to prepare for broiling or baking +any of the small fur-bearing animals, make yourself a skinning stick, +using for the purpose a forked branch; the forks being about an inch +in diameter, make the length of the stick to suit your convenience, +that is, long enough to reach between the knees whether you are sitting +on a camp stool or squatting on the ground, sharpen the lower end of +the stick and thrust it into the ground, then take your coon, possum, +squirrel or muskrat, and punch the pointed ends of the forked stick +thru the thin place at the point which corresponds to your own heel, +just as the stick in Fig. 155 is punched through the thin place behind +the heels of the small animals there sketched. Thus hung the animal +may be dressed with comfort to the workmen. If one is squatting, the +nose of the animal should just clear the ground. First take off the +fur coat. To do this you split the skin with a sharp knife, beginning +at the center of the throat and cut to the base of the tail, being +careful not to cut deep enough to penetrate the inside skin or sack +which contains the intestines; when the base of the tail is reached, +use your fingers to roll back the skin. If skinning for the pelt, +follow directions given later, but do not destroy any skin as the hide +is useful for many purposes around camp. After the coat is removed and +all the internal organs taken out, remove the scent glands from such +animals as have them, and make a cut in the forearms and the meaty +parts of the thigh, and cut out the little white things which look like +nerves, to be found there. This will prevent the flesh from having a +strong or musky taste when it is cooked. + + +HOW TO BARBECUE A DEER, OR SHEEP + +First dress the carcass and then stretch it on a framework of black +birch sticks, for this sweet wood imparts no disagreeable odor or taste +to the meat. + +Next build a big fire at each end of the pit (Fig. 114), not right +under the body of the animal, but so arranged that when the melted fat +drops from the carcass it will not fall on the hot coals to blaze up +and spoil your barbecue. Build big fires with plenty of small sticks so +as to make good red hot coals before you put the meat on to cook. + +First bake the inside of the barbecued beast, then turn it over and +bake the outside. To be well done, an animal the size of a sheep +should be cooking at least seven or eight hours over a charcoal fire. +Baste the meat with melted bacon fat mixed with any sauce you may have +or no sauce at all, for bacon fat itself is good enough for anyone, or +use hot salt water. + +Of course, it is much better to use charcoal for this purpose, but +charcoal is not always handy. One can, however, + + +MAKE ONE'S OWN CHARCOAL + +A day or two ahead of the barbecue day, by building big fires of wood +about the thickness of one's wrist. After the fire has been burning +briskly for a while, it should be covered up with ashes or dirt and +allowed to smoulder all night, and turn the wood into charcoal in place +of consuming it. + + +HOW TO MAKE DOUGH + +Roll the top of your flour bag back (Fig. 136), then build a cone of +flour in the middle of the bag and make a crater in the top of the +flour mountain. + +In the crater dump a heaping teaspoon--or, to use Mr. Vreeland's +expression, put in "one and a half heaping teaspoonfuls of baking +powder," to which add a half spoonful of salt; mix these together with +the dry flour, and when this is thoroughly done begin to pour water +into the crater, a little at a time, mixing the dough as you work by +stirring it around inside your miniature volcano. Gradually the flour +will slide from the sides into the _lava_ of the center, as the water +is poured in and care taken to avoid lumps. + +Make the dough as soft as may be, not batter but very soft dough, stiff +enough, however, to roll between your well-floured hands. + + +BAKED POTATOES + +Put the potatoes with their skins on them on a bed of hot embers two or +three inches thick, then cover the potatoes with more hot coals. If +this is done properly the spuds will cook slowly, even with the fire +burning above them. Don't be a chump and throw the potatoes in the fire +where the outer rind will burn to charcoal while the inside remains raw. + + +MUD COOKING + +In preparing a small and tender fish, where possible, the point under +the head, where the gills meet, is cut, fingers thrust in and the +entrails drawn through this opening; the fish is then washed, cleaned +and wrapped in a coating of paper or fallen leaves, before the clay +is applied. Place the fish upon a pancake of stiff clay (Fig. 147), +fold the clay over the fish (Fig. 148), press the edges together, thus +making a clay dumpling (Fig. 149); cook by burying the dumpling in the +embers of an ordinary surface fire, or in the embers in a pit-fire +(Fig. 150). + +A brace of partridges may be beheaded, drawn, washed out thoroughly and +stuffed with fine scraps of chopped bacon or pork, mixed with bread +crumbs, generously seasoned with salt, pepper and sage, if you have any +of the latter. The birds with the feathers on them are then plastered +over with clean clay made soft enough to stick to the feathers, the +outside is wrapped with stiffer clay and the whole molded into a ball, +which is buried deep in the glowing cinders and allowed to remain +there for an hour, and at the end of that time the clay will often be +almost as hard as pottery and must be broken open with a stick. When +the outside clay comes off the feathers will come with it, leaving the +dainty white meat of the bird all ready to be devoured. + +Woodchucks, raccoons, opossums, porcupines, rabbits had better be +barbecued (see Figs. 114, 115 and 155), but squirrels and small +creatures may be baked by first removing the insides of the creatures, +cleaning them, filling the hollow with bread crumbs, chopped bacon and +onions, then closing the opening and plastering the bodies over with +stiff clay and baking them in the embers. This seals the meat inside of +the mud wrapper and when it is cooked and the brick-like clay broken +off, the skin comes off with the broken clay, leaving the juicy meat +exposed to view. + +[Illustration: 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, +158, 159, 160] + + +TO PLANK A FISH + +Cut off the head of the fish and clean by splitting it through the +back, in place of the usual way of splitting up the belly. To salt +red meat before you cook it is to make it dry and tough, but the fish +should be salted while it is damp with its own juices. + +Heat the plank in front of the fire and then spread your fish out flat +on the hot puncheon or plank, and with your hunting knife press upon +it, make slit holes through the fish (Fig. 145) with the grain of the +wood; tack your fish on with wooden pegs cut wedge shape and driven +in the slits made by your knife blade (Figs. 143 and 144). Prop the +puncheon up in front of a fire which has a good back-log and plenty of +hot coals to send out heat (Fig. 146).[E] + + +HEATING WATER + +Water may be boiled in a birch bark vessel made by folding up a more or +less square piece of bark, bending in the corner (Fig. 157) folds and +holding them in place by thorns or slivers (Fig. 156). Or the stomach +of a large animal or piece of green hide may be filled with water and +the latter made hot by throwing in it hot stones (Fig. 158). Dig a hole +in the ground, fit the rawhide in the hole, bringing the edges up so +as to overlap the sod, weigh down the edges with stones, fill the hide +with water and heat with hot stones. Figs. 159 and 160 show how to make +tongs with which to handle the stones. + +FOOTNOTE: + +[E] The best plank is made from the oaks grown on the hammocks of +Southern Florida and the peculiar flavor this plank gives to shad has +made Planked Shad famous. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +CAMP FOOD + + HOW TO MAKE ASH CAKE, PONE, CORN DODGERS, FLAPJACKS, JOHNNY-CAKE, + BISCUITS AND DOUGHGOD + MAKING DUTCH OVENS + VENISON + BANQUETS IN THE OPEN + HOW TO COOK BEAVER TAIL, PORCUPINES AND MUSKRATS + CAMP STEWS, BRUNSWICK STEWS AND BURGOOS + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +CAMP FOOD + + +PARCHED CORN AS FOOD + +WHEN America gave Indian corn to the world she gave it a priceless gift +full of condensed pep. Corn in its various forms is a wonderful food +power; with a long, narrow buckskin bag of nocake, or rock-a-hominy, +as parched cracked corn was called, swung upon his back, an Indian or +a white man could traverse the continent independent of game and never +suffer hunger. George Washington, George Rodgers Clark, Boone, Kenton, +Crockett, and Carson all knew the sustaining value of parched corn. + + +HOW TO DRY CORN + +The pioneer farmers in America and many of their descendants up to the +present time, dry their Indian corn by the methods the early Americans +learned from the Indians. The corn drying season naturally begins with +the harvesting of the corn, but it often continues until the first snow +falls. + +Selecting a number of ears of corn, the husks are pulled back exposing +the grain, and then the husks of the several ears are braided together +(Fig. 165). These bunches of corn are hung over branches of trees or +horizontal poles and left for the winds to dry (Fig. 166). + +On account of the danger from corn-eating birds and beasts, these +drying poles are usually placed near the kitchen door of the farmhouse, +and sometimes in the attic of the old farmhouse, the woodshed or the +barn. + +Of course, the Indians owned no corn mills, but they used bowl-shaped +stones to hold the corn and stone pestles like crudely made potato +mashers with which to grind the corn. The writer lately saw numbers +of these stone corn-mills in the collection of Doctor Baldwin, of +Springfield, Mass. + +[Illustration: 161, 162, 163, 164 + +HOW TO PREPARE CORN TO EAT] + +In the southwest much grit from the stone used is unintentionally mixed +with the corn, and hence all the elderly Indians' teeth are worn down +as if they had been sandpapered. + +But the reader can use a wooden bowl and a potato masher with a piece +of tin or sheet iron nailed to its bottom with which to crush the corn +and make meal without grit. Or he can make a pioneer mill like Figs. +163 or 164, from a log. The pestle or masher in Fig. 164 is of iron. + + +SWEET CORN + +There is a way to preserve corn which a few white people still practice +just as they learned it from the Indians. First they dig long, shallow +trenches in the ground, fill them with dried roots and small twigs +with which they make a hot fire and thus cover the bottom of the ditch +with glowing embers. The outer husks of the fresh green corn are then +removed and the corn placed in rows side by side on the hot embers +(Fig. 167). This practice gave the name of Roasting Ear Season to July +and August. + +[Illustration] + +As the husks become scorched the ears are turned over, and when browned +on all sides they are deftly tossed out of the ditch by means of a wand +or stick used for that purpose. + +The burnt husks are now removed and the grains of corn are shelled from +the cob with the help of a sharp-edged, fresh water "clam" shell; these +shells I have often found in the old camping places of the Indians in +the half caves of Pennsylvania. + +The corn is then spread out on a clean sheet or on pieces of paper and +allowed to dry in the sun. It is "mighty" good food, as any Southern +born person will tell you. One can keep a supply of it all winter. + + +PARCHED FIELD CORN + +When I was a little shaver in old Kentucky, the children were very +fond of the Southern field corn parched in a frying pan (Fig. 161), +and then buttered and salted while it was still hot; we parched field +corn, sugar corn and the regular pop corn, but none of us had ever seen +cracked corn or corn meal parched and used as food, and I am inclined +to think that the old pioneers themselves parched the corn as did their +direct descendants in Kentucky, and that said corn was crushed or +ground after it had been parched. Be this as it may, we know that our +bordermen traveled and fought on a parched corn diet and that Somoset, +Massasoit, Pocahontas, Okekankano, Powhatan, all ate corn cakes and +that it was either them or the squaws of their tribes who taught bold +Captain Smith's people on the southern coast, and the Pilgrims further +north, the value of corn as an article of diet. The knowledge of how to +make the various kinds of corn bread and the use of corn generally from +"roasting-ears" to corn puddings was gained from the American Indians. +It was from them we learned how to make the + + +ASH CAKES + +This ancient American food dates back to the fable times which existed +before history, when the sun came out of a hole in the eastern sky, +climbed up overhead and then dove through a hole in the western sky +and disappeared. The sun no more plays such tricks, and although the +humming-bird, who once stole the sun, still carries the mark under his +chin, he is no longer a humming-birdman but only a little buzzing bird; +the ash cake, however, is still an ash cake and is made in almost as +primitive a manner now as it was then. + +Mix half a teaspoonful of salt with a cup of corn meal, and add to it +boiling hot water until the swollen meal may be worked by one's hand +into a ball, bury the ball in a nice bed of hot ashes (glowing embers) +and leave it there to bake like a potato. Equalling the ash cake in +fame and simplicity is + + +PONE + +Pone is made by mixing the meal as described for the ash cake, but +molding the mixture in the form of a cone and baking it in an oven. + + +JOHNNY-CAKE + +Is mixed in the same way as the pone or ash cake, but it is not cooked +the same, nor is it the same shape; it is more in the form of a very +thick pancake. Pat the Johnny-cake into the form of a disk an inch +thick and four inches in diameter. Have the frying pan plentifully +supplied with _hot_ grease and drop the Johnny-cake carefully in the +sizzling grease. When the cake is well browned on one side turn it and +brown it on the other side. If cooked properly it should be a rich +dark brown color and with a crisp crust. Before it is eaten it may be +cut open and buttered like a biscuit, or eaten with maple syrup like +a hot buckwheat cake. This is the Johnny-cake of my youth, the famous +Johnny-cake of Kentucky fifty years ago. Up North I find that any old +thing made of corn meal is called a Johnny-cake and that they also call +ash-cakes "hoe-cakes," and corn bread "bannocks," at least they call +camp corn bread, a bannock. Now since bannocks were known before corn +was known, suppose we call it + + +CAMP CORN BREAD AND CORN DODGERS + +In the North they also call this camp corn bread "Johnny-cake," but +whatever it is called it is wholesome and nourishing. Take some corn +meal and wheat flour and mix them fifty-fifty; in other words, a half +pint each; add a teaspoon level full and a teaspoon heaping full of +baking powder and about half a teaspoonful of salt; mix these all +together, _while dry_, in your pan, then add the water gradually. If +you have any milk go fifty-fifty with the water and milk, make the +flour as thin as batter, pour it into a reflector pan, or frying pan, +prop it up in front of a quick fire; it will be heavy if allowed to +cook slowly at the start, but after your cake has risen you may take +more time with the cooking. This is a fine corn bread to stick to the +ribs. I have eaten it every day for a month at a time and it certainly +has the food power in it. When made in form of biscuits it is called +"corn dodgers." + + +CAMP BISCUIT + +Take two cups full of flour and one level teaspoonful and one heaping +teaspoonful of baking powder and half a teaspoonful of salt, and mix +them together thoroughly while dry. To this you add milk and water, if +not milk straight water, mixing it as described for the flapjacks. Make +a dough soft but stiff enough to mold with well floured hands, make it +into biscuits about half an inch thick, put them into a greased pan, +bake them in any one of the ovens already described, or by propping +them up in front of the fire. If the biscuits have been well mixed and +well baked they will prove to be good biscuits. + + +THE VREELAND BANNOCK + +Fred tells me that he makes this the same as he would biscuits and +bakes it in a frying pan. The frying pan is heated and greased before +the dough is dropped into it, making a cake about a half inch thick. +The frying pan is then placed over the slow fire to give the bannock a +chance to rise and harden enough to hold its shape, then the frying +pan is propped up with a stick and the bannock browned by reflected +heat, it must be cooked slowly and have "a nice brown crust." I have +never made bannocks but I have eaten some of Vreeland's, and they are +fine. + + +FLAPJACKS + +A fellow who cannot throw a flapjack is sadly lacking in the skill one +expects to find in a real woodcrafter. A heavy, greasy flapjack is an +abomination, but the real article is a joy to make and a joy to eat. + +Put a large tin cupful of flour in the pan, add half a teaspoonful of +salt, also one heaping teaspoonful and one level teaspoonful of baking +powder; mix the salt and baking powder well with the flour while it +is dry. Then build your little mountain or volcano of flour with its +miniature crater in the middle, into which pour water little by little; +making the lava by mixing the dough as you go. Continue this process +until all the flour is batter; the batter should be thin enough to +spread out rapidly into the form of a pancake when it is poured into +the skillet or frying pan, but not watery. + +Grease the frying pan with a greasy rag fastened to the end of a stick +or with a piece of bacon rind. Remember that the frying pan only needs +enough grease to prevent the cake from sticking to the pan; when one +fries potatoes the pan should be plentifully supplied with very hot +grease, but flapjacks are not potatoes and too much grease makes the +cakes unfit to eat. Do not put too much batter in the pan, either; I +tried it once and when I flapped the flapjack the hot batter splattered +all over my face, and that batter was even hotter than my remarks. + +Pour enough batter into the pan to spread almost but not quite over +the bottom; when the bubbles come thickly in the middle and the +edges begin to smoke a bit, it is time to flap the flapjack. Do so by +loosening the edges with a knife blade, then dip the far side of the +pan downward and bring it up quickly, sending the cake somersaulting +in the air; catch the cake as it falls batter side down and proceed to +cook that side. + +The penalty of dropping a flapjack in the fire is to be made to eat it +without wiping off the ashes. + + +DOUGHGOD + +First fry some bacon or boil it until it is soft, then chop up the +bacon into small pieces quite fine, like hash. Save the grease and set +the bacon to one side; now take a pint of flour and half a teaspoon +of salt, a spoonful of brown sugar and a heaping spoonful of baking +powder and mix them all while they are dry, after which stir in the +water as already described until it is in the form of batter; now add +the chopped bacon and then mix rapidly with a spoon; pour it into a +Dutch oven or a pan and bake; it should be done in thirty-five or forty +minutes, according to the condition of the fire. + +When your campfire is built upon a hearth made of stones, if you brush +the ashes away from the hot stone and place your doughgod upon it, then +cover it with a frying pan or some similar vessel, and put the hot +cinders on top of the frying pan, you will find that it will bake very +nicely and satisfactorily on the hearthstone. + +In the old-fashioned open fire-places where our grandparents did their +cooking, a Dutch oven was considered essential. The Dutch oven is still +used by the guides and cowboys and is of practically the same form as +that used by Abraham Lincoln's folks; it consists of a more or less +shallow dish of metal, copper, brass or iron, with four metal legs +that may be set in the hot cinders. Over that is a metal top which is +made so as to cover the bottom dish, and the edges of the cover are +turned up all around like a hat with its brim turned up. This is so +made to hold the hot cinders which are dumped on top of it, but a + + +DUTCH OVEN MAY BE IMPROVISED + +From any combination of two metal dishes so made or selected that the +large one will fit over the top and snugly overlap the smaller dish, +so as not to admit dirt, dust or ashes to the food inside. In this +oven bread, biscuits, cakes, pies, stews, bakes, meat, fish, fowl and +vegetables may be cooked with delightful results. In camp two frying +pans are frequently made to act as a Dutch oven. A Dutch oven is +sometimes used in a bean hole (Fig. 106). First build a fire, using +sufficient small wood, chips and dry roots to make cinders enough with +which to fill your bean hole. While the fire is doing its work let the +cook prepare to cook + + +THE SOURDOUGH'S JOY + +Slice bacon as thin as possible and place a layer over the bottom and +around the sides of the Dutch oven like a pie-crust. Slice venison, +moose meat or bear steak, or plain beef, medium thin and put in to the +depth of 2½ inches, salting each layer. Chop a large onion and sprinkle +it over the top, cover with another layer of bacon and one pint of +water and put on the lid. Fill the hole half full of hot embers, +place the Dutch oven in the center and fill the space surrounding the +oven full of embers. Cover all with about 6 inches of dirt, then roll +yourself up in your blanket and shut your eyes--your breakfast will +cook while you sleep and be piping hot when you dig for it in the +morning. + +The bean hole is far from a modern invention and the dried droppings of +animals, like "buffalo chips," were used for fuel away back in Bible +times; in ancient Palestine they stewed their meat in a pot set in a +hole filled in with stones over which burned a fire of "chips" gathered +where the flocks pastured. + +When the wood is of such a nature that it is difficult to obtain a bed +of live coals for toasting, meat may, in a pinch, be cooked upon a +clean flat stone (Figs. 116, 117 and 128). Be certain that the stone +is a dry one, otherwise the heat may burst it. If satisfied that it +is dry, heat it good and hot and spread your thick slice of venison, +moose, bear or sheep or even beef upon the very hot stone; leave it +there about twenty minutes and allow it to singe, sizzle and burn on +one side, then turn it over and burn the other side until the charred +part is one-quarter or even a half inch deep. Now remove the meat and +with your hunting knife scrape away all the charred meat, season it and +toast some bacon or pork on a forked stick and, after scoring the steak +deeply and putting the pork or bacon in the cuts, the meat is ready to +serve to your hungry self and camp mates. + + +HOW TO COOK VENISON + +If you want to know how real wild meat tastes, drop a sleek buck with a +shot just over the shoulder--no good sportsman will shoot a doe--dress +the deer and let it hang for several days; that is, if you wish tender +meat. Cut a steak two inches thick and fry some bacon, after which put +the steak in the frying pan with the bacon on top of it, and a cover +on the frying pan. When one side is cooked, turn the meat over and +again put the bacon on top, replace the cover and let that side cook. +Serve on a hot plate and give thanks that you are in the open, have a +good appetite and you are privileged to partake of a dish too good for +any old king. The gravy, oh my word! the recollection of it makes me +hungry! I have eaten moose meat three times a day for weeks at a time, +when it was cooked as described, without losing my desire for more. + + +PERDIX AU CHOUX + +Is a great dish in Canada; the bird is cooked this way: Chop cabbage +fine and highly spice it, then stuff the bird with the cabbage and +nicely cover the partridge or grouse with many thin slices of bacon, +and put bacon also in the baking pan. When this is well baked and well +basted a more delicious game dinner you will never eat. Try it; it is +an old French way of cooking the partridge or pheasant. + +When you need a real warm fire for cooking, do not forget that dry +roots make an intensely hot fire with no smoke; look for them in +driftwood piles, as they are sure to be there; they are light as a cork +and porous as a sponge, and burn like coke. + +No one with truth may say that he is a real woodcrafter unless he +is a good camp cook. At the same time it is an error to think that +the outdoor men live to eat like the trencher men of old England, +or the degenerate epicures of ancient Rome. Neither are the outdoor +men in sympathy with the Spartans or Lacedemonians and none of them +would willingly partake of the historic and disgusting black broth of +Lacedemonia. Woodcrafters are really more in sympathy with cultured +Athenians who strove to make their banquets attractive with interesting +talk, inspiring and patriotic odes and delightful recitations by poets +and philosophers. As a campfire man would say: "That's me all over, +Mable" and he might add that like all good things on this earth + + +BANQUETS + +Originated in the open. The word itself is from the French and Spanish +and means a small bench, a little seat, and when spelled banqueta, +means a three-legged stool. It has reference to sitting while eating +instead of taking refreshments in "stand up" fashion. The most +enjoyable banquets in the author's experience are those partaken in the +wilderness, and prominent among the wildwood dishes is the + + +LUMBERMAN'S BAKED BEANS + +Wash the beans first, then half fill a pail with them, put them over +the fire and parboil them until their skins are ready to come off; they +are now ready for the pot. But before putting them in there, peel an +onion and slice it, placing the slices in the bottom of the bean pot. +Now pour half of the beans over the onions and on top of them spread +the slices of another onion. Take some salt pork and cut it into square +pieces and place the hunks of pork over the onions, thus making a layer +of onions and pork on top of the beans. Over this pour the remainder +of the beans, cover the top of the beans with molasses, on the top of +the molasses put some more hunks of pork, put in enough water to barely +cover the beans. Over the top of all of it spread a piece of birch +bark, then force the cover down good and tight. + +Meanwhile a fire should have been built in the bean hole (Fig. 105). +When the fire of birch has been burnt to hot cinders, the cinders must +be shoveled out and the bean pot put into the hole, after which pack +the cinders around the bean pot and cover the whole thing with the dead +ashes, or as the lumbermen call them, the black ashes. + +If the beans are put into the bean hole late in the afternoon and +allowed to remain there all night, they will be done to a turn for +breakfast; the next morning they will be wholesome, juicy and sweet, +browned on top and delicious. + +A bean hole is not absolutely necessary for a small pot of beans. I +have cooked them in the wilderness by placing the pot on the ground in +the middle of the place where the fire had been burning, then heaping +the hot ashes and cinders over the bean pot until it made a little hill +there, which I covered with the black ashes and left until morning. I +tried the same experiment on the open hearth to my studio and it was a +wonderful success. + + +THE ETIQUETTE OF THE WOODS + +Requires that when a porcupine has been killed it be immediately thrown +into the fire, there to remain until all the quills have been singed +off of the aggressive hide, after which it may be skinned with no +danger to the workmen and with no danger to the other campers from the +wicked barbed quills, which otherwise might be waiting for them just +where they wished to seat themselves. + +This may sound funny, but I have experimented, unintentionally, by +seating myself upon a porcupine quill. I can assure the reader that +there is nothing humorous in the experience to the victim, however +funny it may appear to those who look on. + +After thoroughly singeing the porcupine you roll it in the grass to +make certain that the burnt quills are rubbed off its skin, then with +a sharp knife slit him up the middle of the belly from the tail to the +throat, pull the skin carefully back and peel it off. When you come to +the feet cut them off. Broiled porcupine is the Thanksgiving turkey of +the Alaskan and British Columbia Indian, but unless it has been boiled +in two or three waters the taste does not suit white men. + + +PORCUPINE WILDERNESS METHOD + +After it has been parboiled, suspend the porcupine by its forelegs in +front of a good roasting fire, or over a bed of hot coals, and if well +seasoned it will be as good meat as can be found in the wilderness. The +tail particularly is very meaty and is most savory; like beef tongue it +is filled with fine bits of fat. Split the tail and take out the bone, +then roast the meaty part. + +Porcupine stuffed with onions and roasted on a spit before the fire is +good, but to get the perfection of cooking it really should be cooked +in a Dutch oven, or a closed kettle or an improvised airtight oven of +some sort and baked in a bean hole, or baked by being buried deep under +a heap of cinders and covered with ashes. Two iron pans that will fit +together, that is, one that is a trifle larger than the other so that +the smaller one may be pushed down into it to some extent, will answer +all the purposes of the Dutch oven. Also two frying pans arranged in +the same manner. + +Always remember that after the porcupine is skinned, dressed and +cleaned, it should be _put in a pot and parboiled_, changing the water +once or twice, after which it may be cooked in any way which appeals to +the camper. The + + +NORTH METHOD + +Is to place it in the Dutch oven with a few hunks of fat pork; let the +porcupine itself rest upon some hard-tack, hard biscuit or stale bread +of any kind, which has been slightly softened with water. + +On top of the porcupine lay a nice slice or two of fat pork and place +another layer of soaked hard biscuit or hard-tack on the pork, put it +in a Dutch oven and place the Dutch oven on the hot coals, put a cover +on the Dutch oven and heap the living coals over the top of it and the +ashes atop of that; let it bake slowly until the flesh parts from the +bones. Thus cooked it will taste something like veal with a suggestion +of sucking pig. The tail of the porcupine, like the + + +TAIL OF THE BEAVER + +Is considered a special delicacy. Many of the old wilderness men hang +the flat trowel-like tails of the beaver for a day or two in the +chimney of their shack to allow the oily matter to exude from it, +and thus take away the otherwise strong taste; others parboil it as +advocated for porcupine meat, after which the tail may be roasted or +baked and the rough skin removed before eating. + + +BEAVER TAIL SOUP + +Is made by stewing the tails with what other ingredients one may have +in camp; all such dishes should be allowed to simmer for a long while +in place of boiling rapidly. + +A man who was hunting in North Michigan said, "Although I am a +Marylander, and an Eastern Shore one at that, and consequently know +what good things to eat are, I want to tell you that I'll have to take +off my hat to the lumber camp cook as the discoverer, fabricator and +dispenser of a dish that knocks the Eastern Shore cuisine silly. And +that dish is beaver-tail soup. When the beaver was brought into camp +the camp cook went nearly wild, and so did the lumbermen when they +heard the news, and all because they were pining for beaver-tail soup. + +"The cook took that broad appendage of the beaver, mailed like an +armadillo, took from it the underlying bone and meat and from it made +such a soup as never came from any other stock, at the beck of the most +expert and scientific chef that ever put a kettle on." + + +MUSKRAT + +Is valuable also for his flesh. Its name and rat-like appearance have +created a prejudice against it as a food, but thousands of persons eat +it without compunction. For those to whom the name is a stumbling-block +the euphemism "marsh rabbit" has been invented, and under this name the +muskrat is sold even in the Wilmington market and served on the tables +of white country folk. In Delaware, especially, the muskrat is ranked +as a delicacy, and personally the author ranks this rodent with the +rabbit as an article of food. + +At Dover the writer has had it served at the hotel under its own name; +the dish was "muskrats and toast." For the benefit of those who revolt +at the muskrat as food, it is well to state that it is one of the +cleanest of all creatures, that it carefully washes all its own food +and in every way conducts itself so as to recommend its flesh even to +the most fastidious. As a matter of fact the flesh of the muskrat, +though dark, is tender and exceedingly sweet. Stewed like rabbit it +looks and tastes like rabbit, save that it lacks a certain gamy flavor +that some uneducated persons find an unpleasant characteristic of the +latter. But to the writer's way of thinking, while the muskrat is good +to eat, there are many things much better; the point is, however, that +everything which tastes good and is not indigestible is good to eat no +matter what its name may be. + + +THE BURGOO + +Of all the camp stews and hunters' stews of various names and flavors, +the Kentucky burgoo heads the list; not only is it distinguished +for its intrinsic qualities, its food value and delicious flavor, +its romance and picturesque accompaniment, but also because of the +illustrious people whose names are linked in Kentucky history with the +burgoo. One such feast, given some time between 1840 and 1850, was +attended by Governor Owlsley (old stone-hammer), Governor Metcalf, +Governor Bob Letcher, Governor Moorhead, General George Crittenton, +General John Crittenton, General Tom Crittenton, James H. Beard, and +other distinguished men. + +All Kentuckians will vow they understand the true meaning of the word +"burgoo." But an article in the Insurance Field says, "It is derived +from the low Latin burgus, fortified (as a town) and goo-goo, very +good." Hence the word, "burgoo," something very good, fortified with +other good things, as will be found in "Carey's Dictionary of Double +Derivations": "Burgoo is literally a soup composed of many vegetables +and meats delectably fused together in an enormous caldron, over which, +at the exact moment, a rabbit's foot at the end of a yarn string is +properly waved by a colored preacher, whose salary has been paid to +date. These are the good omens by which the burgoo is fortified." + + +HOW TO MAKE THE BURGOO + +Anything from an ordinary pail to one or many big caldrons, according +to the number of guests expected at the camp, will serve as vessels +in which to serve the burgoo. The excellence of the burgoo depends +more upon the manner of cooking and seasoning it than it does on the +material used in its decoction. + +To-day the burgoo is composed of meat from domestic beasts and barnyard +fowls with vegetables from the garden, but originally it was made from +the wild things in the woods, bear, buffalo, venison, wild turkey, +quails, squirrels and all the splendid game animals that once roamed +through Kentucky. + +As this book is for woodcrafters we will take it for granted that +we are in the woods, that we have some venison, moose, bear meat, +rocky mountain goat, big horn, rabbit, ruffed grouse, or some good +substitutes. It would be a rare occasion indeed when we would really +have these things. If, for instance, we have a good string of grouse we +will take their legs and wings and necks for the burgoo and save their +breasts for a broil, and if we have not many grouse we will put in a +whole bird or two. We will treat the rabbits the same way, saving the +body with the tenderloin for broiling. When cleaned and dressed the +meat of a turtle or two adds a delicious flavor to the burgoo; frogs +legs are also good, with the other meat. + +Cut all the meat up into pieces which will correspond, roughly +speaking, to inch cubes; do not throw away the bones; put them in also. +Now then, if you were wise enough when you were outfitting for the trip +to secure some of the ill-smelling but palatable dried vegetables, they +will add immensely to the flavor of your burgoo. Put all the material +in the kettle, that is, unless you are using beans and potatoes as +vegetables; if so, the meats had better be well cooked first, because +the beans and potatoes have a tendency to go to the bottom, and by +scorching spoil the broth. + +Fill your kettle, caldron or pot half full of water and hang it +over the fire; while it is making ready to boil get busy with your +vegetables, preparing them for the stew. Peel the dry outer skin off +your onions and halve them, or quarter them, according to their size; +scrape your carrots and slice them into little disks, each about the +size of a quarter, peel your potatoes and cut them up into pieces +about the size of the meat, and when the caldron is boiling dump in +the vegetables. The vegetables will temporarily cool the water, which +should not be allowed to again boil, but should be put over a slow fire +and where it will simmer. When the stew is almost done add the salt +and other seasonings. There should always be enough water to cover the +vegetables. Canned tomatoes will add to the flavor of your broth. In a +real burgoo we put no thickening like meal, rice or other material of +similar nature, because the broth is strained and served clear. Also no +sweet vegetables like beets. + +When the burgoo is done dip it out and drink it from tin cups. Of +course, if this is a picnic burgoo, you add olive juice to the stew, +while it is cooking, and then place a sliced lemon and an olive in each +cup and pour the hot strained liquid into the cups. + +The burgoo and the barbecue belong to that era when food was plenty, +feasts were generous and appetites good. These historic feasts still +exist in what is left of the open country and rich farming districts, +particularly in Kentucky and Virginia. In Kentucky in the olden times +the gentlemen were wont to go out in the morning and do the hunting, +while the negroes were keeping the caldrons boiling with the pork and +other foundation material in them. After the gentlemen returned and +the game was put into the caldron, the guests began to arrive and the +stew was served late in the afternoon; each guest was supposed to come +supplied with a tin cup and a spoon, the latter made of a fresh water +mussel shell with a split stick for a handle. Thus provided they all +sat round and partook of as many helps as their hunger demanded. + +Since we have given Kentucky's celebrated dish, we will add "Ole +Virginny's" favorite dish, which has been named after the county where +it originated. + + +THE BRUNSWICK STEW + +"Take two large squirrels, one quart of tomatoes, peeled and sliced, +if fresh; one pint of lima beans or butter beans, two teaspoonfuls of +white sugar, one minced onion, six potatoes, six ears of corn scraped +from the cob, or a can of sweet corn, half a pound of butter, half a +pound of salt pork, one teaspoonful of salt, three level teaspoonfuls +of pepper and a gallon of water. Cut the squirrels up as for fricassee, +add salt and water and boil five minutes. Then put in the onion, +beans, corn, pork, potatoes and pepper, and when boiling again add the +squirrel. + +"Cover closely and stew two hours, then add the tomato mixed with the +sugar and stew an hour longer. Ten minutes before removing from the +fire cut the butter into pieces the size of English walnuts, roll in +flour and add to the stew. Boil up again, adding more salt and pepper +if required." + +The above is a receipt sent in to us, and I would give credit for it if +I knew from whence it came. I do know that it sounds good, and from my +experience with other similar dishes, it will taste good. + +I am not writing a cook book but only attempting to start the novice on +his way as a camp chef, and if he succeeds in cooking in the open the +dishes here described, he need not fear to tackle any culinary problem +which conditions may make it necessary for him to solve. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +PACKING HORSES + + HOW TO MAKE A PACK HORSE OF YOUR OWN + HOW TO MAKE AN APAREJO + HOW TO MAKE A CINCHA + HOW TO MAKE A LATIGO + HOW TO THROW A DIAMOND HITCH + HOW TO THROW A SQUAW HITCH + HOW TO HITCH A HORSE IN OPEN LAND WITHOUT POST, TREE OR STICK OR STONE + USE OF HOBBLES AND HOW TO MAKE THEM + HOW THE TRAVOIS IS MADE AND USED + BUFFALO BILL AND GENERAL MILES + HOW TO THROW DOWN A SADDLE + HOW TO THROW A SADDLE ON A HORSE + HOW TO MOUNT A HORSE + HOW TO KNOW A WESTERN HORSE + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +PACKING HORSES + + +IF one is going on a real camping excursion where one will need pack +horses, one should, by all means, familiarize oneself with the proper +method of packing a pack horse. This can be done in one's own cellar, +attic or woodshed and without hiring a horse or keeping one for the +purpose. The horse will be expensive enough when one needs it on the +trail. + +The drill in packing a horse should be taught in all scout camps, and +all girl camps and all Y.M.C.A. camps, and all training camps; in +fact, everywhere where anybody goes outdoors at all, or where anybody +pretends to go outdoors; and after the tenderfeet have learned how to +pack then it is the proper time to learn what to pack; consequently we +put packing before outfitting, not the cart, but the pack before the +horse, so to speak. + +When the Boy Scout Movement started in America it had the good +aggressive American motto, "BE SURE YOU'RE RIGHT, THEN GO AHEAD," which +was borrowed from that delightful old buckskin man, Davy Crockett. + +A few years later, when the scout idea was taken up in England, the +English changed the American motto to "BE PREPARED;" because the +English Boy Scout promoter was a military man himself and saw the +necessity of preparedness by Great Britain, which has since become +apparent to us all. + +And in order to be prepared to pack a horse, we must first be sure we +are right, then "go ahead" and practice packing at home. + +One of the most useful things to the outdoor person is a + + +PACK HORSE + +All of us do not own a horse, but there is not a reader of this book so +poor that he cannot own the horse shown by Fig. 174. + +[Illustration: 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174] + +There are but few people in the United States who cannot honestly +come into possession of a barrel with which to build a pack horse or +on which to practice throwing the diamond hitch. They can also find, +somewhere, some pieces of board with which to make the legs of the +horse, its neck and head. + +Fig. 168 shows the neck-board, and the dotted lines show where to saw +the head to get the right angle for the head and ears, with which +the horse may hear. Fig. 169 shows the head-board, and the dotted +line shows how to saw off one corner to give the proper shape to this +Arabian steed's intelligent head-piece. + +Fig. 170 shows how to nail the head on the neck. The nails may be +procured by knocking them out of old boards; at least that is the way +the writer supplied himself with nails. He does not remember ever +asking his parents for money with which to buy nails, but if it is +different nowadays, and if you do not feel economically inclined, +and have the money, go to the shop and buy them. Also, under such +circumstances, go to the lumber yard and purchase your boards. + +Fig. 171 shows how to nail two cleats on the neck, and Fig. 172 shows +how to nail these cleats onto the head of the barrel. If you find the +barrel head so tough and elastic that a nail cannot be easily hammered +in, use a gimlet and bore holes into the cleats and into the barrel +head, and then fasten the cleats on with screws. + +The tail of the nag is made out of an old piece of frayed rope (Fig. +173), with a knot tied in one end to prevent the tail from pulling +out when it is pulled through a hole in the other end of the barrel +(Fig. 173). The legs of the horse are made like those of a carpenter's +wooden horse, of bits of plank or boards braced under the barrel by +cross-pieces (Fig. 174). + +Now you have a splendid horse! "One that will stand without hitching." +It is kind and warranted not to buck, bite or kick, but nevertheless, +when you are packing him remember that you are doing it in order to +drill yourself to pack a real live horse, a horse that may really buck, +bite and kick. + +There are a lot of words in the English language not to be found in +the dictionary. I remember a few years ago when one could not find +"undershirt" or "catboat" in the dictionary. But in the dictionaries of +to-day you will even find "aparejo" and "latigo," although neither of +these words was in the dictionaries of yesterday. + + +MAKE YOUR OWN APAREJO + +Make your own aparejo of anything you can find. The real ones are made +of leather, but at the present time, 1920, leather is very expensive. +We can, however, no doubt secure some builders' paper, tar paper, stiff +wrapping paper, a piece of old oilcloth, which, by the way, would be +more like leather than anything else, and cover these things with a +piece of tent cloth, a piece of carpet, or even burlap. The oilcloth +inside will stiffen the aparejo. At the bottom edge of it we can +lash a couple of sticks (Fig. 175), or if we want to do it in a real +workmanlike manner, we can sew on a couple of leather shoes, made out +of old shoe leather or new leather if we can secure it, and then slip +a nice hickory stick through the shoes, as shown in the diagram (Fig. +176). + +The aparejo is to throw over the horse's back as in Fig. 178, but in +order to fasten it on the back we must have a latigo which is the real +wild and woolly name for the rope attached to a cincha strap (Fig. +177). But when you are talking about packing the pack horses call it +"cinch," and spell it "cincha." Make your cincha of a piece of canvas, +and in one end fasten a hook--a big strong picture hook will do; Fig. +177½ shows a cinch hook made of an oak elbow invented by Stewart Edward +White, and in the other end an iron ring; to the iron ring fasten the +lash rope (Fig. 177). + +For the real horse and outfit one will need an aparejo, a pack +blanket, a lash rope with a cincha, a sling rope, a blind for the +horse, and a pack cover. But here again do not call it a pack cover, +for that will at once stamp you as a tenderfoot. Assume the superior +air of a real plainsman and speak of it as a "manta." The aparejo and +pack saddle are inventions of the Arabians away back in the eighth +century. When the Moors from Africa overran Spain, these picturesque +marauders brought with them pack mules, pack saddles, and aparejos. +When General Cortez and Pizarro carried the torch and sword through +Mexico in their search for gold, they brought with them pack animals, +pack saddles, aparejos, latigos, and all that sort of thing with which +to pack their loot. + +When the forty-niners went to California in search of gold they found +that the Arabian Moorish-Spanish-Mexican method of packing animals was +perfectly adapted to their purposes and they used to pack animals, the +aparejos, the latigos, and all the other kinds of gos. The lash rope +for a real pack horse should be of the best Manila ½ inch or 5/8 inch, +and forty feet long; a much shorter one will answer for the wooden +horse. + + +EVEN BOYS CAN THROW THE HITCH + +Back in 1879, Captain A. B. Wood, United States Army, introduced a +knowledge of the proper use of the pack saddle and the mysteries of the +diamond hitch into the United States Army. The Fourth Cavalry, United +States Army, was the first to become expert with the diamond hitch and +taught it to the others; but recently a military magazine has asked +permission, and has used the author's diagrams, to explain to the +Cavalry men how this famous hitch is thrown. + +It stands to reason that in order to pack one horse one must have some +packs. But these are the easiest things imaginable to secure. A couple +of old potato or flour bags, stuffed with anything that is handy--hay, +grass, leaves, rags or paper--but stuffed tight (Fig. 179), will do for +our load. + +[Illustration: 178, 179] + +[Illustration: 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185] + +When packing a horse, except with such hitches as the "one man hitch," +it requires two men or boys to "throw" the hitch. The first one is +known as the head packer, and the other as the second packer. Remember +that the left-hand side of the horse is the nigh side. The head packer +stands on the nigh side of the horse and he takes the coiled lash rope +in the left hand and lets the coils fall astern of the pack animal +(Fig. 180); with the right hand he takes hold of the rope about three +or four feet from the cincha (Fig. 180) and hands the hook end under +the animal to the second packer, who stands on the right-hand side +of the horse (Fig. 180). The right hand of the head packer, with the +palm upwards, so holds the rope that the loop will fall across his +forearm; the left hand with the palm downward holds the rope about +half way between the loop that goes over the forearm and the loop that +lies along the back of the pack animal (Fig. 181). The head packer now +throws the loop from his forearm across the pack on the back of the +animal, allowing the left hand to fall naturally on the neck of the +animal. The second packer now runs the rope through the hook and pulls +up the cincha end until the hook is near the lower edge of the off side +of the aparejo (Fig. 183). + +The head packer next grasps the rope A (Fig. 185) and tucks a loop from +the rear to the front under the part marked B (Figs. 185 and 186), over +the inner side pack (Figs. 184 and 187). Next the second packer passes +the loose end of the rope under the part marked D (Fig. 187), and +throws it on the nigh (left) side of the pack animals. + +The head packer now draws the tucked loop forward and tucks it under +the corners and the lower edge of the nigh side of the aparejo (Fig. +188), then holds it taut from the rear corner, and the second packer +takes hold of the rope at E (Fig. 189) with his left hand, and at F +(Fig. 187) with his right hand. He passes the rope under the corners +and lower edge of the off side of the aparejo (G, H, Fig. 189, and G, +H, Fig. 191). The second packer now takes the blind off his pack animal +and is supposed to lead it forward a few steps while the head packer +examines the load from the rear to see if it is properly adjusted. + +Then the blind is again put upon the animal for the final tightening of +the rope. While the second packer is pulling the parts taut, the head +packer takes up the slack and keeps the pack steady. The tightening +should be done in such a manner as not to shake the pack out of balance +or position, (Figs. 188 and 190). + +The second (or off side) packer grasps the lash rope above the hook, +and puts his knee against the stern corner of the aparejo, left-hand +group (Fig. 188). The head packer takes hold with his right hand of the +same part of the rope where it comes from the pack on the inner side, +and with the left hand at J (Fig. 189), and his right shoulder against +the cargo to steady it, he gives the command "PULL!" Without jerks, but +with steady pulls, the second packer now tightens the rope, taking care +not to let it slip back through the hook. He gives the loose part to +the head packer, who takes up the slack by steady pulls. + +[Illustration: 186, 187, 188, 189] + +When the second packer is satisfied that it is all right he cries, +"Enough!" The head packer then holds steady with his right hand and +slips the other hand down to where the rope passes over the front edge +of the aparejo. There he holds steady; his right hand then takes hold +of the continuation of the rope at the back corner of the pad and pulls +tight. Placing his right knee against the rear corner of the pad he +pulls hard with both hands until the rope is well home, left-hand group +(Fig. 188). + +The second packer now takes up the slack by grasping the rope with both +hands, E (Fig. 189). + +The head packer steps to the front to steady the pack. The second +packer pulls taut the parts on his side, taking up the slack. This +draws the part of the lash rope K, K (Fig. 189), well back at middle +of the pack, giving the center hitch the diamond shape from which the +name is derived, X (Fig. 191). He then, with the left hand at the +rear corner H, pulls taut and holds solid, while with the right hand +in front of G, he takes up slack. Next with both hands at the front +corner and with his knee against it (Fig. 188), the second packer pulls +taut, the head packer at the same time taking up the slack on his side +and then pulls steady, drawing the part L, L (Fig. 189), of the rope +leading from the hook well forward at the middle of the pack, finishing +off the diamond at X. He then carries the loose end under the corners +and ends of the aparejo, and draws that taut and ties the end fast by a +half hitch near the cincha end of the lash rope. + +After passing under the corners, if the rope is long enough to reach +over the load, it can then be passed over and made fast on the off +side by tying around both parts of the lash rope above the hook and by +drawing them well together (Fig. 191). + +Alongside of Fig. 190 are a series of sketches showing how to lash and +cinch two parcels or bags together; one bag is made black so that its +position can better be understood. In other words, it makes it easier +to follow the different hitches. Learn to pack at home and you will +not lose your packs on the trail. + +In following these instructions, whenever in doubt forget the +perspective views and keep in mind Figures 181, 183, 185, 187, 180 and +191, which tell the whole story. The perspective views are principally +to show the relative position of the packers; the position of the rope +can best be seen by looking on top of the pack. + +[Illustration: 190, 191] + +In packing a live horse you will learn by practice not to pull in such +a way as to cause the horse to step on your feet; you will also learn +that a live horse will not stand as still as a wooden horse, but when +you have learned to pack a wooden horse quickly and well, it will only +take you a short time to become expert with a live horse. + + +THE SQUAW HITCHES + +These are useful when one has no one to help in packing the animal, and +when one has no pack saddle like Fig. 200. With this squaw hitch you +must throw your burden across the back of the horse, over the pad made +by a blanket (Fig. 192), then put a loop over the end M, see X (Fig. +192), and another one over the end N, see Y (Fig. 192). At the end of +the lash rope Z make a loop; now pass that loop down under the horse's +belly and through Y (Fig. 193), bring the end Z back again over the +horse's back, also pass the end T down through X, and bring it back +over the horse's back, also pass the end Z down through Y, and bring it +back over the horse's back, pass T through Z (Fig. 193), cinch tight +and fasten on top of pack (Fig. 194). Fig. 195 shows another throw in +another squaw hitch. Fig. 196 shows the next position. Fig. 197 shows +the thing made fast. + +[Illustration: 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200 + +SQUAW HITCHES] + +Anyone who travels with pack horses should know how to arrange the +lead rope in a manner so that it may be quickly and easily loosened, +and at the same time be out of the way, so that the horse will not get +his foot over it when climbing or descending steep places, which often +happens when the lead rope is fastened to the pack in the usual manner. +If you will take the rope and wind it loosely around the horse's neck, +behind his left ear and in front of his right ear (Figs. 198 and 199), +then tuck the end under the strands, as shown in Fig. 198, the thing +may be undone in an instant, and in the meantime the rope is out of the +way where it will not bother either the man or the horse. + +Practise all this on the wooden horse, then it will come natural when +the time comes to handle a real horse. The manner of looping up the +lead rope, just described, I learned from the explorers of the Mt. +McKinley expedition, who had many occasions to test the best, as well +as the worst methods of packing and arranging their duffel. There +are a number of other hitches, some given by Stewart Edward White, +in _Outing_, called the Miner's Hitch, the Lone Packer's Hitch, but +possibly we have given the reader enough to start him on his way; +remember for the pack horse the necessary outfit is a horse blanket, +the cincha and lash rope, the sling rope, the lead rope, the manta, +which is a cover for the pack, sometimes called the tarp--short for +tarpaulin, and the blind, but as a rule a handkerchief is used for a +blinder. The aparejo is a sort of a leather mattress which goes over +the horse's back and on which the pack rests, but you will find all +about that when you hit the trail with a pack train. The alforjas is a +Spanish name for the saddle-bags used on a pack horse. When the reader +knows how to pack his horse, knows all the Spanish names for the pack +saddle and all that sort of thing, there may come a time when he will +have a horse which needs to be hitched at night, and it may happen he +must needs + + +HITCH THE HORSE + +On some trail where there are no trees, sticks, or even stones; but if +he is a good woodcrafter and plainsman, with his hunting knife he will +proceed to dig as narrow and deep a hole as possible in the earth, +then he will tie a knot in the end of the picket rope and drop the knot +to the bottom of the hole (Fig. 201) (the picket rope in reality should +be one-half inch rope, fifty feet long); the only way to get that knot +out of the hole is to stand directly over the opening and pull the knot +up perpendicularly. It will never occur to the horse to shorten the +line by taking hold of it with his teeth, so that it may stand over the +hole and pull up the knot, consequently the animal will be as securely +hitched as if tied to a post. + +[Illustration: 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208] + + +HOBBLES + +For the front legs may be purchased at any outfitter's (Fig. 202), or +home-made from unravelled rope (Fig. 203). Make a loop from a strand +from a large rope and then fasten it round one leg, as in diagram; +after that twist the rope to make the connections between the two +loops, tie another knot to prevent the rope from untwisting, then tie +the two ends around the leg of the horse (Fig. 203); the unravelled +rope is soft and will not chafe the horse's leg. + + +TRAVOIS + +Figs. 204 and 205 show the famous Indian mode of packing by travois. + + +HOW TO THROW A SADDLE DOWN + +General Miles once told the author that the handsomest man he had +ever seen came dashing into their camp in a cloud of alkali dust; +having ridden right through bands of hostile Indians which surrounded +the camp, he dismounted, took off his saddle and threw it on the +ground, put the bridle bit, girth, etc., inside the saddle, put the +saddle-cloth over it, then he calmly stretched himself out in front of +the campfire. "That man," said General Miles, "was Bill Cody, Buffalo +Bill!" + +When Cody put the saddle on the ground he placed it on its side (Fig. +206); in placing the saddle in this position it preserves the curve of +the skirts, and thus the form of the saddle is not destroyed and the +reins and the stirrup straps are protected; at the same time the saddle +makes a good pillow, and if it should rain at night the saddle blanket +is the only thing, besides the rider, which gets a ducking, unless the +latter has a good waterproof sleeping-bag. + + +HOW TO THROW A SADDLE ON A HORSE + +So manage the saddle that with one swing it will 'light on the horse's +back with the pummel towards the horse's head (Fig. 207). Grasp with +your right hand the horn of the saddle, and as you swing the saddle on +the horse with a graceful sweep, use your left hand to push the further +skirt outward and thus prevent it from doubling up on the horse's back. +Be careful to throw the girth far enough so that it will hang down so +as to be easily reached under the horse. I once had an English farm +hand who put a western saddle on a horse with the _pummel towards the +tail_, and was very indignant when I told him that a pummel should face +the bow of a craft; he told me he knew more about horses than I did, +which is possibly true, as I am not a horseman; he also said that in +the "hold country" he used to ride to "the 'ounds," all of which goes +to prove customs are different in different countries. Here we put the +pummel of the saddle towards the horse's head; we won't argue about it; +we may be wrong, but it is a matter of custom, and right or wrong is +the rule the reader must follow in America, even though the reader may +have ridden to the "'ounds" while abroad. Do not misunderstand me, some +of the best horsemen in the world are English, but this fellow was not +one of them. + + +HOW TO MOUNT A WESTERN HORSE + +Years ago when the rider was in Montana on Howard Eaton's Ranch, near +the celebrated ranch of Theodore Roosevelt, he had his first experience +with Western horses, and being sensitive and standing in great terror +of being called a tenderfoot, he shyly watched the others mount before +he attempted to do so himself. Each one of these plainsmen, he noticed, +took the reins in his left hand while standing on the left-hand side +of the horse; then holding the reins over the shoulders of the horse +he grasped the mane with the same hand, and put his left foot into the +stirrup; but to put the left foot in the stirrup he turned the stirrup +around so that he could mount while facing the horse's tail, then he +grabbed hold of the pummel with his right hand and swung into the +saddle as the horse started. + +That looked easy; the writer also noticed that just before the others +struck the saddle they gave a whoop, so without showing any hesitation +the author walked up to his cayuse, took the reins confidently in his +left hand, using care to stand on the left-hand side of the horse; then +he placed the left hand with the reins between the shoulders of the +horse and grabbed the mane, then he turned the stirrup around, turned +his back to the horse's head, put his left foot in the stirrup and gave +a yell. + +On sober afterthought he decided that he gave that yell too soon; the +horse almost went out from under him, or at least so it seemed to +him, or maybe the sensation would be better described to say that it +appeared to him as if he went a mile over the prairie with his right +leg waving in the air like a one-winged aeroplane, before he finally +settled down into the saddle. + +But this could not have been really true, because everybody applauded +and the writer was at once accepted by the crowd without question as a +thoroughbred Sourdough. Possibly they may have thought he was feeling +good and just doing some stunts. + +It may interest the reader to state that the author did his best +to live up to the first impression he had made, but _he did not go +riding the next day_, there were some books he thought necessary to +read; he discovered, however, that even lounging was not without some +discomfort; for instance, he could not cross his knees without helping +one leg over with both his hands; in fact, he could find no muscle in +his body that could be moved without considerable exertion and pain. + +But this is the point of the story: Had the author tried to mount +that cayuse in any other way he would have been left sprawling on the +prairie. The truth is that if you mount properly when the horse starts, +even if he begins to buck and pitch, the action will tend to throw you +into the saddle, not out of it. + + +CAUTION + +When you approach a horse _which has a brand_ on it, always approach +from the left-hand side, because practically all the Western horses +have brands on them, and you can, as a rule, count on a branded horse +being from the West, with the hale and hearty habits of the West, which +to be appreciated must be understood. If you want to make a real cayuse +out of your wooden horse, brand it and any cowboy who then sees it will +take off his hat. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE USE OF DOGS. MAN PACKING + + HIKING DOGS, PACK DOGS + HOW TO PACK A DOG + HOW TO THROW THE DOG HITCH + HOW TO MAKE DOG TRAVOIS + DOG AS A BEAST OF BURDEN IN EUROPE AND ARCTIC AMERICA + MAN PACKING + PACK RATS + DON'T FIGHT YOUR PACK + PORTAGE PACK + GREAT MEN WHO HAVE CARRIED A PACK + KINDS OF PACKS + ALPINE RUCKSACK + ORIGIN OF BROAD BREAST STRAPS + MAKE YOUR OWN OUTFITS + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE USE OF DOGS. MAN PACKING + + +THERE is no good reason why every hiker should not be accompanied by + + +A HIKING DOG + +For if there is anything a dog does love better than its own soul it +is to hike with its master, and every normal boy and girl, and every +normal man and woman, loves the company of a good dog. When they do not +love it the fault is not with the dog but with them; there is something +wrong with them that the outdoor world alone will cure. + +But if a dog is going to enjoy the pleasure of a hike with you, if it +is a good square dog it should be willing to also share the hardships +of the hike with you, and to help carry the burdens on the trail. Any +sort of a dog can be trained as + + +A PACK DOG + +But the sturdier and stronger the dog is, the greater burden he can +carry and the more useful he will be on the trail. The alforjas for a +dog, or saddle-bags, can be made by anyone who is handy with a needle +and thread. A dog pack consists primarily of two bags or pouches (Figs. +209 and 210), with a yoke piece attached to slide over the dog's head +and fit across the chest (Figs. 209, 210, 211 and 212). Also a cincha +to fasten around the waist or small part of the dog's body, back of its +ribs. The pouches (Fig. 210) should have a manta, or cover (Figs. 211, +213, and 214), to keep the rain, snow or dust out of the duffel. Simple +bags of strong light material on the pattern of Fig. 210 are best, +because the weight of anything unnecessary is to be avoided. + + +THE DOG HITCH + +Is not as complicated an affair as the diamond hitch, and anyone who +knows how to do up an ordinary parcel can learn the dog hitch by one +glance at Figs. 213 and 214. + +Slip the breast band over the dog's head, put the saddle-bags well +forward on the dog's shoulders, tie the cinch around its waist, after +which spread the cover or manta over the bag, and throw the hitch as +shown by Figs. 211 and 214. Fig. 213 shows a bundle with a breast band +made of the lash rope, in which case the lash rope is usually made of +cloth like that in Fig. 211; the whole thing is simplicity itself and a +good dog can carry quite a load packed in this manner. + +[Illustration: 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217] + + +A DOG TRAVOIS + +Can also be used at times with advantage, as it was used by our red +brothers of the wilderness. Fig. 217 shows a dog harnessed to a +travois, made of two shaft poles; the harness consists of a padded +collar similar to those used in Northern Quebec for sled dogs, and a +cincha of leather or canvas and traces of rope or thong. Figs. 215 +and 216 show a rig made by one of my Boy Scouts; the material used +was the green saplings cut in the woods, the traces were made of rope +manufactured from the roots of the tamarack tree, so also was the cord +used to bind the parts of the frame together. The hooks to which the +traces were fastened were made of wire nails bent over, and the staples +to which the collar was fastened by thongs to the shaft were made of +wire nails, the heads of which were ground off by rubbing them on +stones; the nails were then bent into the proper curve and driven into +the shaft in the form of a staple. Fig. 216 shows the same rig with a +leather harness. The American Indian used the travois on dogs the +same as they did upon horses and the sudden appearance of game often +produced a stampede of dog travoises, scattering the duffel, including +papooses, loaded on the travois. + +It is not expected that the reader will make every one of these +contrivances, but if he does he will learn How, and to be a good +woodsman he _should_ know how, so as to be prepared for any emergency. +It is possible to make the whole pack for the dog from birch bark, but +however it is made, if it serves the purpose of making the dog carry +part of the pack, when you put the bark on the dog's back, you will +teach the animal that there are two kinds of _barks_; one of which is +useful as a duffel bag, and the other as an alarm. + +In Alaska and other parts of the far North, as well as in Holland and +other parts of Europe, the dog is generally used as a beast of burden; +it draws sleds in North America and milk carts and market wagons in +Holland, but it is not necessary for us to live in Holland or in the +far North in order to make use of the dog; a good dog will cheerfully +carry the packs on the trail, loyally guard the camp at night, and, if +necessary, die in defense of its master. + +Any uncomfortable pack is an abomination; too heavy a pack is an +unhappy burden, no pack at all is fine--until you reach camp and hunt +around for something to answer for a toothbrush, comb and brush, +something on which to sit and sleep, something overhead to protect +you from the rains and dews of heaven, something to eat and something +to eat with besides your fingers, something from which to drink which +holds water better than the hollow of your hand or the brim of your +hat, and, in fact, all those necessary little comforts that a fellow +wants on an overnight hike. Without these useful articles one will wish +that he had subjected himself to the slight fatigue necessary to pack +a small pack on his back. + +The word "pack" itself is a joy to the outdoor man, for it is only +outdoor men who use the word pack for carry, and who call a bundle +or load a pack. The reason for this is that the real wilderness man, +explorer, prospector, hunter, trapper or scout, packs all his duffel +into a bundle which he carries on his back, in two small saddle-bags +which are carried by his husky dogs, or a number of well-balanced +bundles which are lashed on the pack saddle with a diamond hitch over +the back of a pack horse. + +You see we have pack dogs, pack horses and pack animals, pack saddles +and packers, as well as the packs themselves, which the packers pack +and these animals pack on their backs, or which the man himself packs +on his own back. Then we also have the pack rat, but the pack rat does +not carry things with our consent. The pack rat comes flippity-flop, +hopping over the ground from the old hermit, Bill Jones's, packing with +him Bill Jones's false teeth which he has abstracted from the tin cup +of water at the head of Bill Jones's bunk. The pack rat deposits the +teeth at the head of your cot, then deftly picking up your watch, the +rat packs it back to Bill Jones's cot and drops it in the tin cup of +water, where it soaks until morning. + +It is easy to see that however funny the pack rat may be, and however +useful he might be to the Sunday comic paper, the rat's humor is not +appreciated by the campers in the Rocky Mountains, where it is called a +pack rat from its habit of carrying things. Thus it is that in a newly +settled country the word "carry" is almost forgotten; one "packs" a +letter to the post box, or packs a horse to water, or packs a box of +candy to his best girl, or a pail of water from the spring. + + +MAN PACKING + +When you, my good reader, get the pack adjusted on your back and the +tump line across your forehead (Fig. 226), remember that you are +being initiated into the great fraternity of outdoor people. But no +matter how tough or rough you may appear to the casual observer, your +roughness is only apparent; a boy or man of refinement carries that +refinement inside of him wherever he goes; at the same time when one is +carrying a pack on one's back and a tump line on one's forehead (Fig. +226½), or a canoe on one's head, even though a lady should be met on +the trail it would not be necessary for one to take off one's hat, for +even a foolish society woman would not expect a man to doff the canoe +he might be carrying on his head. Under all circumstances use common +sense; that is the rule of the wilderness and also of real culture. + +The most important thing that you must learn on the trail is not to +fret and fume over trifles, and even if your load is heavy and irksome, +even though the shoulder straps chafe and the tump line makes your neck +ache + + +DON'T FIGHT YOUR PACK + +When we speak of "fighting the pack" we mean fighting the load; that +does not mean getting one's load up against a tree and punching it +with one's fists or "kicking the stuffings out of it," but it means +complaining and fretting because the load is uncomfortable. + +There are two kinds of "packs"--the pack that you carry day after day +on a long hike, and the pack that you carry when on a canoe trip and +you are compelled to leave the water and carry your canoe and duffel +overland around some bad rapids or falls. The first-named pack should +be as light as possible, say between 30 and 40 pounds, for on a long +tramp every pound counts, because _you know that you must carry it_ as +long as you keep going, and there is no relief in sight except when you +stop for your meals or to camp at night. But the last-named pack, the + + +PORTAGE PACK, + +Figs. 218 and 223, the kind that you carry around bad pieces of water, +may be as heavy as you can, with safety, load upon your sturdy back, +because your mind is buoyed up by the fact that _you know_ you will +not have to carry that load _very far_, the work will end when you +reach the water again, and--strange to say--the mind has as much to do +with carrying the load as the muscles. If the mind gives up you will +fall helpless even under a small load; if the mind is strong you will +stagger along under a very heavy one. + +When I asked a friend, who bears the scars of the pack straps on his +body, how it was that he managed to endure the torture of such a load, +he replied with a grin that as soon as he found that to "fight his +pack" meant to perish--meant death!--he made up his mind to forget the +blamed thing and so when the pack wearied him and the straps rubbed +the skin off his body, he forced himself to think of the good dinners +he had had at the Camp-fire Club of America, yum! yum! Also, of all +the jolly stories told by the toastmaster, and of the fun he had had +at some other entertainments. Often while thinking of these things he +caught himself laughing out loud as he trudged along the lone trail, +FORGETTING the hateful pack on his back. "In this way," said he, with +a winning smile upon his manly and weather-beaten face, "I learned how +_not to fight_ the pack but to FORGET IT!" Then he braced himself up, +looked at the snow-capped mountain range ahead, hummed a little cowboy +song and trudged on over the frozen snow at a scout's pace. + +[Illustration: 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 226½ + +DETAILS OF MAN PACKS] + +Now that you know what a pack is, and what "fighting a pack" means, +remember that if one's studies at school are hard, that is one's pack. +If the work one is doing is hard, difficult or tiresome, that is one's +pack. If one's boss is cross and exacting, that is one's pack. If one's +parents are worried and forget themselves in their worry and speak +sharply, that is one's pack. Don't fight your pack; remember that you +are a woodcrafter; straighten your shoulders, put on your scout smile +and hit the trail like a man! + +If you find that you are tempted to break the Scout Law, that you are +tempted at times to forget the Scout Oath, that because your camp mates +use language unfit for a woodcrafter or a scout, and you are tempted +to do the same, if your playmates play craps and smoke cigarettes, and +laugh at you because you refuse to do so, so that you are tempted to +join them, these temptations form your pack; don't give in and fall +under your load and whimper like a "sissy," or a "mollycoddle," but +straighten up, look the world straight in the eye, and hit the trail +like a man! + +Some of us are carrying portage packs which we can dump off our +shoulders at the end of the "carry," some of us are carrying hiking +packs which we must carry through life and can never dump from our +shoulders until we cross the Grand Portage from which no voyagers ever +return. All our packs vary in weight, but none of them is easy to carry +if we fret and fume and complain under the load. + +We outdoor folks call our load "pack," but our Sunday School teachers +sometimes speak of the pack they bear as a "cross." Be it so, but don't +fight your pack. + + +MEN WHO HAVE CARRIED THE PACK + +The whole north country is sprinkled with the bones of the men who +fought their packs. Our own land is also sprinkled with men we call +"misfits" and failures, but who are really men who have fought their +packs. But every post of eminence in the United States is occupied by a +man who forgot his pack; this country was built by men who forgot their +packs. George Washington carried a portage pack in weight all through +his life, but it was a proud burden and he stood straight under it. +Good old Abe Lincoln had even a heavier pack to carry, but in spite of +the weight of it he always had a pleasant scout smile for everyone and +a merry story to send the visitor away smiling. If Daniel Boone and +Simon Kenton had fought their packs we would never have heard of them! + +In the illustrations are shown many figures, and one should not forget +that these are sketches of real men in the real wilderness, and not +fancy pictures drawn from imagination. Figs. 230, 231 and 232 show many +different methods of carrying big game on one's shoulders or back. Fig. +232 also shows a couple of prospectors on the trail. One has the bag on +his back, held in place by shoulder straps; the other has a bag thrown +over his shoulder like a ragman. + +The alpine rucksack will carry--or to speak more properly--with it one +can pack a camera, notebook, sketching material, lunch and all those +things which a fellow wants on an enjoyable hike. The alpine rucksack +is a many-gored poke about 18 inches wide and about 22 inches long +without the gores. These pokes can be made so that the gores fold in +and produce an ordinary-sized pack, or they may be pushed out like an +umbrella so as to make a bag in which one can carry a good-sized boy. + +[Illustration: 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232D + +MAN PACKING] + + +THE BROAD BAND + +Fig. 232D shows the broad band used by the men of the far north. The +reader will note that the broad canvas bands come over the shoulders +from the top of the pack; also that a broad breast band connects the +shoulder bands, while rope, whang strings or thongs run through eyelets +in the band and to the bottom of the pack. This is said to be the most +comfortable pack used and has an interesting history; it was evolved +from an old pair of overalls. There was a Hebrew peddler who followed +the gold seekers and he took a pair of canvas overalls and put them +across his breast, and to the legs he fastened the pack upon his back. +The overalls being wide and broad did not cut his chest, as do smaller +straps, thongs or whang strings. + +But breast straps of any kind are not now recommended by all +authorities. It is claimed that they interfere with the breathing and +a fellow "mouching" along the trail needs to have his chest free to +expand, for not only his speed but his endurance depends upon the free +action of his lungs. + + +THE TUMP + +Figs. 226 and 226½ show the use of the celebrated tump strap. This tump +strap is used from Central America to the Arctic Circle. The Mexican +water carrier uses it to tote his burden; the Tete Bule Indian and the +Montenais Indian in the Northeast also carry their packs with a tump +line. + +Fig. 226½ shows how the tump line is made. It is a strap or lash rope +with a broad band to fit over the packer's head, and thus relieve the +weight which the shoulders have to bear. + +Fig. 218 shows the well-known portage pack basket which is used by the +guides in the Adirondack regions. Fig. 219 shows the Nessmuk knapsack. +Fig. 222 shows a pack harness of straps by which two duffel bags are +borne on the back. Fig. 225 shows a duffel bag which is laced up at one +end with a thong; also the end of the bag open. + + +THE DUFFEL BAG IS USEFUL + +The duffel bag is the ideal poke in which to pack one's, belongings. It +is waterproof, it makes a good pillow, a far better pillow than an axe +and pair of boots on which I myself have rested my weary head many a +night, and it also makes a good cushion upon which to sit. The duffel +bag may be procured from any outfitting establishment. The ones I own +are now shiny with dirt and grease, gathered from the camps and forests +extending from Maine to the State of Washington, from Northern Quebec +to Florida. I love the old bags, for even though they be greasy and +shiny, and blackened with the charcoals of many campfires, they are +chuck full of delightful memories. + +Fig. 220 is the old-time poke made of a bandanna handkerchief, with its +ends tied together and swung over a stick. + +This is the pack, a cut of which may be found in all the old newspapers +antedating the Civil War, where runaway negroes are advertised. It is +the sort of pack respectable tramps used to carry, back in the times +when tramps were respectable. It is the kind of pack I find represented +in an old oil painting hanging on my dining-room wall, which was +painted by some European artist back in the seventeenth century. When +fellows carry the runaway pack they are "traveling light." + +Fig. 229 shows how to construct a makeshift pack. A rope of cedar bark +is arranged with a loop C (Fig. 229), for the yoke the ends A and B are +brought up under the arms and tied to the yoke C, which then makes a +breast band. + +For a long hike thirty pounds is enough for a big boy to carry, and +it will weigh three hundred and fifty pounds at the end of a hard +day's tramp. Heavy packs, big packs, like those shown in Fig. 223, +are only used on a portage, that is, for short distance. Of course, +you fellows know that in all canoe trips of any consequence one must +cross overland from one lake to another, or overland above a waterfall +to a safe place below it, or around quick water, or to put it in the +words of tenderfeet, water which is too quick for canoe travel, around +tumultuous rapids where one must carry his canoe and duffel. But these +carries or portages are seldom long. The longest I remember of making +was a trifle over five miles in length. + +Remember that the weight of a load depends a great deal upon your +mind. Consequently for a long distance the load should be light; for a +short distance the only limit to the load is the limit of the packer's +strength. + + +BUT + +People differ so in regard to how to carry a pack and what kind of a +pack to carry, that the author hesitates to recommend any particular +sort; personally he thinks that a pack harness hitched on to the duffel +bags (Figs. 221, 222 and 224), is the proper and practical thing. +Duffel bags, by the way, are water-proof canvas bags (Fig. 225), made +of different sizes, in which to pack one's clothes, food, or what not. +The portage basket (Fig. 218), is a favorite in the Adirondacks, but +it is not a favorite with the writer; the basket itself is heavy and +to his mind unnecessary, the knapsack (Fig. 219), is good for short +hikes when one does not have to carry much. The best way for the reader +to do is to experiment, see how much of a load he can carry; fifty +pounds is more than enough for a big strong man to carry all day long, +day in and day out, and forty pounds is more than he wants to carry, +but a good husky boy may be able to carry forty pounds on his back. +At the Army and Navy stores and at the outfitter's you can find all +sorts of duffel bags and knapsacks, and at any of the big outfitting +stores they will tell you just what kind of baggage you will need for +the particular trip, for someone in the stores has been over the very +ground that you are going over, for all the clerks and proprietors of +the outfitting stores are sportsmen. But--yes, there is a "but"--the +real genuine American boy will construct his own outfit duffel bags, +mess kit and tents. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +PREPARING FOR CAMPING TRIP + + PORTERS OF THE PORTAGE + OLD-TIME INDIAN FIGHTERS AND WILD ANIMALS + MODERN STAMPEDE FOR THE OPEN + HOW TO GET READY FOR CAMP + CUT YOUR FINGER NAILS + GO TO YOUR DENTIST + GET A HAIR CUT + A BUCKSKIN MAN'S POCKET + FLY DOPE + PROTECTION AGAINST BLACK FLIES, MOSQUITOES, MIDGETS AND NO-SEE-UMS + THE CALL OF THE WILD + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +PREPARING FOR CAMPING TRIP + + +MANY people are so accustomed to have other people wait upon them that +they are absolutely funny when you meet them in the woods; when their +canoe runs its prow up upon the sandy beach and there is a portage to +make, such people stand helplessly around waiting for some red-capped +porter to come and take their baggage, but the only red caps in the +woods are the red-headed woodpeckers and they will see you in Germany +before they will help tote your duffel across the portage. + +When one gets into the real woods, even if it is only in Maine, +Wisconsin, the Adirondacks, or the Southern pine forests, one soon +discovers that there are no drug stores around the corner, the doctor +is a long way off, the butcher, the baker, the candle-stick maker, +trolley cars, telephone and taxi cabs are not within reach, sight or +hearing; then a fellow begins to realize that it is "up to" himself to +tote his own luggage, to build his own fires, to make his own shelters, +and even to help put up the other fellows' tents, or to cook the meals. +Yes, and to wash the dishes, too! + +One reason we outdoor people love the woods is that it develops +self-reliance and increases our self-respect by increasing our ability +to do things; we love the work, we love the hardship, we like to get +out of sight of the becapped maids, the butler and the smirking waiters +waiting for a tip, and for the same reason the real honest-to-goodness +American boys love a camp. Why bless your soul!--every one of them in +his inmost heart regrets that he did not live away back in the time +when the long-haired Wetzel, Daniel Boone and Simon Kenton roved the +woods, or at least back when Colonel Bill Cody, Buffalo Jones and +Yellowstone Kelly were dashing over the plains with General Miles, +General Bell and the picturesque blond, long-haired General Custer. + +Sometimes the author is himself guilty of such wishes, and he used to +dream of those days when he was a barefooted boy. But, honest now, is +it not really too bad that there are no longer any hostile Indians? And +what a pity that improved firearms have made the big game so very shy +that it is afraid of a man with a gun! + +But cheer up, the joy of camping is not altogether ruined, because we +do not have to fight all day to save our scalps from being exported, or +even because the grizzly bears refuse to chase us up a tree, and the +mountain lions or "painters" decline to drop from an overhanging limb +on our backs. + +Remember that all things come to him who will but wait: that is, if he +works for these things while he is doing the waiting. The Chief has +spent his time and energy for the last thirty odd years hammering away +at two ideas: the big outdoors for the boys, and Americanism for all +the people. Thank the Lord, he has lived long enough to see the boys +stampede for the open and the people for Americanism. + +Because of the stampede for the open, in which people of all ages have +joined, there are so many kinds of camps nowadays: scout camps, soldier +camps, training camps, recreation camps, girls' camps and boys' camps, +that it is somewhat difficult for a writer to tell what to do in order +to "Be Prepared." There are freight car side-track camps, gypsy wagon +camps, houseboat camps, old-fashioned camp-meeting camps and picnic +camps; the latter dot the shores of New Jersey, the lake sides at +Seattle, and their tents are mingled with big black boulders around +Spokane; you will find them on the shores of Devil's Lake, North +Dakota, and in the few groves that are back of Winnipeg, Manitoba. + +But such camps have little attraction for the real hard-boiled camper, +and have no better claim to being the real thing than the more or +less grand palaces built in the woods, camouflaged outside with logs +or bark, and called "camps" by their untruthful owners; such people +belittle the name of camp and if they want to be honest they should +stick to the bungling bungalow--but wait a minute--even that is +far-fetched; the bungalow belongs in East India and looks as much like +one of these American houses as a corn-crib does like a church. + +When we talk of camping we mean living under bark, brush or canvas in +the "howling wilderness," or as near a howling wilderness as our money +and time will permit us to reach; in other words, we want a camp in the +wildest place we can find, except when we go to our own scout camp, and +even then we like it better if it is located in a wild, romantic spot. + + +HOW TO GET READY FOR CAMP + +There are some little personal things to which one should give one's +attention before starting on a long trip. If it is going to be a real +wild camping trip it is best to go to the barber shop and get a good +hair cut just before one starts. Also one should trim one's nails down +as close as comfort will allow. Long nails, if they are well manicured, +will do for the drawing room and for the office, but in camp they have +a habit of turning back (Fig. 232)--and gee willikens, how they hurt! +Or they will split down into the quick (Fig. 233) and that hurts some, +too! So trim them down snug and close; do it before you start packing +up your things, or you may hurt your fingers while packing. But even +before trimming your nails + + +GO TO YOUR DENTIST + +And insist upon him making an examination of every tooth in your head; +a toothache is bad enough anywhere, goodness knows, but a toothache +away out in the woods with no help in sight will provoke a saint to +use expressions not allowed by the Scout Manual. The Chief knows what +he is talking about--he has been there! He once rode over Horse Plains +alongside of a friend who had a bad tooth, and the friend was a real +saint! His jaw was swelled out like a rubber balloon, but he did not +use one naughty word on the trip, notwithstanding every jolt of that +horse was like sticking a knife in him. + +The writer could not help it; he was thoughtlessly cruel and he laughed +at his friend's lugubrious expression--Take heed, do not be as cruel as +was the writer, for sooner or later you will pay for such thoughtless +levity. It was only next season, away up in the mountains of the +British possessions on the Pacific Coast, that the friend's turn came +to laugh at the author as the latter nursed an ulcerated tooth. Wow! +Wow! Wow! + +Well, never mind the details, they are too painful to talk about, but +remember the lesson that they teach--Go to the Dentist and get a clean +bill of health on the tooth question before you start for a lengthy +camp. + +[Illustration: 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, +243, 244 + +PERSONAL ITEMS + +A BUCKSKIN'S POCKET] + + +A BUCKSKIN MAN'S POCKET + +When we speak of his pocket that includes all of his clothes, because +on the inside of his coat, if he wears one, are stuck an array of +safety pins (Fig. 234), but usually the pins are fastened onto his +shirt. A safety pin is as useful to a man in camp as is a hairpin +to a woman, and a woman can camp with no other outfit but a box of +hairpins. One can use safety pins for clothespins when one's socks +are drying at night, one can use them to pin up the blankets and thus +make a sleeping-bag of them, or one can use them for the purpose +of temporarily mending rips and tears in one's clothes. These are +only a few of the uses of the safety pin on the trail. After one has +traveled with safety pins one comes to believe that they are almost +indispensable. + +In one of the pockets there should be a lot of bachelor buttons, the +sort that you do not have to sew on to your clothes, but which fasten +with a snap, something like glove buttons. There should be a pocket +made in your shirt or vest to fit your notebook (Fig. 244), and a part +of it stitched up to hold a pencil and a toothbrush. Your mother can +do this at home for you before you leave. Then you should have a good +jack-knife; I always carry my jack-knife in my hip pocket. A pocket +compass, one that you have tested before starting on your trip, should +lodge comfortably in one of your pockets, and hitched in your belt +should be your noggin carved from a burl from a tree (Fig. 235); it +should be carried by slipping the toggle (Fig. 236) underneath the +belt. Also in the belt you should carry some whang strings (Fig. 237); +double the whang strings up so that the two ends come together, tuck +the loop through your belt until it comes out at the other side, then +put the two ends of the string through the loop and the whang strings +are fast but easily pulled out when needed; whang strings are the +same as belt lashings. A small whetstone (Fig. 238) can find a place +somewhere about your clothes, probably in the other hip pocket, and it +is most useful, not only with which to put an edge on your knife but +also on your axe. + +Inside the sweat band of your hat, or around the crown on the outside +of your hat, carry a gut leader with medium-sized artificial flies +attached, and around your neck knot a big gaudy bandanna handkerchief +(Fig. 239); it is a most useful article; it can be used in which to +carry your game, food or duffel, or for warmth, or worn over the head +for protection from insects (Fig. 240). In the latter case put it on +your head under your hat and allow it to hang over your shoulders like +the havelock worn by the soldiers of '61. + +Carry your belt axe thrust through your belt at your back (Fig. 241), +where it will be out of the way, not at your side as you do on parade. + +No camper, be he hunter, fisherman, scout, naturalist, explorer, +prospector, soldier or lumberman, should go into the woods without a +notebook and hard lead pencil (Fig. 242). Remember that notes made +with a hard pencil will last longer than those made with ink, and be +readable as long as the paper lasts. + +Every scientist and every surveyor knows this and it is only +tenderfeet, who use a soft pencil and fountain pen for making field +notes, because an upset canoe will blur all ink marks and the constant +rubbing of the pages of the book will smudge all soft pencil marks. + +Therefore, have a pocket especially made (Fig. 244), so that your +notebook, pencil and fountain pen (Fig. 243), if you insist upon +including it--will fit snugly with no chance of dropping out; also +make a separate pocket for your toothbrush which should be kept in an +oil-skin bag (Fig. 243). + +A piece of candle (Fig. 245) is not only a most convenient thing with +which to light a fire on a rainy day, but it has ofttimes proved a life +saver to Northern explorers benumbed with the cold. + +It is a comparatively easy thing to light a candle under the shelter of +one's hat or coat, even in a driving rain. When one's fingers are numb +or even frosted, and with the candle flame one can start a life-saving +fire; so do not forget your candle stub as a part of your pocket outfit. + +In the black fly belt it is wise to add a bottle of fly dope (Fig. 251) +to one's personal equipment. If you make your own fly dope have a slow +fire and allow to simmer over it + + 3 oz. pine tar + 2 oz. castor oil + 1 oz. pennyroyal + +or heat 3 oz. of pine tar with two oz. of olive oil and then stir in 1 +oz. of pennyroyal, 1 oz. of citronella, 1 oz. of creosote and 1 oz. of +camphor. + +If you propose traveling where there are black flies and mosquitoes, +let your mother sew onto a pair of old kid gloves some chintz or calico +sleeves that will reach from your wrists to above your elbow (Fig. +246), cut the tips of the fingers off the gloves so that you may be +able to use your hands handily, and have an elastic in the top of the +sleeve to hold them onto your arm. Rigged thus, the black flies and +mosquitoes can only bite the ends of your fingers, and, sad to say, +they will soon find where the ends of the fingers are located. + +A piece of cheese cloth, fitted over the hat to hang down over the +face, will protect that part of your anatomy from insects (Fig. 246), +but if they are not very bad use fly dope (Fig. 251), and add a bottle +of it to your pocket outfit. One doesn't look pretty when daubed up +with fly dope, but we are in the woods for sport and adventure and not +to look pretty. Our vanity case has no lip stick, rouge or face powder; +it only possesses a toothbrush and a bottle of fly dope. + +Certain times of year, when one goes camping in the neighborhood of the +trout brooks, one needs to BE PREPARED, for one can catch more trout +and enjoy fishing better if protected against the attacks of the black +flies, mosquitoes, midges and "no-see-ums." + +[Illustration: 245, 246, 246½, 247, 247A, 248, 249 (a, b), 250, 251] + +Anything swung by a strap across one's shoulder will in time "cut" the +shoulders painfully unless they are protected by a pad (Fig. 246½). A +few yards of mosquito netting or cheese cloth occupies little space and +is of little weight, but is very useful as a protection at night. Bend +a wand (Fig. 247) into a hoop and bind the ends together (Fig. 247A), +with safety pins; pin this in the netting and suspend the net from its +center by a stick (Fig. 248). + +The black fly, C (Fig. 249), is a very small hump-backed pest, the +young (larvæ) (Fig. 249a) live in cold, clear running water; Fig. 249b +is the cocoon. + +There are many kinds of mosquitoes; all of them are Bolsheviks, and +with the black flies and other vermin they argue that since nature made +them with blood suckers and provided you with the sort of blood that +they like, they have an inherent right to suck your blood--and they do +it! + +But some mosquitoes are regular Huns and professional germ carriers, +and besides annoying one they skillfully insert the germs of malaria +and yellow fever into one's system. The malaria mosquitoes are known as +anopheles. The highbrow name for the United States malaria distributor +is "Anopheles quadrimaculatus" (Fig. 250F). It is only the females that +you need fear; drone bees do not sting and buck mosquitoes do not bite. + +Fig. 250d shows lower and upper side of the anopheles's egg. Fig. 250e +is the wiggler or larvæ of the anopheles; the anopheles likes to let +the blood run to its head, and any careful observer will know him at a +glance from his pose while resting (Fig. 250g). + +Of course, you will not need fly dope on the picnic grounds, and you +will not need your pocket compass on the turnpike hike, and you will +not need your jack-knife with which to eat at the boarding house or +hotel, but we Boy Scouts are the real thing; we go to hotels and +boarding houses and picnics when we must, but not when we can find real +adventure in wilder places. We shout: + + There is life in the roar of plunging streams, + There is joy in the campfire's blaze at night. + Hark! the elk bugles, the panther screams! + And the shaggy bison roll and fight. + Let your throbbing heart surge and bound, + List to the whoop of the painted Reds; + Pass the flapjacks merrily round + As the gray wolf howls in the river beds. + + We weary of our cushions of rest; + God of our Fathers, give back our West. + What care we for luxury and ease? + Darn the tall houses, give us tall trees! + +However crude these verses may be, the sentiment is all right. But may +be it will express our idea better if we do not attempt rhyme. Suppose +we try it this way-- + + Listen to the whistle of the marmots; + The hooting of the barred owl, the bugling of the elk! + The yap, yap, yap of the coyote, the wild laugh of the loon; + The dismal howl of the timber wolf, + The grunting of the bull moose, the roaring of the torrent, + And the crashing thunder of the avalanche! + +Ah, that's the talk; these are the words and sounds that make the blood +in one's veins tingle like ginger ale. Why do all red-blooded men and +real American boys like to hear + + The crunching of the dry snow; + The flap, flap, flap of snowshoes; + The clinking of the spurs and bits; + The creaking of the saddle leather; + The breathing of the bronco; + The babbling of the rivulet; + The whisper of the pines, + The twitter of the birds. + And the droning of bees. + +Why? Because in these sounds we get the dampness of the moss, the +almond-like odor of twin flowers, the burning dryness of the sand, the +sting of the frost, the grit of the rocks and the tang of old mother +earth! They possess the magic power of suggestion. By simply repeating +these words we transport our souls to the wilderness, set our spirits +free, and we are once again what God made us; natural and normal boys, +listening to nature's great runes, odes, epics, lyrics, poems, ballads +and roundelays, as sung by God's own bards! + + +PACKING + +When packing, remember that a partly filled bag (Fig. 252) is easy to +pack, easy to carry on one's shoulders; but a tightly filled bag (Fig. +253) is a nuisance on the trail. When + +[Illustration: 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, +263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271 + +MAKING A PACK] + + +MAKING A PACK + +To ship as baggage, fold the blankets lengthwise (Fig. 254), place them +in the middle of your tarpaulin or floor cloth (Fig. 254); fold the +cover over (Fig. 255), then tuck in the ends and roll the package into +a bundle and cinch (Figs. 255 and 256). A + + +SLEEPING-BAG + +Can be improvised from one's blankets by the use of safety pins (Fig. +257). A section of the bag (Fig. 258) shows how the blankets are +doubled. To make a + + +BACK PACK + +Fold as in Fig. 259, then bend up the end as indicated by Figs. 260 and +261, fold again, Fig. 262, then fold in the two edges, Figs. 263 and +264, which show both sides of pack; bend over the top, Figs. 265 and +266, and strap ready to carry, Figs. 267 and 268. For a + + +BLANKET ROLL + +Fold as in Fig. 269; bend in the ends and roll (Fig. 270). Strap or +lash the ends together (Fig. 271). + + + + +CHAPTER X + +SADDLES + + HOW TO CHOOSE A SADDLE + EVOLUTION OF THE MEXICAN SADDLE + BIRTH OF THE BLUFF FRONTED SADDLE + THE COWBOY AGE + SAWBUCKS OR PACK SADDLES + STRAIGHT LEG AND BENT KNEE + NAMES OF PARTS OF SADDLES + CENTER FIRE AND DOUBLE CINCH + + + + +CHAPTER X + +SADDLES + + +WE know that comparatively few of our boys take their hikes on +horseback, especially their camping hikes. But a lot of their daddies +and big brothers do take their horse, and the pack horse on their +hunting and fishing trips, and every boy wants to know how to do the +things his daddy knows how to do. Besides all that, the author is aware +of the fact that the daddies and the uncles and the big brothers are +reading all the stuff he puts out for the boys. They are constantly +quoting to the author things that he has said to the boys, so that now +in writing a book for the boys he must count them in. + + +CHOOSE A SADDLE THAT FITS + +Everyone knows the misery of an ill-fitting shoe, and no one in his +right mind would think of taking a prolonged hike in shoes that pinched +his feet, but everybody does not know that a saddle should fit the +rider; an ill-fitting saddle can cause almost as much discomfort as an +ill-fitting shoe. The best all-around sportsman's saddle in the world +is the cowboy saddle of the West. A writer in the _Saturday Evening +Post_, who has written a delightfully intelligent article on saddles, +in speaking of the Western cow-puncher's saddle, says: + +"There are many good riders who have never thrown a leg over any other +sort of saddle, and for work on the plains or in the mountains no man +who has used one would ever care for any other type. It is as much a +distinct product of this continent as is the birch bark canoe or the +American axe or rifle." + +Like the cowboy hat, the diamond hitch and the lariat, the cowboy +saddle is evolved from the Spanish adaptation of the Moorish saddle. +The old-fashioned Spanish saddle with the heavy wooden block stirrups, +not the bent wood stirrups, but the big stirrups made out of blocks +of wood (Fig. 273); such a saddle with stirrups often weighed over +sixty pounds. These saddles were garnished with silver and gold, and +the spurs that the rancheros wore had big wheels with "bells" on +them, and spikes long enough to goad the thick skin of an elephant. +I formerly possessed one of the picturesque old saddles on which all +the leather work was engraved by hand, by the use of some tool like a +graver, probably a sharpened nail; consequently none of the designs was +duplicated. + +In the good old cow days there were two sorts of saddles: the +"California Center Fire" and the "Texas Double Chinch," and all those +that I remember seeing had rather a short horn at the bow with a very +broad top sometimes covered with a silver plate; the seat was also much +longer than it is to-day. + +Fig. 272 shows a military saddle which is a modified cowboy saddle, and +Fig. 274 shows a comparatively modern cowboy saddle. The up-to-date +saddle of to-day has a bulge in front, not shown on the diagram. + +In the olden days there were no societies for the prevention of cruelty +to animals, and on the ranges horses were plenty; therefore, when one +of the long-haired plainsmen, with his long rifle in front of him +on the long saddle, and the heavy Spanish-American trappings to the +horse, killed the horse by overwork, he simply took off his saddle and +trappings, caught another horse, mounted it and continued his journey; +there were plenty of horses--why should he worry? + +Later when the cowboy age came in, the cowboys themselves on the +Southern ranges used the Spanish-American outfit; the only blessing +the poor horse had was the blanket under the saddle. + +[Illustration: 272 (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J, K, L, P, S, T), 273, 274 +(M, N, O), 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285 + +PACK TRAIN OUTFIT] + +When the block wooden stirrups were abandoned and the thinner oval +stirrups adopted, the latter were protected by long caps of leather, +the dangling ends of which were silver tipped. The cowboys themselves +wore heavy leather breeches called chaps (an abbreviation of the +Spanish chaparejo). Thus with the feet and legs protected they could +ride through the cactus plants and dash through the mesquite country +without fear of being pricked by the thorns, no matter what happened to +the horse. Not only did this leather armor protect them from thorns and +branches, but it also prevented many a broken leg resulting from kicks +by burros, mules and horses. + +The rolled coat or blanket, which the bronco busters on the lower +ranges in early times lashed across the horse in front of their seat, +is the thing from which the bucking roll was evolved, and the buckskin +bucking roll, we are told, is the daddy of the swell or bulged front +saddle now used. + +The old-fashioned cowboy saddle has a narrow front, but about two +decades ago + + +THE VIDALIA SADDLE-TREE + +Migrated slowly from California over the plains, and was the first +one to show the bulged front, and to change the narrow bow of the cow +saddle to the bluff bow of the saddle as used to-day. It is claimed +that while this protects the rider from injuries more or less, it has +a tendency not to give a fellow the opportunity of as firm a grip with +his legs as did the old narrow bowed cowboy seat. Later, in Oregon, +they began to manufacture "incurved saddles," so that the rider's legs +could fit better under the front, and the Wyoming saddle makers caught +the idea, so that to-day the vanishing race of cowboys are using +saddles, which it would have taken a brave man to straddle in the early +days, not because the saddle is dangerous but because it would have +looked funny to the old-time boys, and they would not have been slow in +giving expression to boisterous and discomforting merriment. + +It is an odd thing, this law of growth or evolution, and it _is a law_, +and a fixed law, certain peculiarities go together; for instance, if +one goes systematically to work to produce fan-tail pigeons, one finds +that he is also producing pigeons with feathered legs. The breeders +have also discovered that in producing a chicken with silky white +feathers they unwillingly produce a fowl with black meat. What has +this got to do with saddles? Only that the same law holds good here: +the more the front bulges in the saddle the more the horns shrivel, +developing a tendency to rake forward and upward; the stirrups also +dwindle in size. The saddle, which the writer possessed, has stirrups +made of iron rings covered with leather and the caps were lined with +sheep's wool. We read that now the narrow half-round oval stirrup +is a favorite with the cow-punchers, which the cowboy uses with his +foot thrust all the way in so that the weight of the rider rests upon +the middle of the foot. This is as disturbing to the European idea +of "proper form" as was the Declaration of Independence, but the +Declaration of Independence has proved its efficiency by its results; +so also has it been proved that for those who ride all day long the +nearer they can come to standing on their feet, and at the same time +relieving the feet of the total weight of the body by resting it on +the saddle, the easier it is to stay in the saddle for long stretches +of time; in other words, the more comfortable the saddle, the longer +one can occupy it without discomfort, and that is the reason a saddle +should fit the rider. + + +WITH WESTERN HORSES + +One must use Western ways; remember the horses were educated in the +West if you were not, but it is not necessary to use the cruel, old +jaw-breaking Spanish bits with a ring on them. I have one, but it only +hangs on the studio wall as a souvenir and a curious object of torture. +But don't try a straight bit on a Western horse; he may spit it out and +laugh at you; use the modern Western bits, saddles, and cinch and you +will not go far wrong. Of course + + +THE PACK HORSE + +Is another proposition, for here you will need a pack sawbuck saddle +(Figs. 276, 277, 278 and 279); over this saddle you can swing your two +saddle bags, called alforjas (Fig. 283). Fig. 284 is after Stewart +Edward White's diagram, and shows how the alforjas are lashed fast +to the horse's back with a latigo (Fig. 285). Fig. 280 is the lash +rope which the man above Fig. 284 is using. In Chapter VII we tell +how to throw the diamond hitch. Fig. 282 shows the cowboy favorite +cooking utensil, the old Dutch oven, and it is practically the same +model as the one once belonging to Abraham Lincoln. A glance at the +cross-section of the cover shows you how the edges are dented in to +hold the hot ashes heaped on top of it when the bake oven is being +used. Fig. 281 is a sketch of two essentials for any sort of a trip: an +axe and a frying pan. + +Of course, one could write a whole book on horseback work, saddles and +pack saddles. The truth is that one could write a whole book on any +subject or any chapter in this book. But my aim is to start you off +right; I believe that the way to learn to do a thing IS TO DO IT, and +not depend upon your book knowledge. Therefore, when I write a book for +you boys, I do the best I know how to make you understand what I am +talking about, and to excite in your mind and heart a desire to do the +things talked of; you must remember, however, that no one ever could +learn to skate from a school of correspondence or a book, but one could +gain a great deal of useful knowledge about anything from a useful +book, knowledge that will be of great help when one is trying to do the +things treated of in the book. + +I can tell you with the aid of diagrams how to pack a blanket, and you +can follow my diagrams and pack your blanket; but in order to ride, +skate, swim or dance, you must gain the skill by practice. A book, +however, can tell you the names of the part of the things. + + +NAMES OF PARTS OF SADDLE + +For instance (Fig. 272), T is the saddle-tree; a good saddle-tree is +made of five stout pieces of cottonwood which are covered with rawhide; +when the rawhide shrinks it draws the pieces together more tightly +and perfectly than they could be fastened by tongue and groove, glue, +screws or nails; in fact, it makes one solid piece of the whole. The +horn is fastened on to the tree by its branched legs, and covered with +leather or braided rawhide. The shanks are covered first and then +attached to the tree and the thongs are tacked to the saddle-tree, +after which the bulged cover is fitted on. When a good saddle-tree is +finished it is as much one piece as is the pelvis of a skeleton. + +P is the pummel, A is the cantle. S is the side bar of the saddle-tree, +C is a quarter strap side, B is the quarter strap cantle, E is the +stirrup buckle, F is the outer strap safe, G is the cincha ring, H is +the cincha cover; the cincha strap is unlettered but it connects the +cincha ring with the quarter strap ring D; J is the cap or leather +stirrup cover, L is the wooden stirrup, K is the horsehair cincha. +Fig. 275 is one of the saddle pads to fit under the saddle. On Fig. +274M is the horn, N the cantle, O the whang leather, which your saddler +will call tie strings. + +You will note that in Fig. 274 there are two cinchas, and in Fig. 272 +but one. You will also note that in Fig. 274 the skirt of your saddle +seems to be double, or even triple, and the stirrup rigging comes on +top of the skirt, and this is made up of the back jockey, front jockey, +and side jockey or seat. Now then, you know all about horseback; there +is nothing more I can tell you about the pack horse, but remember not +to swell up with pride because of your vast knowledge, and try to ride +an outlaw horse with an Eastern riding school bit. But acknowledge +yourself a tenderfoot, a short horn, a shavetail, a Cheechako, and ask +your Western friends to let you have a horse that knows all the tricks +of his trade, but who has a compassionate heart for a greenhorn. There +are lots of such good fellows among the Western horses, and they will +treat you kindly. I know it because I have tried them, and as I said +before, I make no boast of being a horseman myself. When I get astride +of a Western horse I lean over and whisper in his ear, and confess to +him just how green I am, and then put him on his honor to treat me +white, and so far he has always done so. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +CHOOSING A CAMP SITE + + 'WARE SINGLE TREES OR SMALL GROUPS OF TREES + SAFETY IN WOODS OR FOREST + KEEP YOUR EYES OPEN FOR GOOD CAMP SITES + CROSS STREAMS WHILE CROSSING IS GOOD + KEEP TO WINDWARD OF MOSQUITO HOLES + 'WARE ANTS' NESTS + HOW TO TELL WHEN WIND BLOWS + EVOLUTION OF THE SHACK + HOW TO SWEEP + HOW TO MAKE CAMP BEDS + HOW TO DIVIDE CAMP WORK + TENT PEGS + HOW TO PITCH A TENT SINGLE-HANDED + HOW TO DITCH A TENT + USE OF SHEARS, GINS AND TRIPODS + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +CHOOSING A CAMP SITE + + +WHEN choosing a camp site, if possible, choose a forest or grove of +young trees. First, because of the shade they give you; secondly, +because they protect you from storms, and thirdly, because they protect +you from lightning. + +Single trees, or small groups of trees in open pastures are exceedingly +dangerous during a thunder storm; tall trees on the shores of a river +or lake are particularly selected as targets for thunder bolts by the +storm king. But the safest place in a thunder storm, next to a house, +is a forest. The reason of this is that each wet tree is a lightning +rod silently conducting the electric fluid without causing explosions. +Do not camp at the foot of a very tall tree, or an old tree with dead +branches on it, for a high wind may break off the branches and drop +them on your head with disastrous results; the big tree itself may fall +even when there is no wind at all. + +Once I pitched my camp near an immense tree on the Flathead Indian +Reservation. A few days later we returned to our old camp. As we +stopped and looked at the site where our tents had been pitched we +looked at each other solemnly, but said nothing, for there, prone upon +the ground, lay that giant veteran tree! + +But young trees do not fall down, and if they did they could not create +the havoc caused by the immense bole of the patriarch of the forest +when it comes crashing to the earth. A good scout must "Be Prepared," +and to do so must remember that safety comes first, and too close +neighborhood to a big tree is often unsafe. + +Remember to choose the best camp site that can be found; do not travel +all day, and as night comes on stop at any old place; but in the +afternoon keep your eyes open for likely spots. + +Halt early enough to give time to have everything snug and in order +before dark. + +In selecting camping ground, look for a place where good water and wood +are handy. Choose a high spot with a gentle slope if possible; guard +your spring or water hole from animals, for if the day is hot your dog +will run ahead of the party and jump into the middle of the spring to +cool himself, and horses and cattle will befoul the water. + +If camping in the Western states on the shores of a shallow stream +which lies along the trail, cross the stream before making camp or you +may not be able to cross it for days. A chinook wind suddenly melting +the snows in the distant mountains, or a cloud-burst miles and miles +up stream, may suddenly send down to you a dangerous flood even in the +dry season. I have known of parties being detained for days by one of +these sudden roaring floods of water, which came unannounced, the great +bole of mud, sticks and logs sweeping by their camp and taking with it +everything in its path. + +A belt of dense timber between camp and a pond or swamp will act as a +protection from mosquitoes. As a rule, keep to windward of mosquito +holes; the little insects travel with the wind, not against it. +'Ware ant hills, rotten wood infested with ants, for they make poor +bedfellows and are a nuisance where the food is kept. + +A bare spot on the earth, where there are no dry leaves, is a +wind-swept spot; where the dust-covered leaves lie in heaps the wind +does not blow. A windy place is generally free from mosquitoes, but it +is a poor place to build a fire; a small bank is a great protection +from high wind and twisters. During one tornado I had a camp under the +lee of a small elevation; we only lost the fly of one tent out of a +camp of fifty or more, while in more exposed places nearby great trees +were uprooted and houses unroofed. + +It must not be supposed that the camping season is past because the +summer vacation is over. The real camping season begins in the Wild +Rice Moon, that is, September. Even if school or business takes +all our time during the week, we still have week-ends in which to +camp. Saturday has always been a boys' day. Camping is an American +institution, because America affords the greatest camping ground in the +world. + +The author is seated in his own log house, built by himself, on the +shores of Big Tink Pond. Back of him there is pitched a camp of +six rows of tents, which are filled with a joyful, noisy crowd of +youngsters. + +It is here in the mountains of Pike County, Pennsylvania, where the +bluestone is stratified in horizontal layers, that one may study the +camp from its very birth to the latest and finished product of this +century. + +Everywhere in these mountains there are outcroppings of the bluestone, +and wherever the face of a ridge of this stone is exposed to the +elements, the rains or melting snows cause the water to drip from +the earth on top of the stone and trickle down over the face of the +cliff. Then, when a cold snap turns the moisture into ice in every +little crack in the rock, the expansion of the ice forces the sides +of the cracks apart at the seams in the rock until loose pieces from +the undersides slide off, leaving small spaces over which the rock +projects. The little caves thus made make retreats for white-footed +mice and other small mammals, chipmunks and cave rats. When these +become deeper they may become dens in which snakes sleep through the +winter. + +The openings never grow smaller, and in course of time are large enough +for the coon, then the fox, and in olden times they made dens for +wolves and panthers, or a place where the bear would "hole" up for the +winter. + +Time is not considered by Dame Nature; she has no trains to catch, +and as years and centuries roll by the little openings in the +bluestone become big enough to form a shelter for a crouching man, +and the crouching man used them as a place in which to camp when the +Norsemen in their dragon ships were braving the unknown ocean. When +Columbus, with his toy boats, was blundering around the West Indies, +the crouching man was camping under the bluestone ledges of old Pike +County, Pennsylvania. There he built his campfires and cooked his +beaver and bear and deer and elk, using dishes of pottery of his own +make and ornamented with crude designs traced in the clay before the +dishes were baked. + +We know all this to be true history, because within a short walk of +the author's log house there are overhanging ledges of bluestone, +and underneath these ledges we, ourselves, have crouched and camped, +and with sharp sticks have dug up the ground from the layer of earth +covering the floor rock. And in this ground we have found bits of +pottery, the split bones of different wild animals--split so that +the savage camper might secure the rich marrow from the inside of +the bones--arrowheads, bone awls and needles, tomahawks, the skulls +of beaver and spearheads; all these things have been found under the +overhanging bluestone. + +Wherever such a bluestone ledge exists, one may make a good camp by +closing up the front of the cave with sticks against the overhanging +cliff and thatching the sticks with browse or balsam boughs, thus +making the simplest form of a lean-to. The Indians used such shelters +before the advent of the white man; Daniel Boone used them when he +first visited Kentucky and, in spite of the great improvement in tents, +the overhanging ledge is still used in Pennsylvania by fishermen and +hunters for overnight camps. + +But if one uses such a site for his overnight camp or his week's-end +camp, one should not desecrate the ancient abode by introducing under +its venerable roof, modern up-to-date cooking and camp material, but +should exercise ingenuity and manufacture, as far as possible, the +conveniences and furniture necessary for the camp. + +Since the author is writing this in a camp in the woods, he will tell +the practical things that confront him, even though he must mention a +white man's shop broom. + +In the first place, the most noticeable defect in the tenderfoot's work +is the manner in which he handles his broom and wears the broom out +of shape. A broom may be worn to a stub when properly used, but the +lopsided broom is no use at all because the chump who handled it always +used it one way until the broom became a useless, distorted, lopsided +affair, with a permanent list to starboard or port, as the case may be. + +To sweep properly is an art, and every all-around outdoor boy and man +should learn to sweep and to handle the broom as skillfully as he does +his gun or axe. In the first place, turn the broom every time you +notice a tendency of the latter to become one-sided, then the broom +will wear to a stub and still be of use. In the next place, do not +swing the broom up in the air with each sweep and throw the dust up in +the clouds, but so sweep that the end of the stroke keeps the broom +near the floor or ground. + +Now a word about making beds. In all books on woodcraft you are +directed to secure balsam boughs from which to make your beds, and +there is no better forest bedding than the fragrant balsam boughs, but +unfortunately the mountain goose, as the hunters call it, from which +you pluck the feathers to make your camp bed, is not to be found in all +localities. + +A bag filled with dry leaves, dry grass, hay or straw will make a very +comfortable mattress; but we are not always in the hay and straw belt +and dry leaves are sometimes difficult to secure; a scout, however, +must learn to make a bed wherever he happens to be. If there happens +to be a swale nearby where brakes and ferns grow luxuriantly, one +can gather an armful of these, and with them make a mattress. The +Interrupted fern, the Cinnamon, the Royal fern, the Lady fern, the +Marsh fern and all the larger ferns are useful as material. + +A camping party should have their work so divided that each one can +immediately start at his own particular job the moment a halt is made. +One chops up the firewood and sees that a plentiful supply of firewood +is always on hand; usually he carries the water. One makes camp, puts +up the tents, clears away the rubbish, fixes the beds, etc., while +a third attends strictly to kitchen work, preparing the meals, and +washing up the dishes. + +With the labor divided in this manner, things run like clock work and +camp is always neat and tidy. Roughing it is making the best of it; +only a slob and a chump goes dirty and has a sloppy-looking camp. The +real old time veteran and sourdough is a model of neatness and order. +But a clean, orderly camp is much more important than a clean-faced +camper. Some men think so much of themselves and their own personal +cleanliness that they forget their duty to the others. One's duty is +about in this proportion: first to the animals if any, secondly to the +men, and lastly to oneself. + +Before pitching your tent, clear out a space for it to occupy; pick +up the stones, rubbish and sticks, rake off the ground with a forked +stick. But do not be rude to your brother, the ground pine; apologize +for disturbing it; be gentle with the fronds of the fern; do not tear +the trailing arbutus vine up by its roots, or the plant of the almond +scented twin flowers; ask pardon of the thallus of the lichen which you +are trampling under your feet. Why? O! well--because they had first +right to the place, and because such little civilities to the natural +objects around you put your own mind in accord with nature, and make +camping a much more enjoyable affair. + +When you feel you are sleeping on the breast of _your mother_, the +earth, while _your father_, the sky, with his millions of eyes is +watching over you, and that you are surrounded by your brother, the +plants, the wilderness is no longer lonesome even to the solitary +traveler. + +Another reason for taking this point of view is that it has a +humanizing effect and tends to prevent one from becoming a wilderness +Hun and vandal. It also not only makes one hesitate to hack the trees +unnecessarily, but encourages the camper to take pride in leaving a +clean trail. As my good friend, John Muir, said to me: "The camping +trip need not be the longest and most dangerous excursion up to the +highest mountain, through the deepest woods or across the wildest +torrents, glaciers or deserts, in order to be a happy one; but however +short or long, rough or smooth, calm or stormy, it should be one in +which the able, fearless camper sees the most, learns the most, loves +the most and leaves the cleanest track; whose camp grounds are never +marred by anything unsightly, scarred trees or blood spots or bones of +animals." + +It is not the object of this book to advertise, or even advise the use +of any particular type of outfitting apparatus other than the plain, +everyday affairs with which all are familiar. What we want to do is to +start the reader right, then he may make his own choice, selecting an +outfit to suit his own taste. There are no two men, for instance, who +will sing the praise of the same sort of a tent, but there is perhaps +no camper who has not used, and been very comfortable in, the old style +wall tent. It has its disadvantages, and so has a house, a shack or a +shanty. As a rule, the old wall tent is too heavy to carry with comfort +and very difficult for one man to pitch alone--unless one knows how. + + +TENT PEGS + +Are necessary for almost any kind of a tent; you can buy them at the +outfitter's and lose them on the way to camp; they even have iron and +steel tent pegs to help make camping expensive, and to scatter through +the woods. But if you are a real sourdough you will cut your own tent +pegs, shaped according to circumstances and individual taste. Fig. 286 +shows the two principal kinds: the fork and the notched tent pegs. For +the wall tents one will need a ridge pole (Fig. 288), and two forked +sticks, or rods, to support the ridge pole; the forks on these should +be snubbed off close so that they will not thrust themselves up against +the canvas on the top of the tent and endanger the fabric; these poles +should be of a proper height; otherwise if the poles are too long, the +tent will not touch the ground at all, or if the poles are too short, +the tent will wrinkle all over the ground like a fellow's trousers when +his suspenders break. + +[Illustration: 286, 287, 288, 289 (A, B), 290, 291, 292 + +HOW ONE MAN MAY PUT UP A TENT] + +See that the ground is comparatively level, but with a slant in one +direction or another so that water will drain off in case of rain. +Never, for instance, pitch your tent in a hollow or basin of ground, +unless you want to wake up some night slopping around in a pool of +water. Do not pitch your tent near a standing dead tree; it is liable +to fall over and crush you in the night. Avoid camping under green +trees with heavy dead branches on them. Remember the real camper always +has an eye to safety first, not because he is a coward, but because +the real camper is as brave a person as you will find anywhere, and +no real brave person believes in the carelessness which produces +accidents. Do not pitch your tent over protruding stones which will +make stumbling-blocks for you on which to stub your toes at night, +or torture you when you spread your blankets over them to sleep. Use +common sense, use gumption. Of course, we all know that _it hurts one's +head to think_, but we must all try it, nevertheless, if we are going +to live in the big outdoors. + +At a famous military academy the splendid cavalrymen gave a brilliant +exhibition of putting up wall tents; it required four men to put +up each tent. Immediately following this some of the scouts took +the same tents, with one scout to each tent, and in less time than +the cavalrymen took for the same job, the twelve year old boys, +single-handed, put up the same tents. + + +HOW TO PITCH AND DITCH SINGLE-HANDED + +Spread out your tent all ready to erect, put your ridge pole and your +two uprights in place, and then drive some tent stakes, using the flat +of your axe with which to drive them, so that you will not split the +tops of the stakes (Fig. 287); drive the two end stakes A and B (Fig. +289) at an angle to the ends of the tent. After the tent stakes are +arranged in a row, like the ones in Fig. 289, adjust the forks of the +uprights two inches from the ends of the ridge pole (Fig. 288), then +make fast the two extreme end guy ropes A and B to the tent pegs; the +others are unimportant for the present, after that is done, raise one +tent pole part of the way up (Fig. 290), then push the other part of +the way up (Fig. 291); gradually adjust these things until the strain +is even upon your guy ropes. You will now find that your tent will +stand alone, because the weight is pulling against your guy ropes (Fig. +292). This will hold your tent steady until you can make fast the guy +ropes to the pegs upon the other side, not too tightly, because you +need slack to straighten up your tent poles. + +Next see that the back guy pole is perpendicular, after which it is a +very easy matter to straighten up the front pole and adjust the guy +rope so that it will stand stiff as in Fig. 293. + +Remember, when you are cutting the ridge poles and the uprights, to +select fairly straight sticks, and they should be as free as possible +from rough projections, which might injure the canvas; also the poles +should be as stiff as possible so as not to sag or cause the roof to +belly. + +[Illustration: 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, +304, 305, 306, 307, 308 + +HOW TO PITCH AND DITCH SINGLE-HANDED + +HOW TO ANCHOR A TENT IN SANDY OR WET SOIL] + + +DITCHING + +Just as soon as your tent is erected and you feel like resting, get +busy on ditching; no matter how dry the weather may be at the time, +put a ditch around the tent that will drain the water away from your +living place. There is no positive rule for digging this ditch; it +varies according to surface of ground, but the gutter should be so made +that the water will run away from the tents and not to it, or stand +around it (Fig. 294). Fig. 295 shows how to make a tent by folding a +floor cloth or piece of tarpaulin; of course it must have a tent pole +to support the top, and the floor pieces may be drawn together in the +center. Make one out of a piece of writing paper and you will learn how +to do it, because although the paper is small, the folds would be just +the same as if it was as large as a church. + +In sandy or soft ground it often taxes one's ingenuity to supply +anchors for one's tent; an anchor is a weight of some sort to which the +guy ropes may be attached. Fig 296 shows a tent anchored by billets of +wood; these are all supposed to be buried in the ground as in Fig. 308, +and the ground trampled down over and above them to keep them safe in +their graves. Fig. 297 shows the first throw in the anchor hitch, Fig. +298 the second throw, and Fig. 299 the complete hitch for the anchor. +Fig. 303 shows the knot by which the anchor rope is tied to the main +line. Figs. 300, 301 and 302 show the detail of tying this knot, which +is simplicity itself, when you know how, like most knots. Fig. 303 +shows the anchor hitch complete. + +Stones, bundles of fagots; or bags of sand all make useful anchors; +Fig. 304 is a stone; Fig. 305 are half billets of wood, Fig. 306 shows +fagots of wood, Fig. 307 a bag of sand. All may be used to anchor your +tent in the sands or loose ground. + + +SHEARS, GINS OR TRIPODS + +Are the names used for different forms of rustic supports for the +tents. Fig. 312 shows the ordinary shears, Fig. 313 shows the tent +supported by shears; you will also note that the guy ropes for the +tent (Fig. 313) are made fast to a rod instead of to the pegs in the +ground. This has many advantages, because of the tendency of the +rope to tighten or shrink whenever it becomes wet, which often makes +it necessary for a fellow to get up in the night to adjust the guy +ropes and redrive the pegs. When the rain is pouring down, the thunder +crashing and the lightning flashing, it is no fun to go poking around +on the wet ground in one's nightie in order that the tent pegs may +not be pulled out of the ground by the shrinking ropes, and the cold +mass of wet canvas allowed to fall upon one's head. It is always +necessary to loosen and tighten the guy ropes according to the weather; +naturally the longer the guy ropes are the more they will shrink and +the more they will stretch as the weather varies. To prevent this, +lay a rod over the ends of the guy rope between the pegs and the tent +(Fig. 316A) and it will be an automatic adjuster. When the ropes are +dry and stretch, the weight of this pole will hold them down and keep +them taut; when the guy ropes shrink they will lift the pole, but the +latter will keep the tension on the ropes and keep them adjusted. The +arrangement of Fig. 313 has the advantage of making a clothes rack for +your bed clothes when you wish to air them, while the weight of the +suspended log keeps the tension on the ropes equalized. Fig. 314 shows +the shears made by the use of forked sticks. Figs. 315 and 318 show +the ridge pole supported by shears, and the ridge poles supported by +forked sticks; the advantage of the shears in Fig. 315 is that it gives +a clear opening to the tent. Fig. 316 shows an exterior ridge pole +supported by shears to which the top of the tent is made fast. Fig. 317 +is the same without the tent. Fig. 318 shows the famous Vreeland tent; +in this case the ridge pole is supported by a crotched upright stick, +but may be equally well supported by the shears as in Fig. 315. Fig. +319 shows the gin or tripod made by binding the three sticks together. +Fig. 320 shows the same effect made by the use of the forked sticks; +these are useful in pitching wigwams or tepees. + +[Illustration: COMMON TENTS OF THE OPEN COUNTRY] + +[Illustration: SOME POPULAR TENTS] + +Fig. 309 shows some of the ordinary forms of tents, the wall tent, +the Baker tent and the canoe tent. Fig. 310 shows a tent with a fly +extending out in front, thus giving the piazza or front porch. In the +background is a tepee tent. Fig. 311 shows two small Baker tents in the +background, and the Dan Beard tent in the foreground. These comprise +the principal forms, but the open-front tents to-day are much in vogue +with the campers. A mosquito netting in front will keep out the insects +and allow the air to come in freely, whereas the old-fashioned way of +closing the tent flap stops circulation of air and makes conditions +as bad as that of a closed room in a big house, and the air becomes +as foul as it did in the little red school houses and does now in the +Courts of Justice, jails and other places of entertainment. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +AXE AND SAW + + OUR GREATEST AXEMAN + IMPORTANCE OF THE AXE + WHAT KIND OF AXE TO USE + HOW TO SWING AN AXE + HOW TO REMOVE A BROKEN AXE HANDLE + HOW TO TIGHTEN THE HANDLE IN THE HEAD + ACCIDENTS + THE BRAINS OF AN AXE + ETIQUETTE OF THE AXE + HOW TO SHARPEN AN AXE + HOW TO "FALL" A TREE + HOW TO SWAMP + HOW TO MAKE A BEETLE OR MALL + HOW TO HARDEN GREEN WOOD + HOW TO MAKE A FIREWOOD HOD + HOW TO MAKE A CHOPPING BLOCK + THE PROPER WAY TO CHOP + HOW TO MAKE SAWBUCKS FOR LOGS + HOW TO USE A PARBUCKLE + HOW TO SPLIT A LOG + HOW TO USE A SAWPIT + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +AXE AND SAW + + +TO all good, loyal Americans, the axe is almost a sacred tool, for our +greatest American, Abraham Lincoln, was one of our greatest axemen. +When he was President of the United States he used to exercise by +chopping wood, then laughingly extended his arm holding the axe in a +horizontal position by the extreme end of the handle. This he would do +without a tremor of the muscle or movement of the axe--some stunt! Try +it and see if you can do it! + +The American Indians, and practically all savages, used stone and bone +implements, and with such implements the Redmen were wont to build the +most beautiful of all crafts, the birch bark canoe. If an American +Indian produced such wonders with implements made of stones, flint and +bones, a good red-blooded American boy should be able to do the same +with a sharp axe; therefore it should not only be his pleasure but his +duty to learn to be a skillful axeman. + +Brother Jonathan, the imaginary character who represented the American +people, was almost invariably pictured with a jack-knife whittling a +stick, because all early Americans were skillful in the use of the +jack-knife, but they were also skilled in the use of the axe, and every +boy of twelve years of age knew how to handle an axe. + + +IMPORTANCE OF THE AXE + +While lecturing at the Teachers' College, Columbia University, I was +asked to give a demonstration of the use of the axe. It then and there +suddenly occurred to me that if these grown men needed and asked for +instructions in the use of this typical American tool, a talk on the +same subject would be welcomed by the American boys. + +The axe is the one necessary tool of the woodsmen; the axe occupies the +same position to the wilderness man that the chest of tools does to the +carpenter; with the axe the woodsman cuts his firewood; with the axe he +makes his traps; with the axe he splits the shakes, clapboards, slabs +and shingles from the balsam tree, or other wood which splits readily, +and with the shakes, clapboards, or slabs he shingles the roof of his +hogan, his barabara, or makes the framework to his sod shack or his +dugout, or with them builds the foundation of a bogken. With his axe he +cuts the birch for his birch bark pontiac, for his lean-to or his log +cabin. Without an axe it is most difficult for one to even build a raft +or to fell a tree to get the birch bark for one's canoe, or to "fall" +the tree to make a dugout canoe. A tree may be felled by fire, as the +Indians of old used to "fall" them, but this takes a wearisome time. + + +THE KIND OF AXE TO USE + +When bound for a real camp, take along with you a real axe. Never take +an axe which is too large and heavy for you to swing with comfort. It +is also best to avoid an axe which is too light, as with such a tool +you must use too much labor to cut the wood. You should select your own +axe according to your strength. Pick up the axe, go through the motions +of chopping and see if it feels right, if its balance suits you; hold +up the axe and sight along the top of the handle as you would along the +barrel of a gun to see that your handle is not warped. + +[Illustration: 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329 + +ABE LINCOLN THE PIONEER] + +Axes may be had of weight and size to suit one's taste. In New England +they use short-handled axes which are not popular in the woods. The axe +handles should be well seasoned, second growth hickory; a ¼ axe has a +19-inch handle and weighs two pounds. A ½ axe has a 24-inch handle and +weighs two and a half pounds. A ¾ axe has a 28-inch handle and weighs +three pounds. A full axe has a 36-inch handle and weighs five pounds. + +Probably the best axe for camp work, when you must carry the axe on +your back, is one with a 30-inch second growth hickory handle, weight +about two and three-quarter pounds, or somewhere between two and three +pounds. A light axe of this kind will cut readily and effectively +provided it has a slender bit; that is, that it does not sheer off too +bluntly towards the cutting edge. When you look at the top of such an +axe and it appears slender and not bulky, it will cut well and can be +wielded by a boy and is not too light for a man (Fig. 322). + +Fig. 321 shows the long-handled Hudson Bay axe used much in the North +country. It is made after the tomahawk form to save weight, but the +blade is broad, you notice, to give a wide cutting edge. The trouble +with this axe is that it is too light for satisfactory work. Fig. 323 +shows a belt axe of a modified tomahawk shape, only three of which are +in existence; one was in the possession of the late Colonel Roosevelt, +one in the possession of a famous English author, and one in the +possession of the writer. These axes were made for the gentlemen to +whom they were presented by the President of a great tool works; they +are made of the best gray steel and are beautiful tools. Fig. 324 is +an ordinary belt axe practically the same as those used by the Boy +Scouts. When it was proposed to arm the Boy Scouts with guns, the +writer put in strenuous objections and suggested belt axes in place of +guns; the matter of costume and arms was finally referred to him as a +committee of one. The uniform was planned after that of the Scouts of +the Boy Pioneers of America, and the belt axe adopted is the same as +that carried by the Scouts of the Sons of Daniel Boone, which axes are +modelled after Daniel Boone's own tomahawk. Fig. 325 is a very heavy +axe. + + +A WORD ABOUT SWINGING THE AXE + +Grasp the axe with the left hand, close to the end of the handle, even +closer than is shown in the diagram (Fig. 326); with the right hand +grasp the handle close to the head of the axe, then bring the axe up +over your shoulder and as you strike the blow, allow the right hand +to slide down naturally (Fig. 327), close to the left hand; learn to +reverse, that is, learn to grasp the lower end of the handle with the +right hand and the left hand near the top, so as to swing the axe from +the left shoulder down, as easily as from the right shoulder. + +To be a real axeman, a genuine dyed-in-the-wool, blown-in-the-glass +type, each time you make a stroke with the axe you must emit the breath +from your lungs with a noise like Huh! That, you know, sounds very +professional and will duly impress the other boys when they watch you +chop, besides which it always seems to really help the force of the +blow. + + +HOW TO REMOVE A BROKEN AXE HANDLE + +It was from a colored rail splitter from Virginia, who worked for the +writer, that the latter learned how to burn out the broken end of the +handle from the axe head. Bury the blade of your axe in the moist earth +and build a fire over the protruding butt (Fig. 328); the moist earth +will prevent the heat from spoiling the temper of your axe blade while +the heat from the fire will char and burn the wood so that it can +easily be removed. + +If you are using a double-bitted axe, that is, one of those very useful +but villainous tools with two cutting edges, and the handle breaks off, +make a shallow trench in the dirt, put the moist soil over each blade, +leaving a hollow in the middle where the axe handle comes and build +your fire over this hollow (Fig. 329). + + +TO TIGHTEN THE AXE HEAD + +If your axe handle is dry and the head loosens, soak it over night and +the wood will swell and tighten the head. Scoutmaster Fitzgerald of New +York says, "Quite a number of scouts have trouble with the axe slipping +off the helve and the first thing they do is to drive a nail which only +tends to split the helve and make matters worse. I have discovered +a practical way of fixing this. You will note that a wire passes +over the head of the axe in the helve in the side view. Then in the +cross-section in the copper wire is twisted and a little staple driven +in to hold it in place." This may answer for a belt axe but the hole in +the handle will weaken it and would not be advisable for a large axe +(Fig. 330). + + +ACCIDENTS + +We have said that the axe is a chest of tools, but it is a dangerous +chest of tools. While aboard a train coming from one of the big lumber +camps, the writer was astonished to find that although there were but +few sick men aboard, there were many, many wounded men in the car and +none, that he could find, wounded by falling trees; all were wounded +by the axe itself or by fragments of knots and sticks flying from blows +of the axe and striking the axeman in the eyes or other tender places. + + +YOU MUST SUPPLY THE BRAINS + +I have often warned my young friends to use great care with firearms, +because firearms are made for the express purpose of killing. A gun, +having no brains of its own, will kill its owner, his friends, his +brother or sister, mother or father, just as quickly and as surely as +it will kill a moose, a bear or a panther. Therefore it is necessary +for the gunner to supply the brains for his gun. + +The same is true with the axeman. Edged tools are made for the express +purpose of cutting, and they will cut flesh and bone as quickly and +neatly as they will cut wood, unless the user is skillful in the use +of his tool; that is, unless he supplies the brains which the tools +themselves lack. + +So you see that it is "up to you" boys to supply the brains for your +axes, and when you do that, that is, when you acquire the skill in the +use, and judgment in the handling, you will avoid painful and may be +dangerous or fatal accidents, and at the same time you will experience +great joy in the handling of your axe. Not only this but you will +acquire muscle and health in this most vigorous and manly exercise. + +We are not telling all this to frighten the reader but to instil into +his mind a proper respect for edged tools, especially the axe. + + +ETIQUETTE OF THE AXE + +1. An axe to be respected must be sharp and no one who has any ambition +to be a pioneer, a sportsman or a scout, should carry a dull axe, or an +axe with the edge nicked like a saw blade. It may interest the reader +to know that the pencil I am using with which to make these notes was +sharpened with my camp axe. + +2. No one but a duffer and a chump will use another man's axe without +that other man's willing permission. + +3. It is as bad form to ask for the loan of a favorite axe as it is +to ask for the loan of a sportsman's best gun or pet fishing rod or +toothbrush. + +[Illustration: 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335 + +AXES AND SHEATHS] + +4. To turn the edge or to nick another man's axe is a very grave +offense. + +5. Keep your own axe sharp and clean, do not use it to cut any object +lying on the ground where there is danger of the blade of the axe going +through the object and striking a stone; do not use it to cut roots of +trees or bushes for the same reason. Beware of knots in hemlock wood +and in cold weather beware of knots of any kind. + +When not in use an axe should have its blade sheathed in leather (Figs. +331, 332, 333 and 334), or it should be struck into a log or stump +(Fig. 335). It should never be left upon the ground or set up against a +tree to endanger the legs and feet of the camper. Fig. 341 shows how a +firewood hod is made and used. + + +HOW TO SHARPEN YOUR AXE + +On the trail we have no grindstones, and often have recourse to a file +with which to sharpen our axe; sometimes we use a whetstone for the +purpose. New axes are not always as sharp as one would wish; in that +case if we use a grindstone to put on an edge we must be sure to keep +the grindstone wet in the first place, and in the second place we must +be careful not to throw the edge of the blade out of line. When this +occurs it will cause a "binding strain" on the blade which tends to +stop the force of the blow. If the edges are at all out of line, the +probabilities are one will knock a half moon out of the blade in the +first attempt to cut frozen timber. The best axe in the world, with +an edge badly out of line, cannot stand the strain of a blow on hard +frozen wood. While grinding the axe take a sight along the edge every +once in a while to see if it is true. + + +THE BEST TIME TO CUT OR PRUNE TREES + +Is when the sap is dormant, which I will explain for my younger readers +is that time of year when the tree is not full of juice. The reason +for this is that when the sap or juice is in the wood when cut, it +will ferment, bubble and fizzle the same as sweet cider or grape juice +will ferment, and the fermentation will take all the "life" out of +the lumber and give it a tendency to decay; again to translate for my +younger readers, such wood will rot quicker than wood cut at the proper +season of the year. + +[Illustration: 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341 + +WOOD-YARD CONVENIENCES] + +With pine trees, however, this is not always the case, because the +pitchy nature of the sap of the pine prevents it from fermenting like +beech sap; in fact, the pitch acts as a preservative and mummifies, so +to speak, the wood. Pine knots will last for a hundred years lying in +the soft, moist ground and for aught I know, longer, because they are +fat with pitch and the pitch prevents decay. + +Beech when cut in June is unfit for firewood the following winter, but +authorities say that the same trees cut in August and left with the +branches still on them for twenty or thirty days, will make firmer and +"livelier" timber than that cut under any other conditions. + +An expert lumberman in ten minutes' time will cut down a hardwood tree +one foot in diameter, and it will not take him over four minutes to cut +down a softwood tree of the same size. + + +CLEAR AWAY EVERYTHING + +Before attempting to chop down a tree; in fact, before attempting +to chop anything, be careful to see that there are no clothes lines +overhead, if you are chopping in your backyard, or if you are chopping +in the forests see that there are no vines, twigs, or branches within +swing of your axe. By carefully removing all such things you will +remove one of the greatest causes of accidents in the wilderness, for +as slight a thing as a little twig can deflect, that is, turn, the +blade of your axe from its course and cause the loss of a toe, a foot, +or even a leg. This is the reason that swamping is the most dangerous +part of the lumberman's work. + + +HOW TO "FALL" A TREE + +If the tree, in falling, must pass between two other trees where there +is danger of its "hanging," so cut your kerf that the tree in falling +will strike the ground nearest the smallest of the trees, or nearest +the one furthest away. Then, as the tree falls, and brushes the side of +the smallest tree or the one furthest away, it will bounce away, thus +giving the fallen tree an opportunity to bump its way down to the place +on the ground selected for it, in place of hanging by its bough in the +boughs of other trees. + +Do not try to "fall" a tree between two others that are standing close +together; it cannot be successfully done, for the tops of the three +trees will become interlaced, and you will find it very difficult +and hazardous work to attempt to free your fallen tree from its +entanglement; probably it cannot be done without cutting one or both +of the other trees down. The truth is, one must mix brains with every +stroke of the axe or one will get into trouble. + +Where possible select a tree that may be made to fall in an open space +where the prostrate trunk can be easily handled. Cut your kerf on the +side toward the landing place, let the notch go half-way or a trifle +more through the trunk. Make the notch or kerf as wide as the radius, +that is, half the diameter of the tree trunk (Fig. 344), otherwise you +will have your axe pinched or wedged before you have the kerf done and +will find it necessary to enlarge your notch or kerf. Score first at +the top part of the proposed notch, then at the bottom, making as big +chips as possible, and hew out the space between, cutting the top parts +of the notch at an angle but the bottom part nearly horizontal. When +this notch or kerf is cut to half or a little more than half of the +diameter of the tree, cut another notch upon the opposite side of the +tree at a point a few inches higher than the notch already cut; when +this notch is cut far enough the tree will begin to tremble and crack +to warn you to step to one side. Don't get behind the tree; it may +kick and kill you; step to one side and watch the tree as it falls; +there are many things that may deflect it in falling, and one's safety +lies in being alert and watching it fall. Also keep your eye aloft to +watch for limbs which may break off and come down with sufficient force +to disable you; accidents of this kind frequently happen, but seldom or +never happen where the axeman uses common sense or due caution. + + +HOW TO TRIM OR SWAMP + +After a tree is felled, the swampers take charge of it and cut away all +the branches, leaving the clean log for the teamsters to "snake." They +do the swamping by striking the lower side of the branch with the blade +of the axe, the side towards the root of the tree, what might be called +the underside, and chopping upwards towards the top of the tree. Small +branches will come off with a single blow of the axe. + +When the tree has been swamped and the long trunk lies naked on the +turf, it will, in all probability, be necessary to cut it into logs of +required lengths. If the trunk is a thick one it is best to cut it by +standing on the tree trunk with legs apart (Fig. 336), and chopping +between one's feet, making the kerf equal to the diameter of the log. +Do this for two reasons: it is much easier to stand on a log and cut +it in two that way than to cut it part the way through the top side, +and then laboriously roll it over and cut from the underside; also when +you make the notch wide enough you can cut all the way through the log +without wedging your axe. To split up the log you should have + + +A BEETLE OR MALL, + +A thing usually to be found among the tools in the backwoodsman's hut +and permanent camps; of course we do not take the time to make them +for an overnight camp or a temporary camping place, but they are very +handy at a stationary camp. To make one select a hardwood tree, which, +when stripped of its bark will measure about five inches in diameter. +The tree selected should not be one that would split easily but may +be a young oak, beech or hickory, which with the bark on is six or +seven inches in diameter at the butt. In chopping this tree down leave +a stump tall enough from which to fashion your beetle, and while the +stump is still standing hew the top part until you have a handle scant +two feet in length, leaving for the hammer head, so to speak, a butt +of ten inches, counting from the part where the roots join the trunk. +Before cutting the stump off above the ground, dig all around the +roots, carefully scraping away all stones and pebbles, then cut the +roots off close up to the stump, for this is the hardest part of the +wood and makes the best mall head (Fig. 337). + + +HOW TO MAKE THE GLUTS OR WEDGES + +Farmers claim that the best wedges are made of applewood, or locust +wood; never use green wedges if seasoned ones may be obtained, for +one seasoned wedge is worth many green ones. In the north woods, or, +in fact, in any woods, applewood cannot be obtained, but dogwood and +ironwood make good substitutes even when used green (Figs. 338 and 357). + + +HOW TO HARDEN GREEN WOOD + +Many of the Southern Indians in the early history of America tipped +their arrows with bits of cane; these green arrow points they hardened +by slightly charring them with the hot ashes of the fire. Gluts may be +hardened in the same manner; do not burn them; try to heat them just +sufficiently to force the sap out and harden the surface. Where +dogwood, ironwood and applewood are not to be obtained, make your gluts +of what is at hand; that is true woodcraft (Fig. 337). + +[Illustration: 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, +353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 361] + +A year or two ago, while trailing a moose, we ran across the ruins of +a lumber camp that had been wiped out by fire, and here we picked up +half a dozen axe heads among the moose tracks. These axe heads we used +as gluts to split our wood as long as we remained in that camp, and by +their aid we built a shack of board rived from balsam logs. + +Fig. 341 shows how to make and how to use firewood hods on farms or at +permanent camps. + + +HOW TO MAKE A CHOPPING BLOCK + +After you have cut the crotch and trimmed it down into the form of Fig. +339, you may find it convenient to flatten the thing on one side. This +you do by hewing and scoring; that is, by cutting a series of notches +all of the same depth, and then splitting off the wood between the +notches, as one would in making a puncheon (Fig. 342). (A puncheon is +a log flattened on one or both sides.) With this flattened crotch one +may, by sinking another flattened log in the earth and placing the +chopping block on top, have a chopping block like that shown in Fig. +343. Or one may take the crotch, spike a piece of board across as in +Fig. 339 and use that, and the best chopping block or crotch block is +the one shown in Fig. 339, with the puncheon or slab spiked onto the +ends of the crotch. In this case the two ends of the crotch should be +cut off with a saw, if you have one, so as to give the proper flat +surface to which to nail the slab. Then the kindling wood may be split +without danger to yourself or the edge of the hatchet. + + +CHOP IT THE RIGHT WAY + +If you are using an ordinary stick of wood for a chopping block, and +the stick you are about to chop rests solidly on top of the block +_where the axe strikes_ it will cut all right, but if you strike where +the stick does not touch the chopping block the blow will stun the hand +holding the stick in a very disagreeable manner. If you hold your stick +against the chopping block with your foot, there is always danger of +cutting off your toe; if you hold the stick with your hand and strike +it with the axe, there is danger of cutting off your fingers. When I +say there is danger I mean it. One of our scouts cut his thumb off, +another cut off one finger, and one of my friends in the North woods +of Canada cut off his great toe. In hunting for Indian relics in an +old camping cave in Pennsylvania, my companion, Mr. Elmer Gregor, +made the gruesome find of a dried human finger near the embers of an +ancient campfire, telling the story of a camping accident ages ago, but +evidently after white man's edged tools were introduced. + +If you have no chopping block and wish to cut your firewood into +smaller pieces, you can hold the stick safely with the hand if you +use the axe as shown in Fig. 345. This will give you as a result two +sticks, and the upper one will have some great splinters. + + +HOW TO SPLIT KINDLING WOOD + +When splitting wood for the fire or kindling, make the first blow as in +Fig. 346, and the second blow in the same place, but a trifle slanting +as in Fig. 347; the slanting blow wedges the wood apart and splits it. +If the wood is small and splits readily, the slanting blow may be made +first. These things can only be indicated to the readers because there +are so many circumstances which govern the case. If there is a knot in +the wood, strike the axe right over the knot as in Figs. 348 and 349. + +If you are chopping across the grain do not strike perpendicularly as +in Fig. 350, because if the wood is hard the axe will simply bounce +back, but strike a slanting blow as in Fig. 351, and the axe blade +will bite deeply into the wood; again let us caution you that if you +put too much of a slant on your axe in striking the wood, it will cut +out a shallow chip without materially impeding the force of the blow, +and your axe will swing around to the peril of yourself or anyone else +within reach; again this is a thing which you must learn to practice. + +In using the chopping block be very careful not to put a log in front +of the crotch as in Fig. 340, and then strike a heavy blow with the +axe, for the reason that if you split the wood with the first blow your +axe handle will come down heavily and suddenly upon the front log, and +no matter how good a handle it may be, it will break into fragments, as +the writer has discovered by sad experience. A lost axe handle in the +woods is a severe loss, and one to be avoided, for although a makeshift +handle may be fashioned at camp, it never answers the purpose as well +as the skillfully and artistically made handle which comes with the axe. + + +HOLDERS OR SAW BUCKS FOR LOGS + +Select two saplings about five inches in diameter at the butts, bore +holes near the butts about six inches from the end for legs, make a +couple of stout legs about the size of an old-fashioned drey pin, and +about twenty inches long, split the ends carefully, sufficiently to +insert wedges therein, then drive the wedge and ends into the hole +bored for the purpose. When the sticks are driven home the wedge will +hold them in place. You now have a couple of "straddle bugs," that is, +poles, the small ends of which rest upon the ground and the butt ends +supported by two legs. In the top of the poles bore a number of holes +for pins, make your pins a little longer than the diameter of the log +you intend to saw; the pins are used exactly like the old-fashioned +drey pins, that is, you roll the log up the incline to the two straddle +bugs and hold the logs in place by putting pins in the nearest holes. +Of course, the pins should work easily in and out of the holes (Fig. +357). + +With such an arrangement one man can unaided easily roll a log two feet +in diameter up upon the buck; the log is then in a position to be cut +up with a cross-cut saw (Fig. 357). Another form of sawbuck may be made +of a puncheon stool (Fig. 358), with holes bored diagonally in the top +for the insertion of pins with which to hold the log in place while it +is being sawed. But with this sawbuck one cannot use as heavy logs as +with the first one because of the difficulty in handling them. + +I have just returned from a trip up into the woods where they still use +the primitive pioneer methods of handling and cutting timber, and I +note up there in Pike County, Pennsylvania, they make the sawbuck for +logs by using a log of wood about a foot in diameter and boring holes +diagonally through the log near each end (Fig. 359); through these +holes they drive the legs so that the ends of them protrude at the top +and form a crotch to hold the wood to be sawed. The sawbuck is about +ten or twelve feet long; consequently, in order to provide for shorter +logs there are two sets of pegs driven in holes bored for the purpose +between the ends of the buck. + + +THE PARBUCKLE + +When one person is handling a heavy log it is sometimes difficult, even +with the lumberman's canthook, to roll it, but if a loop is made in a +rope and placed over a stump or a heavy stone (Fig. 360), and the ends +run under the log, even a boy can roll quite a heavy piece of timber by +pulling on the ends of the rope (Fig. 360). + + +TO SPLIT A LOG + +The method used by all woodsmen in splitting a log is the same as +used by quarrymen in splitting bluestone, with this difference: the +quarryman hunts for a natural seam in the stone and drives the wedge in +the seam, while the lumberman makes a seam in the form of a crack in +the log by a blow from his axe. In the crack he drives the wedge (Figs. +352 and 353). But if the log is a long one he must lengthen the crack +or seam by driving other wedges or gluts (Fig. 353), or he may do it by +using two or more axes (Fig. 352). + +If he wishes to split the logs up into shakes, clapboards or splits, he +first halves the log, that is, splitting it across from A to B (Fig. +356), and then quarters it by splitting from C to D, and so on until he +has the splits of the required size. + + +A SAWPIT + +In the olden times, the good old times, when people did things with +their own hands, and thus acquired great skill with the use of their +hands, boards were sawed out from the logs by placing the log on a +scaffolding over a sawpit (Fig. 361). + +In the good old times, the slow old times, the safe old times, a house +was not built in a week or a month; the timber was well seasoned, +well selected, and in many cases such houses are standing to-day! On +the next block where I live and from where I am writing, and across +the street, there stands a house still occupied which was built in +1661. It is the house that Fox, the Quaker, was quartered in when he +was preaching under the spreading oaks on Long Island. The timbers of +this house are still sound and strong, although the woodwork in nearby +modern houses is decaying. + +In the mountains of Kentucky and Tennessee they still use the sawpit, +and the logs are held in place by jacks (Fig. 355), which are branches +of trees hooked over the log and the longest fork of the branch is then +sprung under the supporting cross-piece (Fig. 361). + +Of course, the boy readers of this book are not going to be top sawyers +or make use of a sawpit; that is a real man's work, a big HE man's +work, but the boys of to-day should know all these things; it is part +of history and they can better understand the history of our own +country when they know how laboriously, cheerily and cheerfully their +ancestors worked to build their own homesteads, and in the building of +their own homesteads they unconsciously built that character of which +their descendants are so proud; also they built up a physique that was +healthy, and a sturdy body for which their descendants are particularly +thankful, because good health and good physique are hereditary, +that is, boys, if your parents, your grandparents and your great +grandparents were all healthy, wholesome people, you started your life +as a healthy, wholesome child. + +In this chapter the writer has emphasized the danger of edged tools +for beginners, but he did that to make them careful in the use of +the axe, not to discourage them in acquiring skill with it. We must +remember that there is nothing in life that is not dangerous, and the +greatest danger of all is not firearms, is not edged tools, is not +wild beasts, is not tornadoes or earthquakes, avalanches or floods, but +it is LUXURY; expressed in boy language, it is ice cream, soda water, +candy, servants and automobiles; it is everything which tends to make a +boy dependent upon others and soft in mind and muscle and to make him +a sissy. But hardship, in the sense of undergoing privation and doing +hard work like chopping trees and sawing logs, makes a rugged body, a +clean, healthy mind, and gives long life. So, boys, don't be afraid to +build your own little shack, shanty or shelter, to chop the kindling +wood for your mother, to split up logs for the fun of doing it, or just +to show that you know how. Don't be afraid to be a real pioneer so that +you may grow up to be a real Abe Lincoln! + +If I am talking to men, they need no detailed definition of luxury; +they know all about it, its cause and its effect; they also know that +luxury kills a race and hardship preserves a race. The American boy +should be taught to love hardship for hardship's sake, and then the +Americans as a race will be a success, and a lasting one. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +COUNCIL GROUNDS AND FIRES + + CHEROKEE INDIAN COUNCIL BARBECUE + CAMP MEETING COUNCIL GROUND + THE INDIAN PALISADED COUNCIL FIRE + INDIAN LEGENDS OF THE FIRE + STEALING THE FIRE FROM THE SUN-MAIDENS OF THE EAST + MYTHS OF THE MEWAN INDIANS + TOTEMS OF THE FOUR WINDS, FOUR MOUNTAINS AND FOUR POINTS OF THE + COMPASS + IMPRACTICAL COUNCIL FIRES + ADVANTAGES OF THE OVAL COUNCIL GROUND + HOW TO MAKE AN ELLIPSE + HOW TO DIVIDE THE COUNCIL GROUND IN FOUR COURTS + COUNCIL CEREMONIES + GHOST WALK AND PATH OF KNOWLEDGE + WHAT THE DIFFERENT COLORS STAND FOR + PATRIOTISM, POETRY AND AMERICANISM + CAMP MEETING TORCH FIRES + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +COUNCIL GROUNDS AND FIRES + + +NOW that we have learned about the serious part of camping, hiking and +woodcraft, about fire-building, cooking and axe work, we will leave the +long trail and the hard trail and dump our duffel bag in a recreation +camp, a Boy Scout camp, a Y.M.C.A. camp, or a school camp, and after we +have pitched our tent and arranged our cot to suit our own convenience +and everything is ship-shape for the night, it is time for us to get +busy on our "good turn" and do something for the crowd. + +Like the great Boy Scout Movement, the council fire is also a product +of America. The council fires were burning all over this land when +Columbus discovered America. It was around the council fires that the +Indians gathered in solemn conclave to consult and discuss the affairs +of their tribes. + +Originally the council ground was surrounded by a palisade; that is, +the fire was in the center of a circular fort. Around this fire the old +men of the tribe made their eloquent addresses; also around this fire +the warriors danced the scalp dance, the corn dance, the buffalo dance, +and all their various religious dances. + +Later the Cherokee Indians changed the council fire into a barbecue, +where they roasted whole beefs in pits of glowing coals. This custom +was adopted by the politicians in Kentucky, and the Kentucky barbecues +became very famous; they were what might be called a by-product of the +old Indian council fires and a European feast combined. But in 1799 the +old Indian council fires became camp meetings, and around the blazing +fagots the pioneers gathered to engage in religious revivals. It was at +one of these meetings that Daniel Boone's great friend, Simon Kenton, +was converted and became a Methodist. + +The camp meetings were originated by two brothers by the name of McGee. +Bill McGee was a Presbyterian, and John McGee a Methodist minister. +They came to Kentucky from West Tennessee. John McGee was such a great +backwoods preacher (a pioneer Billy Sunday) that he drew immense crowds +of buckskin-clad men, each of whom carried a cow's horn powder flask +and a long barreled rifle. + +The small buildings used for churches in the pioneer settlements could +not hold the crowd, so they gathered around blazing council fires, and +from this beginning came the great religious revival which swept the +border with a wave of religious enthusiasm. + +It is a far call back to the old Indian council fire, and the blazing +council fires of the pioneer camp meetings, but to-day all over this +land we are holding similar council fires, many of them conducted with +much ceremony, and not a few with religious fervor. The summer hotels +have their council fires; the great Camp Fire Club of America, composed +of all the famous big game hunters, have lately bought a tract of land +for the purpose of holding their council fires in the open, and the +writer interrupted the writing of this chapter to attend one of the +club's council fires. The military schools are holding council fires, +and everywhere the Boy Scouts have their council fires blazing; even +the girls have fallen in line, and this is as it should be. Therefore +it is time that some regular plan was made for these assemblies, and +some suggestion of ceremony and some meaning given to the council +grounds. + + +THE INDIAN ORIGINS + +We have searched the legends of the Red Man for suggestions, and from +various sources have learned that the Indian had a general belief that +at the north there is a yellow or black mountain, at the east there is +a white mountain of light, at the south there is a red mountain, and at +the west there is a blue mountain. At the east and west there are also +holes in the sky, through which the sun comes to light us by day, and +through which the sun disappears so that we may sleep by night. That is +news to most of my readers, but not to the Red Men. + +In the "Dawn of the World," Dr. C. Hart Merriam gives a collection of +"The Myths and Weird Tales told by the Mewan Indians of California," +which are full of poetry and suggestions useful for the council fire +work. + +It seems that when the white-footed mouse man, and some other of the +animal people, were trying to steal the sun, or the fire from which the +sun was made, the robin man, Wit-tab-bah, suspected these visitors to +be sort of German spies, and so he hovered over the fire, spreading his +wings and tail to protect it. Now if you don't believe this you look at +the robin's breast and you will see that he still carries the red marks +of the fire, which is proof enough for anyone; hence we will give the +fire-keeper for our council the name of Wit-tab-bah, the robin. + +Since the north is presided over by the totem of the mountain lion, or +panther, we will give the officer occupying that court the Indian name +of the mountain lion, He-le-jah. The totem of the east is the white +timber wolf, Too-le-ze; the color of that court is white, representing +light. The totem of the south court is the badger; the color is red and +the Indian name is Too-winks. The color of the west court is blue and +the totem is the bear; Kor-le is the Indian name of the bear, and the +title of the officer presiding over the blue totem. + +The golden or yellow court is the throne of the presiding officer, the +scoutmaster of the troop, the headmaster of the school, the gangmaster +of your gang, the campmaster of your camp, or the captain of your team. +The second in command occupies the white court, the third the red +court, and the fourth the blue court. If your council is a military +school the commandant occupies the yellow court, the lieutenant-colonel +the white court, the major the red court and the first captain the blue +court. Now that you have that straight in your heads we will proceed to +lay out the court. + +The author is aware of the fact that the general reader may be more +interested in scout camping, summer camping, and recreation camps than +in real wilderness work, but he has tried to impress upon the boys +and girls, too, for that matter, the fact that the knowledge of real +wilderness work will make even the near-at-home camping easier for +them, and very much more interesting; it will also cause them to enjoy +the council fire better and have a greater appreciation for everything +pertaining to outdoor life. The wilderness campfire over which the +solitary explorer or hunter hovers, or around which a group of hunters +assemble and spin their yarns, magnified and enlarged to a big blazing +fire becomes the council fire around which gather all the members of +a recreation camp, the pupils of an outdoor school, a troop or many +troops of Boy Scouts; therefore we have given the council fire serious +study, because the most inconvenient as well as the most romantic place +to talk is at + +[Illustration: 367, 368, 370, 373, 382, 389] + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: 362, 363, 364, 365, 366 + +HOW TO LAY OUT A COUNCIL GROUND] + + +THE COUNCIL FIRE + +There could be no more impractical plan for a place to speak than a +circle with a big fire in the middle of it, and that is the plan of all +the council grounds. The audience must be seated on the circumference +of the circle, and the Master of Ceremonies must stand necessarily +with his face to the fire and his back to part of his audience, or his +back to the fire and consequently also to the part of the audience on +the other side of the fire. Having had occasion over and over again +to address the scouts at a council fire, the writer has had all the +discomforts impressed upon him many times. As a rule, the boys are +enthusiastic, and so are the men, and the enthusiasm is most often +displayed by the size of the fire; the bigger the fire the greater the +delight of the boys and the more difficult the position of the orator +or Master of Ceremonies. All this may be overcome, however, if in place +of a circle the council grounds are laid out in an oval or an ellipse, +and the fire-place located near one end of the ellipse (Fig. 371). + + +HOW TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE + +After you have decided upon the size of your council grounds, drive two +stakes A and B (Figs. 363 and 365) firmly into the ground; then take a +cord, clothesline, or some kind of twine (Fig. 362), and tie the ends +together, thus forming a loop (Fig. 363); put the loop over the two +stakes A and B; next make a marker stake C (Fig. 366), and with it draw +the slack of the line taut as in Fig. 364. The ellipse is marked out as +in Fig. 365. This is done by taking firm hold of the top of the stake +and using care to keep the line taut while the marker walks around the +ground scratching the earth with the point of the marking stick, and +allowing the cord to slip smoothly across the stick while the marking +is being done (Fig. 364). + + +WHAT IS AN ELLIPSE? + +An ellipse might be called a flattened circle. If you take a tin can +and press the two sides of the open end of it inwards, it will form +an ellipse. The dictionary says that an ellipse is a conic which +does not extend to infinity and whose intersections with the line of +infinity are imaginary. Now that is a very lucid explanation! I hope +you understand it, it is so simple, but it is just like a dictionary to +say such terrible things about a harmless ellipse. To tell the truth, I +thought I knew all about an ellipse until I read this explanation; but +never mind, we know what it looks like and if we do not know what it +is, we do know that there are a lot of things besides ellipses that do +not extend to infinity, and we also know that an ellipse is a practical +form for a council fire in spite of the hard names the dictionary calls +it. This oval is really shaped like the body of a theatre and it gives +the audience a chance to see what is doing on the stage, and the people +on the stage a chance to see and address the audience. + + +HOW TO DIVIDE THE COUNCIL FIRE GROUND + +This infinity talk has suggested to us a good idea, so we must thank +our highbrow dictionary while we lay our council ground out with the +major axis (the longest diameter) extending due north and south, and +the minor axis (the shortest diameter) extending due east and west, +like any other well regulated council or lodge, and we will put the +fire-place near the southern end S (Fig. 371), while around the ellipse +we will arrange the seats, which may be of logs or stumps or sections +of logs set up on end, as I used in one of my camps, or the seats may +be rough plank benches, or they may be ponchos spread upon the ground +with the shiny side down to keep the dampness from the audience as it +squats tailor-fashion upon the ponchos. + + +THE FOUR COURTS + +Are composed of shacks, such as are shown by Fig. 367. He-le-jah +(Fig. 371), being the Court of Knowledge, is the only court having +an elevated platform, or pulpit, or speaker's stand (Fig. 368). On +each side of each court there should be a torch; Fig. 369 is what we +will call the camp meeting torch; Fig. 370 is what we will call the +steamboat torch; it must be made by a blacksmith. It is an iron basket +supported by iron chains, hung down from an iron band at the top of a +staff; the latter is shod with an iron point so that it may be thrust +into the ground. These fire baskets I have used with success in one +of my camps. But homemade torches are to be preferred (see Fig. 369). +A hand torch (Fig. 373) may be made of pine, spruce or cedar slivers +and used for processions entering the council grounds; this gives a +thrilling effect. + +In the diagram (Fig. 370), the staff is short, but it should be long +enough to place the torch as high above the ground as a chandelier is +above the floor at home. Fig. 372 shows the method of piling up the +wood for the council fire. The kindling wood is first placed upon the +ground ready to light at a moment's notice; over that the heavy wood is +piled, as shown in the diagram. This fire should never be lighted with +a match; that is terrible bad form. The use of flint and steel or a +rubbing stick to make fire is the proper ceremony for such occasions. + +Fig. 374 shows how to make a fire box of sticks. This is an aeroplane +view of a fire box, that is, a view from above, looking down upon it. +This box should be filled with sand, clay or dirt, upon which the fire +is built. Fig. 375 and Fig. 376 show you how to lash the framework +together. Fig. 377 shows how to put up the framework. Fig. 369 is the +finished torch. + +The idea of this torch is to have the light above the heads of the +campers. The trouble with a fire upon the ground is that while the +flames give light they also hide part of the crowd, and the smoke is +always in someone's face. This elevated torch is a brand new idea for +this purpose. It will be adopted all over the country and credited to +all sorts of sources and people, but you must remember that it was +designed for the readers of this book. + +If milled lumber is used in building the shacks for the four courts, +it should be camouflaged with paint or stain so as to look rustic. It +may be roofed with boards and the boards covered with tar paper, or any +of the modern roofing materials to be had, but in that case the roof +should be camouflaged by laying poles over the top of it, or, if poles +are not available, covering the top with sods. + +You see the idea is this: we are having a COUNCIL FIRE--not something +else--and we want the thing to look wild and rustic because that is +part of the game, and if we are compelled to go to the lumberyard for +our material, which most of us will have to do, then we must conceal +this fact as far as possible by camouflage. In front of the South Court +on Fig. 371 is the fire-place made of flat stones set in the earth. + + +COUNCIL FIRE CEREMONIES + +On entering the council grounds always enter from the east, salute +Too-le-ze, the white wolf, then go across the Ghost Walk with the +sun to the West Court, and salute Kor-le, the bear; about face and +march back to the South Court and salute Too-winks, the badger; then +about face and march up and salute He-le-jah, the panther; remain +standing at salute until He-le-jah who is the commanding officer, gives +you permission to retire, or gives you orders what to do; then go back, +always moving along these walks like a soldier, to your seat. + +[Illustration: 374, 375, 376, 377 + +DETAILS OF CAMP MEETING TORCH STAND & SAND BOX] + +On Sundays the council ground is a splendid place for holding +religious services. On such occasions the minister sits in the Court +of Knowledge, the North Court on the right-hand side of the presiding +officer, and the two torches in the daytime are replaced by flags or +banners. The one on the right-hand side of the presiding officer must +be Old Glory, the one on the left the flag of the school, the troop or +the club to which the council fire belongs. + +The center of the council fire may be occupied by a "Liberty Pole," +which is the good old American name for the flag pole, from which Old +Glory flies. Never forget to respect the colors and greet them with +the greatest ceremonial deference, for those colors possess a magic +quality; they represent to you everything that is grand, noble and +inspiring, and if you have any other kind of thoughts, this country is +no place for you. Remember that the council fire is American, and we +are proud to be called Americans. + +The walk, or path from the east to the west is the Ghost Walk, or the +Spirit's Walk; it is the path which Indians believe the spirit takes +after leaving the body, an idea which was consciously or unconsciously +adopted by our brave boys during the recent war and it explains what +they meant when, with bowed heads, they reported that their bunky, pal +or friend had "gone West." + +The Western Court has the totem animal of the black bear; the color of +the court, however, is not black but blue, blue from the blue Pacific; +the totem object is a blue mountain. + +The walk from the south to the north is the Path of Knowledge; anyone +traveling that trail is seeking further knowledge of the benefits of +woodcraft, nature and the big outdoors; the totem animal of the North +Court is the American panther, cougar or mountain lion; the color of +the North Court is yellow or black, the latter representing the long +arctic night. + +The Southern Court has the badger for its totem animal, and the red +mountain for the totem object; red is its totem color. + +Thus we have white for the totem color of the east, meaning light, +peace and purity; red for the south, meaning violence, disturbance, +auction, danger, revolution, love and life. This color is both +stimulating and disturbing to man, animal and plant. + +Perhaps when we read of the turmoil that is constantly disturbing our +southern border, we may think that the Indians had a knowledge of +the real meaning of red when they made the totem of the south a red +mountain. Red is the ruling color, the king of color, the dominant +color, the strong color, and symbolizes the blossoming of plants and is +the color of berries and fruit. Red tints the spring leaves and stains +the fall leaf. In the spring the thickets and tree trunks are tinged +with red; they are blushing, so to speak, as Ruskin says, "in order to +show the waiting of love." Red is emphatically a masculine color, a +MAN'S COLOR. + +Blue is a feminine color; it stands for sentimental affections, blue +light has a depressing effect and creates nervousness. + +Black is the ogre among colors; it devours every other color; sometimes +the North Court is black; black stands for war and death, and yet the +path to the north is the path of knowledge. It may be that some of +the Indians used black for the north because they may have noted that +climate affects the color of birds and animals. According to Frank +Chapman, the famous ornithologist at the Museum of Natural History +in New York, the animals of the humid climate of the northwest are +especially dark in color. + +If you use yellow for the north color, yellow means laughter and mirth. +Notwithstanding the fact that we use yellow as a sign for contagious +disease, women suffragists and cowardice, a yellow light makes a +gathering cheerful and merry; so in approaching the North Court you may +sing. + +The Indian names for the four courts are Too-le-ze, the east, for +the south Too-winks, for the west Kor-le, and for the north Kon-win. +He-le-jah is the Indian name for the panther or mountain lion that +guards the north mountain. + +Now then you have the symbolism; in other words, know what these things +stand for, and that will give a meaning to your ceremony around the +council fire. Since red means life and black means death, possibly +the Indians have placed a deep significance on the path from the Red +Court to the Black Court, from life to death! when they call it the +Path of Knowledge. At any rate, we will take it as we find it and adapt +ourselves to the suggestions these meanings give us. + +We will claim that colors are the spirits, fairies or what not who +govern the council fire. Wit-tab-bah is the name of the fire itself +or the fire-place. When the fire is built, placed near the Southern +or Red Court, it gives the chief, the captain, the superintendent, or +the scoutmaster, who occupies the North Court, a space in front of him +big enough to accommodate his audience. The real way to illuminate, or +light up, the council grounds is by having + + +TORCH FIRES + +Erected at each of the four courts. These fire torches at the four +courts, if kept replenished with dry wood, will light up the council +grounds and give a most picturesque and wild appearance, and at the +same time will not interfere with the ceremonies nor will they scorch +the back or face of the speaker. Wit-tab-bah may be used on occasions +when the crowd is not large. + +No council fire anywhere within the borders of the United States should +open without the pledge to the American flag, and the reciting in +unison by all present of the American creed. (See page 268.) + +The council should close with the singing of "America." Especially +should these ceremonies be gone through with when the assembly is +composed of many young people, because what George Washington said in +his farewell address is as true to-day as it was a hundred years ago. + +"Against the insidious wiles of foreign influences I conjure you to +believe me, fellow citizens, the jealousy of a free people ought to +be constantly awake, since history and experience prove that foreign +influence is one of the most powerful foes of republican government." + +There is no reason why we should not have a lot of fun at the council +fires, and at times it may even be riotous fun, but always American +fun, and the patriotic spirit should never for a moment be forgotten, +nor yet the poetic spirit which links us up in bonds of sympathy with +all created things so that we may, with seriousness, recite the + + +INDIAN INVOCATION + + O Great Mystery, we beseech thee. + That we may walk reverently + Beneath Lah-pah our brothers, the trees. + That we may step lightly + On Kis-so our kinsmen, the grasses. + That we may walk lovingly + Over Loo-poo-oi-yes our brothers, the rocks. + That we may rest trustfully + Where the O-lel-le bird sings-- + Beside Ho-ha-oe, the talking waters. + +or this, + + Weave for us, O Great Mystery, + A bright blanket of wisdom; + Make the warp the color of Father Sky, + Let He-koo-las, the sun-woman. + Lend her bright hair for the weft. + And mingle with it the red and gold threads of evening. + O Great Mystery; O Mother Earth! O Father Sky! + We, your children, love the things you love; + Therefore, let the border of our blanket + Be bending Ku-yet-tah, the rainbow. + And the fringe be glittering Nuk-kah, the slashing rain. + +or with abandon we may sing, or chant the song of the elves, + + [F]Oh, we are the fays, oh, we are the elves. + Who, laughing at everything, laugh at ourselves. + If Fortune's wheel is broke. + Why, we can put a spoke in it. + Misfortune hits no stroke, + But we can put a joke in it. + The owl can do our thinking. + As he sits awinking, blinking. + We act from intuition, + Fun and mischief is our mission; + Solemn duty, we have none of it. + What we do is for the fun of it; + Fun is none too light to prize, + Thought is naught but fancy's flight. + Folly's jolly, wit is wise, + Laughter after all is right. + +FOOTNOTE: + +[F] From unpublished verses by Captain Harry Beard. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +RITUAL OF THE COUNCIL FIRE + + PROGRAM OF A COUNCIL FIRE + INVOCATION + THE PLEDGE AND CREED OF ALL AMERICANS + APPEAL + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +RITUAL OF THE COUNCIL FIRE + + +THE ceremonies of the Council Fire may be conducted with the +accompaniment of pageantry to any extent desirable. At the Council +Fire of the Dan Beard Outdoor School, the officers dress in costume; +not masquerade costumes but the real ones. THE MAN OF THE NORTH, who +attends to the Northern Lights, is garbed in the blanket clothes of a +northern lumberman and carries an axe. THE MAN OF THE EAST, who attends +the fire where the sun maidens dwell, may be arrayed in the clothes of +one of our Pilgrim fathers. THE MAN OF THE WEST, who attends the fire +of the Blue Mountain, is decked in the fringed buckskin clothes of the +trapper, plainsman, or mountaineer. THE MAN OF THE SOUTH, who guards +the fire of the Red Mountain, is dressed in the picturesque costume +of a Mexican with a high-crowned sombrero. The seats of the different +courts are draped with the colors of the courts. + + +PROGRAM OF A COUNCIL FIRE + +The guests enter and take their seats, then the Herald enters dressed +in the costume of a scout, a frontiersman, or a medicine man, according +to the plan of the particular Council Fire. The Herald faces the north +from his stand in the center of the council ground and blows assembly +call, or a blast on a cow's horn, then wheels about and faces the east, +then the south and then the west, and at each he blows assembly. With +the last notes and the last call the Scouts, Woodcrafters, Pioneers or +students enter the circle, marching single-file around until the circle +is complete, and they stand opposite where they are to sit. The Herald +now blows a fanfare and the officers march into the council ground +with the colors and the color guard. The officers group themselves +around their Chief, the Scout Executive, the Scout Commissioner, the +Headmaster or the man in authority at the North Court. + + +INVOCATION + +The Leader, or head officer, steps forward and throwing both hands up +in a gesture of appeal, in which he is imitated by the assembly, he +repeats: + + Weave for us, O Great Mystery, etc. (as already given). + +Then he cries: + + Four Winds of the Earth, we have saluted you! + Wind of the North, from whence come our snow and ice, + Wind of the East, from whence come our clouds and rains, + Wind of the West, from whence comes our sunshine, + Wind of the South, from whence comes our warmth, + Send us your men to guard the mystic fires. + +The Men of the North, East, West and South, now step in front of the +Chief, and he directs them to + + See that the mystic fires are blazing. + +The fires, having already been carefully prepared, are now lighted by +the fire-keepers under the direction of the men of the Four Winds, and +the latter return and report to the Chief in the following manner: + + Chief.... Man of the North, you whose mighty axe bites to the + heart of the pine, + Are the mystic Northern Lights burning at Kon-win? + Is He-le-jah, the Mountain-lion, on guard on the yellow mountain + of the North? + Man of the North.... Chief, the Medicine fire has been lighted, + the Mountain-lion is guarding the yellow mountain of the + North, + All is well. + + Chief.... Man of the East, is the Medicine Fire at Too-le-ze + blazing? + Is the White Wolf on guard at the White Mountain, where the + sun-maidens dwell? + Man of the East.... Chief, Too-le-ze blazes in the East, the + White Wolf is on guard. Wah-tab-bah, the robin, shields + the fire, + All is well. + + Chief.... Man of the West, man of the plains and mountains, + does the mystic fire at Kor-le blaze? + Is the Black Bear guarding the Blue Mountain, where the sun + sets? + Man of the West.... Chief, Kor-le is ablaze, the Black Bear's + growls may be heard in the torrent that guards the Blue + Mountain. + All is well. + + Chief.... Man of the South, how blazes the fire at Too-winks? + Has the Red Badger come from its burrow to stand guard on the + Red Mountain? + Man of the South.... Chief, Too-winks flames to the sky. The + Red Badger is on guard. + All is well. + +The Color Guard now enters, marches up to in front of the officers and +all stand at salute. The Color Guard with colors about faces and the +guests and all present recite in unison: + + +THE PLEDGE AND CREED OF ALL AMERICANS + +"I believe in the people of the United States, I believe in the United +States form of government, I believe in the preamble of the Declaration +of Independence, I believe that all men are created equal, that they +are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, among +which are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. + +"I believe in our Government of the People, by the People and for the +People, a government whose just powers are derived from the consent of +the governed, a Sovereign Nation of many Sovereign States, a Democracy +in a Republic, a perfect Union, one and inseparable. + +"A Union which will live because of the vital principles of Freedom, +Equality, Justice, Humanity and Kindness which it contains, and for +which American Patriots have willingly sacrificed their lives and +fortunes. + +"I therefore believe that in order to respect my own manhood I must +love my country, support its Constitution and obey its Laws; also that +I must respect its Flag, and defend it against all enemies." + +After which may come the Scout oath, Pioneer oath or Camp-fire oath, +as the case may be. Then the command is given to "spread ponchos," +followed by the command "squat!" when all the Scouts, Woodcrafters, +Pioneers, or students squat tailor-fashion upon their ponchos, and the +guests seat themselves on the benches which have been provided for them. + +Following this comes the address by the speakers, the entertainments +and exhibitions of woodcraft, scoutcraft, or handicraft, the games, and +other entertainment; then follows the awarding of honors. After which +all stand to sing "America." Then the Chief or Leader steps forward and +repeats the following + + +APPEAL + +O Great Mystery, we beseech thee (as previously given) and ends up with +the benediction, in which he uses the Indian phraseology: + +"May the Great Mystery put sunshine in all your hearts. Good-night." + + + * * * * * + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Obvious punctuation errors repaired. The text sometimes had very narrow +spaces between words this was not retained. Varied hyphenation was +retained. + +Page ii, "quad" changed to "quod" (objectum quod complexum) + +Page 103, "Rodger" changed to "Rodgers" (Washington, George Rodgers +Clark) + +Page 137, an upside down 1 was present in the number "192". ((Fig. +192), then put a loop) + +Page 189, illustration of a Pack Train Outfit is missing letters for Q +and R. + +Page 202, "confortable" changed to "comfortable" (a very comfortable +mattress) + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Book of Camp-Lore and Woodcraft, by Dan Beard + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44215 *** |