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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44228 ***
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 44228-h.htm or 44228-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44228/44228-h/44228-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44228/44228-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      https://archive.org/details/boatbuildingboat00bear
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
+
+      A carat character is used to denote superscription. A
+      character enclosed by curly brackets following the carat
+      is superscripted [example: A^{1}].
+
+
+
+
+
+BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING
+
+
+[Illustration: Bound for a good time]
+
+
+BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING
+
+by
+
+D. C. BEARD
+
+With Many Illustrations by the Author
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+New York
+Charles Scribner's Sons
+1931
+
+Copyright, 1911, by
+Charles Scribner's Sons
+
+Printed in the United States of America
+
+Special Notice
+
+All the material in this book, both text and cuts, is original with
+the author and invented by him; and warning is hereby given that the
+unauthorized printing of any portion of the text and the reproduction
+of any of the illustrations or diagrams are expressly forbidden.
+
+
+[Illustration: The Scribner Press]
+
+
+
+
+    AFFECTIONATELY
+    DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF
+    TOM AND HI
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+THIS is not a book for yacht-builders, but it is intended for beginners
+in the art of boat-building, for boys and men who wish to make
+something with which they may navigate the waters of ponds, lakes, or
+streams. It begins with the most primitive crafts composed of slabs
+or logs and works up to scows, house-boats, skiffs, canoes and simple
+forms of sailing craft, a motor-boat, and there it stops. There are so
+many books and magazines devoted to the higher arts of ship-building
+for the graduates to use, besides the many manufacturing houses which
+furnish all the parts of a sail-boat, yacht, or motor-boat for the
+ambitious boat-builder to put together himself, that it is unnecessary
+for the author to invade that territory.
+
+Many of the designs in this book have appeared in magazines to which
+the author contributed, or in his own books on general subjects, and
+all these have been successfully built by hundreds of boys and men.
+
+Many of them are the author's own inventions, and the others are his
+own adaptations of well-known and long-tried models. In writing and
+collecting this material for boat-builders from his other works and
+placing them in one volume, the author feels that he is fulfilling
+the wishes of many of his old readers and offering a useful book to
+a large audience of new recruits to the army of those who believe in
+the good old American doctrine of: "If you want a thing done, do it
+yourself." And by doing it yourself you not only add to your skill and
+resourcefulness, but, what is even more important, you develop your own
+self-reliance and manhood.
+
+No one man can think of everything connected with any one subject,
+and the author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to several
+sportsmen friends, especially to his camp-mate, Mr. F. K. Vreeland, and
+his young friend, Mr. Samuel Jackson, for suggestions of great value to
+both writer and reader.
+
+                                                       DAN BEARD.
+
+  FLUSHING, L. I., _Sept., 1911._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                              PAGE
+     I. HOW TO CROSS A STREAM ON A LOG                    3
+    II. HOME-MADE BOATS                                   8
+   III. A RAFT THAT WILL SAIL                            18
+    IV. CANOES                                           25
+     V. CANOES AND BOATING STUNTS                        33
+    VI. THE BIRCH-BARK                                   48
+   VII. HOW TO BUILD A PADDLING DORY                     69
+  VIII. THE LANDLUBBER'S CHAPTER                         74
+    IX. HOW TO RIG AND SAIL SMALL BOATS                  96
+     X. MORE RIGS OF ALL KINDS FOR SMALL BOATS          111
+    XI. KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES                       123
+   XII. HOW TO BUILD A CHEAP BOAT                       139
+  XIII. A "ROUGH-AND-READY" BOAT                        154
+   XIV. HOW TO BUILD CHEAP AND SUBSTANTIAL HOUSE-BOATS  163
+    XV. A CHEAP AND SPEEDY MOTOR-BOAT                   184
+
+
+
+
+Boat-Building and Boating
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--The logomaran.]
+
+
+
+
+BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+HOW TO CROSS A STREAM ON A LOG
+
+How to Build a Logomaran
+
+
+THERE is a widespread notion that all wood will float on water, and
+this idea often leads to laughable errors. I know a lot of young
+backwoods farmers who launched a raft of green oak logs, and were as
+much astonished to see their craft settle quietly to the bottom of
+the lake as they would have been to see the leaden sinkers of their
+fish-lines dance lightly on the surface of the waves. The young fellows
+used a day's time to discover what they might have learned in a few
+moments by watching the chips sink when they struck the water as they
+flew from the skilful blows of their axes.
+
+The stream which cuts your trail is not always provided with bridges
+of fallen trees. It may be a river too deep to ford and too wide to be
+bridged by a chance log. Of course it is a simple matter to swim, but
+the weather may be cold and the water still colder; besides this, you
+will probably be encumbered with a lot of camp equipage--your gun, rod,
+and camera--none of which will be improved by a plunge in the water. Or
+it may so happen that you are on the shores of a lake unsupplied with
+boats, and you have good reasons for supposing that big fish lurk in
+some particular spot out of reach from the shore. A thousand and one
+emergencies may arise when a craft of some kind will be not only a
+great convenience, but almost a necessity. Under these circumstances
+
+
+A Logomaran
+
+may be constructed in a very short time which can bear you and your
+pack safely to the desired goal (Fig. 1).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--The notch.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Top view of logomaran.]
+
+In the Rocky, Cascade, and Selkirk Mountains, the lakes and streams
+have their shores plentifully supplied with "whim sticks," logs
+of fine dry timber, which the freshets have brought down from the
+mountain sides and which the rocks and surging torrents have denuded
+of bark. These whim sticks are of all sizes, and as sound and perfect
+as kiln-dried logs. Even in the mountains of Pennsylvania, where the
+lumberman's axe years ago laid waste the primeval forest, where the
+saw-mills have devoured the second growth, the tie-hunter the third
+growth, the excelsior-mills and birch-beer factories the saplings, I
+still find good sound white pine-log whim sticks strewn along the
+shores of the lakes and streams, timber which is suitable for temporary
+rafts and logomarans.
+
+In the North Woods, where in many localities the original forest is
+untouched by the devouring pulp-mills, suitable timber is not difficult
+to find; so let the green wood stand and select a log of dry wood from
+the shore where the floods or ice have deposited it. Cut it into a
+convenient length, and with a lever made of a good stout sapling, and a
+fulcrum of a stone or chunk of wood, pry the log from its resting-place
+and roll it into the shallow water. Notch the log on the upper side, as
+shown by Fig. 2, making a notch near each end for the cross-pieces.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Flattened joint.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
+
+Matched joints.]
+
+The two side floats may be made of pieces split, by the aid of wooden
+wedges, from a large log, or composed of small whim sticks, as shown by
+Fig. 3.
+
+The floats, as may be seen by reference to Figs. 1 and 3, are shorter
+than the middle log.
+
+It is impracticable to give dimensions, for the reason that they are
+relative; the length of the middle log depends, to some extent, upon
+its diameter, it being evident that a thick log will support more than
+a thin one of the same length; consequently if your log is of small
+diameter, it must be longer, in order to support your weight, than will
+be necessary for a thicker piece of timber. The point to remember is to
+select a log which will support you and your pack, and then attach two
+side floats to balance your craft and prevent it from rolling over and
+dumping its load in the water.
+
+An ordinary single shell-boat without a passenger will upset, but
+when the oarsman takes his seat and grasps his long spoon oars, the
+sweeps, resting on the water, balance the cranky craft, and it cannot
+upset as long as the oars are kept there. This is the principle of the
+logomaran, as well as that of the common catamaran. The cross-pieces
+should be only thick enough to be secure and long enough to prevent the
+log from wabbling and wetting your feet more than is necessary.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--The saw-buck crib.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.--The staked crib.]
+
+
+If You Have an Auger and No Nails
+
+the craft may be fastened together with wooden pegs cut somewhat larger
+than the holes bored to receive them, and driven in with blows from
+your axe.
+
+If you have long nails or spikes the problem is a simple one; but if
+you have neither auger, nails, nor spikes you must bind the joints with
+rope or hempen twine.
+
+If you have neither nails, auger, nor rope, a good substitute for the
+latter can be made from the long,
+
+
+Fibrous Inner Bark
+
+of a dead or partly burned tree. For experiment I took some of the
+inner bark of a chestnut-tree which had been killed by fire and twisted
+it into a rope the size of a clothes-line, then I allowed two strong
+men to have a tug-of-war with it, and the improvised rope was stronger
+than the men.
+
+
+How to Make a Fibre Rope
+
+Take one end of a long, loose strand of fibres, give the other end to
+another person, and let both twine the ends between the fingers until
+the material is well twisted throughout its entire length; then bring
+the two ends together, and two sides of the loop thus made will twist
+themselves into a cord or rope half the length of the original strand.
+
+If you nail or peg the parts, use your axe to flatten the joints by
+striking off a chip, as in Fig. 4.
+
+If you must lash the joints together, cut them with log-cabin notches,
+as in Figs. 5 and 6.
+
+If you have baggage to transport, make
+
+
+A Dunnage Crib
+
+by driving four stakes in cuts made near the end of the centre log and
+binding them with rope or fibre (Figs. 7 and 8), or by working green
+twigs basket-fashion around them, or make the rack saw-buck fashion, as
+shown by Fig. 7, and this will keep your things above water.
+
+A couple of cleats nailed on each side of the log will be of great
+assistance and lessen the danger and insecurity of the footing.
+
+A skilfully made logomaran will enable you to cross any stream with a
+moderate current and any small lake in moderate weather. It is not an
+especially dry craft, but it won't sink or upset, and will take one but
+a short time to knock it together.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HOME-MADE BOATS
+
+    Birth of the "Man-Friday" Catamaran--The Crusoe Raft
+    and Chump Rafts
+
+
+NOT so very many years ago I remember visiting, in company with my
+cousin Tom, a small lake at the headwaters of the Miami. High and
+precipitous cliffs surround the little body of water. So steep were
+the great weather-beaten rocks that it was only where the stream came
+tumbling down past an old mill that an accessible path then existed.
+Down that path Tom and I scrambled, for we knew that large bass lurked
+in the deep, black holes among the rocks.
+
+We had no jointed split-bamboo rods nor fancy tackle, but the fish
+there in those days were not particular and seldom hesitated to bite
+at an angle-worm or grasshopper though the hook upon which the bait
+squirmed was suspended by a coarse line from a freshly cut hickory
+sapling.
+
+Even now I feel the thrill of excitement and expectancy as, in
+imagination, my pole is bent nearly double by the frantic struggles of
+those "gamy" black bass. After spending the morning fishing we built
+a fire upon a short stretch of sandy beach, and cleaning our fish and
+washing them in the spring close at hand, we put them among the embers
+to cook.
+
+While the fire was getting our dinner ready for us we threw off our
+clothes and plunged into the cool waters of the lake. Inexpert swimmers
+as we were at that time, the opposite shore, though apparently only a
+stone's throw distant, was too far off for us to reach by swimming.
+Many a longing and curious glance we cast toward it, however, and
+strong was the temptation that beset us to try the unknown depths
+intervening. A pair of brown ears appeared above the ferns near the
+water's edge, and a fox peeped at us; squirrels ran about the fallen
+trunks of trees or scampered up the rocks as saucily as though they
+understood that we could not swim well enough to reach their side of
+the lake; and high up the face of the cliff was a dark spot which we
+almost knew to be the entrance to some mysterious cavern.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8½.--The Man-Friday.]
+
+How we longed for a boat! But not even a raft nor a dugout could be
+seen anywhere upon the glassy surface of the water or along its rocky
+border. We nevertheless determined to explore the lake next day, even
+if we should have to paddle astride of a log.
+
+The first rays of the morning sun had not reached the dark waters
+before my companion and I were hard at work, with axe and hatchet,
+chopping in twain a long log we had discovered near the mill. We had
+at first intended to build a raft; but gradually we evolved a sort of
+catamaran. The two pieces of log we sharpened at the ends for the bow;
+then we rolled the logs down upon the beach, and while I went into the
+thicket to chop down some saplings my companion borrowed an auger
+from the miller. We next placed the logs about three feet apart, and
+marking the points where we intended to put the cross-pieces, we cut
+notches there; then we placed the saplings across, fitting them into
+these notches. To hold them securely we bored holes down through the
+sapling cross-pieces into the logs; with the hatchet we hammered wooden
+pegs into these holes. For the seat we used the half of a section of
+log, the flat side fitting into places cut for that purpose. All that
+remained to be done now was to make a seat in the stern and a pair
+of rowlocks. At a proper distance from the oarsman's seat we bored
+two holes for a couple of forked sticks, which answered admirably for
+rowlocks; across the stern we fastened another piece of log similar to
+that used for the oarsman's seat (Fig. 8½). With the help of a man from
+the mill our craft was launched; and with a pair of oars made of old
+pine boards we rowed off, leaving the miller waving his hat.
+
+Our catamaran was not so light as a row-boat, but it floated, and
+we could propel it with the oars, and, best of all, it was our own
+invention and made with our own hands. We called it a "Man-Friday," and
+by its means we explored every nook in the length and breadth of the
+lake; and ever afterward when we wanted a boat we knew a simple and
+inexpensive way to make one--and a safe one, too.
+
+
+The Crusoe Raft
+
+is another rustic craft, but it is of more ambitious dimensions than
+the "Man-Friday." Instead of being able to float only one or two
+passengers, the "Crusoe," if properly built, ought to accommodate a
+considerable party of raftsmen. Of course the purpose for which the
+raft is to be used, and the number of the crew that is expected to man
+it, must be taken into consideration when deciding upon the dimensions
+of the proposed craft.
+
+All the tools that are necessary for the construction of a good stout
+raft are an axe, an auger, and a hatchet, with some strong arms to
+wield them.
+
+The building material can be gathered from any driftwood heap on lake
+or stream.
+
+For a moderate-sized raft collect six or seven logs, the longest not
+being over sixteen feet in length nor more than a foot in diameter; the
+logs must be tolerably straight. Pick out the longest and biggest for
+the centre, sharpen one end, roll the log into the water, and there
+secure it.
+
+Select two logs as nearly alike as possible, to lie one at each side
+of the centre log. Measure the centre log, and make the point of each
+side log, not at its own centre, but at that side of it which will lie
+against the middle log, so that this side point shall terminate where
+the pointing of the middle log begins (see Fig. 9).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Plan of Crusoe raft.]
+
+After all the logs needed have been trimmed and sharpened in the
+manner just described, roll them into the water and arrange them in
+order (Fig. 9). Fasten them together with "cross-strips," boring holes
+through the strips to correspond with holes bored into the logs lying
+beneath, and through these holes drive wooden pegs. The pegs should be
+a trifle larger than the holes; the water will cause the pegs to swell,
+and they will hold much more firmly than iron nails.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Skeleton of Crusoe raft.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Crusoe with cabin covered.]
+
+The skeleton of the cabin can be made of saplings; such as are used for
+hoop-poles are the best.
+
+These are each bent into an arch, and the ends are thrust into holes
+bored for that purpose. Over this hooping a piece of canvas is
+stretched, after the manner of old-fashioned country wagons (Figs. 10
+and 11).
+
+Erect a "jack-staff," to be used as a flag-pole or a mast to rig a
+square sail on.
+
+A stout stick should be erected at the stern, and a similar one upon
+each side of the raft near the bow; these sticks, when their ends are
+made smaller, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 10), serve as rowlocks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Sweeps.]
+
+For oars use "sweeps"--long poles, each with a piece of board for a
+blade fastened at one end (Fig. 12).
+
+Holes must be bored through the poles of the sweeps about three feet
+from the handle, to slip over the pegs used as rowlocks, as described
+above. These pegs should be high enough to allow the oarsman to stand
+while using the sweeps.
+
+A flat stone or earth box placed at the bow will serve as a fireplace.
+
+If the cracks between the logs under the cabin are filled up to
+prevent the water splashing through, and the cabin is floored with
+cross-sticks, a most comfortable bed at night can be made of hay, by
+heaping it under the canvas cover in sufficient quantities.
+
+The Crusoe raft has this great advantage over all boats: you may take a
+long trip down the river, allowing the current to bear you along, using
+the sweeps only to assist the man at the helm (rear sweep); then, after
+your excursion is finished you may abandon your raft and return by
+steam-boat or train. A very useful thing to the swimmers, when they are
+skylarking in the water, is
+
+
+The Chump's Raft
+
+Its construction is simple. Four boards, each about six feet long, are
+nailed together in the form of a square, with the ends of the boards
+protruding, like the figure drawn upon a school-boy's slate for the
+game of "Tit, tat, toe" (Fig. 13).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.--The chump's raft.]
+
+All nail-points must be knocked off and the heads hammered home, to
+prevent serious scratches and wounds on the bather's body when he
+clambers over the raft or slips off in an attempt to do so (Fig. 14).
+
+Beginners get in the middle hole, and there, with a support within
+reach all around them, they can venture with comparative safety in deep
+water.
+
+The raft, which I built as a model fifteen years ago, is still in use
+at my summer camp, where scores of young people have used it with a
+success proved by their present skill as swimmers. But many camps
+are located in a section of the country where boards are as scarce
+as boarding-houses, but where timber, in its rough state, exists in
+abundance. The campers in such locations can make
+
+
+A Chump's Raft of Logs
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--A beginner in a chump's raft.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Looking down on a chump's raft in motion.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Side view of chump's log raft.]
+
+Such a float consists of two dried logs fastened together at each end
+by cross-slabs, so as to form a rude catamaran. These rafts can be
+towed through deep water by a canoe or row-boat, with the tenderfoot
+securely swung in a sling between the logs, where he may practice
+the hand-and-foot movement with a sense of security which only the
+certainty that he is surrounded by a wooden life-preserver will give
+him. Fig. 15 shows a top view of the new chump's raft. In Fig. 16 the
+two logs are connected fore and aft by cross-slabs; two more upright
+slabs are nailed securely to the side of the logs; notches having been
+cut in the top ends of these slabs, a stout cross-piece is securely
+nailed to them and the towel or rope sling suspended from the middle
+of the cross-piece. In regard to the dimensions of the raft it is
+only necessary to say that it should be wide and long enough to allow
+free movement of the arms and legs of the pupil who is suspended
+between the logs. In almost every wilderness stream there can be found
+piles of driftwood on the shore where one may select good, dried,
+well-seasoned pine or spruce logs from which to make rafts. If such
+heaps of driftwood are not within reach, look for some standing dead
+timber and select that which is of sufficient dimensions to support a
+swimmer, and be careful that it is not hollow or rotten in the core.
+Rotten wood will soon become water-logged and heavy. Fig. 17 shows the
+position of the swimmer supported by the chump's sling. If your raft
+has a tendency to work so that one log pulls ahead of the other, it may
+be braced by cross-pieces, such as are shown at J and K in Fig. 18.
+This figure also shows supports for a suspension pole made by nailing
+two sticks to each side and allowing the ends to cross so as to form a
+crotch in which the supporting rod rests and to which it is securely
+fastened by nails, or by being bound there by a piece of rope, as in A,
+Fig. 19. B, Fig. 19, shows the crotch made by resting L in a fork on
+the M stick and then nailing or binding it in place. C, Fig. 19, shows
+the two sticks, L and M, joined by notches cut log-cabin fashion before
+they are nailed in place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Learning to swim by aid of a chump sling.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Details of saw-buck supports.]
+
+Although many summers have rolled around since the author first made
+his advent on this beautiful earth, he still feels the call of the
+bathing pool, the charm of the spring-board, almost as keenly as he did
+when he was wont to swim in Blue Hole at Yellow Springs, Ohio, or dive
+from the log rafts into the Ohio River, or slide down the "slippery"
+made in the steep muddy banks of the Licking River, Kentucky.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Another way to rig a chump.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+A RAFT THAT WILL SAIL
+
+    The Raft is Just the Thing for Camp Life--Pleasurable
+    Occupation for a Camping Party Where Wood is
+    Plentiful--You Will Need Axes and Hatchets and a Few
+    Other Civilized Implements
+
+
+FIRST we will select two pine logs of equal length, and, while the
+water is heating for our coffee, we will sharpen the butt, or larger
+end, of the logs on one side with the axe, making a "chisel edge," as
+shown in Fig. 20. This gives us an appetite for breakfast and makes the
+big fish in the lake, as they jump above the water, cast anxious looks
+toward our camp.
+
+Breakfast finished, we will cut some cross-pieces to join our two logs
+together, and at equal distances apart we will bore holes through the
+cross-pieces for peg-holes (Figs. 21, 22, and 23). While one of the
+party is fashioning a number of pegs, each with a groove in one side,
+like those shown in Fig. 24, the others will roll the logs into the
+water and secure them in a shallow spot.
+
+Shoes and stockings must be removed, for most of the work is now to be
+done in the water. Of course, it would be much easier done on land, but
+the raft will be very heavy and could never be launched unless under
+the most favorable circumstances. It is better to build the craft in
+the element which is to be its home.
+
+Cut two long saplings for braces, and after separating the logs the
+proper distance for your cross-pieces to fit, nail your braces in
+position, as represented by Fig. 20.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
+
+[Illustration: PARTS OF MAN-FRIDAY SAILING-RAFT.
+
+20.--Logs in place with braces. Figs. 21, 22, and 23.--Struts. Fig.
+24.--Pegs. Fig. 25.--Raft with middle and stern strut in place. Fig.
+26.--Springs for dry deck. Fig. 27.--Dry deck. Fig. 28.--Dry deck in
+place.]
+
+This holds the logs steady, and we may now lay the two cross-pieces in
+position, and mark the points on the logs carefully where the holes
+are to be bored to correspond with the ones in the cross-pieces. Bore
+the holes in one log first; make the holes deep enough and then fill
+them with water, after which drive the pegs through the ends of the
+cross-pieces and into the log. The grooves in the pegs (Fig. 24) will
+allow the water to escape from the holes and the water will cause the
+peg to swell and tighten its hold on the log and cross-pieces.
+
+Now bore holes in the other log under those in the cross-pieces and
+fill them with water before driving the pegs home, as you did in the
+first instance. Fig. 25 is a Man-Friday raft.
+
+
+The Deck
+
+Before placing the bow in position we must go ashore and make a dry
+deck. Selecting for the springs two long green ash or hickory poles,
+trim the ends off flat on one side, as shown by Fig. 26. This flat side
+is the bottom, so roll them over, with the flat side toward the ground,
+and if you can find no planks or barrel staves for a deck, split in
+half a number of small logs and peg or nail them on the top side of the
+springs, as in Fig. 27.
+
+Now all hands must turn out and carry the deck down to the raft and
+place it in position, with the flattened sides of the springs resting
+on top of the logs at the bow. Prop it up in this position, and then
+bore holes through the springs into the logs and peg the springs down.
+Over the flat ends place the heavy bow cross-piece, bore the peg-holes,
+and fasten it in position (Fig. 28).
+
+In the centre of the bow cross-piece bore several holes close together
+and chip out the wood between to make a hole, as square a one as
+possible, for the mast to fit or "step" in. With the wood from a
+packing-box or a slab from a log make the bench for the mast.
+
+Bore a hole through the bench a trifle astern of the step, or hole, for
+the mast below. It will cause the mast to "rake" a little "aft." You
+have done a big day's work, but a couple of days ought to be sufficient
+time to finish the craft.
+
+
+The Sail
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Sail for Man-Friday.]
+
+Turn over the raw edges of the old sail-cloth and stitch them down, as
+in Fig. 29--that is, if you have the needle and thread for the purpose;
+if not, trim the cloth to the proper form and two inches from the
+luff (the side next to the mast). Cut a number of holes; these should
+be stitched like button-holes, if possible, but if the sail-cloth is
+tough and we have no needle, we shall have to let them go unstitched. A
+small loop of rope must be sewed or fastened in some other manner very
+securely to each corner of the sail.
+
+From spruce pine or an old fishing-pole make a sprit, and of a good,
+straight piece of pine manufacture your mast somewhat longer than the
+luff of the sail (Fig. 29).
+
+Through the eyelets lace the luff of the sail to the mast, so that its
+lower edge will clear the dry deck by about a foot.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Scudding before the wind.]
+
+Through the hole made for the purpose in the bench (Fig. 30) thrust the
+mast into the step, or socket, that we have cut in the bow cross-piece.
+Tie to the loop at the bottom corner of the sail a strong line about
+twelve feet long for a sheet with which to control the sail.
+
+Trim the upper end of the sprit to fit in the loop at the upper outer
+corner of the sail, and make a notch in the lower end to fit in the
+loop of the line called the "snotter."
+
+Now, as you can readily see, when the sprit is pushed diagonally upward
+the sail is spread; to hold it in place make a loop of line for a
+"snotter" and attach the loop to the mast, as in Figs. 29 and 30. Fit
+the loop in the notch in the lower end of the sprit, and the sail is
+set.
+
+
+The Keelig
+
+We need anchors, one for the bow and one for the stern. It takes
+little time to make them, as you only need a forked stick, a stone,
+and a piece of plank, or, better still, a barrel stave. Figs. 35 to
+39 show how this is made. Down East the fishermen use the "keelig" in
+preference to any other anchor.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
+
+Make fast your lines to the "keelig" thus: Take the end of the rope in
+your right hand and the standing part (which is the part leading from
+the boat) in your left hand and form the loop (A, Fig. 31).
+
+Then with the left hand curve the cable from you, bringing the end
+through the loop, as in B, Fig. 32; then lead it around and down, as in
+C, Fig. 33.
+
+Draw it tight, as in D, Fig. 34, and you have the good, old-fashioned
+knot, called by sailors the "bow-line."
+
+To make it look neat and shipshape you may take a piece of
+string and bind the standing part to the shaft of your anchor or
+keelig--keelek--killick--killeck--kelleck--kellock--killock, etc., as
+you may choose to spell it.
+
+A paddle to steer with and two pegs in the stern cross-piece to rest it
+in complete the craft; and now the big bass had better use due caution,
+because our lines will reach their haunts, and we are after them!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CANOES
+
+    The Advantages of a Canoe--How to Make the Slab Canoe
+    and the Dugout--How to Make a Siwash and a White Man's
+    Dugout
+
+
+THERE are many small freak crafts invented each year, but none of them
+has any probabilities of being popularly used as substitutes for the
+old models.
+
+Folding canoes, as a rule, are cranky, but the writer has found them
+most convenient when it was necessary to transport them long distances
+overland. They are not, however, the safest of crafts; necessarily they
+lack the buoyant wooden frame and lining of the ordinary canvas canoe,
+which enables it to float even when filled with water.
+
+The author owes his life to the floating properties of his canvas
+canoe. On one occasion when it upset in a driving easterly storm the
+wind was off shore, and any attempt upon the canoeist's part to swim
+toward shore would have caused him to have been suffocated by the tops
+of the waves which the wind cut off, driving the water with stinging
+force into his face so constantly that, in order to breathe at all,
+he had to face the other way. He was at length rescued by a steamer,
+losing nothing but the sails and his shoes. Nevertheless, the same
+storm which capsized his little craft upset several larger boats and
+tore the sails from others.
+
+The advantages of a good canoe are many for the young navigators: they
+can launch their own craft, pick it up when occasion demands and carry
+it overland. It is safe in experienced hands in any weather which is
+fit for out-door amusement. When you are "paddling your own canoe" you
+are facing to the front and can see what is ahead of you, which is much
+safer and more pleasant than travelling backward, like a crawfish.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
+
+The advance-guard of modern civilization is the lumberman, and
+following close on his heels comes the all-devouring saw-mill. This
+fierce creature has an abnormal appetite for logs, and it keeps an
+army of men, boys, and horses busy in supplying it with food. While it
+supplies us with lumber for the carpenter, builder, and cabinet-maker,
+it at the same time, in the most shameful way, fills the trout streams
+and rivers with great masses of sawdust, which kills and drives away
+the fish. But near the saw-mill there is always to be found material
+for a
+
+
+Slab Canoe
+
+which consists simply of one of those long slabs, the first cut from
+some giant log (Fig. 43).
+
+These slabs are burned or thrown away by the mill-owners, and hence
+cost nothing; and as the saw-mill is in advance of population, you are
+most likely to run across one on a hunting or fishing trip.
+
+Near one end, and on the flat side of the slab (Fig. 40), bore four
+holes, into which drive the four legs of a stool made of a section of a
+smaller slab (Fig. 41), and your boat is ready to launch. From a piece
+of board make a double or single paddle (Fig. 42), and you are equipped
+for a voyage. An old gentleman, who in his boyhood days on the frontier
+frequently used this simple style of canoe, says that the speed it
+makes will compare favorably with that of many a more pretentious
+vessel. See Fig. 43 for furnished boat.
+
+
+The Dugout
+
+Although not quite as delicate in model or construction as the graceful
+birch-bark canoe, the "dugout" of the Indians is a most wonderful piece
+of work, when we consider that it is carved from the solid trunk of
+a giant tree with the crudest of tools, and is the product of savage
+labor.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
+
+Few people now living have enjoyed the opportunity of seeing one built
+by the Indians, and, as the author is not numbered among that select
+few, he considers it a privilege to be able to quote the following
+interesting account given by Mr. J. H. Mallett, of Helena.
+
+
+How to Build a Siwash Canoe
+
+"While visiting one of the small towns along Puget Sound, I was greatly
+interested in the way the Indians built their canoes. It is really
+wonderful how these aborigines can, with the crudest means and with a
+few days' work, convert an unwieldy log into a trim and pretty canoe.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Slab canoe.]
+
+"One Monday morning I saw a buck building a fire at the base of a
+large cedar-tree, and he told me that this was the first step in the
+construction of a canoe that he intended to use upon the following
+Saturday. He kept the fire burning merrily all that day and far
+into the night, when a wind came up and completed the downfall of
+the monarch of the forest. The next day the man arose betimes, and,
+borrowing a cross-cut saw from a logger, cut the trunk of the tree in
+twain at a point some fifteen feet from where it had broken off, and
+then with a dull hatchet he hacked away until the log had assumed the
+shape of the desired canoe. In this work he was helped by his squaw.
+The old fellow then built a fire on the upper part of the log, guiding
+the course of the fire with daubs of clay, and in due course of time
+the interior of the canoe had been burned out. Half a day's work with
+the hatchet rendered the inside smooth and shapely.
+
+"The canoe was now, I thought, complete, though it appeared to be
+dangerously narrow of beam. This the Indian soon remedied. He filled
+the shell two-thirds full of water, and into the fluid he dropped half
+a dozen stones that had been heating in the fire for nearly a day. The
+water at once attained a boiling point, and so softened the wood that
+the buck and squaw were enabled to draw out the sides and thus supply
+the necessary breadth of beam. Thwarts and slats were then placed in
+the canoe and the water and stones thrown out. When the steamed wood
+began to cool and contract, the thwarts held it back, and the sides
+held the thwarts, and there the canoe was complete, without a nail,
+joint, or crevice, for it was made of one piece of wood. The Siwash did
+not complete it as soon as he had promised, but it only took him eight
+days."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.--The dugout.]
+
+In the North-eastern part of our country, before the advent of the
+canvas canoe, beautiful and light birch-bark craft were used by the
+Indians, the voyagers, trappers, and white woodsmen. But in the South
+and in the North-west, the dugout takes the place of the birch-bark.
+Among the North-western Indians the dugouts are made from the trunks
+of immense cedar-trees and built with high, ornamental bows, which are
+brilliantly decorated with paint. On the eastern shore of Maryland and
+Virginia the dugout is made into a sail-boat called the buck-eye, or
+bug-eye. But all through the Southern States, from the Ohio River to
+the Gulf of Mexico and in Mexico, the dugout is made of a hollowed log
+after the manner of an ordinary horse trough, and often it is as crude
+as the latter, but it can be made almost as beautiful and graceful as a
+birch-bark canoe.
+
+
+How to Make a White Man's Dugout Canoe
+
+To make one of these dugout canoes one must be big and strong enough
+to wield an axe, but if the readers are too young for this work, they
+are none too young to know how to make one, and their big brothers and
+father can do the work. Since the dugout occupies an important position
+in the history of our country, every boy scout should know how it is
+made.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.]
+
+Fig. 44 shows one of these canoes afloat; Fig. 45 shows a tall,
+straight tree suitable for our purpose, and it also shows how the
+tree is cut and the arrangement of the kerfs, or two notches, so that
+it will fall in the direction of the arrow in the diagram. You will
+notice along the ground are shown the ends of a number of small logs.
+These are the skids, or rollers, upon which the log will rest when the
+tree is cut and felled. The tree will fall in the direction in which
+the arrow is pointed if there is no wind. If you have never cut down
+a tree, be careful to take some lessons of a good woodsman before you
+attempt it.
+
+When the log is trimmed off at both ends like Fig. 46, flatten the
+upper side with the axe. This is for the bottom of the canoe; the flat
+part should be about a foot and a half wide to extend from end to end
+of the log. Now, with some poles for pryers, turn your log over so that
+it will rest with the flat bottom on the skids, as in Fig. 46.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.]
+
+Next take a chalk-line and fasten it at the two ends of the log, as
+shown by the dotted line in Figs. 46, 47, 48, 49.
+
+Snap the line so that it will make a straight mark as shown by the
+dotted line; then trim off the two ends for the bow and stern, as shown
+in Fig. 47. Next cut notches down to the dotted line, as illustrated
+in Fig. 48; then cut away from the bow down to the first notch, making
+a curved line, as shown in Fig. 49 (which is cut to second notch). Do
+the same with the stern, making duplicates of the bow and stern. The
+spaces between the notches amidships may now be split off by striking
+your axe along the chalk-line and then carefully driving in wooden
+wedges. When this is all done you will have Fig. 50. You can now turn
+the log over and trim off the edges of the bow and stern so that they
+will slope, as shown in Fig. 44, in a rounded curve; after which roll
+the canoe back again upon its bottom and with an adze and axe hollow
+out the inside, leaving some solid wood at both bow and stern--not
+that you need the wood for strength, but to save labor. When you have
+decided upon the thickness of the sides of your canoe, take some small,
+pointed instrument, like an awl, for instance, and make holes with it
+to the required depth at intervals along the sides and bottom of the
+canoe. Then take some small sticks (as long as the canoe sides are to
+be thick), make them to fit the holes, blacken their ends, and drive
+them into the holes.
+
+As soon as you see one from the inside, you will know that you have
+made the shell thin enough. Use a jack-plane to smooth it off inside
+and out; then build a big fire and heat some stones. Next fill the
+canoe with water and keep dumping the hot stones in the water until the
+latter is almost or quite to boiling point. The hot water will soften
+the wood so that the sides will become flexible, and you can then fit
+in some braces at the bow, stern, and centre of the canoe. Make the
+centre brace or seat some inches wider than the log, so that when it is
+forced in place it will spread the canoe in the middle.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CANOES AND BOATING STUNTS
+
+    How to Build a War Canoe--How to Build a Canvas
+    Canoe--How to Build an Umbrella Canoe--How Old
+    Shells Can be Turned into Boys' Boats--Cause of
+    Upsets--Landing from, and Embarking in, a Shell--How to
+    Mend Checks and Cracks
+
+
+IN making canoes the Indians used birch bark for the cover, rock maple
+for the cross-bars, and white cedar for the rest of the frame. We will
+substitute canvas for the birch bark and any old wood that we can for
+the rock maple and the white cedar. _Real woodcraft is best displayed
+in the ability to use the material at hand._
+
+David Abercrombie, the outfitter, some time ago presented Andrew J.
+Stone, the Arctic explorer and mighty hunter, with a small piece of
+light, water-proof cloth to use as a shelter tent in bad weather. But
+Stone, like the hunter that he was, slept unprotected on the mountain
+side in the sleet and driving storms, and used the water-proof cloth to
+protect the rare specimens he had shot. One day a large, rapid torrent
+lay in his path; there was no lumber large enough with which to build
+a raft, and the only wood for miles around was small willow bushes
+growing along the river bank. At his command, his three Indians made
+a canoe frame of willow sticks, tied together with bits of cloth and
+string. Stone set this frame in the middle of his water-proof cloth,
+tied the cloth over the frame with other pieces of string, and using
+only small clubs for paddles, he and his men crossed the raging torrent
+in this makeshift, which was loaded with their guns, camera, and
+specimens that he had shot on the trip.
+
+After reading the above there is no doubt the reader will be able to
+build a war canoe with barrel-hoop ribs and lattice-work slats. In
+the writer's studio is a long piece of maple, one and one-half inches
+wide and one-quarter inch thick, which was left by the workmen when
+they put down a hard-wood floor. If you can get some similar strips,
+either of oak, maple, or birch, from the dealers in flooring material,
+they will not be expensive and will make splendid gunwales for your
+proposed canoe. There should be four such strips. The hard-wood used
+for flooring splits easily, and holes should be bored for the nails
+or screws to prevent cracking the wood when the nails or screws are
+driven home. Fig. 51 shows the framework (side view) of the canoe;
+Fig. 52 shows an end view of the same canoe; Fig. 53 shows the middle
+section, and Fig. 54 shows the form of the bow and stern sections. This
+boat may be built any length you wish, and so that you may get the
+proper proportions, the diagrams from one to five are marked off in
+equal divisions. To make patterns of the moulds, Figs. 53 and 54, take
+a large piece of manila paper, divide it up into the same number of
+squares as the diagram, make the squares any size you may decide upon,
+and then trace the line, 1-H-10, as it is in the diagrams. This will
+give you the patterns of the two moulds (Figs. 53 and 54). While you
+are looking at these figures, it may be well to call your attention to
+the way bow and stern pieces are made. In Fig. 63 the pieces Y and X
+are made from pieces of a packing-box, notched and nailed together with
+a top piece, U, and a brace, V.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.
+
+Fig. 54.
+
+Fig. 51.
+
+Fig. 52.
+
+Fig. 57.
+
+Fig. 58.
+
+Fig. 56.
+
+Fig. 59.
+
+Fig. 55.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62. Fig. 60. Fig. 61.
+
+Conventional bow, but made of barrel-heads.]
+
+The other end of the same canoe is, as you may see, strengthened and
+protected by having a barrel-hoop tacked over the stem-pieces, Y, X,
+U. In Fig. 64 we use different material; here the stem-piece is made
+of a broken bicycle rim, U, braced by the pieces of packing-box, Y, V,
+and W. The left-hand end of Fig. 64 is made with pieces of head of a
+barrel, X and U. The bottom of the stem-piece Y is made of the piece
+of a packing-box. The two braces V are parts of the barrel-stave. Fig.
+60 shows the common form of the bow of a canoe. The stem-pieces X,
+Y are made of the parts of the head of a barrel, as shown in Fig. 62.
+To make a stem from a barrel-head, nail the two pieces X and Y, Fig.
+56, together as shown in this particular diagram. Now take another
+piece of barrel-head, Fig. 57, and saw off a piece, A´, D´, C´, so that
+it will fit neatly over A, C, D, on Fig. 56. Nail this securely in
+place, and then in the same manner cut another piece to fit over the
+part E, C, B, and nail that in place. Use small nails, but let them be
+long enough so that you may clinch them by holding an axe or an iron
+against the head while you hammer the protruding points down, or drive
+the nail a little on the bias and holding the axe or iron on the side
+it is to come through and let it strike the nail as it comes out and
+it will clinch itself. To fasten the stem-piece to the keel use two
+pieces of packing-box or board, cut in the form of Fig. 58, and nail
+these securely to the bow-piece as in Z, in Fig. 60. Then from the
+bottom side of the keel H, nail the keel-pieces firmly to the keel as
+in Fig. 61. Also drive some nails from Z to the top down to the keel,
+as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 60. The end view, Fig. 59, shows
+how the two Z pieces hug and support the stem-piece on the keel H. Fig.
+55 shows a half of the top view of the canoe gunwales; the dimensions,
+marked in feet and inches, are taken from an Indian birch-bark canoe.
+You see by the diagram that it is eight feet from the centre of the
+middle cross-piece to the end of the big opening at the bow. It is
+also three feet from the centre of the middle cross-piece to the next
+cross-piece, and thirty inches from the centre of that cross-piece to
+the bow cross-piece, which is just thirty inches from the eight-foot
+mark. The middle cross-piece in a canoe of these dimensions is
+seven-eighths of an inch thick, and thirty inches long between the
+gunwales; the next cross-piece is three-quarters of an inch thick and
+twenty-two and one-half inches long. The next one is half an inch
+wide, two inches thick and twelve inches between the gunwales. These
+cross-pieces can be made of the staves of a barrel. Of course, this
+would be a canoe of sixteen feet inside measurement, not counting the
+flattened part of the bow and stern. Now, then, to build the canoe.
+First take the keel-piece, H, which is in this case a piece of board
+about six inches wide and only thick enough to be moderately stiff. Lay
+the keel on any level surface and put the stem-pieces on as already
+described, using packing-box for X, U, V, Y, and Z, and bracing them
+with a piece of packing-box on each side, marked W in diagram (Fig.
+51). Then make three moulds, one for the centre (Fig. 53), and two more
+for the bow and stern (Fig. 54). Notch the bottom of these moulds to
+fit the keel and with wire nails make them fast to the keel, leaving
+the ends of the nails protruding far enough to be easily withdrawn when
+you wish to remove the moulds. In nailing the laths to the moulds (Fig.
+51) leave the heads of the nails also protruding so that they may be
+removed. Place the moulds in position, with the middle one in the exact
+centre, and the two ends located like those in Figs. 63 and 64. Place
+and nail gunwale, L, on as in Fig. 51, tacking it to the bow and stern
+and bending it around to fit the moulds; tack the lattice slats M, N,
+O, P on to the bow, stern, and moulds, as shown in Fig. 51.
+
+If your barrel-hoops are stiff and liable to break while bending and
+unbending, let them soak a couple of days in a tub of water, then
+before fitting them to the form of the canoe make them more pliable
+by pouring hot water on them. The barrel-hoop S, R, at the bow of the
+canoe, is nailed to the top-piece U, to the inside of the slats L, M,
+N, O, P, and to the outside of H. The next three ribs on each side are
+treated in the same manner; repeat this at the other end of the canoe
+and nail the intervening ribs to the top of H and to the inside of the
+slats, following the model of the boat. Put the ribs about four inches
+apart and clinch the nails as already described.
+
+In the diagrams there is no temporary support for the canoe frame
+except the wooden horses, as in Fig. 51. These supports have been
+purposely omitted in the drawing, as it is desirable to keep it as
+simple as possible. Some temporary support will be necessary to hold
+the bow and stern-piece in Fig. 51. These supports can be nailed or
+screwed temporarily to the canoe frame so as to hold it rigid while you
+are at work on it.
+
+After the ribs are all in place and the framework completed, turn the
+canoe upside down upon the wooden horses--for a canoe as large as the
+one in the first diagram you will need three horses, one at each end
+and one in the middle. For a canoe of the dimensions marked in Fig. 55,
+that is, sixteen feet inside measurement, you would need about seven
+yards of ten-ounce cotton canvas, of sufficient width to reach up over
+the sides of your canoe. Take a tape-measure or a piece of ordinary
+tape or a long strip of manila paper and measure around the bottom of
+the boat at its widest part in the middle from one gunwale (top of
+side) to the other, and see that your cloth is fully as wide as your
+measurement. Fold the canvas lengthwise so as to find its exact centre
+and crease it. With two or three tacks fasten the cloth at its centre
+line (the crease) to the stem-piece of the canoe. Stretch the canvas
+the length of the boat with the crease of centre-line along the centre
+of the keel; pull it as taut as may be and again tack the centre line
+to the stem at this end of the craft. If this has been done carefully
+the cloth will hang an equal length over each side of the canoe. Now
+begin amidships and drive tacks about two inches apart along the
+gunwale, say an inch below the top surface. After having tacked it for
+about two feet, go to the other side of the boat, pull the cloth taut
+and in the same manner tack about three feet. Continue this process
+first one side and then the other until finished. While stretching the
+cloth knead it with the hand and fingers so as to thicken or "full"
+it where it would otherwise wrinkle; by doing this carefully it is
+possible to stretch the canvas over the frame without the necessity
+of cutting it. The cloth that extends beyond the frame may be brought
+over the gunwale and tacked along the inside. Use four-ounce tinned or
+copper tacks. The canvas is now stretched on every part except on the
+high, rolling bow and stern. With a pair of shears slit the canvas from
+the outer edge of the bow and stern within a half inch of the ends of
+the keel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.
+
+High bows framework made of packing-box and barrel-heads.]
+
+Fold the right-hand flap thus made at the left-hand end around the bow
+and stern and, drawing tight, tack it down, then fold the left-hand
+flap over the right-hand side and tack it in a similar manner, trimming
+off the remaining cloth neatly. The five braces, three of which are
+shown in Fig. 55, may be nailed to the gunwales of the canoe, as the
+temporary moulds are removed. The braces should be so notched that the
+top ends of the braces will fit over the top edge of the gunwale and
+their lower edges will fit against the sides. Give the boat at least
+three good coats of paint and nail the two extra gunwale strips on the
+outside of the canvas for guards.
+
+When it is dry and the boat is launched you may startle the onlookers
+and make the echoes ring with:
+
+"Wo-ach! wo-ach! Ha-ha-ha-hack--wo-ach!" which is said to be the
+identical war cry with which the Indians greeted the landing of our
+Pilgrim Fathers.
+
+The reader must not suppose that barrel-hoops are the best material
+for ribs; they are but a makeshift, and although good-looking,
+servicable canoes have been built of this material from the foregoing
+descriptions, better ones may be made by using better material, such,
+for instance, as is described in the making of the birch-bark canoe.
+
+
+Old Shells
+
+Where there are oarsmen and boat-clubs, there you will find beautiful
+shell boats of paper or cedar, shaped like darning-needles, so slight
+in structure that a child can knock a hole in them, and yet very
+seaworthy boats for those who understand how to handle them. The
+expensive material and skilled labor necessary to build a racing shell
+puts the price of one so high that few boys can afford to buy one; but
+where new shells are to be found there are also old ones, and when they
+are too old to sell they are thrown away. Many an old shell rots on
+the meadows near the boat-houses or rests among the rafters forgotten
+and unused, which with a little work would make a boat capable of
+furnishing no end of fun to a boy.
+
+
+Checks or Cracks
+
+can be pasted over with common manila wrapping-paper by first covering
+the crack with a coat of paint, or, better still, of varnish, then
+fitting the paper smoothly over the spot and varnishing the paper.
+Give the paper several coats of varnish, allowing it to dry after each
+application, and the paper will become impervious to water. The deck
+of a shell is made of thin muslin or paper, treated with a liberal
+coat of varnish, and can be patched with similar material. There are
+always plenty of slightly damaged oars which have been discarded by the
+oarsmen. The use of a saw and jack-knife in the hands of a smart boy
+can transform these wrecks into serviceable oars for his patched-up old
+shell, and if the work is neatly done, the boy will be the proud owner
+of a real shell boat, and the envy of his comrades.
+
+
+The Cause of Upsets
+
+A single shell that is very cranky with a man in it is comparatively
+steady when a small boy occupies the seat. Put on your bathing clothes
+when you wish to try a shell, so that you may be ready for the
+inevitable upset. Every one knows, when he looks at one of these long,
+narrow boats, that as long as the oars are held extended _on the water_
+it cannot upset. But, in spite of that knowledge, every one, when he
+first gets into a shell, endeavors to balance himself by _lifting the
+oars_, and, of course, goes over in a jiffy.
+
+
+The Delights of a Shell
+
+It is an error to suppose that the frail-looking, needle-like boat is
+only fit for racing purposes. For a day on the water, in calm weather,
+there is, perhaps, nothing more enjoyable than a single shell. The
+exertion required to send it on its way is so slight, and the speed
+so great, that many miles can be covered with small fatigue. Upon
+referring to the log-book of the Nereus Club, where the distances are
+all taken from the United States chart, the author finds that twenty
+and thirty miles are not uncommon records for single-shell rows.
+
+During the fifteen or sixteen seasons that the author has devoted his
+spare time to the sport he has often planned a heavy cruising shell,
+but owing to the expense of having such a boat built he has used the
+ordinary racing boat, and found it remarkably well adapted for such
+purposes. Often he has been caught miles away from home in a blow, and
+only once does he remember of being compelled to seek assistance.
+
+He was on a lee shore and the waves were so high that after once being
+swamped he was unable to launch his boat again, for it would fill
+before he could embark. So a heavy rowboat and a coachman were borrowed
+from a gentleman living on the bay, and while the author rowed, the
+coachman towed the little craft back to the creek where the Nereus
+club-house is situated.
+
+In the creek, however, the water was calmer, and rather than stand the
+jeers of his comrades, the writer embarked in his shell and rowed up to
+the boat-house float. He was very wet and his boat was full of water,
+but to the inquiry of "Rough out in the bay?" he confined himself to
+the simple answer--"Yes." Then dumping the water from his shell and
+placing it upon the rack he put on his dry clothes and walked home,
+none the worse for the accident.
+
+After ordinary skill and confidence are acquired it is really
+astonishing what feats can be accomplished in a frail racing boat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65. A Fig. 66. B Fig. 67. C Fig. 68. D Fig. 69. E
+Fig. 70. F Fig. 71. Fig. 72. Fig. 73. Fig. 74. Fig. 75.
+
+PARTS OF THE UMBRELLA CANOE.
+
+    A = Plank.
+    B = Rib }
+    C = Rib }
+    D = Rib } in process of construction.
+    E = Rib }
+    F = Rib }
+    G, G´ = Thimbles.
+    H = Plank.
+    J and K = Stretcher unfinished and finished.]
+
+It is not difficult to
+
+
+Stand Upright In a Shell
+
+if you first take one of your long stockings and tie the handles of
+your oars together where they cross each other in front of you. The
+ends will work slightly and the blades will keep their positions on the
+water, acting as two long balances. Now slide your seat as far forward
+as it will go, slip your feet from the straps and grasp the straps with
+your hand, moving the feet back to a comfortable position. When all
+ready raise yourself by pulling on the foot strap, and with ordinary
+care you can stand upright in the needle-shaped boat, an apparently
+impossible thing to do when you look at the narrow craft.
+
+
+How to Land Where There Is No Float
+
+When for any reason you wish to land where there is no float, row into
+shallow water and put one foot overboard until it touches bottom. Then
+follow with the other foot, rise, and you are standing astride of your
+boat.
+
+
+How to Embark Where There Is No Float
+
+Wade out and slide the shell between your extended legs until the seat
+is underneath you. Sit down, and, with the feet still in the water,
+grasp your oars. With these in your hands it is an easy task to balance
+the boat until you can lift your feet into it.
+
+
+Ozias Dodge's Umbrella Canoe
+
+Mr. Dodge is a Yale man, an artist, and an enthusiastic canoeist. The
+prow of his little craft has ploughed its way through the waters of
+many picturesque streams in this country and Europe, by the river-side,
+under the walls of ruined castles, where the iron-clad warriors once
+built their camp-fires, and near pretty villages, where people dress as
+if they were at a fancy-dress ball.
+
+When a young man like Mr. Dodge says that he has built a folding canoe
+that is not hard to construct, is inexpensive and practical, there
+can be little doubt that such a boat is not only what is claimed for
+it by its inventor, but that it is a novelty in its line, and such is
+undoubtedly the case with the umbrella canoe.
+
+
+How the Canoe Was Built
+
+The artist first secured a white-ash plank (A, Fig. 65), free from
+knots and blemishes of all kinds. The plank was one inch thick and
+about twelve feet long. At the mill he had this sawed into eight strips
+one inch wide, one inch thick, and twelve feet long (B and C, Figs. 66
+and 67). Then he planed off the square edges of each stick until they
+were all octagonal in form, and looked like so many great lead-pencils
+(D, Fig. 68).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Frame of umbrella canoe.]
+
+Mr. Dodge claims that, after you have reduced the ash poles to this
+octagonal form, it is an easy matter to whittle them with your
+pocket-knife or a draw-knife, and by taking off all the angles of the
+sticks make them cylindrical in form (E, Fig. 69); then smooth them off
+nicely with sand-paper, so that each pole has a smooth surface and is
+three-quarters of an inch in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Umbrella canoe.]
+
+After the poles were reduced to this state he whittled all the ends to
+the form of a truncated cone--that is, like a sharpened lead-pencil
+with the lead broken off (F, Fig. 70)--a blunt point. He next went to
+a tinsmith and had two sheet-iron cups made large enough to cover the
+eight pole-ends (G and G´, Figs. 71 and 72). Each cup was six inches
+deep. After trying the cups, or thimbles, on the poles to see that they
+would fit, he made two moulds of oak. First he cut two pieces of oak
+plank two feet six inches long by one foot six inches (H, Fig. 74),
+which he trimmed into the form shown by J, Fig. 75, making a notch
+to fit each of the round ribs, and to spread them as the ribs of an
+umbrella are spread. He made two other similar moulds for the bow and
+stern, each of which, of course, is smaller than the middle one. After
+spreading the ribs with the moulds, and bringing the ends together in
+the tin cups, he made holes in the bottom of the cups where the ends
+of the ribs came, and fastened the ribs to the cups with brass screws,
+fitted with leather washers, and run through the holes in the tin and
+screwed into the ends of the poles or ribs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Canoe folded for transportation. Canoe in
+water in distance.]
+
+A square hole was then cut through each mould (K, Fig. 75), and the
+poles put in place, gathered together at the ends, and held in place by
+the tin thimbles. The square holes in the moulds allow several small,
+light floor planks to form a dry floor to the canoe.
+
+The canvas costs about forty-five cents a yard, and five yards are
+all you need. The deck can be made of drilling, which comes about
+twenty-eight inches wide and costs about twenty cents a yard. Five
+yards of this will be plenty. Fit your canvas over the frame, stretch
+it tightly, and tack it securely to the two top ribs only. Fasten the
+deck on in the same manner.
+
+When Mr. Dodge had the canoe covered and decked, with a square hole
+amidship to sit in, he put two good coats of paint on the canvas,
+allowed it to dry, and his boat was ready for use (Fig. 77). He
+quaintly says that "it looked like a starved dog, with all its ribs
+showing through the skin," just as the ribs of an umbrella show on top
+through the silk covering. But this does not in any way impede the
+progress of the boat through the water.
+
+Where the moulds are the case is different, for the lines of the
+moulds cross the line of progress at right angles and must necessarily
+somewhat retard the boat. But even this is not perceptible. The worst
+feature about the moulds is that the canvas is very apt to be damaged
+there by contact with the shore, float, or whatever object it rubs
+against.
+
+With ordinary care the umbrella canoe
+
+
+Will Last for Years
+
+and is a good boat for paddling on inland streams and small bodies of
+water; and when you are through with it for the night, all that is
+necessary is to remove the stretchers by springing the poles from the
+notches in the spreaders, roll up the canvas around the poles, put it
+on your shoulder, and carry it home or to camp, as shown in Fig. 78.
+
+To put your canoe together again put in the moulds, fit the poles in
+their places, and the umbrella is raised, or, rather, the canoe is, if
+we can use such an expression in regard to a boat.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE BIRCH-BARK
+
+    How to Build a Real Birch-Bark Canoe or a Canvas Canoe
+    on a "Birch-Bark" Frame--How to Mend a Birch-Bark
+
+
+ALTHOUGH the Indian was the first to build these simple little boats,
+some of his white brothers are quite as expert in the work. But the red
+man can outdo his white brother in navigating the craft. The only tools
+required in building a canoe are a knife and awl, a draw-shave and a
+hammer. An Indian can do all of his work with a knife.
+
+Several years ago canvas began to be used extensively in
+canoe-building, instead of birch bark, and it will eventually
+entirely supersede birch, although nothing can be found that bends so
+gracefully. There are several canvas-canoe factories in Maine, and the
+canoes made of canvas have both the symmetry and the durability of the
+birches. They are also a trifle cheaper, but if the real thing and
+sentiment are wanted, one should never have anything but a bark craft.
+
+If properly handled, a good canoe will safely hold four men. Canoes
+intended for deep water should have considerable depth. Those intended
+for shoal water, such as trout-fishers use, are made as flat as
+possible. Up to the time when canoeing was introduced the materials for
+building craft of this kind could be found all along the rivers. Big
+birch-trees grew in countless numbers, and clear, straight cedar was
+quite as plentiful within a few feet of the water's edge. Now one must
+go miles back into the dense forests for such materials, and even then
+seldom does it happen that two suitable trees are found within sight of
+one or the other. Cedar is more difficult of the two to find.
+
+
+The Tree
+
+The tree is selected, first, for straightness; second, smoothness;
+third, freedom from knots or limbs; fourth, toughness of bark; fifth,
+small size of eyes; sixth, length (the last is not so important, as two
+trees can be put together), and, seventh, size (which is also not so
+important, as the sides can be pieced out).
+
+
+Dimensions
+
+The average length of canoe is about 19 feet over all, running,
+generally, from 18 to 22 feet for a boat to be used on inland waters,
+the sea-going canoes being larger, with relatively higher bows. The
+average width is about 30 inches inside, measured along the middle
+cross-bar; the greatest width inside is several inches below the middle
+cross-bar, and is several inches greater than the width measured along
+said cross-bar.
+
+The measurements given below are those of a canoe 19 feet over all: 16
+feet long inside, measured along the curve of the gunwale; 30 inches
+wide inside. The actual length inside is less than 16 feet, but the
+measurement along the gunwales is the most important.
+
+
+Bark
+
+Bark can be peeled when the sap is flowing or when the tree is not
+frozen--at any time in late spring, summer, and early fall (called
+summer bark); in winter during a thaw, when the tree is not frozen, and
+when the sap may have begun to flow.
+
+
+Difference in the Bark
+
+Summer bark peels readily, is smooth inside, of a yellow color, which
+turns reddish upon exposure to the sun, and is chalky-gray in very old
+canoes. Winter bark adheres closely, and forcibly brings up part of
+the inner bark, which on exposure turns dark red. This rough surface
+may be moistened and scraped away. All winter-bark canoes must be thus
+scraped and made smooth. Sometimes the dark red is left in the form of
+a decorative pattern extending around the upper edge of the canoe, the
+rest of the surface being scraped smooth.
+
+
+Process of Peeling
+
+The tree should be cut down so that the bark can be removed more easily.
+
+A log called a skid (Fig. 79) is laid on the ground a few feet from the
+base of the tree, which will keep the butt of the tree off the ground
+when the tree is felled. The limbs at the top will keep the other end
+off the ground. A space is cleared of bushes and obstructions where the
+tree is to fall.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79.--Showing how the butt is kept off the ground.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81.]
+
+After the tree has been cut down, a cut is made in a straight line (A,
+B, Fig. 79), splitting the bark from top to bottom, and a ring cut at
+A and B (Fig. 79). When sap is flowing, the bark is readily removed;
+but in winter the edges of the cut are raised with a knife, and a thin,
+pliant hard-wood knife or "spud" is pushed around under the bark.
+
+
+Toasting
+
+After the bark has dropped upon the ground the inside surface is warmed
+with a torch, which softens and straightens it out flat. The torch is
+made of a bundle of birch bark held in a split stick (Fig. 81).
+
+It is then rolled up like a carpet, with inside surface out, and
+tightly bound, generally with cedar bark when the latter can be
+procured (Fig. 80).
+
+If the tree is long enough, a piece is taken off at least nineteen feet
+in length, so that the ends of the canoe may not be pieced out. A few
+shorter pieces are wrapped up with the bundle for piecing out the sides.
+
+
+The Roll
+
+is taken on the back in an upright position, and is carried by a broad
+band of cedar bark, passing under the lower end of the roll and around
+in front of the breast and shoulders (Fig. 82).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82.--Mode of carrying roll.]
+
+
+Effects of Heat
+
+It is laid where the sun will not shine on it and harden it. The first
+effect of heat is to make it pliant. Long exposure to heat or to dry
+atmosphere makes it hard and brittle.
+
+
+The Woodwork
+
+is as follows:
+
+Five cross-bars of rock-maple (Figs. 83, 85, and 91). All the rest is
+of white cedar, taken from the heart. The sap-wood absorbs water, and
+would make the canoe too heavy, so it is rejected. The wood requires to
+be straight and clear, and it is best to use perfectly green wood for
+the ribs.
+
+Two strips 16½ feet long, 1½ inch square, tapering toward either end,
+the ends being notched (Fig. 83 A) is a section of the 16½ foot strip.
+Each strip is mortised for the cross-bars (see Fig. 85). The lower
+outside edge is bevelled off to receive the ends of the ribs.
+
+The dimensions of the cross-bars (Fig. 85) are 12 x 2 x ½ inch, 22½ x 2
+x ¾ inch, and 30 x 2 x 7/8 inch. The cross-bars are placed in position,
+and the ends of the gunwales are tied with spruce roots after being
+nailed together to prevent splitting. Each bar is held in place by a
+peg of hard wood.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 83 and 83½.--Showing section of canoe amidship and
+section and shape of gunwale and top view.]
+
+For stitching and wrapping, long, slender roots of spruce, or sometimes
+of elm, are peeled and split in two. Black ash splits are rarely used
+except for repairing (Figs. 86, 87, 88).
+
+Next we need (B, Fig. 83) two strips 1 or 1¼ inch by ½ inch, a little
+over 19 feet long, to go outside of gunwales, and (C, Fig. 83) two top
+strips, same length, 2 inches wide in middle, tapering to 1 inch at
+either end, 1½ inch thick.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86.
+
+Fig. 87.
+
+Fig. 88.
+
+Fig. 89.
+
+Fig. 90.
+
+Fig. 91.
+
+Fig. 84.
+
+Fig. 85.
+
+Details of sticking and framework of canoe.]
+
+
+Ribs
+
+About fifty in number (Figs. 91, 92) are split with the grain (F, Fig.
+92), so that the heart side of the wood will be on the inner side when
+the rib is bent. The wood bends better this way. They must be perfectly
+straight-grained and free from knots. Ribs for the middle are four
+inches wide, ribs for the ends about three inches wide (Fig. 91 and
+G, Fig. 92), and are whittled down to a scant half an inch (Fig. 93).
+Green wood is generally used, and before it has had any time to season.
+The ribs may be softened by pouring hot water on them, and should be
+bent in pairs to prevent breaking (Fig. 90). They are held in shape by
+a band of cedar bark passed around outside.
+
+The ribs are of importance in the shaping of the canoe. The sides bulge
+out (Figs. 91, 92). The shape of the ribs determines the depth and
+stability of the canoe.
+
+
+Lining Strips
+
+Other strips, an eighth of an inch thick, are carefully whittled out,
+with straight edges. They are a little over eight feet long, and are
+designed to be laid inside on the bark, edge to edge, between the bark
+and the ribs. These strips lap an inch or two where they meet, in the
+middle of the canoe, and are wider here than at the ends, owing to the
+greater circumference of the canoe in the middle.
+
+
+Seasoning
+
+All the timber is carefully tied up before building and laid away. The
+ribs are allowed to season perfectly, so that they will keep their
+shape and not spring back.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92.
+
+Fig. 93.
+
+Details of ribs, Indian knives and method of using them.]
+
+
+The Bed
+
+Next the bed is prepared on a level spot, if possible shaded from the
+sun. A space is levelled about three and a half feet wide and a little
+longer than the canoe. The surface is made perfectly smooth. The
+middle is one or two inches higher than either end.
+
+
+Building
+
+The frame is laid exactly in the middle of the bed. A small post is
+driven in the ground (Fig. 94), on which each end of the frame will
+rest. Stakes, two or three feet long and about two inches in diameter,
+are whittled flat on one side, and are driven with the flat side toward
+the frame at the following points, leaving a space of about a quarter
+of an inch between the stake and the frame (Fig. 94): One stake an inch
+or two on either side of each cross-bar, and another stake half way
+between each cross-bar. This makes eleven stakes on each side of the
+frame. Twelve additional stakes are driven as follows: One pair facing
+each other, at the end of the frame; another pair, an inch apart, about
+six inches from the last pair, measuring toward the ends of the canoe;
+and another pair, an inch apart, a foot from these. These last stakes
+will be nine and a half feet from the middle of the frame, and nineteen
+feet from the corresponding stakes at the other end. Next, these stakes
+are all taken up, and the frame laid aside.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94.--Showing stakes supporting bark sides; note
+stones on the bottom.]
+
+
+To Soften the Bark
+
+Next the bark is unrolled. If it has laid until it has become a little
+hardened, it is placed in the river or stream for a day or two. It is
+spread out flat, and laid upon the bed with the gray or outside surface
+up. The inside surface is placed downward, and becomes the outside of
+the canoe.
+
+The frame is replaced upon the bark, so that it will be at the same
+distance from each side and end of the bed that it was before. At each
+cross-bar boards are laid across the frame, and heavy stones are laid
+upon them to keep the frame solid and immovable upon the bark (Fig. 85,
+C). The edges of the bark are next bent up in a perpendicular position,
+and in order that it may bend smoothly slits are made in the bark in an
+outward direction, at right angles to the frame. A cut is made close
+to the end of each cross-bar, and one half way between each bar, which
+is generally sufficient to allow the bark to be bent up smoothly. As
+the bark is bent up, the large stakes are slipped back in the holes
+which they occupied before, and the tops of each opposite pair are
+connected with a strip of cedar bark which keeps the stakes perfectly
+perpendicular. At each end it is necessary to take out a small
+triangular piece or gore, so that the edges may come together without
+overlapping.
+
+Next twenty-two pieces of cedar, one to two feet long, and about ½ or
+¾ inch thick, are split out, and whittled thin and flat at one end.
+This sharpened edge is inserted between the outside edge of the frame
+and the bent-up bark, opposite each large stake. The other end of the
+chisel-shaped piece is tightly tied to the large stake outside. By
+means of the _large outside stake_ and the inside "_stake_," so-called,
+the bark is held in a perfectly upright position; and in order to keep
+the bent-up part more perfectly flat and smooth, the strips of cedar
+are pushed in lengthwise between the stakes and the bark, on each side
+of the bark, as shown in sectional views (Fig. 85, C, D).
+
+Sometimes, in place of having temporary strips to go on outside of the
+bark, the long outside strip (B, Fig. 83), is slipped in place instead.
+
+It may now be seen if the bark is not wide enough. If it is not, the
+sides must be pieced out with a narrow piece, cut in such a way that
+the eyes in the bark will run in the same direction as those of the
+large piece.
+
+As a general rule, from the middle to the next bar the strip for
+piecing is placed on the inside of the large piece, whose upper edge
+has previously been trimmed straight, and the two are sewed together
+by the stitch shown in Fig. 86, the spruce root being passed over
+another root laid along the trimmed-off edge of the large piece of bark
+to prevent the stitches from tearing out. From the second bar to the
+end of the canoe, or as far as may be necessary, the strip is placed
+outside the large piece, and from the second to the end bar is sewed as
+in Fig. 87, and from the end bar to the end of the canoe is stitched as
+in Fig. 88.
+
+Next, the weights are taken off the frame, which is raised up as
+follows, the bark remaining flat on the bed as before:
+
+A post eight inches long is set up under each end of middle cross-bar
+(Fig. 85, D), one end resting on the bark and the other end supporting
+either end of the middle cross-bar. Another post, nine inches long,
+is similarly placed under each end of the next cross-bar. Another,
+twelve inches long, is placed under each end of the end cross-bar; and
+another, sixteen and a half or seventeen inches, supports each end of
+the frame.
+
+As the posts are placed under each cross-bar, the weights are replaced;
+and as these posts are higher at the ends than in the middle, the
+proper curve is obtained for the gunwales. The temporary strips, that
+have been placed outside the bent-up portion of the bark, are removed,
+and the long outside strip before mentioned (B, Fig. 83) is slipped
+in place between the outside stakes and the bark. This strip is next
+nailed to the frame with wrought-iron nails that pass through the bark
+and are clinched on the inside. This outside strip has taken exactly
+the curve of the frame, but its upper edge, before nailing, was raised
+so as to be out an eighth of an inch (or the thickness of the bark)
+higher than the top surface of the frame, so that when the edges of the
+bark have been bent down, and tacked flat to the frame, a level surface
+will be presented, upon which the wide top strip will eventually be
+nailed. Formerly the outer strip was bound to the frame with roots
+every few inches, but now it is nailed.
+
+The cross-bars are now lashed to the frame, having previously been
+held only by a peg. The roots are passed through holes in the end of
+the bars, around the outside strip (see right-hand side of Fig. 85). A
+two-inch piece of the bark, which has been tacked down upon the frame,
+is removed at the ends by the cross-bars, where the spruce roots are
+to pass around, and the outside strip is cut away to a corresponding
+extent, so that the roots, when wrapped around, will be flush with the
+surface above.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95.--Shows how to describe arc of circle for bow,
+also ornamentation of winter bark.]
+
+All the stakes are now removed, and laid away to be ready for the next
+canoe that may be built, and the canoe taken upside down upon two
+horses or benches, that will keep the craft clear of the ground.
+
+The shape of the bow is now marked out, either by the eye or with
+mechanical aid, according to the following rule: An arc of a circle,
+with a radius of seventeen inches, is described (Fig. 95) having as a
+centre a point shown in diagram. The bark is then cut away to this line.
+
+
+Bow-piece
+
+To stiffen the bow, a bow-piece of cedar, nearly three feet long
+(Fig. 96), an inch and a half wide, and half an inch thick on one
+edge, bevelled and rounded off toward the other edge, is needed. To
+facilitate bending edgeways it is split into four or five sections
+(as in Fig. 98) for about thirty inches. The end that remains unsplit
+is notched on its thicker edge (Fig. 96) to receive the lower end
+of an oval cedar board (Fig. 97) that is placed upright in the bow
+underneath the tip of the frame. It is bent to correspond with the
+curve of the boat, with the thin edge toward the outside of the circle,
+and wrapped with twine, so that it will keep its shape. The bow-piece
+is placed between the edges of the bark, which are then sewed together
+by an over-and-over stitch, which passes through the bow-piece.
+
+A pitch is prepared of rosin and grease, in such proportions that it
+will neither readily crack in cold water nor melt in the sun. One or
+the other ingredient is added until by test it is found just right.
+
+
+Patching and Pitching
+
+The canoe is now placed on the ground, right side up, and all holes are
+covered on the inside with thin birch bark that is pasted down with hot
+pitch. A strip of cloth is saturated with hot pitch, and pressed into
+the cracks on either side of the bow-piece inside, between the bark and
+the bow-piece (Fig. 99).
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 97-100.--Show details of canoe bow.]
+
+The thin longitudinal strips are next laid in position, edge to edge,
+lapping several inches by the middle; they are whittled thin here so as
+to lap evenly.
+
+The ribs are next tightly driven in place, commencing at the small end
+ones and working toward the middle. The end ribs may be two or three
+inches apart, being closer toward the middle, where, in many cases,
+they touch. Usually, they are about half an inch apart in the middle.
+Each rib is driven into place with a square-ended stick and a mallet.
+
+The ends are stuffed with shavings (Fig. 100 and "Section" Fig. 100½),
+and an oval cedar board is put in the place formerly occupied by the
+post that supported the end of the frame. The lower end rests in the
+notch of the bow-piece, while the upper is cut with two shoulders that
+fit underneath each side of the frame; Fig. 97 shows the cedar board.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100½.
+
+Fig. 101.
+
+Canoe paddles.]
+
+The top strip is next nailed on to the frame. Almost always a piece of
+bark, a foot or more long, and nine or ten inches wide, is bent and
+slipped under, between both top and side strips and the bark. The ends
+of this piece hang down about three inches below the side strips. The
+loose ends of the strips are bound together, as in diagram, and the
+projecting tips of both strips and bow-piece are trimmed off close.
+
+Next the canoe is turned upside down. If winter bark has been used,
+the surface is moistened and the roughness scraped off with a knife.
+Generally the red rough surface is left in the form of a decorative
+pattern several inches wide around the upper edge (Fig. 95). Sometimes
+the maker's name and date are left in this way.
+
+Finally, a strip of stout canvas, three or four inches wide, is dipped
+in the melted pitch and laid on the stitching at the ends, extending up
+sufficiently far above the water-line. All cracks and seams are covered
+with pitch, laid on with a small wooden paddle. While still soft, a wet
+finger or the palm of the hand is rubbed over the pitch to smooth it
+down before it hardens.
+
+
+Leaks
+
+Water is placed inside, and the leaky places marked, to be stopped when
+dry. A can of rosin is usually carried in the canoe, and when a leak
+occurs, the canoe is taken out of the water, the leak discovered by
+sucking, the place dried with a torch of wood or birch bark, and the
+pitch applied.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101½.--From photograph of Indian building a
+birch-bark canoe.]
+
+Paddles are made of rock maple, and sometimes of birch and even cedar.
+Bow paddles are usually longer and narrower in the blade than stern
+paddles (Fig. 101).
+
+
+Bottom Protection
+
+Sometimes the canoe is shod with "shoes," or strips of cedar, laid
+lengthwise and tied to the outside of the bark with ash splits that
+pass through holes in the cedar shoes, and are brought up around the
+sides of the canoe and tied to each cross-bar. This protects the bottom
+of the boat from the sharp rocks that abound in some rapid streams.
+
+All canoes are of the general shape of the one described, though this
+is considerably varied in different localities, some being built with
+high rolling bows, some slender, some wider, some nearly straight on
+the bottom, others decidedly curved.
+
+Besides the two paddles the canoe should carry a pole ten feet
+long, made of a slender spruce, whittled so as to be about one and
+three-fourths inch in diameter in the middle and smaller at either end,
+and having at one end either a ring and a spike or else a pointed cap
+of iron. The pole is used for propelling the canoe up swift streams.
+This, says Tappan Adney, "is absolutely indispensable." The person
+using the pole stands in one end, or nearer the middle if alone, and
+pushes the canoe along close to the bank, so as to take advantage of
+the eddies, guiding the canoe with one motion, only to be learned by
+practice, and keeping the pole usually on the side next the bank. Where
+the streams have rocky and pebbly bottoms poling is easy, but in muddy
+or soft bottoms it is tiresome work; muddy bottoms, however, are not
+usually found in rapid waters.
+
+
+A Canvas Canoe
+
+can be made by substituting canvas in the place of birch bark; and
+if it is kept well painted it makes not only a durable but a very
+beautiful boat. The writer once owned a canvas canoe that was at least
+fifteen years old and still in good condition.
+
+About six yards of ten-ounce cotton canvas, fifty inches wide, will
+be sufficient to cover a canoe, and it will require two papers of
+four-ounce copper tacks to secure the canvas on the frame.
+
+The boat should be placed, deck down, upon two "horses" or wooden
+supports, such as you see carpenters and builders use.
+
+Fold the canvas lengthwise, so as to find the centre, then tack the
+centre of one end of the cloth to top of bow-piece, or stem, using two
+or three tacks to hold it securely. Stretch the cloth the length of the
+boat, pull it taut, with the centre line of the canvas over the keel
+line of the canoe, and tack the centre of the other end of the cloth to
+the top of the stern-piece.
+
+If care has been taken thus far, an equal portion of the covering will
+lap the gunwale on each side of the boat.
+
+Begin amidships and drive the tacks, about two inches apart, along the
+gunwale and an inch below the deck (on the outside). Tack about two
+feet on one side, pull the cloth tightly across, and tack it about
+three feet on the other side. Continue to alternate, tacking on one
+side and then the other, until finished.
+
+With the hands and fingers knead the cloth so as to thicken or "full"
+it where it would otherwise wrinkle, and it will be possible to stretch
+the canvas without cutting it over the frame.
+
+The cloth that projects beyond the gunwale may be used for the deck, or
+it may be cut off after bringing it over and tacking upon the inside of
+the gunwale, leaving the canoe open like a birch-bark.
+
+
+To Paddle a Canoe
+
+No one can expect to learn to paddle a canoe from a book, however
+explicit the directions may be. There is only one way to learn to swim
+and that is by going into the water and trying it, and the only proper
+way to learn to paddle a canoe is to paddle one until you catch the
+knack.
+
+In the ordinary canoe, to be found at the summer watering places,
+there are cane seats and they are always too high for safety. A
+top load on any sort of a boat is always dangerous, and every real
+canoeist seats his passengers on the bottom of the boat and kneels on
+the bottom himself while paddling. Of course, one's knees will feel
+more comfortable if there is some sort of a cushion under them, and a
+passenger will be less liable to get wet if he has a pneumatic cushion
+on which to sit. No expert canoeist paddles alternately first on the
+one side, and then on the other; on the contrary, he takes pride in his
+ability to keep his paddle continuously on either side that suits his
+convenience.
+
+The Indians of the North Woods are probably the best paddlers, and
+from them we can take points in the art. It is from them we first
+learned the use of the canoe, for our open canvas canoes of to-day are
+practically modelled on the lines of the old birch-barks.
+
+[Illustration: From photographs taken especially for this book by Mr.
+F. K. Vreeland, Camp Fire Club of America.
+
+Fig. 102.--Beginning of stroke. Paddle should not be reached farther
+forward than this. It is immersed _edgewise_ (not point first) with a
+slicing motion. Note the angle of paddle--rear face of blade turned
+_outward_ to avoid tendency of canoe to turn. Staff of paddle is 6
+inches too short. Left hand should be lower.
+
+Fig. 102_a_.--A moment later. Right hand pushing forward, left hand
+swinging down. Left hand should be lower on full-sized paddle.
+
+Fig. 103.--Putting the power of the body in the stroke by bending
+slightly forward. Left hand held stationary from now on, to act as
+fulcrum. The power comes from the right arm and shoulders.
+
+Fig. 103_a_.--The final effort, full weight of the body on the paddle.
+The right arm and body are doing the work, the left arm (which is weak
+at this point) acting as fulcrum. Note twist of the right wrist to give
+blade the proper angle.
+
+Fig. 104.--End of stroke. Arms relaxed and body straightening.
+
+Fig. 104_a_.--Beginning of recovery. Paddle slides out of water gently.
+Note that blade is perfectly flat on the surface. No steering action is
+required. If the canoe tends to swerve it is because the _stroke_ was
+not correct. Only a duffer _steers_ with his paddle after the stroke is
+over. The left hand now moves forward, the right swinging out and back,
+moving paddle forward horizontally.
+
+Fig. 104_b_.--Turning to right. The latter part of a broad sweep
+outward, away from the canoe. The blade is now being swept toward the
+canoe, the left hand pulling in, the right pushing out. Position of
+right wrist shows that blade has the opposite slant to that shown in
+the straightaway stroke--_i. e._, the near face of blade is turned
+_inward_. Blade leaves water with _outer_ edge up. Wake of canoe shows
+sharpness of turn.
+
+Fig. 104_c_.--Turning to left. The last motion of a stroke in which the
+paddle is swept close to the canoe with the blade turned much farther
+outward than in the straightaway stroke. At end of stroke blade is
+given an outward sweep and leaves the water with the _inner_ edge up.
+_This is not a steering_ or dragging motion. It is a powerful sweep of
+the paddle. Note swirl in wake of canoe showing sharp turn.]
+
+When you are standing upright and your paddle is in front of you with
+the blade upon the ground, the handle should reach to your eye-brows.
+(See Figs. 101, 102, 103, etc.)
+
+Kneel with the paddle across the canoe and not farther forward than the
+knees. Then dip the blade _edgewise_ (not point first) by raising the
+upper hand without bending the elbow. Swing the paddle back, keeping
+it close to the canoe, and give a little twist to the upper wrist to
+set the paddle at the proper angle shown in the photos. The exact
+angle depends upon the trim of the boat, the wind, etc., and must be
+such that the canoe does not swerve _at any part_ of the stroke, but
+travels straight ahead. The lower arm acts mainly as a fulcrum and
+does not move back and forth more than a foot. The power comes from
+the upper arm and shoulder, and the body bends forward as the weight
+is thrown on the paddle. The stroke continues until the paddle slides
+out of the water endwise, flat on the surface. Then for recovery the
+blade is brought forward by a swing from the shoulder, _not_ lifting
+it vertically, but swinging it horizontally with the blade parallel to
+the water and the upper hand low. When it reaches a point opposite the
+knee it is slid into the water again, edgewise, for another stroke. The
+motion is a more or less rotary one, like stirring cake, not a simple
+movement back and forth.
+
+
+To Carry a Canoe
+
+To pick up a canoe and carry it requires not only the knack but also
+muscle, and no undeveloped boy should make the attempt, as he might
+strain himself, with serious results. But there are plenty of young
+men--good, husky fellows--who can learn to do this without any danger
+of injury if they are taught _how_ to lift by a competent physical
+instructor.
+
+To pick up a canoe for a "carry," stoop over and grasp the middle brace
+with the right arm extended, and a short hold with the left hand, as
+shown in Fig. 105.
+
+When you have a secure hold, hoist the canoe up on your legs, as shown
+in Fig. 106. Without stopping the motion give her another boost, until
+you have the canoe with the upper side above your head, as in Fig. 107.
+In the diagram the paddles are not spread apart as far as they should
+be. If the paddles are too close together a fall may break ones neck.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110.--Northern Quebec Indians crossing the "ladder
+portage."]
+
+Now turn the canoe over your head and slide your head between the
+paddles (which are lashed to the spreaders, as shown in Fig. 105),
+and twist your body around as you let the canoe settle down over your
+head (Fig. 108). If you have a sweater or a coat, it will help your
+shoulders by making a roll of it to serve as a pad under the paddles,
+as in Fig. 109. I have seen an Indian carry a canoe in this manner on
+a dog-trot over a five-mile portage without resting. I also have seen
+Indians carry canoes over mountains, crossing by the celebrated Ladder
+Portage in western Quebec, where the only means of scaling a cliff is
+by ascending a ladder made of notched logs. For real canoe work it is
+necessary that a man should know how to carry his craft across country
+from one body of water to another. All through the Lakelands of Canada,
+and also the Lake St. John district, up to Hudson Bay itself, the only
+trails are by water, with portage across from one stream or lake to the
+other.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+HOW TO BUILD A PADDLING DORY
+
+A Simple Boat Which Any One Can Build--The Cheapest Sort of a Boat
+
+
+TO construct this craft it is, of course, necessary that we shall have
+some lumber, but we will use the smallest amount and the expense will
+come within the limits of a small purse.
+
+First we must have two boards, their lengths depending upon
+circumstances and the lumber available. The ones in the diagram are
+supposed to be of pine to measure (after being trimmed) 18 feet long
+by 18 inches wide and about 1 inch thick. When the boards are trimmed
+down so as to be exact duplicates of each other, place one board over
+the other so that their edges all fit exactly and then nail each end of
+the two boards together for the distance of about six inches. Turn the
+boards over and nail them upon the opposite side in the same manner,
+clamping the nail ends if they protrude. Do this by holding the head
+of a hammer or a stone against the heads of the nails while you hold a
+wire nail against the protruding end, and with a hammer bend it over
+the nail until it can be mashed flat against the board so that it will
+not project beyond its surface.
+
+After you have proceeded thus far, take some pieces of tin (Fig. 112)
+and bend the ragged edges over, so as to make a clean, straight fold,
+and hammer it down flat until there are no rough or raw edges exposed.
+Now tack a piece of this tin over the end of the boards which composed
+the sides of the boat, as in Fig. 114. Make the holes for the tacks
+first by driving the pointed end of a wire nail through the tin where
+you wish the tacks to go and then tack the tin snugly and neatly on,
+after which tack on another piece of tin on both bow and stern, as in
+Fig. 116. This will hold the two ends of the boards securely together
+so that they may be carefully sprung apart in the middle to receive
+the middle mould which is to hold them in shape until the bottom of
+the boat is nailed on, and the permanent thwarts, or seats, fastened
+inside. When the latter are permanently fixed they will keep the boat
+in shape.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.--Parts of dory.]
+
+To make the mould, which is only a temporary thing, you may use any
+rough board, or boards nailed together with cleats to hold them. The
+mould should be 2 feet 6 inches long and 1 foot 4 inches high. Fig. 111
+will show you how to cut off the ends to give the proper slant. The
+dotted lines show the board before it is trimmed in shape. By measuring
+along the edge of the board from each end 10.8 inches and marking the
+points, and then, with a carpenter's pencil ruling the diagonal lines
+to the other edge and ends of the board, the triangles may be sawed off
+with a hand saw.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113. Fig. 114. Fig. 112. Fig. 115. Fig. 116.
+
+The simple details of the dory.]
+
+Fig. 111 shows where the mould is to be placed in the center of the
+two side boards. As the boards in this diagram are supposed to be on
+the slant, and consequently in the perspective, they do not appear as
+wide as they really are. The diagram is made also with the ends of the
+side boards free so as to better show the position of the mould. But
+when the side boards are sprung apart and the mould placed in position
+(Fig. 113), it will appear as in Fig. 116 or Fig. 117. Fig. 115 shows
+the shape of the stem-posts to be set in both bow and stern and nailed
+securely in place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118.
+
+Top views of dory and parts of dory.]
+
+When you have gone thus far fit in two temporary braces near the bow
+and stern, as shown in Fig. 117. These braces are simply narrow pieces
+of boards held in position by nails driven through the outside of the
+boat, the latter left with their heads protruding, so that they may be
+easily drawn when necessary.
+
+Now turn the boat over bottom up and you will find that the angle at
+which the sides are bent will cause the bottom boards to rest upon a
+thin edge of the side boards, as shown in Fig. 119. With an ordinary
+jack-plane trim this down so that the bottom boards will rest flush and
+snug, as in Fig. 120.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118½.]
+
+
+How to Calk a Boat so That It Won't Leak
+
+If you wish to make a bottom that will never leak, not even when it is
+placed in the water for the first time, plane off the boards on their
+sides, so that when fitted together they will leave a triangular groove
+between each board, as shown in Fig. 118½. These grooves will show upon
+the inside of the boat, and not upon the outside, and in this case
+the calking is done from the inside and not from the outside. They are
+first calked with candlewick, over which putty is used, but for a rough
+boat it is not even necessary to use any calking. When the planks swell
+they will be forced together, so as to exclude all water.
+
+To fasten the bottom on the boat put a board lengthwise at the end,
+as shown in Fig. 121. One end shows the end board as it is first
+nailed on, and the other end shows it after it has been trimmed off
+to correspond with the sides of the boat. Now put your short pieces
+of boards for the bottom on one at a time, driving each one snug up
+against its neighbor before nailing it in place and leaving the rough
+or irregular ends of each board protrude on each side, as shown at the
+right-hand end of Fig. 121.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121. Top view with sides in place, also reversed
+view showing how bottom boards are laid.]
+
+When all the boards are nailed in place (by beginning at one end and
+fitting them against each other until the other end is reached) they
+may be trimmed off with a saw (Fig. 121) and your boat is finished with
+the exception of the thwarts, or seats.
+
+If you intend to propel this with paddles like a canoe, you will need
+a seat in the centre for your passenger, and this may be placed in the
+position occupied by the form (Figs. 111 and 117) after the latter is
+removed. To fit a seat in it is only necessary to cut two cleats and
+nail them to the sides of the boat for the seat to rest upon and saw
+off a board the proper length to fit upon the cleats. It would be well
+now to fasten the braces in the bow and stern permanently, adjusting
+them to suit your convenience. The seat should be as low as possible
+for safety. With this your paddling dory is finished, and may be used
+even without being painted. A coat of paint, however, improves not only
+the looks but the tightness and durability of any boat.
+
+We have now advanced so far in our boat-building that it becomes
+necessary that the beginner should learn more about boats and boating,
+and since this book is written for beginners, we will take it for
+granted that they know absolutely nothing about the subject and will
+give all the rudimentary knowledge for landlubbers in the next chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE LANDLUBBER'S CHAPTER
+
+    Common Nautical Terms and Expressions Defined--How to
+    Sail a Boat--Boat Rigs--Rowing-clothes--How to Make a
+    Bathing-suit--How to Avoid Sunburn
+
+
+THERE are a few common terms with which all who venture on the water
+should be familiar, not only for convenience, but for prudential
+reasons.
+
+Accidents are liable to happen to boats of all descriptions, and often
+the safety of property and life depend upon the passengers' ability to
+understand what is said to them by the officers or sailors in charge of
+the craft.
+
+To those who are familiar with the water and shipping it may seem
+absurd to define the bow and stern of a boat, but there are people who
+will read this book who cannot tell the bow from the stern, so we will
+begin this chapter with the statement that
+
+=The bow= is the front end of the boat, and
+
+=The stern= is the rear end of the boat.
+
+=For'ard= is toward the bow of the boat.
+
+=Aft= is toward the stern of the boat. Both terms are used by sailors
+as forward and backward are used by landsmen.
+
+=The hull= is the boat itself without masts, spars, or rigging. A skiff
+and a birch-bark canoe are hulls.
+
+=The keel= is the piece of timber running along the centre of the
+bottom of the hull, like the runner of a skate, and used to give the
+boat a hold on the water, so that she will not slide sideways.
+
+When you are sitting in the stern of a boat, facing the bow, the side
+next to your right hand is the right-hand side of the boat, and the
+side next to your left hand is the left-hand side of the boat. But
+these terms are not used by seamen; they always say
+
+=Starboard= for the right-hand side of the boat, and
+
+=Port= for the left-hand side of the boat. Formerly the left-hand side
+was called the larboard, but this occasioned many serious mistakes on
+account of the similarity of the sound of larboard and starboard when
+used in giving orders.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.--Top view of small boat.]
+
+
+Red and Green Lights
+
+After dark a red light is carried on the port side and a green light on
+the starboard side of all vessels in motion. If you can remember that
+port wine is red, and that the port light is of the same color, you
+will always be able to tell in which direction an approaching craft is
+pointing by the relative location of the lights.
+
+    "When both lights you see ahead,
+     Port your helm and show your red!
+     Green to green and red to red,
+     You're all right, and go ahead!"
+
+If you are a real landlubber, the verse quoted will be of little
+service, because you will not know how to port your helm. In fact, you
+probably will not know where to look for the helm or what it looks
+like; but only a few of our readers are out-and-out landlubbers, and
+most of them know that the helm is in some way connected with the
+steering apparatus.
+
+=The rudder= is the movable piece of board at the stern of the boat by
+means of which the craft is guided. The rudder is moved by a lever,
+ropes, or a wheel.
+
+=The tiller= is the lever for moving the rudder, or the ropes used for
+the same purpose (Fig. 123).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123.--Helm--Lever, or stick, for tiller.]
+
+=The wheel= is the wheel whose spokes end in handles on the outer edge
+of the rim, or felly, and it is used for moving the rudder (Fig. 124).
+
+=The helm= is that particular part of the steering apparatus that you
+put your hands on when steering.
+
+=The deck= is the roof of the hull.
+
+=The centreboard= is an adjustable keel that can be raised or lowered
+at pleasure. It is an American invention. The centreboard, as a rule,
+is only used on comparatively small vessels. The inventor of the
+centreboard is Mr. Salem Wines, who kept a shop on Water Street, near
+Market Slip, and, when alive, was a well-known New York boat-builder.
+His body now lies in Greenwood Cemetery, and upon the headstone of his
+grave is the inscription, "The Inventor of the Centreboard."
+
+For sailing, the boat, or hull, is rigged with masts and spars for
+spreading the sails to catch the wind.
+
+=The masts= are the upright poles, or sticks, that hold the sails.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124.--Helm--The wheel.]
+
+=The yards= are the poles, or sticks, at right angles with the masts
+that spread the sails.
+
+=The boom= is the movable spar at the bottom of the sail.
+
+=The gaff= is the pole, or spar, for spreading the top, or head, of the
+sail (Fig. 125).
+
+=The sail= is a big canvas kite, of which the boom, gaff, and masts are
+the kite-sticks. You must not understand by this that the sail goes
+soaring up in the air, for the weight of the hull prevents that; but if
+you make fast a large kite to the mast of a boat it would be a sail,
+and if you had a line long and strong enough, and should fasten any
+spread sail to it, there can be no doubt that the sail would fly.
+
+=The spars= are the masts, bowsprit, yards, and gaffs.
+
+=The bowsprit= is the stick, or sprit, projecting from the bow of the
+boat (Fig. 161, Sloop).
+
+=The foremast= is the mast next to the bow--the forward mast (Fig. 159,
+Ship).
+
+=The mainmast= is the second mast--the mast next to the foremast.
+
+=Mizzen-mast= is the mast next to and back of the mainmast (Fig. 159,
+Ship).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125.--A sail.]
+
+=The rigging= of a boat consists of the ropes, or lines, attached to
+its masts and sails, but a boat's rig refers to the number of masts as
+well as to the shape of its sails.
+
+=Stays= are strong ropes supporting the masts, fore and aft.
+
+=Shrouds= are strong ropes reaching from the mastheads to the sides of
+the vessel; supports for the masts, starboard and port.
+
+=Ratlines= are the little ropes that form the steps, or foot ropes,
+that run crosswise between the shrouds.
+
+=The painter= is the rope at the bow of a small boat, used for the same
+purpose as is a hitching-strap on a horse.
+
+=The standing rigging= consists of the stays and shrouds.
+
+=The running rigging= consists of all the ropes used in handling yards
+and sails.
+
+=The sheets= are the ropes, or lines, attached to the corners of sails,
+by which they are governed (Fig. 126).
+
+=The main sheet= is the rope that governs the mainsail.
+
+=The jib-sheet= is the rope that governs the jib-sail.
+
+=The gaskets= are the ropes used in lashing the sails when furled.
+
+=The braces= are the ropes used in swinging the yards around.
+
+=The jib-stay= is the stay that runs from the foremast to the bowsprit.
+
+=The bob-stay= is practically an extension of the jib-stay and the
+chief support of the spars. It connects the bow of the boat with the
+bowsprit and prevents the latter from bobbing up and down.
+
+Besides the port and starboard sides of a boat there are the windward
+and leeward sides. Do not understand by this that the boat has four
+sides, like a square. Windward may be the port or the starboard side,
+according to the direction the wind blows; because
+
+=Windward= means the side of the boat against which the wind blows--the
+side where the wind climbs aboard; or it may mean the direction from
+which the wind comes. The opposite side is called
+
+=Leeward=--that is, the side of the boat opposite to that against which
+the wind blows, where the wind tumbles overboard, or the side opposite
+to windward. When you are sailing you may be near a
+
+=Lee Shore=--that is, the shore on your lee side against which the wind
+blows; or a
+
+=Windward Shore=--that is, the land on your windward side from which
+the wind blows.
+
+All seamen dread a lee shore, as it is a most dangerous shore to
+approach, from the fact that the wind is doing its best to blow you
+on the rocks or beach. But the windward shore can be approached with
+safety, because the wind will keep you off the rocks, and if it is
+blowing hard, the land will break the force of the wind.
+
+In a canoe or shell the boatman sits either directly on the bottom, or,
+as in the shell, very close to it, and the weight of his body serves to
+keep the boat steady, but larger crafts seldom rely upon live weights
+to steady them. They use
+
+=Ballast=--that is, weights of stone, lead, iron, or sand-bags, used to
+balance the boat and make her steady.
+
+As has been said before in this chapter, the sail is a big canvas kite
+made fast to the boat and called a sail, but the ordinary kite has its
+covering stretched permanently on rigid sticks.
+
+The sail, however, can be stretched to its full extent or only
+partially, or it may be rolled up, exposing nothing but the masts to
+the force of the wind. To accomplish all this there are various ropes
+and attachments, all of which are named.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126.--Sail and sheet.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127.--Parts of sail.]
+
+It is quite important that the beginner should know the names of all the
+
+
+Parts of a Sail
+
+=Luff.=--That part of the sail adjoining the mast--the front of the
+sail (Fig. 127).
+
+=Leach.=-That part of the sail stretched between the outer or after end
+of the boom and the outer end of the gaff--the back part of the sail
+(Fig. 127).
+
+=Head.=--That part of the sail adjoining the gaff--the top of the sail.
+
+=Foot.=--That part of the sail adjoining the boom--the bottom of the
+sail (Fig. 127).
+
+=Clews.=--A general name for the four corners of the sail.
+
+=Clew.=--The particular corner at the foot of the sail where the leach
+and boom meet (Fig. 127).
+
+=Tack.=--The corner of the sail where boom and mast meet (Fig. 127).
+
+=Throat, or Nock.=--The corner of the sail where gaff and mast meet
+(Fig. 127).
+
+=Peak.=--Corner of the sail where the leach and gaff meet (Fig. 127).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128.--Starboard helm.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129--Port helm.]
+
+
+How to Steer a Boat
+
+When you wish your boat to turn to the right push your helm to the
+left. This will push the rudder to the right and turn the boat in that
+direction. When you wish your boat to turn to the left push your helm
+to the right. In other words, starboard your helm and you will turn to
+the port (Fig. 128). Port your helm and you will turn to the starboard
+(Fig. 129).
+
+From a reference to the diagram you may see that when you =port your
+helm= you move the tiller to the port side of the boat, and when you
+=starboard your helm= you move your tiller to the starboard side of the
+boat (Fig. 128), but to =ease your helm= you move your helm toward the
+centre of the boat--that is, amidships.
+
+
+How to Sail a Boat
+
+If you fasten the bottom of a kite to the ground, you will find that
+the wind will do its best to blow the kite over, and if the kite is
+fastened to the mast of a toy boat, the wind will try to blow the boat
+over.
+
+In sailing a boat the effort of the wind apparently has but one
+object, and that is the upsetting of the boat. The latter, being well
+balanced, is constantly endeavoring to sit upright on its keel, and
+you, as a sailor, are aiding the boat in the struggle, at the same time
+subverting the purpose of the wind to suit your own ideas. It is an
+exciting game, in which man usually comes out ahead, but the wind gains
+enough victories to keep its courage up.
+
+Every boat has peculiarities of its own, and good traits as well as bad
+ones, which give the craft a personal character that lends much to your
+interest, and even affects your sensibilities to the extent of causing
+you to have the same affection for a good, trustworthy craft that you
+have for an intelligent and kind dog or horse.
+
+A properly balanced sail-boat, with main sheet trimmed flat and free
+helm, should be as sensitive as a weathercock and act like one--that
+is, she ought to swing around until her bow pointed right into the "eye
+of the wind," the direction from which the wind blows. Such a craft it
+is not difficult to sail, but it frequently happens that the boat that
+is given to you to sail is not properly balanced, and shows a constant
+tendency to "come up in the wind"--face the wind--when you are doing
+your best to keep her sails full and keep her on her course. This
+may be caused by too much sail aft. The boat is then said to carry a
+weather helm.
+
+=Weather Helm.=--When a boat shows a constant tendency to come up in
+the wind.
+
+=Lee Helm.=--When a boat shows a constant tendency to fall off the
+wind--that is, when the wind blows her bow to the leeward. This is
+a much worse trait than the former, and a boat with a lee helm is a
+dangerous boat. It may be possible to remedy it by adding sail aft or
+reducing sail forward, which should immediately be done.
+
+In spite of the fact, already stated, that the wind's constant effort
+is to capsize a boat, there is little or no danger of a properly rigged
+boat upsetting unless the sheets are fast or hampered in some way. When
+a sail-boat upsets it is, of course, because the wind blows it over.
+Now, the wind cannot blow a boat over unless the boat presents some
+surface larger than its hull for the wind to blow against, and the sail
+is the only object that offers enough surface to the breeze to cause an
+upset.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130--Close-hauled.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131.--Before the wind.]
+
+[Illustration: Top view of boats, showing position of helm and boom.]
+
+If the sheet is slackened, the sail will swing around until it flaps
+like a flag and only the thin edge is presented to the wind; and a boat
+that a flag will upset is no boat for beginners to trust themselves in.
+True, the boom may be very long and heavy enough to make it dangerous
+to let so much of it overboard, but this is seldom the case. A good
+sailor keeps his eyes constantly on the sails and trims them to take
+advantage of the slightest favorable breeze. In place of losing
+control of his sail by letting go the sheets he will ease the tiller so
+as to "spill" part of the wind that is, let the forward part, or luff,
+of the sail shake a bit. Or, in case of a sudden puff of wind, he may
+deem it necessary to "luff"--that is, let her shake--and slacken the
+sheets too.
+
+=Trimmed Flat.=--Sheets hauled in until the boom is only a little to
+the leeward of the helm (Fig. 130).
+
+=Close-hauled.=--Sheets trimmed flat and the boat pointing as near as
+possible to the eye of the wind. Then the sail cannot belly, and is
+called flat (Fig. 130).
+
+
+To Sail Close-hauled
+
+The skipper must watch that his sail does not flap or ripple at the
+throat, for that means that he is pointing too close to the wind and
+that some of the breeze is blowing on both sides of his sail, which
+even a novice can see will retard the boat.
+
+Upon discovering a rippling motion at the luff of the sail put the helm
+up--that is, move the tiller a little to windward until the sail stops
+its flapping.
+
+=Before the Wind.=--When the wind is astern; sailing with the wind;
+sailing directly from windward to leeward (Fig. 131).
+
+In order to reach the desired point it is often expedient to sail
+before the wind, but unless the wind is light, beginners had better not
+try this. To sail before the wind you let your sheets out until the
+boom stands at _almost_ right angles with the boat. Keep your eye on
+the sail and see that it does not flap, for if the man at the helm is
+careless and allows the boat to point enough away from the direction of
+the wind to allow the wind to get on the other side of the sail, the
+latter will swing around or jibe with such force as to endanger the
+mast, if it does not knock some one overboard.
+
+The price of liberty is constant vigilance, and the price of a good
+sail is the same. I have seen a mast snapped off clean at the deck by
+a jibe, and once when out after ducks every one was so intent upon the
+game that proper attention was not paid to the sail. The wind got
+round and brought the boom with a swing aft, knocking the captain of
+our boat club overboard. Had the boom hit him in the head and stunned
+him, the result might have been fatal.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132.--Boom hauled in.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133.--On new course.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131½.--Before the wind.]
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 131½, 132, and 133.--Jibing.]
+
+=Wing and Wing.=--When a schooner goes before the wind with one sail
+out at nearly right angles on the port side and the other in the same
+position on the starboard side she is said to be wing and wing and
+presents a beautiful sight.
+
+=Tacking.=--Working to the windward by a series of diagonal moves.
+
+=Legs.=--The moves or diagonal courses made in tacking. It is apparent
+to the most unthinking observer that no vessel propelled by sail can
+move against the direct course of the wind--that is, nothing but
+electricity, naphtha, steam, or some such power can drive a boat into
+the eye of the wind. But what cannot be accomplished in a direct manner
+can be done by a series of compromises, each of which will bring us
+nearer to the desired point.
+
+First we point the boat to the right or left, as the case may be, as
+near or as close to the wind as the boat will sail. Then we come about
+and sail in the other direction as close as practicable to the eye of
+the wind, and each time we gain something in a direct line.
+
+When your boat changes its direction on a tack it is done by "jibing,"
+or "coming about."
+
+=Jibing.=--With the wind on the quarter, haul the main boom aft or
+amidship with all possible speed, by means of the main sheets (Fig.
+132), and as the wind strikes the sail on the other side let it out as
+deliberately as possible until it reaches the position desired (Fig.
+133).
+
+Beginners should never attempt to jibe, for if there is more than a
+capful of wind, the sail will probably get away from them, and, as
+described in going before the wind, some disaster is liable to occur.
+Experts only jibe in light winds, and frequently lower the peak, so as
+to reduce sail, before attempting a jibe.
+
+
+Coming About
+
+When you wish to come about see that all the tackle, ropes, etc., are
+clear and in working order, and that you are making good headway; then
+call out: "Helm's a-lee!" or "Ready about!" and push the tiller in the
+direction opposite to that from which the wind blows--that is, to the
+lee side of the boat. This will bring the bow around until the wind
+strikes the sail upon the side opposite to that which it struck before
+the helm was a-lee (Figs. 134, 135, 136, 137).
+
+If you are aboard a sloop or schooner, ease off the jib-sheet, but keep
+control of it, so that as the boat comes up to the wind you can make
+the jib help the bow around by holding the sheets so as to catch the
+wind aback. When the bow of the craft has passed the eye of the wind
+and the sail begins to fill give the order to make fast, or trim, the
+jib, and off you go upon the opposite tack, or on a new leg.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 134, 135, 136, and 137.--Coming about.]
+
+If the wind is light, or if, for any cause, the boat works slowly, you
+can sometimes help her by trimming in the main sheet when you let the
+jib-sheet fly. In the diagram of coming about no jib is shown.
+
+=Wearing= is a term sometimes used in place of jibing.
+
+
+In a Thunder-storm
+
+A thunder-storm is always an uncertain thing. There may be a veritable
+tornado hidden in the black clouds that we see rising on the
+horizon, or it may simply "iron out the wind"--that is, go grumbling
+overhead--and leave us becalmed, to get home the best way we can;
+generally by what the boys call a "white-ash breeze"--that is, by using
+the sweeps or oars.
+
+On Long Island Sound a thunder-storm seems to have certain fixed rules
+of conduct. In the first place, it comes up from the leeward, or
+_against the wind_. Just before the storm strikes you for an instant
+the wind ceases and the sails flap idly. Then look out! for in nine
+cases out of ten you are struck the next moment by a sudden squall from
+exactly the opposite direction from which the wind blew a moment before.
+
+
+What to Do
+
+Make for the nearest port with all speed, and keep a man at the
+downhaul ready at a moment's notice to lower sail. The moment the wind
+stops drop the sail and make everything snug, leaving only bare poles.
+When the thunder-squall strikes you, be it ever so hard, you are now in
+little danger; and if the wind from the new quarter is not too fresh,
+you can hoist sail again and make the best of your way to the nearest
+port, where you can "get in out of the wet."
+
+If the wind is quite fresh keep your peak down, and with a reefed sail
+speed on your way. If it is a regular howler, let your boat drive
+before the wind under bare poles until you can find shelter or until
+it blows over, and the worst mishap you are likely to incur is a good
+soaking from the rain.
+
+=Shortening Sail.=--Just as soon as the boat heels over too far for
+safety, or as soon as you are convinced that there is more wind than
+you need for comfortable sailing, it is time to take a reef--that
+is, to roll up the bottom of the sail to the row of little ropes, or
+reefing points, on the sail and make fast there. This, of course, makes
+a smaller sail, and that is what you wish.
+
+While under way it will be found impossible to reef a sail except
+when sailing close-hauled. So the boat is brought up into the wind by
+pushing the helm down, as if you intended to come about. When possible
+it is better to lower the sail entirely before attempting to put in a
+reef.
+
+
+To Reef Without Lowering Sail
+
+It sometimes happens that on account of the proximity of a lee shore,
+and the consequent danger of drifting in that direction, or for some
+other equally good reason, it is inadvisable to lower sail and lose
+headway. Under such circumstances the main sheet must be trimmed flat,
+keeping the boat as close as possible to the wind, the helm must be put
+up hard a-lee, and jib-sheet trimmed to windward (Fig. 138).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138.--Squirming; jib on port side, boom
+close-hauled on starboard side.]
+
+When this is done the wind will hit the jib, "paying her head off," or
+pushing her bow to leeward, and this tendency is counteracted by the
+helm and mainsail, bringing the bow up into the wind. This keeps the
+boat squirming. Lower the mainsail until the row of reef points is just
+on a line with the boom, keeping to the windward of the sail. Tie the
+first point--that is, the one on the luff rope--then the one on the
+leach, being careful to stretch out the foot of the sail. Then tie the
+remaining points, always making a square or reefing knot. Tie them to
+the jack-stay on the boom or around the boom.
+
+
+The Reef or Square Knot
+
+is most frequently used, as its name implies, in reefing sails. First
+make a plain overhand knot, as in Fig. 139. Then repeat the operation
+by taking the end and passing it over and under the loop, drawing the
+parts tight, as shown in Fig. 140. Care should be observed in crossing
+the ends so that they will always lay fairly alongside the main parts.
+Otherwise the knot will prove a _granny_ and be comparatively worthless.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 139 and 140.--Square or reef knot.]
+
+
+To Shake Out a Reef
+
+untie the knots, keeping to the windward of the sail. Untie the knot
+at the leach first, next the one at the luff, and then the remaining
+points. In lowering a sail you use a rope called the =downhaul=.
+
+=Starboard Tack.=--When the main boom is over the port side.
+
+=Port Tack.=--When the main boom is over the starboard side.
+
+=Right of Way.=--All boats sailing on the starboard tack have the right
+of way over all those on the port tack. In other words, if you are on
+the starboard tack, those on the port tack must keep out of your way.
+Any boat sailing close-hauled has the right of way over a boat sailing
+free.
+
+
+Lights for Canoe
+
+A canoe under sail at night should have an uncolored lantern hung to
+her mizzen-mast to notify other craft that she is out and objects to
+being run down. The light is put on the mizzen so that it may be behind
+the skipper and not dazzle him.
+
+What you have read in the foregoing pages will not be found very
+difficult to remember, but there is only one way to learn to sail and
+that is by _sailing_. If possible, sail with some one who is a good
+seaman. If this sort of companion cannot be had, try it alone on smooth
+water and with short sail until you accustom yourself to the boat and
+its peculiarities. No boy ever learned to skate or swim from books, but
+books often have been helpful in giving useful hints to those who were
+really learning by practical experience.
+
+
+Some Do Nots
+
+  Do not overload the boat.
+  Do not carry too much sail.
+  Do not sail in strange waters without chart or compass.
+  Do not forget your anchor.
+  Do not forget your paddles or oars.
+  Do not attempt to learn to sail before you know how to swim.
+  Do not sit on the gunwale.
+  Do not put the helm down too suddenly or too far.
+  Do not let go the helm.
+  Do not mistake caution for cowardice.
+  Do not be afraid to reef.
+  Do not fear the ridicule of other landlubbers.
+  Do not fail to keep the halyards and sheets clear.
+  Do not jibe in a stiff wind.
+  Do not fail to keep your head in times of emergency.
+  Do not make a display of bravery until the occasion demands it.
+  Do not allow mistakes or mishaps to discourage you.
+  Do not associate with a fool who rocks a boat.
+
+You will soon become an expert and be able to engage in one of our most
+exhilarating, healthy, and manly sports and earn the proud distinction
+of being a good small-boat sailor.
+
+
+It is Necessary to Learn to Swim
+
+From the parents' point of view, nowhere that a boy's restless nature
+impels him to go is fraught with so much peril as the water, and
+nowhere is a boy happier than when he is on the water, unless it is
+when he is in it. Nowhere can be found a better school for his young
+mind and body than that furnished by boating. Hence it appears to be
+the imperative duty for parents personally to see that their children
+are taught to swim as soon as their little limbs have strength enough
+to make the proper motions.
+
+
+Boating-Clothes
+
+In aquatic sports of all kinds, if you expect to have fun, you must
+dress appropriately. You should have a suit of old clothes that you
+can change for dry ones when the sport is over. When boating, it is
+nonsense to pretend you can keep dry under all the varying conditions
+of wind and weather. If your purse is small, and you want a good
+rowing-suit, it can be made of last winter's woollen underclothes, and
+will answer for the double purpose of rowing and bathing.
+
+
+How to Make a Bathing-Suit
+
+First take an old woollen undershirt and cut the sleeves off above the
+elbows. Then coax your mother, aunt, or sister to sew it up in front
+like a sweater, and hem the edges of the sleeves where they have just
+been cut off.
+
+Next take a pair of woollen drawers and have them sewed up in front,
+leaving an opening at the top about four inches in length; turn the
+top edge down all around to cover a piece of tape that should be long
+enough to tie in front. Have this hem or flap sewed down to cover the
+tape, and allow the two ends of the tape to protrude at the opening
+in front. The tape should not be sewed to the cloth, but should move
+freely, so that you can tighten or loosen it at will. Cut the drawers
+off at the knees and have the edges hemmed, and you will have a
+first-class bathing or rowing-suit.
+
+If woollen clothes are not to be had, cotton will do, but wool is
+coolest and warmest, as the occasion may require.
+
+When rowing wear old socks, woollen ones if you have them, and old
+shoes cut down like slippers. The latter can be kicked off at a
+moment's notice, and, if lost, they are of no value, and may be easily
+replaced.
+
+When on shore a long pair of woollen stockings to cover your bare
+legs and a sweater to pull over your sleeveless shirt are handy and
+comfortable, but while sailing, paddling, or rowing in hot weather the
+rowing-suit is generally all that comfort requires. Of course, if your
+skin is tender, you are liable to be terribly sunburned on your arms,
+neck, and legs; but
+
+
+Sunburn
+
+may be avoided by gradually accustoming your limbs to the exposure.
+Dearly will you pay for your negligence if you go out for a day with
+bare arms or legs in the hot sun before you have toughened yourself,
+and little will you sleep that night.
+
+I have seen young men going to business the day following a regatta
+with no collars on their red necks, and no shirt over their soft
+undershirts, the skin being too tender to bear the touch of the stiff,
+starched linen, and I have known others who could not sleep a wink on
+account of the feverish state of their bodies, caused by the hot sun
+and a tender skin. Most boys have had some experience from sunburn,
+acquired while bathing. If care is taken to cover your arms and legs
+after about an hour's exposure, you will find that in place of being
+blistered, your skin will be first pink and then a faint brownish tint,
+which each succeeding exposure will deepen until your limbs will assume
+that dark, rich mahogany color of which athletes are so proud. This
+makes your skin proof against future attacks of the hottest rays of the
+sun.
+
+Besides the pain and discomfort of a sudden and bad sunburn on your
+arms, the effect is not desirable, as it is very liable to cover your
+arms with freckles. I have often seen men with beautifully bronzed arms
+and freckled shoulders, caused by going out in their shells first with
+short sleeves and then with shirts from which the sleeves were entirely
+cut away, exposing the white, tender shoulders to the fierce heat, to
+which they were unaccustomed.
+
+It is a good plan to cover the exposed parts of your body with
+sweet-oil, vaseline, mutton-tallow, beef-tallow, or lard. This is good
+as a preventive while in the sun, and excellent as an application after
+exposure. Any sort of oil or grease that does not contain salt is good
+for your skin.
+
+
+Clothes for Canoeing
+
+In canoeing I have found it convenient to dress as I would in a shell
+boat, but I generally have had a sweater and a pair of long trousers
+stowed away, ready to be pulled on over my rowing-clothes when I
+landed. Once, when I neglected to put these extra clothes aboard, I
+was storm-bound up Long Island Sound, and, leaving my boat, I took the
+train home, but I did not enjoy my trip, for the bare legs and arms and
+knit cap attracted more attention than is pleasant for a modest man.
+
+Do not wear laced shoes in a canoe, for experience has taught
+boating-men that about the most inconvenient articles of clothing to
+wear in the water are laced shoes. While swimming your feet are of
+absolutely no use if incased in this style of foot-gear, and all the
+work must be done with the arms. But if you have old slippers, they may
+be kicked off, and then you are dressed practically in a bathing-suit,
+and can swim with comfort and ease.
+
+Possibly these precautions may suggest the idea that a ducking is not
+at all an improbable accident, and it must be confessed that the boy
+who thinks he can learn to handle small boats without an occasional
+unlooked-for swim is liable to discover his mistake before he has
+become master of his craft.
+
+
+Stick to Your Boat
+
+Always remember that a wet head is a very small object in the water,
+and liable to be passed by unnoticed, but that a capsized boat can
+scarcely fail to attract attention and insure a speedy rescue from an
+awkward position. As for the real danger of boating, it cannot be great
+where care is used. Not one fatality has occurred on the water, among
+all of my large circle of boating friends, and personally I have never
+witnessed a fatal accident in all the years I have spent rowing and
+sailing.
+
+
+Life-Preservers
+
+All canoes should have a good cork life-preserver in them when the
+owner ventures away from land. I never but once ventured any distance
+without one, and that is the only time I was ever in need of a
+life-preserver. The ordinary cork jacket is best. It can be used for
+a seat, and when spread on the bottom of your canoe, with an old
+coat or some article thrown over it for a cushion, it is not at all
+an uncomfortable seat. Most canoes have airtight compartments fore
+and aft--that is, at both ends--and the boat itself is then a good
+life-preserver. Even without the airtight compartments, unless your
+boat is loaded with ballast or freight, there is no danger of its
+sinking. A canvas canoe, as a rule, has enough woodwork about it to
+support your weight when the boat is full of water.
+
+An upset canvas canoe supported me for an hour and a half during a blow
+on Long Island Sound, and had not a passing steamer rescued me, the
+canoe would evidently have buoyed me up as long as I could have held on
+to the hull.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+HOW TO RIG AND SAIL SMALL BOATS
+
+
+How to Make a Lee-Board for a Canoe
+
+NOW that the open canvas canoe has become so popular the demand has
+arisen for some arrangement by which it may be used with sails. Of
+course it is an easy matter to rig sails on almost any sort of craft,
+but unless there is a keel or a centreboard the boat will make lee-way,
+_i. e._, it will have no hold on the water, and when you try to tack,
+the boat will blow sideways, which may be fraught with serious results.
+The only time that the author ever got in a serious scrape with his
+canoe, was when he carelessly sailed out in a storm, leaving the key
+to his fan centreboard at the boat-house. Being unable to let down the
+centreboard, he was eventually driven out to sea, and when he became
+too fatigued to move quickly was capsized.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140.--Lee-board. Fig. 140_a_.--Bolt and
+thumb-screw.]
+
+Now to prevent such occurrences and to do away with the inconvenience
+of the centreboard in an open canoe, various designs of lee-boards have
+been made. A lee-board is, practically speaking, a double centreboard.
+The paddle-like form of the blades of the boards given in Fig. 140 give
+them a good hold on the water when they are below the surface, and they
+can also be allowed to swing clear of the water when temporarily out of
+use. Or they may be removed and stowed away in the canoe. As you see by
+the diagram the two blades are connected by a spruce rod; the blades
+themselves may be made of some hard wood, like cherry, and bevelled at
+the edges like a canoe-paddle. They should be a scant foot in width and
+a few inches over two feet long, and cut out of three-quarter-inch
+material. The spruce cross-bar is about one and a half inch in
+diameter, the ends of which are thrust through a hole in the upper end
+of each lee-board. A small hole is bored in the top of each lee-board,
+down through the ends of the cross-board, and when a galvanized-iron
+pin is pushed down through this hole, it will prevent the bar from
+turning in its socket. A couple more galvanized-iron pins or bars fit
+in holes in the spruce cross-bar, as shown in the diagram (Fig. 140).
+At the top end of each of these metal bolts is a thumb-screw which runs
+down over the thread of the bolt. The bottom or lower end is bent at
+right angles that it may be fitted under the gunwale of the canoe, and
+tightened by twisting the thumb-screws. The advantage of this sort of
+arrangement is that the lee-boards may be slid backward or forward and
+so adjusted that the canoe will sail in the direction in which it is
+steered. The place where the lee-board is to be fastened can only be
+found by experiment. When it is too far toward the bow, the boat will
+show a desire to come up against the wind, thus making work for the
+steersman to keep the wind in the sails. If the lee-board is fastened
+too far toward the stern the canoe will show a decided determination to
+swing around with its stern to the wind, which is a dangerous trick for
+a well-trained craft to indulge in.
+
+I have seen open canvas canoes at the outfitting stores marked as low
+as seventeen dollars, but they usually cost twenty-five dollars or
+more, and I would advise ambitious canoeists to build their own canoes,
+and even to make their own lee-boards, although it would be cheaper to
+buy the latter.
+
+
+How to Rig and Sail Small Boats
+
+To have the tiller in one's own hands and feel competent, under all
+ordinary circumstances, to bring a boat safely into port, gives the
+same zest and excitement to a sail (only in a far greater degree) that
+the handling of the whip and reins over a lively trotter does to a
+drive.
+
+Knowing and feeling this, it was my intention to devote a couple of
+chapters to telling how to sail a boat; but through the kind courtesy
+of the editor of _The American Canoeist_, I am able to do much better
+by giving my readers a talk on this subject by one whose theoretical
+knowledge and practical experience renders him pre-eminently fit to
+give reliable advice and counsel. The following is what Mr. Charles
+Ledyard Norton, editor of the above-mentioned journal, says:
+
+Very many persons seem to ignore the fact that a boy who knows how
+to manage a gun is, upon the whole, less likely to be shot than one
+who is a bungler through ignorance, or that a good swimmer is less
+likely to be drowned than a poor one. Such, however, is the truth
+beyond question. If a skilled sportsman is now and then shot, or an
+expert swimmer drowned, the fault is not apt to be his own, and if
+the one who is really to blame had received proper training, it is not
+likely that the accident would have occurred at all. The same argument
+holds good with regard to the management of boats, and the author is
+confident that he merits the thanks of mothers, whether he receives
+them or not, for giving their boys a few hints as to practical rigging
+and sailing.
+
+In general, there are three ways of learning how to sail boats. First,
+from the light of nature, which is a poor way; second, from books,
+which is better; and third, from another fellow who knows how, which
+is best of all. I will try to make this article as much like the other
+fellow and as little bookish as possible.
+
+Of course, what I shall say in these few paragraphs will be of small
+use to those who live within reach of the sea or some big lake and have
+always been used to boats; but there are thousands and thousands of
+boys and men who never saw the sea, nor even set eyes on a sail, and
+who have not the least idea how to make the wind take them where they
+want to go. I once knew some young men from the interior who went down
+to the sea-side and hired a boat, with the idea that they had nothing
+to do but hoist the sail and be blown wherever they liked. The result
+was that they performed a remarkable set of manoeuvres within sight
+of the boat-house, and at last went helplessly out to sea and had to be
+sent after and brought back, when they were well laughed at for their
+performances, and had reason to consider themselves lucky for having
+gotten off so cheaply.
+
+The general principles of sailing are as simple as the national game of
+"one ole cat." That is to say, if the wind always blew moderately and
+steadily, it would be as easy and as safe to sail a boat as it is to
+drive a steady old family horse of good and regular habits. The fact,
+however, is that winds and currents are variable in their moods, and as
+capable of unexpected freaks as the most fiery of unbroken colts; but
+when properly watched and humored they are tractable and fascinating
+playmates and servants.
+
+Now, let us come right down to first principles. Take a bit of pine
+board, sharpen it at one end, set up a mast about a quarter of the
+length of the whole piece from the bow, fit on a square piece of stiff
+paper or card for a sail, and you are ready for action. Put this in the
+water, with the sail set squarely across (A, Fig. 141), and she will
+run off before the wind--which is supposed to be blowing as indicated
+by the arrow--at a good rate of speed. If she does not steer herself,
+put a small weight near the stern, or square end; or, if you like,
+arrange a thin bit of wood for a rudder.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141.
+
+Lesson in sailing for beginners.]
+
+Probably the first primeval man who was born with nautical instincts
+discovered this fact, and, using a bush for a sail, greatly astonished
+his fellow primevals by winning some prehistoric regatta. But that
+was all he could do. He was as helpless as a balloonist is in midair.
+He could go, but he could not get back, and we may be sure that
+ages passed away before the possibility of sailing to windward was
+discovered.
+
+Now, put up or "step" another mast and sail like the first, about as
+far from the stern as the first is from the bow. Turn the two sails at
+an angle of forty-five degrees across the boat (B or C, Fig. 141) and
+set her adrift. She will make considerable progress across the course
+of the wind, although she will at the same time drift with it. If she
+wholly refuses to go in the right direction, place a light weight on
+her bow, so that she will be a little "down by the head," or move the
+aftermost mast and sail a little nearer to the stern.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142.--Tacking.]
+
+The little rude affair thus used for experiment will not actually
+make any progress to windward, because she is so light that she moves
+sidewise almost as easily as she does forward. With a larger, deeper
+boat, and with sails which can be set at any angle, the effect will
+be different. So long as the wind presses against the after side of
+the sail, the boat will move through the water in the direction of the
+least resistance, which is forward. A square sail having the mast in
+the middle was easiest to begin with for purposes of explanation; but
+now we will change to a "fore-and-aft" rig--that is, one with the mast
+at the forward edge or "luff" of the sail, as in Fig. 142. Suppose the
+sail to be set at the angle shown, and the wind blowing as the arrow
+points. The boat cannot readily move sidewise, because of the broadside
+resistance; she does not move backward, because the wind is pressing on
+the aftermost side of the sail. So she very naturally moves forward.
+When she nears buoy No. 1, the helmsman moves the "tiller," or handle
+of the rudder, toward the sail. This causes the boat to turn her head
+toward buoy No. 2, the sail swings across to the other side of the
+boat and fills on that side, which now in turn becomes the aftermost,
+and she moves toward buoy No. 2 nearly at right angles to her former
+course. Thus, through a series of zigzags, the wind is made to work
+against itself. This operation is called "tacking," or "working to
+windward," and the act of turning, as at the buoys No. 1 and No. 2, is
+called "going about."
+
+It will be seen, then, that the science of sailing lies in being able
+to manage a boat with her head pointing at any possible angle to or
+from the wind. Nothing but experience can teach one all the niceties
+of the art, but a little aptitude and address will do to start with,
+keeping near shore and carrying little sail.
+
+
+Simplest Rig Possible
+
+I will suppose that the reader has the use of a broad, flat-bottomed
+boat without any rudder. (See Fig. 143.) She cannot be made to work
+like a racing yacht under canvas, but lots of fun can be had out of her.
+
+Do not go to any considerable expense at the outset. Procure an old
+sheet, or an old hay cover, six or eight feet square, and experiment
+with that before spending your money on new material. If it is a sheet,
+and somewhat weakly in its texture, turn all the edges in and sew them,
+so that it shall not give way at the hems. At each corner sew on a few
+inches of strong twine, forming loops at the angles. Sew on, also,
+eyelets or small loops along the edge which is intended for the luff of
+the sail, so that it can be laced to the mast.
+
+You are now ready for your spars, namely, a mast and a "sprit,"
+the former a couple of feet longer than the luff of the sail, and
+the latter to be cut off when you find how long you want it. Let
+these spars be of pine, or spruce, or bamboo--as light as possible,
+especially the sprit. An inch and a half diameter will do for the mast,
+and an inch and a quarter for the sprit, tapering to an inch at the
+top. To "step" the mast, bore a hole through one of the thwarts (seats)
+near the bow and make a socket or step on the bottom of the boat, just
+under the aforesaid hole--or if anything a trifle farther forward--to
+receive the foot of the mast. This will hold the mast upright, or with
+a slight "rake" aft.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143.--A simple rig.]
+
+Lace the luff of the sail to the mast so that its lower edge will swing
+clear by a foot or so of the boat's sides. Make fast to the loop at D
+a stout line, ten or twelve feet long. This is called the "sheet," and
+gives control of the sail. The upper end of the sprit, C, E, is trimmed
+so that the loop at C will fit over it but not slip down. The lower
+end is simply notched to receive a short line called a "snotter," as
+shown in the detailed drawing at the right of the cut (Fig. 143). It
+will be readily understood that, when the sprit is pushed upward in the
+direction of C, the sail will stand spread out. The line is placed in
+the notch at E and pulled up until the sail sets properly, when it is
+made fast to a cleat or to a cross-piece at F. This device is in common
+use and has its advantages, but a simple loop for the foot of the sprit
+to rest in is more easily made and will do nearly as well. H is an
+oar for steering. Having thus described the simplest rig possible, we
+may turn our attention to more elegant and elaborate but not always
+preferable outfits.
+
+
+Leg-of-Mutton Rig
+
+One of the prettiest and most convenient rigs for a small boat is known
+as the "leg-of-mutton sharpie rig" (Fig. 144). The sail is triangular,
+and the sprit, instead of reaching to its upper corner, stands nearly
+at right angles to the mast. It is held in position at the mast by the
+devices already described. This rig has the advantage of keeping the
+whole sail flatter than any other, for the end of the sprit cannot
+"kick up," as the phrase goes, and so the sail holds all the wind it
+receives.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144.]
+
+Fig. 145 shows a device, published for the first time in the _St.
+Nicholas Magazine_ for September, 1880, which enables the sailor to
+step and unstep his mast, and hoist or lower his sail without leaving
+his seat--a matter of great importance when the boat is light and
+tottlish, as in the case of that most beautiful of small craft, the
+modern canoe, where the navigator sits habitually amidships. The lower
+mast (A, B, Fig. 145) stands about two and a half feet above the deck.
+It is fitted at the head with a metal ferrule and pin, and just above
+the deck with two half-cleats or other similar devices (A). The topmast
+(C, D) is fitted at F with a stout ring, and has double halyards (E)
+rove through or around its foot. The lower mast being in position (see
+lower part of Fig. 145), the canoeist desiring to make sail brings
+the boat's head to the wind, takes the topmast with the sail loosely
+furled in one hand and the halyards in the other. It is easy for him by
+raising this mast, without leaving his seat, to pass the halyards one
+on each side of the lower mast and let them fall into place close to
+the deck under the half-cleats at A. Then, holding the halyards taut
+enough to keep them in position, he will hook the topmast ring over the
+pin in the lower mast-heat and haul away (see top part of Fig. 145).
+The mast will rise into place, where it is made fast. A collar of
+leather, or a knob of some kind, placed on the topmast just below the
+ring, will act as a fulcrum when the halyards are hauled taut and keep
+the mast from working to and fro.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145.--A new device.]
+
+The advantages of the rig are obvious. The mast can be raised without
+standing up, and in case of necessity the halyards can be let go and
+the mast and sail unshipped and stowed below with the greatest ease and
+expedition, leaving only the short lower mast standing. A leg-of-mutton
+sail with a common boom along the foot is shown in the cut as the most
+easily illustrated application of the device, but there is no reason
+why it may not be applied to a sail of different shape, with a sprit
+instead of a boom, and a square instead of a pointed head.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146.--The latteen rig.]
+
+
+The Latteen Rig
+
+is recommended only for boats which are "stiff"--not tottlish, that
+is. The fact that a considerable portion of the sail projects forward
+of the mast renders it awkward in case of a sudden shift of wind. Its
+most convenient form is shown in Fig. 146. The arrangement for shipping
+and unshipping the yard is precisely like that shown in Fig. 145--a
+short lower mast with a pin at the top and a ring fitted to the yard.
+It has a boom at the foot which is joined to the yard at C by means of
+a hook or a simple lashing, having sufficient play to allow the two
+spars to shut up together like a pair of dividers. The boom (C, E) has,
+where it meets the short lower mast, a half-cleat, or jaw, shown in
+detail at the bottom of the cut (Fig. 146), the circle representing a
+cross-section of the mast. This should be lashed to the boom, as screws
+or bolts would weaken it. To take in sail, the boatman brings the boat
+to the wind, seizes the boom and draws it toward him. This disengages
+it from the mast. He then shoves it forward, when the yard (C, D) falls
+of its own weight into his hands and can be at once lifted clear of the
+lower mast. To keep the sail flat, it is possible to arrange a collar
+on the lower mast so that the boom, when once in position, cannot slip
+upward and suffer the sail to bag.
+
+
+The Cat-Rig
+
+so popular on the North Atlantic coast, is indicated in Fig. 148. The
+spar at the head of the sail is called a "gaff," and, like the boom, it
+fits the mast with semicircular jaws. The sail is hoisted and lowered
+by means of halyards rove through a block near the mast-head. The
+mast is set in the bows--"Chock up in the eyes of her," as a sailor
+would say. A single leg-of-mutton sail will not work in this position,
+because the greater part of its area is too far forward of amidships.
+No rig is handier or safer than this in working to windward; but off
+the wind--running before, or nearly before it, that is--the weight
+of mast and sail, and the pressure of the wind at one side and far
+forward, make the boat very difficult and dangerous to steer. Prudent
+boatmen often avoid doing so by keeping the wind on the quarter and, as
+it were, tacking to leeward.
+
+This suggests the question of "jibing," an operation always to be
+avoided if possible. Suppose the wind to be astern, and the boat
+running nearly before it, it becomes necessary to change your course
+toward the side on which the sail is drawing. The safest way is to
+turn at first in the opposite direction, put the helm "down" (toward
+the sail), bring the boat up into the wind, turn her entirely around,
+and stand off on the new tack. This, however, is not always possible.
+Hauling in the sheet until the sail fills on the other side is
+"jibing"; but when this happens it goes over with a rush that sometimes
+carries mast and sheet or upsets the boat; hence the operation should
+be first undertaken in a light wind. It is necessary to know how to do
+it, for sometimes a sail insists upon jibing very unexpectedly, and it
+is best to be prepared for such emergencies.
+
+
+How to Make a Sail
+
+For the sails of small boats there is no better material than
+unbleached twilled cotton sheeting. It is to be had two and a half or
+even three yards wide. In cutting out your sail, let the selvage be at
+the "leech," or after-most edge. This, of course, makes it necessary to
+cut the luff and foot "bias," and they are very likely to stretch in
+the making, so that the sail will assume a different shape from what
+was intended. To avoid this, baste the hem carefully before sewing, and
+"hold in" a little to prevent fulling. It is a good plan to tack the
+material on the floor before cutting, and mark the outline of the sail
+with pencil. Stout tape stitched along the bias edges will make a sure
+thing of it, and the material can be cut, making due allowance for the
+hem. Better take feminine advice on this process. The hems should be
+half an inch deep all around, selvage and all, and it will do no harm
+to reinforce them with cord if you wish to make a thoroughly good piece
+of work.
+
+For running-rigging, nothing is better than laid or braided cotton
+cord, such as is used for awnings and sash-cords. If this is not easily
+procured, any stout twine will answer. It can be doubled and twisted
+as often as necessary. The smallest manila rope is rather stiff and
+unmanageable for such light sails as ours.
+
+In fitting out a boat of any kind, iron, unless galvanized, is to be
+avoided as much as possible, on account of its liability to rust. Use
+brass or copper instead.
+
+
+Hints to Beginners
+
+Nothing has been said about reefing thus far, because small boats under
+the management of beginners should not be afloat in a "reefing breeze."
+Reefing is the operation of reducing the spread of sail when the wind
+becomes too fresh. If you will look at Fig. 146 you will see rows of
+short marks on the sail above the boom. These are "reef-points"--bits
+of line about a foot long passing through holes in the sail and knotted
+so that they will not slip. In reefing, the sail is lowered and
+that portion of it between the boom and the reef-points is gathered
+together, and the points are tied around both it and the boom. When the
+lower row of points is used it is a single reef. Both rows together are
+a double reef.
+
+Make your first practical experiment _with a small sail and with the
+wind blowing toward the shore_. Row out a little way, and then sail in
+any direction in which you can make the boat go, straight back to shore
+if you can, with the sail out nearly at right angles with the boat.
+Then try running along shore with the sheet hauled in a little and
+the sail on the side nearest the shore. You will soon learn what your
+craft can do, and will probably find that she will make very little, if
+any, headway to windward. This is partly because she slides sidewise
+over the water. To prevent it you may use a "lee-board"--namely, a
+broad board hung over the side of the boat (G, Fig. 143). This must be
+held by stout lines, as the strain upon it is very heavy. It should be
+placed a little forward of the middle of the boat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147.--Making port.]
+
+It must be on the side away from the wind--the lee side--and must
+be shifted when you go about. Keels and centreboards are permanent
+contrivances for the same purpose, but a lee-board answers very well as
+a makeshift, and is even used habitually by some canoeists and other
+boatmen.
+
+In small boats it is sometimes desirable to sit amidships, because
+sitting in the stern raises the bow too high out of water; steering may
+be done with an oar over the lee side, or with "yoke-lines" attached to
+a cross-piece on the rudder-head, or even to the tiller. In this last
+case the lines must be rove through rings or pulleys at the sides of
+the boat opposite the end of the tiller. When the handle of the oar (H,
+Fig. 143)--or the tiller (F, Fig. 146) if a rudder is used--is pushed
+to the right, the boat will turn to the left, and _vice versa_. The
+science of steering consists in knowing when to push and how much to
+push--very simple, you see, in the statement, but not always so easy in
+practice.
+
+The sail should be so adjusted in relation to the rest of the boat
+that, when the sheet is hauled close in and made fast, the boat, if
+left to herself, will point her head to the wind like a weather-cock
+and drift slowly astern. If it is found that the sail is so far forward
+that she will not do this, the fault may be remedied by stepping the
+mast further aft or by rigging a small sail near the stern. This is
+called a "dandy" or "steering sail," and is especially convenient in a
+boat whose size or arrangement necessitates sitting amidships. It may
+be rigged like the mainsail, and when its sheet is once made fast will
+ordinarily take care of itself in tacking.
+
+Remember that, if the wind freshens or a squall strikes you, the
+position of safety is with the boat's head to the wind. When in doubt
+what to do, push the helm down (toward the sail) and haul in the slack
+of the sheet as the boat comes up into the wind. If she is moving
+astern, or will not mind her helm--and of course she will not if she is
+not moving--pull her head around to the wind with an oar and experiment
+cautiously until you find which way you can make her go.
+
+In making a landing, always calculate to have the boat's head as near
+the wind as possible when she ceases to move, this whether you lower
+your sail or not.
+
+Thus, if the wind is off shore, as shown at A, Fig. 147, land at F or
+G, with the bow toward the shore. If the wind is from the direction of
+B, land at E, with the bow toward B or at F; if at the latter, the boom
+will swing away from the wharf and permit you to lie alongside. If the
+wind is from D, reverse these positions. If the wind comes from the
+direction of C, land either at F or G, with the bow pointing off shore.
+
+If you have no one to tell you what to do, you will have to feel your
+way slowly and learn by experience; but if you have nautical instincts
+you will soon make your boat do what you wish her to do as far as she
+is able. _But first learn to swim before you try to sail a boat._
+
+Volumes have been written on the subject treated in these few pages,
+and it is not yet exhausted. The hints here given are safe ones to
+follow, and will, it is hoped, be of service to many a young sailor in
+many a corner of the world.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MORE RIGS OF ALL KINDS FOR SMALL BOATS
+
+    How to Distinguish between a Ship, Bark, Brig, and
+    Schooner--Merits and Defects of Catboats--Advantages of
+    the Sloop--Rigs for Canoes--Buckeyes and Sharpies
+
+
+THE two principal rigs for vessels are the fore-and-aft and the square
+rig.
+
+=Square rigged= consists in having the principal sails extended by
+yards suspended at the middle (Fig. 159).
+
+=Fore-and-aft rigged= is having the principal sails extended by booms
+and gaffs suspended by their ends (Figs. 148, 149, 150, 156, and 161).
+
+Barks, brigs, and ships are all more or less square rigged, but
+schooners, sloops, and catboats are all fore-and-aft rigged. In these
+notes the larger forms of boats are mentioned only because of the
+well-known interest boys take in all nautical matters, but no detailed
+description of the larger craft will be given. All that is aimed at
+here is to give the salient points, so that the youngsters will know
+the name of the rig when they see it.
+
+
+The Cat
+
+There is a little snub-nosed American who, in spite of her short body
+and broad waist, is deservedly popular among all our amateur sailors.
+
+The appreciation of her charms is felt and acknowledged by all her
+companions without envy, not because of her saucy looks, but on account
+of her accommodating manners.
+
+Possessing a rare ability for quick movement, and a wonderful
+power to bore her way almost into the very eye of the wind, or with
+double-reefed sail to dash through the storm or gently slide up
+alongside of a wharf or dock as easily as a rowboat, the American
+catboat, with her single mast "chock up in the eyes of her," has
+made a permanent place for herself among our pleasure craft, and is
+omnipresent in our crowded bays and harbors.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148.--The snub-nosed American cat.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149.--Jib and mainsail.]
+
+Knowing that there is little danger of the catboat losing its
+well-earned popularity, and being somewhat familiar with many of her
+peculiarities, I am free to say that this rig, notwithstanding its
+numerous good points, has many serious defects as a school-ship, and
+the beginner had better select some other rig with which to begin his
+practice sailing.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150.--Schooner rig for open boat. Boom on mainsail,
+none on foresail.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 151.--The balance lug.]
+
+First, the great sail is very heavy and difficult to hoist and reef.
+Second, in going before the wind there is constant danger of jibing,
+with serious results. Third, the catboat has a very bad habit of
+rolling when sailing before the wind, and each time the boat rolls
+from side to side she is liable to dip the end of her heavy boom in
+the water and "trip herself up." When a boat trips _up_ she does
+not necessarily go _down_, but she is likely to upset, placing the
+young sailors in an unenviable, if not a dangerous, position. Fourth,
+when the craft begins to swagger before the wind she is liable to
+"goose-neck"; that is, throw her boom up against the mast, which is
+another accident fraught with the possibilities of serious mischief.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 152.--Standing lug.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 153.--Leg-of-mutton sail. Jib and main sail rig.]
+
+The catboat has no bowsprit, no jib, and no topsail (Fig. 148), but
+that most graceful of all single-stickers,
+
+
+The Sloop
+
+possesses several jibs, a bowsprit, and topsail. Besides these, when
+she is in racing trim, a number of additional sails are used. All our
+great racers are sloops, and this rig is the most convenient for small
+yachts and cutters.
+
+Racing Sloops
+
+A racing sloop (Fig. 161) carries a mainsail, A, a fore staysail, B, a
+jib, C, a gaff topsail, D, a club topsail, E, a baby jib topsail, F, a
+No. 2 jib topsail, G, a No. 1 jib topsail, H, a balloon jib topsail, J
+(Fig. 157), and a spinnaker, K (Fig. 157).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 160. Fig. 161.
+
+Figs. 154-161.--Rigs that we meet at sea.]
+
+
+Jib and Mainsail
+
+A small sloop's sails are a mainsail, jib, and topsail. A sloop rig
+without topsail is called a jib and mainsail (Fig. 149).
+
+While every small-boat sailor should know a catboat and a sloop when
+he sees them, and even be able to give the proper name to their sails,
+neither of these rigs is very well suited for canoes, sharpies, or
+other boats of the mosquito fleet; but the
+
+
+Schooner Rig
+
+which is the form of boat generally used for the larger yachts, is
+also very much used for open boats. As you can see, by referring to
+Fig. 150, the schooner rig consists of a bowsprit, fore and main mast,
+with their appropriate sails. Lately freight schooners have appeared
+with four or more masts. For small boats two adjustable masts and an
+adjustable bowsprit, as described in the Rough and Ready, Chapter
+XIII, are best. The sails may be sprit sails, Figs. 164-169; balance
+lug, Fig. 151; standing lug, Fig. 152; leg-of-mutton, Fig. 153, or the
+sliding gunter, Fig. 163.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 162.--The buckeye.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 163.--The sliding gunter.]
+
+In the chapter on how to build the Rough and Ready, the sprit sail is
+depicted and fully described.
+
+
+The Balance Lug
+
+comes as near the square sail of a ship as any canvas used on small
+boats, but you can see, by referring to the diagram, Fig. 151, that
+the leach and the luff are not parallel and that the gaff hangs at an
+angle. To boom out the canvas and make it sit flat there are three
+sticks extended across the sail from the front to the back, luff to
+leach, called battens. This has caused some people to call this a
+batten lug. Like the lateen sail, part of the balance lug hangs before
+the mast and serves the purpose of a jib. This rig is said to be easily
+managed and to possess good sailing qualities.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 164.--Sharpie with sprit and club leg-of-mutton
+sails.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 165.
+
+Fig. 166.
+
+Showing detail of sprit club sail.]
+
+
+The Standing Lug
+
+is another sail approaching the square in pattern (Fig. 152), and, as
+any novice can see, is a good canvas with which to scud before the
+wind. It is very convenient for open boats built to be propelled by
+paddles. While the standing lug cannot point up to the eye of the wind
+like a schooner or cat, it is very fast on the wind or when running
+with the wind astern. Probably the safest form of sail used is the old
+reliable
+
+
+Leg-of-Mutton Sail
+
+This is used by the fishermen on their stanch little dories away up on
+the coast of Maine, and by the "tide-water" people in their "buckeyes"
+on Chesapeake Bay. The latter boat is very little known outside of the
+locality where it makes its home, but, like the New Haven sharpies, it
+is very popular in its own waters.
+
+
+The Buckeye
+
+or "bugeye," as it is sometimes vulgarly called, has a great reputation
+for speed and sea-going qualities. When it cannot climb a wave it goes
+through it. This makes a wet boat in heavy weather, but when you travel
+at a high rate of speed you can endure a wet jacket with no complaint,
+especially when you feel that, in spite of the fast-sailing qualities
+of this boat, it is considered a particularly safe craft.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 167.--Plain sprit leg-of-mutton.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 168.
+
+Fig. 169.
+
+Another form of the sprit sail.]
+
+The construction of a =buckeye= (Fig. 162) has been evolved from the
+old dugout canoe of the Indians and the first white settlers. America
+was originally covered with vast forests of immense trees. Remnants of
+these forests still exist in a few localities. It was once possible to
+make a canoe of almost any dimensions desired, but now in the thickly
+settled regions big trees are scarce.
+
+So the Chesapeake Bay boat-builders, while still adhering to the old
+dugout, have overcome the disadvantage of small logs by using more than
+one and bolting the pieces together. Masts and sails have been added,
+and since the increased proportions made it impracticable to drag such
+a craft on the beach when in port, anchors and cables are supplied.
+Two holes bored, one on each side of the stem, for the cables to run
+through, have given the boat the appearance of having eyes, and as the
+eyes are large and round, the negroes called them buckeyes, and this is
+now the name by which all such craft are known.
+
+At first only two masts with leg-of-mutton sails were used, but now
+they have a jib and two sails. With the greatest width or beam about
+one-third the distance from bow to stern, sharp at both ends, its long,
+narrow, and heavy hull is easily driven through the water and makes
+both a fast and stiff boat.
+
+The buckeye travels in shallow as well as deep waters, and hence is
+a centreboard boat, but there is nothing unnecessary on the real
+buckeye--no overhanging bow or stern, for that means additional labor;
+no stays to the masts, for the same reason. The lack of stays to
+stiffen the masts leaves them with "springiness," which in case of a
+sudden squall helps to spill the wind and prevents what might otherwise
+be a "knock-down."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 170.--Lug rig with jigger.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 171.--Lug rig with jigger and jib.]
+
+The foremast is longer than the mainmast and does not rake aft so much,
+but the mainmast has a decided rake, which the colored sailors say
+makes the boat faster on the wind. Sometimes in the smaller boats the
+mainmast can be set upright when going before the wind.
+
+Wealthy gentlemen on the Chesapeake are now building regularly equipped
+yachts on the buckeye plan, and some of them are quite large boats. A
+correspondent of the _Forest and Stream_, in speaking of the buckeye,
+says:
+
+"Last summer I cruised in company with a buckeye, forty-two feet long,
+manned by two gentlemen of Baltimore city. She drew twenty inches
+without the board. In sudden and heavy flaws she was rarely luffed. She
+would lie over and appear to spill the wind out of her tall, sharp
+sails and then right again. Her crew took pleasure in tackling every
+sailing craft for a race; nothing under seventy feet in length ever
+beat her. She steered under any two of her three sails. On one occasion
+this craft, on her way from Cape May to Cape Charles, was driven out to
+sea before a heavy north-west blow. Her crew, the aforesaid gentlemen,
+worn out by fatigue, hove her to and went to sleep. She broke her
+tiller lashing during the night, and when they awoke she was pegging
+away on a south-east course under her jib. They put her about, and in
+twenty hours were inside Cape Henry, pretty well tired out. Buckeyes
+frequently run from Norfolk to New York with fruit. For shallow waters,
+I am satisfied there is no better craft afloat. Built deep, with a
+loaded keel, they would rival the English cutter in seaworthiness and
+speed."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 172.--Jib.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 173.--Sprit sail, schooner rig, with dandy.]
+
+When the hardy, bold fishermen of our Eastern States and the brave
+fishermen down South both use the leg-of-mutton sail, beginners cannot
+object to using it while practising; knowing that even if it is a safe
+sail, it cannot be called a "baby rig." Another safe rig, differing
+little from the leg-of-mutton, is the
+
+
+Sliding Gunter
+
+In this rig the sail is laced to a yard which slides up or down the
+mast by means of two iron hooks or travellers (Fig. 163). No sail with
+a narrow-pointed top is very serviceable before the wind, and the
+sliding gunter is no exception to the rule. But it is useful on the
+wind, and can be reefed easily and quickly, qualities which make it
+many friends.
+
+In the smooth, shallow waters along the coast of North Carolina may be
+seen the long, flat-bottomed
+
+
+Sharpies
+
+Without question they are to be ranked among the fastest boats we have.
+These boats are rigged with a modification of the leg-of-mutton sail.
+The ends of the sprit in the foresail project at the luff and leach.
+At the luff it is fastened to the mast by a line like a snotter at the
+leach. It is fastened to a stick sewed into the sail, called a club.
+The sheet is attached to the end of the sprit (Figs. 164-168).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 174.--Sprit sail jib and dandy.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 175.--The lateen rig with dandy.]
+
+
+The Sprit Leg-of-Mutton Sail
+
+has this advantage, that the clew of the sail is much higher than the
+tack, thus avoiding the danger of dipping the clew in the water and
+tripping the boat.
+
+
+The Dandy Jigger, or Mizzen Rig
+
+is named after the small sail aft, near the rudder-head. This jigger,
+mizzen, or dandy may have a boom, a sprit, or be rigged as a lug.
+(See Figs. 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 178, 180, and 184, which show the
+principal mizzen rigs in use.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 176. Yawl Rig.
+
+Fig. 177. Lug-headed Jib & Mainsail Rigged Punt
+
+Fig. 180. The Burton when using only two blocks it is the most powerful
+Tackle
+
+Fig. 181. A "Lugeen."
+
+Fig. 182. FAN SAIL under shortened sail. Fan Partly Folded
+
+Fig. 179. Two battened Lug
+
+Fig. 178. Three masted Bat Winged Canoe
+
+Fig. 184. Two masted Bat Winged Canoe.
+
+Fig. 183. Two Common Tackles A Gun Tackle Purchase Luff Tackle Purchase
+
+ADDITIONAL RIGS FOR SMALL BOATS AND CANOES AND THREE USEFUL TACKLES
+
+Figs. 176-184.--Hybrid rigs for small boats; also two useful tackles.]
+
+In puffy wind and lumpy water the main and mizzen rig will be found to
+work well. The little sail aft should be trimmed as flat as possible.
+It will be found of great help in beating to the windward, and will
+keep the nose of the boat facing the wind when the mainsail is down.
+Different rigs are popular in different localities. For instance:
+
+
+The Lateen Rig
+
+is very popular in some parts of the Old World, yet it has only few
+friends here. It may be because of my art training that I feel so
+kindly toward this style of sail, or it may be from association in my
+mind of some of the happiest days of my life with a little black canoe
+rigged with lateen sails. At any rate, in spite of the undeniable
+fact that the lateen is unpopular, I never see a small boat rigged in
+this style without a feeling of pleasure. The handy little stumps of
+masts end in a spike at the top and are adorned by the beautiful sails
+lashed to slender spars, which, by means of metal rings, are lightly,
+but securely, fastened to the mast by simply hooking the ring over the
+spike. I freely acknowledge that when the sails are lowered and you
+want to use your paddle the lateen sails are in your way. It is claimed
+that they are awkward to reef, and this may be true. I never tried it.
+When the wind was too strong for my sails I made port or took in either
+the large or the small sail, as the occasion seemed to demand.
+
+
+The Ship
+
+When you are out sailing and see a vessel with three masts, all square
+rigged, you are looking at a ship proper, though ship is a word often
+used loosely for any sort of a boat (Fig. 159).
+
+=The bark= is a vessel with square-rigged foremast and mainmast and a
+fore-and-aft rigged mizzen-mast (Fig. 160).
+
+=The brig= is a vessel with only two masts, both of which are square
+rigged (Fig. 158).
+
+=The brigantine= has two masts--foremast square rigged and mainmast
+fore-and-aft rigged (Fig. 155).
+
+=The barkentine= has three masts--mainmast and mizzen-mast fore-and-aft
+rigged and foremast square rigged. (See Fig. 154.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES
+
+
+How to Tie Knots Useful on Both Land and Water
+
+THE art of tying knots is an almost necessary adjunct to not a few
+recreations. Especially is this true of summer sports, many of which
+are nautical or in some manner connected with the water.
+
+Any boy who has been aboard a yacht or a sail-boat must have realized
+that the safety of the vessel and all aboard may be imperilled by
+ignorance or negligence in the tying of a knot or fastening of a rope.
+
+With some the knack of tying a good, strong knot in a heavy rope
+or light cord seems to be a natural gift; it is certainly a very
+convenient accomplishment, and one that with practice and a little
+perseverance may be acquired even by those who at first make the most
+awkward and bungling attempts.
+
+A bulky, cumbersome knot is not only ungainly, but is generally
+insecure.
+
+As a rule, the strength of a knot is in direct proportion to its neat
+and handsome appearance.
+
+To my mind it is as necessary that the archer should know how to make
+the proper loops at the end of his bow-string as it is that a hunter
+should understand how to load his gun.
+
+Every fisherman should be able to join two lines neatly and securely,
+and should know the best and most expeditious method of attaching an
+extra hook or fly; and any boy who rigs up a hammock or swing with a
+"granny" or other insecure knot deserves the ugly tumble and sore bones
+that are more than liable to result from his ignorance.
+
+A knot, nautically speaking, is a "bend" that is more permanent than a
+"hitch." A knot properly tied never slips, nor does it jam so that it
+cannot be readily untied. A "hitch" might be termed a temporary bend,
+as it is seldom relied upon for permanent service. The "hitch" is so
+made that it can be cast off or unfastened more quickly than a knot.
+
+It is impossible for the brightest boy to learn to make "knots, bends,
+and hitches" by simply reading over a description of the methods; for,
+although he may understand them at the time, five minutes after reading
+the article the process will have escaped his memory. But if he take a
+piece of cord or rope and sit down with the diagrams in front of him,
+he will find little difficulty in managing the most complicated knots;
+and he will not only acquire an accomplishment from which he can derive
+infinite amusement for himself and a means of entertainment for others,
+but the knowledge gained may, in case of accident by fire or flood, be
+the means of saving both life and property.
+
+The accompanying diagrams show a number of useful and important bends,
+splices, etc. To simplify matters, let us commence with Fig. 57, and go
+through the diagrams in the order in which they come:
+
+The "English" or "common single fisherman's knot" (Fig. 185, I) is neat
+and strong enough for any ordinary strain. The diagram shows the knots
+before being tightened and drawn together.
+
+When exceptional strength is required it can be obtained by joining the
+lines in the ordinary single fisherman's knot (Fig. 185, I) and pulling
+each of the half knots as tight as possible, then drawing them within
+an eighth of an inch of each other and wrapping between with fine gut
+that has been previously softened in water, or with light-colored silk.
+
+An additional line or a sinker may be attached by tying a knot in the
+end of the extra line and inserting it between the parts of the single
+fisherman's knot before they are drawn together and tightened.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 185.--Some useful knots.]
+
+The "fisherman's double half knot," Fig. 185 (II and III). After the
+gut has been passed around the main line and through itself, it is
+passed around the line once more and through the same loop again and
+drawn close.
+
+Fig. 185 (IV, V, and IX). Here are three methods of joining the ends of
+two lines together; the diagrams explain them much better than words
+can. Take a piece of string, try each one, and test their relative
+strength.
+
+Fig. 185 (VI). It often happens, while fishing, that a hook is caught
+in a snag or by some other means lost. The diagram shows the most
+expeditious manner of attaching another hook by what is known as the
+"sinker hitch," described further on (Fig. 185, D, D, D, and Fig. 186,
+XIV, XV, and XVI).
+
+Fig. 185, VII is another and more secure method of attaching a hook by
+knitting the line on with a succession of half-hitches.
+
+
+How to Make a Horse-Hair Watch-Guard
+
+The same hitches are used in the manufacture of horse-hair
+watch-guards, much in vogue with the boys in some sections of the
+country. As regularly as "kite-time," "top-time," or "ball-time," comes
+"horse-hair watch-guard time."
+
+About once a year the rage for making watch-guards used to seize the
+boys of our school, and by some means or other almost every boy would
+have a supply of horse-hair on hand. With the first tap of the bell for
+recess, some fifty hands would dive into the mysterious depths of about
+fifty pockets, and before the bell had stopped ringing about fifty
+watch-guards, in a more or less incomplete state, would be produced.
+
+Whenever a teamster's unlucky stars caused him to stop near the
+school-house, a chorus of voices greeted him with "Mister, please let
+us have some hair from your horses' tails."
+
+The request was at first seldom refused, possibly because its nature
+was not at the time properly understood; but lucky was the boy
+considered who succeeded in pulling a supply of hair from the horses'
+tails without being interrupted by the heels of the animals or by the
+teamster, who, when he saw the swarm of boys tugging at his horses'
+tails, generally repented his first good-natured assent, and with a
+gruff, "Get out, you young rascals!" sent the lads scampering to the
+school-yard fence.
+
+Select a lot of long hair of the color desired; make it into a switch
+about an eighth of an inch thick by tying one end in a simple knot.
+Pick out a good, long hair and tie it around the switch close to the
+knotted end; then take the free end of the single hair in your right
+hand and pass it under the switch on one side, thus forming a loop
+through which the end of the hair must pass after it is brought up and
+over from the other side of the switch. Draw the knot tight by pulling
+the free end of the hair as shown by Fig. 185, VII. Every time this
+operation is repeated a wrap and a knot is produced. The knots follow
+each other in a spiral around the switch, giving it a very pretty,
+ornamented appearance. When one hair is used up select another and
+commence knitting with it as you did with the first, being careful to
+cover and conceal the short end of the first hair, and to make the
+knots on the second commence where the former stop. A guard made of
+white horse-hair looks as if it might be composed of spun glass, and
+produces a very odd and pretty effect. A black one is very genteel in
+appearance. These ornaments are much prized by cowboys, and I have seen
+bridles for horses made of braided horsehair.
+
+
+Miscellaneous
+
+Fig. 185, VIII shows a simple and expeditous manner of attaching a
+trolling-hook to a fish-line.
+
+Fig. 185, F is a hitch used on shipboard, or wherever lines and cables
+are used. It is called the Blackwall hitch.
+
+Fig. 185, E is a fire-escape made of a double bow-line knot, useful
+as a sling for hoisting persons up or letting them down from any high
+place; the window of a burning building, for instance. Fig. 186, XVIII,
+XIX, and XX show how this knot is made. It is described on page 77.
+
+Fig. 185, A is a "bale hitch," made of a loop of rope. To make it, take
+a piece of rope that has its two ends joined; lay the rope down and
+place the bale on it; bring the loop opposite you up, on that side of
+the bale, and the loop in front up, on the side of the bale next to
+you; thrust the latter loop under and through the first and attach the
+hoisting rope. The heavier the object to be lifted, the tighter the
+hitch becomes. An excellent substitute for a shawl-strap can be made of
+a cord by using the bale hitch, the loop at the top being a first-rate
+handle.
+
+Fig. 185, B is called a cask sling, and C (Fig. 185) is called a butt
+sling. The manner of making these last two and their uses may be seen
+by referring to the illustration. It will be noticed that a line is
+attached to the bale hitch in a peculiar manner (_a_, Fig. 185). This
+is called the "anchor bend." If while aboard a sail-boat you have
+occasion to throw a bucket over for water, you will find the anchor
+bend a very convenient and safe way to attach a line to the bucket
+handle, but unless you are an expert you will need an anchor hitched to
+your body or you will follow the bucket.
+
+Fig. 186, I and II are loops showing the elements of the simplest knots.
+
+Fig. 186, III is a simple knot commenced.
+
+Fig. 186, IV shows the simple knot tightened.
+
+Fig. 186, V and VI show how the Flemish knot looks when commenced and
+finished.
+
+Fig. 186, VII and VIII show a "rope knot" commenced and finished.
+
+Fig. 186, IX is a double knot commenced.
+
+Fig. 186, X is the same completed.
+
+Fig. 186, XI shows a back view of the double knot.
+
+Fig. 186, XII is the first loop of a "bow-line knot." One end of the
+line is supposed to be made fast to some object. After the turn, or
+loop (Fig. 186, XII), is made, hold it in position with your left hand
+and pass the end of the line up through the loop, or turn, you have
+just made, behind and over the line above, then down through the loop
+again, as shown in the diagram (Fig. 186, XIII); pull it tight and the
+knot is complete. The "sinker hitch" is a very handy one to know, and
+the variety of uses it may be put to will be at once suggested by the
+diagrams.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 186.]
+
+Lines that have both ends made fast may have weights attached to them
+by means of the sinker hitch (Fig. 185, D, D, D).
+
+To accomplish this, first gather up some slack and make it in the form
+of the loop (Fig. 186, XIV); bend the loop back on itself (Fig. 186,
+XV) and slip the weight through the double loop thus formed (Fig. 186,
+XVI); draw tight by pulling the two top lines, and the sinker hitch is
+finished (Fig. 186, XVII).
+
+The "fire-escape sling" previously mentioned, and illustrated by Fig.
+185, E, is made with a double line.
+
+Proceed at first as you would to make a simple bow-line knot (Fig. 186,
+XVIII).
+
+After you have run the end loop up through the turn (Fig. 186, XIX),
+bend it downward and over the bottom loop and turn, then up again until
+it is in the position shown in Fig. 186, XX; pull it downward until
+the knot is tightened, as in Fig. 185, E, and it makes a safe sling in
+which to lower a person from any height. The longer loop serves for a
+seat, and the shorter one, coming under the arms, makes a rest for the
+back.
+
+Fig. 186½, XXI is called a "boat knot," and is made with the aid of
+a stick. It is an excellent knot for holding weights which may want
+instant detachment. To detach it, lift the weight slightly and push out
+the stick, and instantly the knot is untied.
+
+Fig. 186½, XXII. Commencement of a "six-fold knot."
+
+Fig. 186½, XXIII. Six-fold knot completed by drawing the two ends with
+equal force. A knot drawn in this manner is said to be "nipped."
+
+Fig. 186½, XXIV. A simple hitch or "double" used in making loop knots.
+
+Fig. 186½, XXV. "Loop knot."
+
+Fig. 186½, XXVI shows how the loop knot is commenced.
+
+Fig. 186½, XXVII is the "Dutch double knot," sometimes called the
+"Flemish loop."
+
+Fig. 186½, XXVIII shows a common "running knot."
+
+Fig. 186½, XXIX. A running knot with a check knot to hold.
+
+Fig. 186½, XXX. A running knot checked.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 186½.]
+
+Fig. 186½, XXXI. The right-hand part of the rope shows how to make the
+double loop for the "twist knot." The left-hand part of the same rope
+shows a finished twist knot. It is made by taking a half turn on both
+the right-hand and left-hand lines of the double loop and passing the
+end through the "bight" (loop) so made.
+
+
+Whiplashes
+
+Fig. 186½, XXXII is called the "chain knot," which is often used in
+braiding leather whiplashes. To make a "chain knot," fasten one end of
+the thong, or line; make a simple loop and pass it over the left hand;
+retain hold of the free end with the right hand; with the left hand
+seize the line above the right hand and draw a loop through the loop
+already formed; finish the knot by drawing it tight with the left hand.
+Repeat the operation until the braid is of the required length, then
+secure it by passing the free end through the last loop.
+
+Fig. 186½, XXXIII shows a double chain knot.
+
+Fig. 186½, XXXIV is a double chain knot pulled out. It shows how the
+free end is thrust through the last loop.
+
+Fig. 186½, XXXV. Knotted loop for end of rope, used to prevent the end
+of the rope from slipping, and for various other purposes.
+
+
+Splices, Timber-Hitches, etc.
+
+Although splices may not be as useful to boys as knots and hitches,
+for the benefit of those among my readers who are interested in the
+subject, I have introduced a few bands and splices on the cables partly
+surrounding Fig. 186½.
+
+Fig. 186½, _a_ shows the knot and upper side of a "simple band."
+
+Fig. 186½, _b_ shows under side of the same.
+
+Fig. 186½, _c_ and _d_ show a tie with cross-ends. To hold the ends of
+the cords, a turn is taken under the strands.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 187.]
+
+Fig. 186½, _e_ and _f_: Bend with cross-strands, one end looped over
+the other.
+
+Fig. 186½, _g_ shows the upper side of the "necklace tie."
+
+Fig. 186½, _h_ shows the under side of the same. The advantage of this
+tie is that the greater the strain on the cords, the tighter it draws
+the knot.
+
+Fig. 186½, _i_ and _j_ are slight modifications of _g_ and _h_.
+
+Fig. 186½, _p_ shows the first position of the end of the ropes for
+making the splice _k_. Untwist the strands and put the ends of two
+ropes together as close as possible, and place the strands of the one
+between the strands of the other alternately, so as to interlace, as in
+_k_. This splice should only be used when there is not time to make the
+"long splice," as the short one is not very strong.
+
+From _l_ to _m_ is a long splice, made by underlaying the strands of
+each of the ropes joined about half the length of the splice, and
+putting each strand of the one between two of the other; _q_ shows the
+strands arranged for the long splice.
+
+Fig. 186½, _n_ is a simple mode of making a hitch on a rope.
+
+Fig. 186½, _o_ is a "shroud knot."
+
+Fig. 186½, _r_ shows a very convenient way to make a handle on a rope,
+and is used upon large ropes when it is necessary for several persons
+to take hold to pull.
+
+Fig. 187, A. Combination of half-hitch and timber-hitch.
+
+Fig. 187, B. Ordinary half-hitch.
+
+Fig. 187, C. Ordinary timber-hitch.
+
+Fig. 187, D. Another timber-hitch, called the "clove-hitch."
+
+Fig. 187, E. "Hammock-hitch," used for binding bales of goods or cloth.
+
+Fig. 187, F. "Lark-head knot," used by sailors and boatmen for mooring
+their crafts.
+
+Fig. 187, P shows a lark-head fastening to a running knot.
+
+Fig. 187, G is a double-looped lark-head.
+
+Fig. 187, H shows a double-looped lark-head knot fastened to the ring
+of a boat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 187½.--Timber-hitches, etc.]
+
+Fig. 187, I is a "treble lark-head." To make it you must first tie
+a single lark-head, then divide the two heads and use each singly, as
+shown in the diagram.
+
+Fig. 187, J shows a simple boat knot with one turn.
+
+Fig. 187, K. "Crossed running knot." It is a strong and handy tie, not
+as difficult to make as it appears to be.
+
+Fig. 187, L is the bow-line knot, described by the diagrams XII and
+XIII (Fig. 186). The free end of the knot is made fast by binding it to
+the "bight," or the loop. It makes a secure sling for a man to sit in
+at his work among the rigging.
+
+Fig. 187, M, N, and O. "Slip clinches," or "sailors' knots."
+
+Fig. 187½, Q shows a rope fastened by the chain-hitch. The knot at the
+left-hand end explains a simple way to prevent a rope from unravelling.
+
+Fig. 187½, R. A timber-hitch; when tightened the line binds around the
+timber so that it will not slip.
+
+Fig. 187½, S. Commencement of simple lashing knot.
+
+Fig. 187½, T. Simple lashing knot finished.
+
+Fig. 187½, U. "Infallible loop;" not properly a timber-hitch, but
+useful in a variety of ways, and well adapted for use in archery.
+
+Fig. 187½, V. Same as R, reversed. It looks like it might give way
+under a heavy strain, but it will not.
+
+Fig. 187½, W. Running knot with two ends.
+
+Fig. 187½, X. Running knot with a check knot that can only be opened
+with a marline-spike.
+
+Fig. 187½, Y. A two-ended running knot with a check to the running
+loops. This knot can be untied by drawing both ends of the cord.
+
+Fig. 187½, Z. Running knot with two ends, fixed by a double Flemish
+knot. When you wish to encircle a timber with this tie, pass the ends
+on which the check knot is to be through the cords before they are
+drawn tight. This will require considerable practice.
+
+Fig. 187½, _a_ shows an ordinary twist knot.
+
+Fig. 187½, _a_^{1} shows the form of loop for builder's knot.
+
+Fig. 187½, _b_. Double twist knot.
+
+Fig. 187½, _c_. Builder's knot finished.
+
+Fig. 187½, _d_ represents a double builder's knot.
+
+Fig. 187½, _e_. "Weaver's knot," same as described under the head of
+Becket hitch (Fig. 185, V).
+
+Fig. 187½, _f_. Weaver's knot drawn tight.
+
+Fig. 187½, _g_ shows how to commence a reef knot. This is useful for
+small ropes; with ropes unequal in size the knot is likely to draw out
+of shape, as _m_.
+
+Fig. 187½, _h_ shows a reef knot completed.
+
+Of all knots, avoid the "granny"; it is next to useless under a strain,
+and marks the tier as a "landlubber."
+
+Fig. 187½, _i_ shows a granny knot; _n_ shows a granny under strain.
+
+Fig. 187½, _j_ shows the commencement of a common "rough knot."
+
+Fig. 187½, _k_. The front view of finished knot.
+
+Fig. 187½, _l_. The back view of finished knot. Although this knot
+will not untie nor slip, the rope is likely to part at one side if the
+strain is great. Awkward as it looks, this tie is very useful at times
+on account of the rapidity with which it can be made.
+
+Fig. 187½, _o_ and _p_. Knot commenced and finished, used for the same
+purposes as the Flemish knot.
+
+Fig. 187½, _q_ and _q_^{1}. An ordinary knot with ends used separately.
+
+Fig. 187½, _s_. Sheep-shank, or dog-shank as it is sometimes called,
+is very useful in shortening a line. Suppose, for instance, a swing is
+much longer than necessary, and you wish to shorten it without climbing
+aloft to do so, it can be done with a sheep-shank.
+
+Fig. 187½, _r_ shows the first position of the two loops. Take two half
+hitches, and you have a bend of the form shown by _s_. Pull tightly
+from above and below the shank, and you will find that the rope is
+shortened securely enough for ordinary strain.
+
+Fig. 187½, _t_. Shortening by loop and turns made where the end of the
+rope is free.
+
+Fig. 187½, _u_. A shortened knot that can be used when either end is
+free.
+
+Fig. 187½, _v_, _w_, and _x_. Shortening knots.
+
+Fig. 187½, _y_ and _z_. A "true lover's knot," and the last one that
+you need to practise on, for one of these knots is as much as most
+persons can attend to, and ought to last a lifetime.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+HOW TO BUILD A CHEAP BOAT
+
+
+The Yankee Pine
+
+FROM the saw-mills away up among the tributaries of the Ohio River
+come floating down to the towns along the shore great rafts of pine
+lumber. These rafts are always objects of interest to the boys, for
+the youngsters know that when moored to the shore the solidly packed
+planks make a splendid platform to swim from. Fine springing-boards
+can be made of the projecting blades of the gigantic sweeps which are
+used to guide the mammoth rafts, and, somewhere aboard, there is always
+to be found a "Yankee pine." Just when or why this style of skiff was
+dubbed with such a peculiar name I am unable to state; but this I know,
+that when a raft is to be broken up and carted away to the lumber yards
+there is, or always used to be, a good, light skiff to be had cheap.
+
+However, all boys do not live on the bank of the river, and if they did
+there would hardly be "Yankee pines" enough to go round; so we will at
+once proceed to see how to build one for ourselves. Although my readers
+may find the "Yankee pine" a little more difficult to build than the
+blunt-ended, flat-bottomed scow, it really is a comparatively simple
+piece of work for boys familiar with the use of carpenters' tools.
+
+For the side-pieces select two straight-grained pine boards free from
+knots. These boards should be about 13 or 14 feet long, a couple
+of inches over a foot in width, and as nearly alike as possible in
+texture. Besides these there should be in the neighborhood of a dozen
+other ¾-inch planks, an inch or two over a half foot in width. A small
+piece of 2-inch plank for the stern-piece is also necessary. Upon the
+bottom edge of the side-board measure off from each end toward the
+centre 4 inches, mark the points, and saw off the corners shown by the
+dotted line in Fig. 188. Next take a piece of board 4 feet long and a
+foot wide, saw off the corners as you did on the side-board, making it
+4 feet on the top and 3 feet 4 inches on the bottom. This board is to
+be used only as a centre brace while modelling the boat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 188.--Side-board.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 189.--Frame.]
+
+Out of the 2-inch plank make a stern-piece of the same shape as the
+centre brace; let it be 1 foot wide, 14 inches long on the bottom,
+and 20 inches long on top. Set the side-boards on their shorter or
+bottom edges and place the centre brace in the middle, as shown by
+Fig. 189; nail the side-boards to it, using only enough nails to hold
+temporarily. Draw the side-boards together at the bow and against the
+stern-board at the stern (Fig. 189). Hold the side-pieces in position
+by the means of ropes. A stem should be ready to fix in the bow (Fig.
+190). This had better be a few inches longer than the sides are broad,
+as it is a simple matter to saw off the top after it is fitted. Make
+the stem of a triangular piece of timber, by planing off the front
+edge until a flat surface about ½ inch broad is obtained; 2 inches
+from the front, upon each side, cut a groove just the thickness of the
+side-boards (¾ inch). Trim the stem so that the side-pieces at the bow
+fit the grooves snugly, and nail the side-boards to the stem and to the
+stern-piece (Fig. 189).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 190.--Stem-piece.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 191.--Finished skiff.]
+
+Turn the boat upside down, and it will be discovered that the outlines
+of the bottom form an arch from stem to stern. If left in this shape
+the boat will sink too deep amidship. Remedy the defect by planing the
+bottom edge of both side pieces, reducing the convex form to straight
+lines in the middle. This will allow the bow and stern to sheer, but
+at the same time will make the central part of the bottom flat, and,
+by having less to drag through the water, make it easier to row. Nail
+the bottom-boards on crosswise, and as, on account of the form of the
+boat, no two boards will be of the same size, they must be first nailed
+on and the projecting ends sawed off afterward. The centre brace may
+now be taken out and a long bottom-board nailed to the centre of the
+bottom upon the inside of the boat (Fig. 191). Cut a small cross-piece
+(B, Fig. 191) so that it will fit across the bow 3 inches below the
+top of the side-boards. Nail it in place, driving the nails from the
+outside of the side-board through and into the end of the stick B. Saw
+out a bow seat, and, allowing the broad end to rest on the cross-stick
+B, fit the seat in and secure it with nails (Fig. 191); 3 inches below
+the top of the stern-piece nail a cleat across. At the same distance
+below the side-board put a cross-stick similar to the one in the bow.
+This and the cleat on the stern-piece form rests for the stern seat.
+Five feet from the stern saw a notch 2 inches deep and 1½ inch long in
+each side-board (A, A^{1}, Fig. 191). Saw two more notches of the same
+size 3 inches from the first; these will make the rowlock when the side
+strips have been fastened on.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 192.--Keel board or skeg.]
+
+These strips should each be made of 1-inch plank, 2 inches wide and
+an inch or two longer than the side-boards. Nail the strips on the
+outside of the boat flush with the top of the side-boards, making a
+neat joint at the stern-piece, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 191).
+Cut two short strips to fit upon the inside at the rowlocks and fasten
+them firmly on with screws (Fig. 191, A). Next cut two cleats for the
+oarsman's seat to rest upon. Nail them to the side-boards amidship a
+little nearer the bottom than the top, so that the seat, when resting
+upon the cleats, will be about half the distance from the top edge to
+the bottom of the side-boards. Let the aft end of the cleats be about 6
+feet 2 inches from the stern. Make thole-pins of some hard wood to fit
+in the rowlocks, like those described and illustrated by Figs. 203 and
+204.
+
+[Illustration: Top view of "Man Friday."]
+
+The Yankee pine now only needs a skeg to complete it. This must be
+placed exactly in the centre, and is fastened on by a couple of screws
+at the thin end and nails from the inside of the boat. It is also
+fastened to the upright stick at the stern by screws (Fig. 192).
+
+If the joints have been carefully made, your Yankee pine is now ready
+for launching. Being made of rough lumber it needs no paint or
+varnish, but is a sort of rough-and-ready affair, light to row; and it
+ought to float four people with ease. By using planed pine or cedar
+lumber, and with hard-wood stem and stern, a very pretty row-boat
+can be made upon the same plan as a Yankee pine, or by putting in a
+centreboard and "stepping" a mast in the bow, the Yankee pine can be
+transformed into a sail-boat. But before experimenting in this line of
+boat-building, the beginner had better read carefully the chapter on
+how to rig and sail small boats.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 193.--The side-boards.]
+
+
+How to Build a Better Finished Boat
+
+The old-time raftsmen formerly built their "Yankee pines" of the rough,
+unplaned boards fresh from the saw-mills on the river banks, and these
+raw, wooden skiffs were stanch, light, and tight boats, but to-day
+smooth lumber is as cheap as the rough boards, so select enough planed
+pine lumber for a 12½-foot boat, and you may calculate the exact amount
+by reference to the accompanying diagrams, which are all drawn as near
+as may be to a regular scale.
+
+By reference to Fig. 193 you will see that A, A represent the two
+
+
+Side-Boards
+
+These should be of sufficient dimensions to produce two side-pieces
+each 13 feet long, 17 inches wide, and 7/8 inch thick (A, Fig. 194).
+You will also need a piece for a
+
+
+Spreader
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 194.--A, the side. B, the spreader. C, the
+stern-piece.]
+
+54 inches long, 18 inches wide, and about 1½ inch thick, but as this
+is a temporary affair almost any old piece of proper dimensions will
+answer (B, Fig. 194), and another piece of good 1½-inch plank (C, Fig.
+194) 36 inches long by 15 inches wide, for a stern-piece. Besides the
+above there must be enough 1-inch lumber to make seats and to cover the
+bottom. At a point on one end, 6½ inches from the edge of the A plank,
+mark the point _c_ (Fig. 194), then measure 37 inches back along the
+edge of the plank and mark the point _b_ (Fig. 194). Rule a pencil line
+(_b_, _c_) between these two points and starting at _c_ saw off the
+triangle _b_, _c_, _d_. Make the second side-board an exact duplicate
+of the one just described and prepare the spreader by sawing off the
+triangle with 9-inch bases at each end of B (Fig. 194). This will leave
+you a board (_h_, _k_, _o_, _n_) that will be 36 inches long on its
+lower edge and 54 inches long on its top edge.
+
+Next saw off the corners of the stern-piece C (Fig. 194) along the
+lines _f_, _g_, the _g_ points being each 6½ inches from the corners;
+and a board (_ff_, _gg_) 18 inches wide and 30 inches top measurement,
+with 23 inches at the bottom. Now fit the edge of the stern-piece
+along the line _e_, _d_ (Fig. 194), or at a slant to please your
+fancy. In Fig. 195, upper C, the slant makes the base of the triangle
+about 4½ inches, which is sufficient. Be careful that both side-boards
+are fitted exactly alike, and to do this nail the port side with
+nails driven only partly in, as shown at D (Fig. 195); then nail the
+starboard side and, if they are both seen to be even and of the right
+slant, drive the nails home; if not correct, the nails may be pulled
+out by using a small block under the hammer (D, Fig. 195), without
+bending the nails or injuring the wood. Leave the stern-ends of the
+side-boards protruding, as in the upper C, until you have the spreader
+and stem in place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 195.--Details of the boat.]
+
+We are now ready for the spreader (_h_, _k_, _o_, _n_) (B, Fig. 194)
+amidship, or, more accurately speaking, 6 feet 9 inches from the bow
+(B, Fig. 195). Nail this as shown by D (Fig. 195), so that the nails
+may be removed at pleasure. Bring the bow ends of the A boards together
+and secure them by a strip nailed temporarily across, as shown in the
+diagram E (Fig. 195).
+
+
+The Stem-piece
+
+may be made of two pieces, as is shown at G and F (Fig. 195) or if you
+are more skilful than the ordinary non-professional, the stem may be
+made of one piece, as shown by the lower diagram at F (Fig. 195). It
+is desirable to have oak for the stem, but any hard wood will answer
+the purpose, and even pine may be used when no better is to be had.
+Take a piece of cardboard or an old shingle on which to draw a pattern
+for the end of the stem and make the outline with a lead-pencil by
+placing the shingle over the apex _c_ of diagram E (Fig. 195); from the
+inside trace the line of the sides thus, =V=. Trim your stem down to
+correspond to these lines and let the stick be somewhat longer than the
+width of the sides A, A.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 196.--Put on a bottom of 1-inch boards.]
+
+When this is done to your satisfaction, fit the stem in place and nail
+the side boards to the stem.
+
+Turn the boat over and nail on a bottom of 1-inch boards as shown by
+Fig. 196.
+
+
+Don't
+
+use tongue and grooved or any sort of fancy cabinet or floor joining
+when wet--such matched lumber warps up in waves--but use boards with
+smooth, flat edges; if these are true and fitted snugly together in
+workmanlike manner the first wetting will swell them in a very short
+time, until not a drop of water will leak through the cracks, for the
+reason that there will be none. Fit the bottom-boards on regardless of
+their protruding ends, as these may be sawed off after the boards are
+nailed in place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 197.--Details of bow, stern, seats, and finished
+boat.]
+
+
+The Seats
+
+consist of a triangular one at the bow (J), the oarsman's seat (L), and
+the stern seat (K, Fig. 197). The bow seat is made of 1-inch boards
+nailed to two cleats shown at M (Fig. 197). N shows the bench for the
+stern seat and O explains the arrangement of the oarsman's seat a
+little forward amidship. As may be seen, it rests upon the cleats _x_
+(diagram O, Fig. 197), which are fitted between two upright cleats on
+each side of the boat; this makes a seat which will not slip out of
+place, and the cleats serve to strengthen the sides of the otherwise
+ribless boat. Make the cleats of 1 by 2 inch lumber and let the seat
+be about 12 inches wide. The stern seat may be wider, 1½ feet at K and
+4 or 5 inches more at the long sides of the two boards each side of K
+(Fig. 197). Of course, it is not necessary to fit a board in against
+the stern-piece, for a cleat will answer the purpose, but a good, heavy
+stern-piece is often desirable and the board shown in diagram N (Fig.
+197) will serve to add strength to the stern as well as to furnish a
+firm rest for the stern seat, but it will also add weight.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 198.
+
+Fig. 199.--Fitting the skeg.]
+
+
+The Keel-Board
+
+is an advisable addition to the boat, but may also be omitted without
+serious results (H, Fig. 197).
+
+The keel-board should be 4½ inches wide, 1 inch thick, and should be
+cut pointed, to fit snugly in the bow, and nailed in place along the
+centre of the floor, before the seats are put in the boat. A similar
+board along the bottom, joining the two cleats each side of the skeg
+at _y_ (Fig. 199) and extending to the bow will prevent the danger of
+loosening the bottom-planks when bumping over rifts, shallow places, or
+when the boat needs to be hauled on a stony shore; this bottom-board
+may also be omitted to save time and lumber and is not shown in the
+diagram.
+
+
+The Skeg
+
+is a triangular board (Figs. 198 and 199), roughly speaking, of the
+same dimensions as the pieces sawed from the side-board _b_, _c_, _d_
+(Fig. 196). The stern-end will be about 7 inches wide and it will taper
+off to nothing at _y_ (Fig. 198). The skeg is held in place by cleats
+of 1-inch lumber, 2 inches wide, nailed to the bottom on each side
+of the skeg. To get the proper dimensions experiment with the pieces
+sawed from the A boards and cut your skeg board so that its bottom edge
+will be level with the bottom at _y_ (Fig. 198); the diagonal line, to
+correspond with the slant of the stern, can be accurately drawn if the
+skeg is left untrimmed until it is fastened in place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 200.
+
+Fig. 201
+
+Fig. 202
+
+Rowlocks.]
+
+
+To Fasten on the Skeg
+
+rule a line from the centre of the stern to the centre of the bow and
+toe-nail the skeg on along this line. This must be accurately done
+or you will make a boat which will have an uncomfortable tendency to
+move in circles. After toe-nailing the skeg to the bottom, nail the
+two cleats, one on each side of the skeg, and let them fit as closely
+as may be to the keel. Now saw off the stern-ends of the cleats and
+lay a rule along the stern, as the stick is placed in Fig. 198, where
+the boy has his finger; rule a pencil line across the protruding end
+of the keel and saw off the end along the diagonal line, so that the
+stern-cleat _z_ (Fig. 198) may be nailed in place to finish the work.
+
+You can buy rowlocks of galvanized iron for about a quarter of a dollar
+a pair; the brass ones are not expensive, but even when the store
+furnishes the hardware there must be a firm support of some sort to
+hold the rowlock.
+
+If you use the manufactured article, to be found at any hardware store,
+the merchant will supply you with the screws, plates, and rowlocks,
+but he will not furnish you with the blocks for the holes in which the
+spindles of the rowlocks fit. Fig. 202 shows a rude, but serviceable,
+support for the lock made of short oaken posts much in vogue in
+Pennsylvania, but Fig. 201 is much better, and if it is made of oak and
+bolted to the sides of the boat it will last as long as the boat. Fig.
+201 may be put upon either the outside or inside of the boat, according
+to the width amidship.
+
+
+A Guard Rail
+
+or fender, of 1 by 2 inch lumber, alongside of and even with the top of
+the side-boards, from bow to stern, gives finish and strength to the
+craft; but in a cheap boat, or a hastily constructed one, this may be
+omitted, as it is in these diagrams.
+
+If you are building your boat out of the convenient reach of the
+hardware shop, you must make your own rowlocks. Fig. 200 shows the
+crude ones formerly used by the raftsmen for the Yankee pines, and
+Figs. 203 and 204 show rowlocks made with the oaken or hard-wood
+thole-pins fitting in holes cut for that purpose in the form of notches
+(U, Fig. 204) in the side of the boat, or as spaces left between the
+blocks, as shown by R (Fig. 203). When the side-boards A, A of the boat
+are notched a cleat of hard wood 5 or 6 inches wide, and extending some
+distance each side of the side-boards, must be used, as is shown by
+diagram V (Fig. 204) and Fig. 203. The diagram R (Fig. 203) explains
+itself; there is a centre block nailed to the side-board and two more
+each side, leaving spaces for the thole-pins T (Fig. 203) to fit and
+guarded by another piece (R) bolted through to the sides.
+
+If bolts are out of your reach, nails and screws may act as
+substitutes, and Fig. 204 will then be the best form of rowlock to
+adopt.
+
+To fix the place for rowlocks, seat yourself in the oarsman's seat,
+grasp the oars as in rowing, and mark the place which best fits the
+reach of your arms and oars as in rowing. It will probably be about 13
+inches aft from the centre of the seat.
+
+
+To Transform an Ordinary Skiff or Scow Into a Sailing-Boat
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 203. Thole-pins.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 204. Thole-pins.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 205.]
+
+It is necessary to build the centreboard box and cut a hole through the
+bottom of the boat. For the average row-boat or skiff, you can make
+the centreboard box about 48 inches long and not higher, of course,
+than the gunwales of the boat. Make the box of 2-inch plank, and before
+nailing the sides together coat the seams thoroughly with white lead so
+as to prevent it from leaking. The centreboard should be made of 2-inch
+plank, which when planed down and smoothed will be about 1-7/8 of an
+inch thick, and the space in the box should be wide enough to allow
+it to move freely up and down, with no danger of its jamming. A hole
+should be cut in the bottom of the boat to correspond with the opening
+in the centreboard box, which, with a 48-inch box, will probably be an
+opening of 40 inches long and 1 inch wide. The centreboard is hinged
+to the box by a bolt run through at the point marked A on Fig. 205.
+The centreboard should move freely on the bolt, but the bolt itself
+should fit tightly in the sides of the box, otherwise the water will
+leak through. There will be no danger of the bolt's turning in its
+socket if the hole through the centreboard through which the bolt is
+thrust is made large enough. The centreboard box should be generously
+painted with white lead on the bottom edges where it fits on the floor
+of the boat around the centreboard hole. The bottom of the boat floor
+should also be coated with white lead and over this a strip of muslin
+spread before the box is securely nailed to the floor of the boat from
+the bottom or under side of the boat. When this is done the muslin
+covering the hole can be cut away with a sharp knife. A rope may then
+be fastened to the loose end of the centreboard with a cross-stick
+attached to the end of the rope to prevent it from slipping down the
+hole in the box. With this rope the centreboard may be raised or
+lowered to suit the pleasure of the sailor. (Fig. 205.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+A "ROUGH-AND-READY" BOAT
+
+Just What One Must Do to Build It--Detailed Instructions as to How to
+Make the Boat and How to Rig It
+
+
+GOOD straight-grained pine wood is, without doubt, the best
+"all-around" wood for general use. It is easily whittled with a
+pocket-knife; it works smoothly under a plane; can be sawed without
+fatiguing the amateur carpenter; it is elastic and pliable; therefore
+use pine lumber to build your boat.
+
+Examine the lumber pile carefully and select four boards nearly alike.
+Do not allow the dealer or his men to talk you into taking lumber with
+blemishes. The side pieces should be of straight-grained wood, with no
+large knots and no "checks" (cracks) in them, and must not be "wind
+shaken."
+
+Measure the wood and see that it is over twenty-two feet long by one
+foot four or five inches wide and one inch thick. Trim two of the
+side-pieces until they are exact duplicates (Fig. 206). The stem-piece
+(or bow-piece) should be made from a triangular piece of oak (Fig.
+212), and it is wise to make it a few inches longer than will be
+necessary, so that there may be no danger of finding, after all your
+labor, that the stick is too short; much better too long, for it is a
+simple matter to saw it off. Make a second stem-piece (Fig. 213) of oak
+about one inch thick and the same length as the first, and two or three
+inches wide, or twice as wide as the thickness of the side-boards.
+
+
+The Stern-piece
+
+The stern-piece can be fashioned out of two-inch pine boards, and
+may be made as wide or narrow as you choose. A narrow stern makes a
+trim-looking craft. With your saw cut off the corner of the tail-piece,
+so that it will be in the form of a blunted triangle (Fig. 214),
+measuring three feet ten and one-half inches across the base, three
+feet four inches on each side, and nine and one-half inches at the
+apex. The base of the triangle will be the top and the apex will be the
+bottom of the stern-board of your boat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 206.
+
+Fig. 207.
+
+Fig. 208.
+
+Fig. 209.
+
+Fig. 210.
+
+Diagrams showing the construction of the rough-and-ready.]
+
+Now make a brace on which to model your boat. Let it be of two-inch
+pine wood, two and one-half feet wide and seven and one-half feet long
+(Fig. 207). Measure twelve inches on one edge of this board from each
+end toward the centre and mark the points; then rule lines from these
+points diagonally across the width of the board (A, B and C, D--Fig.
+207), and saw off the corners, as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 207.
+
+Lay the boards selected for the lower side-boards on a level floor
+and measure off one and one-half foot on the bottom edge, then in a
+line with the end of the board mark a point on the floor that would
+be the top edge of the board if the board were two and one-half feet
+wide; rule a line from the point on the floor to the point marked on
+the board and saw off the corner as marked; make the other side-piece
+correspond exactly with the first (Fig. 206).
+
+
+Use Rope for Binding
+
+Set the side-pieces upon their bottoms or shorter edges and place the
+brace between the sides. Now bind the stern ends with a rope and bring
+the bow-pieces together until they touch; rope them in this position,
+and when all is fast push the brace up until it rests at a point nine
+feet from the bow; fasten it here with a couple of nails driven in,
+but leaving their heads far enough from the wood to render it easy to
+draw them out. Now adjust the bow-piece, and use the greatest of care
+in making the sides exactly alike, otherwise you will wonder how you
+happened to have such an unaccountable twist in your craft. When the
+stem is properly adjusted fasten on the side-boards with screws. Do
+not try to hammer the screws in place, but bore holes first and use a
+screwdriver.
+
+Take your stern-piece and measure the exact width of the stern end
+of the bottom-boards and mark it at the bottom of the stern-piece;
+or, better still, since the stern-board will set at an angle, put it
+temporarily in place, bind it fast with the ropes, and mark with a
+pencil just where the side-boards cross the ends of the stern-board.
+Remove the stern-board and saw out a piece one inch wide, the thickness
+of the bottom-board, from the place marked to the bottom of the
+stern-board. Because the top side-board overlaps the bottom one at the
+stern, there must be either a large crack left there or the stern-board
+notched to fit the side-boards (Fig. 214). Replace the stern-board and
+nail side-boards fast to it; now loosen the ropes which have held your
+boat in shape, and fit on the upper side-boards so that at the stern
+they will overlap the lower side-boards an inch. Hold in place with
+your rope, then bring the bow end up against the stern-piece over the
+top of the lower side-board and fasten it in place with a rope. With
+your carpenter's pencil mark the overlap, and with a plane made for
+that purpose, called a rabbet, trim down your board so that it will
+have a shoulder and an overlap to rest on the bottom-board, running out
+to nothing at the bow. When the boards fit all right over the lower
+ones bind them in place and then nail them there (Fig. 208). If you can
+obtain two good boards of the requisite size, you need have but one
+board for each side of your boat; this will obviate the necessity of
+using the rabbet, and be very much easier; but with single boards of
+the required dimensions there is great danger of splitting or cracking
+while bending the boards.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 215.
+
+Fig. 211.
+
+Figs. 212, 213, and 214.
+
+The rough-and-ready.]
+
+
+Planing the Bottom
+
+Turn the boat upside down and you will see that there is a decided arch
+extending from stem to stern. This would cause the boat to sink too
+deep amidship, and must be remedied to some extent by cutting away the
+middle of the arch, so that the sides in the exact centre will measure
+at least four inches less in width than at the bow and stern, and
+reducing the convex or curved form to a straight line in the middle,
+which will give a sheer to the bow and stern. A good plane is the best
+tool to use for this purpose, as with it there is no danger of cutting
+too deep or of splitting the side-boards. Saw off the projecting ends
+of the side-boards at the stern.
+
+Make the bottom of three-quarter-inch boards, they may be bevelled like
+Fig. 231. Lay the boards crosswise, nail them in place, leaving the
+irregular ends projecting on each side. The reason for this is obvious.
+When you look at the bottom of the boat you will at once see that
+on account of the form no two boards can be the same shape, and the
+easiest way is to treat the boat bottom as if it were a square-sided
+scow. Fit the planks closely together, nail them on securely, and then
+neatly saw off the projecting ends (Fig. 210).
+
+
+The Deck
+
+The brace may now be removed by carefully drawing the nails, so that
+a bottom plank trimmed to fit the bow and the stern can be securely
+nailed in place (Fig. 216). Cut a notch in your brace to fit tightly
+over the bottom plank just laid. Plane off the top of the brace so that
+when in the boat the top of the brace will be four inches below the top
+of the side-boards. Replace the brace and securely nail it. Next cut
+two small cross-pieces (F, G, Fig. 209) and place them near the bow,
+four inches below the top of the sides of the boat. Drive the nails
+from the outside through the side-boards into the end of F and G, the
+cross-brace. Cut out a bow-piece to fit from the middle of G to the bow
+and nail it in place, driving the nails from the outside into the edge
+of the bow-piece. Fasten a small cleat along the boat from the solid
+board brace to F on each side and deck the space over with light lumber.
+
+Of the same material make a trap door to fit in between the braces F
+and G. This door should be big enough for a boy to reach through, for
+this compartment is intended as a safe place to store cooking utensils,
+foods, etc., as well as a water-tight compartment. At a point five feet
+from the stern put another cross-brace, similar to the ones in the bow,
+four inches below the top of the sides. At the same level nail a cleat
+on the stern-piece and make a stern seat by boarding over between the
+cross-piece and the cleat. When your boat is resting securely on the
+floor or level ground rig a temporary seat, then take an oar and by
+experiment find just where the rowlock will be most convenient and mark
+the spot. Also mark the spot best suited for the seat. On each side of
+the spot marked for the rowlock cut two notches in the side-boards two
+inches deep, one and a half inch wide, and three inches apart. Saw two
+more notches exactly like these upon the opposite side of your boat.
+These will make the rowlocks when the side-strips are nailed on (Fig.
+216).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 216.--Top view of rough-and-ready, with tiller
+stick.]
+
+The side-strips should each be made of one-inch plank three inches wide
+and a few inches longer than the side-boards. Nail the strips on the
+outside of the boat flush with the top of the side-boards. Make your
+thole-pins of some hard wood, and make two sets of them while you are
+about it, "one set to use and one set to lose." Screw a hard-wood cleat
+on the inside of your boat over each pair of rowlocks, as shown in Fig.
+216.
+
+
+Ready for the Water
+
+Fasten the remaining bow-piece securely over the ends of your
+side-boards, and the nose of your craft is finished.
+
+Put a good, heavy keel on your boat by screwing it tightly in the stern
+to the hard-wood rudder-post that is fastened to the centre of the
+stern; bolt your keel with four iron bolts (Fig. 211) to the bottom
+of the boat, and the ship is ready to launch, after which she can be
+equipped with sails and oars.
+
+Of course, you understand that all nail-holes and crevices should be
+puttied up, and if paint is used, it must be applied before wetting the
+boat. But if you have done your work well, there will be little need
+of paint or putty to make it tight after the wood has swelled in the
+water. Fasten your rudder on with hooks and screw-eyes, and make it as
+shown in the diagram (Fig. 211). Step your mainmast in the bow through
+a round hole in the deck and a square hole in the step, which must, of
+course, be screwed tightly to the bottom before the bow is decked over.
+
+Step your jigger or dandy mast in the stern after the same manner.
+These masts should neither of them be very large, and are intended to
+be removed at pleasure by unstepping them, that is, simply pulling them
+out of their sockets. An outrigger will be found necessary for your
+dandy-sail, and since the deck aft is below the sides of the boat, a
+block of wood will have to be nailed to the deck to the starboard, or
+right-hand, side of the rudder-post. If the builder chooses, he can
+make the decks flush with the sides of the boat and thus avoid blocks.
+A couple of staples for the out-rigger to slip through are next in
+order. They must be fastened firmly in the block or stick of wood just
+nailed to the deck. A similar arrangement can be made for the bowsprit,
+but as it is a movable bowsprit, and the stem of the boat is in the
+way, put it to the port, or left-hand, side of the stem of the craft
+(Fig. 216).
+
+
+How to Make the Sail
+
+Secure for a sail material as strong as you can find, but it need not
+be heavy. Unbleached muslin is cheap and will make good sails. Turn
+over the edges and sew or hem them, as in the diagram. Make eyelets
+like button-holes in the luff of the sail--that is, the edge of the
+sail nearest the mast. Sew a small loop of rope in each corner of the
+sail. Through the eyelets lace the luff of the sail to the mast.
+
+From spruce or pine make a sprit two inches in diameter. For a
+"sheet"--that is, the rope or line that you manage the sail with--tie a
+good stout line about a dozen feet long to the loop in the loose corner
+of the sail. Trim the upper end of the sprit to fit the loop in the top
+of the sail and make a simple notch in the other end to hold the line
+called the "snotter."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 217, with tiller.--Rudder lines.]
+
+Now, as you can readily see by referring to Fig. 211, when the sprit
+is pushed into the loop at the top of the sail the sail is spread. To
+hold it in place make a cleat like the one in the diagram and bind it
+firmly with a cord to the sprit; pass the snotter, or line, fastened to
+the mast through the notch in the sprit up to the cleat and make fast,
+and the sail is set. The jigger, or dandy, is exactly like the mainsail
+except in size, and the sheet rope is run through a block or pulley at
+the end of the outrigger and then made fast to a cleat near the man at
+the rudder or helm. The jib is a simple affair hooked on a screw-eye
+in the end of the bowsprit. The jib halyard, or line for hoisting the
+jib, runs from the top of the jib through a screw-eye in the top of the
+mast, down the port side of the mast to a cleat, where it is made fast.
+When the jib is set the jib-sheets are fastened to a loop sewed in the
+jib at the lower or loose end. There are two jib-sheets, one for each
+side of the boat, so that one may be made fast and the other loosened,
+according to the wind. The remaining details you must study out from
+the diagrams or learn by experiment.
+
+
+How to Reef Her
+
+When the wind is high reef your sails by letting go the snotter and
+pulling out the sprit. This will drop your peak and leave you with a
+simple leg-of-mutton sail. Only use the jib in light weather.
+
+In this boat, with a little knowledge of sailing, you may cruise for
+weeks, lowering your sails at night and making a tent over the cock-pit
+for a sleeping-room. Sails with boom and gaffs may be used if desired.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+HOW TO BUILD CHEAP AND SUBSTANTIAL HOUSE-BOATS
+
+Plans for a House-Boat that May Be a Camp or Built as Large as a Hotel
+
+
+WHEN the great West of the United States began to attract immigrants
+from the Eastern coast settlements, the Ohio River rolled between banks
+literally teeming with all sorts of wild game and wilder men: then it
+was that the American house-boat had its birth.
+
+The Mississippi, Ohio, and their tributaries furnished highways for
+easy travel, of which the daring pioneers soon availed themselves.
+
+Lumber was to be had for the labor of felling the trees. From the
+borders of the Eastern plantations to the prairies, and below the Ohio
+to the Mississippi, and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, was
+one vast forest of trees; trees whose trunks were unscarred by the axe,
+and whose tall tops reached an altitude which would hardly be believed
+by those of this generation, who have only seen second, third, or
+fourth growth timber.
+
+When the settlement of this new part of the country began it was not
+long before each stream poured out, with its own flood of water,
+
+
+A Unique Navy
+
+There were keel-boats, built something like a modern canal-boat, only
+of much greater dimensions; there were broad-horns, looking like Noak's
+arks from some giant's toy-shop, and there were flat-boats and rafts,
+the latter with houses built on them, all recklessly drifting, or
+being propelled by long sweeps down the current into the great solemn,
+unknown wilderness.
+
+Every island, had it a tongue, could tell of wrecks; every point or
+headland, of adventure.
+
+The perils were great and the forest solemn, but the immigrants were
+merry, and the squeaking fiddle made the red man rise up from his
+hiding-place and look with wonder upon the "long knives" and their
+squaws dancing on the decks of their rude crafts, as they swept by into
+the unknown.
+
+The advent of the steam-boat gradually drove the flat-boat, broad-horn,
+keel-boat, and all the primitive sweep-propelled craft from the rivers,
+but many of the old boatmen were loath to give up so pleasant a mode of
+existence, and they built themselves house-boats, and, still clinging
+to their nomadic habits, took their wives, and went to house-keeping on
+the bosom of the waters they loved so well.
+
+Their descendants now form what might well be called a race of
+river-dwellers, and to this day their quaint little arks line the
+shores of the Mississippi and its tributaries.
+
+
+Some of These House-Boats
+
+are as crudely made as the Italian huts we see built along the
+railroads, but others are neatly painted, and the interiors are like
+the proverbial New England homes, where everything is spick-and-span.
+
+Like the driftwood, these boats come down the stream with every
+freshet, and whenever it happens that the waters are particularly high
+they land at some promising spot and earn a livelihood on the adjacent
+water, by fishing and working aboard the other river-craft, or they
+land at some farming district, and as the waters recede they prop up
+and level their boats, on the bank, with stones or blocks of wood
+placed under the lower corners of their homes.
+
+The muddy waters, as they retire, leave a long stretch of fertile land
+between the stranded house and the river, and this space is utilized
+as a farm, where ducks, chickens, goats and pigs are raised and where
+garden-truck grows luxuriantly.
+
+From a boat their home has been transformed to a farm-house; but sooner
+or later there will be another big freshet, and when the waters reach
+the late farm-house, lo! it is a boat again, and goes drifting in its
+happy-go-lucky way down the current. If it escapes the perils of snags
+and the monster battering-rams, which the rapid current makes of the
+drifting trees in the flood, it will land again, somewhere, down-stream.
+
+Lately, while on a sketching trip through Kentucky, I was greatly
+interested in these boats, and on the Ohio River I saw several making
+good headway against the four-mile-an-hour current. This they did by
+the aid of
+
+
+Big Square Sails
+
+spread on a mast planted near their bows, thus demonstrating the
+practicability of the use of sails for house-boats.
+
+The house-boats to be described in this article are much better adapted
+for sailing than any of the craft used by the water-gypsies of the
+Western rivers.
+
+For open and exposed waters, like the large lakes which dot many of our
+inland States, or the Long Island Sound on our coast, the following
+plans of the American boy's house-boat will have to be altered, but the
+alterations will be all in the hull. If you make the hull three feet
+deep it will have the effect of lowering the cabin, while the head-room
+inside will remain the same. Such a craft can carry a good-sized sail,
+and weather any gale you are liable to encounter, even on the Sound,
+during the summer months.
+
+Since the passing away of the glorious old flat-boat days, idle people
+in England have introduced the
+
+
+House-Boat as a Fashionable Fad
+
+which has spread to this country, and the boys now have a new source of
+fun, as a result of this English fad.
+
+There are still some nooks and corners left in every State in the
+Union which the greedy pot-hunter and the devouring saw-mill have as
+yet left undisturbed, and at such places the boy boatmen may "wind
+their horns," as their ancestors did of old, and have almost as good
+a time. But first of all they must have a boat, and for convenience
+the American boy's house-boat will probably be found to excel either a
+broad-horn or a flat-boat model, it being a link between the two.
+
+The simplest possible house-boat is a Crusoe raft,[A] with a cabin near
+the stern and a sand-box for a camp-fire at the bow. A good time can
+be had aboard even this primitive craft. The next step in evolution is
+the long open scow, with a cabin formed by stretching canvas over hoops
+that reach from side to side of the boat (see Fig. 218).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 218.--A primitive house-boat.]
+
+Every boy knows how to build
+
+
+A Flat-Bottomed Scow
+
+or at least every boy should know how to make as simple a craft as the
+scow, but for fear some lad among my readers has neglected this part of
+his education, I will give a few hints which he may follow.
+
+
+Building Material
+
+Select lumber that is free from large knots and other blemishes. Keep
+the two best boards for the sides of your boat. With your saw cut
+the side boards into the form of Fig. 219; see that they are exact
+duplicates. Set the two pieces parallel to each other upon their
+straight or top edges, as the first two pieces shown in Fig. 220. Nail
+on an end-piece at the bow and stern, as the bumper is nailed in Figs.
+221 and 222; put the bottom on as shown in Figs. 196 and 210, and you
+have a simple scow.
+
+
+Centrepiece
+
+In Fig. 219 you will notice that there are two sides and a centrepiece,
+but this centrepiece is not necessary for the ordinary open boat, shown
+by Fig. 218. Here you have one of the simple forms of house-boat, and
+you can make it of dimensions to suit your convenience. I will not
+occupy space with the details of this boat, because they may be seen by
+a glance at the diagrams, and my purpose is to tell you how to build
+the American boy's house-boat, which is a more elegant craft than the
+rude open scow, with a canvas-covered cabin, shown by Fig. 218.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 219.--Unfinished.]
+
+
+The Sides of the House-Boat
+
+are 16 feet long, and to make them you need some sound two-inch planks.
+After selecting the lumber plane it off and make the edges true and
+straight. Each side and the centrepiece should now measure exactly 16
+feet in length by 14 inches in width, and about 2 inches thick. Cut off
+from each end of each piece a triangle, as shown by the dotted lines
+at G, H, I (Fig. 220); from H to G is 1 foot, and from H to I is 7
+inches. Measure from H to I 7 inches, and mark the point. Then measure
+from H to G, 12 inches, and mark the point. Then, with a carpenter's
+pencil, draw a line from G to I, and saw along this line. Keep the two
+best planks for the sides of your boat, and use the one that is left
+for the centrepiece. Measure 2 feet on the top or straight edge of your
+centrepiece, and mark the point A (Fig. 220). From A measure 8 feet 10
+inches, and mark the point C (Fig. 220).
+
+With a carpenter's square rule the lines A, B and C, D, and make them
+each 10 inches long, then rule the line B, D (Fig. 220). The piece A,
+B, C, D must now be carefully cut out: this can be done by using the
+saw to cut A, B and D, C. Then, about 6 inches from A, saw another line
+of the same length, and with a chisel cut the block out. You then have
+room to insert a rip-saw, at B, and can saw along the line B, D until
+you reach D, when the piece may be removed, leaving the space A, B, D,
+C for the cabin of the boat (see Figs. 221 and 222.)
+
+At a point 9 inches from the bow of the boat make a mark on the
+centrepiece, and another mark 5 inches farther away, at F (Fig. 220).
+With the saw cut a slit at each mark, 1 inch deep, and with a chisel
+cut out, as shown by the dotted lines; do the same at E, leaving a
+space of 1½ feet between the two notches, which are made to allow
+the two planks shown in the plan (Fig. 221) to rest on. These planks
+support the deck and the hatch, at the locker in the bow. The notches
+at E and F are not on the side-boards, the planks being supported at
+the sides by uprights, Figs. 221 and 222.
+
+All that now remains to be done with the centrepiece is to saw some
+three-cornered notches on bottom edge, one at bow, one at stern, and
+one or two amidship; this is to allow the water which may leak in to
+flow freely over the whole bottom, and to prevent it from gathering at
+one side and causing your craft to rest upon an uneven keel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 220.--Center board of house boat.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 221.--Plan of house boat.]
+
+Next select a level piece of ground near by and arrange the three
+pieces upon some supports, as shown in Fig. 219, so that from outside
+to outside of side-pieces it will measure just 8 feet across the bow
+and stern. Of 1-inch board
+
+
+Make Four End-Pieces
+
+for the bow and stern (see A, A´, Fig. 219), to fit between the sides
+and centrepiece. Make them each a trifle wider than H, I, Fig. 220,
+so that after they have been fitted they can be trimmed down with a
+plane, and bevelled on the same slant as the bottom at G, I, Fig. 220.
+It being 8 feet between the outside of each centrepiece, and the sides
+and the centrepiece being each 2 inches thick, that gives us 8 feet 6
+inches, or 7½ feet as the combined length of A and A´ (Fig. 219). In
+other words, each end-piece will be half of 7½ feet long--that is, 3
+feet 9 inches long. After making the four end-pieces, each 3 feet 9,
+by 9 inches, fit the ends in place so that there is an inch protruding
+above and below. See that your bow and stern are perfectly square, and
+nail with wire nails through the sides into A and A´; toe-nail at the
+centrepiece--that is, drive the nails from the broad side of A and A´
+slantingly, into the centrepiece, after which trim down with your plane
+the projecting inch on bottom, to agree with the slant of the bottom of
+the boat.
+
+
+Now for the Bottom
+
+This is simple work. All that is necessary is to have straight, true
+edges to your one-inch planks, fit them together, and nail them in
+place. Of course, when you come to the slant at bow and stern the
+bottom-boards at each end will have to have a bevelled edge, to fit
+snugly against the boards on the flat part of the bottom of the boat;
+but any boy who is accustomed to shake the gray matter in his brain can
+do this. Remember, scientists say that thought is the agitation of the
+gray matter of the brain, and if you are going to build a boat or play
+a good game of football you must shake up that gray stuff, or the other
+boys will put you down as a "stuff." No boy can expect to be successful
+in building a boat, of even the crudest type, unless he keeps his wits
+about him, so I shall take it for granted that there are no "stuffs"
+among my readers.
+
+After the boards are all snugly nailed on the bottom, and fitted
+together so that there are no cracks to calk up; the hull is ready to
+have
+
+
+The Bumpers
+
+nailed in place, at bow and stern. See the plan, Fig. 221, and the
+elevation, Fig. 222. The bumpers must be made of 2-inch plank, 8 feet
+long by about 9 inches wide; wide enough to cover A and A´ of Fig. 219,
+and to leave room for a bevel at the bottom edge to meet the slant of
+the bow and stern, and still have room at the top to cover the edge of
+the deck to the hull (see Fig. 222).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 222.--Cross-section of boat]
+
+
+The Hull May Now Be Painted
+
+with two coats of good paint, and after it is dry may be turned over
+and allowed to rest on a number of round sticks, called rollers.
+
+If you will examine Fig. 221 you will see there
+
+
+Twenty-Odd Ribs
+
+These are what are called two-by-fours-that is, 2 inches thick by 4
+inches wide. They support the floor of the cabin and forward locker, at
+the same time adding strength to the hull.
+
+The ribs are each the same length as the end-board. A and A´ of Fig.
+219, are nailed in place in the same manner. Each bottom-rib must
+have a notch 2 inches deep cut in the bottom edge to allow the free
+passage of water, so as to enable you to pump dry. Commencing at the
+stern, the distance between the inside of the bumper and the first rib
+is 1 foot 6 inches. This is a deck-rib, as may be seen by reference to
+Figs. 221 and 222. After measuring 1½ foot from the bumper, on inside
+of side-board, mark the point with a carpenter's pencil. Measure the
+same distance on the centrepiece, and mark the point as before; then
+carefully fit your rib in flush or even with the top of the side-piece,
+and fasten it in place by nails driven through the side-board into the
+end of the rib, and toe-nailed to centrepiece. Do the same with its
+mate on the other side of centrepiece.
+
+
+The Cabin of this House-Boat
+
+is to fit in the space, A, B, D, C of the centrepiece, Fig. 220. There
+is to be a one-inch plank at each end (see Fig. 222), next to which the
+side-supports at each end of cabin fit. The supports are two-by-twos;
+so, allowing 1 inch for the plank and 2 inches for the upright support,
+the next pair of ribs will be just 3 inches from A B, Fig. 220, of the
+centrepiece (see Figs. 221 and 222). The twin ribs at the forward end
+of the cabin will be the same distance from D C, Fig. 220, as shown in
+the plan and elevation, Figs. 221 and 222. This leaves five pairs of
+ribs to be distributed between the front and back end of the cabin.
+From the outside of each end-support to the inside of the nearest
+middle-support is 2 feet 6 inches. Allowing 2 inches for the supports,
+this will place the adjoining ribs 2 feet 8 inches from the outside of
+the end-supports. The other ribs are placed midway between, as may be
+seen by the elevation, Fig. 222.
+
+There is another pair of
+
+
+Deck-Ribs
+
+at the forward end of the cabin, which are placed flush with the line
+D, C, Fig. 220 (see Figs. 221 and 222). The two pairs of ribs in the
+bow are spaced, as shown in the diagram. This description may appear
+as if it was a complicated affair; but you will find it a simple thing
+to work out if you will remember to allow space for your pump in the
+stern, space for the end-planks at after and forward end of cabin, and
+space for your uprights. The planks at after and forward end of cabin
+are to box in the cabin floor.
+
+
+The Boat May Now Be Launched
+
+by sliding it over the rollers, which will not be found a difficult
+operation.
+
+
+The Plans Show Three Lockers
+
+--two in the bow under the hatch and one under the rear bunk--but if it
+is deemed necessary the space between-decks, at each side of the cabin,
+may be utilized as lockers. In this space you can store enough truck
+to last for months. A couple of doors in the plank at the front of the
+cabin opening, under the deck, will be found very convenient to reach
+the forward locker in wet weather.
+
+
+The Keel
+
+is a triangular piece of 2-inch board, made to fit exactly in the
+middle of the stern, and had best be nailed in place before the boat
+is launched (see Fig. 222). The keel must have its bottom edge flush
+with the bottom of the boat, and a strip of hard-wood nailed on the
+stern-end of the keel and bumper, as shown in the diagram. A couple of
+strong screw-eyes will support the rudder.
+
+After the boat is launched the
+
+
+Side-Supports for the Cabin May Be Erected
+
+These are "two-by-twos" and eight in number, and each 5 feet 9 inches
+long. Nail them securely at their lower ends to the adjoining ribs. See
+that they are plumb, and fasten them temporarily with diagonal pieces,
+to hold the top ends in place, while you nail down the lower deck or
+flooring.
+
+Now fit and nail the two 1-inch planks in place, at the bow and
+stern-end of the cabin, each of which has its top one inch above the
+sides, even with the proposed deck (see dotted lines in Fig. 222).
+
+
+Use Ordinary Flooring
+
+or if that is not obtainable use ¾-inch pine boards, and run them
+lengthwise from the bow to the front end of the cabin and along the
+sides of the cabin. Then floor the cabin lengthwise from bow to stern.
+This gives you a dry cabin floor, for there are 4 inches of space
+underneath for bilge-water, which unless your boat is badly made and
+very leaky, is plenty of room for what little water may leak in from
+above or below. The two side-boards of the cabin floor must, of course,
+have square places neatly cut out to fit the uprights of the cabin.
+This may be done by slipping the floor-board up against the uprights
+and carefully marking the places with a pencil where they will come
+through the board, and then at each mark sawing two inches in the floor
+plank, and cutting out the blocks with a chisel.
+
+
+The Hatch
+
+Now take a "four-by-four" and saw off eight short supports for the two
+1-inch planks which support the hatch, Figs. 221 and 222. Toe-nail
+the middle four-by-four to the floor in such a position that the two
+cross-planks (which are made to fit in the notches E and F, Fig.
+220) will rest on the supports. Nail the four other supports to the
+side-boards of your boat, and on top of these nail the cross-planks, as
+shown in the diagrams.
+
+The boat is now ready for its
+
+
+Upper Deck
+
+of 1-inch pine boards. These are to be nailed on lengthwise, bow and
+stern and at sides of cabin, leaving, of course, the cabin open, as
+shown by the position of the boys in Fig. 222, and an opening, 3 feet
+by 2, for the hatch (Fig. 221). The two floors will act as benches for
+the uprights of the cabin, and hold them stiff and plumb.
+
+To further stiffen the frame, make two diagonals for the stern-end, as
+shown in Fig. 223, and nail them in place.
+
+
+The Rafters
+
+or roof-rods, should extend a foot each way beyond the cabin, hence cut
+them two feet longer than the cabin, and after testing your uprights,
+to see that they are exactly plumb, nail the two side roof-rods in
+place (see dotted lines in Fig. 222). The cross-pieces at the ends, as
+they support no great weight, may be fitted between the two side-rods,
+and nailed there.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 223.--End view.]
+
+The roof is to be made of ½-inch boards bent into a curve, and the
+ridge-pole, or centre roof-rod, must needs have some support. This is
+obtained by two short pieces of 2 by 4, each 6 inches long, which are
+toe-nailed to the centre of each cross-rod, and the ridge-pole nailed
+to their tops. At 3 feet from the upper deck the side frame-pieces
+are toe-nailed to the uprights. As may be seen, there are three
+two-by-fours on each side (Fig. 222).
+
+The space between the side frame-pieces, the two middle uprights, and
+side roof-rods, is where the windows are to be placed.
+
+Use ½-inch (tongue and groove preferred) pine boards for sidings, and
+
+
+Box In Your Cabin
+
+neatly, allowing space for windows on each side, as indicated. Leave
+the front open. Of the same kind of boards make your roof; the boards
+being light you can bend them down upon each side and nail them to
+the side roof-rods, forming a pretty curve, as may be seen in the
+illustration of the American boy's house-boat.
+
+
+This Roof
+
+to be finished neatly and made entirely water-proof, should be covered
+with tent-cloth or light canvas, smoothly stretched over and tacked
+upon the under side of the projecting edges. Three good coats of paint
+will make it water-proof and pleasant to look upon.
+
+The description, so far, has been for a neatly finished craft, but I
+have seen very serviceable and comfortable house-boats built of rough
+lumber, in which case the curved roof, when they had one, had narrow
+strips nailed over the boards where they joined each other or was
+covered with tar-paper.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 224.--End view.]
+
+
+To Contrive a Movable Front
+
+to your cabin, make two doors to fit and close the front opening,
+but in place of hanging the doors on hinges, set them in place. Each
+door should have a good strong strap nailed securely on the inside,
+for a handle, and a batten or cross-piece at top and bottom of inside
+surface. A 1½ by 4, run parallel to the front top cross-frame and
+nailed there, just a sufficient distance from it to allow the top
+of the door to be inserted between, will hold the top of the door
+securely. A two-by-four, with bolt-holes near either end to correspond
+with bolt-holes in the floor, will hold the bottom when the door is
+pushed in place, the movable bottom-piece shoved against it and the
+bolts thrust in (see Fig. 225, view from inside of cabin. Fig. 226,
+side view). It will be far less work to break in the side of the cabin
+than to burst in such doors, if they are well made. These doors possess
+this advantage: they can be removed and used as table-tops, leaving
+the whole front open to the summer breeze, or one may be removed, and
+still allow plenty of ventilation. A moulding on deck around the cabin
+is not necessary, but it will add finish and prevent the rain-water
+from leaking in.
+
+To lock up the boat you must set the doors from the inside, and if you
+wish to leave the craft locked you must crawl out of the window and
+fasten the latter with a lock.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 225.--Inside view of door.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig 226--Side view of door.]
+
+Fig. 227 shows the construction of
+
+
+The Rudder
+
+and also an arrangement by which it may be worked from the front of the
+boat, which, when the boat is towed, will be found most convenient.
+
+The hatch should be made of 1-inch boards, to fit snugly flush with the
+deck, as in the illustration, or made of 2-inch plank, and a moulding
+fitted around the opening, as shown in Fig. 222.
+
+
+A Pair of Rowlocks
+
+made of two round oak sticks with an iron rod in their upper ends,
+may be placed in holes in the deck near the bow, and the boat can be
+propelled by two oarsmen using long "sweeps," which have holes at the
+proper places to fit over the iron rods projecting from the oaken
+rowlocks. These rowlocks may be removed when not in use, and the holes
+closed by wooden plugs, while the sweeps can be hung at the side of the
+cabin, under its eaves, or lashed fast to the roof.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 227.--Side elevation.]
+
+
+Two or More Ash Poles
+
+for pushing or poling the boat over shallow water or other difficult
+places for navigation are handy, and should not be left out of the
+equipment. The window-sashes may be hung on hinges and supplied with
+hooks and screw-eyes to fasten them open by hooking them to the eaves
+when it is desired to let in the fresh air. All window openings should
+be protected by wire netting to keep out insects.
+
+Two bunks can be fitted at the rear end of the cabin, one above the
+other, the bottom bunk being the lid to a locker (see Fig. 222).
+
+
+The Locker
+
+is simply a box, the top of which is just below the deck-line and
+extending the full width of the cabin. It has hinges at the back, and
+may be opened for the storage of luggage.
+
+Over the lid blankets are folded, making a divan during the day and a
+bed at night.
+
+The top bunk is made like the frame of a cheap cot, but in place of
+being upholstered it has a strong piece of canvas stretched across it.
+This bunk is also hinged to the back of the cabin, so that when not in
+use it can be swung up against the roof and fastened there as the top
+berth in a sleeping-car is fastened. Four 4 by 4 posts can be bolted
+to the side-support at each corner of the bottom bunk; they will amply
+support the top bunk, as the legs do a table-top when the frame is
+allowed to rest upon their upper ends. This makes accommodation for
+two boys, and there is still room for upper and lower side bunks, the
+cabin being but six feet wide. If you put bunks on both sides you will
+be rather crowded, it is true, but by allowing a 1-foot passage in the
+middle, you can have two side bunks and plenty of head room. This will
+accommodate four boys, and that is a full crew for a boat of this size.
+
+On board a yacht I have often seen four full-grown men crowded into a
+smaller space in the cabin, while the sailormen in the fo'-castle had
+not near that amount of room.
+
+
+A More Simple Set of Plans
+
+Here the cabin is built on top of the upper deck, and there are no
+bottom-ribs, the uprights being held in place by blocks nailed to the
+bottom of the boat, and by the deck of the boat. This is secure enough
+for well-protected waters, small lakes, and small streams. Upon the
+inland streams of New York State I have seen two-story house-boats, the
+cabin, or house, being only a framework covered with canvas. One such
+craft I saw in central New York, drifting downstream over a shallow
+riff, and as it bumped along over the stones it presented a strange
+sight. The night was intensely dark, and the boat brightly lighted. The
+lights shone through the canvas covering, and this big, luminous house
+went bobbing over the shallow water, while shouts of laughter and the
+"plinky-plunk" of a banjo told in an unmistakable manner of the jolly
+time the crew were having.
+
+
+Canvas-Cabined House-Boat
+
+If you take an ordinary open scow and erect a frame of uprights and
+cross-pieces, and cover it with canvas, you will have just such a boat
+as the one seen in central New York. This boat may be propelled by
+oars, the rowers sitting under cover, and the canvas being lifted at
+the sides to allow the sweeps to work; but of course it will not be as
+snug as the well-made American boy's house-boat, neither can it stand
+the same amount of rough usage, wind, and rain as the latter boat.
+
+In the frontispiece the reader will notice a stove-pipe at the stern;
+there is room for a small stove back of the cabin, and in fair weather
+it is much better to cook outside than inside the cabin. When you tie
+up to the shore for any length of time, a rude shelter of boughs and
+bark will make a good kitchen on the land, in which the stove may be
+placed, and you will enjoy all the fun of a camp, with the advantage of
+a snug house to sleep in.
+
+For the benefit of boys who doubt their ability to build a boat of
+this description, it may be well to state that other lads have used
+these directions and plans with successful results, and their boats now
+gracefully float on many waters, a source of satisfaction and pride to
+their owners.
+
+
+Information for Old Boys
+
+On all the Western rivers small flat-boats or scows are to be had at
+prices which vary in accordance with the mercantile instincts of the
+purchaser, and with the desire of the seller to dispose of his craft.
+Such boats are propelled by "sweeps," a name used to designate the long
+poles with boards on their outer edges that serve as blades and form
+the oars. These boats are often supplied with a deck-house, extending
+almost from end to end, and if such a house is lacking one may be
+built with little expense. The cabin may be divided into rooms and the
+sleeping apartments supplied with cheaply made bunks. It is not the
+material of the bunk which makes it comfortable--it is the mattress
+in the bunk upon which your comfort will depend. The kitchen and
+dining-room may be all in one. An awning spread over the roof will make
+a delightful place in which to lounge and catch the river breezes.
+
+
+The Cost of House-Boats
+
+The cost of a ready-made flat-bottomed house-boat is anywhere from
+thirty dollars to one or more thousands. In Florida such a boat, 40
+by 20 feet, built for the quiet waters of the St. John's River or its
+tributaries, or the placid lagoons, will cost eight hundred dollars.
+This boat is well painted outside and rubbed down to a fine oil finish
+inside; it has one deck, and the hull is used for toilet apartments
+and state-rooms; the hull is well calked and all is in good trim. Such
+expense is, however, altogether unnecessary--there need be no paint or
+polish. All you need is a well-calked hull and a water-tight roof of
+boards or canvas overhead; cots or bunks to sleep in; chairs, stools,
+boxes or benches to sit on; hammocks to loll in, and a good supply of
+provisions in the larder.
+
+House-boats for the open waters are necessarily more expensive. As a
+rule they need round bottoms that stand well out of the water, and
+are built like the hull of a ship. These boats cost as much to build
+as a small yacht. From twelve to fifteen hundred dollars will build a
+good house-boat, with comfortable sleeping-berths, toilet-rooms and
+store-rooms below; a kitchen, dining-room, and living-rooms on the
+cabin deck, with wide, breezy passageways separating them.
+
+If a bargain can be found in an old schooner with a good hull, for two
+or three hundred dollars, a first-class house-boat can be made by the
+expenditure of as much more for a cabin. The roofs of all house-boats
+should extend a foot or more beyond the sides of the cabin.
+
+
+For People of Limited Means
+
+For people with little money to spend, these expensive boats are as
+much out of reach as a yacht, but they may often be rented for prices
+within the means of people in moderate circumstances. At New York I
+have known a good schooner-yacht, 84 feet over all, to be chartered for
+two weeks, with crew of skipper and two men, the larder plentifully
+supplied with provisions and luxuries for six people and the crew,
+making nine in all, at a cost of thirty-six dollars apiece for each of
+the six passengers. An equally good house-boat should not cost over
+twelve dollars a week per passenger for a party of ten. In inland
+waters, if a boat could be rented, the cost should not exceed seven or
+eight dollars a week per passenger.
+
+A canal-boat is a most excellent house-boat for a pleasure party,
+either on inland streams or along our coast.
+
+
+Street-Car Cabins
+
+Since the introduction of cable and trolley-cars the street-car
+companies have been selling their old horse-cars, in some instances at
+figures below the cost of the window-glass in them; so cheap, in fact,
+that poor people buy them to use as woodsheds and chicken-coops.
+
+One of these cars will make an ideal cabin for a house-boat, and can be
+adapted for that purpose with little or no alterations. All it needs is
+a good flat-boat to rest in, and you have a palatial house-boat.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[A] See p. 10.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+A CHEAP AND SPEEDY MOTOR-BOAT
+
+    How To Build the Jackson Glider--A Very Simple Form of
+    Motor-Boat, Which Will Hold Its Own in Speed With Even
+    Expensive Boats of Double Horse-Power
+
+
+THIS boat is intended to slide over the top of the water and not
+through it, consequently it is built in the form of a flat-bottom scow.
+Order your wood dressed on both sides, otherwise it will come with one
+side rough. For the side-boards we need two pine, or cedar boards, to
+measure, when trimmed, 14 feet (Fig. 228), and to be 16 or 18 inches
+wide.
+
+
+The Stern-Board
+
+when trimmed, will be 2½ feet long by 1 foot, 8½ inches wide. It may
+even be a little wider, because the protruding part can be planed down
+after the boat is built (Fig. 229).
+
+To make the bow measure from the point E (Fig. 228) 1 foot 8½ inches
+and mark the point C. Measure along the same line 13½ inches and mark
+the point D. Next measure from B down along the edge of the boat one
+inch and mark the point F. Again measure down from B, 5¾ inches and
+mark the point G. With a carpenter's pencil draw the lines F D and G C
+and saw these pieces off along the dotted line (Fig. 232). The bow can
+then be rounded at the points A and B with a sharp knife or jackplane.
+
+To get the proper slant on the stern, measure from H 4½ inches to L and
+saw off the triangle LHK. Make the other side board an exact duplicate
+of the first one, as in Fig. 228. Next set these two boards on edge,
+like sledge runners (Fig. 230), and let them be 2 feet, 6 inches apart
+(the boat will be safer if made six inches wider, and its speed will
+be almost as great), which can be tested by fitting the stern-boards
+between them before nailing the temporary boards on, which are to hold
+them in place (Fig. 230). Do not drive the nails home, but leave the
+heads protruding on all temporary braces, so that they may be easily
+removed when necessary.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 228.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 229.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 230.--Parts of motor-boat.]
+
+Now turn the boat bottom side up and nail the bottom on, as already
+described in previous chapters (Fig. 232). The bottom-boards are to
+be so planed upon their edges that they leave V-shaped grooves on the
+inside of the boat to be calked with candlewick and putty (Fig. 231).
+Next make a shaft-log by cutting a board in a triangular piece, as
+shown in Fig. 233, and nailing two other pieces of board on it, and
+leaving a space for the shaft-rod, over which is nailed a duplicate
+of the bottom-board, as shown in Fig. 234. Make the shaft-log of three
+thicknesses of 1-inch plank. To make it more secure there should be a
+board nailed on the inside bottom of the boat, as shown in Fig. 235 by
+the dotted lines.
+
+This board is put there to strengthen the bottom and allow us to cut a
+slot through for the admission of a shaft (Fig. 236) which is drawn on
+a scale shown below it. With the engine comes a stuffing box, through
+which the shaft passes and which prevents the water from coming up
+through the shaft-hole. The stuffing boxes, which are furnished to fit
+upon the inside of the boat, are expensive, but one to fit upon the
+stern of the shaft-log costs but little, and will answer all purposes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 231.]
+
+Of course, when attaching the shaft-log to the bottom, it must be in
+the exact centre of the boat. Find the centre of the boat at the bow
+and stern, mark the points and snap a chalk-line between them. Now
+place the shaft-log in position on this line and while holding that
+there firmly, mark around it with a carpenter's pencil. Next lay the
+shaft-log flat on its side with its edge along this line and with
+your pencil mark on the bottom of the boat the exact place where the
+shaft-hole must be cut to correspond with the one in the shaft-log.
+As may be seen by Fig. 236, the shaft runs through at an acute angle;
+hence the hole must be bored on a slant, or better still a slot cut
+through the floor long enough to allow for the slant.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 232.
+
+Fig. 233.
+
+Fig. 234.
+
+Fig. 239.
+
+Fig. 235.
+
+Fig. 236.
+
+Fig. 237.
+
+Fig. 238.
+
+Details of motor-boat.]
+
+The leak, which would naturally occur here is prevented by the stuffing
+box which is fastened on to the stern-end of the shaft-log where the
+latter protrudes for the propeller. To set the engine in the boat it is
+necessary to have an engine-bed. This is made of two pieces of board
+cut diagonally, upon which the engine rests.
+
+Fig. 237 shows a piece of 2-inch board and a method of sawing it to
+make the duplicate pieces to form the engine-bed. The dimension of
+these pieces must be obtained by measuring the width of the engine
+rest, which is to be installed. The angle, of course, must correspond
+to the angle of the shaft.
+
+Make your own rudder of any shape that suits your fancy, square or
+paddle-shaped, of a piece of galvanized iron or of wood, as shown in
+the diagram; or you can simply fasten the rudder-stem to the transom
+(stern-board), as is often done on row-boats and sail-boats. If you
+desire to make your rudder like the one shown here, use two pieces
+of galvanized pipes for your rudder-posts, one of which fits loosely
+inside of the other. Make the rudder-posts of what is known as 3/8-inch
+(which means literally a 3/8-inch opening) and for its jacket use a
+¾-inch pipe, or any two kinds of pipe, which will allow one to turn
+loosely inside the other. The smaller pipe can be bent easily by hand
+to suit your convenience, after it has been thrust through the larger
+pipe.
+
+First bend the lower end of the small pipe to fit your proposed rudder,
+then remove the larger pipe and flatten the lower end of the small one
+by beating it with the hammer. To bore the screw-holes in the flattened
+end you will use a small tool for drilling metal. One of these drills,
+which will fit any carpenter's brace, can be procured for the cost of a
+few cents.
+
+Drill holes through the flattened end of your pipe for the reception of
+your screws, which are to secure it to the rudder. It is now necessary
+to fasten a block of 2-inch plank securely to the bottom of the boat
+upon the inside where the rudder-post is to be set. This block might
+best be secured on with four bolts. A hole is then bored through the
+block and the bottom of the boat a trifle smaller than the largest
+piece of pipe; the latter is supposed to have screw threads upon its
+lower end (Fig. 238) so that it may be screwed into the wood, but
+before doing so coat the threads with white lead and also the inside of
+the hole in the block with the same substance.
+
+When the larger pipe is now screwed into the block until its lower end
+is flushed with the outside bottom of the boat, the white lead will not
+only make the process easier, but will tend to keep out the moisture
+and water from the joint.
+
+From the outside thrust the upper end of the small pipe through the
+hole in the bottom until it protrudes the proper distance above the
+larger pipe, and with the point of a nail scratch a mark on the surface
+of the small pipe where it issues from the big one. At this point drill
+a hole through the small pipe to admit a nail which is to act as a peg
+to keep the helm from sliding down and jamming in its bearings.
+
+If you choose, a small seat or deck may be inserted in the stern,
+through which the helm extends and which will help to steady it. The
+top of the helm, or protruding ends of the small pipe may now be bent
+over toward the bow, as shown in the diagram, and by holding some hard
+substance under it, the end may be flattened with a hammer and two
+holes drilled through the flattened end for the rudder-line, as in Fig.
+239. These lines work the rudder and extend on each side of the boat
+through some clothes-lines pulleys, as shown in Fig. 239.
+
+If you slice off the ring from a common rubber hose and slip it
+over the inside pipe before you fasten it in place, it will prevent
+the water from spurting up through the rudder pipe when the boat is
+speeding.
+
+Any boat will leak if not carefully built and the simplest kind of a
+craft carefully put together is as water-tight as the most finished and
+expensive boat.
+
+For a gasoline tank any good galvanized iron vessel will answer if
+it holds five gallons or more of gasoline. It can be placed in the
+bow on a rest made for it. Of course the bottom of the tank must be
+on a level or higher than the carburetor of the engine; the tank is
+connected by a small copper, or block-tin pipe, which you procure with
+the engine.
+
+This boat, if built according to plans, should cost ten dollars or
+less, not counting the cost of the engine. The cost of the latter will
+vary according to the style of one you use, and whether you get it
+first or second hand.
+
+A ten-horse power engine drove a boat of this kind at the rate of
+eighteen miles an hour.
+
+For beginners, this is as far as it is safe to go in boat-building, but
+thus far any one with a rudimentary knowledge of the use of tools can
+go, and, if one has followed the book through from chapter to chapter
+he should be a good boat-builder at
+
+    The End
+
+
+
+
+THE BEARD BOOKS FOR BOYS
+
+_By_ DAN C. BEARD
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+THE AMERICAN BOY'S HANDY BOOK. Or, What to Do and How to Do It
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    Gives sports adapted to all seasons of the year, tells
+    boys how to make all kinds of things--boats, traps,
+    toys, puzzles, aquariums, fishing-tackle; how to
+    tie knots, splice ropes, to make bird calls, sleds,
+    blow-guns, balloons; how to rear wild birds, to train
+    dogs, and do the thousand and one things that boys take
+    delight in.
+
+
+THE OUTDOOR HANDY BOOK. For Playground, Field, and Forest
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    "How to play all sorts of games with marbles, how to
+    make and spin more kinds of tops than most boys ever
+    heard of, how to make the latest things in plain and
+    fancy kites, where to dig bait and how to fish, all
+    about boats and sailing, and a host of other things . . .
+    an unmixed delight to any boy."--_New York Tribune._
+
+
+THE FIELD AND FOREST HANDY BOOK. Or, New Ideas for Out of Doors
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    "Instructions as to ways to build boats and
+    fire-engines, make aquariums, rafts, and sleds, to
+    camp in a back-yard, etc. No better book of the kind
+    exists."--_Chicago Record-Herald._
+
+
+SHELTERS, SHACKS, AND SHANTIES
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    Easily workable directions, accompanied by very full
+    illustration, for over fifty shelters, shacks, and
+    shanties.
+
+
+BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING. A Handy Book for Beginners
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    All that Dan Beard knows and has written about the
+    building of every simple kind of boat, from a raft to a
+    cheap motor-boat, is brought together in this book.
+
+
+THE JACK OF ALL TRADES. Or, New Ideas for American Boys
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    "This book is a capital one to give any boy for a
+    present at Christmas, on a birthday, or indeed at any
+    time."--_The Outlook._
+
+
+THE BOY PIONEERS. Sons of Daniel Boone
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    "How to become a member of the 'Sons of Daniel
+    Boone' and take part in all the old pioneer
+    games, and many other things in which boys are
+    interested."--_Philadelphia Press._
+
+
+THE BLACK WOLF-PACK
+
+    "A genuine thriller of mystery and red-blooded
+    conflicts, well calculated to hold the mind and the
+    heart of its boy and, for that matter, its adult
+    reader."--_Philadelphia North American._
+
+
+
+
+THE BEARD BOOKS FOR GIRLS
+
+_By_ LINA BEARD _and_ ADELIA B. BEARD
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+THE AMERICAN GIRL'S HANDY BOOK. How to Amuse Yourself and Others
+
+    _With nearly 500 illustrations_
+
+    "It is a treasure which, once possessed, no practical
+    girl would willingly part with."--GRACE GREENWOOD.
+
+
+THINGS WORTH DOING AND HOW TO DO THEM
+
+    _With some 600 drawings by the authors that show exactly how they
+    should be done_
+
+    "The book will tell you how to do nearly anything that
+    any live girl really wants to do."--_The World To-day._
+
+
+HANDICRAFT AND RECREATION FOR GIRLS
+
+    _With over 700 illustrations by the authors_
+
+    "It teaches how to make serviceable and useful things
+    of all kinds out of every kind of material. It also
+    tells how to play and how to make things to play
+    with."--_Chicago Evening Post._
+
+
+WHAT A GIRL CAN MAKE AND DO. New Ideas for Work and Play
+
+    _With more than 300 illustrations by the authors_
+
+    "It would be a dull girl who could not make herself
+    busy and happy following its precepts. . . . A most
+    inspiring book for an active-minded girl."--_Chicago
+    Record-Herald._
+
+ON THE TRAIL
+
+    _Illustrated by the authors_
+
+    This volume tells how a girl can live outdoors, camping
+    in the woods, and learning to know its wild inhabitants.
+
+
+MOTHER NATURE'S TOY SHOP
+
+    _Profusely illustrated by the authors_
+
+    How children can make toys easily and economically from
+    wild flowers, grasses, green leaves, seed-vessels,
+    fruits, etc.
+
+
+LITTLE FOLKS' HANDY BOOK
+
+    _With many illustrations_
+
+    Contains a wealth of devices for entertaining children
+    by means of paper building-cards, wooden berry-baskets,
+    straw and paper furniture, paper jewelry, etc.
+
+    CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Punctuation errors were corrected.
+
+Inconsistent hyphenation was retained.
+
+Page 42, "staps" changed to "straps" (straps with your hand)
+
+Page 58, "mechancial" changed to "mechanical" (with mechanical aid)
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44228 ***
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+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44228 ***</div>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Boat-Building and Boating, by Daniel Carter
+Beard, Illustrated by Daniel Carter Beard</h1>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      <a href="https://archive.org/details/boatbuildingboat00bear">
+      https://archive.org/details/boatbuildingboat00bear</a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="380" height="600" alt="cover" />
+</div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='maintitle'>Boat-Building<br />
+and Boating</div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_005.png" width="600" height="459" alt="boys on a boat (sort of like a small houseboat)" />
+<div class="caption">Bound for a good time</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class='bbox'>
+<h1>Boat-Building<br />
+and Boating</h1>
+
+<div class='center'>
+By<br />
+<span class='author'>D. C. BEARD</span><br />
+<br /><br /><br />
+With Many Illustrations<br />
+by the Author<br />
+<br /><br /><br /><br />
+NEW YORK<br />
+Charles Scribner's Sons<br />
+1931<br />
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class='copyright'>
+<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1911, by</span><br />
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS<br />
+&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;<br />
+Printed in the United States of America<br />
+
+
+&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;<br />
+SPECIAL NOTICE</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot'><small>All the material in this book, both text and cuts, is original with the
+author and invented by him; and warning is hereby given that the
+unauthorized printing of any portion of the text and the reproduction
+of any of the illustrations or diagrams are expressly forbidden.</small><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 179px;">
+<img src="images/i_007.png" width="179" height="200" alt="embelem: The Scribner Press" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+AFFECTIONATELY<br />
+DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF<br />
+TOM AND HI<br />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">This</span> is not a book for yacht-builders, but it is intended for
+beginners in the art of boat-building, for boys and men who wish
+to make something with which they may navigate the waters
+of ponds, lakes, or streams. It begins with the most primitive
+crafts composed of slabs or logs and works up to scows, house-boats,
+skiffs, canoes and simple forms of sailing craft, a motor-boat,
+and there it stops. There are so many books and magazines
+devoted to the higher arts of ship-building for the graduates
+to use, besides the many manufacturing houses which furnish all
+the parts of a sail-boat, yacht, or motor-boat for the ambitious
+boat-builder to put together himself, that it is unnecessary for the
+author to invade that territory.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the designs in this book have appeared in magazines
+to which the author contributed, or in his own books on general
+subjects, and all these have been successfully built by hundreds of
+boys and men.</p>
+
+<p>Many of them are the author's own inventions, and the others
+are his own adaptations of well-known and long-tried models.
+In writing and collecting this material for boat-builders from his
+other works and placing them in one volume, the author feels that
+he is fulfilling the wishes of many of his old readers and offering a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>
+useful book to a large audience of new recruits to the army of
+those who believe in the good old American doctrine of: "If
+you want a thing done, do it yourself." And by doing it yourself
+you not only add to your skill and resourcefulness, but, what
+is even more important, you develop your own self-reliance and
+manhood.</p>
+
+<p>No one man can think of everything connected with any one
+subject, and the author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness
+to several sportsmen friends, especially to his camp-mate, Mr.
+F. K. Vreeland, and his young friend, Mr. Samuel Jackson, for
+suggestions of great value to both writer and reader.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+<span class="smcap">Dan Beard.</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<p><small><span class="smcap">Flushing, L. I.</span>, <i>Sept., 1911.</i></small><br /></p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="contents">
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='2'><small>CHAPTER</small></td>
+<td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">I.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">How to Cross a Stream on a Log</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">II.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">Home-Made Boats</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">III.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Raft that Will Sail</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">IV.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">Canoes</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">V.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">Canoes and Boating Stunts</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VI.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Birch-Bark</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VII.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">How to Build a Paddling Dory</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VIII.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Landlubber's Chapter</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">IX.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">How to Rig and Sail Small Boats</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">X.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">More Rigs of All Kinds for Small Boats</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XI.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">Knots, Bends, and Hitches</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XII.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">How to Build a Cheap Boat</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XIII.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">A "Rough-and-Ready" Boat</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XIV.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">How to Build Cheap and Substantial House-Boats</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XV.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Cheap and Speedy Motor-Boat</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Boat-Building and Boating</h2>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_015.png" width="600" height="394" alt="boys on boat" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_1"></a>Fig. 1.&mdash;The logomaran.</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>CHAPTER I<br />
+<small>HOW TO CROSS A STREAM ON A LOG</small></h2>
+
+<h3>How to Build a Logomaran</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">There</span> is a widespread notion that all wood will float on water,
+and this idea often leads to laughable errors. I know a lot of
+young backwoods farmers who launched a raft of green oak logs,
+and were as much astonished to see their craft settle quietly to
+the bottom of the lake as they would have been to see the leaden
+sinkers of their fish-lines dance lightly on the surface of the waves.
+The young fellows used a day's time to discover what they might
+have learned in a few moments by watching the chips sink when
+they struck the water as they flew from the skilful blows of their
+axes.</p>
+
+<p>The stream which cuts your trail is not always provided with
+bridges of fallen trees. It may be a river too deep to ford and
+too wide to be bridged by a chance log. Of course it is a simple
+matter to swim, but the weather may be cold and the water still
+colder; besides this, you will probably be encumbered with a
+lot of camp equipage&mdash;your gun, rod, and camera&mdash;none of which
+will be improved by a plunge in the water. Or it may so happen
+that you are on the shores of a lake unsupplied with boats,
+and you have good reasons for supposing that big fish lurk in
+some particular spot out of reach from the shore. A thousand
+and one emergencies may arise when a craft of some kind will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+be not only a great convenience, but almost a necessity. Under
+these circumstances</p>
+
+
+<h3>A Logomaran</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>may be constructed in a very short time which can bear you and
+your pack safely to the desired goal (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>).</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 101px;">
+<img src="images/i_017a.png" width="101" height="259" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_2"></a>Fig. 2.&mdash;The notch.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 347px;">
+<img src="images/i_017b.png" width="347" height="464" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_3"></a>Fig. 3.&mdash;Top view of logomaran.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Rocky, Cascade, and Selkirk Mountains, the lakes
+and streams have their shores plentifully supplied with "whim
+sticks," logs of fine dry timber, which the freshets have brought
+down from the mountain sides and which the rocks and surging
+torrents have denuded of bark. These whim sticks are of all
+sizes, and as sound and perfect as kiln-dried logs. Even in the
+mountains of Pennsylvania, where the lumberman's axe years ago
+laid waste the primeval forest, where the saw-mills have devoured
+the second growth, the tie-hunter the third growth, the excelsior-mills
+and birch-beer factories the saplings, I still find good sound<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+white pine-log whim sticks strewn along the shores of the lakes
+and streams, timber which is suitable for temporary rafts and
+logomarans.</p>
+
+<p>In the North Woods, where in many localities the original
+forest is untouched by the devouring pulp-mills, suitable timber
+is not difficult to find; so let the green wood stand and select
+a log of dry wood from the shore where the floods or ice have
+deposited it. Cut it into a convenient length, and with a lever
+made of a good stout sapling, and a fulcrum of a stone or chunk
+of wood, pry the log from its resting-place and roll it into the shallow
+water. Notch the log on the upper side, as shown by <a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2</a>,
+making a notch near each end for the cross-pieces.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Illustrations">
+<tr><td align="left"><a id="Fig_4"></a><img src="images/i_018a.png" width="336" height="147" alt="drawing" /></td>
+<td align="left" colspan='2' valign='bottom'><a id="Fig_5"></a><a id="Fig_6"></a><img src="images/i_018b.png" width="335" height="83" alt="drawings" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><div class="caption">Fig. 4.&mdash;Flattened joint.</div></td>
+<td align="center"><div class="caption">Fig. 5.</div></td>
+<td align="center"><div class="caption">Fig. 6.</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center" colspan='2'><div class="caption">Matched joints.</div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The two side floats may be made of pieces split, by the aid of
+wooden wedges, from a large log, or composed of small whim
+sticks, as shown by <a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The floats, as may be seen by reference to <a href="#Fig_1">Figs. 1</a> and <a href="#Fig_3">3</a>, are
+shorter than the middle log.</p>
+
+<p>It is impracticable to give dimensions, for the reason that they
+are relative; the length of the middle log depends, to some extent,
+upon its diameter, it being evident that a thick log will support
+more than a thin one of the same length; consequently if your
+log is of small diameter, it must be longer, in order to support
+your weight, than will be necessary for a thicker piece of timber.
+The point to remember is to select a log which will support you and
+your pack, and then attach two side floats to balance your craft and
+prevent it from rolling over and dumping its load in the water.</p>
+
+<p>An ordinary single shell-boat without a passenger will upset,
+but when the oarsman takes his seat and grasps his long spoon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+oars, the sweeps, resting on the water, balance the cranky craft,
+and it cannot upset as long as the oars are kept there. This is
+the principle of the logomaran, as well as that of the common catamaran.
+The cross-pieces should be only thick enough to be secure
+and long enough to prevent the log from wabbling and wetting
+your feet more than is necessary.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 335px;">
+<img src="images/i_019a.png" width="335" height="320" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_7"></a>Fig. 7.&mdash;The saw-buck crib.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 348px;">
+<img src="images/i_019b.png" width="348" height="422" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_8"></a>Fig. 8.&mdash;The staked crib.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>If You Have an Auger and No Nails</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>the craft may be fastened together with wooden pegs cut somewhat
+larger than the holes bored to receive them, and driven in
+with blows from your axe.</div>
+
+<p>If you have long nails or spikes the problem is a simple one;
+but if you have neither auger, nails, nor spikes you must bind the
+joints with rope or hempen twine.</p>
+
+<p>If you have neither nails, auger, nor rope, a good substitute
+for the latter can be made from the long,</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Fibrous Inner Bark</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>of a dead or partly burned tree. For experiment I took some
+of the inner bark of a chestnut-tree which had been killed by
+fire and twisted it into a rope the size of a clothes-line, then I
+allowed two strong men to have a tug-of-war with it, and the
+improvised rope was stronger than the men.</div>
+
+
+<h3>How to Make a Fibre Rope</h3>
+
+<p>Take one end of a long, loose strand of fibres, give the other
+end to another person, and let both twine the ends between the
+fingers until the material is well twisted throughout its entire
+length; then bring the two ends together, and two sides of the
+loop thus made will twist themselves into a cord or rope half the
+length of the original strand.</p>
+
+<p>If you nail or peg the parts, use your axe to flatten the joints
+by striking off a chip, as in <a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4</a>.</p>
+
+<p>If you must lash the joints together, cut them with log-cabin
+notches, as in <a href="#Fig_5">Figs. 5</a> and <a href="#Fig_6">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p>If you have baggage to transport, make</p>
+
+
+<h3>A Dunnage Crib</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>by driving four stakes in cuts made near the end of the centre
+log and binding them with rope or fibre (<a href="#Fig_7">Figs. 7</a> and <a href="#Fig_8">8</a>), or by
+working green twigs basket-fashion around them, or make the
+rack saw-buck fashion, as shown by <a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>, and this will keep
+your things above water.</div>
+
+<p>A couple of cleats nailed on each side of the log will be of
+great assistance and lessen the danger and insecurity of the footing.</p>
+
+<p>A skilfully made logomaran will enable you to cross any
+stream with a moderate current and any small lake in moderate
+weather. It is not an especially dry craft, but it won't sink or
+upset, and will take one but a short time to knock it together.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II<br />
+<small>HOME-MADE BOATS</small></h2>
+
+
+
+<div class='summary2'>Birth of the "Man-Friday" Catamaran&mdash;The Crusoe Raft and
+Chump Rafts</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Not</span> so very many years ago I remember visiting, in company
+with my cousin Tom, a small lake at the headwaters of the
+Miami. High and precipitous cliffs surround the little body of
+water. So steep were the great weather-beaten rocks that it
+was only where the stream came tumbling down past an old
+mill that an accessible path then existed. Down that path Tom
+and I scrambled, for we knew that large bass lurked in the deep,
+black holes among the rocks.</p>
+
+<p>We had no jointed split-bamboo rods nor fancy tackle, but
+the fish there in those days were not particular and seldom
+hesitated to bite at an angle-worm or grasshopper though the
+hook upon which the bait squirmed was suspended by a coarse
+line from a freshly cut hickory sapling.</p>
+
+<p>Even now I feel the thrill of excitement and expectancy as,
+in imagination, my pole is bent nearly double by the frantic struggles
+of those "gamy" black bass. After spending the morning
+fishing we built a fire upon a short stretch of sandy beach, and
+cleaning our fish and washing them in the spring close at hand,
+we put them among the embers to cook.</p>
+
+<p>While the fire was getting our dinner ready for us we threw
+off our clothes and plunged into the cool waters of the lake. Inexpert
+swimmers as we were at that time, the opposite shore,
+though apparently only a stone's throw distant, was too far off
+for us to reach by swimming. Many a longing and curious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+glance we cast toward it, however, and strong was the temptation
+that beset us to try the unknown depths intervening. A
+pair of brown ears appeared above the ferns near the water's
+edge, and a fox peeped at us; squirrels ran about the fallen
+trunks of trees or scampered up the rocks as saucily as though
+they understood that we could not swim well enough to reach
+their side of the lake; and high up the face of the cliff was a dark
+spot which we almost knew to be the entrance to some mysterious
+cavern.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 678px;">
+<img src="images/i_022.png" width="678" height="305" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_8_5"></a>Fig. 8½.&mdash;The Man-Friday.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>How we longed for a boat! But not even a raft nor a dugout
+could be seen anywhere upon the glassy surface of the water
+or along its rocky border. We nevertheless determined to explore
+the lake next day, even if we should have to paddle astride
+of a log.</p>
+
+<p>The first rays of the morning sun had not reached the dark
+waters before my companion and I were hard at work, with axe
+and hatchet, chopping in twain a long log we had discovered
+near the mill. We had at first intended to build a raft; but
+gradually we evolved a sort of catamaran. The two pieces of
+log we sharpened at the ends for the bow; then we rolled the
+logs down upon the beach, and while I went into the thicket to
+chop down some saplings my companion borrowed an auger<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+from the miller. We next placed the logs about three feet
+apart, and marking the points where we intended to put the
+cross-pieces, we cut notches there; then we placed the saplings
+across, fitting them into these notches. To hold them securely
+we bored holes down through the sapling cross-pieces into the
+logs; with the hatchet we hammered wooden pegs into these
+holes. For the seat we used the half of a section of log, the flat
+side fitting into places cut for that purpose. All that remained
+to be done now was to make a seat in the stern and a pair of
+rowlocks. At a proper distance from the oarsman's seat we
+bored two holes for a couple of forked sticks, which answered
+admirably for rowlocks; across the stern we fastened another
+piece of log similar to that used for the oarsman's seat (<a href="#Fig_8_5">Fig. 8½</a>).
+With the help of a man from the mill our craft was launched;
+and with a pair of oars made of old pine boards we rowed off,
+leaving the miller waving his hat.</p>
+
+<p>Our catamaran was not so light as a row-boat, but it floated,
+and we could propel it with the oars, and, best of all, it was our
+own invention and made with our own hands. We called it a
+"Man-Friday," and by its means we explored every nook in
+the length and breadth of the lake; and ever afterward when
+we wanted a boat we knew a simple and inexpensive way to
+make one&mdash;and a safe one, too.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Crusoe Raft</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is another rustic craft, but it is of more ambitious dimensions
+than the "Man-Friday." Instead of being able to float only
+one or two passengers, the "Crusoe," if properly built, ought
+to accommodate a considerable party of raftsmen. Of course
+the purpose for which the raft is to be used, and the number of
+the crew that is expected to man it, must be taken into consideration
+when deciding upon the dimensions of the proposed craft.</div>
+
+<p>All the tools that are necessary for the construction of a good
+stout raft are an axe, an auger, and a hatchet, with some strong
+arms to wield them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The building material can be gathered from any driftwood
+heap on lake or stream.</p>
+
+<p>For a moderate-sized raft collect six or seven logs, the longest
+not being over sixteen feet in length nor more than a foot in
+diameter; the logs must be tolerably straight. Pick out the
+longest and biggest for the centre, sharpen one end, roll the
+log into the water, and there secure it.</p>
+
+<p>Select two logs as nearly alike as possible, to lie one at each
+side of the centre log. Measure the centre log, and make the
+point of each side log, not at its own centre, but at that side of
+it which will lie against the middle log, so that this side point
+shall terminate where the pointing of the middle log begins (see
+<a href="#Fig_9">Fig. 9</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 513px;">
+<img src="images/i_024.png" width="513" height="249" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_9"></a>Fig. 9.&mdash;Plan of Crusoe raft.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>After all the logs needed have been trimmed and sharpened
+in the manner just described, roll them into the water and arrange
+them in order (<a href="#Fig_9">Fig. 9</a>). Fasten them together with "cross-strips,"
+boring holes through the strips to correspond with holes
+bored into the logs lying beneath, and through these holes drive
+wooden pegs. The pegs should be a trifle larger than the holes;
+the water will cause the pegs to swell, and they will hold much
+more firmly than iron nails.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 521px;"><a id="Fig_10"></a>
+<img src="images/i_025a.png" width="521" height="336" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 10.&mdash;Skeleton of Crusoe raft.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 509px;"><a id="Fig_11"></a>
+<img src="images/i_025b.png" width="509" height="344" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 11.&mdash;Crusoe with cabin covered.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The skeleton of the cabin can be made of saplings; such as
+are used for hoop-poles are the best.</p>
+
+<p>These are each bent into an arch, and the ends are thrust
+into holes bored for that purpose. Over this hooping a piece of
+canvas is stretched, after the manner of old-fashioned country
+wagons (<a href="#Fig_10">Figs. 10</a> and <a href="#Fig_11">11</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Erect a "jack-staff," to be used as a flag-pole or a mast to
+rig a square sail on.</p>
+
+<p>A stout stick should be erected at the stern, and a similar
+one upon each side of the raft near the bow; these sticks, when
+their ends are made smaller, as shown in the illustration (<a href="#Fig_10">Fig.
+10</a>), serve as rowlocks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 522px;">
+<img src="images/i_026.png" width="522" height="121" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_12"></a>Fig. 12.&mdash;Sweeps.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For oars use "sweeps"&mdash;long poles, each with a piece of board
+for a blade fastened at one end (<a href="#Fig_12">Fig. 12</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Holes must be bored through the poles of the sweeps about
+three feet from the handle, to slip over the pegs used as rowlocks,
+as described above. These pegs should be high enough
+to allow the oarsman to stand while using the sweeps.</p>
+
+<p>A flat stone or earth box placed at the bow will serve as a fireplace.</p>
+
+<p>If the cracks between the logs under the cabin are filled up
+to prevent the water splashing through, and the cabin is floored
+with cross-sticks, a most comfortable bed at night can be made of
+hay, by heaping it under the canvas cover in sufficient quantities.</p>
+
+<p>The Crusoe raft has this great advantage over all boats: you
+may take a long trip down the river, allowing the current to bear
+you along, using the sweeps only to assist the man at the helm
+(rear sweep); then, after your excursion is finished you may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+abandon your raft and return by steam-boat or train. A very
+useful thing to the swimmers, when they are skylarking in the
+water, is</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Chump's Raft</h3>
+
+<p>Its construction is simple. Four boards, each about six feet
+long, are nailed together in the form of a square, with the ends
+of the boards protruding, like the figure drawn upon a school-boy's
+slate for the game of "Tit, tat, toe" (<a href="#Fig_13">Fig. 13</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 266px;">
+<img src="images/i_027.png" width="266" height="254" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_13"></a>Fig. 13.&mdash;The chump's raft.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>All nail-points must be knocked off and the heads hammered
+home, to prevent serious scratches and wounds on the bather's
+body when he clambers over the raft or slips off in an attempt to
+do so (<a href="#Fig_14">Fig. 14</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Beginners get in the middle hole, and there, with a support
+within reach all around them, they can venture with comparative
+safety in deep water.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 436px;"><a id="Fig_14"></a>
+<img src="images/i_028.png" width="436" height="448" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 14.&mdash;A beginner in a chump's raft.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The raft, which I built as a model fifteen years ago, is still in
+use at my summer camp, where scores of young people have
+used it with a success proved by their present skill as swimmers.
+But many camps are located in a section of the country<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+where boards are as scarce as boarding-houses, but where timber,
+in its rough state, exists in abundance. The campers in such
+locations can make</p>
+
+
+<h3>A Chump's Raft of Logs</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 517px;"><a id="Fig_15"></a>
+<img src="images/i_029a.png" width="517" height="261" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 15.&mdash;Looking down on a chump's raft in motion.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a id="Fig_16"></a>
+<img src="images/i_029b.png" width="550" height="169" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 16.&mdash;Side view of chump's log raft.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such a float consists of two dried logs fastened together at each
+end by cross-slabs, so as to form a rude catamaran. These rafts
+can be towed through deep water by a canoe or row-boat, with
+the tenderfoot securely swung in a sling between the logs, where
+he may practice the hand-and-foot movement with a sense of
+security which only the certainty that he is surrounded by a
+wooden life-preserver will give him. <a href="#Fig_15">Fig. 15</a> shows a top view
+of the new chump's raft. In <a href="#Fig_16">Fig. 16</a> the two logs are connected
+fore and aft by cross-slabs; two more upright slabs are nailed
+securely to the side of the logs; notches having been cut in the
+top ends of these slabs, a stout cross-piece is securely nailed to
+them and the towel or rope sling suspended from the middle of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+the cross-piece. In regard to the dimensions of the raft it is only
+necessary to say that it should be wide and long enough to allow
+free movement of the arms and legs of the pupil who is suspended
+between the logs. In almost every wilderness stream there can
+be found piles of driftwood on the shore where one may select
+good, dried, well-seasoned pine or spruce logs from which to
+make rafts. If such heaps of driftwood are not within reach, look
+for some standing dead timber and select that which is of sufficient
+dimensions to support a swimmer, and be careful that it is
+not hollow or rotten in the core. Rotten wood will soon become
+water-logged and heavy. <a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a> shows the position of the
+swimmer supported by the chump's sling. If your raft has a
+tendency to work so that one log pulls ahead of the other, it may
+be braced by cross-pieces, such as are shown at J and K in <a href="#Fig_18">Fig.
+18</a>. This figure also shows supports for a suspension pole made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+by nailing two sticks to each side and allowing the ends to cross
+so as to form a crotch in which the supporting rod rests and to
+which it is securely fastened by nails, or by being bound there by
+a piece of rope, as in A, <a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>. B, <a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>, shows the crotch
+made by resting L in a fork on the M stick and then nailing or
+binding it in place. C, <a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>, shows the two sticks, L and M,
+joined by notches cut log-cabin fashion before they are nailed
+in place.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 446px;"><a id="Fig_17"></a>
+<img src="images/i_030a.png" width="446" height="251" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 17.&mdash;Learning to swim by aid of a chump sling.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 201px;"><a id="Fig_19"></a>
+<img src="images/i_030a2.png" width="201" height="265" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 19.&mdash;Details of saw-buck
+supports.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although many summers have rolled around since the author
+first made his advent on this beautiful earth, he still feels the call
+of the bathing pool, the charm of the spring-board, almost as
+keenly as he did when he was wont to swim in Blue Hole at
+Yellow Springs, Ohio, or dive from the log rafts into the Ohio
+River, or slide down the "slippery" made in the steep muddy
+banks of the Licking River, Kentucky.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_18"></a>
+<img src="images/i_030b.png" width="600" height="232" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 18.&mdash;Another way to rig a chump.</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III<br />
+<small>A RAFT THAT WILL SAIL</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary1'>The Raft is Just the Thing for Camp Life&mdash;Pleasurable Occupation
+for a Camping Party Where Wood is Plentiful&mdash;You
+Will Need Axes and Hatchets and a Few Other Civilized
+Implements</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">First</span> we will select two pine logs of equal length, and, while
+the water is heating for our coffee, we will sharpen the butt, or
+larger end, of the logs on one side with the axe, making a "chisel
+edge," as shown in <a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20</a>. This gives us an appetite for breakfast
+and makes the big fish in the lake, as they jump above the
+water, cast anxious looks toward our camp.</p>
+
+<p>Breakfast finished, we will cut some cross-pieces to join our
+two logs together, and at equal distances apart we will bore holes
+through the cross-pieces for peg-holes (<a href="#Fig_21">Figs. 21</a>, <a href="#Fig_22">22</a>, and <a href="#Fig_23">23</a>).
+While one of the party is fashioning a number of pegs, each with
+a groove in one side, like those shown in <a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>, the others will
+roll the logs into the water and secure them in a shallow spot.</p>
+
+<p>Shoes and stockings must be removed, for most of the work
+is now to be done in the water. Of course, it would be much
+easier done on land, but the raft will be very heavy and could
+never be launched unless under the most favorable circumstances.
+It is better to build the craft in the element which is to be its home.</p>
+
+<p>Cut two long saplings for braces, and after separating the logs
+the proper distance for your cross-pieces to fit, nail your braces
+in position, as represented by <a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20</a>.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;"><a id="Fig_20"></a><a id="Fig_21"></a><a id="Fig_22"></a><a id="Fig_23"></a><a id="Fig_24"></a><a id="Fig_25"></a><a id="Fig_26"></a><a id="Fig_27"></a><a id="Fig_28"></a>
+<img src="images/i_032.png" width="640" height="705" alt="many drawings" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Parts of Man-Friday sailing-raft.</span><br />20.&mdash;Logs in place with braces. Figs. 21, 22, and 23.&mdash;Struts. Fig. 24.&mdash;Pegs. Fig. 25.&mdash;Raft
+with middle and stern strut in place. Fig. 26.&mdash;Springs for dry deck. Fig. 27.&mdash;Dry deck.
+Fig. 28.&mdash;Dry deck in place</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>This holds the logs steady, and we may now lay the two cross-pieces
+in position, and mark the points on the logs carefully<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a><br /><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+where the holes are to be bored to correspond with the ones in
+the cross-pieces. Bore the holes in one log first; make the holes
+deep enough and then fill them with water, after which drive
+the pegs through the ends of the cross-pieces and into the log.
+The grooves in the pegs (<a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>) will allow the water to escape
+from the holes and the water will cause the peg to swell and
+tighten its hold on the log and cross-pieces.</p>
+
+<p>Now bore holes in the other log under those in the cross-pieces
+and fill them with water before driving the pegs home, as you
+did in the first instance. <a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a> is a Man-Friday raft.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Deck</h3>
+
+<p>Before placing the bow in position we must go ashore and
+make a dry deck. Selecting for the springs two long green ash
+or hickory poles, trim the ends off flat on one side, as shown by
+<a href="#Fig_26">Fig. 26</a>. This flat side is the bottom, so roll them over, with the
+flat side toward the ground, and if you can find no planks or
+barrel staves for a deck, split in half a number of small logs and
+peg or nail them on the top side of the springs, as in <a href="#Fig_27">Fig. 27</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Now all hands must turn out and carry the deck down to the
+raft and place it in position, with the flattened sides of the springs
+resting on top of the logs at the bow. Prop it up in this position,
+and then bore holes through the springs into the logs and peg
+the springs down. Over the flat ends place the heavy bow cross-piece,
+bore the peg-holes, and fasten it in position (<a href="#Fig_28">Fig. 28</a>).</p>
+
+<p>In the centre of the bow cross-piece bore several holes close
+together and chip out the wood between to make a hole, as square
+a one as possible, for the mast to fit or "step" in. With the wood
+from a packing-box or a slab from a log make the bench for the
+mast.</p>
+
+<p>Bore a hole through the bench a trifle astern of the step, or
+hole, for the mast below. It will cause the mast to "rake" a
+little "aft." You have done a big day's work, but a couple of
+days ought to be sufficient time to finish the craft.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 526px;"><a id="Fig_29"></a>
+<img src="images/i_034.png" width="526" height="624" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 29.&mdash;Sail for Man-Friday.</div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>The Sail</h3>
+
+
+
+<p>Turn over the raw edges of the old sail-cloth and stitch them
+down, as in <a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29</a>&mdash;that is, if you have the needle and thread
+for the purpose; if not, trim the cloth to the proper form and two
+inches from the luff (the side next to the mast). Cut a number
+of holes; these should be stitched like button-holes, if possible,
+but if the sail-cloth is tough and we have no needle, we shall have
+to let them go unstitched. A small loop of rope must be sewed
+or fastened in some other manner very securely to each corner of
+the sail.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>From spruce pine or an old fishing-pole make a sprit, and of a
+good, straight piece of pine manufacture your mast somewhat
+longer than the luff of the sail (<a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Through the eyelets lace the luff of the sail to the mast, so that
+its lower edge will clear the dry deck by about a foot.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_30"></a>
+<img src="images/i_035.png" width="600" height="502" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 30.&mdash;Scudding before the wind.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Through the hole made for the purpose in the bench (<a href="#Fig_30">Fig. 30</a>)
+thrust the mast into the step, or socket, that we have cut in the
+bow cross-piece. Tie to the loop at the bottom corner of the sail
+a strong line about twelve feet long for a sheet with which to
+control the sail.</p>
+
+<p>Trim the upper end of the sprit to fit in the loop at the upper
+outer corner of the sail, and make a notch in the lower end to fit
+in the loop of the line called the "snotter."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now, as you can readily see, when the sprit is pushed diagonally
+upward the sail is spread; to hold it in place make a loop of line
+for a "snotter" and attach the loop to the mast, as in Figs. 29
+and 30. Fit the loop in the notch in the lower end of the sprit,
+and the sail is set.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Keelig</h3>
+
+<p>We need anchors, one for the bow and one for the stern. It
+takes little time to make them, as you only need a forked stick,
+a stone, and a piece of plank, or, better still, a barrel stave.
+Figs. 35 to 39 show how this is made. Down East the fishermen
+use the "keelig" in preference to any other anchor.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a id="Fig_31"></a><a id="Fig_32"></a><a id="Fig_33"></a><a id="Fig_34"></a><a id="Fig_35"></a><a id="Fig_36"></a><a id="Fig_37"></a><a id="Fig_38"></a><a id="Fig_39"></a>
+<img src="images/i_036.png" width="550" height="451" alt="Figures 31-39" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>Make fast your lines to the "keelig" thus: Take the end of
+the rope in your right hand and the standing part (which is the
+part leading from the boat) in your left hand and form the loop
+(A, <a href="#Fig_31">Fig. 31</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Then with the left hand curve the cable from you, bringing
+the end through the loop, as in B, <a href="#Fig_32">Fig. 32</a>; then lead it around
+and down, as in C, <a href="#Fig_33">Fig. 33</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Draw it tight, as in D, <a href="#Fig_34">Fig. 34</a>, and you have the good, old-fashioned
+knot, called by sailors the "bow-line."</p>
+
+<p>To make it look neat and shipshape you may take a piece of
+string and bind the standing part to the shaft of your anchor or
+keelig&mdash;keelek&mdash;killick&mdash;killeck&mdash;kelleck&mdash;kellock&mdash;killock, etc.,
+as you may choose to spell it.</p>
+
+<p>A paddle to steer with and two pegs in the stern cross-piece
+to rest it in complete the craft; and now the big bass had better
+use due caution, because our lines will reach their haunts, and
+we are after them!</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV<br />
+<small>CANOES</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary1'>The Advantages of a Canoe&mdash;How to Make the Slab Canoe and
+the Dugout&mdash;How to Make a Siwash and a White Man's
+Dugout</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are many small freak crafts invented each year, but
+none of them has any probabilities of being popularly used as
+substitutes for the old models.</p>
+
+<p>Folding canoes, as a rule, are cranky, but the writer has found
+them most convenient when it was necessary to transport them
+long distances overland. They are not, however, the safest of
+crafts; necessarily they lack the buoyant wooden frame and lining
+of the ordinary canvas canoe, which enables it to float even when
+filled with water.</p>
+
+<p>The author owes his life to the floating properties of his canvas
+canoe. On one occasion when it upset in a driving easterly
+storm the wind was off shore, and any attempt upon the canoeist's
+part to swim toward shore would have caused him to have been
+suffocated by the tops of the waves which the wind cut off, driving
+the water with stinging force into his face so constantly that,
+in order to breathe at all, he had to face the other way. He was
+at length rescued by a steamer, losing nothing but the sails and
+his shoes. Nevertheless, the same storm which capsized his
+little craft upset several larger boats and tore the sails from
+others.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of a good canoe are many for the young navigators:
+they can launch their own craft, pick it up when occasion
+demands and carry it overland. It is safe in experienced hands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+in any weather which is fit for out-door amusement. When you
+are "paddling your own canoe" you are facing to the front and
+can see what is ahead of you, which is much safer and more
+pleasant than travelling backward, like a crawfish.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 506px;"><a id="Fig_40"></a>
+<img src="images/i_039.png" width="506" height="105" alt="Drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 40.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The advance-guard of modern civilization is the lumberman,
+and following close on his heels comes the all-devouring saw-mill.
+This fierce creature has an abnormal appetite for logs,
+and it keeps an army of men, boys, and horses busy in supplying
+it with food. While it supplies us with lumber for the carpenter,
+builder, and cabinet-maker, it at the same time, in the most
+shameful way, fills the trout streams and rivers with great
+masses of sawdust, which kills and drives away the fish. But
+near the saw-mill there is always to be found material for a</p>
+
+
+<h3>Slab Canoe</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>which consists simply of one of those long slabs, the first cut
+from some giant log (<a href="#Fig_43">Fig. 43</a>).</div>
+
+<p>These slabs are burned or thrown away by the mill-owners,
+and hence cost nothing; and as the saw-mill is in advance of
+population, you are most likely to run across one on a hunting
+or fishing trip.</p>
+
+<p>Near one end, and on the flat side of the slab (<a href="#Fig_40">Fig. 40</a>), bore
+four holes, into which drive the four legs of a stool made of a section
+of a smaller slab (<a href="#Fig_41">Fig. 41</a>), and your boat is ready to launch.
+From a piece of board make a double or single paddle (<a href="#Fig_42">Fig. 42</a>),
+and you are equipped for a voyage. An old gentleman, who in
+his boyhood days on the frontier frequently used this simple
+style of canoe, says that the speed it makes will compare favorably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+with that of many a more pretentious vessel. See <a href="#Fig_43">Fig. 43</a>
+for furnished boat.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Dugout</h3>
+
+<p>Although not quite as delicate in model or construction as
+the graceful birch-bark canoe, the "dugout" of the Indians is a
+most wonderful piece of work, when we consider that it is carved
+from the solid trunk of a giant tree with the crudest of tools, and
+is the product of savage labor.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 210px;"><a id="Fig_41"></a>
+<img src="images/i_040a.png" width="210" height="158" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 41.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Few people now living have enjoyed the opportunity of seeing
+one built by the Indians, and, as the author is not numbered
+among that select few, he considers it a privilege to be able to
+quote the following interesting account given by Mr. J. H. Mallett,
+of Helena.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Build a Siwash Canoe</h3>
+
+<p>"While visiting one of the small towns along Puget Sound,
+I was greatly interested in the way the Indians built their canoes.
+It is really wonderful how these aborigines can, with the crudest
+means and with a few days' work, convert an unwieldy log into
+a trim and pretty canoe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 423px;"><a id="Fig_42"></a>
+<img src="images/i_040b.png" width="423" height="96" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 42.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 664px;"><a id="Fig_43"></a>
+<img src="images/i_041.png" width="664" height="486" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 43.&mdash;Slab canoe.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"One Monday morning I saw a buck building a fire at the base
+of a large cedar-tree, and he told me that this was the first step
+in the construction of a canoe that he intended to use upon the
+following Saturday. He kept the fire burning merrily all that
+day and far into the night, when a wind came up and completed
+the downfall of the monarch of the forest. The next day the
+man arose betimes, and, borrowing a cross-cut saw from a logger,
+cut the trunk of the tree in twain at a point some fifteen feet
+from where it had broken off, and then with a dull hatchet he
+hacked away until the log had assumed the shape of the desired
+canoe. In this work he was helped by his squaw. The old fellow
+then built a fire on the upper part of the log, guiding the course
+of the fire with daubs of clay, and in due course of time the interior
+of the canoe had been burned out. Half a day's work with
+the hatchet rendered the inside smooth and shapely.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"The canoe was now, I thought, complete, though it appeared
+to be dangerously narrow of beam. This the Indian soon remedied.
+He filled the shell two-thirds full of water, and into the
+fluid he dropped half a dozen stones that had been heating in
+the fire for nearly a day. The water at once attained a boiling
+point, and so softened the wood that the buck and squaw
+were enabled to draw out the sides and thus supply the necessary
+breadth of beam. Thwarts and slats were then placed in
+the canoe and the water and stones thrown out. When the
+steamed wood began to cool and contract, the thwarts held it
+back, and the sides held the thwarts, and there the canoe was
+complete, without a nail, joint, or crevice, for it was made of one
+piece of wood. The Siwash did not complete it as soon as he
+had promised, but it only took him eight days."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_44"></a>
+<img src="images/i_042.png" width="600" height="243" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 44.&mdash;The dugout.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the North-eastern part of our country, before the advent
+of the canvas canoe, beautiful and light birch-bark craft were
+used by the Indians, the voyagers, trappers, and white woodsmen.
+But in the South and in the North-west, the dugout takes
+the place of the birch-bark. Among the North-western Indians
+the dugouts are made from the trunks of immense cedar-trees
+and built with high, ornamental bows, which are brilliantly
+decorated with paint. On the eastern shore of Maryland and
+Virginia the dugout is made into a sail-boat called the buck-eye,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+or bug-eye. But all through the Southern States, from the Ohio
+River to the Gulf of Mexico and in Mexico, the dugout is made
+of a hollowed log after the manner of an ordinary horse trough,
+and often it is as crude as the latter, but it can be made almost
+as beautiful and graceful as a birch-bark canoe.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Make a White Man's Dugout Canoe</h3>
+
+<p>To make one of these dugout canoes one must be big and
+strong enough to wield an axe, but if the readers are too young
+for this work, they are none too young to know how to make
+one, and their big brothers and father can do the work. Since
+the dugout occupies an important position in the history of our
+country, every boy scout should know how it is made.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 502px;"><a id="Fig_45"></a>
+<img src="images/i_043a.png" width="502" height="333" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 45.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"><a id="Fig_48"></a>
+<img src="images/i_043b1.png" width="390" height="83" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 48.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"><a id="Fig_49"></a>
+<img src="images/i_043b2.png" width="390" height="78" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 49.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"><a id="Fig_50"></a>
+<img src="images/i_043b3.png" width="390" height="74" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 50.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_44">Fig. 44</a> shows one of these canoes afloat; <a href="#Fig_45">Fig. 45</a> shows a tall,
+straight tree suitable for our purpose, and it also shows how the
+tree is cut and the arrangement of the kerfs, or two notches, so that
+it will fall in the direction of the arrow in the diagram. You will
+notice along the ground are shown the ends of a number of small
+logs. These are the skids, or rollers, upon which the log will rest
+when the tree is cut and felled. The tree will fall in the direction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+in which the arrow is pointed if there is no wind. If you have
+never cut down a tree, be careful to take some lessons of a good
+woodsman before you attempt it.</p>
+
+<p>When the log is trimmed off at both ends like <a href="#Fig_46">Fig. 46</a>, flatten
+the upper side with the axe. This is for the bottom of the canoe;
+the flat part should be about a foot and a half wide to extend
+from end to end of the log. Now, with some poles for pryers,
+turn your log over so that it will rest with the flat bottom on the
+skids, as in <a href="#Fig_46">Fig. 46</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 416px;"><div class="caption"><a id="Fig_46"></a>Fig. 46.</div>
+<img src="images/i_044.png" width="416" height="178" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_47"></a>Fig. 47.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Next take a chalk-line and fasten it at the two ends of the log,
+as shown by the dotted line in <a href="#Fig_46">Figs. 46</a>, <a href="#Fig_47">47</a>, <a href="#Fig_48">48</a>, <a href="#Fig_49">49</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Snap the line so that it will make a straight mark as shown
+by the dotted line; then trim off the two ends for the bow and
+stern, as shown in <a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 47</a>. Next cut notches down to the dotted
+line, as illustrated in <a href="#Fig_48">Fig. 48</a>; then cut away from the bow down
+to the first notch, making a curved line, as shown in <a href="#Fig_49">Fig. 49</a>
+(which is cut to second notch). Do the same with the stern,
+making duplicates of the bow and stern. The spaces between
+the notches amidships may now be split off by striking your axe
+along the chalk-line and then carefully driving in wooden wedges.
+When this is all done you will have <a href="#Fig_50">Fig. 50</a>. You can now turn the
+log over and trim off the edges of the bow and stern so that they
+will slope, as shown in <a href="#Fig_44">Fig. 44</a>, in a rounded curve; after which
+roll the canoe back again upon its bottom and with an adze and
+axe hollow out the inside, leaving some solid wood at both bow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+and stern&mdash;not that you need the wood for strength, but to save
+labor. When you have decided upon the thickness of the sides
+of your canoe, take some small, pointed instrument, like an awl,
+for instance, and make holes with it to the required depth at intervals
+along the sides and bottom of the canoe. Then take some
+small sticks (as long as the canoe sides are to be thick), make them
+to fit the holes, blacken their ends, and drive them into the holes.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as you see one from the inside, you will know that
+you have made the shell thin enough. Use a jack-plane to smooth
+it off inside and out; then build a big fire and heat some stones.
+Next fill the canoe with water and keep dumping the hot stones
+in the water until the latter is almost or quite to boiling point.
+The hot water will soften the wood so that the sides will become
+flexible, and you can then fit in some braces at the bow, stern, and
+centre of the canoe. Make the centre brace or seat some inches
+wider than the log, so that when it is forced in place it will spread
+the canoe in the middle.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER V<br />
+<small>CANOES AND BOATING STUNTS</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary1'>How to Build a War Canoe&mdash;How to Build a Canvas Canoe&mdash;How
+to Build an Umbrella Canoe&mdash;How Old Shells Can be
+Turned into Boys' Boats&mdash;Cause of Upsets&mdash;Landing from,
+and Embarking in, a Shell&mdash;How to Mend Checks and Cracks</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> making canoes the Indians used birch bark for the cover,
+rock maple for the cross-bars, and white cedar for the rest of the
+frame. We will substitute canvas for the birch bark and any old
+wood that we can for the rock maple and the white cedar. <i>Real
+woodcraft is best displayed in the ability to use the material at
+hand.</i></p>
+
+<p>David Abercrombie, the outfitter, some time ago presented
+Andrew J. Stone, the Arctic explorer and mighty hunter, with a
+small piece of light, water-proof cloth to use as a shelter tent in
+bad weather. But Stone, like the hunter that he was, slept unprotected
+on the mountain side in the sleet and driving storms,
+and used the water-proof cloth to protect the rare specimens he
+had shot. One day a large, rapid torrent lay in his path; there
+was no lumber large enough with which to build a raft, and the
+only wood for miles around was small willow bushes growing
+along the river bank. At his command, his three Indians made
+a canoe frame of willow sticks, tied together with bits of cloth
+and string. Stone set this frame in the middle of his water-proof
+cloth, tied the cloth over the frame with other pieces of string,
+and using only small clubs for paddles, he and his men crossed
+the raging torrent in this makeshift, which was loaded with their
+guns, camera, and specimens that he had shot on the trip.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After reading the above there is no doubt the reader will be
+able to build a war canoe with barrel-hoop ribs and lattice-work
+slats. In the writer's studio is a long piece of maple, one and
+one-half inches wide and one-quarter inch thick, which was left
+by the workmen when they put down a hard-wood floor. If you
+can get some similar strips, either of oak, maple, or birch, from the
+dealers in flooring material, they will not be expensive and will
+make splendid gunwales for your proposed canoe. There should
+be four such strips. The hard-wood used for flooring splits easily,
+and holes should be bored for the nails or screws to prevent cracking
+the wood when the nails or screws are driven home. <a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a>
+shows the framework (side view) of the canoe; <a href="#Fig_52">Fig. 52</a> shows
+an end view of the same canoe; <a href="#Fig_53">Fig. 53</a> shows the middle section,
+and <a href="#Fig_54">Fig. 54</a> shows the form of the bow and stern sections. This
+boat may be built any length you wish, and so that you may
+get the proper proportions, the diagrams from one to five are
+marked off in equal divisions. To make patterns of the moulds,
+<a href="#Fig_53">Figs. 53</a> and <a href="#Fig_54">54</a>, take a large piece of manila paper, divide it up
+into the same number of squares as the diagram, make the squares
+any size you may decide upon, and then trace the line, 1-H-10,
+as it is in the diagrams. This will give you the patterns of the
+two moulds (<a href="#Fig_53">Figs. 53</a> and <a href="#Fig_54">54</a>). While you are looking at these
+figures, it may be well to call your attention to the way bow and
+stern pieces are made. In <a href="#Fig_63">Fig. 63</a> the pieces Y and X are made
+from pieces of a packing-box, notched and nailed together with
+a top piece, U, and a brace, V.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_51"></a><a id="Fig_52"></a><a id="Fig_53"></a><a id="Fig_54"></a><a id="Fig_55"></a><a id="Fig_56"></a><a id="Fig_57"></a><a id="Fig_58"></a><a id="Fig_59"></a>
+<img src="images/i_048.png" width="600" height="402" alt="Fig. 51-59." />
+</div>
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_048-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 647px;"><a id="Fig_61"></a><a id="Fig_60"></a><a id="Fig_62"></a>
+<img src="images/i_050.png" width="647" height="647" alt="Fig. 62. Fig. 60. Fig. 61." />
+<div class="caption">Conventional bow, but made of barrel-heads.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>The other end of the same canoe is, as you may see, strengthened
+and protected by having a barrel-hoop tacked over the
+stem-pieces, Y, X, U. In <a href="#Fig_64">Fig. 64</a> we use different material;
+here the stem-piece is made of a broken bicycle rim, U, braced
+by the pieces of packing-box, Y, V, and W. The left-hand end
+of <a href="#Fig_64">Fig. 64</a> is made with pieces of head of a barrel, X and U.
+The bottom of the stem-piece Y is made of the piece of a packing-box.
+The two braces V are parts of the barrel-stave. <a href="#Fig_60">Fig. 60</a>
+shows the common form of the bow of a canoe. The stem-pieces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a><br /><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+X, Y are made of the parts of the head of a barrel, as shown in
+<a href="#Fig_62">Fig. 62</a>. To make a stem from a barrel-head, nail the two
+pieces X and Y, <a href="#Fig_56">Fig. 56</a>, together as shown in this particular
+diagram. Now take another piece of barrel-head, <a href="#Fig_57">Fig. 57</a>, and
+saw off a piece, A´, D´, C´, so that it will fit neatly over A, C, D,
+on <a href="#Fig_56">Fig. 56</a>. Nail this securely in place, and then in the same
+manner cut another piece to fit over the part E, C, B, and nail
+that in place. Use small nails, but let them be long enough so
+that you may clinch them by holding an axe or an iron against the
+head while you hammer the protruding points down, or drive the
+nail a little on the bias and holding the axe or iron on the side it is
+to come through and let it strike the nail as it comes out and it
+will clinch itself. To fasten the stem-piece to the keel use two
+pieces of packing-box or board, cut in the form of <a href="#Fig_58">Fig. 58</a>, and
+nail these securely to the bow-piece as in Z, in <a href="#Fig_60">Fig. 60</a>. Then
+from the bottom side of the keel H, nail the keel-pieces firmly to
+the keel as in <a href="#Fig_61">Fig. 61</a>. Also drive some nails from Z to the top
+down to the keel, as shown by the dotted lines in <a href="#Fig_60">Fig. 60</a>. The
+end view, <a href="#Fig_59">Fig. 59</a>, shows how the two Z pieces hug and support
+the stem-piece on the keel H. <a href="#Fig_55">Fig. 55</a> shows a half of the top
+view of the canoe gunwales; the dimensions, marked in feet and
+inches, are taken from an Indian birch-bark canoe. You see
+by the diagram that it is eight feet from the centre of the middle
+cross-piece to the end of the big opening at the bow. It is also
+three feet from the centre of the middle cross-piece to the next
+cross-piece, and thirty inches from the centre of that cross-piece
+to the bow cross-piece, which is just thirty inches from the eight-foot
+mark. The middle cross-piece in a canoe of these dimensions
+is seven-eighths of an inch thick, and thirty inches long between
+the gunwales; the next cross-piece is three-quarters of an
+inch thick and twenty-two and one-half inches long. The next
+one is half an inch wide, two inches thick and twelve inches between
+the gunwales. These cross-pieces can be made of the
+staves of a barrel. Of course, this would be a canoe of sixteen
+feet inside measurement, not counting the flattened part of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+bow and stern. Now, then, to build the canoe. First take the
+keel-piece, H, which is in this case a piece of board about six
+inches wide and only thick enough to be moderately stiff. Lay
+the keel on any level surface and put the stem-pieces on as already
+described, using packing-box for X, U, V, Y, and Z, and
+bracing them with a piece of packing-box on each side, marked
+W in diagram (<a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a>). Then make three moulds, one for the
+centre (<a href="#Fig_53">Fig. 53</a>), and two more for the bow and stern (<a href="#Fig_54">Fig. 54</a>).
+Notch the bottom of these moulds to fit the keel and with wire
+nails make them fast to the keel, leaving the ends of the nails
+protruding far enough to be easily withdrawn when you wish
+to remove the moulds. In nailing the laths to the moulds (<a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a>)
+leave the heads of the nails also protruding so that they may be
+removed. Place the moulds in position, with the middle one in
+the exact centre, and the two ends located like those in <a href="#Fig_63">Figs. 63</a>
+and <a href="#Fig_64">64</a>. Place and nail gunwale, L, on as in <a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a>, tacking
+it to the bow and stern and bending it around to fit the moulds;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+tack the lattice slats M, N, O, P on to the bow, stern, and
+moulds, as shown in <a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a>.</p>
+
+<p>If your barrel-hoops are stiff and liable to break while bending
+and unbending, let them soak a couple of days in a tub of water,
+then before fitting them to the form of the canoe make them more
+pliable by pouring hot water on them. The barrel-hoop S, R,
+at the bow of the canoe, is nailed to the top-piece U, to the inside
+of the slats L, M, N, O, P, and to the outside of H. The next
+three ribs on each side are treated in the same manner; repeat
+this at the other end of the canoe and nail the intervening ribs
+to the top of H and to the inside of the slats, following the model
+of the boat. Put the ribs about four inches apart and clinch the
+nails as already described.</p>
+
+<p>In the diagrams there is no temporary support for the canoe
+frame except the wooden horses, as in <a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a>. These supports
+have been purposely omitted in the drawing, as it is desirable to
+keep it as simple as possible. Some temporary support will be
+necessary to hold the bow and stern-piece in <a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a>. These
+supports can be nailed or screwed temporarily to the canoe frame
+so as to hold it rigid while you are at work on it.</p>
+
+<p>After the ribs are all in place and the framework completed,
+turn the canoe upside down upon the wooden horses&mdash;for a canoe
+as large as the one in the first diagram you will need three horses,
+one at each end and one in the middle. For a canoe of the dimensions
+marked in <a href="#Fig_55">Fig. 55</a>, that is, sixteen feet inside measurement,
+you would need about seven yards of ten-ounce cotton canvas,
+of sufficient width to reach up over the sides of your canoe. Take
+a tape-measure or a piece of ordinary tape or a long strip of manila
+paper and measure around the bottom of the boat at its widest
+part in the middle from one gunwale (top of side) to the other, and
+see that your cloth is fully as wide as your measurement. Fold
+the canvas lengthwise so as to find its exact centre and crease it.
+With two or three tacks fasten the cloth at its centre line (the
+crease) to the stem-piece of the canoe. Stretch the canvas the
+length of the boat with the crease of centre-line along the centre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+of the keel; pull it as taut as may be and again tack the centre
+line to the stem at this end of the craft. If this has been done
+carefully the cloth will hang an equal length over each side of the
+canoe. Now begin amidships and drive tacks about two inches
+apart along the gunwale, say an inch below the top surface.
+After having tacked it for about two feet, go to the other side of
+the boat, pull the cloth taut and in the same manner tack about
+three feet. Continue this process first one side and then the other
+until finished. While stretching the cloth knead it with the hand
+and fingers so as to thicken or "full" it where it would otherwise
+wrinkle; by doing this carefully it is possible to stretch the canvas
+over the frame without the necessity of cutting it. The
+cloth that extends beyond the frame may be brought over the
+gunwale and tacked along the inside. Use four-ounce tinned
+or copper tacks. The canvas is now stretched on every part
+except on the high, rolling bow and stern. With a pair of shears
+slit the canvas from the outer edge of the bow and stern within a
+half inch of the ends of the keel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_63"></a><a id="Fig_64"></a>
+<img src="images/i_052.png" width="600" height="365" alt="Fig. 63-64" />
+<div class="caption">High bows framework made of packing-box and barrel-heads.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Fold the right-hand flap thus made at the left-hand end around<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+the bow and stern and, drawing tight, tack it down, then fold the
+left-hand flap over the right-hand side and tack it in a similar
+manner, trimming off the remaining cloth neatly. The five
+braces, three of which are shown in <a href="#Fig_55">Fig. 55</a>, may be nailed to the
+gunwales of the canoe, as the temporary moulds are removed.
+The braces should be so notched that the top ends of the braces
+will fit over the top edge of the gunwale and their lower edges
+will fit against the sides. Give the boat at least three good coats
+of paint and nail the two extra gunwale strips on the outside of
+the canvas for guards.</p>
+
+<p>When it is dry and the boat is launched you may startle the
+onlookers and make the echoes ring with:</p>
+
+<p>"Wo-ach! wo-ach! Ha-ha-ha-hack&mdash;wo-ach!" which is said
+to be the identical war cry with which the Indians greeted the
+landing of our Pilgrim Fathers.</p>
+
+<p>The reader must not suppose that barrel-hoops are the best
+material for ribs; they are but a makeshift, and although good-looking,
+servicable canoes have been built of this material from
+the foregoing descriptions, better ones may be made by using
+better material, such, for instance, as is described in the making
+of the birch-bark canoe.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Old Shells</h3>
+
+<p>Where there are oarsmen and boat-clubs, there you will find
+beautiful shell boats of paper or cedar, shaped like darning-needles,
+so slight in structure that a child can knock a hole in them,
+and yet very seaworthy boats for those who understand how to
+handle them. The expensive material and skilled labor necessary
+to build a racing shell puts the price of one so high that few
+boys can afford to buy one; but where new shells are to be found
+there are also old ones, and when they are too old to sell they are
+thrown away. Many an old shell rots on the meadows near the
+boat-houses or rests among the rafters forgotten and unused,
+which with a little work would make a boat capable of furnishing
+no end of fun to a boy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Checks or Cracks</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>can be pasted over with common manila wrapping-paper by
+first covering the crack with a coat of paint, or, better still, of
+varnish, then fitting the paper smoothly over the spot and varnishing
+the paper. Give the paper several coats of varnish, allowing
+it to dry after each application, and the paper will become
+impervious to water. The deck of a shell is made of thin muslin
+or paper, treated with a liberal coat of varnish, and can be patched
+with similar material. There are always plenty of slightly damaged
+oars which have been discarded by the oarsmen. The use
+of a saw and jack-knife in the hands of a smart boy can transform
+these wrecks into serviceable oars for his patched-up old
+shell, and if the work is neatly done, the boy will be the proud
+owner of a real shell boat, and the envy of his comrades.</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Cause of Upsets</h3>
+
+<p>A single shell that is very cranky with a man in it is comparatively
+steady when a small boy occupies the seat. Put on your
+bathing clothes when you wish to try a shell, so that you may be
+ready for the inevitable upset. Every one knows, when he looks
+at one of these long, narrow boats, that as long as the oars are
+held extended <i>on the water</i> it cannot upset. But, in spite of that
+knowledge, every one, when he first gets into a shell, endeavors
+to balance himself by <i>lifting the oars</i>, and, of course, goes over in
+a jiffy.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Delights of a Shell</h3>
+
+<p>It is an error to suppose that the frail-looking, needle-like
+boat is only fit for racing purposes. For a day on the water, in
+calm weather, there is, perhaps, nothing more enjoyable than a
+single shell. The exertion required to send it on its way is so
+slight, and the speed so great, that many miles can be covered
+with small fatigue. Upon referring to the log-book of the Nereus
+Club, where the distances are all taken from the United States<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+chart, the author finds that twenty and thirty miles are not uncommon
+records for single-shell rows.</p>
+
+<p>During the fifteen or sixteen seasons that the author has devoted
+his spare time to the sport he has often planned a heavy
+cruising shell, but owing to the expense of having such a boat
+built he has used the ordinary racing boat, and found it remarkably
+well adapted for such purposes. Often he has been caught
+miles away from home in a blow, and only once does he remember
+of being compelled to seek assistance.</p>
+
+<p>He was on a lee shore and the waves were so high that after
+once being swamped he was unable to launch his boat again,
+for it would fill before he could embark. So a heavy rowboat
+and a coachman were borrowed from a gentleman living on the
+bay, and while the author rowed, the coachman towed the little
+craft back to the creek where the Nereus club-house is situated.</p>
+
+<p>In the creek, however, the water was calmer, and rather than
+stand the jeers of his comrades, the writer embarked in his shell
+and rowed up to the boat-house float. He was very wet and his
+boat was full of water, but to the inquiry of "Rough out in the
+bay?" he confined himself to the simple answer&mdash;"Yes." Then
+dumping the water from his shell and placing it upon the rack
+he put on his dry clothes and walked home, none the worse for
+the accident.</p>
+
+<p>After ordinary skill and confidence are acquired it is really
+astonishing what feats can be accomplished in a frail racing boat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_65"></a><a id="Fig_66"></a><a id="Fig_67"></a><a id="Fig_68"></a><a id="Fig_69"></a><a id="Fig_70"></a><a id="Fig_71"></a><a id="Fig_72"></a><a id="Fig_73"></a><a id="Fig_74"></a><a id="Fig_75"></a>
+<img src="images/i_056.png" width="600" height="367" alt="Fig. 65. A Fig. 66. B Fig. 67. C  Fig. 68. D Fig. 69. E  Fig. 70. F  Fig. 71. Fig. 72. Fig. 73. Fig. 74. Fig. 75" />
+</div>
+
+<div class='caption'>
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Parts of the Umbrella Canoe.</span></div>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Umbrella Canoe">
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='3'>A = &nbsp;Plank.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">B =</td><td align="left" class='brt'>&nbsp;Rib</td><td align="left" rowspan='5'>&nbsp;in process of construction.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">C =</td><td align="left" class='br'>Rib</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">D =</td><td align="left" class='br'>Rib</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">E =</td><td align="left" class='br'>Rib</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">F =</td><td align="left" class='brb'>Rib</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='3'>G, G´ = Thimbles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='3'>H = Plank.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='3'>J and K = Stretcher unfinished and finished.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is not difficult to</p>
+
+
+<h3>Stand Upright In a Shell</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>if you first take one of your long stockings and tie the handles
+of your oars together where they cross each other in front of you.
+The ends will work slightly and the blades will keep their positions
+on the water, acting as two long balances. Now slide your seat
+as far forward as it will go, slip your feet from the straps and grasp
+the straps with your hand, moving the feet back to a comfortable
+position. When all ready raise yourself by pulling on the foot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a><br /><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+strap, and with ordinary care you can stand upright in the needle-shaped
+boat, an apparently impossible thing to do when you look
+at the narrow craft.</div>
+
+
+<h3>How to Land Where There Is No Float</h3>
+
+<p>When for any reason you wish to land where there is no float,
+row into shallow water and put one foot overboard until it touches
+bottom. Then follow with the other foot, rise, and you are standing
+astride of your boat.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Embark Where There Is No Float</h3>
+
+<p>Wade out and slide the shell between your extended legs until
+the seat is underneath you. Sit down, and, with the feet still
+in the water, grasp your oars. With these in your hands it is
+an easy task to balance the boat until you can lift your feet into it.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Ozias Dodge's Umbrella Canoe</h3>
+
+<p>Mr. Dodge is a Yale man, an artist, and an enthusiastic canoeist.
+The prow of his little craft has ploughed its way through the
+waters of many picturesque streams in this country and Europe,
+by the river-side, under the walls of ruined castles, where the
+iron-clad warriors once built their camp-fires, and near pretty
+villages, where people dress as if they were at a fancy-dress ball.</p>
+
+<p>When a young man like Mr. Dodge says that he has built a
+folding canoe that is not hard to construct, is inexpensive and
+practical, there can be little doubt that such a boat is not only
+what is claimed for it by its inventor, but that it is a novelty in its
+line, and such is undoubtedly the case with the umbrella canoe.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How the Canoe Was Built</h3>
+
+<p>The artist first secured a white-ash plank (A, <a href="#Fig_65">Fig. 65</a>), free
+from knots and blemishes of all kinds. The plank was one inch
+thick and about twelve feet long. At the mill he had this sawed
+into eight strips one inch wide, one inch thick, and twelve feet
+long (B and C, <a href="#Fig_66">Figs. 66</a> and <a href="#Fig_67">67</a>). Then he planed off the square<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+edges of each stick until they were all octagonal in form, and
+looked like so many great lead-pencils (D, <a href="#Fig_68">Fig. 68</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_76"></a>
+<img src="images/i_058a.png" width="600" height="110" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 76.&mdash;Frame of umbrella canoe.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Dodge claims that, after you have reduced the ash poles
+to this octagonal form, it is an easy matter to whittle them with
+your pocket-knife or a draw-knife, and by taking off all the angles
+of the sticks make them cylindrical in form (E, <a href="#Fig_69">Fig. 69</a>); then
+smooth them off nicely with sand-paper, so that each pole has a
+smooth surface and is three-quarters of an inch in diameter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_77"></a>
+<img src="images/i_058b.png" width="600" height="107" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 77.&mdash;Umbrella canoe.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the poles were reduced to this state he whittled all the
+ends to the form of a truncated cone&mdash;that is, like a sharpened
+lead-pencil with the lead broken off (F, <a href="#Fig_70">Fig. 70</a>)&mdash;a blunt point.
+He next went to a tinsmith and had two sheet-iron cups made
+large enough to cover the eight pole-ends (G and G´, <a href="#Fig_71">Figs. 71</a>
+and <a href="#Fig_72">72</a>). Each cup was six inches deep. After trying the cups,
+or thimbles, on the poles to see that they would fit, he made two
+moulds of oak. First he cut two pieces of oak plank two feet six
+inches long by one foot six inches (H, <a href="#Fig_74">Fig. 74</a>), which he trimmed
+into the form shown by J, <a href="#Fig_75">Fig. 75</a>, making a notch to fit each of
+the round ribs, and to spread them as the ribs of an umbrella are
+spread. He made two other similar moulds for the bow and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+stern, each of which, of course, is smaller than the middle one.
+After spreading the ribs with the moulds, and bringing the ends
+together in the tin cups, he made holes in the bottom of the cups
+where the ends of the ribs came, and fastened the ribs to the cups
+with brass screws, fitted with leather washers, and run through
+the holes in the tin and screwed into the ends of the poles or ribs.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_78"></a>
+<img src="images/i_059.png" width="600" height="227" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 78.&mdash;Canoe folded for transportation. Canoe in water in distance.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A square hole was then cut through each mould (K, <a href="#Fig_75">Fig. 75</a>),
+and the poles put in place, gathered together at the ends, and held
+in place by the tin thimbles. The square holes in the moulds
+allow several small, light floor planks to form a dry floor to the
+canoe.</p>
+
+<p>The canvas costs about forty-five cents a yard, and five yards
+are all you need. The deck can be made of drilling, which comes
+about twenty-eight inches wide and costs about twenty cents a
+yard. Five yards of this will be plenty. Fit your canvas over
+the frame, stretch it tightly, and tack it securely to the two top
+ribs only. Fasten the deck on in the same manner.</p>
+
+<p>When Mr. Dodge had the canoe covered and decked, with a
+square hole amidship to sit in, he put two good coats of paint on
+the canvas, allowed it to dry, and his boat was ready for use
+(<a href="#Fig_77">Fig. 77</a>). He quaintly says that "it looked like a starved dog,
+with all its ribs showing through the skin," just as the ribs of an
+umbrella show on top through the silk covering. But this does<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+not in any way impede the progress of the boat through the
+water.</p>
+
+<p>Where the moulds are the case is different, for the lines of the
+moulds cross the line of progress at right angles and must necessarily
+somewhat retard the boat. But even this is not perceptible.
+The worst feature about the moulds is that the canvas is very apt
+to be damaged there by contact with the shore, float, or whatever
+object it rubs against.</p>
+
+<p>With ordinary care the umbrella canoe</p>
+
+
+<h3>Will Last for Years</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>and is a good boat for paddling on inland streams and small
+bodies of water; and when you are through with it for the night,
+all that is necessary is to remove the stretchers by springing the
+poles from the notches in the spreaders, roll up the canvas around
+the poles, put it on your shoulder, and carry it home or to camp,
+as shown in <a href="#Fig_78">Fig. 78</a>.</div>
+
+<p>To put your canoe together again put in the moulds, fit the
+poles in their places, and the umbrella is raised, or, rather, the
+canoe is, if we can use such an expression in regard to a boat.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VI<br />
+<small>THE BIRCH-BARK</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary1'>How to Build a Real Birch-Bark Canoe or a Canvas Canoe on
+a "Birch-Bark" Frame&mdash;How to Mend a Birch-Bark</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Although</span> the Indian was the first to build these simple little
+boats, some of his white brothers are quite as expert in the work.
+But the red man can outdo his white brother in navigating the
+craft. The only tools required in building a canoe are a knife
+and awl, a draw-shave and a hammer. An Indian can do all of
+his work with a knife.</p>
+
+<p>Several years ago canvas began to be used extensively in canoe-building,
+instead of birch bark, and it will eventually entirely
+supersede birch, although nothing can be found that bends so
+gracefully. There are several canvas-canoe factories in Maine,
+and the canoes made of canvas have both the symmetry and the
+durability of the birches. They are also a trifle cheaper, but if
+the real thing and sentiment are wanted, one should never have
+anything but a bark craft.</p>
+
+<p>If properly handled, a good canoe will safely hold four men.
+Canoes intended for deep water should have considerable depth.
+Those intended for shoal water, such as trout-fishers use, are made
+as flat as possible. Up to the time when canoeing was introduced
+the materials for building craft of this kind could be found all
+along the rivers. Big birch-trees grew in countless numbers, and
+clear, straight cedar was quite as plentiful within a few feet of the
+water's edge. Now one must go miles back into the dense forests
+for such materials, and even then seldom does it happen that two
+suitable trees are found within sight of one or the other. Cedar
+is more difficult of the two to find.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>The Tree</h3>
+
+<p>The tree is selected, first, for straightness; second, smoothness;
+third, freedom from knots or limbs; fourth, toughness of bark;
+fifth, small size of eyes; sixth, length (the last is not so important,
+as two trees can be put together), and, seventh, size (which is
+also not so important, as the sides can be pieced out).</p>
+
+
+<h3>Dimensions</h3>
+
+<p>The average length of canoe is about 19 feet over all, running,
+generally, from 18 to 22 feet for a boat to be used on inland waters,
+the sea-going canoes being larger, with relatively higher bows.
+The average width is about 30 inches inside, measured along the
+middle cross-bar; the greatest width inside is several inches below
+the middle cross-bar, and is several inches greater than the width
+measured along said cross-bar.</p>
+
+<p>The measurements given below are those of a canoe 19 feet
+over all: 16 feet long inside, measured along the curve of the gunwale;
+30 inches wide inside. The actual length inside is less
+than 16 feet, but the measurement along the gunwales is the most
+important.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Bark</h3>
+
+<p>Bark can be peeled when the sap is flowing or when the tree
+is not frozen&mdash;at any time in late spring, summer, and early fall
+(called summer bark); in winter during a thaw, when the tree
+is not frozen, and when the sap may have begun to flow.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Difference in the Bark</h3>
+
+<p>Summer bark peels readily, is smooth inside, of a yellow color,
+which turns reddish upon exposure to the sun, and is chalky-gray
+in very old canoes. Winter bark adheres closely, and forcibly
+brings up part of the inner bark, which on exposure turns
+dark red. This rough surface may be moistened and scraped
+away. All winter-bark canoes must be thus scraped and made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+smooth. Sometimes the dark red is left in the form of a decorative
+pattern extending around the upper edge of the canoe, the
+rest of the surface being scraped smooth.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Process of Peeling</h3>
+
+<p>The tree should be cut down so that the bark can be removed
+more easily.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_79"></a>
+<img src="images/i_063a.png" width="600" height="144" alt="Drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 79.&mdash;Showing how the butt is kept off the ground.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 233px;"><a id="Fig_80"></a>
+<img src="images/i_063b.png" width="233" height="136" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 80.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 128px;"><a id="Fig_81"></a>
+<img src="images/i_063c.png" width="128" height="279" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 81.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A log called a skid (<a href="#Fig_79">Fig. 79</a>) is laid on the ground a few feet
+from the base of the tree, which will keep the butt of the tree
+off the ground when the tree is felled. The limbs at the top will
+keep the other end off the ground. A space is cleared of bushes
+and obstructions where the tree is to fall.</p>
+
+
+<p>After the tree has been cut down, a cut is made in a straight
+line (A, B, <a href="#Fig_79">Fig. 79</a>), splitting the bark from top to bottom, and
+a ring cut at A and B (<a href="#Fig_79">Fig. 79</a>). When sap is flowing, the bark
+is readily removed; but in winter the edges of the cut are raised
+with a knife, and a thin, pliant hard-wood knife or "spud" is
+pushed around under the bark.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Toasting</h3>
+
+<p>After the bark has dropped upon the ground the inside surface
+is warmed with a torch, which softens and straightens it out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+flat. The torch is made of a bundle of birch bark held in a
+split stick (<a href="#Fig_81">Fig. 81</a>).</p>
+
+<p>It is then rolled up like a carpet, with inside surface out, and
+tightly bound, generally with cedar bark when the latter can be
+procured (<a href="#Fig_80">Fig. 80</a>).</p>
+
+<p>If the tree is long enough, a piece is taken off at least nineteen
+feet in length, so that the ends of the canoe may not be pieced
+out. A few shorter pieces are
+wrapped up with the bundle
+for piecing out the sides.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Roll</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is taken on the back in an
+upright position, and is carried
+by a broad band of cedar
+bark, passing under the lower
+end of the roll and around in
+front of the breast and shoulders
+(<a href="#Fig_82">Fig. 82</a>).</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;"><a id="Fig_82"></a>
+<img src="images/i_064.png" width="281" height="401" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 82.&mdash;Mode of carrying roll.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>Effects of Heat</h3>
+
+<p>It is laid where the sun will
+not shine on it and harden it.
+The first effect of heat is to make it pliant. Long exposure to
+heat or to dry atmosphere makes it hard and brittle.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Woodwork</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is as follows:</div>
+
+<p>Five cross-bars of rock-maple (<a href="#Fig_83">Figs. 83</a>, <a href="#Fig_85">85</a>, and <a href="#Fig_91">91</a>). All the
+rest is of white cedar, taken from the heart. The sap-wood
+absorbs water, and would make the canoe too heavy, so it is rejected.
+The wood requires to be straight and clear, and it is
+best to use perfectly green wood for the ribs.</p>
+
+<p>Two strips 16½ feet long, 1½ inch square, tapering toward either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+end, the ends being notched (<a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a> A) is a section of the 16½
+foot strip. Each strip is mortised for the cross-bars (see <a href="#Fig_85">Fig. 85</a>).
+The lower outside edge is bevelled off to receive the ends of the
+ribs.</p>
+
+<p>The dimensions of the cross-bars (<a href="#Fig_85">Fig. 85</a>) are 12 x 2 x ½ inch,
+22½ x 2 x ¾ inch, and 30 x 2 x <small><sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></small> inch. The cross-bars are placed
+in position, and the ends of the gunwales are tied with spruce
+roots after being nailed together to prevent splitting. Each
+bar is held in place by a peg of hard wood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_83"></a><a id="Fig_83_5"></a>
+<img src="images/i_065.png" width="600" height="213" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Figs. 83 and 83½.&mdash;Showing section of canoe amidship and section and shape of gunwale and top view.</div>
+</div><div class='tnote'><div class='center'>Transcriber's Note: To see a
+larger version of this image, click <a href="images/i_065-big.png">here</a>.</div></div>
+
+<p>For stitching and wrapping, long, slender roots of spruce, or
+sometimes of elm, are peeled and split in two. Black ash splits
+are rarely used except for repairing (<a href="#Fig_86">Figs. 86</a>, <a href="#Fig_87">87</a>, <a href="#Fig_88">88</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Next we need (B, <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>) two strips 1 or 1¼ inch by ½ inch, a
+little over 19 feet long, to go outside of gunwales, and (C, <a href="#Fig_83">Fig.
+83</a>) two top strips, same length, 2 inches wide in middle, tapering
+to 1 inch at either end, 1½ inch thick.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_84"></a><a id="Fig_85"></a><a id="Fig_86"></a><a id="Fig_87"></a><a id="Fig_88"></a><a id="Fig_89"></a><a id="Fig_90"></a><a id="Fig_91"></a>
+<img src="images/i_066.png" width="600" height="843" alt="Figs. 84-91" />
+<div class="caption">Details of sticking and framework of canoe.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_066-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+<h3>Ribs</h3>
+
+<p>About fifty in number (<a href="#Fig_91">Figs. 91</a>, <a href="#Fig_92">92</a>) are split with the grain
+(F, <a href="#Fig_92">Fig. 92</a>), so that the heart side of the wood will be on the inner
+side when the rib is bent. The wood bends better this way.
+They must be perfectly straight-grained and free from knots.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+Ribs for the middle are four inches wide, ribs for the ends about
+three inches wide (<a href="#Fig_91">Fig. 91</a> and G, <a href="#Fig_92">Fig. 92</a>), and are whittled down
+to a scant half an inch (<a href="#Fig_93">Fig. 93</a>). Green wood is generally used,
+and before it has had any time to season. The ribs may be softened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+by pouring hot water on them, and should be bent in pairs
+to prevent breaking (<a href="#Fig_90">Fig. 90</a>). They are held in shape by a band
+of cedar bark passed around outside.</p>
+
+<p>The ribs are of importance in the shaping of the canoe. The
+sides bulge out (<a href="#Fig_91">Figs. 91</a>, <a href="#Fig_92">92</a>).
+The shape of the ribs determines
+the depth and stability of the
+canoe.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Lining Strips</h3>
+
+<p>Other strips, an eighth of an
+inch thick, are carefully whittled
+out, with straight edges. They
+are a little over eight feet long,
+and are designed to be laid inside
+on the bark, edge to edge,
+between the bark and the ribs.
+These strips lap an inch or two
+where they meet, in the middle
+of the canoe, and are wider here
+than at the ends, owing to the
+greater circumference of the canoe
+in the middle.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Seasoning</h3>
+
+<p>All the timber is carefully tied
+up before building and laid
+away. The ribs are allowed to
+season perfectly, so that they will keep their shape and not
+spring back.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 478px;"><a id="Fig_92"></a>
+<img src="images/i_067a.png" width="478" height="326" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 92.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;"><a id="Fig_93"></a>
+<img src="images/i_067b.png" width="283" height="322" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 93.<br />Details of ribs, Indian knives and method of
+using them.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>The Bed</h3>
+
+<p>Next the bed is prepared on a level spot, if possible shaded
+from the sun. A space is levelled about three and a half feet
+wide and a little longer than the canoe. The surface is made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+perfectly smooth. The middle is one or two inches higher than
+either end.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Building</h3>
+
+<p>The frame is laid exactly in the middle of the bed. A small
+post is driven in the ground (<a href="#Fig_94">Fig. 94</a>), on which each end of the
+frame will rest. Stakes, two or three feet long and about two
+inches in diameter, are whittled flat on one side, and are driven
+with the flat side toward the frame at the following points, leaving
+a space of about a quarter of an inch between the stake and
+the frame (<a href="#Fig_94">Fig. 94</a>): One stake an inch or two on either side of
+each cross-bar, and another stake half way between each cross-bar.
+This makes eleven stakes on each side of the frame.
+Twelve additional stakes are driven as follows: One pair facing
+each other, at the end of the frame; another pair, an inch apart,
+about six inches from the last pair, measuring toward the ends
+of the canoe; and another pair, an inch apart, a foot from these.
+These last stakes will be nine and a half feet from the middle of
+the frame, and nineteen feet from the corresponding stakes at
+the other end. Next, these stakes are all taken up, and the
+frame laid aside.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_94"></a>
+<img src="images/i_068.png" width="600" height="189" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 94.&mdash;Showing stakes supporting bark sides; note stones on the bottom.</div>
+</div>
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_068x.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+
+<h3>To Soften the Bark</h3>
+
+<p>Next the bark is unrolled. If it has laid until it has become
+a little hardened, it is placed in the river or stream for a day or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+two. It is spread out flat, and laid upon the bed with the gray
+or outside surface up. The inside surface is placed downward,
+and becomes the outside of the canoe.</p>
+
+<p>The frame is replaced upon the bark, so that it will be at the
+same distance from each side and end of the bed that it was before.
+At each cross-bar boards are laid across the frame, and
+heavy stones are laid upon them to keep the frame solid and immovable
+upon the bark (<a href="#Fig_85">Fig. 85</a>, C). The edges of the bark are
+next bent up in a perpendicular position, and in order that it
+may bend smoothly slits are made in the bark in an outward direction,
+at right angles to the frame. A cut is made close to the
+end of each cross-bar, and one half way between each bar,
+which is generally sufficient to allow the bark to be bent up
+smoothly. As the bark is bent up, the large stakes are slipped
+back in the holes which they occupied before, and the tops of
+each opposite pair are connected with a strip of cedar bark which
+keeps the stakes perfectly perpendicular. At each end it is
+necessary to take out a small triangular piece or gore, so that the
+edges may come together without overlapping.</p>
+
+<p>Next twenty-two pieces of cedar, one to two feet long, and
+about ½ or ¾ inch thick, are split out, and whittled thin and flat
+at one end. This sharpened edge is inserted between the outside
+edge of the frame and the bent-up bark, opposite each large
+stake. The other end of the chisel-shaped piece is tightly tied
+to the large stake outside. By means of the <i>large outside stake</i>
+and the inside "<i>stake</i>," so-called, the bark is held in a perfectly
+upright position; and in order to keep the bent-up part more
+perfectly flat and smooth, the strips of cedar are pushed in lengthwise
+between the stakes and the bark, on each side of the bark,
+as shown in sectional views (<a href="#Fig_85">Fig. 85</a>, C, D).</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, in place of having temporary strips to go on outside
+of the bark, the long outside strip (B, <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>), is slipped
+in place instead.</p>
+
+<p>It may now be seen if the bark is not wide enough. If it is
+not, the sides must be pieced out with a narrow piece, cut in such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+a way that the eyes in the bark will run in the same direction as
+those of the large piece.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule, from the middle to the next bar the strip
+for piecing is placed on the inside of the large piece, whose upper
+edge has previously been trimmed straight, and the two are sewed
+together by the stitch shown in <a href="#Fig_86">Fig. 86</a>, the spruce root being
+passed over another root laid along the trimmed-off edge of the
+large piece of bark to prevent the stitches from tearing out.
+From the second bar to the end of the canoe, or as far as may be
+necessary, the strip is placed outside the large piece, and from the
+second to the end bar is sewed as in <a href="#Fig_87">Fig. 87</a>, and from the end
+bar to the end of the canoe is stitched as in <a href="#Fig_88">Fig. 88</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Next, the weights are taken off the frame, which is raised up as
+follows, the bark remaining flat on the bed as before:</p>
+
+<p>A post eight inches long is set up under each end of middle
+cross-bar (<a href="#Fig_85">Fig. 85</a>, D), one end resting on the bark and the other
+end supporting either end of the middle cross-bar. Another
+post, nine inches long, is similarly placed under each end of the
+next cross-bar. Another, twelve inches long, is placed under
+each end of the end cross-bar; and another, sixteen and a half or
+seventeen inches, supports each end of the frame.</p>
+
+<p>As the posts are placed under each cross-bar, the weights are
+replaced; and as these posts are higher at the ends than in the
+middle, the proper curve is obtained for the gunwales. The
+temporary strips, that have been placed outside the bent-up
+portion of the bark, are removed, and the long outside strip before
+mentioned (B, <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>) is slipped in place between the outside
+stakes and the bark. This strip is next nailed to the frame
+with wrought-iron nails that pass through the bark and are
+clinched on the inside. This outside strip has taken exactly the
+curve of the frame, but its upper edge, before nailing, was raised
+so as to be out an eighth of an inch (or the thickness of the bark)
+higher than the top surface of the frame, so that when the edges
+of the bark have been bent down, and tacked flat to the frame,
+a level surface will be presented, upon which the wide top strip<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+will eventually be nailed. Formerly the outer strip was bound to
+the frame with roots every few inches, but now it is nailed.</p>
+
+<p>The cross-bars are now lashed to the frame, having previously
+been held only by a peg. The roots are passed through holes
+in the end of the bars, around the outside strip (see right-hand side
+of <a href="#Fig_85">Fig. 85</a>). A two-inch piece of the bark, which has been tacked
+down upon the frame, is removed at the ends by the cross-bars,
+where the spruce roots are to pass around, and the outside strip
+is cut away to a corresponding extent, so that the roots, when
+wrapped around, will be flush with the surface above.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_95"></a>
+<img src="images/i_071.png" width="600" height="130" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 95.&mdash;Shows how to describe arc of circle for bow, also ornamentation of winter bark.</div>
+</div>
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_071-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+<p>All the stakes are now removed, and laid away to be ready
+for the next canoe that may be built, and the canoe taken upside
+down upon two horses or benches, that will keep the craft clear
+of the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The shape of the bow is now marked out, either by the eye or
+with mechanical aid, according to the following rule: An arc of
+a circle, with a radius of seventeen inches, is described (<a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95</a>)
+having as a centre a point shown in diagram. The bark is then
+cut away to this line.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Bow-piece</h3>
+
+<p>To stiffen the bow, a bow-piece of cedar, nearly three feet long
+(<a href="#Fig_96">Fig. 96</a>), an inch and a half wide, and half an inch thick on one
+edge, bevelled and rounded off toward the other edge, is needed.
+To facilitate bending edgeways it is split into four or five sections
+(as in <a href="#Fig_98">Fig. 98</a>) for about thirty inches. The end that remains
+unsplit is notched on its thicker edge (<a href="#Fig_96">Fig. 96</a>) to receive the lower
+end of an oval cedar board (<a href="#Fig_97">Fig. 97</a>) that is placed upright in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+bow underneath the tip of the frame. It is bent to correspond
+with the curve of the boat, with the thin edge toward the outside
+of the circle, and wrapped with twine, so that it will keep its shape.
+The bow-piece is placed between the edges of the bark, which are
+then sewed together by an
+over-and-over stitch, which
+passes through the bow-piece.</p>
+
+<p>A pitch is prepared of
+rosin and grease, in such
+proportions that it will
+neither readily crack in
+cold water nor melt in the
+sun. One or the other ingredient
+is added until by
+test it is found just right.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Patching and Pitching</h3>
+
+<p>The canoe is now placed
+on the ground, right side up,
+and all holes are covered
+on the inside with thin
+birch bark that is pasted down with hot pitch. A strip of cloth
+is saturated with hot pitch, and pressed into the cracks on either
+side of the bow-piece inside, between the bark and the bow-piece
+(<a href="#Fig_99">Fig. 99</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 590px;"><a id="Fig_96"></a><a id="Fig_97"></a><a id="Fig_98"></a><a id="Fig_99"></a><a id="Fig_100"></a>
+<img src="images/i_072.png" width="590" height="653" alt="drawings" />
+<div class="caption">Figs. 97-100.&mdash;Show details of canoe bow.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The thin longitudinal strips are next laid in position, edge to
+edge, lapping several inches by the middle; they are whittled
+thin here so as to lap evenly.</p>
+
+<p>The ribs are next tightly driven in place, commencing at the
+small end ones and working toward the middle. The end ribs
+may be two or three inches apart, being closer toward the middle,
+where, in many cases, they touch. Usually, they are about half
+an inch apart in the middle. Each rib is driven into place with
+a square-ended stick and a mallet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The ends are stuffed with shavings (<a href="#Fig_100">Fig. 100</a> and "Section"
+<a href="#Fig_100_5">Fig. 100½</a>), and an oval cedar board is put in the place formerly
+occupied by the post that supported the end of the frame. The
+lower end rests in the notch of the bow-piece, while the upper is
+cut with two shoulders that fit underneath each side of the frame;
+<a href="#Fig_97">Fig. 97</a> shows the cedar board.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 444px;"><a id="Fig_100_5"></a>
+<img src="images/i_073.png" width="444" height="205" alt="Drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 100½.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 636px;"><a id="Fig_101"></a>
+<img src="images/i_073b.png" width="636" height="284" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 101.<br />Canoe paddles.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The top strip is next nailed on to the frame. Almost always a
+piece of bark, a foot or more long, and nine or ten inches wide,
+is bent and slipped under, between
+both top and side strips
+and the bark. The ends of this
+piece hang down about three
+inches below the side strips.
+The loose ends of the strips are
+bound together, as in diagram,
+and the projecting tips of both
+strips and bow-piece are trimmed
+off close.</p>
+
+<p>Next the canoe is turned upside
+down. If winter bark has
+been used, the surface is moistened
+and the roughness scraped
+off with a knife. Generally the
+red rough surface is left in the form of a decorative pattern
+several inches wide around the upper edge (<a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95</a>). Sometimes
+the maker's name and date are left in this way.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, a strip of stout canvas, three or four inches wide, is
+dipped in the melted pitch and laid on the stitching at the ends,
+extending up sufficiently far above the water-line. All cracks and
+seams are covered with pitch, laid on with a small wooden paddle.
+While still soft, a wet finger or the palm of the hand is
+rubbed over the pitch to smooth it down before it hardens.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Leaks</h3>
+
+<p>Water is placed inside, and the leaky places marked, to be
+stopped when dry. A can of rosin is usually carried in the canoe,
+and when a leak occurs, the canoe is taken out of the water, the
+leak discovered by sucking, the place dried with a torch of wood
+or birch bark, and the pitch applied.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_101_5"></a>
+<img src="images/i_074.png" width="600" height="350" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 101½.&mdash;From photograph of Indian building a birch-bark canoe.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Paddles are made of rock maple, and sometimes of birch and
+even cedar. Bow paddles are usually longer and narrower in
+the blade than stern paddles (<a href="#Fig_101">Fig. 101</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3>Bottom Protection</h3>
+
+<p>Sometimes the canoe is shod with "shoes," or strips of cedar,
+laid lengthwise and tied to the outside of the bark with ash splits
+that pass through holes in the cedar shoes, and are brought up
+around the sides of the canoe and tied to each cross-bar. This
+protects the bottom of the boat from the sharp rocks that abound
+in some rapid streams.</p>
+
+<p>All canoes are of the general shape of the one described,
+though this is considerably varied in different localities, some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+being built with high rolling bows, some slender, some wider,
+some nearly straight on the bottom, others decidedly curved.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the two paddles the canoe should carry a pole ten feet
+long, made of a slender spruce, whittled so as to be about one
+and three-fourths inch in diameter in the middle and smaller
+at either end, and having at one end either a ring and a spike or
+else a pointed cap of iron. The pole is used for propelling the
+canoe up swift streams. This, says Tappan Adney, "is absolutely
+indispensable." The person using the pole stands in one
+end, or nearer the middle if alone, and pushes the canoe along
+close to the bank, so as to take advantage of the eddies, guiding
+the canoe with one motion, only to be learned by practice, and
+keeping the pole usually on the side next the bank. Where the
+streams have rocky and pebbly bottoms poling is easy, but in
+muddy or soft bottoms it is tiresome work; muddy bottoms, however,
+are not usually found in rapid waters.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A Canvas Canoe</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>can be made by substituting canvas in the place of birch bark;
+and if it is kept well painted it makes not only a durable but a
+very beautiful boat. The writer once owned a canvas canoe
+that was at least fifteen years old and still in good condition.</div>
+
+<p>About six yards of ten-ounce cotton canvas, fifty inches wide,
+will be sufficient to cover a canoe, and it will require two papers
+of four-ounce copper tacks to secure the canvas on the frame.</p>
+
+<p>The boat should be placed, deck down, upon two "horses" or
+wooden supports, such as you see carpenters and builders use.</p>
+
+<p>Fold the canvas lengthwise, so as to find the centre, then tack
+the centre of one end of the cloth to top of bow-piece, or stem,
+using two or three tacks to hold it securely. Stretch the cloth
+the length of the boat, pull it taut, with the centre line of the canvas
+over the keel line of the canoe, and tack the centre of the other
+end of the cloth to the top of the stern-piece.</p>
+
+<p>If care has been taken thus far, an equal portion of the covering
+will lap the gunwale on each side of the boat.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Begin amidships and drive the tacks, about two inches apart,
+along the gunwale and an inch below the deck (on the outside).
+Tack about two feet on one side, pull the cloth tightly across,
+and tack it about three feet on the other side. Continue to alternate,
+tacking on one side and then the other, until finished.</p>
+
+<p>With the hands and fingers knead the cloth so as to thicken
+or "full" it where it would otherwise wrinkle, and it will be possible
+to stretch the canvas without cutting it over the frame.</p>
+
+<p>The cloth that projects beyond the gunwale may be used for
+the deck, or it may be cut off after bringing it over and tacking
+upon the inside of the gunwale, leaving the canoe open like a
+birch-bark.</p>
+
+
+<h3>To Paddle a Canoe</h3>
+
+<p>No one can expect to learn to paddle a canoe from a book, however
+explicit the directions may be. There is only one way to
+learn to swim and that is by going into the water and trying it,
+and the only proper way to learn to paddle a canoe is to paddle
+one until you catch the knack.</p>
+
+<p>In the ordinary canoe, to be found at the summer watering
+places, there are cane seats and they are always too high for safety.
+A top load on any sort of a boat is always dangerous, and every
+real canoeist seats his passengers on the bottom of the boat and
+kneels on the bottom himself while paddling. Of course, one's
+knees will feel more comfortable if there is some sort of a cushion
+under them, and a passenger will be less liable to get wet if he
+has a pneumatic cushion on which to sit. No expert canoeist
+paddles alternately first on the one side, and then on the other;
+on the contrary, he takes pride in his ability to keep his paddle
+continuously on either side that suits his convenience.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians of the North Woods are probably the best paddlers,
+and from them we can take points in the art. It is from them
+we first learned the use of the canoe, for our open canvas canoes
+of to-day are practically modelled on the lines of the old birch-barks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='bbox2'>
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="canoeing and illustratiosn">
+<tr><td align="left" rowspan='2'><img src="images/i_077a.png" width="258" height="179" alt="Fig. 102" />
+</td><td align="left" colspan='2'><div class='unindent'>From photographs taken
+especially for this book by
+Mr. F. K. Vreeland, Camp
+Fire Club of America.</div></td><td align="left" rowspan='2'><img src="images/i_077b.png" width="256" height="172" alt="Fig. 102a" />
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a id="Fig_102"></a><b>Fig. 102.</b></td>
+<td align="left"><a id="Fig_102a"></a><b>Fig. 102<i>a</i>.</b></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='4'><p>Fig. 102.&mdash;Beginning of stroke. Paddle should not be reached farther forward than this. It is immersed
+<i>edgewise</i> (not point first) with a slicing motion. Note the angle of paddle&mdash;rear face of blade
+turned <i>outward</i> to avoid tendency of canoe to turn. Staff of paddle is 6 inches too short. Left hand
+should be lower.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 102<i>a</i>.&mdash;A moment later. Right hand pushing forward, left hand swinging down. Left hand
+should be lower on full-sized paddle.</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><img src="images/i_077c.png" width="251" height="171" alt="Fig. 103" /></td>
+<td align="left"><a id="Fig_103"></a><b>Fig. 103.</b></td>
+<td align="left"><a id="Fig_103a"></a><b>Fig. 103<i>a</i>.</b></td>
+<td align="left"><img src="images/i_077d.png" width="272" height="164" alt="Fig. 103a" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='4'><p>Fig. 103.&mdash;Putting the power of the body in the stroke by bending slightly forward. Left hand held
+stationary from now on, to act as fulcrum. The power comes from the right arm and shoulders.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 103<i>a</i>.&mdash;The final effort, full weight of the body on the paddle. The right arm and body are
+doing the work, the left arm (which is weak at this point) acting as fulcrum. Note twist of the right
+wrist to give blade the proper angle.</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><img src="images/i_077e.png" width="275" height="171" alt="Fig. 104" /></td>
+<td align="left"><a id="Fig_104"></a><b>Fig. 104.</b></td>
+<td align="left"><a id="Fig_104a"></a><b>Fig. 104<i>a</i>.</b></td>
+<td align="left"><img src="images/i_077f.png" width="260" height="158" alt="Fig. 104a" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='4'><p>Fig. 104.&mdash;End of stroke. Arms relaxed and body straightening.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 104<i>a</i>.&mdash;Beginning of recovery. Paddle slides out of water gently. Note that blade is perfectly
+flat on the surface. No steering action is required. If the canoe tends to swerve it is because the <i>stroke</i>
+was not correct. Only a duffer <i>steers</i> with his paddle after the stroke is over. The left hand now
+moves forward, the right swinging out and back, moving paddle forward horizontally.</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><img src="images/i_077g.png" width="263" height="162" alt="Fig. 104b" /></td>
+<td align="left"><a id="Fig_104b"></a><b>Fig. 104<i>b</i>.</b></td>
+<td align="left"><a id="Fig_104c"></a><b>Fig. 104<i>c</i>.</b></td>
+<td align="left"><img src="images/i_077h.png" width="271" height="159" alt="Fig. 104c" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='4'><p>Fig. 104<i>b</i>.&mdash;Turning to right. The latter part of a broad sweep outward, away from the canoe. The
+blade is now being swept toward the canoe, the left hand pulling in, the right pushing out. Position of
+right wrist shows that blade has the opposite slant to that shown in the straightaway stroke&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, the
+near face of blade is turned <i>inward</i>. Blade leaves water with <i>outer</i> edge up. Wake of canoe shows
+sharpness of turn.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 104<i>c</i>.&mdash;Turning to left. The last motion of a stroke in which the paddle is swept close to the
+canoe with the blade turned much farther outward than in the straightaway stroke. At end of stroke
+blade is given an outward sweep and leaves the water with the <i>inner</i> edge up. <i>This is not a steering</i> or
+dragging motion. It is a powerful sweep of the paddle. Note swirl in wake of canoe showing sharp turn.]</p>
+</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When you are standing upright and your paddle is in front of
+you with the blade upon the ground, the handle should reach to
+your eye-brows. (See Figs. <a href="#Fig_101">101</a>, <a href="#Fig_102">102</a>, <a href="#Fig_103">103</a>, etc.)</p>
+
+<p>Kneel with the paddle across the canoe and not farther forward
+than the knees. Then dip the blade <i>edgewise</i> (not point first) by
+raising the upper hand without bending the elbow. Swing the
+paddle back, keeping it close to the canoe, and give a little twist
+to the upper wrist to set the paddle at the proper angle shown in
+the photos. The exact angle depends upon the trim of the boat,
+the wind, etc., and must be such that the canoe does not swerve
+<i>at any part</i> of the stroke, but travels straight ahead. The lower
+arm acts mainly as a fulcrum and does not move back and forth
+more than a foot. The power comes from the upper arm and
+shoulder, and the body bends forward as the weight is thrown on
+the paddle. The stroke continues until the paddle slides out of
+the water endwise, flat on the surface. Then for recovery the
+blade is brought forward by a swing from the shoulder, <i>not</i> lifting it
+vertically, but swinging it horizontally with the blade parallel to
+the water and the upper hand low. When it reaches a point
+opposite the knee it is slid into the water again, edgewise, for another
+stroke. The motion is a more or less rotary one, like stirring
+cake, not a simple movement back and forth.</p>
+
+
+<h3>To Carry a Canoe</h3>
+
+<p>To pick up a canoe and carry it requires not only the knack but
+also muscle, and no undeveloped boy should make the attempt,
+as he might strain himself, with serious results. But there are
+plenty of young men&mdash;good, husky fellows&mdash;who can learn to do
+this without any danger of injury if they are taught <i>how</i> to lift
+by a competent physical instructor.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_105"></a><a id="Fig_106"></a><a id="Fig_107"></a><a id="Fig_108"></a><a id="Fig_109"></a>
+<img src="images/i_079.png" width="600" height="533" alt="Fig. 106.  Fig. 105.  Fig. 107. Fig. 108.  Fig. 109." />
+</div>
+<p>To pick up a canoe for a "carry," stoop over and grasp the
+middle brace with the right arm extended, and a short hold with
+the left hand, as shown in <a href="#Fig_105">Fig. 105</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When you have a secure hold, hoist the canoe up on your legs,
+as shown in <a href="#Fig_106">Fig. 106</a>. Without stopping the motion give her
+another boost, until you have the canoe with the upper side above
+your head, as in <a href="#Fig_107">Fig. 107</a>. In the diagram the paddles are not
+spread apart as far as they should be. If the paddles are too
+close together a fall may break ones neck.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 565px;">
+<img src="images/i_080.png" width="565" height="725" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 110.&mdash;Northern Quebec Indians crossing the "ladder portage."</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now turn the canoe over your head and slide your head between
+the paddles (which are lashed to the spreaders, as shown in
+<a href="#Fig_105">Fig. 105</a>), and twist your body around as you let the canoe
+settle down over your head (<a href="#Fig_108">Fig. 108</a>). If you have a sweater or a
+coat, it will help your shoulders by making a roll of it to serve as
+a pad under the paddles, as in <a href="#Fig_109">Fig. 109</a>. I have seen an Indian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+carry a canoe in this manner on a dog-trot over a five-mile portage
+without resting. I also have seen Indians carry canoes over mountains,
+crossing by the celebrated Ladder Portage in western
+Quebec, where the only means of scaling a cliff is by ascending
+a ladder made of notched logs. For real canoe work it is
+necessary that a man should know how to carry his craft across<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+country from one body of water to another. All through the
+Lakelands of Canada, and also the Lake St. John district, up
+to Hudson Bay itself, the only trails are by water, with portage
+across from one stream or lake to the other.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VII<br />
+<small>HOW TO BUILD A PADDLING DORY</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary2'>A Simple Boat Which Any One Can Build&mdash;The Cheapest Sort
+of a Boat</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">To</span> construct this craft it is, of course, necessary that we shall
+have some lumber, but we will use the smallest amount and the
+expense will come within the limits of a small purse.</p>
+
+<p>First we must have two boards, their lengths depending upon
+circumstances and the lumber available. The ones in the
+diagram are supposed to be of pine to measure (after being
+trimmed) 18 feet long by 18 inches wide and about 1 inch thick.
+When the boards are trimmed down so as to be exact duplicates
+of each other, place one board over the other so that their edges
+all fit exactly and then nail each end of the two boards together
+for the distance of about six inches. Turn the boards over and
+nail them upon the opposite side in the same manner, clamping
+the nail ends if they protrude. Do this by holding the head of a
+hammer or a stone against the heads of the nails while you
+hold a wire nail against the protruding end, and with a hammer
+bend it over the nail until it can be mashed flat against the board
+so that it will not project beyond its surface.</p>
+
+<p>After you have proceeded thus far, take some pieces of tin (<a href="#Fig_112">Fig.
+112</a>) and bend the ragged edges over, so as to make a clean,
+straight fold, and hammer it down flat until there are no rough or
+raw edges exposed. Now tack a piece of this tin over the end of
+the boards which composed the sides of the boat, as in <a href="#Fig_114">Fig. 114</a>.
+Make the holes for the tacks first by driving the pointed end of a
+wire nail through the tin where you wish the tacks to go and
+then tack the tin snugly and neatly on, after which tack on
+another piece of tin on both bow and stern, as in <a href="#Fig_116">Fig. 116</a>. This
+will hold the two ends of the boards securely together so that they
+may be carefully sprung apart in the middle to receive the middle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+mould which is to hold them in shape until the bottom of the boat
+is nailed on, and the permanent thwarts, or seats, fastened inside.
+When the latter are permanently fixed they will keep the boat in
+shape.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 622px;"><a id="Fig_111"></a>
+<img src="images/i_083a.png" width="622" height="126" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 111.&mdash;Parts of dory.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>To make the mould, which is only a temporary thing, you
+may use any rough board, or boards nailed together with cleats
+to hold them. The mould should be 2 feet 6 inches long and 1 foot
+4 inches high. <a href="#Fig_111">Fig. 111</a> will show you how to cut off the ends
+to give the proper slant. The dotted lines show the board before
+it is trimmed in shape. By measuring along the edge of the board
+from each end 10.8 inches and marking the points, and then, with
+a carpenter's pencil ruling the diagonal lines to the other edge and
+ends of the board, the triangles may be sawed off with a hand saw.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_112"></a><a id="Fig_113"></a><a id="Fig_114"></a><a id="Fig_115"></a><a id="Fig_116"></a>
+<img src="images/i_083b.png" width="600" height="191" alt="Fig. 113. Fig. 114. Fig. 112. Fig. 115. Fig. 116." />
+<div class="caption">The simple details of the dory.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_111">Fig. 111</a> shows where the mould is to be placed in the center
+of the two side boards. As the boards in this diagram are supposed
+to be on the slant, and consequently in the perspective,
+they do not appear as wide as they really are. The diagram is
+made also with the ends of the side boards free so as to better
+show the position of the mould. But when the side boards are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+sprung apart and the mould placed in position (<a href="#Fig_113">Fig. 113</a>), it will
+appear as in <a href="#Fig_116">Fig. 116</a> or <a href="#Fig_117">Fig. 117</a>. <a href="#Fig_115">Fig. 115</a> shows the shape of
+the stem-posts to be set in both bow and stern and nailed securely
+in place.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 619px;"><a id="Fig_118"></a>
+<img src="images/i_084a.png" width="619" height="251" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 118.<br />Top views of dory and parts of dory.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When you have gone thus far fit in two temporary braces near
+the bow and stern, as shown in <a href="#Fig_117">Fig. 117</a>. These braces are simply
+narrow pieces of boards held in position by nails driven
+through the outside of the boat, the latter left with their heads
+protruding, so that they may be easily drawn when necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Now turn the boat over bottom up and you will find that the
+angle at which the sides are bent will cause the bottom boards
+to rest upon a thin edge of the side boards, as shown in <a href="#Fig_119">Fig. 119</a>.
+With an ordinary jack-plane trim this down so that the bottom
+boards will rest flush and
+snug, as in <a href="#Fig_120">Fig. 120</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a id="Fig_118_5"></a>
+<img src="images/i_084b.png" width="350" height="138" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 118½.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>How to Calk a Boat so That
+It Won't Leak</h3>
+
+<p>If you wish to make a
+bottom that will never leak,
+not even when it is placed in the water for the first time, plane off
+the boards on their sides, so that when fitted together they will
+leave a triangular groove between each board, as shown in Fig.
+<a href="#Fig_118_5">118½</a>. These grooves will show upon the inside of the boat, and not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+upon the outside, and in this case the calking is done from the
+inside and not from the outside. They are first calked with
+candlewick, over which putty is used, but for a rough boat it is
+not even necessary to use any calking. When the planks swell
+they will be forced together, so as to exclude all water.</p>
+
+<p>To fasten the bottom on the boat put a board lengthwise at the
+end, as shown in <a href="#Fig_121">Fig. 121</a>. One end shows the end board as it is
+first nailed on, and the other end shows it after it has been trimmed
+off to correspond with the sides of the boat. Now put your short
+pieces of boards for the bottom on one at a time, driving each one
+snug up against its neighbor before nailing it in place and leaving
+the rough or irregular ends of each board protrude on each side,
+as shown at the right-hand end of <a href="#Fig_121">Fig. 121</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 679px;"><a id="Fig_117"></a><a id="Fig_119"></a><a id="Fig_120"></a><a id="Fig_121"></a>
+<img src="images/i_085.png" width="679" height="295" alt="Fig. 117. Fig. 119.  Fig. 120.  Fig. 121." />
+<div class="caption">Top view with sides in place, also reversed view showing how bottom boards are laid.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When all the boards are nailed in place (by beginning at one
+end and fitting them against each other until the other end is
+reached) they may be trimmed off with a saw (<a href="#Fig_121">Fig. 121</a>) and
+your boat is finished with the exception of the thwarts, or seats.</p>
+
+<p>If you intend to propel this with paddles like a canoe, you will
+need a seat in the centre for your passenger, and this may be
+placed in the position occupied by the form (<a href="#Fig_111">Figs. 111</a> and <a href="#Fig_117">117</a>)
+after the latter is removed. To fit a seat in it is only necessary to
+cut two cleats and nail them to the sides of the boat for the seat
+to rest upon and saw off a board the proper length to fit upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+cleats. It would be well now to fasten the braces in the bow and
+stern permanently, adjusting them to suit your convenience.
+The seat should be as low as possible for safety. With this your
+paddling dory is finished, and may be used even without being
+painted. A coat of paint, however, improves not only the looks
+but the tightness and durability of any boat.</p>
+
+<p>We have now advanced so far in our boat-building that it
+becomes necessary that the beginner should learn more about
+boats and boating, and since this book is written for beginners,
+we will take it for granted that they know absolutely nothing
+about the subject and will give all the rudimentary knowledge
+for landlubbers in the next chapter.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII<br />
+<small>THE LANDLUBBER'S CHAPTER</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary1'>Common Nautical Terms and Expressions Defined&mdash;How to Sail
+a Boat&mdash;Boat Rigs&mdash;Rowing-clothes&mdash;How to Make a Bathing-suit&mdash;How
+to Avoid Sunburn</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are a few common terms with which all who venture
+on the water should be familiar, not only for convenience, but
+for prudential reasons.</p>
+
+<p>Accidents are liable to happen to boats of all descriptions, and
+often the safety of property and life depend upon the passengers'
+ability to understand what is said to them by the officers or sailors
+in charge of the craft.</p>
+
+<p>To those who are familiar with the water and shipping it may
+seem absurd to define the bow and stern of a boat, but there are
+people who will read this book who cannot tell the bow from
+the stern, so we will begin this chapter with the statement that</p>
+
+<p><b>The bow</b> is the front end of the boat, and</p>
+
+<p><b>The stern</b> is the rear end of the boat.</p>
+
+<p><b>For'ard</b> is toward the bow of the boat.</p>
+
+<p><b>Aft</b> is toward the stern of the boat. Both terms are used by
+sailors as forward and backward are used by landsmen.</p>
+
+<p><b>The hull</b> is the boat itself without masts, spars, or rigging. A
+skiff and a birch-bark canoe are hulls.</p>
+
+<p><b>The keel</b> is the piece of timber running along the centre of the
+bottom of the hull, like the runner of a skate, and used to give
+the boat a hold on the water, so that she will not slide sideways.</p>
+
+<p>When you are sitting in the stern of a boat, facing the bow,
+the side next to your right hand is the right-hand side of the boat,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+and the side next to your left hand is the left-hand side of the boat.
+But these terms are not used by seamen; they always say</p>
+
+<p><b>Starboard</b> for the right-hand side of the boat, and</p>
+
+<p><b>Port</b> for the left-hand side of the boat. Formerly the left-hand
+side was called the larboard, but this occasioned many serious
+mistakes on account of the similarity of the sound of larboard and
+starboard when used in giving orders.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_122"></a>
+<img src="images/i_088.png" width="600" height="223" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 122.&mdash;Top view of small boat.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>Red and Green Lights</h3>
+
+<p>After dark a red light is carried on the port side and a green
+light on the starboard side of all vessels in motion. If you can
+remember that port wine is red, and that the port light is of the
+same color, you will always be able to tell in which direction an
+approaching craft is pointing by the relative location of the lights.</p>
+
+<div class='poem'>
+"When both lights you see ahead,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Port your helm and show your red!</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Green to green and red to red,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">You're all right, and go ahead!"</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>If you are a real landlubber, the verse quoted will be of little
+service, because you will not know how to port your helm. In
+fact, you probably will not know where to look for the helm or
+what it looks like; but only a few of our readers are out-and-out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+landlubbers, and most of them know that the helm is in some
+way connected with the steering apparatus.</p>
+
+<p><b>The rudder</b> is the movable piece of board at the stern of the
+boat by means of which the craft is guided. The rudder is moved
+by a lever, ropes, or a wheel.</p>
+
+<p><b>The tiller</b> is the lever for moving the rudder, or the ropes used
+for the same purpose (<a href="#Fig_123">Fig. 123</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_123"></a>
+<img src="images/i_089.png" width="600" height="373" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 123.&mdash;Helm&mdash;Lever, or stick, for tiller.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The wheel</b> is the wheel whose spokes end in handles on the
+outer edge of the rim, or felly, and it is used for moving the rudder
+(<a href="#Fig_124">Fig. 124</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The helm</b> is that particular part of the steering apparatus that
+you put your hands on when steering.</p>
+
+<p><b>The deck</b> is the roof of the hull.</p>
+
+<p><b>The centreboard</b> is an adjustable keel that can be raised or
+lowered at pleasure. It is an American invention. The centreboard,
+as a rule, is only used on comparatively small vessels.
+The inventor of the centreboard is Mr. Salem Wines, who kept
+a shop on Water Street, near Market Slip, and, when alive, was a
+well-known New York boat-builder. His body now lies in Greenwood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+Cemetery, and upon the headstone of his grave is the
+inscription, "The Inventor of the Centreboard."</p>
+
+<p>For sailing, the boat, or hull, is rigged with masts and spars
+for spreading the sails to catch the wind.</p>
+
+<p><b>The masts</b> are the upright poles, or sticks, that hold the sails.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_124"></a>
+<img src="images/i_090.png" width="600" height="482" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 124.&mdash;Helm&mdash;The wheel.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The yards</b> are the poles, or sticks, at right angles with the masts
+that spread the sails.</p>
+
+<p><b>The boom</b> is the movable spar at the bottom of the sail.</p>
+
+<p><b>The gaff</b> is the pole, or spar, for spreading the top, or head, of
+the sail (<a href="#Fig_125">Fig. 125</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The sail</b> is a big canvas kite, of which the boom, gaff, and masts
+are the kite-sticks. You must not understand by this that the
+sail goes soaring up in the air, for the weight of the hull prevents
+that; but if you make fast a large kite to the mast of a boat it
+would be a sail, and if you had a line long and strong enough,
+and should fasten any spread sail to it, there can be no doubt that
+the sail would fly.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>The spars</b> are the masts, bowsprit, yards, and gaffs.</p>
+
+<p><b>The bowsprit</b> is the stick, or sprit, projecting from the bow of the
+boat (<a href="#Fig_161">Fig. 161</a>, Sloop).</p>
+
+<p><b>The foremast</b> is the mast next to the bow&mdash;the forward mast
+(<a href="#Fig_159">Fig. 159</a>, Ship).</p>
+
+<p><b>The mainmast</b> is the second mast&mdash;the mast next to the foremast.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mizzen-mast</b> is the mast next to and back of the mainmast
+(<a href="#Fig_159">Fig. 159</a>, Ship).</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 315px;"><a id="Fig_125"></a>
+<img src="images/i_091.png" width="315" height="366" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 125.&mdash;A sail.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The rigging</b> of a boat consists of the ropes, or lines, attached to
+its masts and sails, but a boat's rig refers to the
+number of masts as well as to the shape of its
+sails.</p>
+
+<p><b>Stays</b> are strong ropes supporting the masts,
+fore and aft.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shrouds</b> are strong ropes reaching from the
+mastheads to the sides of the vessel; supports
+for the masts, starboard and port.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ratlines</b> are the little ropes that form the
+steps, or foot ropes, that run crosswise between the shrouds.</p>
+
+<p><b>The painter</b> is the rope at the bow of a small boat, used for the
+same purpose as is a hitching-strap on a horse.</p>
+
+<p><b>The standing rigging</b> consists of the stays and shrouds.</p>
+
+<p><b>The running rigging</b> consists of all the ropes used in handling
+yards and sails.</p>
+
+<p><b>The sheets</b> are the ropes, or lines, attached to the corners of sails,
+by which they are governed (<a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The main sheet</b> is the rope that governs the mainsail.</p>
+
+<p><b>The jib-sheet</b> is the rope that governs the jib-sail.</p>
+
+<p><b>The gaskets</b> are the ropes used in lashing the sails when furled.</p>
+
+<p><b>The braces</b> are the ropes used in swinging the yards around.</p>
+
+<p><b>The jib-stay</b> is the stay that runs from the foremast to the
+bowsprit.</p>
+
+<p><b>The bob-stay</b> is practically an extension of the jib-stay and the
+chief support of the spars. It connects the bow of the boat with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+the bowsprit and prevents the latter from bobbing up and
+down.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the port and starboard sides of a boat there are the
+windward and leeward sides. Do not understand by this that the
+boat has four sides, like a square. Windward may be the port
+or the starboard side, according to the direction the wind blows;
+because</p>
+
+<p><b>Windward</b> means the side of the boat against which the wind
+blows&mdash;the side where the wind climbs aboard; or it may mean
+the direction from which the wind comes. The opposite side
+is called</p>
+
+<p><b>Leeward</b>&mdash;that is, the side of the boat opposite to that against
+which the wind blows, where the wind tumbles overboard, or the
+side opposite to windward. When you are sailing you may be
+near a</p>
+
+<p><b>Lee Shore</b>&mdash;that is, the shore on your lee side against which
+the wind blows; or a</p>
+
+<p><b>Windward Shore</b>&mdash;that is, the land on your windward side
+from which the wind blows.</p>
+
+<p>All seamen dread a lee shore, as it is a most dangerous shore to
+approach, from the fact that the wind is doing its best to blow
+you on the rocks or beach. But the windward shore can be approached
+with safety, because the wind will keep you off the
+rocks, and if it is blowing hard, the land will break the force of
+the wind.</p>
+
+<p>In a canoe or shell the boatman sits either directly on the bottom,
+or, as in the shell, very close to it, and the weight of his body
+serves to keep the boat steady, but larger crafts seldom rely upon
+live weights to steady them. They use</p>
+
+<p><b>Ballast</b>&mdash;that is, weights of stone, lead, iron, or sand-bags,
+used to balance the boat and make her steady.</p>
+
+<p>As has been said before in this chapter, the sail is a big canvas
+kite made fast to the boat and called a sail, but the ordinary kite
+has its covering stretched permanently on rigid sticks.</p>
+
+<p>The sail, however, can be stretched to its full extent or only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+partially, or it may be rolled up, exposing nothing but the masts
+to the force of the wind. To accomplish all this there are various
+ropes and attachments, all of which are named.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 513px;"><a id="Fig_126"></a>
+<img src="images/i_093a.png" width="513" height="600" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 126.&mdash;Sail and sheet.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 447px;"><a id="Fig_127"></a>
+<img src="images/i_093b.png" width="447" height="528" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 127.&mdash;Parts of sail.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is quite important that the beginner should know the
+names of all the</p>
+
+
+<h3>Parts of a Sail</h3>
+
+<p><b>Luff.</b>&mdash;That part of the sail adjoining the mast&mdash;the front of
+the sail (<a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Leach.</b>-That part of the sail stretched between the outer or
+after end of the boom and the outer end of the gaff&mdash;the back
+part of the sail (<a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Head.</b>&mdash;That part of the sail adjoining the gaff&mdash;the top of the
+sail.</p>
+
+<p><b>Foot.</b>&mdash;That part of the sail adjoining the boom&mdash;the bottom
+of the sail (<a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Clews.</b>&mdash;A general name for the four corners of the sail.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Clew.</b>&mdash;The particular corner at the foot of the sail where the
+leach and boom meet (<a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Tack.</b>&mdash;The corner of the sail where boom and mast meet
+(<a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Throat, or Nock.</b>&mdash;The corner of the sail where gaff and mast
+meet (<a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Peak.</b>&mdash;Corner of the sail where the leach and gaff meet
+(<a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 182px;"><a id="Fig_128"></a>
+<img src="images/i_094a.png" width="182" height="364" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 128.&mdash;Starboard helm</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 190px;"><a id="Fig_129"></a>
+<img src="images/i_094b.png" width="190" height="364" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 129&mdash;Port helm.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>How to Steer a Boat</h3>
+
+<p>When you wish your boat to turn to the right push your helm
+to the left. This will push the rudder to the right and turn the
+boat in that direction. When you wish your boat to turn to the
+left push your helm to the right. In other words, starboard your
+helm and you will turn to the port (<a href="#Fig_128">Fig. 128</a>). Port your helm
+and you will turn to the starboard (<a href="#Fig_129">Fig. 129</a>).</p>
+
+<p>From a reference to the diagram you may see that when you
+<b>port your helm</b> you move the tiller to the port side of the boat,
+and when you <b>starboard your helm</b> you move your tiller to the
+starboard side of the boat (<a href="#Fig_128">Fig. 128</a>), but to <b>ease your helm</b> you
+move your helm toward the centre of the boat&mdash;that is, amidships.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Sail a Boat</h3>
+
+<p>If you fasten the bottom of a kite to the ground, you will find
+that the wind will do its best to blow the kite over, and if the kite
+is fastened to the mast of a toy boat, the wind will try to blow the
+boat over.</p>
+
+<p>In sailing a boat the effort of the wind apparently has but one
+object, and that is the upsetting of the boat. The latter, being
+well balanced, is constantly endeavoring to sit upright on its keel,
+and you, as a sailor, are aiding the boat in the struggle, at the
+same time subverting the purpose of the wind to suit your own
+ideas. It is an exciting game, in which man usually comes out
+ahead, but the wind gains enough victories to keep its courage up.</p>
+
+<p>Every boat has peculiarities of its own, and good traits as well
+as bad ones, which give the craft a personal character that lends
+much to your interest, and even affects your sensibilities to the
+extent of causing you to have the same affection for a good, trustworthy
+craft that you have for an intelligent and kind dog or
+horse.</p>
+
+<p>A properly balanced sail-boat, with main sheet trimmed flat
+and free helm, should be as sensitive as a weathercock and act
+like one&mdash;that is, she ought to swing around until her bow pointed
+right into the "eye of the wind," the direction from which the
+wind blows. Such a craft it is not difficult to sail, but it frequently
+happens that the boat that is given to you to sail is not properly
+balanced, and shows a constant tendency to "come up in the
+wind"&mdash;face the wind&mdash;when you are doing your best to keep her
+sails full and keep her on her course. This may be caused by too
+much sail aft. The boat is then said to carry a weather helm.</p>
+
+<p><b>Weather Helm.</b>&mdash;When a boat shows a constant tendency to
+come up in the wind.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lee Helm.</b>&mdash;When a boat shows a constant tendency to fall
+off the wind&mdash;that is, when the wind blows her bow to the leeward.
+This is a much worse trait than the former, and a boat with a lee
+helm is a dangerous boat. It may be possible to remedy it by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+adding sail aft or reducing sail forward, which should immediately
+be done.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the fact, already stated, that the wind's constant
+effort is to capsize a boat, there is little or no danger of a properly
+rigged boat upsetting unless the sheets are fast or hampered in
+some way. When a sail-boat upsets it is, of course, because the
+wind blows it over. Now, the wind cannot blow a boat over
+unless the boat presents some surface larger than its hull for the
+wind to blow against, and the sail is the only object that offers
+enough surface to the breeze to cause an upset.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="illustrations and shared caption">
+<tr><td align="left"><div class="figleft" style="width: 223px;"><a id="Fig_130"></a>
+<img src="images/i_096a.png" width="223" height="463" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 130&mdash;Close-hauled.</div>
+</div></td>
+<td align="left"><div class="figright" style="width: 378px;"><a id="Fig_131"></a>
+<img src="images/i_096b.png" width="378" height="502" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 131.&mdash;Before the wind.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan='2'><div class='caption'>Top view of boats, showing position of helm and boom.</div>
+</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p>If the sheet is slackened, the sail will swing around until it
+flaps like a flag and only the thin edge is presented to the wind;
+and a boat that a flag will upset is no boat for beginners to trust
+themselves in. True, the boom may be very long and heavy
+enough to make it dangerous to let so much of it overboard, but
+this is seldom the case. A good sailor keeps his eyes constantly
+on the sails and trims them to take advantage of the slightest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+favorable breeze. In place of losing control of his sail by letting
+go the sheets he will ease the tiller so as to "spill" part of the wind
+that is, let the forward part, or luff, of the sail shake a bit. Or,
+in case of a sudden puff of wind, he may deem it necessary to
+"luff"&mdash;that is, let her shake&mdash;and slacken the sheets too.</p>
+
+<p><b>Trimmed Flat.</b>&mdash;Sheets hauled in until the boom is only a little
+to the leeward of the helm (<a href="#Fig_130">Fig. 130</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Close-hauled.</b>&mdash;Sheets trimmed flat and the boat pointing as
+near as possible to the eye of the wind. Then the sail cannot
+belly, and is called flat (<a href="#Fig_130">Fig. 130</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3>To Sail Close-hauled</h3>
+
+<p>The skipper must watch that his sail does not flap or ripple at
+the throat, for that means that he is pointing too close to the
+wind and that some of the breeze is blowing on both sides of
+his sail, which even a novice can see will retard the boat.</p>
+
+<p>Upon discovering a rippling motion at the luff of the sail put
+the helm up&mdash;that is, move the tiller a little to windward until the
+sail stops its flapping.</p>
+
+<p><b>Before the Wind.</b>&mdash;When the wind is astern; sailing with the
+wind; sailing directly from windward to leeward (<a href="#Fig_131">Fig. 131</a>).</p>
+
+<p>In order to reach the desired point it is often expedient to sail
+before the wind, but unless the wind is light, beginners had
+better not try this. To sail before the wind you let your sheets
+out until the boom stands at <i>almost</i> right angles with the boat.
+Keep your eye on the sail and see that it does not flap, for if the
+man at the helm is careless and allows the boat to point enough
+away from the direction of the wind to allow the wind to get on
+the other side of the sail, the latter will swing around or jibe with
+such force as to endanger the mast, if it does not knock some one
+overboard.</p>
+
+<p>The price of liberty is constant vigilance, and the price of a
+good sail is the same. I have seen a mast snapped off clean at
+the deck by a jibe, and once when out after ducks every one was
+so intent upon the game that proper attention was not paid to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+the sail. The wind got round and brought the boom with a
+swing aft, knocking the captain of our boat club overboard.
+Had the boom hit him in the head and stunned him, the result
+might have been fatal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 490px;"><a id="Fig_131_5"></a><a id="Fig_132"></a><a id="Fig_133"></a>
+<img src="images/i_098.png" width="490" height="512" alt="Fig. 132.&mdash;Boom hauled in. Fig. 133.&mdash;On new course. Fig. 131½.&mdash;Before the wind." />
+<div class="caption">Figs. 131½, 132, and 133.&mdash;Jibing.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Wing and Wing.</b>&mdash;When a schooner goes before the wind with
+one sail out at nearly right angles on the port side and the other
+in the same position on the starboard side she is said to be wing
+and wing and presents a beautiful sight.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Tacking.</b>&mdash;Working to the windward by a series of diagonal
+moves.</p>
+
+<p><b>Legs.</b>&mdash;The moves or diagonal courses made in tacking. It is
+apparent to the most unthinking observer that no vessel propelled
+by sail can move against the direct course of the wind&mdash;that is,
+nothing but electricity, naphtha, steam, or some such power can
+drive a boat into the eye of the wind. But what cannot be accomplished
+in a direct manner can be done by a series of compromises,
+each of which will bring us nearer to the desired
+point.</p>
+
+<p>First we point the boat to the right or left, as the case may be,
+as near or as close to the wind as the boat will sail. Then we
+come about and sail in the other direction as close as practicable
+to the eye of the wind, and each time we gain something in a direct
+line.</p>
+
+<p>When your boat changes its direction on a tack it is done by
+"jibing," or "coming about."</p>
+
+<p><b>Jibing.</b>&mdash;With the wind on the quarter, haul the main boom
+aft or amidship with all possible speed, by means of the main
+sheets (<a href="#Fig_132">Fig. 132</a>), and as the wind strikes the sail on the other
+side let it out as deliberately as possible until it reaches the position
+desired (<a href="#Fig_133">Fig. 133</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Beginners should never attempt to jibe, for if there is more
+than a capful of wind, the sail will probably get away from them,
+and, as described in going before the wind, some disaster is liable
+to occur. Experts only jibe in light winds, and frequently lower
+the peak, so as to reduce sail, before attempting a jibe.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Coming About</h3>
+
+<p>When you wish to come about see that all the tackle, ropes,
+etc., are clear and in working order, and that you are making
+good headway; then call out: "Helm's a-lee!" or "Ready about!"
+and push the tiller in the direction opposite to that from which the
+wind blows&mdash;that is, to the lee side of the boat. This will bring
+the bow around until the wind strikes the sail upon the side opposite<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+to that which it struck before the helm was a-lee (<a href="#Fig_134">Figs.
+134</a>, <a href="#Fig_135">135</a>, <a href="#Fig_136">136</a>, <a href="#Fig_137">137</a>).</p>
+
+<p>If you are aboard a sloop or schooner, ease off the jib-sheet, but
+keep control of it, so that as the boat comes up to the wind you
+can make the jib help the bow around by holding the sheets so as
+to catch the wind aback. When the bow of the craft has passed
+the eye of the wind and the sail begins to fill give the order to
+make fast, or trim, the jib, and off you go upon the opposite tack,
+or on a new leg.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 586px;"><a id="Fig_134"></a><a id="Fig_135"></a><a id="Fig_136"></a><a id="Fig_137"></a>
+<img src="images/i_100.png" width="586" height="307" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Figs. 134, 135, 136, and 137.&mdash;Coming about.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>If the wind is light, or if, for any cause, the boat works slowly,
+you can sometimes help her by trimming in the main sheet when
+you let the jib-sheet fly. In the diagram of coming about no
+jib is shown.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wearing</b> is a term sometimes used in place of jibing.</p>
+
+
+<h3>In a Thunder-storm</h3>
+
+<p>A thunder-storm is always an uncertain thing. There may be
+a veritable tornado hidden in the black clouds that we see rising
+on the horizon, or it may simply "iron out the wind"&mdash;that is,
+go grumbling overhead&mdash;and leave us becalmed, to get home the
+best way we can; generally by what the boys call a "white-ash
+breeze"&mdash;that is, by using the sweeps or oars.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On Long Island Sound a thunder-storm seems to have certain
+fixed rules of conduct. In the first place, it comes up from the
+leeward, or <i>against the wind</i>. Just before the storm strikes you
+for an instant the wind ceases and the sails flap idly. Then look
+out! for in nine cases out of ten you are struck the next moment
+by a sudden squall from exactly the opposite direction from which
+the wind blew a moment before.</p>
+
+
+<h3>What to Do</h3>
+
+<p>Make for the nearest port with all speed, and keep a man at the
+downhaul ready at a moment's notice to lower sail. The moment
+the wind stops drop the sail and make everything snug, leaving
+only bare poles. When the thunder-squall strikes you, be it
+ever so hard, you are now in little danger; and if the wind from
+the new quarter is not too fresh, you can hoist sail again and make
+the best of your way to the nearest port, where you can "get in
+out of the wet."</p>
+
+<p>If the wind is quite fresh keep your peak down, and with a
+reefed sail speed on your way. If it is a regular howler, let your
+boat drive before the wind under bare poles until you can find
+shelter or until it blows over, and the worst mishap you are likely
+to incur is a good soaking from the rain.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shortening Sail.</b>&mdash;Just as soon as the boat heels over too far
+for safety, or as soon as you are convinced that there is more wind
+than you need for comfortable sailing, it is time to take a reef&mdash;that
+is, to roll up the bottom of the sail to the row of little ropes,
+or reefing points, on the sail and make fast there. This, of course,
+makes a smaller sail, and that is what you wish.</p>
+
+<p>While under way it will be found impossible to reef a sail except
+when sailing close-hauled. So the boat is brought up into
+the wind by pushing the helm down, as if you intended to come
+about. When possible it is better to lower the sail entirely before
+attempting to put in a reef.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>To Reef Without Lowering Sail</h3>
+
+<p>It sometimes happens that on account of the proximity of a
+lee shore, and the consequent danger of drifting in that direction,
+or for some other equally good reason, it is inadvisable to lower
+sail and lose headway. Under such circumstances the main
+sheet must be trimmed flat, keeping the boat as close as possible
+to the wind, the helm must be put up hard a-lee, and jib-sheet
+trimmed to windward (<a href="#Fig_138">Fig. 138</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 410px;"><a id="Fig_138"></a>
+<img src="images/i_102.png" width="410" height="420" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 138.&mdash;Squirming; jib on port side, boom close-hauled
+on starboard side.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When this is done the wind will hit the jib, "paying her head
+off," or pushing her bow to leeward, and this tendency is counteracted
+by the helm and mainsail, bringing the bow up into the
+wind. This keeps the boat squirming. Lower the mainsail
+until the row of reef points is just on a line with the boom, keeping
+to the windward of the sail. Tie the first point&mdash;that is, the one
+on the luff rope&mdash;then the one on the leach, being careful to stretch
+out the foot of the sail. Then tie the remaining points, always<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+making a square or reefing knot. Tie them to the jack-stay on
+the boom or around the boom.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Reef or Square Knot</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is most frequently used, as its name implies, in reefing sails.
+First make a plain overhand knot, as in <a href="#Fig_139">Fig. 139</a>. Then repeat
+the operation by taking the end and passing it
+over and under the loop, drawing the parts
+tight, as shown in <a href="#Fig_140">Fig. 140</a>. Care should be
+observed in crossing the ends so that they will
+always lay fairly alongside the main parts.
+Otherwise the knot will prove a <i>granny</i> and be comparatively
+worthless.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 353px;"><a id="Fig_139"></a><a id="Fig_140"></a>
+<img src="images/i_103.png" width="353" height="86" alt="drawings" />
+<div class="caption">Figs. 139 and 140.&mdash;Square
+or reef knot.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>To Shake Out a Reef</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>untie the knots, keeping to the windward of the sail. Untie the
+knot at the leach first, next the one at the luff, and then the remaining
+points. In lowering a sail you use a rope called the
+<b>downhaul</b>.</div>
+
+<p><b>Starboard Tack.</b>&mdash;When the main boom is over the port side.</p>
+
+<p><b>Port Tack.</b>&mdash;When the main boom is over the starboard side.</p>
+
+<p><b>Right of Way.</b>&mdash;All boats sailing on the starboard tack have
+the right of way over all those on the port tack. In other words,
+if you are on the starboard tack, those on the port tack must keep
+out of your way. Any boat sailing close-hauled has the right of
+way over a boat sailing free.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Lights for Canoe</h3>
+
+<p>A canoe under sail at night should have an uncolored lantern
+hung to her mizzen-mast to notify other craft that she is out and
+objects to being run down. The light is put on the mizzen so that
+it may be behind the skipper and not dazzle him.</p>
+
+<p>What you have read in the foregoing pages will not be found
+very difficult to remember, but there is only one way to learn to
+sail and that is by <i>sailing</i>. If possible, sail with some one who is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+a good seaman. If this sort of companion cannot be had, try it
+alone on smooth water and with short sail until you accustom
+yourself to the boat and its peculiarities. No boy ever learned
+to skate or swim from books, but books often have been helpful
+in giving useful hints to those who were really learning by practical
+experience.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Some Do Nots</h3>
+
+<div class='poem2'>
+Do not overload the boat.<br />
+Do not carry too much sail.<br />
+Do not sail in strange waters without chart or compass.<br />
+Do not forget your anchor.<br />
+Do not forget your paddles or oars.<br />
+Do not attempt to learn to sail before you know how to swim.<br />
+Do not sit on the gunwale.<br />
+Do not put the helm down too suddenly or too far.<br />
+Do not let go the helm.<br />
+Do not mistake caution for cowardice.<br />
+Do not be afraid to reef.<br />
+Do not fear the ridicule of other landlubbers.<br />
+Do not fail to keep the halyards and sheets clear.<br />
+Do not jibe in a stiff wind.<br />
+Do not fail to keep your head in times of emergency.<br />
+Do not make a display of bravery until the occasion demands it.<br />
+Do not allow mistakes or mishaps to discourage you.<br />
+Do not associate with a fool who rocks a boat.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>You will soon become an expert and be able to engage in one of
+our most exhilarating, healthy, and manly sports and earn the
+proud distinction of being a good small-boat sailor.</p>
+
+
+<h3>It is Necessary to Learn to Swim</h3>
+
+<p>From the parents' point of view, nowhere that a boy's restless
+nature impels him to go is fraught with so much peril as the water,
+and nowhere is a boy happier than when he is on the water, unless<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+it is when he is in it. Nowhere can be found a better school
+for his young mind and body than that furnished by boating.
+Hence it appears to be the imperative duty for parents personally
+to see that their children are taught to swim as soon as their little
+limbs have strength enough to make the proper motions.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Boating-Clothes</h3>
+
+<p>In aquatic sports of all kinds, if you expect to have fun, you
+must dress appropriately. You should have a suit of old clothes
+that you can change for dry ones when the sport is over. When
+boating, it is nonsense to pretend you can keep dry under all the
+varying conditions of wind and weather. If your purse is small,
+and you want a good rowing-suit, it can be made of last winter's
+woollen underclothes, and will answer for the double purpose of
+rowing and bathing.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Make a Bathing-Suit</h3>
+
+<p>First take an old woollen undershirt and cut the sleeves off
+above the elbows. Then coax your mother, aunt, or sister to sew
+it up in front like a sweater, and hem the edges of the sleeves where
+they have just been cut off.</p>
+
+<p>Next take a pair of woollen drawers and have them sewed up in
+front, leaving an opening at the top about four inches in length;
+turn the top edge down all around to cover a piece of tape that
+should be long enough to tie in front. Have this hem or flap
+sewed down to cover the tape, and allow the two ends of the tape
+to protrude at the opening in front. The tape should not be
+sewed to the cloth, but should move freely, so that you can tighten
+or loosen it at will. Cut the drawers off at the knees and have
+the edges hemmed, and you will have a first-class bathing or
+rowing-suit.</p>
+
+<p>If woollen clothes are not to be had, cotton will do, but wool is
+coolest and warmest, as the occasion may require.</p>
+
+<p>When rowing wear old socks, woollen ones if you have them,
+and old shoes cut down like slippers. The latter can be kicked<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+off at a moment's notice, and, if lost, they are of no value, and
+may be easily replaced.</p>
+
+<p>When on shore a long pair of woollen stockings to cover your
+bare legs and a sweater to pull over your sleeveless shirt are handy
+and comfortable, but while sailing, paddling, or rowing in hot
+weather the rowing-suit is generally all that comfort requires.
+Of course, if your skin is tender, you are liable to be terribly sunburned
+on your arms, neck, and legs; but</p>
+
+
+<h3>Sunburn</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>may be avoided by gradually accustoming your limbs to the exposure.
+Dearly will you pay for your negligence if you go out
+for a day with bare arms or legs in the hot sun before you have
+toughened yourself, and little will you sleep that night.</div>
+
+<p>I have seen young men going to business the day following a
+regatta with no collars on their red necks, and no shirt over their
+soft undershirts, the skin being too tender to bear the touch of the
+stiff, starched linen, and I have known others who could not sleep
+a wink on account of the feverish state of their bodies, caused by
+the hot sun and a tender skin. Most boys have had some experience
+from sunburn, acquired while bathing. If care is taken
+to cover your arms and legs after about an hour's exposure, you
+will find that in place of being blistered, your skin will be first
+pink and then a faint brownish tint, which each succeeding exposure
+will deepen until your limbs will assume that dark, rich
+mahogany color of which athletes are so proud. This makes your
+skin proof against future attacks of the hottest rays of the sun.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the pain and discomfort of a sudden and bad sunburn
+on your arms, the effect is not desirable, as it is very liable to
+cover your arms with freckles. I have often seen men with
+beautifully bronzed arms and freckled shoulders, caused by
+going out in their shells first with short sleeves and then with
+shirts from which the sleeves were entirely cut away, exposing
+the white, tender shoulders to the fierce heat, to which they
+were unaccustomed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is a good plan to cover the exposed parts of your body with
+sweet-oil, vaseline, mutton-tallow, beef-tallow, or lard. This is
+good as a preventive while in the sun, and excellent as an application
+after exposure. Any sort of oil or grease that does not contain
+salt is good for your skin.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Clothes for Canoeing</h3>
+
+<p>In canoeing I have found it convenient to dress as I would in a
+shell boat, but I generally have had a sweater and a pair of long
+trousers stowed away, ready to be pulled on over my rowing-clothes
+when I landed. Once, when I neglected to put these
+extra clothes aboard, I was storm-bound up Long Island Sound,
+and, leaving my boat, I took the train home, but I did not enjoy
+my trip, for the bare legs and arms and knit cap attracted more
+attention than is pleasant for a modest man.</p>
+
+<p>Do not wear laced shoes in a canoe, for experience has taught
+boating-men that about the most inconvenient articles of clothing
+to wear in the water are laced shoes. While swimming your feet
+are of absolutely no use if incased in this style of foot-gear, and
+all the work must be done with the arms. But if you have old
+slippers, they may be kicked off, and then you are dressed practically
+in a bathing-suit, and can swim with comfort and ease.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly these precautions may suggest the idea that a ducking
+is not at all an improbable accident, and it must be confessed
+that the boy who thinks he can learn to handle small boats without
+an occasional unlooked-for swim is liable to discover his mistake
+before he has become master of his craft.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Stick to Your Boat</h3>
+
+<p>Always remember that a wet head is a very small object in
+the water, and liable to be passed by unnoticed, but that a
+capsized boat can scarcely fail to attract attention and insure a
+speedy rescue from an awkward position. As for the real danger
+of boating, it cannot be great where care is used. Not one fatality
+has occurred on the water, among all of my large circle of boating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+friends, and personally I have never witnessed a fatal accident in
+all the years I have spent rowing and sailing.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Life-Preservers</h3>
+
+<p>All canoes should have a good cork life-preserver in them when
+the owner ventures away from land. I never but once ventured
+any distance without one, and that is the only time I was ever in
+need of a life-preserver. The ordinary cork jacket is best. It
+can be used for a seat, and when spread on the bottom of your
+canoe, with an old coat or some article thrown over it for a cushion,
+it is not at all an uncomfortable seat. Most canoes have airtight
+compartments fore and aft&mdash;that is, at both ends&mdash;and the
+boat itself is then a good life-preserver. Even without the airtight
+compartments, unless your boat is loaded with ballast or
+freight, there is no danger of its sinking. A canvas canoe, as a
+rule, has enough woodwork about it to support your weight when
+the boat is full of water.</p>
+
+<p>An upset canvas canoe supported me for an hour and a half
+during a blow on Long Island Sound, and had not a passing
+steamer rescued me, the canoe would evidently have buoyed me
+up as long as I could have held on to the hull.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IX<br />
+<small>HOW TO RIG AND SAIL SMALL BOATS</small></h2>
+
+
+<h3>How to Make a Lee-Board for a Canoe</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> that the open canvas canoe has become so popular the
+demand has arisen for some arrangement by which it may be
+used with sails. Of course it is an easy matter to rig sails on almost
+any sort of craft, but unless there is a keel or a centreboard
+the boat will make lee-way, <i>i. e.</i>, it will have no hold on the water,
+and when you try to tack, the boat will blow sideways, which may
+be fraught with serious results. The only time that the author
+ever got in a serious scrape with his canoe, was when he carelessly
+sailed out in a storm, leaving the key to his fan centreboard at
+the boat-house. Being unable to let down the centreboard, he
+was eventually driven out to sea, and when he became too fatigued
+to move quickly was capsized.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 610px;"><a id="Fig_140_2"></a><a id="Fig_140a"></a>
+<img src="images/i_110.png" width="610" height="525" alt="drawings" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 140.&mdash;Lee-board.  Fig. 140<i>a</i>.&mdash;Bolt and thumb-screw.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now to prevent such occurrences and to do away with the inconvenience
+of the centreboard in an open canoe, various designs
+of lee-boards have been made. A lee-board is, practically speaking,
+a double centreboard. The paddle-like form of the blades
+of the boards given in <a href="#Fig_140_2">Fig. 140</a> give them a good hold on the
+water when they are below the surface, and they can also be allowed
+to swing clear of the water when temporarily out of use. Or
+they may be removed and stowed away in the canoe. As you
+see by the diagram the two blades are connected by a spruce
+rod; the blades themselves may be made of some hard wood,
+like cherry, and bevelled at the edges like a canoe-paddle.
+They should be a scant foot in width and a few inches over<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+two feet long, and cut out of three-quarter-inch material. The
+spruce cross-bar is about one and a half inch in diameter, the
+ends of which are thrust through a hole in the upper end of each
+lee-board. A small hole is bored in the top of each lee-board,
+down through the ends of the cross-board, and when a galvanized-iron
+pin is pushed down through this hole, it will prevent the bar
+from turning in its socket. A couple more galvanized-iron pins
+or bars fit in holes in the spruce cross-bar, as shown in the diagram
+(<a href="#Fig_140_2">Fig. 140</a>). At the top end of each of these metal bolts
+is a thumb-screw which runs down over the thread of the bolt.
+The bottom or lower end is bent at right angles that it may be
+fitted under the gunwale of the canoe, and tightened by twisting
+the thumb-screws. The advantage of this sort of arrangement
+is that the lee-boards may be slid backward or forward and so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+adjusted that the canoe will sail in the direction in which it is
+steered. The place where the lee-board is to be fastened can
+only be found by experiment. When it is too far toward the
+bow, the boat will show a desire to come up against the wind,
+thus making work for the steersman to keep the wind in the sails.
+If the lee-board is fastened too far toward the stern the canoe
+will show a decided determination to swing around with its stern
+to the wind, which is a dangerous trick for a well-trained craft to
+indulge in.</p>
+
+<p>I have seen open canvas canoes at the outfitting stores marked
+as low as seventeen dollars, but they usually cost twenty-five dollars
+or more, and I would advise ambitious canoeists to build
+their own canoes, and even to make their own lee-boards,
+although it would be cheaper to buy the latter.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Rig and Sail Small Boats</h3>
+
+<p>To have the tiller in one's own hands and feel competent, under
+all ordinary circumstances, to bring a boat safely into port,
+gives the same zest and excitement to a sail (only in a far greater
+degree) that the handling of the whip and reins over a lively
+trotter does to a drive.</p>
+
+<p>Knowing and feeling this, it was my intention to devote a couple
+of chapters to telling how to sail a boat; but through the kind
+courtesy of the editor of <i>The American Canoeist</i>, I am able
+to do much better by giving my readers a talk on this subject by
+one whose theoretical knowledge and practical experience renders
+him pre-eminently fit to give reliable advice and counsel. The
+following is what Mr. Charles Ledyard Norton, editor of the
+above-mentioned journal, says:</p>
+
+<p>Very many persons seem to ignore the fact that a boy who
+knows how to manage a gun is, upon the whole, less likely to be
+shot than one who is a bungler through ignorance, or that a good
+swimmer is less likely to be drowned than a poor one. Such,
+however, is the truth beyond question. If a skilled sportsman is
+now and then shot, or an expert swimmer drowned, the fault is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+not apt to be his own, and if the one who is really to blame had
+received proper training, it is not likely that the accident would
+have occurred at all. The same argument holds good with
+regard to the management of boats, and the author is confident
+that he merits the thanks of mothers, whether he receives them or
+not, for giving their boys a few hints as to practical rigging and
+sailing.</p>
+
+<p>In general, there are three ways of learning how to sail boats.
+First, from the light of nature, which is a poor way; second, from
+books, which is better; and third, from another fellow who knows
+how, which is best of all. I will try to make this article as much
+like the other fellow and as little bookish as possible.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, what I shall say in these few paragraphs will be
+of small use to those who live within reach of the sea or some
+big lake and have always been used to boats; but there are
+thousands and thousands of boys and men who never saw the
+sea, nor even set eyes on a sail, and who have not the least idea
+how to make the wind take them where they want to go. I once
+knew some young men from the interior who went down to the
+sea-side and hired a boat, with the idea that they had nothing to
+do but hoist the sail and be blown wherever they liked. The
+result was that they performed a remarkable set of man&oelig;uvres
+within sight of the boat-house, and at last went helplessly out to
+sea and had to be sent after and brought back, when they were
+well laughed at for their performances, and had reason to consider
+themselves lucky for having gotten off so cheaply.</p>
+
+<p>The general principles of sailing are as simple as the national
+game of "one ole cat." That is to say, if the wind always blew
+moderately and steadily, it would be as easy and as safe to sail a
+boat as it is to drive a steady old family horse of good and regular
+habits. The fact, however, is that winds and currents are variable
+in their moods, and as capable of unexpected freaks as
+the most fiery of unbroken colts; but when properly watched
+and humored they are tractable and fascinating playmates and
+servants.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now, let us come right down to first principles. Take a bit
+of pine board, sharpen it at one end, set up a mast about a
+quarter of the length of the whole piece from the bow, fit on a
+square piece of stiff paper or card for a sail, and you are ready
+for action. Put this in the water, with the sail set squarely
+across (A, <a href="#Fig_141">Fig. 141</a>), and she will run off before the wind&mdash;which
+is supposed to be blowing as indicated by the arrow&mdash;at a good
+rate of speed. If she does not steer herself, put a small weight
+near the stern, or square end; or, if you like, arrange a thin bit
+of wood for a rudder.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 496px;"><a id="Fig_141"></a>
+<img src="images/i_113.png" width="496" height="368" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 141. Lesson in sailing for beginners.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Probably the first primeval man who was born with nautical
+instincts discovered this fact, and, using a bush for a sail,
+greatly astonished his fellow primevals by winning some prehistoric
+regatta. But that was all he could do. He was as helpless
+as a balloonist is in midair. He could go, but he could not
+get back, and we may be sure that ages passed away before the
+possibility of sailing to windward was discovered.</p>
+
+<p>Now, put up or "step" another mast and sail like the first,
+about as far from the stern as the first is from the bow. Turn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+the two sails at an angle of forty-five degrees across the boat
+(B or C, <a href="#Fig_141">Fig. 141</a>) and set her adrift. She will make considerable
+progress across the course of the wind, although she will at
+the same time drift with it. If she wholly refuses to go in the
+right direction, place a light weight on her bow, so that she will
+be a little "down by the head," or move the aftermost mast and
+sail a little nearer to the stern.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 568px;"><a id="Fig_142"></a>
+<img src="images/i_114.png" width="568" height="274" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 142.&mdash;Tacking.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The little rude affair thus used for experiment will not actually
+make any progress to windward, because she is so light that she
+moves sidewise almost as easily as she does forward. With a
+larger, deeper boat, and with sails which can be set at any angle,
+the effect will be different. So long as the wind presses against
+the after side of the sail, the boat will move through the water in
+the direction of the least resistance, which is forward. A square
+sail having the mast in the middle was easiest to begin with for
+purposes of explanation; but now we will change to a "fore-and-aft"
+rig&mdash;that is, one with the mast at the forward edge or "luff"
+of the sail, as in <a href="#Fig_142">Fig. 142</a>. Suppose the sail to be set at the angle
+shown, and the wind blowing as the arrow points. The boat cannot
+readily move sidewise, because of the broadside resistance;
+she does not move backward, because the wind is pressing on the
+aftermost side of the sail. So she very naturally moves forward.
+When she nears buoy No. 1, the helmsman moves the "tiller," or
+handle of the rudder, toward the sail. This causes the boat to
+turn her head toward buoy No. 2, the sail swings across to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+other side of the boat and fills on that side, which now in turn becomes
+the aftermost, and she moves toward buoy No. 2 nearly at
+right angles to her former course. Thus, through a series of zigzags,
+the wind is made to work against itself. This operation is
+called "tacking," or "working to windward," and the act of turning,
+as at the buoys No. 1 and No. 2, is called "going about."</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen, then, that the science of sailing lies in being
+able to manage a boat with her head pointing at any possible
+angle to or from the wind. Nothing but experience can teach
+one all the niceties of the art, but a little aptitude and address will
+do to start with, keeping near shore and carrying little sail.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Simplest Rig Possible</h3>
+
+<p>I will suppose that the reader has the use of a broad, flat-bottomed
+boat without any rudder. (See <a href="#Fig_143">Fig. 143</a>.) She cannot
+be made to work like a racing yacht under canvas, but lots
+of fun can be had out of her.</p>
+
+<p>Do not go to any considerable expense at the outset. Procure
+an old sheet, or an old hay cover, six or eight feet square,
+and experiment with that before spending your money on new
+material. If it is a sheet, and somewhat weakly in its texture,
+turn all the edges in and sew them, so that it shall not give way
+at the hems. At each corner sew on a few inches of strong twine,
+forming loops at the angles. Sew on, also, eyelets or small loops
+along the edge which is intended for the luff of the sail, so that it
+can be laced to the mast.</p>
+
+<p>You are now ready for your spars, namely, a mast and a
+"sprit," the former a couple of feet longer than the luff of the sail,
+and the latter to be cut off when you find how long you want it.
+Let these spars be of pine, or spruce, or bamboo&mdash;as light as possible,
+especially the sprit. An inch and a half diameter will do
+for the mast, and an inch and a quarter for the sprit, tapering to
+an inch at the top. To "step" the mast, bore a hole through one
+of the thwarts (seats) near the bow and make a socket or step on
+the bottom of the boat, just under the aforesaid hole&mdash;or if anything<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+a trifle farther forward&mdash;to receive the foot of the mast.
+This will hold the mast upright, or with a slight "rake" aft.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 636px;"><a id="Fig_143"></a>
+<img src="images/i_116.png" width="636" height="404" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 143.&mdash;A simple rig.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Lace the luff of the sail to the mast so that its lower edge will
+swing clear by a foot or so of the boat's sides. Make fast to the
+loop at D a stout line, ten or twelve feet long. This is called the
+"sheet," and gives control of the sail. The upper end of the sprit,
+C, E, is trimmed so that the loop at C will fit over it but not slip
+down. The lower end is simply notched to receive a short line
+called a "snotter," as shown in the detailed drawing at the right of
+the cut (<a href="#Fig_143">Fig. 143</a>). It will be readily understood that, when the
+sprit is pushed upward in the direction of C, the sail will stand
+spread out. The line is placed in the notch at E and pulled up
+until the sail sets properly, when it is made fast to a cleat or to a
+cross-piece at F. This device is in common use and has its advantages,
+but a simple loop for the foot of the sprit to rest in is
+more easily made and will do nearly as well. H is an oar for
+steering. Having thus described the simplest rig possible, we
+may turn our attention to more elegant and elaborate but not
+always preferable outfits.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Leg-of-Mutton Rig</h3>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 201px;"><a id="Fig_144"></a>
+<img src="images/i_117.png" width="201" height="281" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 144.</div>
+</div>
+<p>One of the prettiest and most convenient rigs for a small
+boat is known as the "leg-of-mutton sharpie rig" (<a href="#Fig_144">Fig. 144</a>).
+The sail is triangular, and the sprit, instead of reaching to its
+upper corner, stands nearly at right angles to the mast. It is held
+in position at the mast by the devices already described. This
+rig has the advantage of keeping the whole sail flatter than any
+other, for the end of the sprit cannot "kick
+up," as the phrase goes, and so the sail holds
+all the wind it receives.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_145">Fig. 145</a> shows a device, published for the
+first time in the <i>St. Nicholas Magazine</i> for
+September, 1880, which enables the sailor to
+step and unstep his mast, and hoist or lower
+his sail without leaving his seat&mdash;a matter of
+great importance when the boat is light and
+tottlish, as in the case of that most beautiful
+of small craft, the modern canoe, where the
+navigator sits habitually amidships. The
+lower mast (A, B, <a href="#Fig_145">Fig. 145</a>) stands about two and a half feet
+above the deck. It is fitted at the head with a metal ferrule
+and pin, and just above the deck with two half-cleats or other
+similar devices (A). The topmast (C, D) is fitted at F with a
+stout ring, and has double halyards (E) rove through or around
+its foot. The lower mast being in position (see lower part of <a href="#Fig_145">Fig.
+145</a>), the canoeist desiring to make sail brings the boat's head to
+the wind, takes the topmast with the sail loosely furled in one
+hand and the halyards in the other. It is easy for him by raising
+this mast, without leaving his seat, to pass the halyards one on
+each side of the lower mast and let them fall into place close to the
+deck under the half-cleats at A. Then, holding the halyards taut
+enough to keep them in position, he will hook the topmast ring
+over the pin in the lower mast-heat and haul away (see top part
+of <a href="#Fig_145">Fig. 145</a>). The mast will rise into place, where it is made fast.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+A collar of leather, or a knob of some kind, placed on the topmast
+just below the ring, will act as a fulcrum when the halyards
+are hauled taut and keep the mast from working to and fro.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_145"></a>
+<img src="images/i_118.png" width="600" height="984" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 145.&mdash;A new device.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The advantages of the rig are obvious. The mast can be
+raised without standing up, and in case of necessity the halyards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+can be let go and the mast and sail unshipped and stowed below
+with the greatest ease and expedition, leaving only the short lower
+mast standing. A leg-of-mutton sail with a common boom along
+the foot is shown in the cut as the most easily illustrated application
+of the device, but there is no reason why it may not be applied
+to a sail of different shape, with a
+sprit instead of a boom, and a square
+instead of a pointed head.</p>
+
+<h3>The Latteen Rig</h3>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 402px;"><a id="Fig_146"></a>
+<img src="images/i_119.png" width="402" height="662" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 146.&mdash;The latteen rig.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is recommended only for boats which
+are "stiff"&mdash;not tottlish, that is. The
+fact that a considerable portion of the
+sail projects forward of the mast renders
+it awkward in case of a sudden shift of
+wind. Its most convenient form is
+shown in <a href="#Fig_146">Fig. 146</a>. The arrangement
+for shipping and unshipping the yard is
+precisely like that shown in <a href="#Fig_145">Fig. 145</a>&mdash;a
+short lower mast with a pin at the top
+and a ring fitted to the yard. It has a
+boom at the foot which is joined to the
+yard at C by means of a hook or a
+simple lashing, having sufficient play to allow the two spars to
+shut up together like a pair of dividers. The boom (C, E) has,
+where it meets the short lower mast, a half-cleat, or jaw, shown in
+detail at the bottom of the cut (<a href="#Fig_146">Fig. 146</a>), the circle representing a
+cross-section of the mast. This should be lashed to the boom, as
+screws or bolts would weaken it. To take in sail, the boatman brings
+the boat to the wind, seizes the boom and draws it toward him.
+This disengages it from the mast. He then shoves it forward, when
+the yard (C, D) falls of its own weight into his hands and can be
+at once lifted clear of the lower mast. To keep the sail flat, it is
+possible to arrange a collar on the lower mast so that the boom,
+when once in position, cannot slip upward and suffer the sail to bag.</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>The Cat-Rig</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>so popular on the North Atlantic coast, is indicated in <a href="#Fig_148">Fig. 148</a>.
+The spar at the head of the sail is called a "gaff," and, like the
+boom, it fits the mast with semicircular jaws. The sail is hoisted
+and lowered by means of halyards rove through a block near
+the mast-head. The mast is set in the bows&mdash;"Chock up in the
+eyes of her," as a sailor would say. A single leg-of-mutton sail will
+not work in this position, because the greater part of its area is
+too far forward of amidships. No rig is handier or safer than
+this in working to windward; but off the wind&mdash;running before,
+or nearly before it, that is&mdash;the weight of mast and sail, and the
+pressure of the wind at one side and far forward, make the boat
+very difficult and dangerous to steer. Prudent boatmen often
+avoid doing so by keeping the wind on the quarter and, as it were,
+tacking to leeward.</div>
+
+<p>This suggests the question of "jibing," an operation always
+to be avoided if possible. Suppose the wind to be astern, and the
+boat running nearly before it, it becomes necessary to change
+your course toward the side on which the sail is drawing. The
+safest way is to turn at first in the opposite direction, put the helm
+"down" (toward the sail), bring the boat up into the wind, turn
+her entirely around, and stand off on the new tack. This, however,
+is not always possible. Hauling in the sheet until the sail
+fills on the other side is "jibing"; but when this happens it goes
+over with a rush that sometimes carries mast and sheet or upsets
+the boat; hence the operation should be first undertaken in a light
+wind. It is necessary to know how to do it, for sometimes a sail
+insists upon jibing very unexpectedly, and it is best to be prepared
+for such emergencies.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Make a Sail</h3>
+
+<p>For the sails of small boats there is no better material than unbleached
+twilled cotton sheeting. It is to be had two and a half
+or even three yards wide. In cutting out your sail, let the selvage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+be at the "leech," or after-most edge. This, of course, makes it
+necessary to cut the luff and foot "bias," and they are very likely
+to stretch in the making, so that the sail will assume a different
+shape from what was intended. To avoid this, baste the hem
+carefully before sewing, and "hold in" a little to prevent fulling.
+It is a good plan to tack the material on the floor before cutting,
+and mark the outline of the sail with pencil. Stout tape stitched
+along the bias edges will make a sure thing of it, and the material
+can be cut, making due allowance for the hem. Better take
+feminine advice on this process. The hems should be half an
+inch deep all around, selvage and all, and it will do no harm to
+reinforce them with cord if you wish to make a thoroughly good
+piece of work.</p>
+
+<p>For running-rigging, nothing is better than laid or braided
+cotton cord, such as is used for awnings and sash-cords. If this
+is not easily procured, any stout twine will answer. It can be
+doubled and twisted as often as necessary. The smallest manila
+rope is rather stiff and unmanageable for such light sails as ours.</p>
+
+<p>In fitting out a boat of any kind, iron, unless galvanized, is
+to be avoided as much as possible, on account of its liability to
+rust. Use brass or copper instead.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Hints to Beginners</h3>
+
+<p>Nothing has been said about reefing thus far, because small
+boats under the management of beginners should not be afloat
+in a "reefing breeze." Reefing is the operation of reducing the
+spread of sail when the wind becomes too fresh. If you will look
+at <a href="#Fig_146">Fig. 146</a> you will see rows of short marks on the sail above the
+boom. These are "reef-points"&mdash;bits of line about a foot long
+passing through holes in the sail and knotted so that they will not
+slip. In reefing, the sail is lowered and that portion of it between
+the boom and the reef-points is gathered together, and the points
+are tied around both it and the boom. When the lower row of points
+is used it is a single reef. Both rows together are a double reef.</p>
+
+<p>Make your first practical experiment <i>with a small sail and</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+<i>with the wind blowing toward the shore</i>. Row out a little way,
+and then sail in any direction in which you can make the boat go,
+straight back to shore if you can, with the sail out nearly at right
+angles with the boat. Then try running along shore with the sheet
+hauled in a little and the sail on the side nearest the shore. You
+will soon learn what your craft can do, and will probably find that
+she will make very little, if any, headway to windward. This is
+partly because she slides sidewise over the water. To prevent it
+you may use a "lee-board"&mdash;namely,
+a broad board hung over
+the side of the boat (G, <a href="#Fig_143">Fig. 143</a>).
+This must be held by stout lines,
+as the strain upon it is very heavy.
+It should be placed a little forward
+of the middle of the boat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 496px;"><a id="Fig_147"></a>
+<img src="images/i_122.png" width="496" height="312" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 147.&mdash;Making port.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It must be on the side away from
+the wind&mdash;the lee side&mdash;and must
+be shifted when you go about. Keels and centreboards are
+permanent contrivances for the same purpose, but a lee-board
+answers very well as a makeshift, and is even used habitually
+by some canoeists and other boatmen.</p>
+
+<p>In small boats it is sometimes desirable to sit amidships,
+because sitting in the stern raises the bow too high out of water;
+steering may be done with an oar over the lee side, or with "yoke-lines"
+attached to a cross-piece on the rudder-head, or even to the
+tiller. In this last case the lines must be rove through rings or
+pulleys at the sides of the boat opposite the end of the tiller.
+When the handle of the oar (H, <a href="#Fig_143">Fig. 143</a>)&mdash;or the tiller (F, <a href="#Fig_146">Fig.
+146</a>) if a rudder is used&mdash;is pushed to the right, the boat will turn
+to the left, and <i>vice versa</i>. The science of steering consists in
+knowing when to push and how much to push&mdash;very simple, you
+see, in the statement, but not always so easy in practice.</p>
+
+<p>The sail should be so adjusted in relation to the rest of the
+boat that, when the sheet is hauled close in and made fast, the
+boat, if left to herself, will point her head to the wind like a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+weather-cock and drift slowly astern. If it is found that the
+sail is so far forward that she will not do this, the fault may be
+remedied by stepping the mast further aft or by rigging a small
+sail near the stern. This is called a "dandy" or "steering sail,"
+and is especially convenient in a boat whose size or arrangement
+necessitates sitting amidships. It may be rigged like the mainsail,
+and when its sheet is once made fast will ordinarily take care of
+itself in tacking.</p>
+
+<p>Remember that, if the wind freshens or a squall strikes you,
+the position of safety is with the boat's head to the wind. When
+in doubt what to do, push the helm down (toward the sail) and
+haul in the slack of the sheet as the boat comes up into the wind.
+If she is moving astern, or will not mind her helm&mdash;and of course
+she will not if she is not moving&mdash;pull her head around to the wind
+with an oar and experiment cautiously until you find which way
+you can make her go.</p>
+
+<p>In making a landing, always calculate to have the boat's
+head as near the wind as possible when she ceases to move,
+this whether you lower your sail or not.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, if the wind is off shore, as shown at A, <a href="#Fig_147">Fig. 147</a>, land
+at F or G, with the bow toward the shore. If the wind is from the
+direction of B, land at E, with the bow toward B or at F; if at the
+latter, the boom will swing away from the wharf and permit you
+to lie alongside. If the wind is from D, reverse these positions.
+If the wind comes from the direction of C, land either at F or G,
+with the bow pointing off shore.</p>
+
+<p>If you have no one to tell you what to do, you will have to
+feel your way slowly and learn by experience; but if you have
+nautical instincts you will soon make your boat do what you wish
+her to do as far as she is able. <i>But first learn to swim before you
+try to sail a boat.</i></p>
+
+<p>Volumes have been written on the subject treated in these few
+pages, and it is not yet exhausted. The hints here given are safe
+ones to follow, and will, it is hoped, be of service to many a young
+sailor in many a corner of the world.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER X<br />
+<small>MORE RIGS OF ALL KINDS FOR SMALL BOATS</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary1'>How to Distinguish between a Ship, Bark, Brig, and Schooner&mdash;Merits
+and Defects of Catboats&mdash;Advantages of the Sloop&mdash;Rigs
+for Canoes&mdash;Buckeyes and Sharpies</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> two principal rigs for vessels are the fore-and-aft and the
+square rig.</p>
+
+<p><b>Square rigged</b> consists in having the principal sails extended by
+yards suspended at the middle (<a href="#Fig_159">Fig. 159</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Fore-and-aft rigged</b> is having the principal sails extended by
+booms and gaffs suspended by their ends (<a href="#Fig_148">Figs. 148</a>, <a href="#Fig_149">149</a>, <a href="#Fig_150">150</a>,
+<a href="#Fig_156">156</a>, and <a href="#Fig_161">161</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Barks, brigs, and ships are all more or less square rigged, but
+schooners, sloops, and catboats are all fore-and-aft rigged. In
+these notes the larger forms of boats are mentioned only because
+of the well-known interest boys take in all nautical matters, but
+no detailed description of the larger craft will be given. All that
+is aimed at here is to give the salient points, so that the youngsters
+will know the name of the rig when they see it.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Cat</h3>
+
+<p>There is a little snub-nosed American who, in spite of her short
+body and broad waist, is deservedly popular among all our
+amateur sailors.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="drawings">
+<tr><td align="left"><div class="figleft" style="width: 260px;"><a id="Fig_148"></a>
+<img src="images/i_125a.png" width="260" height="283" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 148.&mdash;The snub-nosed
+American cat.</div>
+</div></td><td align="left"><div class="figright" style="width: 429px;"><a id="Fig_149"></a>
+<img src="images/i_125b.png" width="429" height="329" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 149.&mdash;Jib and mainsail.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p>The appreciation of her charms is felt and acknowledged by
+all her companions without envy, not because of her saucy looks,
+but on account of her accommodating manners.</p>
+
+<p>Possessing a rare ability for quick movement, and a wonderful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+power to bore her way almost into the very eye of the wind, or
+with double-reefed sail to dash through the storm or gently slide
+up alongside of a wharf or dock as easily as a rowboat, the American
+catboat, with her single mast "chock up in the eyes of her,"
+has made a permanent place for herself among our pleasure craft,
+and is omnipresent in our crowded bays and harbors.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 427px;"><a id="Fig_150"></a>
+<img src="images/i_125c.png" width="427" height="274" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 150.&mdash;Schooner rig for open boat.
+Boom on mainsail, none on foresail.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Knowing that there is little danger of the catboat losing its
+well-earned popularity, and being somewhat familiar with many
+of her peculiarities, I am free to say that this rig, notwithstanding
+its numerous good points, has many serious defects as a school-ship,
+and the beginner had better select some other rig with which
+to begin his practice sailing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 254px;"><a id="Fig_151"></a>
+<img src="images/i_125d.png" width="254" height="317" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 151.&mdash;The balance lug.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>First, the great sail is very heavy and difficult to hoist and reef.
+Second, in going before the wind there is constant danger of jibing,
+with serious results. Third, the catboat has a very bad habit
+of rolling when sailing before the wind, and each time the boat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+rolls from side to side she is liable to dip the end of her heavy
+boom in the water and "trip herself up." When a boat trips <i>up</i>
+she does not necessarily go <i>down</i>, but she is likely to upset, placing
+the young sailors in an unenviable, if not a dangerous, position.
+Fourth, when the craft begins to swagger before the wind she is
+liable to "goose-neck"; that is, throw her boom up against the
+mast, which is another accident fraught with the possibilities of
+serious mischief.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="drawings">
+<tr><td align="left"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 214px;"><a id="Fig_152"></a>
+<img src="images/i_126a.png" width="214" height="265" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 152.&mdash;Standing lug.</div>
+</div></td><td align="left"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 332px;"><a id="Fig_153"></a>
+<img src="images/i_126b.png" width="332" height="272" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 153.&mdash;Leg-of-mutton sail.
+Jib and main sail rig.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The catboat has no bowsprit, no jib, and no topsail (<a href="#Fig_148">Fig. 148</a>),
+but that most graceful of all single-stickers,</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Sloop</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>possesses several jibs, a bowsprit, and topsail. Besides these,
+when she is in racing trim, a number of additional sails are used.
+All our great racers are sloops, and this rig is the most convenient
+for small yachts and cutters.</div>
+
+<h3>Racing Sloops</h3>
+
+<p>A racing sloop (<a href="#Fig_161">Fig. 161</a>) carries a mainsail, A, a fore staysail,
+B, a jib, C, a gaff topsail, D, a club topsail, E, a baby jib topsail,
+F, a No. 2 jib topsail, G, a No. 1 jib topsail, H, a balloon jib topsail,
+J (<a href="#Fig_157">Fig. 157</a>), and a spinnaker, K (<a href="#Fig_157">Fig. 157</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_154"></a><a id="Fig_155"></a><a id="Fig_156"></a><a id="Fig_157"></a><a id="Fig_158"></a><a id="Fig_159"></a><a id="Fig_160"></a><a id="Fig_161"></a>
+<img src="images/i_127.png" width="600" height="427" alt="drawings" />
+<div class="caption">Figs. 154-161.&mdash;Rigs that we meet at sea.</div>
+</div>
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_127-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Jib and Mainsail</h3>
+
+<p>A small sloop's sails are a mainsail, jib, and topsail. A sloop
+rig without topsail is called a jib and mainsail (<a href="#Fig_149">Fig. 149</a>).</p>
+
+<p>While every small-boat sailor should know a catboat and a
+sloop when he sees them, and even be able to give the proper name
+to their sails, neither of these rigs is very well suited for canoes,
+sharpies, or other boats of the mosquito fleet; but the</p>
+
+
+<h3>Schooner Rig</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class='unindent'>which is the form of boat generally used for the larger yachts,
+is also very much used for open boats. As you can see, by referring
+to <a href="#Fig_150">Fig. 150</a>, the schooner rig consists of a bowsprit, fore and
+main mast, with their appropriate sails. Lately freight schooners
+have appeared with four or more masts. For small boats two
+adjustable masts and an adjustable bowsprit, as described in the
+Rough and Ready, Chapter XIII, are best. The sails may be
+sprit sails, Figs. 164-169; balance lug, <a href="#Fig_151">Fig. 151</a>; standing lug, <a href="#Fig_152">Fig.
+152</a>; leg-of-mutton, <a href="#Fig_153">Fig. 153</a>, or the sliding gunter, <a href="#Fig_163">Fig. 163</a>.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 344px;"><a id="Fig_162"></a>
+<img src="images/i_128a.png" width="344" height="327" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 162.&mdash;The buckeye.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 413px;"><a id="Fig_163"></a>
+<img src="images/i_128b.png" width="413" height="258" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 163.&mdash;The sliding gunter.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the chapter on how to build the Rough and Ready, the sprit
+sail is depicted and fully described.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Balance Lug</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>comes as near the square sail of a ship as any canvas used on
+small boats, but you can see, by referring to the diagram, <a href="#Fig_151">Fig. 151</a>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+that the leach and the luff are not parallel and that the gaff hangs
+at an angle. To boom out the canvas and make it sit flat there
+are three sticks extended across the sail from the front to the
+back, luff to leach, called battens. This has caused some people
+to call this a batten lug. Like the lateen sail, part of the balance
+lug hangs before the mast and serves the purpose of a jib. This
+rig is said to be easily managed and to possess good sailing qualities.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 335px;"><a id="Fig_164"></a>
+<img src="images/i_129a.png" width="335" height="261" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 164.&mdash;Sharpie with sprit and
+club leg-of-mutton sails.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 528px;"><a id="Fig_165"></a><a id="Fig_166"></a>
+<img src="images/i_129b.png" width="528" height="409" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Showing detail of sprit club sail.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Standing Lug</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is another sail approaching the square in pattern (<a href="#Fig_152">Fig. 152</a>), and,
+as any novice can see, is a good canvas with which to scud before
+the wind. It is very convenient for open boats built to be propelled
+by paddles. While the standing lug cannot point up to the
+eye of the wind like a schooner or cat, it is very fast on the wind
+or when running with the wind astern. Probably the safest form
+of sail used is the old reliable</div>
+
+
+<h3>Leg-of-Mutton Sail</h3>
+
+<p>This is used by the fishermen on their stanch little dories away
+up on the coast of Maine, and by the "tide-water" people in their
+"buckeyes" on Chesapeake Bay. The latter boat is very little
+known outside of the locality where it makes its home, but, like
+the New Haven sharpies, it is very popular in its own waters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>The Buckeye</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>or "bugeye," as it is sometimes vulgarly called, has a great reputation
+for speed and sea-going qualities. When it cannot climb
+a wave it goes through it. This makes a wet boat in heavy
+weather, but when you travel at a high rate of speed you can endure
+a wet jacket with no complaint, especially when you feel
+that, in spite of the fast-sailing qualities of this boat, it is considered
+a particularly safe craft.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 174px;"><a id="Fig_167"></a>
+<img src="images/i_130a.png" width="174" height="276" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 167.&mdash;Plain sprit
+leg-of-mutton.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a id="Fig_168"></a><a id="Fig_169"></a>
+<img src="images/i_130b.png" width="500" height="257" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Another form of the sprit sail.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The construction of a <b>buckeye</b> (<a href="#Fig_162">Fig. 162</a>) has been evolved from
+the old dugout canoe of the Indians and the first white settlers.
+America was originally covered with vast forests of immense trees.
+Remnants of these forests still exist in a few localities. It was
+once possible to make a canoe of almost any dimensions desired,
+but now in the thickly settled regions big trees are scarce.</p>
+
+<p>So the Chesapeake Bay boat-builders, while still adhering to the
+old dugout, have overcome the disadvantage of small logs by
+using more than one and bolting the pieces together. Masts and
+sails have been added, and since the increased proportions made
+it impracticable to drag such a craft on the beach when in port,
+anchors and cables are supplied. Two holes bored, one on each
+side of the stem, for the cables to run through, have given the
+boat the appearance of having eyes, and as the eyes are large and
+round, the negroes called them buckeyes, and this is now the
+name by which all such craft are known.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At first only two masts with leg-of-mutton sails were used, but
+now they have a jib and two sails. With the greatest width or
+beam about one-third the distance from bow to stern, sharp at
+both ends, its long, narrow, and heavy hull is easily driven through
+the water and makes both a fast and stiff boat.</p>
+
+<p>The buckeye travels in shallow as well as deep waters, and
+hence is a centreboard boat, but there is nothing unnecessary on
+the real buckeye&mdash;no overhanging bow or stern, for that means
+additional labor; no stays to the masts, for the same reason. The
+lack of stays to stiffen the masts leaves them with "springiness,"
+which in case of a sudden squall helps to spill the wind and prevents
+what might otherwise be a "knock-down."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 381px;"><a id="Fig_170"></a>
+<img src="images/i_131a.png" width="381" height="231" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 170.&mdash;Lug rig with jigger.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>The foremast is longer than the mainmast and does not rake
+aft so much, but the mainmast has a decided rake, which the colored
+sailors say makes the boat faster on the wind. Sometimes
+in the smaller boats the mainmast can be set upright when going
+before the wind.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;"><a id="Fig_171"></a>
+<img src="images/i_131b.png" width="420" height="251" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 171.&mdash;Lug rig with jigger and jib.</div>
+</div>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 126px;"><a id="Fig_172"></a>
+<img src="images/i_132a.png" width="126" height="171" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 172.&mdash;Jib.</div>
+</div>
+<p>Wealthy gentlemen on the Chesapeake are now building regularly
+equipped yachts on the buckeye plan, and some of them
+are quite large boats. A correspondent of the <i>Forest and Stream</i>,
+in speaking of the buckeye, says:</p>
+
+<p>"Last summer I cruised in company with a buckeye, forty-two
+feet long, manned by two gentlemen of Baltimore city. She drew
+twenty inches without the board. In sudden and heavy flaws she
+was rarely luffed. She would lie over and appear to spill the wind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+out of her tall, sharp sails and then right again. Her crew took
+pleasure in tackling every sailing craft for a race; nothing under
+seventy feet in length ever beat her. She steered under any two
+of her three sails. On one occasion this craft, on her way from
+Cape May to Cape Charles, was driven out to sea before a heavy
+north-west blow. Her crew, the aforesaid gentlemen, worn out by
+fatigue, hove her to and went to sleep. She broke her tiller lashing
+during the night, and when they awoke she was pegging away
+on a south-east course under her jib. They put her about, and in
+twenty hours were inside Cape Henry, pretty well tired out. Buckeyes
+frequently run from Norfolk to New York with fruit. For
+shallow waters, I am satisfied there is no better craft afloat.
+Built deep, with a loaded keel, they would rival the English cutter
+in seaworthiness and speed."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 336px;"><a id="Fig_173"></a>
+<img src="images/i_132b.png" width="336" height="169" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 173.&mdash;Sprit sail, schooner rig, with dandy.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the hardy, bold fishermen of our Eastern States and the
+brave fishermen down South both use the leg-of-mutton sail,
+beginners cannot object to using it while practising; knowing that
+even if it is a safe sail, it cannot be called a "baby rig." Another
+safe rig, differing little from the leg-of-mutton, is the</p>
+
+
+<h3>Sliding Gunter</h3>
+
+<p>In this rig the sail is laced to a yard which slides up or down
+the mast by means of two iron hooks or travellers (<a href="#Fig_163">Fig. 163</a>). No
+sail with a narrow-pointed top is very serviceable before the wind,
+and the sliding gunter is no exception to the rule. But it is useful
+on the wind, and can be reefed easily and quickly, qualities which
+make it many friends.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the smooth, shallow waters along the coast of North Carolina
+may be seen the long, flat-bottomed</p>
+
+
+<h3>Sharpies</h3>
+
+<p>Without question they are to be ranked among the fastest boats
+we have. These boats are rigged with a modification of the leg-of-mutton
+sail. The ends of the sprit in the foresail project at the
+luff and leach. At the luff it is fastened to the mast by a line like
+a snotter at the leach. It is fastened to a stick sewed into the sail,
+called a club. The sheet is attached to the end of the sprit
+(Figs. 164-168).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 247px;"><a id="Fig_174"></a>
+<img src="images/i_133a.png" width="247" height="157" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 174.&mdash;Sprit sail jib and dandy.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>The Sprit Leg-of-Mutton Sail</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>has this advantage, that the clew of the sail is much higher than
+the tack, thus avoiding the danger of dipping the clew in the water
+and tripping the boat.</div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 261px;"><a id="Fig_175"></a>
+<img src="images/i_133b.png" width="261" height="181" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 175.&mdash;The lateen rig with dandy.</div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>The Dandy Jigger, or Mizzen Rig</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is named after the small sail aft, near the rudder-head. This
+jigger, mizzen, or dandy may have a boom, a sprit, or be rigged
+as a lug. (See <a href="#Fig_170">Figs. 170</a>, <a href="#Fig_171">171</a>, <a href="#Fig_173">173</a>, <a href="#Fig_174">174</a>, <a href="#Fig_175">175</a>, <a href="#Fig_178">178</a>, <a href="#Fig_180">180</a>, and <a href="#Fig_184">184</a>,
+which show the principal mizzen rigs in use.)</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_176"></a><a id="Fig_177"></a><a id="Fig_178"></a><a id="Fig_179"></a><a id="Fig_180"></a><a id="Fig_181"></a><a id="Fig_182"></a><a id="Fig_183"></a><a id="Fig_184"></a>
+<img src="images/i_134.png" width="600" height="715" alt="drawings of ships" />
+<div class="caption">Figs. 176-184.&mdash;Hybrid rigs for small boats; also two useful tackles.</div></div>
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_134-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+<p>In puffy wind and lumpy water the main and mizzen rig will
+be found to work well. The little sail aft should be trimmed as
+flat as possible. It will be found of great help in beating to the
+windward, and will keep the nose of the boat facing the wind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a><br /><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+when the mainsail is down. Different rigs are popular in different
+localities. For instance:</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Lateen Rig</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is very popular in some parts of the Old World, yet it has only
+few friends here. It may be because of my art training that I feel
+so kindly toward this style of sail, or it may be from association in
+my mind of some of the happiest days of my life with a little black
+canoe rigged with lateen sails. At any rate, in spite of the undeniable
+fact that the lateen is unpopular, I never see a small boat
+rigged in this style without a feeling of pleasure. The handy little
+stumps of masts end in a spike at the top and are adorned by
+the beautiful sails lashed to slender spars, which, by means of
+metal rings, are lightly, but securely, fastened to the mast by
+simply hooking the ring over the spike. I freely acknowledge that
+when the sails are lowered and you want to use your paddle the
+lateen sails are in your way. It is claimed that they are awkward
+to reef, and this may be true. I never tried it. When the wind
+was too strong for my sails I made port or took in either the large
+or the small sail, as the occasion seemed to demand.</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Ship</h3>
+
+<p>When you are out sailing and see a vessel with three masts, all
+square rigged, you are looking at a ship proper, though ship is a
+word often used loosely for any sort of a boat (<a href="#Fig_159">Fig. 159</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The bark</b> is a vessel with square-rigged foremast and mainmast
+and a fore-and-aft rigged mizzen-mast (<a href="#Fig_160">Fig. 160</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The brig</b> is a vessel with only two masts, both of which are
+square rigged (<a href="#Fig_158">Fig. 158</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The brigantine</b> has two masts&mdash;foremast square rigged and
+mainmast fore-and-aft rigged (<a href="#Fig_155">Fig. 155</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The barkentine</b> has three masts&mdash;mainmast and mizzen-mast
+fore-and-aft rigged and foremast square rigged. (See <a href="#Fig_154">Fig. 154</a>.)</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XI<br />
+<small>KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES</small></h2>
+
+
+<div class='summary2'>How to Tie Knots Useful on Both Land and Water</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> art of tying knots is an almost necessary adjunct to not a
+few recreations. Especially is this true of summer sports, many
+of which are nautical or in some manner connected with the water.</p>
+
+<p>Any boy who has been aboard a yacht or a sail-boat must have
+realized that the safety of the vessel and all aboard may be imperilled
+by ignorance or negligence in the tying of a knot or fastening
+of a rope.</p>
+
+<p>With some the knack of tying a good, strong knot in a heavy
+rope or light cord seems to be a natural gift; it is certainly a very
+convenient accomplishment, and one that with practice and a
+little perseverance may be acquired even by those who at first
+make the most awkward and bungling attempts.</p>
+
+<p>A bulky, cumbersome knot is not only ungainly, but is generally
+insecure.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, the strength of a knot is in direct proportion to its neat
+and handsome appearance.</p>
+
+<p>To my mind it is as necessary that the archer should know how
+to make the proper loops at the end of his bow-string as it is that
+a hunter should understand how to load his gun.</p>
+
+<p>Every fisherman should be able to join two lines neatly and securely,
+and should know the best and most expeditious method
+of attaching an extra hook or fly; and any boy who rigs up a hammock
+or swing with a "granny" or other insecure knot deserves
+the ugly tumble and sore bones that are more than liable to result
+from his ignorance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A knot, nautically speaking, is a "bend" that is more permanent
+than a "hitch." A knot properly tied never slips, nor
+does it jam so that it cannot be readily untied. A "hitch" might
+be termed a temporary bend, as it is seldom relied upon for permanent
+service. The "hitch" is so made that it can be cast off
+or unfastened more quickly than a knot.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible for the brightest boy to learn to make "knots,
+bends, and hitches" by simply reading over a description of the
+methods; for, although he may understand them at the time,
+five minutes after reading the article the process will have escaped
+his memory. But if he take a piece of cord or rope and sit down
+with the diagrams in front of him, he will find little difficulty in
+managing the most complicated knots; and he will not only acquire
+an accomplishment from which he can derive infinite amusement
+for himself and a means of entertainment for others, but the
+knowledge gained may, in case of accident by fire or flood, be the
+means of saving both life and property.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying diagrams show a number of useful and
+important bends, splices, etc. To simplify matters, let us commence
+with <a href="#Fig_57">Fig. 57</a>, and go through the diagrams in the order in
+which they come:</p>
+
+<p>The "English" or "common single fisherman's knot" (<a href="#Fig_185">Fig.
+185</a>, I) is neat and strong enough for any ordinary strain. The
+diagram shows the knots before being tightened and drawn together.</p>
+
+<p>When exceptional strength is required it can be obtained by
+joining the lines in the ordinary single fisherman's knot (<a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, I)
+and pulling each of the half knots as tight as possible, then drawing
+them within an eighth of an inch of each other and wrapping
+between with fine gut that has been previously softened in water,
+or with light-colored silk.</p>
+
+<p>An additional line or a sinker may be attached by tying a knot
+in the end of the extra line and inserting it between the parts of
+the single fisherman's knot before they are drawn together and
+tightened.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_185"></a>
+<img src="images/i_138.png" width="600" height="746" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 185.&mdash;Some useful knots.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The "fisherman's double half knot," <a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a> (II and III).
+After the gut has been passed around the main line and through
+itself, it is passed around the line once more and through the same
+loop again and drawn close.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a> (IV, V, and IX). Here are three methods of joining
+the ends of two lines together; the diagrams explain them
+much better than words can. Take a piece of string, try each
+one, and test their relative strength.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a> (VI). It often happens, while fishing, that a hook is
+caught in a snag or by some other means lost. The diagram
+shows the most expeditious manner of attaching another hook
+by what is known as the "sinker hitch," described further on
+(<a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, D, D, D, and <a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XIV, XV, and XVI).</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, VII is another and more secure method of attaching
+a hook by knitting the line on with a succession of half-hitches.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Make a Horse-Hair Watch-Guard</h3>
+
+<p>The same hitches are used in the manufacture of horse-hair
+watch-guards, much in vogue with the boys in some sections of
+the country. As regularly as "kite-time," "top-time," or "ball-time,"
+comes "horse-hair watch-guard time."</p>
+
+<p>About once a year the rage for making watch-guards used to
+seize the boys of our school, and by some means or other almost
+every boy would have a supply of horse-hair on hand. With the
+first tap of the bell for recess, some fifty hands would dive into
+the mysterious depths of about fifty pockets, and before the bell
+had stopped ringing about fifty watch-guards, in a more or less incomplete
+state, would be produced.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever a teamster's unlucky stars caused him to stop near
+the school-house, a chorus of voices greeted him with "Mister,
+please let us have some hair from your horses' tails."</p>
+
+<p>The request was at first seldom refused, possibly because its
+nature was not at the time properly understood; but lucky was
+the boy considered who succeeded in pulling a supply of hair
+from the horses' tails without being interrupted by the heels of
+the animals or by the teamster, who, when he saw the swarm of
+boys tugging at his horses' tails, generally repented his first good-natured
+assent, and with a gruff, "Get out, you young rascals!"
+sent the lads scampering to the school-yard fence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Select a lot of long hair of the color desired; make it into a
+switch about an eighth of an inch thick by tying one end in a
+simple knot. Pick out a good, long hair and tie it around the
+switch close to the knotted end; then take the free end of the single
+hair in your right hand and pass it under the switch on one side,
+thus forming a loop through which the end of the hair must pass
+after it is brought up and over from the other side of the switch.
+Draw the knot tight by pulling the free end of the hair as shown
+by <a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, VII. Every time this operation is repeated a wrap
+and a knot is produced. The knots follow each other in a spiral
+around the switch, giving it a very pretty, ornamented appearance.
+When one hair is used up select another and commence knitting
+with it as you did with the first, being careful to cover and conceal
+the short end of the first hair, and to make the knots on the second
+commence where the former stop. A guard made of white
+horse-hair looks as if it might be composed of spun glass, and produces
+a very odd and pretty effect. A black one is very genteel
+in appearance. These ornaments are much prized by cowboys,
+and I have seen bridles for horses made of braided horsehair.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Miscellaneous</h3>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, VIII shows a simple and expeditous manner of attaching
+a trolling-hook to a fish-line.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, F is a hitch used on shipboard, or wherever lines
+and cables are used. It is called the Blackwall hitch.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, E is a fire-escape made of a double bow-line knot,
+useful as a sling for hoisting persons up or letting them down from
+any high place; the window of a burning building, for instance.
+<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XVIII, XIX, and XX show how this knot is made. It
+is described on <a href="#Page_77">page 77</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, A is a "bale hitch," made of a loop of rope. To make
+it, take a piece of rope that has its two ends joined; lay the rope
+down and place the bale on it; bring the loop opposite you up, on
+that side of the bale, and the loop in front up, on the side of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+bale next to you; thrust the latter loop under and through the first
+and attach the hoisting rope. The heavier the object to be lifted,
+the tighter the hitch becomes. An excellent substitute for a shawl-strap
+can be made of a cord by using the bale hitch, the loop at
+the top being a first-rate handle.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, B is called a cask sling, and C (<a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>) is called a
+butt sling. The manner of making these last two and their uses
+may be seen by referring to the illustration. It will be noticed
+that a line is attached to the bale hitch in a peculiar manner
+(<i>a</i>, <a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>). This is called the "anchor bend." If while
+aboard a sail-boat you have occasion to throw a bucket over for
+water, you will find the anchor bend a very convenient and safe
+way to attach a line to the bucket handle, but unless you are an
+expert you will need an anchor hitched to your body or you will
+follow the bucket.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, I and II are loops showing the elements of the simplest
+knots.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, III is a simple knot commenced.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, IV shows the simple knot tightened.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, V and VI show how the Flemish knot looks when
+commenced and finished.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, VII and VIII show a "rope knot" commenced and
+finished.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, IX is a double knot commenced.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, X is the same completed.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XI shows a back view of the double knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XII is the first loop of a "bow-line knot." One end
+of the line is supposed to be made fast to some object. After the
+turn, or loop (<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XII), is made, hold it in position with your
+left hand and pass the end of the line up through the loop, or turn,
+you have just made, behind and over the line above, then down
+through the loop again, as shown in the diagram (<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XIII);
+pull it tight and the knot is complete. The "sinker hitch" is a
+very handy one to know, and the variety of uses it may be put to
+will be at once suggested by the diagrams.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 519px;"><a id="Fig_186"></a>
+<img src="images/i_142.png" width="519" height="800" alt="drawings of knots" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 186.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Lines that have both ends made fast may have weights attached
+to them by means of the sinker hitch (<a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, D, D, D).</p>
+
+<p>To accomplish this, first gather up some slack and make it in
+the form of the loop (<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XIV); bend the loop back on itself
+(<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XV) and slip the weight through the double loop thus
+formed (<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XVI); draw tight by pulling the two top lines,
+and the sinker hitch is finished (<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XVII).</p>
+
+<p>The "fire-escape sling" previously mentioned, and illustrated
+by <a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, E, is made with a double line.</p>
+
+<p>Proceed at first as you would to make a simple bow-line knot
+(<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XVIII).</p>
+
+<p>After you have run the end loop up through the turn (<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>,
+XIX), bend it downward and over the bottom loop and turn, then
+up again until it is in the position shown in <a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XX; pull it
+downward until the knot is tightened, as in <a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, E, and it
+makes a safe sling in which to lower a person from any height.
+The longer loop serves for a seat, and the shorter one, coming
+under the arms, makes a rest for the back.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXI is called a "boat knot," and is made with the
+aid of a stick. It is an excellent knot for holding weights which
+may want instant detachment. To detach it, lift the weight
+slightly and push out the stick, and instantly the knot is untied.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXII. Commencement of a "six-fold knot."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXIII. Six-fold knot completed by drawing the
+two ends with equal force. A knot drawn in this manner is said
+to be "nipped."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXIV. A simple hitch or "double" used in making
+loop knots.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXV. "Loop knot."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXVI shows how the loop knot is commenced.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXVII is the "Dutch double knot," sometimes called
+the "Flemish loop."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXVIII shows a common "running knot."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXIX. A running knot with a check knot to hold.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXX. A running knot checked.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 368px;"><a id="Fig_186_5"></a>
+<img src="images/i_144t.png" width="368" height="572" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 186½.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXXI. The right-hand part of the rope shows how
+to make the double loop for the "twist knot." The left-hand
+part of the same rope shows a finished twist knot. It is made
+by taking a half turn on both the right-hand and left-hand lines
+of the double loop and passing the end through the "bight"
+(loop) so made.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Whiplashes</h3>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXXII is called the "chain knot," which is often
+used in braiding leather whiplashes. To make a "chain knot,"
+fasten one end of the thong, or line; make a simple loop and pass
+it over the left hand; retain hold of the free end with the right
+hand; with the left hand seize the line above the right hand and
+draw a loop through the loop already formed; finish the knot by
+drawing it tight with the left hand. Repeat the operation until the
+braid is of the required length, then secure it by passing the free
+end through the last loop.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXXIII shows a double chain knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXXIV is a double chain knot pulled out. It shows
+how the free end is thrust through the last loop.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXXV. Knotted loop for end of rope, used to prevent
+the end of the rope from slipping, and for various other
+purposes.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Splices, Timber-Hitches, etc.</h3>
+
+<p>Although splices may not be as useful to boys as knots and
+hitches, for the benefit of those among my readers who are interested
+in the subject, I have introduced a few bands and splices
+on the cables partly surrounding <a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>½.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>a</i> shows the knot and upper side of a "simple band."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>b</i> shows under side of the same.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> show a tie with cross-ends. To hold the ends
+of the cords, a turn is taken under the strands.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_187"></a>
+<img src="images/i_146t.png" width="600" height="323" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 187.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>e</i> and <i>f</i>: Bend with cross-strands, one end looped
+over the other.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>g</i> shows the upper side of the "necklace tie."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>h</i> shows the under side of the same. The advantage
+of this tie is that the greater the strain on the cords, the tighter
+it draws the knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>i</i> and <i>j</i> are slight modifications of <i>g</i> and <i>h</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>p</i> shows the first position of the end of the ropes for
+making the splice <i>k</i>. Untwist the strands and put the ends of two
+ropes together as close as possible, and place the strands of the one
+between the strands of the other alternately, so as to interlace, as
+in <i>k</i>. This splice should only be used when there is not time to
+make the "long splice," as the short one is not very strong.</p>
+
+<p>From <i>l</i> to <i>m</i> is a long splice, made by underlaying the strands
+of each of the ropes joined about half the length of the splice, and
+putting each strand of the one between two of the other; <i>q</i> shows
+the strands arranged for the long splice.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a> <i>n</i> is a simple mode of making a hitch on a rope.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>o</i> is a "shroud knot."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>r</i> shows a very convenient way to make a handle on
+a rope, and is used upon large ropes when it is necessary for
+several persons to take hold to pull.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, A. Combination of half-hitch and timber-hitch.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, B. Ordinary half-hitch.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, C. Ordinary timber-hitch.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, D. Another timber-hitch, called the "clove-hitch."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, E. "Hammock-hitch," used for binding bales of
+goods or cloth.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, F. "Lark-head knot," used by sailors and boatmen
+for mooring their crafts.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, P shows a lark-head fastening to a running knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, G is a double-looped lark-head.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, H shows a double-looped lark-head knot fastened to
+the ring of a boat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"><a id="Fig_187_5"></a>
+<img src="images/i_148.png" width="700" height="531" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 187½.&mdash;Timber-hitches, etc.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, I is a "treble lark-head." To make it you must first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a><br /><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+tie a single lark-head, then divide the two heads and use each
+singly, as shown in the diagram.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, J shows a simple boat knot with one turn.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, K. "Crossed running knot." It is a strong and
+handy tie, not as difficult to make as it appears to be.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, L is the bow-line knot, described by the diagrams
+XII and XIII (<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>). The free end of the knot is made fast
+by binding it to the "bight," or the loop. It makes a secure sling
+for a man to sit in at his work among the rigging.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, M, N, and O. "Slip clinches," or "sailors' knots."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, Q shows a rope fastened by the chain-hitch. The
+knot at the left-hand end explains a simple way to prevent a rope
+from unravelling.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, R. A timber-hitch; when tightened the line binds
+around the timber so that it will not slip.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, S. Commencement of simple lashing knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, T. Simple lashing knot finished.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, U. "Infallible loop;" not properly a timber-hitch,
+but useful in a variety of ways, and well adapted for use in archery.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, V. Same as R, reversed. It looks like it might give
+way under a heavy strain, but it will not.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, W. Running knot with two ends.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, X. Running knot with a check knot that can only
+be opened with a marline-spike.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, Y. A two-ended running knot with a check to the
+running loops. This knot can be untied by drawing both ends
+of the cord.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, Z. Running knot with two ends, fixed by a double
+Flemish knot. When you wish to encircle a timber with this
+tie, pass the ends on which the check knot is to be through the
+cords before they are drawn tight. This will require considerable
+practice.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>a</i> shows an ordinary twist knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>a</i><sup>1</sup> shows the form of loop for builder's knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>b</i>. Double twist knot.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>c</i>. Builder's knot finished.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>d</i> represents a double builder's knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>e</i>. "Weaver's knot," same as described under the
+head of Becket hitch (<a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, V).</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>f</i>. Weaver's knot drawn tight.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>g</i> shows how to commence a reef knot. This is
+useful for small ropes; with ropes unequal in size the knot is
+likely to draw out of shape, as <i>m</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>h</i> shows a reef knot completed.</p>
+
+<p>Of all knots, avoid the "granny"; it is next to useless under a
+strain, and marks the tier as a "landlubber."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>i</i> shows a granny knot; <i>n</i> shows a granny under strain.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>j</i> shows the commencement of a common "rough
+knot."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>k</i>. The front view of finished knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>l</i>. The back view of finished knot. Although this
+knot will not untie nor slip, the rope is likely to part at one side
+if the strain is great. Awkward as it looks, this tie is very useful
+at times on account of the rapidity with which it can be made.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>o</i> and <i>p</i>. Knot commenced and finished, used for
+the same purposes as the Flemish knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>q</i> and <i>q</i><sup>1</sup>. An ordinary knot with ends used separately.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>s</i>. Sheep-shank, or dog-shank as it is sometimes
+called, is very useful in shortening a line. Suppose, for instance,
+a swing is much longer than necessary, and you wish to shorten
+it without climbing aloft to do so, it can be done with a sheep-shank.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>r</i> shows the first position of the two loops. Take two
+half hitches, and you have a bend of the form shown by <i>s</i>. Pull
+tightly from above and below the shank, and you will find that
+the rope is shortened securely enough for ordinary strain.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>t</i>. Shortening by loop and turns made where the end
+of the rope is free.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>u</i>. A shortened knot that can be used when either
+end is free.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>v</i>, <i>w</i>, and <i>x</i>. Shortening knots.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>y</i> and <i>z</i>. A "true lover's knot," and the last one that
+you need to practise on, for one of these knots is as much as most
+persons can attend to, and ought to last a lifetime.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 201px;">
+<img src="images/i_151.png" width="201" height="217" alt="drawing of cherub tying a knot" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XII<br />
+<small>HOW TO BUILD A CHEAP BOAT</small></h2>
+
+
+<h3>The Yankee Pine</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">From</span> the saw-mills away up among the tributaries of the Ohio
+River come floating down to the towns along the shore great
+rafts of pine lumber. These rafts are always objects of interest
+to the boys, for the youngsters know that when moored to the
+shore the solidly packed planks make a splendid platform to
+swim from. Fine springing-boards can be made of the projecting
+blades of the gigantic sweeps which are used to guide the
+mammoth rafts, and, somewhere aboard, there is always to be
+found a "Yankee pine." Just when or why this style of skiff
+was dubbed with such a peculiar name I am unable to state;
+but this I know, that when a raft is to be broken up and carted
+away to the lumber yards there is, or always used to be, a good,
+light skiff to be had cheap.</p>
+
+<p>However, all boys do not live on the bank of the river, and if
+they did there would hardly be "Yankee pines" enough to go
+round; so we will at once proceed to see how to build one for ourselves.
+Although my readers may find the "Yankee pine" a little
+more difficult to build than the blunt-ended, flat-bottomed scow,
+it really is a comparatively simple piece of work for boys familiar
+with the use of carpenters' tools.</p>
+
+<p>For the side-pieces select two straight-grained pine boards free
+from knots. These boards should be about 13 or 14 feet long,
+a couple of inches over a foot in width, and as nearly alike as
+possible in texture. Besides these there should be in the neighborhood
+of a dozen other ¾-inch planks, an inch or two over a half<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+foot in width. A small piece of 2-inch plank for the stern-piece is
+also necessary. Upon the bottom edge of the side-board measure
+off from each end toward the centre 4 inches, mark the points, and
+saw off the corners shown by the dotted line in <a href="#Fig_188">Fig. 188</a>. Next
+take a piece of board 4 feet long and a foot wide, saw off the corners
+as you did on the side-board, making it 4 feet on the top and
+3 feet 4 inches on the bottom. This board is to be used only as
+a centre brace while modelling the boat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"><a id="Fig_188"></a>
+<img src="images/i_153a.png" width="390" height="75" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 188.&mdash;Side-board.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 518px;"><a id="Fig_189"></a>
+<img src="images/i_153b.png" width="518" height="155" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 189.&mdash;Frame.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Out of the 2-inch plank make a stern-piece of the same shape
+as the centre brace; let it be 1 foot wide, 14 inches long on the
+bottom, and 20 inches long on top. Set the side-boards on their
+shorter or bottom edges and place the centre brace in the middle,
+as shown by <a href="#Fig_189">Fig. 189</a>; nail the side-boards to it, using only enough
+nails to hold temporarily. Draw the side-boards together at the
+bow and against the stern-board at the stern (<a href="#Fig_189">Fig. 189</a>). Hold the
+side-pieces in position by the means of ropes. A stem should be
+ready to fix in the bow (<a href="#Fig_190">Fig. 190</a>). This had better be a few inches
+longer than the sides are broad, as it is a simple matter to saw off
+the top after it is fitted. Make the stem of a triangular piece of
+timber, by planing off the front edge until a flat surface about
+½ inch broad is obtained; 2 inches from the front, upon each side,
+cut a groove just the thickness of the side-boards (¾ inch). Trim<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+the stem so that the side-pieces at the bow fit the grooves snugly,
+and nail the side-boards to the stem and to the stern-piece (<a href="#Fig_189">Fig.
+189</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a id="Fig_190"></a>
+<img src="images/i_154a.png" width="500" height="97" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 190.&mdash;Stem-piece.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 593px;"><a id="Fig_191"></a>
+<img src="images/i_154b.png" width="593" height="250" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 191.&mdash;Finished skiff.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Turn the boat upside down, and it will be discovered that the
+outlines of the bottom form an arch from stem to stern. If left
+in this shape the boat will sink
+too deep amidship. Remedy
+the defect by planing the bottom
+edge of both side pieces,
+reducing the convex form to
+straight lines in the middle. This will allow the bow and stern
+to sheer, but at the same time will make the central part of
+the bottom flat, and, by having less to drag through the water,
+make it easier to row. Nail the bottom-boards on crosswise,
+and as, on account of the form of the boat, no two boards will be
+of the same size, they must be first nailed on and the projecting
+ends sawed off afterward. The centre brace may now be taken
+out and a long bottom-board nailed to the centre of the bottom
+upon the inside of the boat (<a href="#Fig_191">Fig. 191</a>). Cut a small cross-piece
+(B, <a href="#Fig_191">Fig. 191</a>) so that it will fit across the bow 3 inches below the
+top of the side-boards. Nail it in place, driving the nails from the
+outside of the side-board through and into the end of the stick B.
+Saw out a bow seat, and, allowing the broad end to rest on the
+cross-stick B, fit the seat in and secure it with nails (<a href="#Fig_191">Fig. 191</a>);<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+3 inches below the top of the stern-piece nail a cleat across. At
+the same distance below the side-board put a cross-stick similar
+to the one in the bow. This and the cleat on the stern-piece form
+rests for the stern seat. Five feet from the stern saw a notch
+2 inches deep and 1½ inch long in
+each side-board (A, A<sup>1</sup>, <a href="#Fig_191">Fig. 191</a>).
+Saw two more notches of the same
+size 3 inches from the first; these
+will make the rowlock when the
+side strips have been fastened on.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 459px;"><a id="Fig_192"></a>
+<img src="images/i_155a.png" width="459" height="166" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 192.&mdash;Keel board or skeg.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These strips should each be made of 1-inch plank, 2 inches
+wide and an inch or two longer than the side-boards. Nail the
+strips on the outside of the boat flush with the top of the side-boards,
+making a neat joint at the stern-piece, as shown in the illustration
+(<a href="#Fig_191">Fig. 191</a>). Cut two short strips to fit upon the inside at
+the rowlocks and fasten them firmly on with screws (<a href="#Fig_191">Fig. 191</a>, A).
+Next cut two cleats for the oarsman's seat to rest upon. Nail
+them to the side-boards amidship a little nearer the bottom than
+the top, so that the seat, when resting upon the cleats, will be
+about half the distance from the top edge to the bottom of the
+side-boards. Let the aft end of the cleats be about 6 feet 2 inches
+from the stern. Make thole-pins of some hard wood to fit in the
+rowlocks, like those described
+and illustrated
+by <a href="#Fig_203">Figs. 203</a> and <a href="#Fig_204">204</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 417px;">
+<img src="images/i_155b.png" width="417" height="172" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Top view of "Man Friday."</div>
+</div>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 184px;"><a id="Fig_193"></a>
+<img src="images/i_156.png" width="184" height="394" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 193.&mdash;The side-boards.</div>
+</div>
+<p>The Yankee pine now
+only needs a skeg to
+complete it. This must
+be placed exactly in the
+centre, and is fastened
+on by a couple of screws at the thin end and nails from the inside
+of the boat. It is also fastened to the upright stick at the
+stern by screws (<a href="#Fig_192">Fig. 192</a>).</p>
+
+<p>If the joints have been carefully made, your Yankee pine is
+now ready for launching. Being made of rough lumber it needs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+no paint or varnish, but is a sort of rough-and-ready affair, light
+to row; and it ought to float four people with ease. By using
+planed pine or cedar lumber, and
+with hard-wood stem and stern,
+a very pretty row-boat can be
+made upon the same plan as a
+Yankee pine, or by putting in
+a centreboard and "stepping" a
+mast in the bow, the Yankee
+pine can be transformed into a
+sail-boat. But before experimenting
+in this line of boat-building,
+the beginner had better read
+carefully the chapter on how to
+rig and sail small boats.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>How to Build a Better Finished
+Boat</h3>
+
+<p>The old-time raftsmen formerly
+built their "Yankee pines"
+of the rough, unplaned boards
+fresh from the saw-mills on the
+river banks, and these raw,
+wooden skiffs were stanch, light,
+and tight boats, but to-day
+smooth lumber is as cheap as
+the rough boards, so select
+enough planed pine lumber for
+a 12½-foot boat, and you may
+calculate the exact amount by reference to the accompanying
+diagrams, which are all drawn as near as may be to a regular
+scale.</p>
+
+<p>By reference to <a href="#Fig_193">Fig. 193</a> you will see that A, A represent
+the two</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Side-Boards</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>These should be of sufficient dimensions to produce two side-pieces
+each 13 feet long, 17 inches wide, and <small><sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></small> inch thick (A, <a href="#Fig_194">Fig.
+194</a>). You will also need a piece for a</div>
+
+
+<h3>Spreader</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>54 inches long, 18 inches wide, and about 1½ inch thick, but
+as this is a temporary affair almost any old piece of proper dimensions
+will answer (B, <a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>), and another piece of good 1½-inch
+plank (C, <a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>) 36 inches long by 15 inches wide, for a stern-piece.
+Besides the above there must be enough 1-inch lumber to
+make seats and to cover the bottom. At a point on one end,
+6½ inches from the edge of the A plank, mark the point <i>c</i> (<a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>),
+then measure 37 inches back along the edge of the plank and mark
+the point <i>b</i> (<a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>). Rule a pencil line (<i>b</i>, <i>c</i>) between these two
+points and starting at <i>c</i> saw off the triangle <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>. Make the second
+side-board an exact duplicate of the one just described and
+prepare the spreader by sawing off the triangle with 9-inch bases
+at each end of B (<a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>). This will leave you a board (<i>h</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>n</i>)
+that will be 36 inches long on its lower edge and 54 inches long on
+its top edge.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_194"></a>
+<img src="images/i_157.png" width="600" height="251" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 194.&mdash;A, the side. B, the spreader. C, the stern-piece.</div>
+</div>
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_157-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+<p>Next saw off the corners of the stern-piece C (<a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>) along<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+the lines <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, the <i>g</i> points being each 6½ inches from the corners;
+and a board (<i>ff</i>, <i>gg</i>) 18 inches wide and 30 inches top measurement,
+with 23 inches at the bottom. Now fit the edge of the
+stern-piece along the line <i>e</i>, <i>d</i> (<a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>), or at a slant to please your
+fancy. In <a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>, upper C, the slant makes the base of the
+triangle about 4½ inches, which is sufficient. Be careful that both
+side-boards are fitted exactly alike, and to do this nail the port
+side with nails driven only partly in, as shown at D (<a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>);
+then nail the starboard side and, if they are both seen to be even
+and of the right slant, drive the nails home; if not correct, the
+nails may be pulled out by using a small block under the hammer
+(D, <a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>), without bending the nails or injuring the wood.
+Leave the stern-ends of the side-boards protruding, as in the
+upper C, until you have the spreader and stem in place.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 669px;"><a id="Fig_195"></a>
+<img src="images/i_158.png" width="669" height="373" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 195.&mdash;Details of the boat.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_158-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+<p>We are now ready for the spreader (<i>h</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>n</i>) (B, <a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>)
+amidship, or, more accurately speaking, 6 feet 9 inches from
+the bow (B, <a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>). Nail this as shown by D (<a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>), so
+that the nails may be removed at pleasure. Bring the bow ends
+of the A boards together and secure them by a strip nailed temporarily
+across, as shown in the diagram E (<a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>The Stem-piece</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>may be made of two pieces, as is shown at G and F (<a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>)
+or if you are more skilful than the ordinary non-professional, the
+stem may be made of one piece, as shown by the lower diagram
+at F (<a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>). It is desirable to have oak for the stem, but any
+hard wood will answer the purpose, and even pine may be used
+when no better is to be had. Take a piece of cardboard or an old
+shingle on which to draw a pattern for the end of the stem and
+make the outline with a lead-pencil by placing the shingle over
+the apex <i>c</i> of diagram E (<a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>); from the inside trace the line
+of the sides thus, <b>V</b>. Trim your stem down to correspond to these
+lines and let the stick be somewhat longer than the width of the
+sides A, A.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_196"></a>
+<img src="images/i_159.png" width="600" height="290" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 196.&mdash;Put on a bottom of 1-inch boards.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When this is done to your satisfaction, fit the stem in place and
+nail the side boards to the stem.</p>
+
+<p>Turn the boat over and nail on a bottom of 1-inch boards as
+shown by <a href="#Fig_196">Fig. 196</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Don't</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>use tongue and grooved or any sort of fancy cabinet or floor joining
+when wet&mdash;such matched lumber warps up in waves&mdash;but
+use boards with smooth, flat edges; if these are true and fitted
+snugly together in workmanlike manner the first wetting will swell
+them in a very short time, until not a drop of water will leak
+through the cracks, for the reason that there will be none. Fit
+the bottom-boards on regardless of their protruding ends, as these
+may be sawed off after the boards are nailed in place.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 673px;"><a id="Fig_197"></a>
+<img src="images/i_160.png" width="673" height="286" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 197.&mdash;Details of bow, stern, seats, and finished boat.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Seats</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>consist of a triangular one at the bow (J), the oarsman's seat
+(L), and the stern seat (K, <a href="#Fig_197">Fig. 197</a>). The bow seat is made of
+1-inch boards nailed to two cleats shown at M (<a href="#Fig_197">Fig. 197</a>). N
+shows the bench for the stern seat and O explains the arrangement
+of the oarsman's seat a little forward amidship. As may be
+seen, it rests upon the cleats <i>x</i> (diagram O, <a href="#Fig_197">Fig. 197</a>), which are
+fitted between two upright cleats on each side of the boat; this
+makes a seat which will not slip out of place, and the cleats serve
+to strengthen the sides of the otherwise ribless boat. Make the
+cleats of 1 by 2 inch lumber and let the seat be about 12 inches
+wide. The stern seat may be wider, 1½ feet at K and 4 or 5 inches<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+more at the long sides of the two boards each side of K (<a href="#Fig_197">Fig. 197</a>).
+Of course, it is not necessary to fit a board in against the stern-piece,
+for a cleat will answer the purpose, but a good, heavy stern-piece
+is often desirable and the board shown in diagram N (<a href="#Fig_197">Fig.
+197</a>) will serve to add strength to the stern as well as to furnish a
+firm rest for the stern seat, but it will also add weight.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><div class="caption">Fig. 198.</div><a id="Fig_198"></a><a id="Fig_199"></a>
+<img src="images/i_161.png" width="600" height="288" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 199.&mdash;Fitting the skeg.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Keel-Board</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is an advisable addition to the boat, but may also be omitted without
+serious results (H, <a href="#Fig_197">Fig. 197</a>).</div>
+
+<p>The keel-board should be 4½ inches wide, 1 inch thick, and
+should be cut pointed, to fit snugly in the bow, and nailed in place
+along the centre of the floor, before the seats are put in the boat.
+A similar board along the bottom, joining the two cleats each side
+of the skeg at <i>y</i> (<a href="#Fig_199">Fig. 199</a>) and extending to the bow will prevent
+the danger of loosening the bottom-planks when bumping over
+rifts, shallow places, or when the boat needs to be hauled on a
+stony shore; this bottom-board may also be omitted to save time
+and lumber and is not shown in the diagram.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>The Skeg</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is a triangular board (<a href="#Fig_198">Figs. 198</a> and <a href="#Fig_199">199</a>), roughly speaking, of
+the same dimensions as the pieces sawed from the side-board
+<i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i> (<a href="#Fig_196">Fig. 196</a>). The stern-end will be about 7 inches wide and
+it will taper off to nothing at <i>y</i> (<a href="#Fig_198">Fig. 198</a>). The skeg is held in
+place by cleats of 1-inch lumber, 2 inches wide, nailed to the bottom
+on each side of the skeg. To get the proper dimensions experiment
+with the pieces sawed from the A boards and cut your
+skeg board so that its bottom edge will be level with the bottom at
+<i>y</i> (<a href="#Fig_198">Fig. 198</a>); the diagonal line, to correspond with the slant of
+the stern, can be accurately drawn if the skeg is left untrimmed
+until it is fastened in place.</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="illustrations">
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='3'><a id="Fig_200"></a><a id="Fig_201"></a><a id="Fig_202"></a><img src="images/i_162.png" width="670" height="212" alt="drawing" />
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><div class="caption">Fig. 200.</div></td>
+<td align="center"><div class="caption">Fig. 201.<br />Rowlocks.</div></td>
+<td align="center"><div class="caption">Fig. 202.</div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<h3>To Fasten on the Skeg</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>rule a line from the centre of the stern to the centre of the bow
+and toe-nail the skeg on along this line. This must be accurately
+done or you will make a boat which will have an uncomfortable
+tendency to move in circles. After toe-nailing the skeg to the bottom,
+nail the two cleats, one on each side of the skeg, and let them
+fit as closely as may be to the keel. Now saw off the stern-ends
+of the cleats and lay a rule along the stern, as the stick is placed in
+<a href="#Fig_198">Fig. 198</a>, where the boy has his finger; rule a pencil line across the
+protruding end of the keel and saw off the end along the diagonal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+line, so that the stern-cleat <i>z</i> (<a href="#Fig_198">Fig. 198</a>) may be nailed in place to
+finish the work.</div>
+
+<p>You can buy rowlocks of galvanized iron for about a quarter
+of a dollar a pair; the brass ones are not expensive, but even when
+the store furnishes the hardware there must be a firm support of
+some sort to hold the rowlock.</p>
+
+<p>If you use the manufactured article, to be found at any hardware
+store, the merchant will supply you with the screws, plates,
+and rowlocks, but he will not furnish you with the blocks for the
+holes in which the spindles of the rowlocks fit. <a href="#Fig_202">Fig. 202</a> shows a
+rude, but serviceable, support for the lock made of short oaken
+posts much in vogue in Pennsylvania, but <a href="#Fig_201">Fig. 201</a> is much better,
+and if it is made of oak and bolted to the sides of the boat it will
+last as long as the boat. <a href="#Fig_201">Fig. 201</a> may be put upon either the outside
+or inside of the boat, according to the width amidship.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A Guard Rail</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>or fender, of 1 by 2 inch lumber, alongside of and even with the
+top of the side-boards, from bow to stern, gives finish and strength
+to the craft; but in a cheap boat, or a hastily constructed one, this
+may be omitted, as it is in these diagrams.</div>
+
+<p>If you are building your boat out of the convenient reach of
+the hardware shop, you must make your own rowlocks. <a href="#Fig_200">Fig.
+200</a> shows the crude ones formerly used by the raftsmen for the
+Yankee pines, and <a href="#Fig_203">Figs. 203</a> and <a href="#Fig_204">204</a> show rowlocks made with the
+oaken or hard-wood thole-pins fitting in holes cut for that purpose
+in the form of notches (U, <a href="#Fig_204">Fig. 204</a>) in the side of the boat,
+or as spaces left between the blocks, as shown by R (<a href="#Fig_203">Fig. 203</a>).
+When the side-boards A, A of the boat are notched a cleat of hard
+wood 5 or 6 inches wide, and extending some distance each side
+of the side-boards, must be used, as is shown by diagram V (<a href="#Fig_204">Fig.
+204</a>) and <a href="#Fig_203">Fig. 203</a>. The diagram R (<a href="#Fig_203">Fig. 203</a>) explains itself;
+there is a centre block nailed to the side-board and two more each
+side, leaving spaces for the thole-pins T (<a href="#Fig_203">Fig. 203</a>) to fit and
+guarded by another piece (R) bolted through to the sides.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If bolts are out of your reach, nails and screws may act as substitutes,
+and <a href="#Fig_204">Fig. 204</a> will then be the best form of rowlock to
+adopt.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="illustrations">
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='2'><div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_203"></a><a id="Fig_204"></a>
+<img src="images/i_164.png" width="600" height="154" alt="drawing" />
+</div>
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><div class="caption">Fig. 203.</div></td>
+<td align="center"><div class="caption">Fig. 204.</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan='2'><div class="caption">Thole-pins.</div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>To fix the place for rowlocks, seat yourself in the oarsman's
+seat, grasp the oars as in rowing, and mark the place which best
+fits the reach of your arms and oars as in rowing. It will probably
+be about 13 inches aft from the centre of the seat.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_205"></a>
+<img src="images/i_165.png" width="600" height="620" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 205.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>To Transform an Ordinary Skiff or Scow Into a Sailing-Boat</h3>
+
+<p>It is necessary to build the centreboard box and cut a hole
+through the bottom of the boat. For the average row-boat or
+skiff, you can make the centreboard box about 48 inches long
+and not higher, of course, than the gunwales of the boat. Make
+the box of 2-inch plank, and before nailing the sides together
+coat the seams thoroughly with white lead so as to prevent it
+from leaking. The centreboard should be made of 2-inch plank,
+which when planed down and smoothed will be about 1<small><sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></small> of an inch
+thick, and the space in the box should be wide enough to allow it
+to move freely up and down, with no danger of its jamming. A
+hole should be cut in the bottom of the boat to correspond with the
+opening in the centreboard box, which, with a 48-inch box, will
+probably be an opening of 40 inches long and 1 inch wide. The
+centreboard is hinged to the box by a bolt run through at the
+point marked A on <a href="#Fig_205">Fig. 205</a>. The centreboard should move
+freely on the bolt, but the bolt itself should fit tightly in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+sides of the box, otherwise the water will leak through. There
+will be no danger of the bolt's turning in its socket if the
+hole through the centreboard through which the bolt is thrust is
+made large enough. The centreboard box should be generously
+painted with white lead on the bottom edges where it fits on the
+floor of the boat around the centreboard hole. The bottom of
+the boat floor should also be coated with white lead and over this
+a strip of muslin spread before the box is securely nailed to the floor
+of the boat from the bottom or under side of the boat. When this
+is done the muslin covering the hole can be cut away with a sharp<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+knife. A rope may then be fastened to the loose end of the centreboard
+with a cross-stick attached to the end of the rope to prevent
+it from slipping down the hole in the box. With this rope the
+centreboard may be raised or lowered to suit the pleasure of the
+sailor. (<a href="#Fig_205">Fig. 205</a>.)</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII<br />
+<small>A "ROUGH-AND-READY" BOAT</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary2'>Just What One Must Do to Build It&mdash;Detailed Instructions as to
+How to Make the Boat and How to Rig It</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Good</span> straight-grained pine wood is, without doubt, the best
+"all-around" wood for general use. It is easily whittled with a
+pocket-knife; it works smoothly under a plane; can be sawed
+without fatiguing the amateur carpenter; it is elastic and pliable;
+therefore use pine lumber to build your boat.</p>
+
+<p>Examine the lumber pile carefully and select four boards nearly
+alike. Do not allow the dealer or his men to talk you into taking
+lumber with blemishes. The side pieces should be of straight-grained
+wood, with no large knots and no "checks" (cracks) in
+them, and must not be "wind shaken."</p>
+
+<p>Measure the wood and see that it is over twenty-two feet long
+by one foot four or five inches wide and one inch thick. Trim
+two of the side-pieces until they are exact duplicates (<a href="#Fig_206">Fig. 206</a>).
+The stem-piece (or bow-piece) should be made from a triangular
+piece of oak (<a href="#Fig_212">Fig. 212</a>), and it is wise to make it a few inches longer
+than will be necessary, so that there may be no danger of finding,
+after all your labor, that the stick is too short; much better too
+long, for it is a simple matter to saw it off. Make a second stem-piece
+(<a href="#Fig_213">Fig. 213</a>) of oak about one inch thick and the same length
+as the first, and two or three inches wide, or twice as wide as the
+thickness of the side-boards.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Stern-piece</h3>
+
+<p>The stern-piece can be fashioned out of two-inch pine boards,
+and may be made as wide or narrow as you choose. A narrow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+stern makes a trim-looking craft. With your saw cut off the corner
+of the tail-piece, so that it will be in the form of a blunted triangle
+(<a href="#Fig_214">Fig. 214</a>), measuring three feet ten and one-half inches
+across the base, three feet four inches on each side, and nine and
+one-half inches at the apex. The base of the triangle will be the
+top and the apex will be the bottom of the stern-board of your
+boat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_206"></a><a id="Fig_207"></a><a id="Fig_208"></a><a id="Fig_209"></a><a id="Fig_210"></a>
+<img src="images/i_168.png" width="600" height="417" alt="drawings" />
+<div class="caption">Diagrams showing the construction of the rough-and-ready.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now make a brace on which to model your boat. Let it be of
+two-inch pine wood, two and one-half feet wide and seven and
+one-half feet long (<a href="#Fig_207">Fig. 207</a>). Measure twelve inches on one
+edge of this board from each end toward the centre and mark the
+points; then rule lines from these points diagonally across the
+width of the board (A, B and C, D&mdash;Fig. 207), and saw off the
+corners, as shown by the dotted line in <a href="#Fig_207">Fig. 207</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lay the boards selected for the lower side-boards on a level floor
+and measure off one and one-half foot on the bottom edge, then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+in a line with the end of the board mark a point on the floor that
+would be the top edge of the board if the board were two and one-half
+feet wide; rule a line from the point on the floor to the point
+marked on the board and saw off the corner as marked; make the
+other side-piece correspond exactly with the first (<a href="#Fig_206">Fig. 206</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3>Use Rope for Binding</h3>
+
+<p>Set the side-pieces upon their bottoms or shorter edges and place
+the brace between the sides. Now bind the stern ends with a
+rope and bring the bow-pieces together until they touch; rope
+them in this position, and when all is fast push the brace up until
+it rests at a point nine feet from the bow; fasten it here with a
+couple of nails driven in, but leaving their heads far enough from
+the wood to render it easy to draw them out. Now adjust the
+bow-piece, and use the greatest of care in making the sides exactly
+alike, otherwise you will wonder how you happened to have such
+an unaccountable twist in your craft. When the stem is properly
+adjusted fasten on the side-boards with screws. Do not try to
+hammer the screws in place, but bore holes first and use a screwdriver.</p>
+
+<p>Take your stern-piece and measure the exact width of the stern
+end of the bottom-boards and mark it at the bottom of the stern-piece;
+or, better still, since the stern-board will set at an angle, put
+it temporarily in place, bind it fast with the ropes, and mark with
+a pencil just where the side-boards cross the ends of the
+stern-board. Remove the stern-board and saw out a piece one inch
+wide, the thickness of the bottom-board, from the place marked
+to the bottom of the stern-board. Because the top side-board
+overlaps the bottom one at the stern, there must be either a large
+crack left there or the stern-board notched to fit the side-boards
+(<a href="#Fig_214">Fig. 214</a>). Replace the stern-board and nail side-boards fast
+to it; now loosen the ropes which have held your boat in shape,
+and fit on the upper side-boards so that at the stern they will overlap
+the lower side-boards an inch. Hold in place with your rope,
+then bring the bow end up against the stern-piece over the top of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+the lower side-board and fasten it in place with a rope. With your
+carpenter's pencil mark the overlap, and with a plane made for
+that purpose, called a rabbet, trim down your board so that it will
+have a shoulder and an overlap to rest on the bottom-board, running
+out to nothing at the bow. When the boards fit all right
+over the lower ones bind them in place and then nail them there
+(<a href="#Fig_208">Fig. 208</a>). If you can obtain two good boards of the requisite
+size, you need have but one board for each side of your boat;
+this will obviate the necessity of using the rabbet, and be very
+much easier; but with single boards of the required dimensions
+there is great danger of splitting or cracking while bending the
+boards.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 681px;"><a id="Fig_211"></a><a id="Fig_212"></a><a id="Fig_213"></a><a id="Fig_214"></a><a id="Fig_215"></a>
+<img src="images/i_170.png" width="681" height="464" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">The rough-and-ready.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>Planing the Bottom</h3>
+
+<p>Turn the boat upside down and you will see that there is a decided
+arch extending from stem to stern. This would cause the
+boat to sink too deep amidship, and must be remedied to some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+extent by cutting away the middle of the arch, so that the sides
+in the exact centre will measure at least four inches less in width
+than at the bow and stern, and reducing the convex or curved form
+to a straight line in the middle, which will give a sheer to the bow
+and stern. A good plane is the best tool to use for this purpose,
+as with it there is no danger of cutting too deep or of splitting the
+side-boards. Saw off the projecting ends of the side-boards at the
+stern.</p>
+
+<p>Make the bottom of three-quarter-inch boards, they may be
+bevelled like <a href="#Fig_231">Fig. 231</a>. Lay the boards crosswise, nail them in
+place, leaving the irregular ends projecting on each side. The
+reason for this is obvious. When you look at the bottom of the
+boat you will at once see that on account of the form no two
+boards can be the same shape, and the easiest way is to treat the
+boat bottom as if it were a square-sided scow. Fit the planks
+closely together, nail them on securely, and then neatly saw off
+the projecting ends (<a href="#Fig_210">Fig. 210</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Deck</h3>
+
+<p>The brace may now be removed by carefully drawing the nails,
+so that a bottom plank trimmed to fit the bow and the stern can
+be securely nailed in place (<a href="#Fig_216">Fig. 216</a>). Cut a notch in your brace
+to fit tightly over the bottom plank just laid. Plane off the top
+of the brace so that when in the boat the top of the brace will be
+four inches below the top of the side-boards. Replace the brace
+and securely nail it. Next cut two small cross-pieces (F, G, <a href="#Fig_209">Fig.
+209</a>) and place them near the bow, four inches below the top of the
+sides of the boat. Drive the nails from the outside through the
+side-boards into the end of F and G, the cross-brace. Cut out a
+bow-piece to fit from the middle of G to the bow and nail it in
+place, driving the nails from the outside into the edge of the bow-piece.
+Fasten a small cleat along the boat from the solid board
+brace to F on each side and deck the space over with light lumber.</p>
+
+<p>Of the same material make a trap door to fit in between the
+braces F and G. This door should be big enough for a boy to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+reach through, for this compartment is intended as a safe place to
+store cooking utensils, foods, etc., as well as a water-tight compartment.
+At a point five feet from the stern put another cross-brace,
+similar to the ones in the bow, four inches below the top of the
+sides. At the same level nail a cleat on the stern-piece and make
+a stern seat by boarding over between the cross-piece and the cleat.
+When your boat is resting securely on the floor or level ground rig
+a temporary seat, then take an oar and by experiment find just
+where the rowlock will be most convenient and mark the spot.
+Also mark the spot best suited for the seat. On each side of the
+spot marked for the rowlock cut two notches in the side-boards
+two inches deep, one and a half inch wide, and three inches
+apart. Saw two more notches exactly like these upon the opposite
+side of your boat. These will make the rowlocks when the side-strips
+are nailed on (<a href="#Fig_216">Fig. 216</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 689px;"><a id="Fig_216"></a>
+<img src="images/i_172.png" width="689" height="201" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 216.&mdash;Top view of rough-and-ready, with tiller stick.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The side-strips should each be made of one-inch plank three
+inches wide and a few inches longer than the side-boards. Nail
+the strips on the outside of the boat flush with the top of the side-boards.
+Make your thole-pins of some hard wood, and make
+two sets of them while you are about it, "one set to use and one
+set to lose." Screw a hard-wood cleat on the inside of your boat
+over each pair of rowlocks, as shown in <a href="#Fig_216">Fig. 216</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Ready for the Water</h3>
+
+<p>Fasten the remaining bow-piece securely over the ends of your
+side-boards, and the nose of your craft is finished.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Put a good, heavy keel on your boat by screwing it tightly in the
+stern to the hard-wood rudder-post that is fastened to the centre
+of the stern; bolt your keel with four iron bolts (<a href="#Fig_211">Fig. 211</a>) to the
+bottom of the boat, and the ship is ready to launch, after which
+she can be equipped with sails and oars.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, you understand that all nail-holes and crevices
+should be puttied up, and if paint is used, it must be applied before
+wetting the boat. But if you have done your work well, there
+will be little need of paint or putty to make it tight after the wood
+has swelled in the water. Fasten your rudder on with hooks and
+screw-eyes, and make it as shown in the diagram (<a href="#Fig_211">Fig. 211</a>).
+Step your mainmast in the bow through a round hole in the deck
+and a square hole in the step, which must, of course, be screwed
+tightly to the bottom before the bow is decked over.</p>
+
+<p>Step your jigger or dandy mast in the stern after the same manner.
+These masts should neither of them be very large, and are
+intended to be removed at pleasure by unstepping them, that is,
+simply pulling them out of their sockets. An outrigger will be
+found necessary for your dandy-sail, and since the deck aft is below
+the sides of the boat, a block of wood will have to be nailed to
+the deck to the starboard, or right-hand, side of the rudder-post.
+If the builder chooses, he can make the decks flush with the sides
+of the boat and thus avoid blocks. A couple of staples for the
+out-rigger to slip through are next in order. They must be fastened
+firmly in the block or stick of wood just nailed to the deck.
+A similar arrangement can be made for the bowsprit, but as it is
+a movable bowsprit, and the stem of the boat is in the way, put
+it to the port, or left-hand, side of the stem of the craft (<a href="#Fig_216">Fig. 216</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Make the Sail</h3>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 201px;"><a id="Fig_217"></a>
+<img src="images/i_174.png" width="201" height="646" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 217, with tiller.&mdash;Rudder lines.</div>
+</div>
+<p>Secure for a sail material as strong as you can find, but it need
+not be heavy. Unbleached muslin is cheap and will make good
+sails. Turn over the edges and sew or hem them, as in the diagram.
+Make eyelets like button-holes in the luff of the sail&mdash;that
+is, the edge of the sail nearest the mast. Sew a small loop of rope<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+in each corner of the sail. Through
+the eyelets lace the luff of the sail to
+the mast.</p>
+
+<p>From spruce or pine make a sprit
+two inches in diameter. For a "sheet"&mdash;that
+is, the rope or line that you
+manage the sail with&mdash;tie a good stout
+line about a dozen feet long to the
+loop in the loose corner of the sail.
+Trim the upper end of the sprit to fit
+the loop in the top of the sail and make
+a simple notch in the other end to hold
+the line called the "snotter."</p>
+
+<p>Now, as you can readily see by referring
+to <a href="#Fig_211">Fig. 211</a>, when the sprit is
+pushed into the loop at the top of the
+sail the sail is spread. To hold it in
+place make a cleat like the one in the
+diagram and bind it firmly with a
+cord to the sprit; pass the snotter, or
+line, fastened to the mast through the
+notch in the sprit up to the cleat and
+make fast, and the sail is set. The
+jigger, or dandy, is exactly like the
+mainsail except in size, and the sheet
+rope is run through a block or pulley
+at the end of the outrigger and then
+made fast to a cleat near the man at
+the rudder or helm. The jib is a
+simple affair hooked on a screw-eye in
+the end of the bowsprit. The jib halyard,
+or line for hoisting the jib, runs
+from the top of the jib through a screw-eye in the top of the mast,
+down the port side of the mast to a cleat, where it is made fast.
+When the jib is set the jib-sheets are fastened to a loop sewed in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+the jib at the lower or loose end. There are two jib-sheets, one
+for each side of the boat, so that one may be made fast and the
+other loosened, according to the wind. The remaining details
+you must study out from the diagrams or learn by experiment.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Reef Her</h3>
+
+<p>When the wind is high reef your sails by letting go the snotter
+and pulling out the sprit. This will drop your peak and leave
+you with a simple leg-of-mutton sail. Only use the jib in light
+weather.</p>
+
+<p>In this boat, with a little knowledge of sailing, you may cruise
+for weeks, lowering your sails at night and making a tent over the
+cock-pit for a sleeping-room. Sails with boom and gaffs may be
+used if desired.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XIV<br />
+<small>HOW TO BUILD CHEAP AND SUBSTANTIAL HOUSE-BOATS</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary2'>Plans for a House-Boat that May Be a Camp or Built as Large
+as a Hotel</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">When</span> the great West of the United States began to attract immigrants
+from the Eastern coast settlements, the Ohio River
+rolled between banks literally teeming with all sorts of wild game
+and wilder men: then it was that the American house-boat had its
+birth.</p>
+
+<p>The Mississippi, Ohio, and their tributaries furnished highways
+for easy travel, of which the daring pioneers soon availed themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Lumber was to be had for the labor of felling the trees. From
+the borders of the Eastern plantations to the prairies, and below
+the Ohio to the Mississippi, and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf
+of Mexico, was one vast forest of trees; trees whose trunks were
+unscarred by the axe, and whose tall tops reached an altitude
+which would hardly be believed by those of this generation, who
+have only seen second, third, or fourth growth timber.</p>
+
+<p>When the settlement of this new part of the country began it was
+not long before each stream poured out, with its own flood of
+water,</p>
+
+
+<h3>A Unique Navy</h3>
+
+<p>There were keel-boats, built something like a modern canal-boat,
+only of much greater dimensions; there were broad-horns,
+looking like Noak's arks from some giant's toy-shop, and there
+were flat-boats and rafts, the latter with houses built on them, all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+recklessly drifting, or being propelled by long sweeps down the current
+into the great solemn, unknown wilderness.</p>
+
+<p>Every island, had it a tongue, could tell of wrecks; every point
+or headland, of adventure.</p>
+
+<p>The perils were great and the forest solemn, but the immigrants
+were merry, and the squeaking fiddle made the red man rise up
+from his hiding-place and look with wonder upon the "long
+knives" and their squaws dancing on the decks of their rude crafts,
+as they swept by into the unknown.</p>
+
+<p>The advent of the steam-boat gradually drove the flat-boat,
+broad-horn, keel-boat, and all the primitive sweep-propelled craft
+from the rivers, but many of the old boatmen were loath to give
+up so pleasant a mode of existence, and they built themselves
+house-boats, and, still clinging to their nomadic habits, took their
+wives, and went to house-keeping on the bosom of the waters they
+loved so well.</p>
+
+<p>Their descendants now form what might well be called a race
+of river-dwellers, and to this day their quaint little arks line the
+shores of the Mississippi and its tributaries.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Some of These House-Boats</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>are as crudely made as the Italian huts we see built along the railroads,
+but others are neatly painted, and the interiors are like the
+proverbial New England homes, where everything is spick-and-span.</div>
+
+<p>Like the driftwood, these boats come down the stream with
+every freshet, and whenever it happens that the waters are particularly
+high they land at some promising spot and earn a livelihood
+on the adjacent water, by fishing and working aboard the
+other river-craft, or they land at some farming district, and as the
+waters recede they prop up and level their boats, on the bank, with
+stones or blocks of wood placed under the lower corners of their
+homes.</p>
+
+<p>The muddy waters, as they retire, leave a long stretch of fertile
+land between the stranded house and the river, and this space is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+utilized as a farm, where ducks, chickens, goats and pigs are
+raised and where garden-truck grows luxuriantly.</p>
+
+<p>From a boat their home has been transformed to a farm-house;
+but sooner or later there will be another big freshet, and when
+the waters reach the late farm-house, lo! it is a boat again, and goes
+drifting in its happy-go-lucky way down the current. If it escapes
+the perils of snags and the monster battering-rams, which the rapid
+current makes of the drifting trees in the flood, it will land again,
+somewhere, down-stream.</p>
+
+<p>Lately, while on a sketching trip through Kentucky, I was
+greatly interested in these boats, and on the Ohio River I saw
+several making good headway against the four-mile-an-hour current.
+This they did by the aid of</p>
+
+
+<h3>Big Square Sails</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>spread on a mast planted near their bows, thus demonstrating
+the practicability of the use of sails for house-boats.</div>
+
+<p>The house-boats to be described in this article are much better
+adapted for sailing than any of the craft used by the water-gypsies
+of the Western rivers.</p>
+
+<p>For open and exposed waters, like the large lakes which dot
+many of our inland States, or the Long Island Sound on our coast,
+the following plans of the American boy's house-boat will have to
+be altered, but the alterations will be all in the hull. If you make
+the hull three feet deep it will have the effect of lowering the cabin,
+while the head-room inside will remain the same. Such a craft
+can carry a good-sized sail, and weather any gale you are liable
+to encounter, even on the Sound, during the summer months.</p>
+
+<p>Since the passing away of the glorious old flat-boat days, idle
+people in England have introduced the</p>
+
+
+<h3>House-Boat as a Fashionable Fad</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>which has spread to this country, and the boys now have a new
+source of fun, as a result of this English fad.</div>
+
+<p>There are still some nooks and corners left in every State in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+Union which the greedy pot-hunter and the devouring saw-mill
+have as yet left undisturbed, and at such places the boy boatmen
+may "wind their horns," as their ancestors did of old, and have
+almost as good a time. But first of all they must have a boat, and
+for convenience the American boy's house-boat will probably be
+found to excel either a broad-horn
+or a flat-boat model, it
+being a link between the two.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest possible house-boat
+is a Crusoe raft,<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> with a
+cabin near the stern and a
+sand-box for a camp-fire at the
+bow. A good time can be had aboard even this primitive craft.
+The next step in evolution is the long open scow, with a cabin
+formed by stretching canvas over hoops that reach from side to
+side of the boat (see <a href="#Fig_218">Fig. 218</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 517px;"><a id="Fig_218"></a>
+<img src="images/i_179.png" width="517" height="194" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 218.&mdash;A primitive house-boat.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Every boy knows how to build</p>
+
+
+<h3>A Flat-Bottomed Scow</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>or at least every boy should know how to make as simple a craft
+as the scow, but for fear some lad among my readers has neglected
+this part of his education, I will give a few hints which he may
+follow.</div>
+
+
+<h3>Building Material</h3>
+
+<p>Select lumber that is free from large knots and other blemishes.
+Keep the two best boards for the sides of your boat. With your
+saw cut the side boards into the form of <a href="#Fig_219">Fig. 219</a>; see that they
+are exact duplicates. Set the two pieces parallel to each other
+upon their straight or top edges, as the first two pieces shown
+in <a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>. Nail on an end-piece at the bow and stern, as the
+bumper is nailed in <a href="#Fig_221">Figs. 221</a> and <a href="#Fig_222">222</a>; put the bottom on as
+shown in <a href="#Fig_196">Figs. 196</a> and <a href="#Fig_210">210</a>, and you have a simple scow.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Centrepiece</h3>
+
+<p>In <a href="#Fig_219">Fig. 219</a> you will notice that there are two sides and a centrepiece,
+but this centrepiece is not necessary for the ordinary open
+boat, shown by <a href="#Fig_218">Fig. 218</a>. Here you have one of the simple forms
+of house-boat, and you can make it of dimensions to suit your convenience.
+I will not occupy space with the details of this boat,
+because they may be seen by a glance at the diagrams, and my purpose
+is to tell you how to build the American boy's house-boat,
+which is a more elegant craft than the rude open scow, with a canvas-covered
+cabin, shown by <a href="#Fig_218">Fig. 218</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 676px;"><a id="Fig_219"></a>
+<img src="images/i_180.png" width="676" height="318" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 219.&mdash;Unfinished.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Sides of the House-Boat</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>are 16 feet long, and to make them you need some sound two-inch
+planks. After selecting the lumber plane it off and make the
+edges true and straight. Each side and the centrepiece should
+now measure exactly 16 feet in length by 14 inches in width, and
+about 2 inches thick. Cut off from each end of each piece a triangle,
+as shown by the dotted lines at G, H, I (<a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>); from H
+to G is 1 foot, and from H to I is 7 inches. Measure from H to I
+7 inches, and mark the point. Then measure from H to G, 12<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+inches, and mark the point. Then, with a carpenter's pencil,
+draw a line from G to I, and saw along this line. Keep the two
+best planks for the sides of your boat, and use the one that is left
+for the centrepiece. Measure 2 feet on the top or straight edge
+of your centrepiece, and mark the point A (<a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>). From A
+measure 8 feet 10 inches, and mark the point C (<a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>).</div>
+
+<p>With a carpenter's square rule the lines A, B and C, D, and
+make them each 10 inches long, then rule the line B, D (<a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>).
+The piece A, B, C, D must now be carefully cut out: this can be
+done by using the saw to cut A, B and D, C. Then, about 6
+inches from A, saw another line of the same length, and with a
+chisel cut the block out. You then have room to insert a rip-saw,
+at B, and can saw along the line B, D until you reach D, when the
+piece may be removed, leaving the space A, B, D, C for the cabin
+of the boat (see <a href="#Fig_221">Figs. 221</a> and <a href="#Fig_222">222</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>At a point 9 inches from the bow of the boat make a mark on
+the centrepiece, and another mark 5 inches farther away, at F
+(<a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>). With the saw cut a slit at each mark, 1 inch deep,
+and with a chisel cut out, as shown by the dotted lines; do the
+same at E, leaving a space of 1½ feet between the two notches,
+which are made to allow the two planks shown in the plan (<a href="#Fig_221">Fig.
+221</a>) to rest on. These planks support the deck and the hatch,
+at the locker in the bow. The notches at E and F are not on the
+side-boards, the planks being supported at the sides by uprights,
+<a href="#Fig_221">Figs. 221</a> and <a href="#Fig_222">222</a>.</p>
+
+<p>All that now remains to be done with the centrepiece is to saw
+some three-cornered notches on bottom edge, one at bow, one at
+stern, and one or two amidship; this is to allow the water which
+may leak in to flow freely over the whole bottom, and to prevent it
+from gathering at one side and causing your craft to rest upon
+an uneven keel.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="illustrations">
+<tr><td align="left"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 66px;"><a id="Fig_220"></a>
+<img src="images/i_182a.png" width="66" height="600" alt="drawing" />
+</div></td><td align="left"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 309px;"><a id="Fig_221"></a>
+<img src="images/i_182b.png" width="309" height="600" alt="drawings" />
+</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><div class="caption">Fig. 220.&mdash;Center board of house boat.</div>
+</td><td align="left"><div class="caption">Fig. 221.&mdash;Plan of house boat.</div>
+</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger versions of these
+images, click <a href="images/i_182-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+
+<p>Next select a level piece of ground near by and arrange the
+three pieces upon some supports, as shown in <a href="#Fig_219">Fig. 219</a>, so that
+from outside to outside of side-pieces it will measure just 8 feet
+across the bow and stern. Of 1-inch board</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a><br /><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Make Four End-Pieces</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>for the bow and stern (see A, A´, <a href="#Fig_219">Fig. 219</a>), to fit between the
+sides and centrepiece. Make them each a trifle wider than H,
+I, <a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>, so that after they have been fitted they can be trimmed
+down with a plane, and bevelled on the same slant as the bottom
+at G, I, <a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>. It being 8 feet between the outside of each
+centrepiece, and the sides and the centrepiece being each 2 inches
+thick, that gives us 8 feet 6 inches, or 7½ feet as the combined
+length of A and A´ (<a href="#Fig_219">Fig. 219</a>). In other words, each end-piece
+will be half of 7½ feet long&mdash;that is, 3 feet 9 inches long. After
+making the four end-pieces, each 3 feet 9, by 9 inches, fit the ends
+in place so that there is an inch protruding above and below.
+See that your bow and stern are perfectly square, and nail with
+wire nails through the sides into A and A´; toe-nail at the centrepiece&mdash;that
+is, drive the nails from the broad side of A and A´
+slantingly, into the centrepiece, after which trim down with your
+plane the projecting inch on bottom, to agree with the slant of the
+bottom of the boat.</div>
+
+
+<h3>Now for the Bottom</h3>
+
+<p>This is simple work. All that is necessary is to have straight,
+true edges to your one-inch planks, fit them together, and nail them
+in place. Of course, when you come to the slant at bow and stern
+the bottom-boards at each end will have to have a bevelled edge,
+to fit snugly against the boards on the flat part of the bottom of
+the boat; but any boy who is accustomed to shake the gray matter
+in his brain can do this. Remember, scientists say that thought
+is the agitation of the gray matter of the brain, and if you are going
+to build a boat or play a good game of football you must shake
+up that gray stuff, or the other boys will put you down as a "stuff."
+No boy can expect to be successful in building a boat, of even the
+crudest type, unless he keeps his wits about him, so I shall take
+it for granted that there are no "stuffs" among my readers.</p>
+
+<p>After the boards are all snugly nailed on the bottom, and fitted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+together so that there are no cracks to calk up; the hull is ready to
+have</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Bumpers</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>nailed in place, at bow and stern. See the plan, <a href="#Fig_221">Fig. 221</a>, and
+the elevation, <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>. The bumpers must be made of 2-inch
+plank, 8 feet long by about 9 inches wide; wide enough to cover
+A and A´ of <a href="#Fig_219">Fig. 219</a>, and to leave room for a bevel at the bottom
+edge to meet the slant of the bow and stern, and still have room
+at the top to cover the edge of the deck to the hull (see <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>).</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 683px;"><a id="Fig_222"></a>
+<img src="images/i_184.png" width="683" height="299" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 222.&mdash;Cross-section of boat</div>
+</div>
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_184-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+<h3>The Hull May Now Be Painted</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>with two coats of good paint, and after it is dry may be turned
+over and allowed to rest on a number of round sticks, called rollers.</div>
+
+<p>If you will examine <a href="#Fig_221">Fig. 221</a> you will see there</p>
+
+
+<h3>Twenty-Odd Ribs</h3>
+
+<p>These are what are called two-by-fours-that is, 2 inches thick
+by 4 inches wide. They support the floor of the cabin and forward
+locker, at the same time adding strength to the hull.</p>
+
+<p>The ribs are each the same length as the end-board. A and A´
+of <a href="#Fig_219">Fig. 219</a>, are nailed in place in the same manner. Each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+bottom-rib must have a notch 2 inches deep cut in the bottom
+edge to allow the free passage of water, so as to enable you to
+pump dry. Commencing at the stern, the distance between the
+inside of the bumper and the first rib is 1 foot 6 inches. This is a
+deck-rib, as may be seen by reference to <a href="#Fig_221">Figs. 221</a> and <a href="#Fig_222">222</a>. After
+measuring 1½ foot from the bumper, on inside of side-board, mark
+the point with a carpenter's pencil. Measure the same distance
+on the centrepiece, and mark the point as before; then carefully
+fit your rib in flush or even with the top of the side-piece, and fasten
+it in place by nails driven through the side-board into the end of
+the rib, and toe-nailed to centrepiece. Do the same with its mate
+on the other side of centrepiece.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Cabin of this House-Boat</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is to fit in the space, A, B, D, C of the centrepiece, <a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>.
+There is to be a one-inch plank at each end (see <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>), next
+to which the side-supports at each end of cabin fit. The supports
+are two-by-twos; so, allowing 1 inch for the plank and 2 inches
+for the upright support, the next pair of ribs will be just 3 inches
+from A B, <a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>, of the centrepiece (see <a href="#Fig_221">Figs. 221</a> and <a href="#Fig_222">222</a>).
+The twin ribs at the forward end of the cabin will be the same
+distance from D C, <a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>, as shown in the plan and elevation,
+<a href="#Fig_221">Figs. 221</a> and <a href="#Fig_222">222</a>. This leaves five pairs of ribs to be distributed
+between the front and back end of the cabin. From the outside
+of each end-support to the inside of the nearest middle-support
+is 2 feet 6 inches. Allowing 2 inches for the supports, this will
+place the adjoining ribs 2 feet 8 inches from the outside of the
+end-supports. The other ribs are placed midway between, as
+may be seen by the elevation, <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>.</div>
+
+<p>There is another pair of</p>
+
+
+<h3>Deck-Ribs</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>at the forward end of the cabin, which are placed flush with the
+line D, C, <a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a> (see <a href="#Fig_221">Figs. 221</a> and <a href="#Fig_222">222</a>). The two pairs of ribs
+in the bow are spaced, as shown in the diagram. This description<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+may appear as if it was a complicated affair; but you will find it a
+simple thing to work out if you will remember to allow space for
+your pump in the stern, space for the end-planks at after and forward
+end of cabin, and space for your uprights. The planks at
+after and forward end of cabin are to box in the cabin floor.</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Boat May Now Be Launched</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>by sliding it over the rollers, which will not be found a difficult
+operation.</div>
+
+
+<div class='unindent'>The Plans Show Three Lockers</div>
+
+<div class='unindent'>&mdash;two in the bow under the hatch and one under the rear bunk&mdash;but
+if it is deemed necessary the space between-decks, at each
+side of the cabin, may be utilized as lockers. In this space you
+can store enough truck to last for months. A couple of doors in
+the plank at the front of the cabin opening, under the deck, will
+be found very convenient to reach the forward locker in wet
+weather.</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Keel</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is a triangular piece of 2-inch board, made to fit exactly in the middle
+of the stern, and had best be nailed in place before the boat is
+launched (see <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>). The keel must have its bottom edge
+flush with the bottom of the boat, and a strip of hard-wood nailed
+on the stern-end of the keel and bumper, as shown in the diagram.
+A couple of strong screw-eyes will support the rudder.</div>
+
+<p>After the boat is launched the</p>
+
+
+<h3>Side-Supports for the Cabin May Be Erected</h3>
+
+<p>These are "two-by-twos" and eight in number, and each 5 feet
+9 inches long. Nail them securely at their lower ends to the adjoining
+ribs. See that they are plumb, and fasten them temporarily
+with diagonal pieces, to hold the top ends in place, while you
+nail down the lower deck or flooring.</p>
+
+<p>Now fit and nail the two 1-inch planks in place, at the bow and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+stern-end of the cabin, each of which has its top one inch above the
+sides, even with the proposed deck (see dotted lines in <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3>Use Ordinary Flooring</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>or if that is not obtainable use ¾-inch pine boards, and run them
+lengthwise from the bow to the front end of the cabin and along
+the sides of the cabin. Then floor the cabin lengthwise from bow
+to stern. This gives you a dry cabin floor, for there are 4 inches
+of space underneath for bilge-water, which unless your boat is
+badly made and very leaky, is plenty of room for what little water
+may leak in from above or below. The two side-boards of the
+cabin floor must, of course, have square places neatly cut out to
+fit the uprights of the cabin. This may be done by slipping the
+floor-board up against the uprights and carefully marking the
+places with a pencil where they will come through the board,
+and then at each mark sawing two inches in the floor plank, and
+cutting out the blocks with a chisel.</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Hatch</h3>
+
+<p>Now take a "four-by-four" and saw off eight short supports
+for the two 1-inch planks which support the hatch, Figs. 221 and
+222. Toe-nail the middle four-by-four to the floor in such a position
+that the two cross-planks (which are made to fit in the notches
+E and F, <a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>) will rest on the supports. Nail the four other
+supports to the side-boards of your boat, and on top of these nail
+the cross-planks, as shown in the diagrams.</p>
+
+<p>The boat is now ready for its</p>
+
+
+<h3>Upper Deck</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>of 1-inch pine boards. These are to be nailed on lengthwise, bow
+and stern and at sides of cabin, leaving, of course, the cabin open,
+as shown by the position of the boys in <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>, and an opening,
+3 feet by 2, for the hatch (<a href="#Fig_221">Fig. 221</a>). The two floors will act as
+benches for the uprights of the cabin, and hold them stiff and
+plumb.</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>To further stiffen the frame, make two diagonals for the stern-end,
+as shown in <a href="#Fig_223">Fig. 223</a>, and nail them in place.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Rafters</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>or roof-rods, should extend a foot each way beyond the cabin,
+hence cut them two feet longer than the cabin, and after testing
+your uprights, to see that they are exactly plumb, nail the two side
+roof-rods in place (see dotted lines in <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>). The cross-pieces
+at the ends, as they support no great weight, may be fitted between
+the two side-rods, and nailed there.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 392px;"><a id="Fig_223"></a>
+<img src="images/i_188.png" width="392" height="371" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 223.&mdash;End view.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The roof is to be made of ½-inch boards bent into a curve, and
+the ridge-pole, or centre roof-rod, must needs have some support.
+This is obtained by two short pieces of 2 by 4, each 6 inches long,
+which are toe-nailed to the centre of each cross-rod, and the ridge-pole
+nailed to their tops. At 3 feet from the upper deck the side
+frame-pieces are toe-nailed to the uprights. As may be seen, there
+are three two-by-fours on each side (<a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The space between the side frame-pieces, the two middle uprights,
+and side roof-rods, is where the windows are to be placed.</p>
+
+<p>Use ½-inch (tongue and groove preferred) pine boards for
+sidings, and</p>
+
+
+<h3>Box In Your Cabin</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>neatly, allowing space for windows on each side, as indicated.
+Leave the front open. Of the same kind of boards make your
+roof; the boards being light you can bend them down upon each
+side and nail them to the side roof-rods, forming a pretty curve,
+as may be seen in the illustration of the American boy's house-boat.</div>
+
+
+<h3>This Roof</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>to be finished neatly and made entirely water-proof, should be
+covered with tent-cloth or light canvas, smoothly stretched over
+and tacked upon the under side of the projecting edges. Three
+good coats of paint will make it water-proof and pleasant to look
+upon.</div>
+
+<p>The description, so far, has been for a neatly finished craft, but
+I have seen very serviceable and comfortable house-boats built of
+rough lumber, in which case the curved roof, when they had one,
+had narrow strips nailed over the boards where they joined each
+other or was covered with tar-paper.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a id="Fig_224"></a>
+<img src="images/i_190.png" width="500" height="434" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 224.&mdash;End view.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>To Contrive a Movable Front</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>to your cabin, make two doors to fit and close the front opening,
+but in place of hanging the doors on hinges, set them in place.
+Each door should have a good strong strap nailed securely on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+inside, for a handle, and a batten or cross-piece at top and bottom
+of inside surface. A 1½ by 4, run parallel to the front top
+cross-frame and nailed there, just a sufficient distance from it to
+allow the top of the door to be inserted between, will hold the top
+of the door securely. A two-by-four, with bolt-holes near either
+end to correspond with bolt-holes in the floor, will hold the bottom
+when the door is pushed in place, the movable bottom-piece
+shoved against it and the bolts thrust in (see <a href="#Fig_225">Fig. 225</a>, view from
+inside of cabin. <a href="#Fig_226">Fig. 226</a>, side view). It will be far less work to
+break in the side of the cabin than to burst in such doors, if they
+are well made. These doors possess this advantage: they can be
+removed and used as table-tops, leaving the whole front open to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+the summer breeze, or one may be removed, and still allow plenty
+of ventilation. A moulding on deck around the cabin is not
+necessary, but it will add finish and prevent the rain-water from
+leaking in.</div>
+
+<p>To lock up the boat you must set the doors from the inside,
+and if you wish to leave the craft locked you must crawl out of the
+window and fasten the latter with a lock.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="illustrations">
+<tr><td align="left"><div class="figleft" style="width: 266px;"><a id="Fig_225"></a>
+<img src="images/i_191a.png" width="266" height="334" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 225.&mdash;Inside view of door.</div>
+</div></td>
+<td align="left"><div class="figright" style="width: 178px;"><a id="Fig_226"></a>
+<img src="images/i_191b.png" width="178" height="443" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig 226&mdash;Side view
+of door.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_227">Fig. 227</a> shows the construction of</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Rudder</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>and also an arrangement by which it may be worked from the
+front of the boat, which, when the boat is towed, will be found
+most convenient.</div>
+
+<p>The hatch should be made of 1-inch boards, to fit snugly flush
+with the deck, as in the illustration, or made of 2-inch plank,
+and a moulding fitted around the opening, as shown in <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>A Pair of Rowlocks</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>made of two round oak sticks with an iron rod in their upper ends,
+may be placed in holes in the deck near the bow, and the boat can
+be propelled by two oarsmen using long "sweeps," which have
+holes at the proper places to fit over the iron rods projecting from
+the oaken rowlocks. These rowlocks may be removed when not
+in use, and the holes closed by wooden plugs, while the sweeps
+can be hung at the side of the cabin, under its eaves, or lashed fast
+to the roof.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 523px;"><a id="Fig_227"></a>
+<img src="images/i_192.png" width="523" height="228" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 227.&mdash;Side elevation.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>Two or More Ash Poles</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>for pushing or poling the boat over shallow water or other difficult
+places for navigation are handy, and should not be left out of the
+equipment. The window-sashes may be hung on hinges and
+supplied with hooks and screw-eyes to fasten them open by hooking
+them to the eaves when it is desired to let in the fresh air. All
+window openings should be protected by wire netting to keep
+out insects.</div>
+
+<p>Two bunks can be fitted at the rear end of the cabin, one
+above the other, the bottom bunk being the lid to a locker (see
+<a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>The Locker</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is simply a box, the top of which is just below the deck-line and
+extending the full width of the cabin. It has hinges at the back,
+and may be opened for the storage of luggage.</div>
+
+<p>Over the lid blankets are folded, making a divan during the
+day and a bed at night.</p>
+
+<p>The top bunk is made like the frame of a cheap cot, but in place
+of being upholstered it has a strong piece of canvas stretched
+across it. This bunk is also hinged to the back of the cabin, so
+that when not in use it can be swung up against the roof and fastened
+there as the top berth in a sleeping-car is fastened. Four
+4 by 4 posts can be bolted to the side-support at each corner of
+the bottom bunk; they will amply support the top bunk, as the
+legs do a table-top when the frame is allowed to rest upon their
+upper ends. This makes accommodation for two boys, and
+there is still room for upper and lower side bunks, the cabin
+being but six feet wide. If you put bunks on both sides you will
+be rather crowded, it is true, but by allowing a 1-foot passage in
+the middle, you can have two side bunks and plenty of head room.
+This will accommodate four boys, and that is a full crew for a boat
+of this size.</p>
+
+<p>On board a yacht I have often seen four full-grown men
+crowded into a smaller space in the cabin, while the sailormen
+in the fo'-castle had not near that amount of room.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A More Simple Set of Plans</h3>
+
+<p>Here the cabin is built on top of the upper deck, and there are
+no bottom-ribs, the uprights being held in place by blocks nailed
+to the bottom of the boat, and by the deck of the boat. This is
+secure enough for well-protected waters, small lakes, and small
+streams. Upon the inland streams of New York State I have seen
+two-story house-boats, the cabin, or house, being only a framework
+covered with canvas. One such craft I saw in central New
+York, drifting downstream over a shallow riff, and as it bumped<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+along over the stones it presented a strange sight. The night was
+intensely dark, and the boat brightly lighted. The lights shone
+through the canvas covering, and this big, luminous house went
+bobbing over the shallow water, while shouts of laughter and the
+"plinky-plunk" of a banjo told in an unmistakable manner of the
+jolly time the crew were having.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Canvas-Cabined House-Boat</h3>
+
+<p>If you take an ordinary open scow and erect a frame of uprights
+and cross-pieces, and cover it with canvas, you will have just such
+a boat as the one seen in central New York. This boat may be
+propelled by oars, the rowers sitting under cover, and the canvas
+being lifted at the sides to allow the sweeps to work; but of course
+it will not be as snug as the well-made American boy's house-boat,
+neither can it stand the same amount of rough usage, wind, and
+rain as the latter boat.</p>
+
+<p>In the frontispiece the reader will notice a stove-pipe at the stern;
+there is room for a small stove back of the cabin, and in fair
+weather it is much better to cook outside than inside the cabin.
+When you tie up to the shore for any length of time, a rude
+shelter of boughs and bark will make a good kitchen on the land,
+in which the stove may be placed, and you will enjoy all the fun
+of a camp, with the advantage of a snug house to sleep in.</p>
+
+<p>For the benefit of boys who doubt their ability to build a boat
+of this description, it may be well to state that other lads have used
+these directions and plans with successful results, and their boats
+now gracefully float on many waters, a source of satisfaction and
+pride to their owners.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Information for Old Boys</h3>
+
+<p>On all the Western rivers small flat-boats or scows are to be had
+at prices which vary in accordance with the mercantile instincts
+of the purchaser, and with the desire of the seller to dispose of his
+craft. Such boats are propelled by "sweeps," a name used to
+designate the long poles with boards on their outer edges that serve<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+as blades and form the oars. These boats are often supplied with
+a deck-house, extending almost from end to end, and if such a
+house is lacking one may be built with little expense. The cabin
+may be divided into rooms and the sleeping apartments supplied
+with cheaply made bunks. It is not the material of the bunk
+which makes it comfortable&mdash;it is the mattress in the bunk upon
+which your comfort will depend. The kitchen and dining-room
+may be all in one. An awning spread over the roof will make a
+delightful place in which to lounge and catch the river breezes.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Cost of House-Boats</h3>
+
+<p>The cost of a ready-made flat-bottomed house-boat is anywhere
+from thirty dollars to one or more thousands. In Florida such a
+boat, 40 by 20 feet, built for the quiet waters of the St. John's
+River or its tributaries, or the placid lagoons, will cost eight hundred
+dollars. This boat is well painted outside and rubbed down
+to a fine oil finish inside; it has one deck, and the hull is used for
+toilet apartments and state-rooms; the hull is well calked and all
+is in good trim. Such expense is, however, altogether unnecessary&mdash;there
+need be no paint or polish. All you need is a well-calked
+hull and a water-tight roof of boards or canvas overhead;
+cots or bunks to sleep in; chairs, stools, boxes or benches to sit
+on; hammocks to loll in, and a good supply of provisions in
+the larder.</p>
+
+<p>House-boats for the open waters are necessarily more expensive.
+As a rule they need round bottoms that stand well out of the water,
+and are built like the hull of a ship. These boats cost as much to
+build as a small yacht. From twelve to fifteen hundred dollars
+will build a good house-boat, with comfortable sleeping-berths,
+toilet-rooms and store-rooms below; a kitchen, dining-room, and
+living-rooms on the cabin deck, with wide, breezy passageways
+separating them.</p>
+
+<p>If a bargain can be found in an old schooner with a good hull,
+for two or three hundred dollars, a first-class house-boat can be
+made by the expenditure of as much more for a cabin. The roofs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+of all house-boats should extend a foot or more beyond the sides
+of the cabin.</p>
+
+
+<h3>For People of Limited Means</h3>
+
+<p>For people with little money to spend, these expensive boats
+are as much out of reach as a yacht, but they may often be rented
+for prices within the means of people in moderate circumstances.
+At New York I have known a good schooner-yacht, 84 feet over all,
+to be chartered for two weeks, with crew of skipper and two men,
+the larder plentifully supplied with provisions and luxuries for six
+people and the crew, making nine in all, at a cost of thirty-six dollars
+apiece for each of the six passengers. An equally good house-boat
+should not cost over twelve dollars a week per passenger for
+a party of ten. In inland waters, if a boat could be rented, the
+cost should not exceed seven or eight dollars a week per passenger.</p>
+
+<p>A canal-boat is a most excellent house-boat for a pleasure party,
+either on inland streams or along our coast.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Street-Car Cabins</h3>
+
+<p>Since the introduction of cable and trolley-cars the street-car
+companies have been selling their old horse-cars, in some instances
+at figures below the cost of the window-glass in them; so cheap,
+in fact, that poor people buy them to use as woodsheds and
+chicken-coops.</p>
+
+<p>One of these cars will make an ideal cabin for a house-boat,
+and can be adapted for that purpose with little or no alterations.
+All it needs is a good flat-boat to rest in, and you have a palatial
+house-boat.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1">[A]</a> See <a href="#Page_10">p. 10</a>.</p></div></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XV<br />
+<small>A CHEAP AND SPEEDY MOTOR-BOAT</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary1'>How To Build the Jackson Glider&mdash;A Very Simple Form of Motor-Boat,
+Which Will Hold Its Own in Speed With Even
+Expensive Boats of Double Horse-Power</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">This</span> boat is intended to slide over the top of the water and not
+through it, consequently it is built in the form of a flat-bottom
+scow. Order your wood dressed on both sides, otherwise it will
+come with one side rough. For the side-boards we need two pine,
+or cedar boards, to measure, when trimmed, 14 feet (<a href="#Fig_228">Fig. 228</a>),
+and to be 16 or 18 inches wide.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Stern-Board</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>when trimmed, will be 2½ feet long by 1 foot, 8½ inches wide.
+It may even be a little wider, because the protruding part can be
+planed down after the boat is built (<a href="#Fig_229">Fig. 229</a>).</div>
+
+<p>To make the bow measure from the point E (<a href="#Fig_228">Fig. 228</a>) 1 foot
+8½ inches and mark the point C. Measure along the same line
+13½ inches and mark the point D. Next measure from B down
+along the edge of the boat one inch and mark the point F. Again
+measure down from B, 5¾ inches and mark the point G. With
+a carpenter's pencil draw the lines F D and G C and saw these
+pieces off along the dotted line (<a href="#Fig_232">Fig. 232</a>). The bow can then be
+rounded at the points A and B with a sharp knife or jackplane.</p>
+
+<p>To get the proper slant on the stern, measure from H 4½ inches
+to L and saw off the triangle LHK. Make the other side board
+an exact duplicate of the first one, as in <a href="#Fig_228">Fig. 228</a>. Next set these
+two boards on edge, like sledge runners (<a href="#Fig_230">Fig. 230</a>), and let them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+be 2 feet, 6 inches apart (the boat will be safer if made six inches
+wider, and its speed will be almost as great), which can be tested
+by fitting the stern-boards between them before nailing the temporary
+boards on, which are to hold them in place (<a href="#Fig_230">Fig. 230</a>). Do
+not drive the nails home, but leave the heads protruding on all
+temporary braces, so that they may be easily removed when
+necessary.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_228"></a><a id="Fig_229"></a><a id="Fig_230"></a>
+<img src="images/i_198.png" width="600" height="467" alt="Figs. 228-230 Parts of a motor-boat" />
+</div>
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_198-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 334px;"><a id="Fig_231"></a>
+<img src="images/i_199.png" width="334" height="475" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 231.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now turn the boat bottom side up and nail the bottom on, as
+already described in previous chapters (<a href="#Fig_232">Fig. 232</a>). The bottom-boards
+are to be so planed upon their edges that they leave V-shaped
+grooves on the inside of the boat to be calked with candlewick
+and putty (<a href="#Fig_231">Fig. 231</a>). Next make a shaft-log by cutting a
+board in a triangular piece, as shown in <a href="#Fig_233">Fig. 233</a>, and nailing two
+other pieces of board on it, and leaving a space for the shaft-rod,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+over which is nailed a duplicate of the bottom-board, as shown
+in <a href="#Fig_234">Fig. 234</a>. Make the shaft-log of three thicknesses of 1-inch
+plank. To make it more secure there should be a board nailed on
+the inside bottom of the boat, as shown in <a href="#Fig_235">Fig. 235</a> by the dotted
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>This board is put there to strengthen the bottom and allow us
+to cut a slot through for the admission of a shaft (<a href="#Fig_236">Fig. 236</a>) which
+is drawn on a scale shown below
+it. With the engine comes a
+stuffing box, through which the
+shaft passes and which prevents
+the water from coming up
+through the shaft-hole. The
+stuffing boxes, which are furnished
+to fit upon the inside of
+the boat, are expensive, but one
+to fit upon the stern of the shaft-log
+costs but little, and will answer
+all purposes.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Of course, when attaching the
+shaft-log to the bottom, it must
+be in the exact centre of the
+boat. Find the centre of the
+boat at the bow and stern, mark
+the points and snap a chalk-line
+between them. Now place the
+shaft-log in position on this line and while holding that there
+firmly, mark around it with a carpenter's pencil. Next lay the
+shaft-log flat on its side with its edge along this line and with
+your pencil mark on the bottom of the boat the exact place
+where the shaft-hole must be cut to correspond with the one in the
+shaft-log. As may be seen by <a href="#Fig_236">Fig. 236</a>, the shaft runs through
+at an acute angle; hence the hole must be bored on a slant, or
+better still a slot cut through the floor long enough to allow for
+the slant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_232"></a><a id="Fig_233"></a><a id="Fig_234"></a><a id="Fig_235"></a><a id="Fig_236"></a><a id="Fig_237"></a><a id="Fig_238"></a><a id="Fig_239"></a>
+<img src="images/i_200.png" width="600" height="368" alt="Details of Motor-boat" />
+</div>
+
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_200-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The leak, which would naturally occur here is prevented by the
+stuffing box which is fastened on to the stern-end of the shaft-log
+where the latter protrudes for the propeller. To set the engine
+in the boat it is necessary to have an engine-bed. This is made
+of two pieces of board cut diagonally, upon which the engine
+rests.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_237">Fig. 237</a> shows a piece of 2-inch board and a method of sawing
+it to make the duplicate pieces to form the engine-bed. The
+dimension of these pieces must be obtained by measuring the
+width of the engine rest, which is to be installed. The angle, of
+course, must correspond to the angle of the shaft.</p>
+
+<p>Make your own rudder of any shape that suits your fancy,
+square or paddle-shaped, of a piece of galvanized iron or of wood,
+as shown in the diagram; or you can simply fasten the rudder-stem
+to the transom (stern-board), as is often done on row-boats
+and sail-boats. If you desire to make your rudder like the one
+shown here, use two pieces of galvanized pipes for your rudder-posts,
+one of which fits loosely inside of the other. Make the
+rudder-posts of what is known as <small><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></small>-inch (which means literally
+a <small><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></small>-inch opening) and for its jacket use a ¾-inch pipe, or any two
+kinds of pipe, which will allow one to turn loosely inside the other.
+The smaller pipe can be bent easily by hand to suit your convenience,
+after it has been thrust through the larger pipe.</p>
+
+<p>First bend the lower end of the small pipe to fit your proposed
+rudder, then remove the larger pipe and flatten the lower end of
+the small one by beating it with the hammer. To bore the screw-holes
+in the flattened end you will use a small tool for drilling
+metal. One of these drills, which will fit any carpenter's brace,
+can be procured for the cost of a few cents.</p>
+
+<p>Drill holes through the flattened end of your pipe for the reception
+of your screws, which are to secure it to the rudder. It is
+now necessary to fasten a block of 2-inch plank securely to the
+bottom of the boat upon the inside where the rudder-post is to be
+set. This block might best be secured on with four bolts. A
+hole is then bored through the block and the bottom of the boat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+a trifle smaller than the largest piece of pipe; the latter is supposed
+to have screw threads upon its lower end (<a href="#Fig_238">Fig. 238</a>) so that
+it may be screwed into the wood, but before doing so coat the
+threads with white lead and also the inside of the hole in the block
+with the same substance.</p>
+
+<p>When the larger pipe is now screwed into the block until its
+lower end is flushed with the outside bottom of the boat, the white
+lead will not only make the process easier, but will tend to keep
+out the moisture and water from the joint.</p>
+
+<p>From the outside thrust the upper end of the small pipe through
+the hole in the bottom until it protrudes the proper distance above
+the larger pipe, and with the point of a nail scratch a mark on the
+surface of the small pipe where it issues from the big one. At this
+point drill a hole through the small pipe to admit a nail which is
+to act as a peg to keep the helm from sliding down and jamming in
+its bearings.</p>
+
+<p>If you choose, a small seat or deck may be inserted in the stern,
+through which the helm extends and which will help to steady it.
+The top of the helm, or protruding ends of the small pipe may
+now be bent over toward the bow, as shown in the diagram, and
+by holding some hard substance under it, the end may be flattened
+with a hammer and two holes drilled through the flattened end
+for the rudder-line, as in <a href="#Fig_239">Fig. 239</a>. These lines work the rudder
+and extend on each side of the boat through some clothes-lines
+pulleys, as shown in <a href="#Fig_239">Fig. 239</a>.</p>
+
+<p>If you slice off the ring from a common rubber hose and slip
+it over the inside pipe before you fasten it in place, it will prevent
+the water from spurting up through the rudder pipe when the boat
+is speeding.</p>
+
+<p>Any boat will leak if not carefully built and the simplest kind
+of a craft carefully put together is as water-tight as the most finished
+and expensive boat.</p>
+
+<p>For a gasoline tank any good galvanized iron vessel will answer
+if it holds five gallons or more of gasoline. It can be placed in the
+bow on a rest made for it. Of course the bottom of the tank must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+be on a level or higher than the carburetor of the engine; the tank
+is connected by a small copper, or block-tin pipe, which you procure
+with the engine.</p>
+
+<p>This boat, if built according to plans, should cost ten dollars or
+less, not counting the cost of the engine. The cost of the latter
+will vary according to the style of one you use, and whether you
+get it first or second hand.</p>
+
+<p>A ten-horse power engine drove a boat of this kind at the rate of
+eighteen miles an hour.</p>
+
+<p>For beginners, this is as far as it is safe to go in boat-building,
+but thus far any one with a rudimentary knowledge of the use of
+tools can go, and, if one has followed the book through from
+chapter to chapter he should be a good boat-builder at</p>
+
+<div class='center'><br />
+The End
+</div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span></p>
+<div class='bbox'>
+<div class='adtitle2'>THE BEARD BOOKS FOR BOYS</div>
+
+<div class='center'><big><i>By</i> <span class="smcap">Dan C. Beard</span></big></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 54px;">
+<img src="images/decoration.png" width="54" height="14" alt="decoration" />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>THE AMERICAN BOY'S HANDY BOOK. Or, What
+to Do and How to Do It</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Illustrated by the author</i><br />
+Gives sports adapted to all seasons of the year, tells boys how to make all
+kinds of things&mdash;boats, traps, toys, puzzles, aquariums, fishing-tackle; how
+to tie knots, splice ropes, to make bird calls, sleds, blow-guns, balloons; how
+to rear wild birds, to train dogs, and do the thousand and one things that
+boys take delight in.</div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>THE OUTDOOR HANDY BOOK. For Playground,
+Field, and Forest</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Illustrated by the author</i><br />
+"How to play all sorts of games with marbles, how to make and spin more
+kinds of tops than most boys ever heard of, how to make the latest things
+in plain and fancy kites, where to dig bait and how to fish, all about boats
+and sailing, and a host of other things .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. an unmixed delight to any
+boy."&mdash;<i>New York Tribune.</i></div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>THE FIELD AND FOREST HANDY BOOK. Or, New
+Ideas for Out of Doors</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Illustrated by the author</i><br />
+"Instructions as to ways to build boats and fire-engines, make aquariums,
+rafts, and sleds, to camp in a back-yard, etc. No better book of the kind exists."&mdash;<i>Chicago
+Record-Herald.</i></div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>SHELTERS, SHACKS, AND SHANTIES</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Illustrated by the author</i><br />
+Easily workable directions, accompanied by very full illustration, for over
+fifty shelters, shacks, and shanties.</div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING. A Handy Book
+for Beginners</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Illustrated by the author</i><br />
+All that Dan Beard knows and has written about the building of every simple
+kind of boat, from a raft to a cheap motor-boat, is brought together in
+this book.</div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>THE JACK OF ALL TRADES. Or, New Ideas for
+American Boys</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'><i>Illustrated by the author</i><br />
+"This book is a capital one to give any boy for a present at Christmas, on
+a birthday, or indeed at any time."&mdash;<i>The Outlook.</i></div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>THE BOY PIONEERS. Sons of Daniel Boone</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Illustrated by the author</i><br />
+"How to become a member of the 'Sons of Daniel Boone' and take part in
+all the old pioneer games, and many other things in which boys are interested."&mdash;<i>Philadelphia
+Press.</i></div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>THE BLACK WOLF-PACK</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>"A genuine thriller of mystery and red-blooded conflicts, well calculated to
+hold the mind and the heart of its boy and, for that matter, its adult
+reader."&mdash;<i>Philadelphia North American.</i></div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='bbox'>
+<div class='adtitle2'>THE BEARD BOOKS FOR GIRLS</div>
+
+<div class='center'><big><i>By</i> <span class="smcap">Lina Beard</span> <i>and</i> <span class="smcap">Adelia B. Beard</span></big></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 54px;">
+<img src="images/decoration.png" width="54" height="14" alt="decoration" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>THE AMERICAN GIRL'S HANDY BOOK. How to
+Amuse Yourself and Others</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>With nearly 500 illustrations</i><br />
+"It is a treasure which, once possessed, no practical girl would willingly
+part with."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Grace Greenwood.</span></div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>THINGS WORTH DOING AND HOW TO DO THEM</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>With some 600 drawings by the authors that show exactly how they should
+be done</i><br />
+"The book will tell you how to do nearly anything that any live girl
+really wants to do."&mdash;<i>The World To-day.</i></div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>HANDICRAFT AND RECREATION FOR GIRLS</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>With over 700 illustrations by the authors</i><br />
+"It teaches how to make serviceable and useful things of all kinds
+out of every kind of material. It also tells how to play and how to
+make things to play with."&mdash;<i>Chicago Evening Post.</i></div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>WHAT A GIRL CAN MAKE AND DO. New Ideas
+for Work and Play</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>With more than 300 illustrations by the authors</i><br />
+"It would be a dull girl who could not make herself busy and happy
+following its precepts.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. A most inspiring book for an active-minded
+girl."&mdash;<i>Chicago Record-Herald.</i></div>
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>ON THE TRAIL</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Illustrated by the authors</i><br />
+This volume tells how a girl can live outdoors, camping in the woods,
+and learning to know its wild inhabitants.</div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>MOTHER NATURE'S TOY SHOP</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Profusely illustrated by the authors</i><br />
+
+How children can make toys easily and economically from wild
+flowers, grasses, green leaves, seed-vessels, fruits, etc.</div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>LITTLE FOLKS' HANDY BOOK</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>With many illustrations</i><br />
+Contains a wealth of devices for entertaining children by means of
+paper building-cards, wooden berry-baskets, straw and paper furniture,
+paper jewelry, etc.</div>
+
+<div class='center'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;<br />
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, NEW YORK<br />
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class='tnote'><h3>Transcriber's Notes:</h3>
+
+<p>Punctuation errors were corrected.</p>
+
+<p>Inconsistent hyphenation was retained.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the
+illustrations were enlarged to show greater detail.</p>
+
+<p>Page 42, "staps" changed to "straps" (straps with your hand)</p>
+
+<p>Page 58, "mechancial" changed to "mechanical" (with mechanical aid)</p>
+<p>Page 90 and 96, two different drawings are labeled "Fig. 140."</p>
+<p>Page 166, the illustration has a "Fig. 113" as part of the original, but the
+caption reads "Fig. 218." This anomaly was retained.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44228 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #44228 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44228)
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Boat-Building and Boating, by Daniel Carter
+Beard, Illustrated by Daniel Carter Beard
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Boat-Building and Boating
+
+
+Author: Daniel Carter Beard
+
+
+
+Release Date: November 18, 2013  [eBook #44228]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Emmy, Henry Gardiner, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images
+generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 44228-h.htm or 44228-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44228/44228-h/44228-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44228/44228-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      https://archive.org/details/boatbuildingboat00bear
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
+
+      A carat character is used to denote superscription. A
+      character enclosed by curly brackets following the carat
+      is superscripted [example: A^{1}].
+
+
+
+
+
+BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING
+
+
+[Illustration: Bound for a good time]
+
+
+BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING
+
+by
+
+D. C. BEARD
+
+With Many Illustrations by the Author
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+New York
+Charles Scribner's Sons
+1931
+
+Copyright, 1911, by
+Charles Scribner's Sons
+
+Printed in the United States of America
+
+Special Notice
+
+All the material in this book, both text and cuts, is original with
+the author and invented by him; and warning is hereby given that the
+unauthorized printing of any portion of the text and the reproduction
+of any of the illustrations or diagrams are expressly forbidden.
+
+
+[Illustration: The Scribner Press]
+
+
+
+
+    AFFECTIONATELY
+    DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF
+    TOM AND HI
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+THIS is not a book for yacht-builders, but it is intended for beginners
+in the art of boat-building, for boys and men who wish to make
+something with which they may navigate the waters of ponds, lakes, or
+streams. It begins with the most primitive crafts composed of slabs
+or logs and works up to scows, house-boats, skiffs, canoes and simple
+forms of sailing craft, a motor-boat, and there it stops. There are so
+many books and magazines devoted to the higher arts of ship-building
+for the graduates to use, besides the many manufacturing houses which
+furnish all the parts of a sail-boat, yacht, or motor-boat for the
+ambitious boat-builder to put together himself, that it is unnecessary
+for the author to invade that territory.
+
+Many of the designs in this book have appeared in magazines to which
+the author contributed, or in his own books on general subjects, and
+all these have been successfully built by hundreds of boys and men.
+
+Many of them are the author's own inventions, and the others are his
+own adaptations of well-known and long-tried models. In writing and
+collecting this material for boat-builders from his other works and
+placing them in one volume, the author feels that he is fulfilling
+the wishes of many of his old readers and offering a useful book to
+a large audience of new recruits to the army of those who believe in
+the good old American doctrine of: "If you want a thing done, do it
+yourself." And by doing it yourself you not only add to your skill and
+resourcefulness, but, what is even more important, you develop your own
+self-reliance and manhood.
+
+No one man can think of everything connected with any one subject,
+and the author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to several
+sportsmen friends, especially to his camp-mate, Mr. F. K. Vreeland, and
+his young friend, Mr. Samuel Jackson, for suggestions of great value to
+both writer and reader.
+
+                                                       DAN BEARD.
+
+  FLUSHING, L. I., _Sept., 1911._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                              PAGE
+     I. HOW TO CROSS A STREAM ON A LOG                    3
+    II. HOME-MADE BOATS                                   8
+   III. A RAFT THAT WILL SAIL                            18
+    IV. CANOES                                           25
+     V. CANOES AND BOATING STUNTS                        33
+    VI. THE BIRCH-BARK                                   48
+   VII. HOW TO BUILD A PADDLING DORY                     69
+  VIII. THE LANDLUBBER'S CHAPTER                         74
+    IX. HOW TO RIG AND SAIL SMALL BOATS                  96
+     X. MORE RIGS OF ALL KINDS FOR SMALL BOATS          111
+    XI. KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES                       123
+   XII. HOW TO BUILD A CHEAP BOAT                       139
+  XIII. A "ROUGH-AND-READY" BOAT                        154
+   XIV. HOW TO BUILD CHEAP AND SUBSTANTIAL HOUSE-BOATS  163
+    XV. A CHEAP AND SPEEDY MOTOR-BOAT                   184
+
+
+
+
+Boat-Building and Boating
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--The logomaran.]
+
+
+
+
+BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+HOW TO CROSS A STREAM ON A LOG
+
+How to Build a Logomaran
+
+
+THERE is a widespread notion that all wood will float on water, and
+this idea often leads to laughable errors. I know a lot of young
+backwoods farmers who launched a raft of green oak logs, and were as
+much astonished to see their craft settle quietly to the bottom of
+the lake as they would have been to see the leaden sinkers of their
+fish-lines dance lightly on the surface of the waves. The young fellows
+used a day's time to discover what they might have learned in a few
+moments by watching the chips sink when they struck the water as they
+flew from the skilful blows of their axes.
+
+The stream which cuts your trail is not always provided with bridges
+of fallen trees. It may be a river too deep to ford and too wide to be
+bridged by a chance log. Of course it is a simple matter to swim, but
+the weather may be cold and the water still colder; besides this, you
+will probably be encumbered with a lot of camp equipage--your gun, rod,
+and camera--none of which will be improved by a plunge in the water. Or
+it may so happen that you are on the shores of a lake unsupplied with
+boats, and you have good reasons for supposing that big fish lurk in
+some particular spot out of reach from the shore. A thousand and one
+emergencies may arise when a craft of some kind will be not only a
+great convenience, but almost a necessity. Under these circumstances
+
+
+A Logomaran
+
+may be constructed in a very short time which can bear you and your
+pack safely to the desired goal (Fig. 1).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--The notch.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Top view of logomaran.]
+
+In the Rocky, Cascade, and Selkirk Mountains, the lakes and streams
+have their shores plentifully supplied with "whim sticks," logs
+of fine dry timber, which the freshets have brought down from the
+mountain sides and which the rocks and surging torrents have denuded
+of bark. These whim sticks are of all sizes, and as sound and perfect
+as kiln-dried logs. Even in the mountains of Pennsylvania, where the
+lumberman's axe years ago laid waste the primeval forest, where the
+saw-mills have devoured the second growth, the tie-hunter the third
+growth, the excelsior-mills and birch-beer factories the saplings, I
+still find good sound white pine-log whim sticks strewn along the
+shores of the lakes and streams, timber which is suitable for temporary
+rafts and logomarans.
+
+In the North Woods, where in many localities the original forest is
+untouched by the devouring pulp-mills, suitable timber is not difficult
+to find; so let the green wood stand and select a log of dry wood from
+the shore where the floods or ice have deposited it. Cut it into a
+convenient length, and with a lever made of a good stout sapling, and a
+fulcrum of a stone or chunk of wood, pry the log from its resting-place
+and roll it into the shallow water. Notch the log on the upper side, as
+shown by Fig. 2, making a notch near each end for the cross-pieces.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Flattened joint.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
+
+Matched joints.]
+
+The two side floats may be made of pieces split, by the aid of wooden
+wedges, from a large log, or composed of small whim sticks, as shown by
+Fig. 3.
+
+The floats, as may be seen by reference to Figs. 1 and 3, are shorter
+than the middle log.
+
+It is impracticable to give dimensions, for the reason that they are
+relative; the length of the middle log depends, to some extent, upon
+its diameter, it being evident that a thick log will support more than
+a thin one of the same length; consequently if your log is of small
+diameter, it must be longer, in order to support your weight, than will
+be necessary for a thicker piece of timber. The point to remember is to
+select a log which will support you and your pack, and then attach two
+side floats to balance your craft and prevent it from rolling over and
+dumping its load in the water.
+
+An ordinary single shell-boat without a passenger will upset, but
+when the oarsman takes his seat and grasps his long spoon oars, the
+sweeps, resting on the water, balance the cranky craft, and it cannot
+upset as long as the oars are kept there. This is the principle of the
+logomaran, as well as that of the common catamaran. The cross-pieces
+should be only thick enough to be secure and long enough to prevent the
+log from wabbling and wetting your feet more than is necessary.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--The saw-buck crib.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.--The staked crib.]
+
+
+If You Have an Auger and No Nails
+
+the craft may be fastened together with wooden pegs cut somewhat larger
+than the holes bored to receive them, and driven in with blows from
+your axe.
+
+If you have long nails or spikes the problem is a simple one; but if
+you have neither auger, nails, nor spikes you must bind the joints with
+rope or hempen twine.
+
+If you have neither nails, auger, nor rope, a good substitute for the
+latter can be made from the long,
+
+
+Fibrous Inner Bark
+
+of a dead or partly burned tree. For experiment I took some of the
+inner bark of a chestnut-tree which had been killed by fire and twisted
+it into a rope the size of a clothes-line, then I allowed two strong
+men to have a tug-of-war with it, and the improvised rope was stronger
+than the men.
+
+
+How to Make a Fibre Rope
+
+Take one end of a long, loose strand of fibres, give the other end to
+another person, and let both twine the ends between the fingers until
+the material is well twisted throughout its entire length; then bring
+the two ends together, and two sides of the loop thus made will twist
+themselves into a cord or rope half the length of the original strand.
+
+If you nail or peg the parts, use your axe to flatten the joints by
+striking off a chip, as in Fig. 4.
+
+If you must lash the joints together, cut them with log-cabin notches,
+as in Figs. 5 and 6.
+
+If you have baggage to transport, make
+
+
+A Dunnage Crib
+
+by driving four stakes in cuts made near the end of the centre log and
+binding them with rope or fibre (Figs. 7 and 8), or by working green
+twigs basket-fashion around them, or make the rack saw-buck fashion, as
+shown by Fig. 7, and this will keep your things above water.
+
+A couple of cleats nailed on each side of the log will be of great
+assistance and lessen the danger and insecurity of the footing.
+
+A skilfully made logomaran will enable you to cross any stream with a
+moderate current and any small lake in moderate weather. It is not an
+especially dry craft, but it won't sink or upset, and will take one but
+a short time to knock it together.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HOME-MADE BOATS
+
+    Birth of the "Man-Friday" Catamaran--The Crusoe Raft
+    and Chump Rafts
+
+
+NOT so very many years ago I remember visiting, in company with my
+cousin Tom, a small lake at the headwaters of the Miami. High and
+precipitous cliffs surround the little body of water. So steep were
+the great weather-beaten rocks that it was only where the stream came
+tumbling down past an old mill that an accessible path then existed.
+Down that path Tom and I scrambled, for we knew that large bass lurked
+in the deep, black holes among the rocks.
+
+We had no jointed split-bamboo rods nor fancy tackle, but the fish
+there in those days were not particular and seldom hesitated to bite
+at an angle-worm or grasshopper though the hook upon which the bait
+squirmed was suspended by a coarse line from a freshly cut hickory
+sapling.
+
+Even now I feel the thrill of excitement and expectancy as, in
+imagination, my pole is bent nearly double by the frantic struggles of
+those "gamy" black bass. After spending the morning fishing we built
+a fire upon a short stretch of sandy beach, and cleaning our fish and
+washing them in the spring close at hand, we put them among the embers
+to cook.
+
+While the fire was getting our dinner ready for us we threw off our
+clothes and plunged into the cool waters of the lake. Inexpert swimmers
+as we were at that time, the opposite shore, though apparently only a
+stone's throw distant, was too far off for us to reach by swimming.
+Many a longing and curious glance we cast toward it, however, and
+strong was the temptation that beset us to try the unknown depths
+intervening. A pair of brown ears appeared above the ferns near the
+water's edge, and a fox peeped at us; squirrels ran about the fallen
+trunks of trees or scampered up the rocks as saucily as though they
+understood that we could not swim well enough to reach their side of
+the lake; and high up the face of the cliff was a dark spot which we
+almost knew to be the entrance to some mysterious cavern.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8½.--The Man-Friday.]
+
+How we longed for a boat! But not even a raft nor a dugout could be
+seen anywhere upon the glassy surface of the water or along its rocky
+border. We nevertheless determined to explore the lake next day, even
+if we should have to paddle astride of a log.
+
+The first rays of the morning sun had not reached the dark waters
+before my companion and I were hard at work, with axe and hatchet,
+chopping in twain a long log we had discovered near the mill. We had
+at first intended to build a raft; but gradually we evolved a sort of
+catamaran. The two pieces of log we sharpened at the ends for the bow;
+then we rolled the logs down upon the beach, and while I went into the
+thicket to chop down some saplings my companion borrowed an auger
+from the miller. We next placed the logs about three feet apart, and
+marking the points where we intended to put the cross-pieces, we cut
+notches there; then we placed the saplings across, fitting them into
+these notches. To hold them securely we bored holes down through the
+sapling cross-pieces into the logs; with the hatchet we hammered wooden
+pegs into these holes. For the seat we used the half of a section of
+log, the flat side fitting into places cut for that purpose. All that
+remained to be done now was to make a seat in the stern and a pair
+of rowlocks. At a proper distance from the oarsman's seat we bored
+two holes for a couple of forked sticks, which answered admirably for
+rowlocks; across the stern we fastened another piece of log similar to
+that used for the oarsman's seat (Fig. 8½). With the help of a man from
+the mill our craft was launched; and with a pair of oars made of old
+pine boards we rowed off, leaving the miller waving his hat.
+
+Our catamaran was not so light as a row-boat, but it floated, and
+we could propel it with the oars, and, best of all, it was our own
+invention and made with our own hands. We called it a "Man-Friday," and
+by its means we explored every nook in the length and breadth of the
+lake; and ever afterward when we wanted a boat we knew a simple and
+inexpensive way to make one--and a safe one, too.
+
+
+The Crusoe Raft
+
+is another rustic craft, but it is of more ambitious dimensions than
+the "Man-Friday." Instead of being able to float only one or two
+passengers, the "Crusoe," if properly built, ought to accommodate a
+considerable party of raftsmen. Of course the purpose for which the
+raft is to be used, and the number of the crew that is expected to man
+it, must be taken into consideration when deciding upon the dimensions
+of the proposed craft.
+
+All the tools that are necessary for the construction of a good stout
+raft are an axe, an auger, and a hatchet, with some strong arms to
+wield them.
+
+The building material can be gathered from any driftwood heap on lake
+or stream.
+
+For a moderate-sized raft collect six or seven logs, the longest not
+being over sixteen feet in length nor more than a foot in diameter; the
+logs must be tolerably straight. Pick out the longest and biggest for
+the centre, sharpen one end, roll the log into the water, and there
+secure it.
+
+Select two logs as nearly alike as possible, to lie one at each side
+of the centre log. Measure the centre log, and make the point of each
+side log, not at its own centre, but at that side of it which will lie
+against the middle log, so that this side point shall terminate where
+the pointing of the middle log begins (see Fig. 9).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Plan of Crusoe raft.]
+
+After all the logs needed have been trimmed and sharpened in the
+manner just described, roll them into the water and arrange them in
+order (Fig. 9). Fasten them together with "cross-strips," boring holes
+through the strips to correspond with holes bored into the logs lying
+beneath, and through these holes drive wooden pegs. The pegs should be
+a trifle larger than the holes; the water will cause the pegs to swell,
+and they will hold much more firmly than iron nails.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Skeleton of Crusoe raft.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Crusoe with cabin covered.]
+
+The skeleton of the cabin can be made of saplings; such as are used for
+hoop-poles are the best.
+
+These are each bent into an arch, and the ends are thrust into holes
+bored for that purpose. Over this hooping a piece of canvas is
+stretched, after the manner of old-fashioned country wagons (Figs. 10
+and 11).
+
+Erect a "jack-staff," to be used as a flag-pole or a mast to rig a
+square sail on.
+
+A stout stick should be erected at the stern, and a similar one upon
+each side of the raft near the bow; these sticks, when their ends are
+made smaller, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 10), serve as rowlocks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Sweeps.]
+
+For oars use "sweeps"--long poles, each with a piece of board for a
+blade fastened at one end (Fig. 12).
+
+Holes must be bored through the poles of the sweeps about three feet
+from the handle, to slip over the pegs used as rowlocks, as described
+above. These pegs should be high enough to allow the oarsman to stand
+while using the sweeps.
+
+A flat stone or earth box placed at the bow will serve as a fireplace.
+
+If the cracks between the logs under the cabin are filled up to
+prevent the water splashing through, and the cabin is floored with
+cross-sticks, a most comfortable bed at night can be made of hay, by
+heaping it under the canvas cover in sufficient quantities.
+
+The Crusoe raft has this great advantage over all boats: you may take a
+long trip down the river, allowing the current to bear you along, using
+the sweeps only to assist the man at the helm (rear sweep); then, after
+your excursion is finished you may abandon your raft and return by
+steam-boat or train. A very useful thing to the swimmers, when they are
+skylarking in the water, is
+
+
+The Chump's Raft
+
+Its construction is simple. Four boards, each about six feet long, are
+nailed together in the form of a square, with the ends of the boards
+protruding, like the figure drawn upon a school-boy's slate for the
+game of "Tit, tat, toe" (Fig. 13).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.--The chump's raft.]
+
+All nail-points must be knocked off and the heads hammered home, to
+prevent serious scratches and wounds on the bather's body when he
+clambers over the raft or slips off in an attempt to do so (Fig. 14).
+
+Beginners get in the middle hole, and there, with a support within
+reach all around them, they can venture with comparative safety in deep
+water.
+
+The raft, which I built as a model fifteen years ago, is still in use
+at my summer camp, where scores of young people have used it with a
+success proved by their present skill as swimmers. But many camps
+are located in a section of the country where boards are as scarce
+as boarding-houses, but where timber, in its rough state, exists in
+abundance. The campers in such locations can make
+
+
+A Chump's Raft of Logs
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--A beginner in a chump's raft.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Looking down on a chump's raft in motion.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Side view of chump's log raft.]
+
+Such a float consists of two dried logs fastened together at each end
+by cross-slabs, so as to form a rude catamaran. These rafts can be
+towed through deep water by a canoe or row-boat, with the tenderfoot
+securely swung in a sling between the logs, where he may practice
+the hand-and-foot movement with a sense of security which only the
+certainty that he is surrounded by a wooden life-preserver will give
+him. Fig. 15 shows a top view of the new chump's raft. In Fig. 16 the
+two logs are connected fore and aft by cross-slabs; two more upright
+slabs are nailed securely to the side of the logs; notches having been
+cut in the top ends of these slabs, a stout cross-piece is securely
+nailed to them and the towel or rope sling suspended from the middle
+of the cross-piece. In regard to the dimensions of the raft it is
+only necessary to say that it should be wide and long enough to allow
+free movement of the arms and legs of the pupil who is suspended
+between the logs. In almost every wilderness stream there can be found
+piles of driftwood on the shore where one may select good, dried,
+well-seasoned pine or spruce logs from which to make rafts. If such
+heaps of driftwood are not within reach, look for some standing dead
+timber and select that which is of sufficient dimensions to support a
+swimmer, and be careful that it is not hollow or rotten in the core.
+Rotten wood will soon become water-logged and heavy. Fig. 17 shows the
+position of the swimmer supported by the chump's sling. If your raft
+has a tendency to work so that one log pulls ahead of the other, it may
+be braced by cross-pieces, such as are shown at J and K in Fig. 18.
+This figure also shows supports for a suspension pole made by nailing
+two sticks to each side and allowing the ends to cross so as to form a
+crotch in which the supporting rod rests and to which it is securely
+fastened by nails, or by being bound there by a piece of rope, as in A,
+Fig. 19. B, Fig. 19, shows the crotch made by resting L in a fork on
+the M stick and then nailing or binding it in place. C, Fig. 19, shows
+the two sticks, L and M, joined by notches cut log-cabin fashion before
+they are nailed in place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Learning to swim by aid of a chump sling.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Details of saw-buck supports.]
+
+Although many summers have rolled around since the author first made
+his advent on this beautiful earth, he still feels the call of the
+bathing pool, the charm of the spring-board, almost as keenly as he did
+when he was wont to swim in Blue Hole at Yellow Springs, Ohio, or dive
+from the log rafts into the Ohio River, or slide down the "slippery"
+made in the steep muddy banks of the Licking River, Kentucky.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Another way to rig a chump.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+A RAFT THAT WILL SAIL
+
+    The Raft is Just the Thing for Camp Life--Pleasurable
+    Occupation for a Camping Party Where Wood is
+    Plentiful--You Will Need Axes and Hatchets and a Few
+    Other Civilized Implements
+
+
+FIRST we will select two pine logs of equal length, and, while the
+water is heating for our coffee, we will sharpen the butt, or larger
+end, of the logs on one side with the axe, making a "chisel edge," as
+shown in Fig. 20. This gives us an appetite for breakfast and makes the
+big fish in the lake, as they jump above the water, cast anxious looks
+toward our camp.
+
+Breakfast finished, we will cut some cross-pieces to join our two logs
+together, and at equal distances apart we will bore holes through the
+cross-pieces for peg-holes (Figs. 21, 22, and 23). While one of the
+party is fashioning a number of pegs, each with a groove in one side,
+like those shown in Fig. 24, the others will roll the logs into the
+water and secure them in a shallow spot.
+
+Shoes and stockings must be removed, for most of the work is now to be
+done in the water. Of course, it would be much easier done on land, but
+the raft will be very heavy and could never be launched unless under
+the most favorable circumstances. It is better to build the craft in
+the element which is to be its home.
+
+Cut two long saplings for braces, and after separating the logs the
+proper distance for your cross-pieces to fit, nail your braces in
+position, as represented by Fig. 20.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
+
+[Illustration: PARTS OF MAN-FRIDAY SAILING-RAFT.
+
+20.--Logs in place with braces. Figs. 21, 22, and 23.--Struts. Fig.
+24.--Pegs. Fig. 25.--Raft with middle and stern strut in place. Fig.
+26.--Springs for dry deck. Fig. 27.--Dry deck. Fig. 28.--Dry deck in
+place.]
+
+This holds the logs steady, and we may now lay the two cross-pieces in
+position, and mark the points on the logs carefully where the holes
+are to be bored to correspond with the ones in the cross-pieces. Bore
+the holes in one log first; make the holes deep enough and then fill
+them with water, after which drive the pegs through the ends of the
+cross-pieces and into the log. The grooves in the pegs (Fig. 24) will
+allow the water to escape from the holes and the water will cause the
+peg to swell and tighten its hold on the log and cross-pieces.
+
+Now bore holes in the other log under those in the cross-pieces and
+fill them with water before driving the pegs home, as you did in the
+first instance. Fig. 25 is a Man-Friday raft.
+
+
+The Deck
+
+Before placing the bow in position we must go ashore and make a dry
+deck. Selecting for the springs two long green ash or hickory poles,
+trim the ends off flat on one side, as shown by Fig. 26. This flat side
+is the bottom, so roll them over, with the flat side toward the ground,
+and if you can find no planks or barrel staves for a deck, split in
+half a number of small logs and peg or nail them on the top side of the
+springs, as in Fig. 27.
+
+Now all hands must turn out and carry the deck down to the raft and
+place it in position, with the flattened sides of the springs resting
+on top of the logs at the bow. Prop it up in this position, and then
+bore holes through the springs into the logs and peg the springs down.
+Over the flat ends place the heavy bow cross-piece, bore the peg-holes,
+and fasten it in position (Fig. 28).
+
+In the centre of the bow cross-piece bore several holes close together
+and chip out the wood between to make a hole, as square a one as
+possible, for the mast to fit or "step" in. With the wood from a
+packing-box or a slab from a log make the bench for the mast.
+
+Bore a hole through the bench a trifle astern of the step, or hole, for
+the mast below. It will cause the mast to "rake" a little "aft." You
+have done a big day's work, but a couple of days ought to be sufficient
+time to finish the craft.
+
+
+The Sail
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Sail for Man-Friday.]
+
+Turn over the raw edges of the old sail-cloth and stitch them down, as
+in Fig. 29--that is, if you have the needle and thread for the purpose;
+if not, trim the cloth to the proper form and two inches from the
+luff (the side next to the mast). Cut a number of holes; these should
+be stitched like button-holes, if possible, but if the sail-cloth is
+tough and we have no needle, we shall have to let them go unstitched. A
+small loop of rope must be sewed or fastened in some other manner very
+securely to each corner of the sail.
+
+From spruce pine or an old fishing-pole make a sprit, and of a good,
+straight piece of pine manufacture your mast somewhat longer than the
+luff of the sail (Fig. 29).
+
+Through the eyelets lace the luff of the sail to the mast, so that its
+lower edge will clear the dry deck by about a foot.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Scudding before the wind.]
+
+Through the hole made for the purpose in the bench (Fig. 30) thrust the
+mast into the step, or socket, that we have cut in the bow cross-piece.
+Tie to the loop at the bottom corner of the sail a strong line about
+twelve feet long for a sheet with which to control the sail.
+
+Trim the upper end of the sprit to fit in the loop at the upper outer
+corner of the sail, and make a notch in the lower end to fit in the
+loop of the line called the "snotter."
+
+Now, as you can readily see, when the sprit is pushed diagonally upward
+the sail is spread; to hold it in place make a loop of line for a
+"snotter" and attach the loop to the mast, as in Figs. 29 and 30. Fit
+the loop in the notch in the lower end of the sprit, and the sail is
+set.
+
+
+The Keelig
+
+We need anchors, one for the bow and one for the stern. It takes
+little time to make them, as you only need a forked stick, a stone,
+and a piece of plank, or, better still, a barrel stave. Figs. 35 to
+39 show how this is made. Down East the fishermen use the "keelig" in
+preference to any other anchor.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
+
+Make fast your lines to the "keelig" thus: Take the end of the rope in
+your right hand and the standing part (which is the part leading from
+the boat) in your left hand and form the loop (A, Fig. 31).
+
+Then with the left hand curve the cable from you, bringing the end
+through the loop, as in B, Fig. 32; then lead it around and down, as in
+C, Fig. 33.
+
+Draw it tight, as in D, Fig. 34, and you have the good, old-fashioned
+knot, called by sailors the "bow-line."
+
+To make it look neat and shipshape you may take a piece of
+string and bind the standing part to the shaft of your anchor or
+keelig--keelek--killick--killeck--kelleck--kellock--killock, etc., as
+you may choose to spell it.
+
+A paddle to steer with and two pegs in the stern cross-piece to rest it
+in complete the craft; and now the big bass had better use due caution,
+because our lines will reach their haunts, and we are after them!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CANOES
+
+    The Advantages of a Canoe--How to Make the Slab Canoe
+    and the Dugout--How to Make a Siwash and a White Man's
+    Dugout
+
+
+THERE are many small freak crafts invented each year, but none of them
+has any probabilities of being popularly used as substitutes for the
+old models.
+
+Folding canoes, as a rule, are cranky, but the writer has found them
+most convenient when it was necessary to transport them long distances
+overland. They are not, however, the safest of crafts; necessarily they
+lack the buoyant wooden frame and lining of the ordinary canvas canoe,
+which enables it to float even when filled with water.
+
+The author owes his life to the floating properties of his canvas
+canoe. On one occasion when it upset in a driving easterly storm the
+wind was off shore, and any attempt upon the canoeist's part to swim
+toward shore would have caused him to have been suffocated by the tops
+of the waves which the wind cut off, driving the water with stinging
+force into his face so constantly that, in order to breathe at all,
+he had to face the other way. He was at length rescued by a steamer,
+losing nothing but the sails and his shoes. Nevertheless, the same
+storm which capsized his little craft upset several larger boats and
+tore the sails from others.
+
+The advantages of a good canoe are many for the young navigators: they
+can launch their own craft, pick it up when occasion demands and carry
+it overland. It is safe in experienced hands in any weather which is
+fit for out-door amusement. When you are "paddling your own canoe" you
+are facing to the front and can see what is ahead of you, which is much
+safer and more pleasant than travelling backward, like a crawfish.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
+
+The advance-guard of modern civilization is the lumberman, and
+following close on his heels comes the all-devouring saw-mill. This
+fierce creature has an abnormal appetite for logs, and it keeps an
+army of men, boys, and horses busy in supplying it with food. While it
+supplies us with lumber for the carpenter, builder, and cabinet-maker,
+it at the same time, in the most shameful way, fills the trout streams
+and rivers with great masses of sawdust, which kills and drives away
+the fish. But near the saw-mill there is always to be found material
+for a
+
+
+Slab Canoe
+
+which consists simply of one of those long slabs, the first cut from
+some giant log (Fig. 43).
+
+These slabs are burned or thrown away by the mill-owners, and hence
+cost nothing; and as the saw-mill is in advance of population, you are
+most likely to run across one on a hunting or fishing trip.
+
+Near one end, and on the flat side of the slab (Fig. 40), bore four
+holes, into which drive the four legs of a stool made of a section of a
+smaller slab (Fig. 41), and your boat is ready to launch. From a piece
+of board make a double or single paddle (Fig. 42), and you are equipped
+for a voyage. An old gentleman, who in his boyhood days on the frontier
+frequently used this simple style of canoe, says that the speed it
+makes will compare favorably with that of many a more pretentious
+vessel. See Fig. 43 for furnished boat.
+
+
+The Dugout
+
+Although not quite as delicate in model or construction as the graceful
+birch-bark canoe, the "dugout" of the Indians is a most wonderful piece
+of work, when we consider that it is carved from the solid trunk of
+a giant tree with the crudest of tools, and is the product of savage
+labor.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
+
+Few people now living have enjoyed the opportunity of seeing one built
+by the Indians, and, as the author is not numbered among that select
+few, he considers it a privilege to be able to quote the following
+interesting account given by Mr. J. H. Mallett, of Helena.
+
+
+How to Build a Siwash Canoe
+
+"While visiting one of the small towns along Puget Sound, I was greatly
+interested in the way the Indians built their canoes. It is really
+wonderful how these aborigines can, with the crudest means and with a
+few days' work, convert an unwieldy log into a trim and pretty canoe.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Slab canoe.]
+
+"One Monday morning I saw a buck building a fire at the base of a
+large cedar-tree, and he told me that this was the first step in the
+construction of a canoe that he intended to use upon the following
+Saturday. He kept the fire burning merrily all that day and far
+into the night, when a wind came up and completed the downfall of
+the monarch of the forest. The next day the man arose betimes, and,
+borrowing a cross-cut saw from a logger, cut the trunk of the tree in
+twain at a point some fifteen feet from where it had broken off, and
+then with a dull hatchet he hacked away until the log had assumed the
+shape of the desired canoe. In this work he was helped by his squaw.
+The old fellow then built a fire on the upper part of the log, guiding
+the course of the fire with daubs of clay, and in due course of time
+the interior of the canoe had been burned out. Half a day's work with
+the hatchet rendered the inside smooth and shapely.
+
+"The canoe was now, I thought, complete, though it appeared to be
+dangerously narrow of beam. This the Indian soon remedied. He filled
+the shell two-thirds full of water, and into the fluid he dropped half
+a dozen stones that had been heating in the fire for nearly a day. The
+water at once attained a boiling point, and so softened the wood that
+the buck and squaw were enabled to draw out the sides and thus supply
+the necessary breadth of beam. Thwarts and slats were then placed in
+the canoe and the water and stones thrown out. When the steamed wood
+began to cool and contract, the thwarts held it back, and the sides
+held the thwarts, and there the canoe was complete, without a nail,
+joint, or crevice, for it was made of one piece of wood. The Siwash did
+not complete it as soon as he had promised, but it only took him eight
+days."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.--The dugout.]
+
+In the North-eastern part of our country, before the advent of the
+canvas canoe, beautiful and light birch-bark craft were used by the
+Indians, the voyagers, trappers, and white woodsmen. But in the South
+and in the North-west, the dugout takes the place of the birch-bark.
+Among the North-western Indians the dugouts are made from the trunks
+of immense cedar-trees and built with high, ornamental bows, which are
+brilliantly decorated with paint. On the eastern shore of Maryland and
+Virginia the dugout is made into a sail-boat called the buck-eye, or
+bug-eye. But all through the Southern States, from the Ohio River to
+the Gulf of Mexico and in Mexico, the dugout is made of a hollowed log
+after the manner of an ordinary horse trough, and often it is as crude
+as the latter, but it can be made almost as beautiful and graceful as a
+birch-bark canoe.
+
+
+How to Make a White Man's Dugout Canoe
+
+To make one of these dugout canoes one must be big and strong enough
+to wield an axe, but if the readers are too young for this work, they
+are none too young to know how to make one, and their big brothers and
+father can do the work. Since the dugout occupies an important position
+in the history of our country, every boy scout should know how it is
+made.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.]
+
+Fig. 44 shows one of these canoes afloat; Fig. 45 shows a tall,
+straight tree suitable for our purpose, and it also shows how the
+tree is cut and the arrangement of the kerfs, or two notches, so that
+it will fall in the direction of the arrow in the diagram. You will
+notice along the ground are shown the ends of a number of small logs.
+These are the skids, or rollers, upon which the log will rest when the
+tree is cut and felled. The tree will fall in the direction in which
+the arrow is pointed if there is no wind. If you have never cut down
+a tree, be careful to take some lessons of a good woodsman before you
+attempt it.
+
+When the log is trimmed off at both ends like Fig. 46, flatten the
+upper side with the axe. This is for the bottom of the canoe; the flat
+part should be about a foot and a half wide to extend from end to end
+of the log. Now, with some poles for pryers, turn your log over so that
+it will rest with the flat bottom on the skids, as in Fig. 46.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.]
+
+Next take a chalk-line and fasten it at the two ends of the log, as
+shown by the dotted line in Figs. 46, 47, 48, 49.
+
+Snap the line so that it will make a straight mark as shown by the
+dotted line; then trim off the two ends for the bow and stern, as shown
+in Fig. 47. Next cut notches down to the dotted line, as illustrated
+in Fig. 48; then cut away from the bow down to the first notch, making
+a curved line, as shown in Fig. 49 (which is cut to second notch). Do
+the same with the stern, making duplicates of the bow and stern. The
+spaces between the notches amidships may now be split off by striking
+your axe along the chalk-line and then carefully driving in wooden
+wedges. When this is all done you will have Fig. 50. You can now turn
+the log over and trim off the edges of the bow and stern so that they
+will slope, as shown in Fig. 44, in a rounded curve; after which roll
+the canoe back again upon its bottom and with an adze and axe hollow
+out the inside, leaving some solid wood at both bow and stern--not
+that you need the wood for strength, but to save labor. When you have
+decided upon the thickness of the sides of your canoe, take some small,
+pointed instrument, like an awl, for instance, and make holes with it
+to the required depth at intervals along the sides and bottom of the
+canoe. Then take some small sticks (as long as the canoe sides are to
+be thick), make them to fit the holes, blacken their ends, and drive
+them into the holes.
+
+As soon as you see one from the inside, you will know that you have
+made the shell thin enough. Use a jack-plane to smooth it off inside
+and out; then build a big fire and heat some stones. Next fill the
+canoe with water and keep dumping the hot stones in the water until the
+latter is almost or quite to boiling point. The hot water will soften
+the wood so that the sides will become flexible, and you can then fit
+in some braces at the bow, stern, and centre of the canoe. Make the
+centre brace or seat some inches wider than the log, so that when it is
+forced in place it will spread the canoe in the middle.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CANOES AND BOATING STUNTS
+
+    How to Build a War Canoe--How to Build a Canvas
+    Canoe--How to Build an Umbrella Canoe--How Old
+    Shells Can be Turned into Boys' Boats--Cause of
+    Upsets--Landing from, and Embarking in, a Shell--How to
+    Mend Checks and Cracks
+
+
+IN making canoes the Indians used birch bark for the cover, rock maple
+for the cross-bars, and white cedar for the rest of the frame. We will
+substitute canvas for the birch bark and any old wood that we can for
+the rock maple and the white cedar. _Real woodcraft is best displayed
+in the ability to use the material at hand._
+
+David Abercrombie, the outfitter, some time ago presented Andrew J.
+Stone, the Arctic explorer and mighty hunter, with a small piece of
+light, water-proof cloth to use as a shelter tent in bad weather. But
+Stone, like the hunter that he was, slept unprotected on the mountain
+side in the sleet and driving storms, and used the water-proof cloth to
+protect the rare specimens he had shot. One day a large, rapid torrent
+lay in his path; there was no lumber large enough with which to build
+a raft, and the only wood for miles around was small willow bushes
+growing along the river bank. At his command, his three Indians made
+a canoe frame of willow sticks, tied together with bits of cloth and
+string. Stone set this frame in the middle of his water-proof cloth,
+tied the cloth over the frame with other pieces of string, and using
+only small clubs for paddles, he and his men crossed the raging torrent
+in this makeshift, which was loaded with their guns, camera, and
+specimens that he had shot on the trip.
+
+After reading the above there is no doubt the reader will be able to
+build a war canoe with barrel-hoop ribs and lattice-work slats. In
+the writer's studio is a long piece of maple, one and one-half inches
+wide and one-quarter inch thick, which was left by the workmen when
+they put down a hard-wood floor. If you can get some similar strips,
+either of oak, maple, or birch, from the dealers in flooring material,
+they will not be expensive and will make splendid gunwales for your
+proposed canoe. There should be four such strips. The hard-wood used
+for flooring splits easily, and holes should be bored for the nails
+or screws to prevent cracking the wood when the nails or screws are
+driven home. Fig. 51 shows the framework (side view) of the canoe;
+Fig. 52 shows an end view of the same canoe; Fig. 53 shows the middle
+section, and Fig. 54 shows the form of the bow and stern sections. This
+boat may be built any length you wish, and so that you may get the
+proper proportions, the diagrams from one to five are marked off in
+equal divisions. To make patterns of the moulds, Figs. 53 and 54, take
+a large piece of manila paper, divide it up into the same number of
+squares as the diagram, make the squares any size you may decide upon,
+and then trace the line, 1-H-10, as it is in the diagrams. This will
+give you the patterns of the two moulds (Figs. 53 and 54). While you
+are looking at these figures, it may be well to call your attention to
+the way bow and stern pieces are made. In Fig. 63 the pieces Y and X
+are made from pieces of a packing-box, notched and nailed together with
+a top piece, U, and a brace, V.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.
+
+Fig. 54.
+
+Fig. 51.
+
+Fig. 52.
+
+Fig. 57.
+
+Fig. 58.
+
+Fig. 56.
+
+Fig. 59.
+
+Fig. 55.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62. Fig. 60. Fig. 61.
+
+Conventional bow, but made of barrel-heads.]
+
+The other end of the same canoe is, as you may see, strengthened and
+protected by having a barrel-hoop tacked over the stem-pieces, Y, X,
+U. In Fig. 64 we use different material; here the stem-piece is made
+of a broken bicycle rim, U, braced by the pieces of packing-box, Y, V,
+and W. The left-hand end of Fig. 64 is made with pieces of head of a
+barrel, X and U. The bottom of the stem-piece Y is made of the piece
+of a packing-box. The two braces V are parts of the barrel-stave. Fig.
+60 shows the common form of the bow of a canoe. The stem-pieces X,
+Y are made of the parts of the head of a barrel, as shown in Fig. 62.
+To make a stem from a barrel-head, nail the two pieces X and Y, Fig.
+56, together as shown in this particular diagram. Now take another
+piece of barrel-head, Fig. 57, and saw off a piece, A´, D´, C´, so that
+it will fit neatly over A, C, D, on Fig. 56. Nail this securely in
+place, and then in the same manner cut another piece to fit over the
+part E, C, B, and nail that in place. Use small nails, but let them be
+long enough so that you may clinch them by holding an axe or an iron
+against the head while you hammer the protruding points down, or drive
+the nail a little on the bias and holding the axe or iron on the side
+it is to come through and let it strike the nail as it comes out and
+it will clinch itself. To fasten the stem-piece to the keel use two
+pieces of packing-box or board, cut in the form of Fig. 58, and nail
+these securely to the bow-piece as in Z, in Fig. 60. Then from the
+bottom side of the keel H, nail the keel-pieces firmly to the keel as
+in Fig. 61. Also drive some nails from Z to the top down to the keel,
+as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 60. The end view, Fig. 59, shows
+how the two Z pieces hug and support the stem-piece on the keel H. Fig.
+55 shows a half of the top view of the canoe gunwales; the dimensions,
+marked in feet and inches, are taken from an Indian birch-bark canoe.
+You see by the diagram that it is eight feet from the centre of the
+middle cross-piece to the end of the big opening at the bow. It is
+also three feet from the centre of the middle cross-piece to the next
+cross-piece, and thirty inches from the centre of that cross-piece to
+the bow cross-piece, which is just thirty inches from the eight-foot
+mark. The middle cross-piece in a canoe of these dimensions is
+seven-eighths of an inch thick, and thirty inches long between the
+gunwales; the next cross-piece is three-quarters of an inch thick and
+twenty-two and one-half inches long. The next one is half an inch
+wide, two inches thick and twelve inches between the gunwales. These
+cross-pieces can be made of the staves of a barrel. Of course, this
+would be a canoe of sixteen feet inside measurement, not counting the
+flattened part of the bow and stern. Now, then, to build the canoe.
+First take the keel-piece, H, which is in this case a piece of board
+about six inches wide and only thick enough to be moderately stiff. Lay
+the keel on any level surface and put the stem-pieces on as already
+described, using packing-box for X, U, V, Y, and Z, and bracing them
+with a piece of packing-box on each side, marked W in diagram (Fig.
+51). Then make three moulds, one for the centre (Fig. 53), and two more
+for the bow and stern (Fig. 54). Notch the bottom of these moulds to
+fit the keel and with wire nails make them fast to the keel, leaving
+the ends of the nails protruding far enough to be easily withdrawn when
+you wish to remove the moulds. In nailing the laths to the moulds (Fig.
+51) leave the heads of the nails also protruding so that they may be
+removed. Place the moulds in position, with the middle one in the exact
+centre, and the two ends located like those in Figs. 63 and 64. Place
+and nail gunwale, L, on as in Fig. 51, tacking it to the bow and stern
+and bending it around to fit the moulds; tack the lattice slats M, N,
+O, P on to the bow, stern, and moulds, as shown in Fig. 51.
+
+If your barrel-hoops are stiff and liable to break while bending and
+unbending, let them soak a couple of days in a tub of water, then
+before fitting them to the form of the canoe make them more pliable
+by pouring hot water on them. The barrel-hoop S, R, at the bow of the
+canoe, is nailed to the top-piece U, to the inside of the slats L, M,
+N, O, P, and to the outside of H. The next three ribs on each side are
+treated in the same manner; repeat this at the other end of the canoe
+and nail the intervening ribs to the top of H and to the inside of the
+slats, following the model of the boat. Put the ribs about four inches
+apart and clinch the nails as already described.
+
+In the diagrams there is no temporary support for the canoe frame
+except the wooden horses, as in Fig. 51. These supports have been
+purposely omitted in the drawing, as it is desirable to keep it as
+simple as possible. Some temporary support will be necessary to hold
+the bow and stern-piece in Fig. 51. These supports can be nailed or
+screwed temporarily to the canoe frame so as to hold it rigid while you
+are at work on it.
+
+After the ribs are all in place and the framework completed, turn the
+canoe upside down upon the wooden horses--for a canoe as large as the
+one in the first diagram you will need three horses, one at each end
+and one in the middle. For a canoe of the dimensions marked in Fig. 55,
+that is, sixteen feet inside measurement, you would need about seven
+yards of ten-ounce cotton canvas, of sufficient width to reach up over
+the sides of your canoe. Take a tape-measure or a piece of ordinary
+tape or a long strip of manila paper and measure around the bottom of
+the boat at its widest part in the middle from one gunwale (top of
+side) to the other, and see that your cloth is fully as wide as your
+measurement. Fold the canvas lengthwise so as to find its exact centre
+and crease it. With two or three tacks fasten the cloth at its centre
+line (the crease) to the stem-piece of the canoe. Stretch the canvas
+the length of the boat with the crease of centre-line along the centre
+of the keel; pull it as taut as may be and again tack the centre line
+to the stem at this end of the craft. If this has been done carefully
+the cloth will hang an equal length over each side of the canoe. Now
+begin amidships and drive tacks about two inches apart along the
+gunwale, say an inch below the top surface. After having tacked it for
+about two feet, go to the other side of the boat, pull the cloth taut
+and in the same manner tack about three feet. Continue this process
+first one side and then the other until finished. While stretching the
+cloth knead it with the hand and fingers so as to thicken or "full"
+it where it would otherwise wrinkle; by doing this carefully it is
+possible to stretch the canvas over the frame without the necessity
+of cutting it. The cloth that extends beyond the frame may be brought
+over the gunwale and tacked along the inside. Use four-ounce tinned or
+copper tacks. The canvas is now stretched on every part except on the
+high, rolling bow and stern. With a pair of shears slit the canvas from
+the outer edge of the bow and stern within a half inch of the ends of
+the keel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.
+
+High bows framework made of packing-box and barrel-heads.]
+
+Fold the right-hand flap thus made at the left-hand end around the bow
+and stern and, drawing tight, tack it down, then fold the left-hand
+flap over the right-hand side and tack it in a similar manner, trimming
+off the remaining cloth neatly. The five braces, three of which are
+shown in Fig. 55, may be nailed to the gunwales of the canoe, as the
+temporary moulds are removed. The braces should be so notched that the
+top ends of the braces will fit over the top edge of the gunwale and
+their lower edges will fit against the sides. Give the boat at least
+three good coats of paint and nail the two extra gunwale strips on the
+outside of the canvas for guards.
+
+When it is dry and the boat is launched you may startle the onlookers
+and make the echoes ring with:
+
+"Wo-ach! wo-ach! Ha-ha-ha-hack--wo-ach!" which is said to be the
+identical war cry with which the Indians greeted the landing of our
+Pilgrim Fathers.
+
+The reader must not suppose that barrel-hoops are the best material
+for ribs; they are but a makeshift, and although good-looking,
+servicable canoes have been built of this material from the foregoing
+descriptions, better ones may be made by using better material, such,
+for instance, as is described in the making of the birch-bark canoe.
+
+
+Old Shells
+
+Where there are oarsmen and boat-clubs, there you will find beautiful
+shell boats of paper or cedar, shaped like darning-needles, so slight
+in structure that a child can knock a hole in them, and yet very
+seaworthy boats for those who understand how to handle them. The
+expensive material and skilled labor necessary to build a racing shell
+puts the price of one so high that few boys can afford to buy one; but
+where new shells are to be found there are also old ones, and when they
+are too old to sell they are thrown away. Many an old shell rots on
+the meadows near the boat-houses or rests among the rafters forgotten
+and unused, which with a little work would make a boat capable of
+furnishing no end of fun to a boy.
+
+
+Checks or Cracks
+
+can be pasted over with common manila wrapping-paper by first covering
+the crack with a coat of paint, or, better still, of varnish, then
+fitting the paper smoothly over the spot and varnishing the paper.
+Give the paper several coats of varnish, allowing it to dry after each
+application, and the paper will become impervious to water. The deck
+of a shell is made of thin muslin or paper, treated with a liberal
+coat of varnish, and can be patched with similar material. There are
+always plenty of slightly damaged oars which have been discarded by the
+oarsmen. The use of a saw and jack-knife in the hands of a smart boy
+can transform these wrecks into serviceable oars for his patched-up old
+shell, and if the work is neatly done, the boy will be the proud owner
+of a real shell boat, and the envy of his comrades.
+
+
+The Cause of Upsets
+
+A single shell that is very cranky with a man in it is comparatively
+steady when a small boy occupies the seat. Put on your bathing clothes
+when you wish to try a shell, so that you may be ready for the
+inevitable upset. Every one knows, when he looks at one of these long,
+narrow boats, that as long as the oars are held extended _on the water_
+it cannot upset. But, in spite of that knowledge, every one, when he
+first gets into a shell, endeavors to balance himself by _lifting the
+oars_, and, of course, goes over in a jiffy.
+
+
+The Delights of a Shell
+
+It is an error to suppose that the frail-looking, needle-like boat is
+only fit for racing purposes. For a day on the water, in calm weather,
+there is, perhaps, nothing more enjoyable than a single shell. The
+exertion required to send it on its way is so slight, and the speed
+so great, that many miles can be covered with small fatigue. Upon
+referring to the log-book of the Nereus Club, where the distances are
+all taken from the United States chart, the author finds that twenty
+and thirty miles are not uncommon records for single-shell rows.
+
+During the fifteen or sixteen seasons that the author has devoted his
+spare time to the sport he has often planned a heavy cruising shell,
+but owing to the expense of having such a boat built he has used the
+ordinary racing boat, and found it remarkably well adapted for such
+purposes. Often he has been caught miles away from home in a blow, and
+only once does he remember of being compelled to seek assistance.
+
+He was on a lee shore and the waves were so high that after once being
+swamped he was unable to launch his boat again, for it would fill
+before he could embark. So a heavy rowboat and a coachman were borrowed
+from a gentleman living on the bay, and while the author rowed, the
+coachman towed the little craft back to the creek where the Nereus
+club-house is situated.
+
+In the creek, however, the water was calmer, and rather than stand the
+jeers of his comrades, the writer embarked in his shell and rowed up to
+the boat-house float. He was very wet and his boat was full of water,
+but to the inquiry of "Rough out in the bay?" he confined himself to
+the simple answer--"Yes." Then dumping the water from his shell and
+placing it upon the rack he put on his dry clothes and walked home,
+none the worse for the accident.
+
+After ordinary skill and confidence are acquired it is really
+astonishing what feats can be accomplished in a frail racing boat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65. A Fig. 66. B Fig. 67. C Fig. 68. D Fig. 69. E
+Fig. 70. F Fig. 71. Fig. 72. Fig. 73. Fig. 74. Fig. 75.
+
+PARTS OF THE UMBRELLA CANOE.
+
+    A = Plank.
+    B = Rib }
+    C = Rib }
+    D = Rib } in process of construction.
+    E = Rib }
+    F = Rib }
+    G, G´ = Thimbles.
+    H = Plank.
+    J and K = Stretcher unfinished and finished.]
+
+It is not difficult to
+
+
+Stand Upright In a Shell
+
+if you first take one of your long stockings and tie the handles of
+your oars together where they cross each other in front of you. The
+ends will work slightly and the blades will keep their positions on the
+water, acting as two long balances. Now slide your seat as far forward
+as it will go, slip your feet from the straps and grasp the straps with
+your hand, moving the feet back to a comfortable position. When all
+ready raise yourself by pulling on the foot strap, and with ordinary
+care you can stand upright in the needle-shaped boat, an apparently
+impossible thing to do when you look at the narrow craft.
+
+
+How to Land Where There Is No Float
+
+When for any reason you wish to land where there is no float, row into
+shallow water and put one foot overboard until it touches bottom. Then
+follow with the other foot, rise, and you are standing astride of your
+boat.
+
+
+How to Embark Where There Is No Float
+
+Wade out and slide the shell between your extended legs until the seat
+is underneath you. Sit down, and, with the feet still in the water,
+grasp your oars. With these in your hands it is an easy task to balance
+the boat until you can lift your feet into it.
+
+
+Ozias Dodge's Umbrella Canoe
+
+Mr. Dodge is a Yale man, an artist, and an enthusiastic canoeist. The
+prow of his little craft has ploughed its way through the waters of
+many picturesque streams in this country and Europe, by the river-side,
+under the walls of ruined castles, where the iron-clad warriors once
+built their camp-fires, and near pretty villages, where people dress as
+if they were at a fancy-dress ball.
+
+When a young man like Mr. Dodge says that he has built a folding canoe
+that is not hard to construct, is inexpensive and practical, there
+can be little doubt that such a boat is not only what is claimed for
+it by its inventor, but that it is a novelty in its line, and such is
+undoubtedly the case with the umbrella canoe.
+
+
+How the Canoe Was Built
+
+The artist first secured a white-ash plank (A, Fig. 65), free from
+knots and blemishes of all kinds. The plank was one inch thick and
+about twelve feet long. At the mill he had this sawed into eight strips
+one inch wide, one inch thick, and twelve feet long (B and C, Figs. 66
+and 67). Then he planed off the square edges of each stick until they
+were all octagonal in form, and looked like so many great lead-pencils
+(D, Fig. 68).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Frame of umbrella canoe.]
+
+Mr. Dodge claims that, after you have reduced the ash poles to this
+octagonal form, it is an easy matter to whittle them with your
+pocket-knife or a draw-knife, and by taking off all the angles of the
+sticks make them cylindrical in form (E, Fig. 69); then smooth them off
+nicely with sand-paper, so that each pole has a smooth surface and is
+three-quarters of an inch in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Umbrella canoe.]
+
+After the poles were reduced to this state he whittled all the ends to
+the form of a truncated cone--that is, like a sharpened lead-pencil
+with the lead broken off (F, Fig. 70)--a blunt point. He next went to
+a tinsmith and had two sheet-iron cups made large enough to cover the
+eight pole-ends (G and G´, Figs. 71 and 72). Each cup was six inches
+deep. After trying the cups, or thimbles, on the poles to see that they
+would fit, he made two moulds of oak. First he cut two pieces of oak
+plank two feet six inches long by one foot six inches (H, Fig. 74),
+which he trimmed into the form shown by J, Fig. 75, making a notch
+to fit each of the round ribs, and to spread them as the ribs of an
+umbrella are spread. He made two other similar moulds for the bow and
+stern, each of which, of course, is smaller than the middle one. After
+spreading the ribs with the moulds, and bringing the ends together in
+the tin cups, he made holes in the bottom of the cups where the ends
+of the ribs came, and fastened the ribs to the cups with brass screws,
+fitted with leather washers, and run through the holes in the tin and
+screwed into the ends of the poles or ribs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Canoe folded for transportation. Canoe in
+water in distance.]
+
+A square hole was then cut through each mould (K, Fig. 75), and the
+poles put in place, gathered together at the ends, and held in place by
+the tin thimbles. The square holes in the moulds allow several small,
+light floor planks to form a dry floor to the canoe.
+
+The canvas costs about forty-five cents a yard, and five yards are
+all you need. The deck can be made of drilling, which comes about
+twenty-eight inches wide and costs about twenty cents a yard. Five
+yards of this will be plenty. Fit your canvas over the frame, stretch
+it tightly, and tack it securely to the two top ribs only. Fasten the
+deck on in the same manner.
+
+When Mr. Dodge had the canoe covered and decked, with a square hole
+amidship to sit in, he put two good coats of paint on the canvas,
+allowed it to dry, and his boat was ready for use (Fig. 77). He
+quaintly says that "it looked like a starved dog, with all its ribs
+showing through the skin," just as the ribs of an umbrella show on top
+through the silk covering. But this does not in any way impede the
+progress of the boat through the water.
+
+Where the moulds are the case is different, for the lines of the
+moulds cross the line of progress at right angles and must necessarily
+somewhat retard the boat. But even this is not perceptible. The worst
+feature about the moulds is that the canvas is very apt to be damaged
+there by contact with the shore, float, or whatever object it rubs
+against.
+
+With ordinary care the umbrella canoe
+
+
+Will Last for Years
+
+and is a good boat for paddling on inland streams and small bodies of
+water; and when you are through with it for the night, all that is
+necessary is to remove the stretchers by springing the poles from the
+notches in the spreaders, roll up the canvas around the poles, put it
+on your shoulder, and carry it home or to camp, as shown in Fig. 78.
+
+To put your canoe together again put in the moulds, fit the poles in
+their places, and the umbrella is raised, or, rather, the canoe is, if
+we can use such an expression in regard to a boat.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE BIRCH-BARK
+
+    How to Build a Real Birch-Bark Canoe or a Canvas Canoe
+    on a "Birch-Bark" Frame--How to Mend a Birch-Bark
+
+
+ALTHOUGH the Indian was the first to build these simple little boats,
+some of his white brothers are quite as expert in the work. But the red
+man can outdo his white brother in navigating the craft. The only tools
+required in building a canoe are a knife and awl, a draw-shave and a
+hammer. An Indian can do all of his work with a knife.
+
+Several years ago canvas began to be used extensively in
+canoe-building, instead of birch bark, and it will eventually
+entirely supersede birch, although nothing can be found that bends so
+gracefully. There are several canvas-canoe factories in Maine, and the
+canoes made of canvas have both the symmetry and the durability of the
+birches. They are also a trifle cheaper, but if the real thing and
+sentiment are wanted, one should never have anything but a bark craft.
+
+If properly handled, a good canoe will safely hold four men. Canoes
+intended for deep water should have considerable depth. Those intended
+for shoal water, such as trout-fishers use, are made as flat as
+possible. Up to the time when canoeing was introduced the materials for
+building craft of this kind could be found all along the rivers. Big
+birch-trees grew in countless numbers, and clear, straight cedar was
+quite as plentiful within a few feet of the water's edge. Now one must
+go miles back into the dense forests for such materials, and even then
+seldom does it happen that two suitable trees are found within sight of
+one or the other. Cedar is more difficult of the two to find.
+
+
+The Tree
+
+The tree is selected, first, for straightness; second, smoothness;
+third, freedom from knots or limbs; fourth, toughness of bark; fifth,
+small size of eyes; sixth, length (the last is not so important, as two
+trees can be put together), and, seventh, size (which is also not so
+important, as the sides can be pieced out).
+
+
+Dimensions
+
+The average length of canoe is about 19 feet over all, running,
+generally, from 18 to 22 feet for a boat to be used on inland waters,
+the sea-going canoes being larger, with relatively higher bows. The
+average width is about 30 inches inside, measured along the middle
+cross-bar; the greatest width inside is several inches below the middle
+cross-bar, and is several inches greater than the width measured along
+said cross-bar.
+
+The measurements given below are those of a canoe 19 feet over all: 16
+feet long inside, measured along the curve of the gunwale; 30 inches
+wide inside. The actual length inside is less than 16 feet, but the
+measurement along the gunwales is the most important.
+
+
+Bark
+
+Bark can be peeled when the sap is flowing or when the tree is not
+frozen--at any time in late spring, summer, and early fall (called
+summer bark); in winter during a thaw, when the tree is not frozen, and
+when the sap may have begun to flow.
+
+
+Difference in the Bark
+
+Summer bark peels readily, is smooth inside, of a yellow color, which
+turns reddish upon exposure to the sun, and is chalky-gray in very old
+canoes. Winter bark adheres closely, and forcibly brings up part of
+the inner bark, which on exposure turns dark red. This rough surface
+may be moistened and scraped away. All winter-bark canoes must be thus
+scraped and made smooth. Sometimes the dark red is left in the form of
+a decorative pattern extending around the upper edge of the canoe, the
+rest of the surface being scraped smooth.
+
+
+Process of Peeling
+
+The tree should be cut down so that the bark can be removed more easily.
+
+A log called a skid (Fig. 79) is laid on the ground a few feet from the
+base of the tree, which will keep the butt of the tree off the ground
+when the tree is felled. The limbs at the top will keep the other end
+off the ground. A space is cleared of bushes and obstructions where the
+tree is to fall.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79.--Showing how the butt is kept off the ground.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81.]
+
+After the tree has been cut down, a cut is made in a straight line (A,
+B, Fig. 79), splitting the bark from top to bottom, and a ring cut at
+A and B (Fig. 79). When sap is flowing, the bark is readily removed;
+but in winter the edges of the cut are raised with a knife, and a thin,
+pliant hard-wood knife or "spud" is pushed around under the bark.
+
+
+Toasting
+
+After the bark has dropped upon the ground the inside surface is warmed
+with a torch, which softens and straightens it out flat. The torch is
+made of a bundle of birch bark held in a split stick (Fig. 81).
+
+It is then rolled up like a carpet, with inside surface out, and
+tightly bound, generally with cedar bark when the latter can be
+procured (Fig. 80).
+
+If the tree is long enough, a piece is taken off at least nineteen feet
+in length, so that the ends of the canoe may not be pieced out. A few
+shorter pieces are wrapped up with the bundle for piecing out the sides.
+
+
+The Roll
+
+is taken on the back in an upright position, and is carried by a broad
+band of cedar bark, passing under the lower end of the roll and around
+in front of the breast and shoulders (Fig. 82).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82.--Mode of carrying roll.]
+
+
+Effects of Heat
+
+It is laid where the sun will not shine on it and harden it. The first
+effect of heat is to make it pliant. Long exposure to heat or to dry
+atmosphere makes it hard and brittle.
+
+
+The Woodwork
+
+is as follows:
+
+Five cross-bars of rock-maple (Figs. 83, 85, and 91). All the rest is
+of white cedar, taken from the heart. The sap-wood absorbs water, and
+would make the canoe too heavy, so it is rejected. The wood requires to
+be straight and clear, and it is best to use perfectly green wood for
+the ribs.
+
+Two strips 16½ feet long, 1½ inch square, tapering toward either end,
+the ends being notched (Fig. 83 A) is a section of the 16½ foot strip.
+Each strip is mortised for the cross-bars (see Fig. 85). The lower
+outside edge is bevelled off to receive the ends of the ribs.
+
+The dimensions of the cross-bars (Fig. 85) are 12 x 2 x ½ inch, 22½ x 2
+x ¾ inch, and 30 x 2 x 7/8 inch. The cross-bars are placed in position,
+and the ends of the gunwales are tied with spruce roots after being
+nailed together to prevent splitting. Each bar is held in place by a
+peg of hard wood.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 83 and 83½.--Showing section of canoe amidship and
+section and shape of gunwale and top view.]
+
+For stitching and wrapping, long, slender roots of spruce, or sometimes
+of elm, are peeled and split in two. Black ash splits are rarely used
+except for repairing (Figs. 86, 87, 88).
+
+Next we need (B, Fig. 83) two strips 1 or 1¼ inch by ½ inch, a little
+over 19 feet long, to go outside of gunwales, and (C, Fig. 83) two top
+strips, same length, 2 inches wide in middle, tapering to 1 inch at
+either end, 1½ inch thick.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86.
+
+Fig. 87.
+
+Fig. 88.
+
+Fig. 89.
+
+Fig. 90.
+
+Fig. 91.
+
+Fig. 84.
+
+Fig. 85.
+
+Details of sticking and framework of canoe.]
+
+
+Ribs
+
+About fifty in number (Figs. 91, 92) are split with the grain (F, Fig.
+92), so that the heart side of the wood will be on the inner side when
+the rib is bent. The wood bends better this way. They must be perfectly
+straight-grained and free from knots. Ribs for the middle are four
+inches wide, ribs for the ends about three inches wide (Fig. 91 and
+G, Fig. 92), and are whittled down to a scant half an inch (Fig. 93).
+Green wood is generally used, and before it has had any time to season.
+The ribs may be softened by pouring hot water on them, and should be
+bent in pairs to prevent breaking (Fig. 90). They are held in shape by
+a band of cedar bark passed around outside.
+
+The ribs are of importance in the shaping of the canoe. The sides bulge
+out (Figs. 91, 92). The shape of the ribs determines the depth and
+stability of the canoe.
+
+
+Lining Strips
+
+Other strips, an eighth of an inch thick, are carefully whittled out,
+with straight edges. They are a little over eight feet long, and are
+designed to be laid inside on the bark, edge to edge, between the bark
+and the ribs. These strips lap an inch or two where they meet, in the
+middle of the canoe, and are wider here than at the ends, owing to the
+greater circumference of the canoe in the middle.
+
+
+Seasoning
+
+All the timber is carefully tied up before building and laid away. The
+ribs are allowed to season perfectly, so that they will keep their
+shape and not spring back.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92.
+
+Fig. 93.
+
+Details of ribs, Indian knives and method of using them.]
+
+
+The Bed
+
+Next the bed is prepared on a level spot, if possible shaded from the
+sun. A space is levelled about three and a half feet wide and a little
+longer than the canoe. The surface is made perfectly smooth. The
+middle is one or two inches higher than either end.
+
+
+Building
+
+The frame is laid exactly in the middle of the bed. A small post is
+driven in the ground (Fig. 94), on which each end of the frame will
+rest. Stakes, two or three feet long and about two inches in diameter,
+are whittled flat on one side, and are driven with the flat side toward
+the frame at the following points, leaving a space of about a quarter
+of an inch between the stake and the frame (Fig. 94): One stake an inch
+or two on either side of each cross-bar, and another stake half way
+between each cross-bar. This makes eleven stakes on each side of the
+frame. Twelve additional stakes are driven as follows: One pair facing
+each other, at the end of the frame; another pair, an inch apart, about
+six inches from the last pair, measuring toward the ends of the canoe;
+and another pair, an inch apart, a foot from these. These last stakes
+will be nine and a half feet from the middle of the frame, and nineteen
+feet from the corresponding stakes at the other end. Next, these stakes
+are all taken up, and the frame laid aside.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94.--Showing stakes supporting bark sides; note
+stones on the bottom.]
+
+
+To Soften the Bark
+
+Next the bark is unrolled. If it has laid until it has become a little
+hardened, it is placed in the river or stream for a day or two. It is
+spread out flat, and laid upon the bed with the gray or outside surface
+up. The inside surface is placed downward, and becomes the outside of
+the canoe.
+
+The frame is replaced upon the bark, so that it will be at the same
+distance from each side and end of the bed that it was before. At each
+cross-bar boards are laid across the frame, and heavy stones are laid
+upon them to keep the frame solid and immovable upon the bark (Fig. 85,
+C). The edges of the bark are next bent up in a perpendicular position,
+and in order that it may bend smoothly slits are made in the bark in an
+outward direction, at right angles to the frame. A cut is made close
+to the end of each cross-bar, and one half way between each bar, which
+is generally sufficient to allow the bark to be bent up smoothly. As
+the bark is bent up, the large stakes are slipped back in the holes
+which they occupied before, and the tops of each opposite pair are
+connected with a strip of cedar bark which keeps the stakes perfectly
+perpendicular. At each end it is necessary to take out a small
+triangular piece or gore, so that the edges may come together without
+overlapping.
+
+Next twenty-two pieces of cedar, one to two feet long, and about ½ or
+¾ inch thick, are split out, and whittled thin and flat at one end.
+This sharpened edge is inserted between the outside edge of the frame
+and the bent-up bark, opposite each large stake. The other end of the
+chisel-shaped piece is tightly tied to the large stake outside. By
+means of the _large outside stake_ and the inside "_stake_," so-called,
+the bark is held in a perfectly upright position; and in order to keep
+the bent-up part more perfectly flat and smooth, the strips of cedar
+are pushed in lengthwise between the stakes and the bark, on each side
+of the bark, as shown in sectional views (Fig. 85, C, D).
+
+Sometimes, in place of having temporary strips to go on outside of the
+bark, the long outside strip (B, Fig. 83), is slipped in place instead.
+
+It may now be seen if the bark is not wide enough. If it is not, the
+sides must be pieced out with a narrow piece, cut in such a way that
+the eyes in the bark will run in the same direction as those of the
+large piece.
+
+As a general rule, from the middle to the next bar the strip for
+piecing is placed on the inside of the large piece, whose upper edge
+has previously been trimmed straight, and the two are sewed together
+by the stitch shown in Fig. 86, the spruce root being passed over
+another root laid along the trimmed-off edge of the large piece of bark
+to prevent the stitches from tearing out. From the second bar to the
+end of the canoe, or as far as may be necessary, the strip is placed
+outside the large piece, and from the second to the end bar is sewed as
+in Fig. 87, and from the end bar to the end of the canoe is stitched as
+in Fig. 88.
+
+Next, the weights are taken off the frame, which is raised up as
+follows, the bark remaining flat on the bed as before:
+
+A post eight inches long is set up under each end of middle cross-bar
+(Fig. 85, D), one end resting on the bark and the other end supporting
+either end of the middle cross-bar. Another post, nine inches long,
+is similarly placed under each end of the next cross-bar. Another,
+twelve inches long, is placed under each end of the end cross-bar; and
+another, sixteen and a half or seventeen inches, supports each end of
+the frame.
+
+As the posts are placed under each cross-bar, the weights are replaced;
+and as these posts are higher at the ends than in the middle, the
+proper curve is obtained for the gunwales. The temporary strips, that
+have been placed outside the bent-up portion of the bark, are removed,
+and the long outside strip before mentioned (B, Fig. 83) is slipped
+in place between the outside stakes and the bark. This strip is next
+nailed to the frame with wrought-iron nails that pass through the bark
+and are clinched on the inside. This outside strip has taken exactly
+the curve of the frame, but its upper edge, before nailing, was raised
+so as to be out an eighth of an inch (or the thickness of the bark)
+higher than the top surface of the frame, so that when the edges of the
+bark have been bent down, and tacked flat to the frame, a level surface
+will be presented, upon which the wide top strip will eventually be
+nailed. Formerly the outer strip was bound to the frame with roots
+every few inches, but now it is nailed.
+
+The cross-bars are now lashed to the frame, having previously been
+held only by a peg. The roots are passed through holes in the end of
+the bars, around the outside strip (see right-hand side of Fig. 85). A
+two-inch piece of the bark, which has been tacked down upon the frame,
+is removed at the ends by the cross-bars, where the spruce roots are
+to pass around, and the outside strip is cut away to a corresponding
+extent, so that the roots, when wrapped around, will be flush with the
+surface above.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95.--Shows how to describe arc of circle for bow,
+also ornamentation of winter bark.]
+
+All the stakes are now removed, and laid away to be ready for the next
+canoe that may be built, and the canoe taken upside down upon two
+horses or benches, that will keep the craft clear of the ground.
+
+The shape of the bow is now marked out, either by the eye or with
+mechanical aid, according to the following rule: An arc of a circle,
+with a radius of seventeen inches, is described (Fig. 95) having as a
+centre a point shown in diagram. The bark is then cut away to this line.
+
+
+Bow-piece
+
+To stiffen the bow, a bow-piece of cedar, nearly three feet long
+(Fig. 96), an inch and a half wide, and half an inch thick on one
+edge, bevelled and rounded off toward the other edge, is needed. To
+facilitate bending edgeways it is split into four or five sections
+(as in Fig. 98) for about thirty inches. The end that remains unsplit
+is notched on its thicker edge (Fig. 96) to receive the lower end
+of an oval cedar board (Fig. 97) that is placed upright in the bow
+underneath the tip of the frame. It is bent to correspond with the
+curve of the boat, with the thin edge toward the outside of the circle,
+and wrapped with twine, so that it will keep its shape. The bow-piece
+is placed between the edges of the bark, which are then sewed together
+by an over-and-over stitch, which passes through the bow-piece.
+
+A pitch is prepared of rosin and grease, in such proportions that it
+will neither readily crack in cold water nor melt in the sun. One or
+the other ingredient is added until by test it is found just right.
+
+
+Patching and Pitching
+
+The canoe is now placed on the ground, right side up, and all holes are
+covered on the inside with thin birch bark that is pasted down with hot
+pitch. A strip of cloth is saturated with hot pitch, and pressed into
+the cracks on either side of the bow-piece inside, between the bark and
+the bow-piece (Fig. 99).
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 97-100.--Show details of canoe bow.]
+
+The thin longitudinal strips are next laid in position, edge to edge,
+lapping several inches by the middle; they are whittled thin here so as
+to lap evenly.
+
+The ribs are next tightly driven in place, commencing at the small end
+ones and working toward the middle. The end ribs may be two or three
+inches apart, being closer toward the middle, where, in many cases,
+they touch. Usually, they are about half an inch apart in the middle.
+Each rib is driven into place with a square-ended stick and a mallet.
+
+The ends are stuffed with shavings (Fig. 100 and "Section" Fig. 100½),
+and an oval cedar board is put in the place formerly occupied by the
+post that supported the end of the frame. The lower end rests in the
+notch of the bow-piece, while the upper is cut with two shoulders that
+fit underneath each side of the frame; Fig. 97 shows the cedar board.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100½.
+
+Fig. 101.
+
+Canoe paddles.]
+
+The top strip is next nailed on to the frame. Almost always a piece of
+bark, a foot or more long, and nine or ten inches wide, is bent and
+slipped under, between both top and side strips and the bark. The ends
+of this piece hang down about three inches below the side strips. The
+loose ends of the strips are bound together, as in diagram, and the
+projecting tips of both strips and bow-piece are trimmed off close.
+
+Next the canoe is turned upside down. If winter bark has been used,
+the surface is moistened and the roughness scraped off with a knife.
+Generally the red rough surface is left in the form of a decorative
+pattern several inches wide around the upper edge (Fig. 95). Sometimes
+the maker's name and date are left in this way.
+
+Finally, a strip of stout canvas, three or four inches wide, is dipped
+in the melted pitch and laid on the stitching at the ends, extending up
+sufficiently far above the water-line. All cracks and seams are covered
+with pitch, laid on with a small wooden paddle. While still soft, a wet
+finger or the palm of the hand is rubbed over the pitch to smooth it
+down before it hardens.
+
+
+Leaks
+
+Water is placed inside, and the leaky places marked, to be stopped when
+dry. A can of rosin is usually carried in the canoe, and when a leak
+occurs, the canoe is taken out of the water, the leak discovered by
+sucking, the place dried with a torch of wood or birch bark, and the
+pitch applied.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101½.--From photograph of Indian building a
+birch-bark canoe.]
+
+Paddles are made of rock maple, and sometimes of birch and even cedar.
+Bow paddles are usually longer and narrower in the blade than stern
+paddles (Fig. 101).
+
+
+Bottom Protection
+
+Sometimes the canoe is shod with "shoes," or strips of cedar, laid
+lengthwise and tied to the outside of the bark with ash splits that
+pass through holes in the cedar shoes, and are brought up around the
+sides of the canoe and tied to each cross-bar. This protects the bottom
+of the boat from the sharp rocks that abound in some rapid streams.
+
+All canoes are of the general shape of the one described, though this
+is considerably varied in different localities, some being built with
+high rolling bows, some slender, some wider, some nearly straight on
+the bottom, others decidedly curved.
+
+Besides the two paddles the canoe should carry a pole ten feet
+long, made of a slender spruce, whittled so as to be about one and
+three-fourths inch in diameter in the middle and smaller at either end,
+and having at one end either a ring and a spike or else a pointed cap
+of iron. The pole is used for propelling the canoe up swift streams.
+This, says Tappan Adney, "is absolutely indispensable." The person
+using the pole stands in one end, or nearer the middle if alone, and
+pushes the canoe along close to the bank, so as to take advantage of
+the eddies, guiding the canoe with one motion, only to be learned by
+practice, and keeping the pole usually on the side next the bank. Where
+the streams have rocky and pebbly bottoms poling is easy, but in muddy
+or soft bottoms it is tiresome work; muddy bottoms, however, are not
+usually found in rapid waters.
+
+
+A Canvas Canoe
+
+can be made by substituting canvas in the place of birch bark; and
+if it is kept well painted it makes not only a durable but a very
+beautiful boat. The writer once owned a canvas canoe that was at least
+fifteen years old and still in good condition.
+
+About six yards of ten-ounce cotton canvas, fifty inches wide, will
+be sufficient to cover a canoe, and it will require two papers of
+four-ounce copper tacks to secure the canvas on the frame.
+
+The boat should be placed, deck down, upon two "horses" or wooden
+supports, such as you see carpenters and builders use.
+
+Fold the canvas lengthwise, so as to find the centre, then tack the
+centre of one end of the cloth to top of bow-piece, or stem, using two
+or three tacks to hold it securely. Stretch the cloth the length of the
+boat, pull it taut, with the centre line of the canvas over the keel
+line of the canoe, and tack the centre of the other end of the cloth to
+the top of the stern-piece.
+
+If care has been taken thus far, an equal portion of the covering will
+lap the gunwale on each side of the boat.
+
+Begin amidships and drive the tacks, about two inches apart, along the
+gunwale and an inch below the deck (on the outside). Tack about two
+feet on one side, pull the cloth tightly across, and tack it about
+three feet on the other side. Continue to alternate, tacking on one
+side and then the other, until finished.
+
+With the hands and fingers knead the cloth so as to thicken or "full"
+it where it would otherwise wrinkle, and it will be possible to stretch
+the canvas without cutting it over the frame.
+
+The cloth that projects beyond the gunwale may be used for the deck, or
+it may be cut off after bringing it over and tacking upon the inside of
+the gunwale, leaving the canoe open like a birch-bark.
+
+
+To Paddle a Canoe
+
+No one can expect to learn to paddle a canoe from a book, however
+explicit the directions may be. There is only one way to learn to swim
+and that is by going into the water and trying it, and the only proper
+way to learn to paddle a canoe is to paddle one until you catch the
+knack.
+
+In the ordinary canoe, to be found at the summer watering places,
+there are cane seats and they are always too high for safety. A
+top load on any sort of a boat is always dangerous, and every real
+canoeist seats his passengers on the bottom of the boat and kneels on
+the bottom himself while paddling. Of course, one's knees will feel
+more comfortable if there is some sort of a cushion under them, and a
+passenger will be less liable to get wet if he has a pneumatic cushion
+on which to sit. No expert canoeist paddles alternately first on the
+one side, and then on the other; on the contrary, he takes pride in his
+ability to keep his paddle continuously on either side that suits his
+convenience.
+
+The Indians of the North Woods are probably the best paddlers, and
+from them we can take points in the art. It is from them we first
+learned the use of the canoe, for our open canvas canoes of to-day are
+practically modelled on the lines of the old birch-barks.
+
+[Illustration: From photographs taken especially for this book by Mr.
+F. K. Vreeland, Camp Fire Club of America.
+
+Fig. 102.--Beginning of stroke. Paddle should not be reached farther
+forward than this. It is immersed _edgewise_ (not point first) with a
+slicing motion. Note the angle of paddle--rear face of blade turned
+_outward_ to avoid tendency of canoe to turn. Staff of paddle is 6
+inches too short. Left hand should be lower.
+
+Fig. 102_a_.--A moment later. Right hand pushing forward, left hand
+swinging down. Left hand should be lower on full-sized paddle.
+
+Fig. 103.--Putting the power of the body in the stroke by bending
+slightly forward. Left hand held stationary from now on, to act as
+fulcrum. The power comes from the right arm and shoulders.
+
+Fig. 103_a_.--The final effort, full weight of the body on the paddle.
+The right arm and body are doing the work, the left arm (which is weak
+at this point) acting as fulcrum. Note twist of the right wrist to give
+blade the proper angle.
+
+Fig. 104.--End of stroke. Arms relaxed and body straightening.
+
+Fig. 104_a_.--Beginning of recovery. Paddle slides out of water gently.
+Note that blade is perfectly flat on the surface. No steering action is
+required. If the canoe tends to swerve it is because the _stroke_ was
+not correct. Only a duffer _steers_ with his paddle after the stroke is
+over. The left hand now moves forward, the right swinging out and back,
+moving paddle forward horizontally.
+
+Fig. 104_b_.--Turning to right. The latter part of a broad sweep
+outward, away from the canoe. The blade is now being swept toward the
+canoe, the left hand pulling in, the right pushing out. Position of
+right wrist shows that blade has the opposite slant to that shown in
+the straightaway stroke--_i. e._, the near face of blade is turned
+_inward_. Blade leaves water with _outer_ edge up. Wake of canoe shows
+sharpness of turn.
+
+Fig. 104_c_.--Turning to left. The last motion of a stroke in which the
+paddle is swept close to the canoe with the blade turned much farther
+outward than in the straightaway stroke. At end of stroke blade is
+given an outward sweep and leaves the water with the _inner_ edge up.
+_This is not a steering_ or dragging motion. It is a powerful sweep of
+the paddle. Note swirl in wake of canoe showing sharp turn.]
+
+When you are standing upright and your paddle is in front of you with
+the blade upon the ground, the handle should reach to your eye-brows.
+(See Figs. 101, 102, 103, etc.)
+
+Kneel with the paddle across the canoe and not farther forward than the
+knees. Then dip the blade _edgewise_ (not point first) by raising the
+upper hand without bending the elbow. Swing the paddle back, keeping
+it close to the canoe, and give a little twist to the upper wrist to
+set the paddle at the proper angle shown in the photos. The exact
+angle depends upon the trim of the boat, the wind, etc., and must be
+such that the canoe does not swerve _at any part_ of the stroke, but
+travels straight ahead. The lower arm acts mainly as a fulcrum and
+does not move back and forth more than a foot. The power comes from
+the upper arm and shoulder, and the body bends forward as the weight
+is thrown on the paddle. The stroke continues until the paddle slides
+out of the water endwise, flat on the surface. Then for recovery the
+blade is brought forward by a swing from the shoulder, _not_ lifting
+it vertically, but swinging it horizontally with the blade parallel to
+the water and the upper hand low. When it reaches a point opposite the
+knee it is slid into the water again, edgewise, for another stroke. The
+motion is a more or less rotary one, like stirring cake, not a simple
+movement back and forth.
+
+
+To Carry a Canoe
+
+To pick up a canoe and carry it requires not only the knack but also
+muscle, and no undeveloped boy should make the attempt, as he might
+strain himself, with serious results. But there are plenty of young
+men--good, husky fellows--who can learn to do this without any danger
+of injury if they are taught _how_ to lift by a competent physical
+instructor.
+
+To pick up a canoe for a "carry," stoop over and grasp the middle brace
+with the right arm extended, and a short hold with the left hand, as
+shown in Fig. 105.
+
+When you have a secure hold, hoist the canoe up on your legs, as shown
+in Fig. 106. Without stopping the motion give her another boost, until
+you have the canoe with the upper side above your head, as in Fig. 107.
+In the diagram the paddles are not spread apart as far as they should
+be. If the paddles are too close together a fall may break ones neck.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110.--Northern Quebec Indians crossing the "ladder
+portage."]
+
+Now turn the canoe over your head and slide your head between the
+paddles (which are lashed to the spreaders, as shown in Fig. 105),
+and twist your body around as you let the canoe settle down over your
+head (Fig. 108). If you have a sweater or a coat, it will help your
+shoulders by making a roll of it to serve as a pad under the paddles,
+as in Fig. 109. I have seen an Indian carry a canoe in this manner on
+a dog-trot over a five-mile portage without resting. I also have seen
+Indians carry canoes over mountains, crossing by the celebrated Ladder
+Portage in western Quebec, where the only means of scaling a cliff is
+by ascending a ladder made of notched logs. For real canoe work it is
+necessary that a man should know how to carry his craft across country
+from one body of water to another. All through the Lakelands of Canada,
+and also the Lake St. John district, up to Hudson Bay itself, the only
+trails are by water, with portage across from one stream or lake to the
+other.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+HOW TO BUILD A PADDLING DORY
+
+A Simple Boat Which Any One Can Build--The Cheapest Sort of a Boat
+
+
+TO construct this craft it is, of course, necessary that we shall have
+some lumber, but we will use the smallest amount and the expense will
+come within the limits of a small purse.
+
+First we must have two boards, their lengths depending upon
+circumstances and the lumber available. The ones in the diagram are
+supposed to be of pine to measure (after being trimmed) 18 feet long
+by 18 inches wide and about 1 inch thick. When the boards are trimmed
+down so as to be exact duplicates of each other, place one board over
+the other so that their edges all fit exactly and then nail each end of
+the two boards together for the distance of about six inches. Turn the
+boards over and nail them upon the opposite side in the same manner,
+clamping the nail ends if they protrude. Do this by holding the head
+of a hammer or a stone against the heads of the nails while you hold a
+wire nail against the protruding end, and with a hammer bend it over
+the nail until it can be mashed flat against the board so that it will
+not project beyond its surface.
+
+After you have proceeded thus far, take some pieces of tin (Fig. 112)
+and bend the ragged edges over, so as to make a clean, straight fold,
+and hammer it down flat until there are no rough or raw edges exposed.
+Now tack a piece of this tin over the end of the boards which composed
+the sides of the boat, as in Fig. 114. Make the holes for the tacks
+first by driving the pointed end of a wire nail through the tin where
+you wish the tacks to go and then tack the tin snugly and neatly on,
+after which tack on another piece of tin on both bow and stern, as in
+Fig. 116. This will hold the two ends of the boards securely together
+so that they may be carefully sprung apart in the middle to receive
+the middle mould which is to hold them in shape until the bottom of
+the boat is nailed on, and the permanent thwarts, or seats, fastened
+inside. When the latter are permanently fixed they will keep the boat
+in shape.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.--Parts of dory.]
+
+To make the mould, which is only a temporary thing, you may use any
+rough board, or boards nailed together with cleats to hold them. The
+mould should be 2 feet 6 inches long and 1 foot 4 inches high. Fig. 111
+will show you how to cut off the ends to give the proper slant. The
+dotted lines show the board before it is trimmed in shape. By measuring
+along the edge of the board from each end 10.8 inches and marking the
+points, and then, with a carpenter's pencil ruling the diagonal lines
+to the other edge and ends of the board, the triangles may be sawed off
+with a hand saw.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113. Fig. 114. Fig. 112. Fig. 115. Fig. 116.
+
+The simple details of the dory.]
+
+Fig. 111 shows where the mould is to be placed in the center of the
+two side boards. As the boards in this diagram are supposed to be on
+the slant, and consequently in the perspective, they do not appear as
+wide as they really are. The diagram is made also with the ends of the
+side boards free so as to better show the position of the mould. But
+when the side boards are sprung apart and the mould placed in position
+(Fig. 113), it will appear as in Fig. 116 or Fig. 117. Fig. 115 shows
+the shape of the stem-posts to be set in both bow and stern and nailed
+securely in place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118.
+
+Top views of dory and parts of dory.]
+
+When you have gone thus far fit in two temporary braces near the bow
+and stern, as shown in Fig. 117. These braces are simply narrow pieces
+of boards held in position by nails driven through the outside of the
+boat, the latter left with their heads protruding, so that they may be
+easily drawn when necessary.
+
+Now turn the boat over bottom up and you will find that the angle at
+which the sides are bent will cause the bottom boards to rest upon a
+thin edge of the side boards, as shown in Fig. 119. With an ordinary
+jack-plane trim this down so that the bottom boards will rest flush and
+snug, as in Fig. 120.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118½.]
+
+
+How to Calk a Boat so That It Won't Leak
+
+If you wish to make a bottom that will never leak, not even when it is
+placed in the water for the first time, plane off the boards on their
+sides, so that when fitted together they will leave a triangular groove
+between each board, as shown in Fig. 118½. These grooves will show upon
+the inside of the boat, and not upon the outside, and in this case
+the calking is done from the inside and not from the outside. They are
+first calked with candlewick, over which putty is used, but for a rough
+boat it is not even necessary to use any calking. When the planks swell
+they will be forced together, so as to exclude all water.
+
+To fasten the bottom on the boat put a board lengthwise at the end,
+as shown in Fig. 121. One end shows the end board as it is first
+nailed on, and the other end shows it after it has been trimmed off
+to correspond with the sides of the boat. Now put your short pieces
+of boards for the bottom on one at a time, driving each one snug up
+against its neighbor before nailing it in place and leaving the rough
+or irregular ends of each board protrude on each side, as shown at the
+right-hand end of Fig. 121.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121. Top view with sides in place, also reversed
+view showing how bottom boards are laid.]
+
+When all the boards are nailed in place (by beginning at one end and
+fitting them against each other until the other end is reached) they
+may be trimmed off with a saw (Fig. 121) and your boat is finished with
+the exception of the thwarts, or seats.
+
+If you intend to propel this with paddles like a canoe, you will need
+a seat in the centre for your passenger, and this may be placed in the
+position occupied by the form (Figs. 111 and 117) after the latter is
+removed. To fit a seat in it is only necessary to cut two cleats and
+nail them to the sides of the boat for the seat to rest upon and saw
+off a board the proper length to fit upon the cleats. It would be well
+now to fasten the braces in the bow and stern permanently, adjusting
+them to suit your convenience. The seat should be as low as possible
+for safety. With this your paddling dory is finished, and may be used
+even without being painted. A coat of paint, however, improves not only
+the looks but the tightness and durability of any boat.
+
+We have now advanced so far in our boat-building that it becomes
+necessary that the beginner should learn more about boats and boating,
+and since this book is written for beginners, we will take it for
+granted that they know absolutely nothing about the subject and will
+give all the rudimentary knowledge for landlubbers in the next chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE LANDLUBBER'S CHAPTER
+
+    Common Nautical Terms and Expressions Defined--How to
+    Sail a Boat--Boat Rigs--Rowing-clothes--How to Make a
+    Bathing-suit--How to Avoid Sunburn
+
+
+THERE are a few common terms with which all who venture on the water
+should be familiar, not only for convenience, but for prudential
+reasons.
+
+Accidents are liable to happen to boats of all descriptions, and often
+the safety of property and life depend upon the passengers' ability to
+understand what is said to them by the officers or sailors in charge of
+the craft.
+
+To those who are familiar with the water and shipping it may seem
+absurd to define the bow and stern of a boat, but there are people who
+will read this book who cannot tell the bow from the stern, so we will
+begin this chapter with the statement that
+
+=The bow= is the front end of the boat, and
+
+=The stern= is the rear end of the boat.
+
+=For'ard= is toward the bow of the boat.
+
+=Aft= is toward the stern of the boat. Both terms are used by sailors
+as forward and backward are used by landsmen.
+
+=The hull= is the boat itself without masts, spars, or rigging. A skiff
+and a birch-bark canoe are hulls.
+
+=The keel= is the piece of timber running along the centre of the
+bottom of the hull, like the runner of a skate, and used to give the
+boat a hold on the water, so that she will not slide sideways.
+
+When you are sitting in the stern of a boat, facing the bow, the side
+next to your right hand is the right-hand side of the boat, and the
+side next to your left hand is the left-hand side of the boat. But
+these terms are not used by seamen; they always say
+
+=Starboard= for the right-hand side of the boat, and
+
+=Port= for the left-hand side of the boat. Formerly the left-hand side
+was called the larboard, but this occasioned many serious mistakes on
+account of the similarity of the sound of larboard and starboard when
+used in giving orders.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.--Top view of small boat.]
+
+
+Red and Green Lights
+
+After dark a red light is carried on the port side and a green light on
+the starboard side of all vessels in motion. If you can remember that
+port wine is red, and that the port light is of the same color, you
+will always be able to tell in which direction an approaching craft is
+pointing by the relative location of the lights.
+
+    "When both lights you see ahead,
+     Port your helm and show your red!
+     Green to green and red to red,
+     You're all right, and go ahead!"
+
+If you are a real landlubber, the verse quoted will be of little
+service, because you will not know how to port your helm. In fact, you
+probably will not know where to look for the helm or what it looks
+like; but only a few of our readers are out-and-out landlubbers, and
+most of them know that the helm is in some way connected with the
+steering apparatus.
+
+=The rudder= is the movable piece of board at the stern of the boat by
+means of which the craft is guided. The rudder is moved by a lever,
+ropes, or a wheel.
+
+=The tiller= is the lever for moving the rudder, or the ropes used for
+the same purpose (Fig. 123).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123.--Helm--Lever, or stick, for tiller.]
+
+=The wheel= is the wheel whose spokes end in handles on the outer edge
+of the rim, or felly, and it is used for moving the rudder (Fig. 124).
+
+=The helm= is that particular part of the steering apparatus that you
+put your hands on when steering.
+
+=The deck= is the roof of the hull.
+
+=The centreboard= is an adjustable keel that can be raised or lowered
+at pleasure. It is an American invention. The centreboard, as a rule,
+is only used on comparatively small vessels. The inventor of the
+centreboard is Mr. Salem Wines, who kept a shop on Water Street, near
+Market Slip, and, when alive, was a well-known New York boat-builder.
+His body now lies in Greenwood Cemetery, and upon the headstone of his
+grave is the inscription, "The Inventor of the Centreboard."
+
+For sailing, the boat, or hull, is rigged with masts and spars for
+spreading the sails to catch the wind.
+
+=The masts= are the upright poles, or sticks, that hold the sails.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124.--Helm--The wheel.]
+
+=The yards= are the poles, or sticks, at right angles with the masts
+that spread the sails.
+
+=The boom= is the movable spar at the bottom of the sail.
+
+=The gaff= is the pole, or spar, for spreading the top, or head, of the
+sail (Fig. 125).
+
+=The sail= is a big canvas kite, of which the boom, gaff, and masts are
+the kite-sticks. You must not understand by this that the sail goes
+soaring up in the air, for the weight of the hull prevents that; but if
+you make fast a large kite to the mast of a boat it would be a sail,
+and if you had a line long and strong enough, and should fasten any
+spread sail to it, there can be no doubt that the sail would fly.
+
+=The spars= are the masts, bowsprit, yards, and gaffs.
+
+=The bowsprit= is the stick, or sprit, projecting from the bow of the
+boat (Fig. 161, Sloop).
+
+=The foremast= is the mast next to the bow--the forward mast (Fig. 159,
+Ship).
+
+=The mainmast= is the second mast--the mast next to the foremast.
+
+=Mizzen-mast= is the mast next to and back of the mainmast (Fig. 159,
+Ship).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125.--A sail.]
+
+=The rigging= of a boat consists of the ropes, or lines, attached to
+its masts and sails, but a boat's rig refers to the number of masts as
+well as to the shape of its sails.
+
+=Stays= are strong ropes supporting the masts, fore and aft.
+
+=Shrouds= are strong ropes reaching from the mastheads to the sides of
+the vessel; supports for the masts, starboard and port.
+
+=Ratlines= are the little ropes that form the steps, or foot ropes,
+that run crosswise between the shrouds.
+
+=The painter= is the rope at the bow of a small boat, used for the same
+purpose as is a hitching-strap on a horse.
+
+=The standing rigging= consists of the stays and shrouds.
+
+=The running rigging= consists of all the ropes used in handling yards
+and sails.
+
+=The sheets= are the ropes, or lines, attached to the corners of sails,
+by which they are governed (Fig. 126).
+
+=The main sheet= is the rope that governs the mainsail.
+
+=The jib-sheet= is the rope that governs the jib-sail.
+
+=The gaskets= are the ropes used in lashing the sails when furled.
+
+=The braces= are the ropes used in swinging the yards around.
+
+=The jib-stay= is the stay that runs from the foremast to the bowsprit.
+
+=The bob-stay= is practically an extension of the jib-stay and the
+chief support of the spars. It connects the bow of the boat with the
+bowsprit and prevents the latter from bobbing up and down.
+
+Besides the port and starboard sides of a boat there are the windward
+and leeward sides. Do not understand by this that the boat has four
+sides, like a square. Windward may be the port or the starboard side,
+according to the direction the wind blows; because
+
+=Windward= means the side of the boat against which the wind blows--the
+side where the wind climbs aboard; or it may mean the direction from
+which the wind comes. The opposite side is called
+
+=Leeward=--that is, the side of the boat opposite to that against which
+the wind blows, where the wind tumbles overboard, or the side opposite
+to windward. When you are sailing you may be near a
+
+=Lee Shore=--that is, the shore on your lee side against which the wind
+blows; or a
+
+=Windward Shore=--that is, the land on your windward side from which
+the wind blows.
+
+All seamen dread a lee shore, as it is a most dangerous shore to
+approach, from the fact that the wind is doing its best to blow you
+on the rocks or beach. But the windward shore can be approached with
+safety, because the wind will keep you off the rocks, and if it is
+blowing hard, the land will break the force of the wind.
+
+In a canoe or shell the boatman sits either directly on the bottom, or,
+as in the shell, very close to it, and the weight of his body serves to
+keep the boat steady, but larger crafts seldom rely upon live weights
+to steady them. They use
+
+=Ballast=--that is, weights of stone, lead, iron, or sand-bags, used to
+balance the boat and make her steady.
+
+As has been said before in this chapter, the sail is a big canvas kite
+made fast to the boat and called a sail, but the ordinary kite has its
+covering stretched permanently on rigid sticks.
+
+The sail, however, can be stretched to its full extent or only
+partially, or it may be rolled up, exposing nothing but the masts to
+the force of the wind. To accomplish all this there are various ropes
+and attachments, all of which are named.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126.--Sail and sheet.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127.--Parts of sail.]
+
+It is quite important that the beginner should know the names of all the
+
+
+Parts of a Sail
+
+=Luff.=--That part of the sail adjoining the mast--the front of the
+sail (Fig. 127).
+
+=Leach.=-That part of the sail stretched between the outer or after end
+of the boom and the outer end of the gaff--the back part of the sail
+(Fig. 127).
+
+=Head.=--That part of the sail adjoining the gaff--the top of the sail.
+
+=Foot.=--That part of the sail adjoining the boom--the bottom of the
+sail (Fig. 127).
+
+=Clews.=--A general name for the four corners of the sail.
+
+=Clew.=--The particular corner at the foot of the sail where the leach
+and boom meet (Fig. 127).
+
+=Tack.=--The corner of the sail where boom and mast meet (Fig. 127).
+
+=Throat, or Nock.=--The corner of the sail where gaff and mast meet
+(Fig. 127).
+
+=Peak.=--Corner of the sail where the leach and gaff meet (Fig. 127).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128.--Starboard helm.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129--Port helm.]
+
+
+How to Steer a Boat
+
+When you wish your boat to turn to the right push your helm to the
+left. This will push the rudder to the right and turn the boat in that
+direction. When you wish your boat to turn to the left push your helm
+to the right. In other words, starboard your helm and you will turn to
+the port (Fig. 128). Port your helm and you will turn to the starboard
+(Fig. 129).
+
+From a reference to the diagram you may see that when you =port your
+helm= you move the tiller to the port side of the boat, and when you
+=starboard your helm= you move your tiller to the starboard side of the
+boat (Fig. 128), but to =ease your helm= you move your helm toward the
+centre of the boat--that is, amidships.
+
+
+How to Sail a Boat
+
+If you fasten the bottom of a kite to the ground, you will find that
+the wind will do its best to blow the kite over, and if the kite is
+fastened to the mast of a toy boat, the wind will try to blow the boat
+over.
+
+In sailing a boat the effort of the wind apparently has but one
+object, and that is the upsetting of the boat. The latter, being well
+balanced, is constantly endeavoring to sit upright on its keel, and
+you, as a sailor, are aiding the boat in the struggle, at the same time
+subverting the purpose of the wind to suit your own ideas. It is an
+exciting game, in which man usually comes out ahead, but the wind gains
+enough victories to keep its courage up.
+
+Every boat has peculiarities of its own, and good traits as well as bad
+ones, which give the craft a personal character that lends much to your
+interest, and even affects your sensibilities to the extent of causing
+you to have the same affection for a good, trustworthy craft that you
+have for an intelligent and kind dog or horse.
+
+A properly balanced sail-boat, with main sheet trimmed flat and free
+helm, should be as sensitive as a weathercock and act like one--that
+is, she ought to swing around until her bow pointed right into the "eye
+of the wind," the direction from which the wind blows. Such a craft it
+is not difficult to sail, but it frequently happens that the boat that
+is given to you to sail is not properly balanced, and shows a constant
+tendency to "come up in the wind"--face the wind--when you are doing
+your best to keep her sails full and keep her on her course. This
+may be caused by too much sail aft. The boat is then said to carry a
+weather helm.
+
+=Weather Helm.=--When a boat shows a constant tendency to come up in
+the wind.
+
+=Lee Helm.=--When a boat shows a constant tendency to fall off the
+wind--that is, when the wind blows her bow to the leeward. This is
+a much worse trait than the former, and a boat with a lee helm is a
+dangerous boat. It may be possible to remedy it by adding sail aft or
+reducing sail forward, which should immediately be done.
+
+In spite of the fact, already stated, that the wind's constant effort
+is to capsize a boat, there is little or no danger of a properly rigged
+boat upsetting unless the sheets are fast or hampered in some way. When
+a sail-boat upsets it is, of course, because the wind blows it over.
+Now, the wind cannot blow a boat over unless the boat presents some
+surface larger than its hull for the wind to blow against, and the sail
+is the only object that offers enough surface to the breeze to cause an
+upset.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130--Close-hauled.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131.--Before the wind.]
+
+[Illustration: Top view of boats, showing position of helm and boom.]
+
+If the sheet is slackened, the sail will swing around until it flaps
+like a flag and only the thin edge is presented to the wind; and a boat
+that a flag will upset is no boat for beginners to trust themselves in.
+True, the boom may be very long and heavy enough to make it dangerous
+to let so much of it overboard, but this is seldom the case. A good
+sailor keeps his eyes constantly on the sails and trims them to take
+advantage of the slightest favorable breeze. In place of losing
+control of his sail by letting go the sheets he will ease the tiller so
+as to "spill" part of the wind that is, let the forward part, or luff,
+of the sail shake a bit. Or, in case of a sudden puff of wind, he may
+deem it necessary to "luff"--that is, let her shake--and slacken the
+sheets too.
+
+=Trimmed Flat.=--Sheets hauled in until the boom is only a little to
+the leeward of the helm (Fig. 130).
+
+=Close-hauled.=--Sheets trimmed flat and the boat pointing as near as
+possible to the eye of the wind. Then the sail cannot belly, and is
+called flat (Fig. 130).
+
+
+To Sail Close-hauled
+
+The skipper must watch that his sail does not flap or ripple at the
+throat, for that means that he is pointing too close to the wind and
+that some of the breeze is blowing on both sides of his sail, which
+even a novice can see will retard the boat.
+
+Upon discovering a rippling motion at the luff of the sail put the helm
+up--that is, move the tiller a little to windward until the sail stops
+its flapping.
+
+=Before the Wind.=--When the wind is astern; sailing with the wind;
+sailing directly from windward to leeward (Fig. 131).
+
+In order to reach the desired point it is often expedient to sail
+before the wind, but unless the wind is light, beginners had better not
+try this. To sail before the wind you let your sheets out until the
+boom stands at _almost_ right angles with the boat. Keep your eye on
+the sail and see that it does not flap, for if the man at the helm is
+careless and allows the boat to point enough away from the direction of
+the wind to allow the wind to get on the other side of the sail, the
+latter will swing around or jibe with such force as to endanger the
+mast, if it does not knock some one overboard.
+
+The price of liberty is constant vigilance, and the price of a good
+sail is the same. I have seen a mast snapped off clean at the deck by
+a jibe, and once when out after ducks every one was so intent upon the
+game that proper attention was not paid to the sail. The wind got
+round and brought the boom with a swing aft, knocking the captain of
+our boat club overboard. Had the boom hit him in the head and stunned
+him, the result might have been fatal.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132.--Boom hauled in.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133.--On new course.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131½.--Before the wind.]
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 131½, 132, and 133.--Jibing.]
+
+=Wing and Wing.=--When a schooner goes before the wind with one sail
+out at nearly right angles on the port side and the other in the same
+position on the starboard side she is said to be wing and wing and
+presents a beautiful sight.
+
+=Tacking.=--Working to the windward by a series of diagonal moves.
+
+=Legs.=--The moves or diagonal courses made in tacking. It is apparent
+to the most unthinking observer that no vessel propelled by sail can
+move against the direct course of the wind--that is, nothing but
+electricity, naphtha, steam, or some such power can drive a boat into
+the eye of the wind. But what cannot be accomplished in a direct manner
+can be done by a series of compromises, each of which will bring us
+nearer to the desired point.
+
+First we point the boat to the right or left, as the case may be, as
+near or as close to the wind as the boat will sail. Then we come about
+and sail in the other direction as close as practicable to the eye of
+the wind, and each time we gain something in a direct line.
+
+When your boat changes its direction on a tack it is done by "jibing,"
+or "coming about."
+
+=Jibing.=--With the wind on the quarter, haul the main boom aft or
+amidship with all possible speed, by means of the main sheets (Fig.
+132), and as the wind strikes the sail on the other side let it out as
+deliberately as possible until it reaches the position desired (Fig.
+133).
+
+Beginners should never attempt to jibe, for if there is more than a
+capful of wind, the sail will probably get away from them, and, as
+described in going before the wind, some disaster is liable to occur.
+Experts only jibe in light winds, and frequently lower the peak, so as
+to reduce sail, before attempting a jibe.
+
+
+Coming About
+
+When you wish to come about see that all the tackle, ropes, etc., are
+clear and in working order, and that you are making good headway; then
+call out: "Helm's a-lee!" or "Ready about!" and push the tiller in the
+direction opposite to that from which the wind blows--that is, to the
+lee side of the boat. This will bring the bow around until the wind
+strikes the sail upon the side opposite to that which it struck before
+the helm was a-lee (Figs. 134, 135, 136, 137).
+
+If you are aboard a sloop or schooner, ease off the jib-sheet, but keep
+control of it, so that as the boat comes up to the wind you can make
+the jib help the bow around by holding the sheets so as to catch the
+wind aback. When the bow of the craft has passed the eye of the wind
+and the sail begins to fill give the order to make fast, or trim, the
+jib, and off you go upon the opposite tack, or on a new leg.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 134, 135, 136, and 137.--Coming about.]
+
+If the wind is light, or if, for any cause, the boat works slowly, you
+can sometimes help her by trimming in the main sheet when you let the
+jib-sheet fly. In the diagram of coming about no jib is shown.
+
+=Wearing= is a term sometimes used in place of jibing.
+
+
+In a Thunder-storm
+
+A thunder-storm is always an uncertain thing. There may be a veritable
+tornado hidden in the black clouds that we see rising on the
+horizon, or it may simply "iron out the wind"--that is, go grumbling
+overhead--and leave us becalmed, to get home the best way we can;
+generally by what the boys call a "white-ash breeze"--that is, by using
+the sweeps or oars.
+
+On Long Island Sound a thunder-storm seems to have certain fixed rules
+of conduct. In the first place, it comes up from the leeward, or
+_against the wind_. Just before the storm strikes you for an instant
+the wind ceases and the sails flap idly. Then look out! for in nine
+cases out of ten you are struck the next moment by a sudden squall from
+exactly the opposite direction from which the wind blew a moment before.
+
+
+What to Do
+
+Make for the nearest port with all speed, and keep a man at the
+downhaul ready at a moment's notice to lower sail. The moment the wind
+stops drop the sail and make everything snug, leaving only bare poles.
+When the thunder-squall strikes you, be it ever so hard, you are now in
+little danger; and if the wind from the new quarter is not too fresh,
+you can hoist sail again and make the best of your way to the nearest
+port, where you can "get in out of the wet."
+
+If the wind is quite fresh keep your peak down, and with a reefed sail
+speed on your way. If it is a regular howler, let your boat drive
+before the wind under bare poles until you can find shelter or until
+it blows over, and the worst mishap you are likely to incur is a good
+soaking from the rain.
+
+=Shortening Sail.=--Just as soon as the boat heels over too far for
+safety, or as soon as you are convinced that there is more wind than
+you need for comfortable sailing, it is time to take a reef--that
+is, to roll up the bottom of the sail to the row of little ropes, or
+reefing points, on the sail and make fast there. This, of course, makes
+a smaller sail, and that is what you wish.
+
+While under way it will be found impossible to reef a sail except
+when sailing close-hauled. So the boat is brought up into the wind by
+pushing the helm down, as if you intended to come about. When possible
+it is better to lower the sail entirely before attempting to put in a
+reef.
+
+
+To Reef Without Lowering Sail
+
+It sometimes happens that on account of the proximity of a lee shore,
+and the consequent danger of drifting in that direction, or for some
+other equally good reason, it is inadvisable to lower sail and lose
+headway. Under such circumstances the main sheet must be trimmed flat,
+keeping the boat as close as possible to the wind, the helm must be put
+up hard a-lee, and jib-sheet trimmed to windward (Fig. 138).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138.--Squirming; jib on port side, boom
+close-hauled on starboard side.]
+
+When this is done the wind will hit the jib, "paying her head off," or
+pushing her bow to leeward, and this tendency is counteracted by the
+helm and mainsail, bringing the bow up into the wind. This keeps the
+boat squirming. Lower the mainsail until the row of reef points is just
+on a line with the boom, keeping to the windward of the sail. Tie the
+first point--that is, the one on the luff rope--then the one on the
+leach, being careful to stretch out the foot of the sail. Then tie the
+remaining points, always making a square or reefing knot. Tie them to
+the jack-stay on the boom or around the boom.
+
+
+The Reef or Square Knot
+
+is most frequently used, as its name implies, in reefing sails. First
+make a plain overhand knot, as in Fig. 139. Then repeat the operation
+by taking the end and passing it over and under the loop, drawing the
+parts tight, as shown in Fig. 140. Care should be observed in crossing
+the ends so that they will always lay fairly alongside the main parts.
+Otherwise the knot will prove a _granny_ and be comparatively worthless.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 139 and 140.--Square or reef knot.]
+
+
+To Shake Out a Reef
+
+untie the knots, keeping to the windward of the sail. Untie the knot
+at the leach first, next the one at the luff, and then the remaining
+points. In lowering a sail you use a rope called the =downhaul=.
+
+=Starboard Tack.=--When the main boom is over the port side.
+
+=Port Tack.=--When the main boom is over the starboard side.
+
+=Right of Way.=--All boats sailing on the starboard tack have the right
+of way over all those on the port tack. In other words, if you are on
+the starboard tack, those on the port tack must keep out of your way.
+Any boat sailing close-hauled has the right of way over a boat sailing
+free.
+
+
+Lights for Canoe
+
+A canoe under sail at night should have an uncolored lantern hung to
+her mizzen-mast to notify other craft that she is out and objects to
+being run down. The light is put on the mizzen so that it may be behind
+the skipper and not dazzle him.
+
+What you have read in the foregoing pages will not be found very
+difficult to remember, but there is only one way to learn to sail and
+that is by _sailing_. If possible, sail with some one who is a good
+seaman. If this sort of companion cannot be had, try it alone on smooth
+water and with short sail until you accustom yourself to the boat and
+its peculiarities. No boy ever learned to skate or swim from books, but
+books often have been helpful in giving useful hints to those who were
+really learning by practical experience.
+
+
+Some Do Nots
+
+  Do not overload the boat.
+  Do not carry too much sail.
+  Do not sail in strange waters without chart or compass.
+  Do not forget your anchor.
+  Do not forget your paddles or oars.
+  Do not attempt to learn to sail before you know how to swim.
+  Do not sit on the gunwale.
+  Do not put the helm down too suddenly or too far.
+  Do not let go the helm.
+  Do not mistake caution for cowardice.
+  Do not be afraid to reef.
+  Do not fear the ridicule of other landlubbers.
+  Do not fail to keep the halyards and sheets clear.
+  Do not jibe in a stiff wind.
+  Do not fail to keep your head in times of emergency.
+  Do not make a display of bravery until the occasion demands it.
+  Do not allow mistakes or mishaps to discourage you.
+  Do not associate with a fool who rocks a boat.
+
+You will soon become an expert and be able to engage in one of our most
+exhilarating, healthy, and manly sports and earn the proud distinction
+of being a good small-boat sailor.
+
+
+It is Necessary to Learn to Swim
+
+From the parents' point of view, nowhere that a boy's restless nature
+impels him to go is fraught with so much peril as the water, and
+nowhere is a boy happier than when he is on the water, unless it is
+when he is in it. Nowhere can be found a better school for his young
+mind and body than that furnished by boating. Hence it appears to be
+the imperative duty for parents personally to see that their children
+are taught to swim as soon as their little limbs have strength enough
+to make the proper motions.
+
+
+Boating-Clothes
+
+In aquatic sports of all kinds, if you expect to have fun, you must
+dress appropriately. You should have a suit of old clothes that you
+can change for dry ones when the sport is over. When boating, it is
+nonsense to pretend you can keep dry under all the varying conditions
+of wind and weather. If your purse is small, and you want a good
+rowing-suit, it can be made of last winter's woollen underclothes, and
+will answer for the double purpose of rowing and bathing.
+
+
+How to Make a Bathing-Suit
+
+First take an old woollen undershirt and cut the sleeves off above the
+elbows. Then coax your mother, aunt, or sister to sew it up in front
+like a sweater, and hem the edges of the sleeves where they have just
+been cut off.
+
+Next take a pair of woollen drawers and have them sewed up in front,
+leaving an opening at the top about four inches in length; turn the
+top edge down all around to cover a piece of tape that should be long
+enough to tie in front. Have this hem or flap sewed down to cover the
+tape, and allow the two ends of the tape to protrude at the opening
+in front. The tape should not be sewed to the cloth, but should move
+freely, so that you can tighten or loosen it at will. Cut the drawers
+off at the knees and have the edges hemmed, and you will have a
+first-class bathing or rowing-suit.
+
+If woollen clothes are not to be had, cotton will do, but wool is
+coolest and warmest, as the occasion may require.
+
+When rowing wear old socks, woollen ones if you have them, and old
+shoes cut down like slippers. The latter can be kicked off at a
+moment's notice, and, if lost, they are of no value, and may be easily
+replaced.
+
+When on shore a long pair of woollen stockings to cover your bare
+legs and a sweater to pull over your sleeveless shirt are handy and
+comfortable, but while sailing, paddling, or rowing in hot weather the
+rowing-suit is generally all that comfort requires. Of course, if your
+skin is tender, you are liable to be terribly sunburned on your arms,
+neck, and legs; but
+
+
+Sunburn
+
+may be avoided by gradually accustoming your limbs to the exposure.
+Dearly will you pay for your negligence if you go out for a day with
+bare arms or legs in the hot sun before you have toughened yourself,
+and little will you sleep that night.
+
+I have seen young men going to business the day following a regatta
+with no collars on their red necks, and no shirt over their soft
+undershirts, the skin being too tender to bear the touch of the stiff,
+starched linen, and I have known others who could not sleep a wink on
+account of the feverish state of their bodies, caused by the hot sun
+and a tender skin. Most boys have had some experience from sunburn,
+acquired while bathing. If care is taken to cover your arms and legs
+after about an hour's exposure, you will find that in place of being
+blistered, your skin will be first pink and then a faint brownish tint,
+which each succeeding exposure will deepen until your limbs will assume
+that dark, rich mahogany color of which athletes are so proud. This
+makes your skin proof against future attacks of the hottest rays of the
+sun.
+
+Besides the pain and discomfort of a sudden and bad sunburn on your
+arms, the effect is not desirable, as it is very liable to cover your
+arms with freckles. I have often seen men with beautifully bronzed arms
+and freckled shoulders, caused by going out in their shells first with
+short sleeves and then with shirts from which the sleeves were entirely
+cut away, exposing the white, tender shoulders to the fierce heat, to
+which they were unaccustomed.
+
+It is a good plan to cover the exposed parts of your body with
+sweet-oil, vaseline, mutton-tallow, beef-tallow, or lard. This is good
+as a preventive while in the sun, and excellent as an application after
+exposure. Any sort of oil or grease that does not contain salt is good
+for your skin.
+
+
+Clothes for Canoeing
+
+In canoeing I have found it convenient to dress as I would in a shell
+boat, but I generally have had a sweater and a pair of long trousers
+stowed away, ready to be pulled on over my rowing-clothes when I
+landed. Once, when I neglected to put these extra clothes aboard, I
+was storm-bound up Long Island Sound, and, leaving my boat, I took the
+train home, but I did not enjoy my trip, for the bare legs and arms and
+knit cap attracted more attention than is pleasant for a modest man.
+
+Do not wear laced shoes in a canoe, for experience has taught
+boating-men that about the most inconvenient articles of clothing to
+wear in the water are laced shoes. While swimming your feet are of
+absolutely no use if incased in this style of foot-gear, and all the
+work must be done with the arms. But if you have old slippers, they may
+be kicked off, and then you are dressed practically in a bathing-suit,
+and can swim with comfort and ease.
+
+Possibly these precautions may suggest the idea that a ducking is not
+at all an improbable accident, and it must be confessed that the boy
+who thinks he can learn to handle small boats without an occasional
+unlooked-for swim is liable to discover his mistake before he has
+become master of his craft.
+
+
+Stick to Your Boat
+
+Always remember that a wet head is a very small object in the water,
+and liable to be passed by unnoticed, but that a capsized boat can
+scarcely fail to attract attention and insure a speedy rescue from an
+awkward position. As for the real danger of boating, it cannot be great
+where care is used. Not one fatality has occurred on the water, among
+all of my large circle of boating friends, and personally I have never
+witnessed a fatal accident in all the years I have spent rowing and
+sailing.
+
+
+Life-Preservers
+
+All canoes should have a good cork life-preserver in them when the
+owner ventures away from land. I never but once ventured any distance
+without one, and that is the only time I was ever in need of a
+life-preserver. The ordinary cork jacket is best. It can be used for
+a seat, and when spread on the bottom of your canoe, with an old
+coat or some article thrown over it for a cushion, it is not at all
+an uncomfortable seat. Most canoes have airtight compartments fore
+and aft--that is, at both ends--and the boat itself is then a good
+life-preserver. Even without the airtight compartments, unless your
+boat is loaded with ballast or freight, there is no danger of its
+sinking. A canvas canoe, as a rule, has enough woodwork about it to
+support your weight when the boat is full of water.
+
+An upset canvas canoe supported me for an hour and a half during a blow
+on Long Island Sound, and had not a passing steamer rescued me, the
+canoe would evidently have buoyed me up as long as I could have held on
+to the hull.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+HOW TO RIG AND SAIL SMALL BOATS
+
+
+How to Make a Lee-Board for a Canoe
+
+NOW that the open canvas canoe has become so popular the demand has
+arisen for some arrangement by which it may be used with sails. Of
+course it is an easy matter to rig sails on almost any sort of craft,
+but unless there is a keel or a centreboard the boat will make lee-way,
+_i. e._, it will have no hold on the water, and when you try to tack,
+the boat will blow sideways, which may be fraught with serious results.
+The only time that the author ever got in a serious scrape with his
+canoe, was when he carelessly sailed out in a storm, leaving the key
+to his fan centreboard at the boat-house. Being unable to let down the
+centreboard, he was eventually driven out to sea, and when he became
+too fatigued to move quickly was capsized.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140.--Lee-board. Fig. 140_a_.--Bolt and
+thumb-screw.]
+
+Now to prevent such occurrences and to do away with the inconvenience
+of the centreboard in an open canoe, various designs of lee-boards have
+been made. A lee-board is, practically speaking, a double centreboard.
+The paddle-like form of the blades of the boards given in Fig. 140 give
+them a good hold on the water when they are below the surface, and they
+can also be allowed to swing clear of the water when temporarily out of
+use. Or they may be removed and stowed away in the canoe. As you see by
+the diagram the two blades are connected by a spruce rod; the blades
+themselves may be made of some hard wood, like cherry, and bevelled at
+the edges like a canoe-paddle. They should be a scant foot in width and
+a few inches over two feet long, and cut out of three-quarter-inch
+material. The spruce cross-bar is about one and a half inch in
+diameter, the ends of which are thrust through a hole in the upper end
+of each lee-board. A small hole is bored in the top of each lee-board,
+down through the ends of the cross-board, and when a galvanized-iron
+pin is pushed down through this hole, it will prevent the bar from
+turning in its socket. A couple more galvanized-iron pins or bars fit
+in holes in the spruce cross-bar, as shown in the diagram (Fig. 140).
+At the top end of each of these metal bolts is a thumb-screw which runs
+down over the thread of the bolt. The bottom or lower end is bent at
+right angles that it may be fitted under the gunwale of the canoe, and
+tightened by twisting the thumb-screws. The advantage of this sort of
+arrangement is that the lee-boards may be slid backward or forward and
+so adjusted that the canoe will sail in the direction in which it is
+steered. The place where the lee-board is to be fastened can only be
+found by experiment. When it is too far toward the bow, the boat will
+show a desire to come up against the wind, thus making work for the
+steersman to keep the wind in the sails. If the lee-board is fastened
+too far toward the stern the canoe will show a decided determination to
+swing around with its stern to the wind, which is a dangerous trick for
+a well-trained craft to indulge in.
+
+I have seen open canvas canoes at the outfitting stores marked as low
+as seventeen dollars, but they usually cost twenty-five dollars or
+more, and I would advise ambitious canoeists to build their own canoes,
+and even to make their own lee-boards, although it would be cheaper to
+buy the latter.
+
+
+How to Rig and Sail Small Boats
+
+To have the tiller in one's own hands and feel competent, under all
+ordinary circumstances, to bring a boat safely into port, gives the
+same zest and excitement to a sail (only in a far greater degree) that
+the handling of the whip and reins over a lively trotter does to a
+drive.
+
+Knowing and feeling this, it was my intention to devote a couple of
+chapters to telling how to sail a boat; but through the kind courtesy
+of the editor of _The American Canoeist_, I am able to do much better
+by giving my readers a talk on this subject by one whose theoretical
+knowledge and practical experience renders him pre-eminently fit to
+give reliable advice and counsel. The following is what Mr. Charles
+Ledyard Norton, editor of the above-mentioned journal, says:
+
+Very many persons seem to ignore the fact that a boy who knows how
+to manage a gun is, upon the whole, less likely to be shot than one
+who is a bungler through ignorance, or that a good swimmer is less
+likely to be drowned than a poor one. Such, however, is the truth
+beyond question. If a skilled sportsman is now and then shot, or an
+expert swimmer drowned, the fault is not apt to be his own, and if
+the one who is really to blame had received proper training, it is not
+likely that the accident would have occurred at all. The same argument
+holds good with regard to the management of boats, and the author is
+confident that he merits the thanks of mothers, whether he receives
+them or not, for giving their boys a few hints as to practical rigging
+and sailing.
+
+In general, there are three ways of learning how to sail boats. First,
+from the light of nature, which is a poor way; second, from books,
+which is better; and third, from another fellow who knows how, which
+is best of all. I will try to make this article as much like the other
+fellow and as little bookish as possible.
+
+Of course, what I shall say in these few paragraphs will be of small
+use to those who live within reach of the sea or some big lake and have
+always been used to boats; but there are thousands and thousands of
+boys and men who never saw the sea, nor even set eyes on a sail, and
+who have not the least idea how to make the wind take them where they
+want to go. I once knew some young men from the interior who went down
+to the sea-side and hired a boat, with the idea that they had nothing
+to do but hoist the sail and be blown wherever they liked. The result
+was that they performed a remarkable set of manoeuvres within sight
+of the boat-house, and at last went helplessly out to sea and had to be
+sent after and brought back, when they were well laughed at for their
+performances, and had reason to consider themselves lucky for having
+gotten off so cheaply.
+
+The general principles of sailing are as simple as the national game of
+"one ole cat." That is to say, if the wind always blew moderately and
+steadily, it would be as easy and as safe to sail a boat as it is to
+drive a steady old family horse of good and regular habits. The fact,
+however, is that winds and currents are variable in their moods, and as
+capable of unexpected freaks as the most fiery of unbroken colts; but
+when properly watched and humored they are tractable and fascinating
+playmates and servants.
+
+Now, let us come right down to first principles. Take a bit of pine
+board, sharpen it at one end, set up a mast about a quarter of the
+length of the whole piece from the bow, fit on a square piece of stiff
+paper or card for a sail, and you are ready for action. Put this in the
+water, with the sail set squarely across (A, Fig. 141), and she will
+run off before the wind--which is supposed to be blowing as indicated
+by the arrow--at a good rate of speed. If she does not steer herself,
+put a small weight near the stern, or square end; or, if you like,
+arrange a thin bit of wood for a rudder.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141.
+
+Lesson in sailing for beginners.]
+
+Probably the first primeval man who was born with nautical instincts
+discovered this fact, and, using a bush for a sail, greatly astonished
+his fellow primevals by winning some prehistoric regatta. But that
+was all he could do. He was as helpless as a balloonist is in midair.
+He could go, but he could not get back, and we may be sure that
+ages passed away before the possibility of sailing to windward was
+discovered.
+
+Now, put up or "step" another mast and sail like the first, about as
+far from the stern as the first is from the bow. Turn the two sails at
+an angle of forty-five degrees across the boat (B or C, Fig. 141) and
+set her adrift. She will make considerable progress across the course
+of the wind, although she will at the same time drift with it. If she
+wholly refuses to go in the right direction, place a light weight on
+her bow, so that she will be a little "down by the head," or move the
+aftermost mast and sail a little nearer to the stern.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142.--Tacking.]
+
+The little rude affair thus used for experiment will not actually
+make any progress to windward, because she is so light that she moves
+sidewise almost as easily as she does forward. With a larger, deeper
+boat, and with sails which can be set at any angle, the effect will
+be different. So long as the wind presses against the after side of
+the sail, the boat will move through the water in the direction of the
+least resistance, which is forward. A square sail having the mast in
+the middle was easiest to begin with for purposes of explanation; but
+now we will change to a "fore-and-aft" rig--that is, one with the mast
+at the forward edge or "luff" of the sail, as in Fig. 142. Suppose the
+sail to be set at the angle shown, and the wind blowing as the arrow
+points. The boat cannot readily move sidewise, because of the broadside
+resistance; she does not move backward, because the wind is pressing on
+the aftermost side of the sail. So she very naturally moves forward.
+When she nears buoy No. 1, the helmsman moves the "tiller," or handle
+of the rudder, toward the sail. This causes the boat to turn her head
+toward buoy No. 2, the sail swings across to the other side of the
+boat and fills on that side, which now in turn becomes the aftermost,
+and she moves toward buoy No. 2 nearly at right angles to her former
+course. Thus, through a series of zigzags, the wind is made to work
+against itself. This operation is called "tacking," or "working to
+windward," and the act of turning, as at the buoys No. 1 and No. 2, is
+called "going about."
+
+It will be seen, then, that the science of sailing lies in being able
+to manage a boat with her head pointing at any possible angle to or
+from the wind. Nothing but experience can teach one all the niceties
+of the art, but a little aptitude and address will do to start with,
+keeping near shore and carrying little sail.
+
+
+Simplest Rig Possible
+
+I will suppose that the reader has the use of a broad, flat-bottomed
+boat without any rudder. (See Fig. 143.) She cannot be made to work
+like a racing yacht under canvas, but lots of fun can be had out of her.
+
+Do not go to any considerable expense at the outset. Procure an old
+sheet, or an old hay cover, six or eight feet square, and experiment
+with that before spending your money on new material. If it is a sheet,
+and somewhat weakly in its texture, turn all the edges in and sew them,
+so that it shall not give way at the hems. At each corner sew on a few
+inches of strong twine, forming loops at the angles. Sew on, also,
+eyelets or small loops along the edge which is intended for the luff of
+the sail, so that it can be laced to the mast.
+
+You are now ready for your spars, namely, a mast and a "sprit,"
+the former a couple of feet longer than the luff of the sail, and
+the latter to be cut off when you find how long you want it. Let
+these spars be of pine, or spruce, or bamboo--as light as possible,
+especially the sprit. An inch and a half diameter will do for the mast,
+and an inch and a quarter for the sprit, tapering to an inch at the
+top. To "step" the mast, bore a hole through one of the thwarts (seats)
+near the bow and make a socket or step on the bottom of the boat, just
+under the aforesaid hole--or if anything a trifle farther forward--to
+receive the foot of the mast. This will hold the mast upright, or with
+a slight "rake" aft.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143.--A simple rig.]
+
+Lace the luff of the sail to the mast so that its lower edge will swing
+clear by a foot or so of the boat's sides. Make fast to the loop at D
+a stout line, ten or twelve feet long. This is called the "sheet," and
+gives control of the sail. The upper end of the sprit, C, E, is trimmed
+so that the loop at C will fit over it but not slip down. The lower
+end is simply notched to receive a short line called a "snotter," as
+shown in the detailed drawing at the right of the cut (Fig. 143). It
+will be readily understood that, when the sprit is pushed upward in the
+direction of C, the sail will stand spread out. The line is placed in
+the notch at E and pulled up until the sail sets properly, when it is
+made fast to a cleat or to a cross-piece at F. This device is in common
+use and has its advantages, but a simple loop for the foot of the sprit
+to rest in is more easily made and will do nearly as well. H is an
+oar for steering. Having thus described the simplest rig possible, we
+may turn our attention to more elegant and elaborate but not always
+preferable outfits.
+
+
+Leg-of-Mutton Rig
+
+One of the prettiest and most convenient rigs for a small boat is known
+as the "leg-of-mutton sharpie rig" (Fig. 144). The sail is triangular,
+and the sprit, instead of reaching to its upper corner, stands nearly
+at right angles to the mast. It is held in position at the mast by the
+devices already described. This rig has the advantage of keeping the
+whole sail flatter than any other, for the end of the sprit cannot
+"kick up," as the phrase goes, and so the sail holds all the wind it
+receives.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144.]
+
+Fig. 145 shows a device, published for the first time in the _St.
+Nicholas Magazine_ for September, 1880, which enables the sailor to
+step and unstep his mast, and hoist or lower his sail without leaving
+his seat--a matter of great importance when the boat is light and
+tottlish, as in the case of that most beautiful of small craft, the
+modern canoe, where the navigator sits habitually amidships. The lower
+mast (A, B, Fig. 145) stands about two and a half feet above the deck.
+It is fitted at the head with a metal ferrule and pin, and just above
+the deck with two half-cleats or other similar devices (A). The topmast
+(C, D) is fitted at F with a stout ring, and has double halyards (E)
+rove through or around its foot. The lower mast being in position (see
+lower part of Fig. 145), the canoeist desiring to make sail brings
+the boat's head to the wind, takes the topmast with the sail loosely
+furled in one hand and the halyards in the other. It is easy for him by
+raising this mast, without leaving his seat, to pass the halyards one
+on each side of the lower mast and let them fall into place close to
+the deck under the half-cleats at A. Then, holding the halyards taut
+enough to keep them in position, he will hook the topmast ring over the
+pin in the lower mast-heat and haul away (see top part of Fig. 145).
+The mast will rise into place, where it is made fast. A collar of
+leather, or a knob of some kind, placed on the topmast just below the
+ring, will act as a fulcrum when the halyards are hauled taut and keep
+the mast from working to and fro.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145.--A new device.]
+
+The advantages of the rig are obvious. The mast can be raised without
+standing up, and in case of necessity the halyards can be let go and
+the mast and sail unshipped and stowed below with the greatest ease and
+expedition, leaving only the short lower mast standing. A leg-of-mutton
+sail with a common boom along the foot is shown in the cut as the most
+easily illustrated application of the device, but there is no reason
+why it may not be applied to a sail of different shape, with a sprit
+instead of a boom, and a square instead of a pointed head.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146.--The latteen rig.]
+
+
+The Latteen Rig
+
+is recommended only for boats which are "stiff"--not tottlish, that
+is. The fact that a considerable portion of the sail projects forward
+of the mast renders it awkward in case of a sudden shift of wind. Its
+most convenient form is shown in Fig. 146. The arrangement for shipping
+and unshipping the yard is precisely like that shown in Fig. 145--a
+short lower mast with a pin at the top and a ring fitted to the yard.
+It has a boom at the foot which is joined to the yard at C by means of
+a hook or a simple lashing, having sufficient play to allow the two
+spars to shut up together like a pair of dividers. The boom (C, E) has,
+where it meets the short lower mast, a half-cleat, or jaw, shown in
+detail at the bottom of the cut (Fig. 146), the circle representing a
+cross-section of the mast. This should be lashed to the boom, as screws
+or bolts would weaken it. To take in sail, the boatman brings the boat
+to the wind, seizes the boom and draws it toward him. This disengages
+it from the mast. He then shoves it forward, when the yard (C, D) falls
+of its own weight into his hands and can be at once lifted clear of the
+lower mast. To keep the sail flat, it is possible to arrange a collar
+on the lower mast so that the boom, when once in position, cannot slip
+upward and suffer the sail to bag.
+
+
+The Cat-Rig
+
+so popular on the North Atlantic coast, is indicated in Fig. 148. The
+spar at the head of the sail is called a "gaff," and, like the boom, it
+fits the mast with semicircular jaws. The sail is hoisted and lowered
+by means of halyards rove through a block near the mast-head. The
+mast is set in the bows--"Chock up in the eyes of her," as a sailor
+would say. A single leg-of-mutton sail will not work in this position,
+because the greater part of its area is too far forward of amidships.
+No rig is handier or safer than this in working to windward; but off
+the wind--running before, or nearly before it, that is--the weight
+of mast and sail, and the pressure of the wind at one side and far
+forward, make the boat very difficult and dangerous to steer. Prudent
+boatmen often avoid doing so by keeping the wind on the quarter and, as
+it were, tacking to leeward.
+
+This suggests the question of "jibing," an operation always to be
+avoided if possible. Suppose the wind to be astern, and the boat
+running nearly before it, it becomes necessary to change your course
+toward the side on which the sail is drawing. The safest way is to
+turn at first in the opposite direction, put the helm "down" (toward
+the sail), bring the boat up into the wind, turn her entirely around,
+and stand off on the new tack. This, however, is not always possible.
+Hauling in the sheet until the sail fills on the other side is
+"jibing"; but when this happens it goes over with a rush that sometimes
+carries mast and sheet or upsets the boat; hence the operation should
+be first undertaken in a light wind. It is necessary to know how to do
+it, for sometimes a sail insists upon jibing very unexpectedly, and it
+is best to be prepared for such emergencies.
+
+
+How to Make a Sail
+
+For the sails of small boats there is no better material than
+unbleached twilled cotton sheeting. It is to be had two and a half or
+even three yards wide. In cutting out your sail, let the selvage be at
+the "leech," or after-most edge. This, of course, makes it necessary to
+cut the luff and foot "bias," and they are very likely to stretch in
+the making, so that the sail will assume a different shape from what
+was intended. To avoid this, baste the hem carefully before sewing, and
+"hold in" a little to prevent fulling. It is a good plan to tack the
+material on the floor before cutting, and mark the outline of the sail
+with pencil. Stout tape stitched along the bias edges will make a sure
+thing of it, and the material can be cut, making due allowance for the
+hem. Better take feminine advice on this process. The hems should be
+half an inch deep all around, selvage and all, and it will do no harm
+to reinforce them with cord if you wish to make a thoroughly good piece
+of work.
+
+For running-rigging, nothing is better than laid or braided cotton
+cord, such as is used for awnings and sash-cords. If this is not easily
+procured, any stout twine will answer. It can be doubled and twisted
+as often as necessary. The smallest manila rope is rather stiff and
+unmanageable for such light sails as ours.
+
+In fitting out a boat of any kind, iron, unless galvanized, is to be
+avoided as much as possible, on account of its liability to rust. Use
+brass or copper instead.
+
+
+Hints to Beginners
+
+Nothing has been said about reefing thus far, because small boats under
+the management of beginners should not be afloat in a "reefing breeze."
+Reefing is the operation of reducing the spread of sail when the wind
+becomes too fresh. If you will look at Fig. 146 you will see rows of
+short marks on the sail above the boom. These are "reef-points"--bits
+of line about a foot long passing through holes in the sail and knotted
+so that they will not slip. In reefing, the sail is lowered and
+that portion of it between the boom and the reef-points is gathered
+together, and the points are tied around both it and the boom. When the
+lower row of points is used it is a single reef. Both rows together are
+a double reef.
+
+Make your first practical experiment _with a small sail and with the
+wind blowing toward the shore_. Row out a little way, and then sail in
+any direction in which you can make the boat go, straight back to shore
+if you can, with the sail out nearly at right angles with the boat.
+Then try running along shore with the sheet hauled in a little and
+the sail on the side nearest the shore. You will soon learn what your
+craft can do, and will probably find that she will make very little, if
+any, headway to windward. This is partly because she slides sidewise
+over the water. To prevent it you may use a "lee-board"--namely, a
+broad board hung over the side of the boat (G, Fig. 143). This must be
+held by stout lines, as the strain upon it is very heavy. It should be
+placed a little forward of the middle of the boat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147.--Making port.]
+
+It must be on the side away from the wind--the lee side--and must
+be shifted when you go about. Keels and centreboards are permanent
+contrivances for the same purpose, but a lee-board answers very well as
+a makeshift, and is even used habitually by some canoeists and other
+boatmen.
+
+In small boats it is sometimes desirable to sit amidships, because
+sitting in the stern raises the bow too high out of water; steering may
+be done with an oar over the lee side, or with "yoke-lines" attached to
+a cross-piece on the rudder-head, or even to the tiller. In this last
+case the lines must be rove through rings or pulleys at the sides of
+the boat opposite the end of the tiller. When the handle of the oar (H,
+Fig. 143)--or the tiller (F, Fig. 146) if a rudder is used--is pushed
+to the right, the boat will turn to the left, and _vice versa_. The
+science of steering consists in knowing when to push and how much to
+push--very simple, you see, in the statement, but not always so easy in
+practice.
+
+The sail should be so adjusted in relation to the rest of the boat
+that, when the sheet is hauled close in and made fast, the boat, if
+left to herself, will point her head to the wind like a weather-cock
+and drift slowly astern. If it is found that the sail is so far forward
+that she will not do this, the fault may be remedied by stepping the
+mast further aft or by rigging a small sail near the stern. This is
+called a "dandy" or "steering sail," and is especially convenient in a
+boat whose size or arrangement necessitates sitting amidships. It may
+be rigged like the mainsail, and when its sheet is once made fast will
+ordinarily take care of itself in tacking.
+
+Remember that, if the wind freshens or a squall strikes you, the
+position of safety is with the boat's head to the wind. When in doubt
+what to do, push the helm down (toward the sail) and haul in the slack
+of the sheet as the boat comes up into the wind. If she is moving
+astern, or will not mind her helm--and of course she will not if she is
+not moving--pull her head around to the wind with an oar and experiment
+cautiously until you find which way you can make her go.
+
+In making a landing, always calculate to have the boat's head as near
+the wind as possible when she ceases to move, this whether you lower
+your sail or not.
+
+Thus, if the wind is off shore, as shown at A, Fig. 147, land at F or
+G, with the bow toward the shore. If the wind is from the direction of
+B, land at E, with the bow toward B or at F; if at the latter, the boom
+will swing away from the wharf and permit you to lie alongside. If the
+wind is from D, reverse these positions. If the wind comes from the
+direction of C, land either at F or G, with the bow pointing off shore.
+
+If you have no one to tell you what to do, you will have to feel your
+way slowly and learn by experience; but if you have nautical instincts
+you will soon make your boat do what you wish her to do as far as she
+is able. _But first learn to swim before you try to sail a boat._
+
+Volumes have been written on the subject treated in these few pages,
+and it is not yet exhausted. The hints here given are safe ones to
+follow, and will, it is hoped, be of service to many a young sailor in
+many a corner of the world.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MORE RIGS OF ALL KINDS FOR SMALL BOATS
+
+    How to Distinguish between a Ship, Bark, Brig, and
+    Schooner--Merits and Defects of Catboats--Advantages of
+    the Sloop--Rigs for Canoes--Buckeyes and Sharpies
+
+
+THE two principal rigs for vessels are the fore-and-aft and the square
+rig.
+
+=Square rigged= consists in having the principal sails extended by
+yards suspended at the middle (Fig. 159).
+
+=Fore-and-aft rigged= is having the principal sails extended by booms
+and gaffs suspended by their ends (Figs. 148, 149, 150, 156, and 161).
+
+Barks, brigs, and ships are all more or less square rigged, but
+schooners, sloops, and catboats are all fore-and-aft rigged. In these
+notes the larger forms of boats are mentioned only because of the
+well-known interest boys take in all nautical matters, but no detailed
+description of the larger craft will be given. All that is aimed at
+here is to give the salient points, so that the youngsters will know
+the name of the rig when they see it.
+
+
+The Cat
+
+There is a little snub-nosed American who, in spite of her short body
+and broad waist, is deservedly popular among all our amateur sailors.
+
+The appreciation of her charms is felt and acknowledged by all her
+companions without envy, not because of her saucy looks, but on account
+of her accommodating manners.
+
+Possessing a rare ability for quick movement, and a wonderful
+power to bore her way almost into the very eye of the wind, or with
+double-reefed sail to dash through the storm or gently slide up
+alongside of a wharf or dock as easily as a rowboat, the American
+catboat, with her single mast "chock up in the eyes of her," has
+made a permanent place for herself among our pleasure craft, and is
+omnipresent in our crowded bays and harbors.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148.--The snub-nosed American cat.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149.--Jib and mainsail.]
+
+Knowing that there is little danger of the catboat losing its
+well-earned popularity, and being somewhat familiar with many of her
+peculiarities, I am free to say that this rig, notwithstanding its
+numerous good points, has many serious defects as a school-ship, and
+the beginner had better select some other rig with which to begin his
+practice sailing.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150.--Schooner rig for open boat. Boom on mainsail,
+none on foresail.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 151.--The balance lug.]
+
+First, the great sail is very heavy and difficult to hoist and reef.
+Second, in going before the wind there is constant danger of jibing,
+with serious results. Third, the catboat has a very bad habit of
+rolling when sailing before the wind, and each time the boat rolls
+from side to side she is liable to dip the end of her heavy boom in
+the water and "trip herself up." When a boat trips _up_ she does
+not necessarily go _down_, but she is likely to upset, placing the
+young sailors in an unenviable, if not a dangerous, position. Fourth,
+when the craft begins to swagger before the wind she is liable to
+"goose-neck"; that is, throw her boom up against the mast, which is
+another accident fraught with the possibilities of serious mischief.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 152.--Standing lug.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 153.--Leg-of-mutton sail. Jib and main sail rig.]
+
+The catboat has no bowsprit, no jib, and no topsail (Fig. 148), but
+that most graceful of all single-stickers,
+
+
+The Sloop
+
+possesses several jibs, a bowsprit, and topsail. Besides these, when
+she is in racing trim, a number of additional sails are used. All our
+great racers are sloops, and this rig is the most convenient for small
+yachts and cutters.
+
+Racing Sloops
+
+A racing sloop (Fig. 161) carries a mainsail, A, a fore staysail, B, a
+jib, C, a gaff topsail, D, a club topsail, E, a baby jib topsail, F, a
+No. 2 jib topsail, G, a No. 1 jib topsail, H, a balloon jib topsail, J
+(Fig. 157), and a spinnaker, K (Fig. 157).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 160. Fig. 161.
+
+Figs. 154-161.--Rigs that we meet at sea.]
+
+
+Jib and Mainsail
+
+A small sloop's sails are a mainsail, jib, and topsail. A sloop rig
+without topsail is called a jib and mainsail (Fig. 149).
+
+While every small-boat sailor should know a catboat and a sloop when
+he sees them, and even be able to give the proper name to their sails,
+neither of these rigs is very well suited for canoes, sharpies, or
+other boats of the mosquito fleet; but the
+
+
+Schooner Rig
+
+which is the form of boat generally used for the larger yachts, is
+also very much used for open boats. As you can see, by referring to
+Fig. 150, the schooner rig consists of a bowsprit, fore and main mast,
+with their appropriate sails. Lately freight schooners have appeared
+with four or more masts. For small boats two adjustable masts and an
+adjustable bowsprit, as described in the Rough and Ready, Chapter
+XIII, are best. The sails may be sprit sails, Figs. 164-169; balance
+lug, Fig. 151; standing lug, Fig. 152; leg-of-mutton, Fig. 153, or the
+sliding gunter, Fig. 163.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 162.--The buckeye.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 163.--The sliding gunter.]
+
+In the chapter on how to build the Rough and Ready, the sprit sail is
+depicted and fully described.
+
+
+The Balance Lug
+
+comes as near the square sail of a ship as any canvas used on small
+boats, but you can see, by referring to the diagram, Fig. 151, that
+the leach and the luff are not parallel and that the gaff hangs at an
+angle. To boom out the canvas and make it sit flat there are three
+sticks extended across the sail from the front to the back, luff to
+leach, called battens. This has caused some people to call this a
+batten lug. Like the lateen sail, part of the balance lug hangs before
+the mast and serves the purpose of a jib. This rig is said to be easily
+managed and to possess good sailing qualities.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 164.--Sharpie with sprit and club leg-of-mutton
+sails.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 165.
+
+Fig. 166.
+
+Showing detail of sprit club sail.]
+
+
+The Standing Lug
+
+is another sail approaching the square in pattern (Fig. 152), and, as
+any novice can see, is a good canvas with which to scud before the
+wind. It is very convenient for open boats built to be propelled by
+paddles. While the standing lug cannot point up to the eye of the wind
+like a schooner or cat, it is very fast on the wind or when running
+with the wind astern. Probably the safest form of sail used is the old
+reliable
+
+
+Leg-of-Mutton Sail
+
+This is used by the fishermen on their stanch little dories away up on
+the coast of Maine, and by the "tide-water" people in their "buckeyes"
+on Chesapeake Bay. The latter boat is very little known outside of the
+locality where it makes its home, but, like the New Haven sharpies, it
+is very popular in its own waters.
+
+
+The Buckeye
+
+or "bugeye," as it is sometimes vulgarly called, has a great reputation
+for speed and sea-going qualities. When it cannot climb a wave it goes
+through it. This makes a wet boat in heavy weather, but when you travel
+at a high rate of speed you can endure a wet jacket with no complaint,
+especially when you feel that, in spite of the fast-sailing qualities
+of this boat, it is considered a particularly safe craft.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 167.--Plain sprit leg-of-mutton.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 168.
+
+Fig. 169.
+
+Another form of the sprit sail.]
+
+The construction of a =buckeye= (Fig. 162) has been evolved from the
+old dugout canoe of the Indians and the first white settlers. America
+was originally covered with vast forests of immense trees. Remnants of
+these forests still exist in a few localities. It was once possible to
+make a canoe of almost any dimensions desired, but now in the thickly
+settled regions big trees are scarce.
+
+So the Chesapeake Bay boat-builders, while still adhering to the old
+dugout, have overcome the disadvantage of small logs by using more than
+one and bolting the pieces together. Masts and sails have been added,
+and since the increased proportions made it impracticable to drag such
+a craft on the beach when in port, anchors and cables are supplied.
+Two holes bored, one on each side of the stem, for the cables to run
+through, have given the boat the appearance of having eyes, and as the
+eyes are large and round, the negroes called them buckeyes, and this is
+now the name by which all such craft are known.
+
+At first only two masts with leg-of-mutton sails were used, but now
+they have a jib and two sails. With the greatest width or beam about
+one-third the distance from bow to stern, sharp at both ends, its long,
+narrow, and heavy hull is easily driven through the water and makes
+both a fast and stiff boat.
+
+The buckeye travels in shallow as well as deep waters, and hence is
+a centreboard boat, but there is nothing unnecessary on the real
+buckeye--no overhanging bow or stern, for that means additional labor;
+no stays to the masts, for the same reason. The lack of stays to
+stiffen the masts leaves them with "springiness," which in case of a
+sudden squall helps to spill the wind and prevents what might otherwise
+be a "knock-down."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 170.--Lug rig with jigger.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 171.--Lug rig with jigger and jib.]
+
+The foremast is longer than the mainmast and does not rake aft so much,
+but the mainmast has a decided rake, which the colored sailors say
+makes the boat faster on the wind. Sometimes in the smaller boats the
+mainmast can be set upright when going before the wind.
+
+Wealthy gentlemen on the Chesapeake are now building regularly equipped
+yachts on the buckeye plan, and some of them are quite large boats. A
+correspondent of the _Forest and Stream_, in speaking of the buckeye,
+says:
+
+"Last summer I cruised in company with a buckeye, forty-two feet long,
+manned by two gentlemen of Baltimore city. She drew twenty inches
+without the board. In sudden and heavy flaws she was rarely luffed. She
+would lie over and appear to spill the wind out of her tall, sharp
+sails and then right again. Her crew took pleasure in tackling every
+sailing craft for a race; nothing under seventy feet in length ever
+beat her. She steered under any two of her three sails. On one occasion
+this craft, on her way from Cape May to Cape Charles, was driven out to
+sea before a heavy north-west blow. Her crew, the aforesaid gentlemen,
+worn out by fatigue, hove her to and went to sleep. She broke her
+tiller lashing during the night, and when they awoke she was pegging
+away on a south-east course under her jib. They put her about, and in
+twenty hours were inside Cape Henry, pretty well tired out. Buckeyes
+frequently run from Norfolk to New York with fruit. For shallow waters,
+I am satisfied there is no better craft afloat. Built deep, with a
+loaded keel, they would rival the English cutter in seaworthiness and
+speed."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 172.--Jib.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 173.--Sprit sail, schooner rig, with dandy.]
+
+When the hardy, bold fishermen of our Eastern States and the brave
+fishermen down South both use the leg-of-mutton sail, beginners cannot
+object to using it while practising; knowing that even if it is a safe
+sail, it cannot be called a "baby rig." Another safe rig, differing
+little from the leg-of-mutton, is the
+
+
+Sliding Gunter
+
+In this rig the sail is laced to a yard which slides up or down the
+mast by means of two iron hooks or travellers (Fig. 163). No sail with
+a narrow-pointed top is very serviceable before the wind, and the
+sliding gunter is no exception to the rule. But it is useful on the
+wind, and can be reefed easily and quickly, qualities which make it
+many friends.
+
+In the smooth, shallow waters along the coast of North Carolina may be
+seen the long, flat-bottomed
+
+
+Sharpies
+
+Without question they are to be ranked among the fastest boats we have.
+These boats are rigged with a modification of the leg-of-mutton sail.
+The ends of the sprit in the foresail project at the luff and leach.
+At the luff it is fastened to the mast by a line like a snotter at the
+leach. It is fastened to a stick sewed into the sail, called a club.
+The sheet is attached to the end of the sprit (Figs. 164-168).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 174.--Sprit sail jib and dandy.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 175.--The lateen rig with dandy.]
+
+
+The Sprit Leg-of-Mutton Sail
+
+has this advantage, that the clew of the sail is much higher than the
+tack, thus avoiding the danger of dipping the clew in the water and
+tripping the boat.
+
+
+The Dandy Jigger, or Mizzen Rig
+
+is named after the small sail aft, near the rudder-head. This jigger,
+mizzen, or dandy may have a boom, a sprit, or be rigged as a lug.
+(See Figs. 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 178, 180, and 184, which show the
+principal mizzen rigs in use.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 176. Yawl Rig.
+
+Fig. 177. Lug-headed Jib & Mainsail Rigged Punt
+
+Fig. 180. The Burton when using only two blocks it is the most powerful
+Tackle
+
+Fig. 181. A "Lugeen."
+
+Fig. 182. FAN SAIL under shortened sail. Fan Partly Folded
+
+Fig. 179. Two battened Lug
+
+Fig. 178. Three masted Bat Winged Canoe
+
+Fig. 184. Two masted Bat Winged Canoe.
+
+Fig. 183. Two Common Tackles A Gun Tackle Purchase Luff Tackle Purchase
+
+ADDITIONAL RIGS FOR SMALL BOATS AND CANOES AND THREE USEFUL TACKLES
+
+Figs. 176-184.--Hybrid rigs for small boats; also two useful tackles.]
+
+In puffy wind and lumpy water the main and mizzen rig will be found to
+work well. The little sail aft should be trimmed as flat as possible.
+It will be found of great help in beating to the windward, and will
+keep the nose of the boat facing the wind when the mainsail is down.
+Different rigs are popular in different localities. For instance:
+
+
+The Lateen Rig
+
+is very popular in some parts of the Old World, yet it has only few
+friends here. It may be because of my art training that I feel so
+kindly toward this style of sail, or it may be from association in my
+mind of some of the happiest days of my life with a little black canoe
+rigged with lateen sails. At any rate, in spite of the undeniable
+fact that the lateen is unpopular, I never see a small boat rigged in
+this style without a feeling of pleasure. The handy little stumps of
+masts end in a spike at the top and are adorned by the beautiful sails
+lashed to slender spars, which, by means of metal rings, are lightly,
+but securely, fastened to the mast by simply hooking the ring over the
+spike. I freely acknowledge that when the sails are lowered and you
+want to use your paddle the lateen sails are in your way. It is claimed
+that they are awkward to reef, and this may be true. I never tried it.
+When the wind was too strong for my sails I made port or took in either
+the large or the small sail, as the occasion seemed to demand.
+
+
+The Ship
+
+When you are out sailing and see a vessel with three masts, all square
+rigged, you are looking at a ship proper, though ship is a word often
+used loosely for any sort of a boat (Fig. 159).
+
+=The bark= is a vessel with square-rigged foremast and mainmast and a
+fore-and-aft rigged mizzen-mast (Fig. 160).
+
+=The brig= is a vessel with only two masts, both of which are square
+rigged (Fig. 158).
+
+=The brigantine= has two masts--foremast square rigged and mainmast
+fore-and-aft rigged (Fig. 155).
+
+=The barkentine= has three masts--mainmast and mizzen-mast fore-and-aft
+rigged and foremast square rigged. (See Fig. 154.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES
+
+
+How to Tie Knots Useful on Both Land and Water
+
+THE art of tying knots is an almost necessary adjunct to not a few
+recreations. Especially is this true of summer sports, many of which
+are nautical or in some manner connected with the water.
+
+Any boy who has been aboard a yacht or a sail-boat must have realized
+that the safety of the vessel and all aboard may be imperilled by
+ignorance or negligence in the tying of a knot or fastening of a rope.
+
+With some the knack of tying a good, strong knot in a heavy rope
+or light cord seems to be a natural gift; it is certainly a very
+convenient accomplishment, and one that with practice and a little
+perseverance may be acquired even by those who at first make the most
+awkward and bungling attempts.
+
+A bulky, cumbersome knot is not only ungainly, but is generally
+insecure.
+
+As a rule, the strength of a knot is in direct proportion to its neat
+and handsome appearance.
+
+To my mind it is as necessary that the archer should know how to make
+the proper loops at the end of his bow-string as it is that a hunter
+should understand how to load his gun.
+
+Every fisherman should be able to join two lines neatly and securely,
+and should know the best and most expeditious method of attaching an
+extra hook or fly; and any boy who rigs up a hammock or swing with a
+"granny" or other insecure knot deserves the ugly tumble and sore bones
+that are more than liable to result from his ignorance.
+
+A knot, nautically speaking, is a "bend" that is more permanent than a
+"hitch." A knot properly tied never slips, nor does it jam so that it
+cannot be readily untied. A "hitch" might be termed a temporary bend,
+as it is seldom relied upon for permanent service. The "hitch" is so
+made that it can be cast off or unfastened more quickly than a knot.
+
+It is impossible for the brightest boy to learn to make "knots, bends,
+and hitches" by simply reading over a description of the methods; for,
+although he may understand them at the time, five minutes after reading
+the article the process will have escaped his memory. But if he take a
+piece of cord or rope and sit down with the diagrams in front of him,
+he will find little difficulty in managing the most complicated knots;
+and he will not only acquire an accomplishment from which he can derive
+infinite amusement for himself and a means of entertainment for others,
+but the knowledge gained may, in case of accident by fire or flood, be
+the means of saving both life and property.
+
+The accompanying diagrams show a number of useful and important bends,
+splices, etc. To simplify matters, let us commence with Fig. 57, and go
+through the diagrams in the order in which they come:
+
+The "English" or "common single fisherman's knot" (Fig. 185, I) is neat
+and strong enough for any ordinary strain. The diagram shows the knots
+before being tightened and drawn together.
+
+When exceptional strength is required it can be obtained by joining the
+lines in the ordinary single fisherman's knot (Fig. 185, I) and pulling
+each of the half knots as tight as possible, then drawing them within
+an eighth of an inch of each other and wrapping between with fine gut
+that has been previously softened in water, or with light-colored silk.
+
+An additional line or a sinker may be attached by tying a knot in the
+end of the extra line and inserting it between the parts of the single
+fisherman's knot before they are drawn together and tightened.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 185.--Some useful knots.]
+
+The "fisherman's double half knot," Fig. 185 (II and III). After the
+gut has been passed around the main line and through itself, it is
+passed around the line once more and through the same loop again and
+drawn close.
+
+Fig. 185 (IV, V, and IX). Here are three methods of joining the ends of
+two lines together; the diagrams explain them much better than words
+can. Take a piece of string, try each one, and test their relative
+strength.
+
+Fig. 185 (VI). It often happens, while fishing, that a hook is caught
+in a snag or by some other means lost. The diagram shows the most
+expeditious manner of attaching another hook by what is known as the
+"sinker hitch," described further on (Fig. 185, D, D, D, and Fig. 186,
+XIV, XV, and XVI).
+
+Fig. 185, VII is another and more secure method of attaching a hook by
+knitting the line on with a succession of half-hitches.
+
+
+How to Make a Horse-Hair Watch-Guard
+
+The same hitches are used in the manufacture of horse-hair
+watch-guards, much in vogue with the boys in some sections of the
+country. As regularly as "kite-time," "top-time," or "ball-time," comes
+"horse-hair watch-guard time."
+
+About once a year the rage for making watch-guards used to seize the
+boys of our school, and by some means or other almost every boy would
+have a supply of horse-hair on hand. With the first tap of the bell for
+recess, some fifty hands would dive into the mysterious depths of about
+fifty pockets, and before the bell had stopped ringing about fifty
+watch-guards, in a more or less incomplete state, would be produced.
+
+Whenever a teamster's unlucky stars caused him to stop near the
+school-house, a chorus of voices greeted him with "Mister, please let
+us have some hair from your horses' tails."
+
+The request was at first seldom refused, possibly because its nature
+was not at the time properly understood; but lucky was the boy
+considered who succeeded in pulling a supply of hair from the horses'
+tails without being interrupted by the heels of the animals or by the
+teamster, who, when he saw the swarm of boys tugging at his horses'
+tails, generally repented his first good-natured assent, and with a
+gruff, "Get out, you young rascals!" sent the lads scampering to the
+school-yard fence.
+
+Select a lot of long hair of the color desired; make it into a switch
+about an eighth of an inch thick by tying one end in a simple knot.
+Pick out a good, long hair and tie it around the switch close to the
+knotted end; then take the free end of the single hair in your right
+hand and pass it under the switch on one side, thus forming a loop
+through which the end of the hair must pass after it is brought up and
+over from the other side of the switch. Draw the knot tight by pulling
+the free end of the hair as shown by Fig. 185, VII. Every time this
+operation is repeated a wrap and a knot is produced. The knots follow
+each other in a spiral around the switch, giving it a very pretty,
+ornamented appearance. When one hair is used up select another and
+commence knitting with it as you did with the first, being careful to
+cover and conceal the short end of the first hair, and to make the
+knots on the second commence where the former stop. A guard made of
+white horse-hair looks as if it might be composed of spun glass, and
+produces a very odd and pretty effect. A black one is very genteel in
+appearance. These ornaments are much prized by cowboys, and I have seen
+bridles for horses made of braided horsehair.
+
+
+Miscellaneous
+
+Fig. 185, VIII shows a simple and expeditous manner of attaching a
+trolling-hook to a fish-line.
+
+Fig. 185, F is a hitch used on shipboard, or wherever lines and cables
+are used. It is called the Blackwall hitch.
+
+Fig. 185, E is a fire-escape made of a double bow-line knot, useful
+as a sling for hoisting persons up or letting them down from any high
+place; the window of a burning building, for instance. Fig. 186, XVIII,
+XIX, and XX show how this knot is made. It is described on page 77.
+
+Fig. 185, A is a "bale hitch," made of a loop of rope. To make it, take
+a piece of rope that has its two ends joined; lay the rope down and
+place the bale on it; bring the loop opposite you up, on that side of
+the bale, and the loop in front up, on the side of the bale next to
+you; thrust the latter loop under and through the first and attach the
+hoisting rope. The heavier the object to be lifted, the tighter the
+hitch becomes. An excellent substitute for a shawl-strap can be made of
+a cord by using the bale hitch, the loop at the top being a first-rate
+handle.
+
+Fig. 185, B is called a cask sling, and C (Fig. 185) is called a butt
+sling. The manner of making these last two and their uses may be seen
+by referring to the illustration. It will be noticed that a line is
+attached to the bale hitch in a peculiar manner (_a_, Fig. 185). This
+is called the "anchor bend." If while aboard a sail-boat you have
+occasion to throw a bucket over for water, you will find the anchor
+bend a very convenient and safe way to attach a line to the bucket
+handle, but unless you are an expert you will need an anchor hitched to
+your body or you will follow the bucket.
+
+Fig. 186, I and II are loops showing the elements of the simplest knots.
+
+Fig. 186, III is a simple knot commenced.
+
+Fig. 186, IV shows the simple knot tightened.
+
+Fig. 186, V and VI show how the Flemish knot looks when commenced and
+finished.
+
+Fig. 186, VII and VIII show a "rope knot" commenced and finished.
+
+Fig. 186, IX is a double knot commenced.
+
+Fig. 186, X is the same completed.
+
+Fig. 186, XI shows a back view of the double knot.
+
+Fig. 186, XII is the first loop of a "bow-line knot." One end of the
+line is supposed to be made fast to some object. After the turn, or
+loop (Fig. 186, XII), is made, hold it in position with your left hand
+and pass the end of the line up through the loop, or turn, you have
+just made, behind and over the line above, then down through the loop
+again, as shown in the diagram (Fig. 186, XIII); pull it tight and the
+knot is complete. The "sinker hitch" is a very handy one to know, and
+the variety of uses it may be put to will be at once suggested by the
+diagrams.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 186.]
+
+Lines that have both ends made fast may have weights attached to them
+by means of the sinker hitch (Fig. 185, D, D, D).
+
+To accomplish this, first gather up some slack and make it in the form
+of the loop (Fig. 186, XIV); bend the loop back on itself (Fig. 186,
+XV) and slip the weight through the double loop thus formed (Fig. 186,
+XVI); draw tight by pulling the two top lines, and the sinker hitch is
+finished (Fig. 186, XVII).
+
+The "fire-escape sling" previously mentioned, and illustrated by Fig.
+185, E, is made with a double line.
+
+Proceed at first as you would to make a simple bow-line knot (Fig. 186,
+XVIII).
+
+After you have run the end loop up through the turn (Fig. 186, XIX),
+bend it downward and over the bottom loop and turn, then up again until
+it is in the position shown in Fig. 186, XX; pull it downward until
+the knot is tightened, as in Fig. 185, E, and it makes a safe sling in
+which to lower a person from any height. The longer loop serves for a
+seat, and the shorter one, coming under the arms, makes a rest for the
+back.
+
+Fig. 186½, XXI is called a "boat knot," and is made with the aid of
+a stick. It is an excellent knot for holding weights which may want
+instant detachment. To detach it, lift the weight slightly and push out
+the stick, and instantly the knot is untied.
+
+Fig. 186½, XXII. Commencement of a "six-fold knot."
+
+Fig. 186½, XXIII. Six-fold knot completed by drawing the two ends with
+equal force. A knot drawn in this manner is said to be "nipped."
+
+Fig. 186½, XXIV. A simple hitch or "double" used in making loop knots.
+
+Fig. 186½, XXV. "Loop knot."
+
+Fig. 186½, XXVI shows how the loop knot is commenced.
+
+Fig. 186½, XXVII is the "Dutch double knot," sometimes called the
+"Flemish loop."
+
+Fig. 186½, XXVIII shows a common "running knot."
+
+Fig. 186½, XXIX. A running knot with a check knot to hold.
+
+Fig. 186½, XXX. A running knot checked.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 186½.]
+
+Fig. 186½, XXXI. The right-hand part of the rope shows how to make the
+double loop for the "twist knot." The left-hand part of the same rope
+shows a finished twist knot. It is made by taking a half turn on both
+the right-hand and left-hand lines of the double loop and passing the
+end through the "bight" (loop) so made.
+
+
+Whiplashes
+
+Fig. 186½, XXXII is called the "chain knot," which is often used in
+braiding leather whiplashes. To make a "chain knot," fasten one end of
+the thong, or line; make a simple loop and pass it over the left hand;
+retain hold of the free end with the right hand; with the left hand
+seize the line above the right hand and draw a loop through the loop
+already formed; finish the knot by drawing it tight with the left hand.
+Repeat the operation until the braid is of the required length, then
+secure it by passing the free end through the last loop.
+
+Fig. 186½, XXXIII shows a double chain knot.
+
+Fig. 186½, XXXIV is a double chain knot pulled out. It shows how the
+free end is thrust through the last loop.
+
+Fig. 186½, XXXV. Knotted loop for end of rope, used to prevent the end
+of the rope from slipping, and for various other purposes.
+
+
+Splices, Timber-Hitches, etc.
+
+Although splices may not be as useful to boys as knots and hitches,
+for the benefit of those among my readers who are interested in the
+subject, I have introduced a few bands and splices on the cables partly
+surrounding Fig. 186½.
+
+Fig. 186½, _a_ shows the knot and upper side of a "simple band."
+
+Fig. 186½, _b_ shows under side of the same.
+
+Fig. 186½, _c_ and _d_ show a tie with cross-ends. To hold the ends of
+the cords, a turn is taken under the strands.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 187.]
+
+Fig. 186½, _e_ and _f_: Bend with cross-strands, one end looped over
+the other.
+
+Fig. 186½, _g_ shows the upper side of the "necklace tie."
+
+Fig. 186½, _h_ shows the under side of the same. The advantage of this
+tie is that the greater the strain on the cords, the tighter it draws
+the knot.
+
+Fig. 186½, _i_ and _j_ are slight modifications of _g_ and _h_.
+
+Fig. 186½, _p_ shows the first position of the end of the ropes for
+making the splice _k_. Untwist the strands and put the ends of two
+ropes together as close as possible, and place the strands of the one
+between the strands of the other alternately, so as to interlace, as in
+_k_. This splice should only be used when there is not time to make the
+"long splice," as the short one is not very strong.
+
+From _l_ to _m_ is a long splice, made by underlaying the strands of
+each of the ropes joined about half the length of the splice, and
+putting each strand of the one between two of the other; _q_ shows the
+strands arranged for the long splice.
+
+Fig. 186½, _n_ is a simple mode of making a hitch on a rope.
+
+Fig. 186½, _o_ is a "shroud knot."
+
+Fig. 186½, _r_ shows a very convenient way to make a handle on a rope,
+and is used upon large ropes when it is necessary for several persons
+to take hold to pull.
+
+Fig. 187, A. Combination of half-hitch and timber-hitch.
+
+Fig. 187, B. Ordinary half-hitch.
+
+Fig. 187, C. Ordinary timber-hitch.
+
+Fig. 187, D. Another timber-hitch, called the "clove-hitch."
+
+Fig. 187, E. "Hammock-hitch," used for binding bales of goods or cloth.
+
+Fig. 187, F. "Lark-head knot," used by sailors and boatmen for mooring
+their crafts.
+
+Fig. 187, P shows a lark-head fastening to a running knot.
+
+Fig. 187, G is a double-looped lark-head.
+
+Fig. 187, H shows a double-looped lark-head knot fastened to the ring
+of a boat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 187½.--Timber-hitches, etc.]
+
+Fig. 187, I is a "treble lark-head." To make it you must first tie
+a single lark-head, then divide the two heads and use each singly, as
+shown in the diagram.
+
+Fig. 187, J shows a simple boat knot with one turn.
+
+Fig. 187, K. "Crossed running knot." It is a strong and handy tie, not
+as difficult to make as it appears to be.
+
+Fig. 187, L is the bow-line knot, described by the diagrams XII and
+XIII (Fig. 186). The free end of the knot is made fast by binding it to
+the "bight," or the loop. It makes a secure sling for a man to sit in
+at his work among the rigging.
+
+Fig. 187, M, N, and O. "Slip clinches," or "sailors' knots."
+
+Fig. 187½, Q shows a rope fastened by the chain-hitch. The knot at the
+left-hand end explains a simple way to prevent a rope from unravelling.
+
+Fig. 187½, R. A timber-hitch; when tightened the line binds around the
+timber so that it will not slip.
+
+Fig. 187½, S. Commencement of simple lashing knot.
+
+Fig. 187½, T. Simple lashing knot finished.
+
+Fig. 187½, U. "Infallible loop;" not properly a timber-hitch, but
+useful in a variety of ways, and well adapted for use in archery.
+
+Fig. 187½, V. Same as R, reversed. It looks like it might give way
+under a heavy strain, but it will not.
+
+Fig. 187½, W. Running knot with two ends.
+
+Fig. 187½, X. Running knot with a check knot that can only be opened
+with a marline-spike.
+
+Fig. 187½, Y. A two-ended running knot with a check to the running
+loops. This knot can be untied by drawing both ends of the cord.
+
+Fig. 187½, Z. Running knot with two ends, fixed by a double Flemish
+knot. When you wish to encircle a timber with this tie, pass the ends
+on which the check knot is to be through the cords before they are
+drawn tight. This will require considerable practice.
+
+Fig. 187½, _a_ shows an ordinary twist knot.
+
+Fig. 187½, _a_^{1} shows the form of loop for builder's knot.
+
+Fig. 187½, _b_. Double twist knot.
+
+Fig. 187½, _c_. Builder's knot finished.
+
+Fig. 187½, _d_ represents a double builder's knot.
+
+Fig. 187½, _e_. "Weaver's knot," same as described under the head of
+Becket hitch (Fig. 185, V).
+
+Fig. 187½, _f_. Weaver's knot drawn tight.
+
+Fig. 187½, _g_ shows how to commence a reef knot. This is useful for
+small ropes; with ropes unequal in size the knot is likely to draw out
+of shape, as _m_.
+
+Fig. 187½, _h_ shows a reef knot completed.
+
+Of all knots, avoid the "granny"; it is next to useless under a strain,
+and marks the tier as a "landlubber."
+
+Fig. 187½, _i_ shows a granny knot; _n_ shows a granny under strain.
+
+Fig. 187½, _j_ shows the commencement of a common "rough knot."
+
+Fig. 187½, _k_. The front view of finished knot.
+
+Fig. 187½, _l_. The back view of finished knot. Although this knot
+will not untie nor slip, the rope is likely to part at one side if the
+strain is great. Awkward as it looks, this tie is very useful at times
+on account of the rapidity with which it can be made.
+
+Fig. 187½, _o_ and _p_. Knot commenced and finished, used for the same
+purposes as the Flemish knot.
+
+Fig. 187½, _q_ and _q_^{1}. An ordinary knot with ends used separately.
+
+Fig. 187½, _s_. Sheep-shank, or dog-shank as it is sometimes called,
+is very useful in shortening a line. Suppose, for instance, a swing is
+much longer than necessary, and you wish to shorten it without climbing
+aloft to do so, it can be done with a sheep-shank.
+
+Fig. 187½, _r_ shows the first position of the two loops. Take two half
+hitches, and you have a bend of the form shown by _s_. Pull tightly
+from above and below the shank, and you will find that the rope is
+shortened securely enough for ordinary strain.
+
+Fig. 187½, _t_. Shortening by loop and turns made where the end of the
+rope is free.
+
+Fig. 187½, _u_. A shortened knot that can be used when either end is
+free.
+
+Fig. 187½, _v_, _w_, and _x_. Shortening knots.
+
+Fig. 187½, _y_ and _z_. A "true lover's knot," and the last one that
+you need to practise on, for one of these knots is as much as most
+persons can attend to, and ought to last a lifetime.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+HOW TO BUILD A CHEAP BOAT
+
+
+The Yankee Pine
+
+FROM the saw-mills away up among the tributaries of the Ohio River
+come floating down to the towns along the shore great rafts of pine
+lumber. These rafts are always objects of interest to the boys, for
+the youngsters know that when moored to the shore the solidly packed
+planks make a splendid platform to swim from. Fine springing-boards
+can be made of the projecting blades of the gigantic sweeps which are
+used to guide the mammoth rafts, and, somewhere aboard, there is always
+to be found a "Yankee pine." Just when or why this style of skiff was
+dubbed with such a peculiar name I am unable to state; but this I know,
+that when a raft is to be broken up and carted away to the lumber yards
+there is, or always used to be, a good, light skiff to be had cheap.
+
+However, all boys do not live on the bank of the river, and if they did
+there would hardly be "Yankee pines" enough to go round; so we will at
+once proceed to see how to build one for ourselves. Although my readers
+may find the "Yankee pine" a little more difficult to build than the
+blunt-ended, flat-bottomed scow, it really is a comparatively simple
+piece of work for boys familiar with the use of carpenters' tools.
+
+For the side-pieces select two straight-grained pine boards free from
+knots. These boards should be about 13 or 14 feet long, a couple
+of inches over a foot in width, and as nearly alike as possible in
+texture. Besides these there should be in the neighborhood of a dozen
+other ¾-inch planks, an inch or two over a half foot in width. A small
+piece of 2-inch plank for the stern-piece is also necessary. Upon the
+bottom edge of the side-board measure off from each end toward the
+centre 4 inches, mark the points, and saw off the corners shown by the
+dotted line in Fig. 188. Next take a piece of board 4 feet long and a
+foot wide, saw off the corners as you did on the side-board, making it
+4 feet on the top and 3 feet 4 inches on the bottom. This board is to
+be used only as a centre brace while modelling the boat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 188.--Side-board.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 189.--Frame.]
+
+Out of the 2-inch plank make a stern-piece of the same shape as the
+centre brace; let it be 1 foot wide, 14 inches long on the bottom,
+and 20 inches long on top. Set the side-boards on their shorter or
+bottom edges and place the centre brace in the middle, as shown by
+Fig. 189; nail the side-boards to it, using only enough nails to hold
+temporarily. Draw the side-boards together at the bow and against the
+stern-board at the stern (Fig. 189). Hold the side-pieces in position
+by the means of ropes. A stem should be ready to fix in the bow (Fig.
+190). This had better be a few inches longer than the sides are broad,
+as it is a simple matter to saw off the top after it is fitted. Make
+the stem of a triangular piece of timber, by planing off the front
+edge until a flat surface about ½ inch broad is obtained; 2 inches
+from the front, upon each side, cut a groove just the thickness of the
+side-boards (¾ inch). Trim the stem so that the side-pieces at the bow
+fit the grooves snugly, and nail the side-boards to the stem and to the
+stern-piece (Fig. 189).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 190.--Stem-piece.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 191.--Finished skiff.]
+
+Turn the boat upside down, and it will be discovered that the outlines
+of the bottom form an arch from stem to stern. If left in this shape
+the boat will sink too deep amidship. Remedy the defect by planing the
+bottom edge of both side pieces, reducing the convex form to straight
+lines in the middle. This will allow the bow and stern to sheer, but
+at the same time will make the central part of the bottom flat, and,
+by having less to drag through the water, make it easier to row. Nail
+the bottom-boards on crosswise, and as, on account of the form of the
+boat, no two boards will be of the same size, they must be first nailed
+on and the projecting ends sawed off afterward. The centre brace may
+now be taken out and a long bottom-board nailed to the centre of the
+bottom upon the inside of the boat (Fig. 191). Cut a small cross-piece
+(B, Fig. 191) so that it will fit across the bow 3 inches below the
+top of the side-boards. Nail it in place, driving the nails from the
+outside of the side-board through and into the end of the stick B. Saw
+out a bow seat, and, allowing the broad end to rest on the cross-stick
+B, fit the seat in and secure it with nails (Fig. 191); 3 inches below
+the top of the stern-piece nail a cleat across. At the same distance
+below the side-board put a cross-stick similar to the one in the bow.
+This and the cleat on the stern-piece form rests for the stern seat.
+Five feet from the stern saw a notch 2 inches deep and 1½ inch long in
+each side-board (A, A^{1}, Fig. 191). Saw two more notches of the same
+size 3 inches from the first; these will make the rowlock when the side
+strips have been fastened on.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 192.--Keel board or skeg.]
+
+These strips should each be made of 1-inch plank, 2 inches wide and
+an inch or two longer than the side-boards. Nail the strips on the
+outside of the boat flush with the top of the side-boards, making a
+neat joint at the stern-piece, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 191).
+Cut two short strips to fit upon the inside at the rowlocks and fasten
+them firmly on with screws (Fig. 191, A). Next cut two cleats for the
+oarsman's seat to rest upon. Nail them to the side-boards amidship a
+little nearer the bottom than the top, so that the seat, when resting
+upon the cleats, will be about half the distance from the top edge to
+the bottom of the side-boards. Let the aft end of the cleats be about 6
+feet 2 inches from the stern. Make thole-pins of some hard wood to fit
+in the rowlocks, like those described and illustrated by Figs. 203 and
+204.
+
+[Illustration: Top view of "Man Friday."]
+
+The Yankee pine now only needs a skeg to complete it. This must be
+placed exactly in the centre, and is fastened on by a couple of screws
+at the thin end and nails from the inside of the boat. It is also
+fastened to the upright stick at the stern by screws (Fig. 192).
+
+If the joints have been carefully made, your Yankee pine is now ready
+for launching. Being made of rough lumber it needs no paint or
+varnish, but is a sort of rough-and-ready affair, light to row; and it
+ought to float four people with ease. By using planed pine or cedar
+lumber, and with hard-wood stem and stern, a very pretty row-boat
+can be made upon the same plan as a Yankee pine, or by putting in a
+centreboard and "stepping" a mast in the bow, the Yankee pine can be
+transformed into a sail-boat. But before experimenting in this line of
+boat-building, the beginner had better read carefully the chapter on
+how to rig and sail small boats.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 193.--The side-boards.]
+
+
+How to Build a Better Finished Boat
+
+The old-time raftsmen formerly built their "Yankee pines" of the rough,
+unplaned boards fresh from the saw-mills on the river banks, and these
+raw, wooden skiffs were stanch, light, and tight boats, but to-day
+smooth lumber is as cheap as the rough boards, so select enough planed
+pine lumber for a 12½-foot boat, and you may calculate the exact amount
+by reference to the accompanying diagrams, which are all drawn as near
+as may be to a regular scale.
+
+By reference to Fig. 193 you will see that A, A represent the two
+
+
+Side-Boards
+
+These should be of sufficient dimensions to produce two side-pieces
+each 13 feet long, 17 inches wide, and 7/8 inch thick (A, Fig. 194).
+You will also need a piece for a
+
+
+Spreader
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 194.--A, the side. B, the spreader. C, the
+stern-piece.]
+
+54 inches long, 18 inches wide, and about 1½ inch thick, but as this
+is a temporary affair almost any old piece of proper dimensions will
+answer (B, Fig. 194), and another piece of good 1½-inch plank (C, Fig.
+194) 36 inches long by 15 inches wide, for a stern-piece. Besides the
+above there must be enough 1-inch lumber to make seats and to cover the
+bottom. At a point on one end, 6½ inches from the edge of the A plank,
+mark the point _c_ (Fig. 194), then measure 37 inches back along the
+edge of the plank and mark the point _b_ (Fig. 194). Rule a pencil line
+(_b_, _c_) between these two points and starting at _c_ saw off the
+triangle _b_, _c_, _d_. Make the second side-board an exact duplicate
+of the one just described and prepare the spreader by sawing off the
+triangle with 9-inch bases at each end of B (Fig. 194). This will leave
+you a board (_h_, _k_, _o_, _n_) that will be 36 inches long on its
+lower edge and 54 inches long on its top edge.
+
+Next saw off the corners of the stern-piece C (Fig. 194) along the
+lines _f_, _g_, the _g_ points being each 6½ inches from the corners;
+and a board (_ff_, _gg_) 18 inches wide and 30 inches top measurement,
+with 23 inches at the bottom. Now fit the edge of the stern-piece
+along the line _e_, _d_ (Fig. 194), or at a slant to please your
+fancy. In Fig. 195, upper C, the slant makes the base of the triangle
+about 4½ inches, which is sufficient. Be careful that both side-boards
+are fitted exactly alike, and to do this nail the port side with
+nails driven only partly in, as shown at D (Fig. 195); then nail the
+starboard side and, if they are both seen to be even and of the right
+slant, drive the nails home; if not correct, the nails may be pulled
+out by using a small block under the hammer (D, Fig. 195), without
+bending the nails or injuring the wood. Leave the stern-ends of the
+side-boards protruding, as in the upper C, until you have the spreader
+and stem in place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 195.--Details of the boat.]
+
+We are now ready for the spreader (_h_, _k_, _o_, _n_) (B, Fig. 194)
+amidship, or, more accurately speaking, 6 feet 9 inches from the bow
+(B, Fig. 195). Nail this as shown by D (Fig. 195), so that the nails
+may be removed at pleasure. Bring the bow ends of the A boards together
+and secure them by a strip nailed temporarily across, as shown in the
+diagram E (Fig. 195).
+
+
+The Stem-piece
+
+may be made of two pieces, as is shown at G and F (Fig. 195) or if you
+are more skilful than the ordinary non-professional, the stem may be
+made of one piece, as shown by the lower diagram at F (Fig. 195). It
+is desirable to have oak for the stem, but any hard wood will answer
+the purpose, and even pine may be used when no better is to be had.
+Take a piece of cardboard or an old shingle on which to draw a pattern
+for the end of the stem and make the outline with a lead-pencil by
+placing the shingle over the apex _c_ of diagram E (Fig. 195); from the
+inside trace the line of the sides thus, =V=. Trim your stem down to
+correspond to these lines and let the stick be somewhat longer than the
+width of the sides A, A.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 196.--Put on a bottom of 1-inch boards.]
+
+When this is done to your satisfaction, fit the stem in place and nail
+the side boards to the stem.
+
+Turn the boat over and nail on a bottom of 1-inch boards as shown by
+Fig. 196.
+
+
+Don't
+
+use tongue and grooved or any sort of fancy cabinet or floor joining
+when wet--such matched lumber warps up in waves--but use boards with
+smooth, flat edges; if these are true and fitted snugly together in
+workmanlike manner the first wetting will swell them in a very short
+time, until not a drop of water will leak through the cracks, for the
+reason that there will be none. Fit the bottom-boards on regardless of
+their protruding ends, as these may be sawed off after the boards are
+nailed in place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 197.--Details of bow, stern, seats, and finished
+boat.]
+
+
+The Seats
+
+consist of a triangular one at the bow (J), the oarsman's seat (L), and
+the stern seat (K, Fig. 197). The bow seat is made of 1-inch boards
+nailed to two cleats shown at M (Fig. 197). N shows the bench for the
+stern seat and O explains the arrangement of the oarsman's seat a
+little forward amidship. As may be seen, it rests upon the cleats _x_
+(diagram O, Fig. 197), which are fitted between two upright cleats on
+each side of the boat; this makes a seat which will not slip out of
+place, and the cleats serve to strengthen the sides of the otherwise
+ribless boat. Make the cleats of 1 by 2 inch lumber and let the seat
+be about 12 inches wide. The stern seat may be wider, 1½ feet at K and
+4 or 5 inches more at the long sides of the two boards each side of K
+(Fig. 197). Of course, it is not necessary to fit a board in against
+the stern-piece, for a cleat will answer the purpose, but a good, heavy
+stern-piece is often desirable and the board shown in diagram N (Fig.
+197) will serve to add strength to the stern as well as to furnish a
+firm rest for the stern seat, but it will also add weight.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 198.
+
+Fig. 199.--Fitting the skeg.]
+
+
+The Keel-Board
+
+is an advisable addition to the boat, but may also be omitted without
+serious results (H, Fig. 197).
+
+The keel-board should be 4½ inches wide, 1 inch thick, and should be
+cut pointed, to fit snugly in the bow, and nailed in place along the
+centre of the floor, before the seats are put in the boat. A similar
+board along the bottom, joining the two cleats each side of the skeg
+at _y_ (Fig. 199) and extending to the bow will prevent the danger of
+loosening the bottom-planks when bumping over rifts, shallow places, or
+when the boat needs to be hauled on a stony shore; this bottom-board
+may also be omitted to save time and lumber and is not shown in the
+diagram.
+
+
+The Skeg
+
+is a triangular board (Figs. 198 and 199), roughly speaking, of the
+same dimensions as the pieces sawed from the side-board _b_, _c_, _d_
+(Fig. 196). The stern-end will be about 7 inches wide and it will taper
+off to nothing at _y_ (Fig. 198). The skeg is held in place by cleats
+of 1-inch lumber, 2 inches wide, nailed to the bottom on each side
+of the skeg. To get the proper dimensions experiment with the pieces
+sawed from the A boards and cut your skeg board so that its bottom edge
+will be level with the bottom at _y_ (Fig. 198); the diagonal line, to
+correspond with the slant of the stern, can be accurately drawn if the
+skeg is left untrimmed until it is fastened in place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 200.
+
+Fig. 201
+
+Fig. 202
+
+Rowlocks.]
+
+
+To Fasten on the Skeg
+
+rule a line from the centre of the stern to the centre of the bow and
+toe-nail the skeg on along this line. This must be accurately done
+or you will make a boat which will have an uncomfortable tendency to
+move in circles. After toe-nailing the skeg to the bottom, nail the
+two cleats, one on each side of the skeg, and let them fit as closely
+as may be to the keel. Now saw off the stern-ends of the cleats and
+lay a rule along the stern, as the stick is placed in Fig. 198, where
+the boy has his finger; rule a pencil line across the protruding end
+of the keel and saw off the end along the diagonal line, so that the
+stern-cleat _z_ (Fig. 198) may be nailed in place to finish the work.
+
+You can buy rowlocks of galvanized iron for about a quarter of a dollar
+a pair; the brass ones are not expensive, but even when the store
+furnishes the hardware there must be a firm support of some sort to
+hold the rowlock.
+
+If you use the manufactured article, to be found at any hardware store,
+the merchant will supply you with the screws, plates, and rowlocks,
+but he will not furnish you with the blocks for the holes in which the
+spindles of the rowlocks fit. Fig. 202 shows a rude, but serviceable,
+support for the lock made of short oaken posts much in vogue in
+Pennsylvania, but Fig. 201 is much better, and if it is made of oak and
+bolted to the sides of the boat it will last as long as the boat. Fig.
+201 may be put upon either the outside or inside of the boat, according
+to the width amidship.
+
+
+A Guard Rail
+
+or fender, of 1 by 2 inch lumber, alongside of and even with the top of
+the side-boards, from bow to stern, gives finish and strength to the
+craft; but in a cheap boat, or a hastily constructed one, this may be
+omitted, as it is in these diagrams.
+
+If you are building your boat out of the convenient reach of the
+hardware shop, you must make your own rowlocks. Fig. 200 shows the
+crude ones formerly used by the raftsmen for the Yankee pines, and
+Figs. 203 and 204 show rowlocks made with the oaken or hard-wood
+thole-pins fitting in holes cut for that purpose in the form of notches
+(U, Fig. 204) in the side of the boat, or as spaces left between the
+blocks, as shown by R (Fig. 203). When the side-boards A, A of the boat
+are notched a cleat of hard wood 5 or 6 inches wide, and extending some
+distance each side of the side-boards, must be used, as is shown by
+diagram V (Fig. 204) and Fig. 203. The diagram R (Fig. 203) explains
+itself; there is a centre block nailed to the side-board and two more
+each side, leaving spaces for the thole-pins T (Fig. 203) to fit and
+guarded by another piece (R) bolted through to the sides.
+
+If bolts are out of your reach, nails and screws may act as
+substitutes, and Fig. 204 will then be the best form of rowlock to
+adopt.
+
+To fix the place for rowlocks, seat yourself in the oarsman's seat,
+grasp the oars as in rowing, and mark the place which best fits the
+reach of your arms and oars as in rowing. It will probably be about 13
+inches aft from the centre of the seat.
+
+
+To Transform an Ordinary Skiff or Scow Into a Sailing-Boat
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 203. Thole-pins.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 204. Thole-pins.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 205.]
+
+It is necessary to build the centreboard box and cut a hole through the
+bottom of the boat. For the average row-boat or skiff, you can make
+the centreboard box about 48 inches long and not higher, of course,
+than the gunwales of the boat. Make the box of 2-inch plank, and before
+nailing the sides together coat the seams thoroughly with white lead so
+as to prevent it from leaking. The centreboard should be made of 2-inch
+plank, which when planed down and smoothed will be about 1-7/8 of an
+inch thick, and the space in the box should be wide enough to allow
+it to move freely up and down, with no danger of its jamming. A hole
+should be cut in the bottom of the boat to correspond with the opening
+in the centreboard box, which, with a 48-inch box, will probably be an
+opening of 40 inches long and 1 inch wide. The centreboard is hinged
+to the box by a bolt run through at the point marked A on Fig. 205.
+The centreboard should move freely on the bolt, but the bolt itself
+should fit tightly in the sides of the box, otherwise the water will
+leak through. There will be no danger of the bolt's turning in its
+socket if the hole through the centreboard through which the bolt is
+thrust is made large enough. The centreboard box should be generously
+painted with white lead on the bottom edges where it fits on the floor
+of the boat around the centreboard hole. The bottom of the boat floor
+should also be coated with white lead and over this a strip of muslin
+spread before the box is securely nailed to the floor of the boat from
+the bottom or under side of the boat. When this is done the muslin
+covering the hole can be cut away with a sharp knife. A rope may then
+be fastened to the loose end of the centreboard with a cross-stick
+attached to the end of the rope to prevent it from slipping down the
+hole in the box. With this rope the centreboard may be raised or
+lowered to suit the pleasure of the sailor. (Fig. 205.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+A "ROUGH-AND-READY" BOAT
+
+Just What One Must Do to Build It--Detailed Instructions as to How to
+Make the Boat and How to Rig It
+
+
+GOOD straight-grained pine wood is, without doubt, the best
+"all-around" wood for general use. It is easily whittled with a
+pocket-knife; it works smoothly under a plane; can be sawed without
+fatiguing the amateur carpenter; it is elastic and pliable; therefore
+use pine lumber to build your boat.
+
+Examine the lumber pile carefully and select four boards nearly alike.
+Do not allow the dealer or his men to talk you into taking lumber with
+blemishes. The side pieces should be of straight-grained wood, with no
+large knots and no "checks" (cracks) in them, and must not be "wind
+shaken."
+
+Measure the wood and see that it is over twenty-two feet long by one
+foot four or five inches wide and one inch thick. Trim two of the
+side-pieces until they are exact duplicates (Fig. 206). The stem-piece
+(or bow-piece) should be made from a triangular piece of oak (Fig.
+212), and it is wise to make it a few inches longer than will be
+necessary, so that there may be no danger of finding, after all your
+labor, that the stick is too short; much better too long, for it is a
+simple matter to saw it off. Make a second stem-piece (Fig. 213) of oak
+about one inch thick and the same length as the first, and two or three
+inches wide, or twice as wide as the thickness of the side-boards.
+
+
+The Stern-piece
+
+The stern-piece can be fashioned out of two-inch pine boards, and
+may be made as wide or narrow as you choose. A narrow stern makes a
+trim-looking craft. With your saw cut off the corner of the tail-piece,
+so that it will be in the form of a blunted triangle (Fig. 214),
+measuring three feet ten and one-half inches across the base, three
+feet four inches on each side, and nine and one-half inches at the
+apex. The base of the triangle will be the top and the apex will be the
+bottom of the stern-board of your boat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 206.
+
+Fig. 207.
+
+Fig. 208.
+
+Fig. 209.
+
+Fig. 210.
+
+Diagrams showing the construction of the rough-and-ready.]
+
+Now make a brace on which to model your boat. Let it be of two-inch
+pine wood, two and one-half feet wide and seven and one-half feet long
+(Fig. 207). Measure twelve inches on one edge of this board from each
+end toward the centre and mark the points; then rule lines from these
+points diagonally across the width of the board (A, B and C, D--Fig.
+207), and saw off the corners, as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 207.
+
+Lay the boards selected for the lower side-boards on a level floor
+and measure off one and one-half foot on the bottom edge, then in a
+line with the end of the board mark a point on the floor that would
+be the top edge of the board if the board were two and one-half feet
+wide; rule a line from the point on the floor to the point marked on
+the board and saw off the corner as marked; make the other side-piece
+correspond exactly with the first (Fig. 206).
+
+
+Use Rope for Binding
+
+Set the side-pieces upon their bottoms or shorter edges and place the
+brace between the sides. Now bind the stern ends with a rope and bring
+the bow-pieces together until they touch; rope them in this position,
+and when all is fast push the brace up until it rests at a point nine
+feet from the bow; fasten it here with a couple of nails driven in,
+but leaving their heads far enough from the wood to render it easy to
+draw them out. Now adjust the bow-piece, and use the greatest of care
+in making the sides exactly alike, otherwise you will wonder how you
+happened to have such an unaccountable twist in your craft. When the
+stem is properly adjusted fasten on the side-boards with screws. Do
+not try to hammer the screws in place, but bore holes first and use a
+screwdriver.
+
+Take your stern-piece and measure the exact width of the stern end
+of the bottom-boards and mark it at the bottom of the stern-piece;
+or, better still, since the stern-board will set at an angle, put it
+temporarily in place, bind it fast with the ropes, and mark with a
+pencil just where the side-boards cross the ends of the stern-board.
+Remove the stern-board and saw out a piece one inch wide, the thickness
+of the bottom-board, from the place marked to the bottom of the
+stern-board. Because the top side-board overlaps the bottom one at the
+stern, there must be either a large crack left there or the stern-board
+notched to fit the side-boards (Fig. 214). Replace the stern-board and
+nail side-boards fast to it; now loosen the ropes which have held your
+boat in shape, and fit on the upper side-boards so that at the stern
+they will overlap the lower side-boards an inch. Hold in place with
+your rope, then bring the bow end up against the stern-piece over the
+top of the lower side-board and fasten it in place with a rope. With
+your carpenter's pencil mark the overlap, and with a plane made for
+that purpose, called a rabbet, trim down your board so that it will
+have a shoulder and an overlap to rest on the bottom-board, running out
+to nothing at the bow. When the boards fit all right over the lower
+ones bind them in place and then nail them there (Fig. 208). If you can
+obtain two good boards of the requisite size, you need have but one
+board for each side of your boat; this will obviate the necessity of
+using the rabbet, and be very much easier; but with single boards of
+the required dimensions there is great danger of splitting or cracking
+while bending the boards.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 215.
+
+Fig. 211.
+
+Figs. 212, 213, and 214.
+
+The rough-and-ready.]
+
+
+Planing the Bottom
+
+Turn the boat upside down and you will see that there is a decided arch
+extending from stem to stern. This would cause the boat to sink too
+deep amidship, and must be remedied to some extent by cutting away the
+middle of the arch, so that the sides in the exact centre will measure
+at least four inches less in width than at the bow and stern, and
+reducing the convex or curved form to a straight line in the middle,
+which will give a sheer to the bow and stern. A good plane is the best
+tool to use for this purpose, as with it there is no danger of cutting
+too deep or of splitting the side-boards. Saw off the projecting ends
+of the side-boards at the stern.
+
+Make the bottom of three-quarter-inch boards, they may be bevelled like
+Fig. 231. Lay the boards crosswise, nail them in place, leaving the
+irregular ends projecting on each side. The reason for this is obvious.
+When you look at the bottom of the boat you will at once see that
+on account of the form no two boards can be the same shape, and the
+easiest way is to treat the boat bottom as if it were a square-sided
+scow. Fit the planks closely together, nail them on securely, and then
+neatly saw off the projecting ends (Fig. 210).
+
+
+The Deck
+
+The brace may now be removed by carefully drawing the nails, so that
+a bottom plank trimmed to fit the bow and the stern can be securely
+nailed in place (Fig. 216). Cut a notch in your brace to fit tightly
+over the bottom plank just laid. Plane off the top of the brace so that
+when in the boat the top of the brace will be four inches below the top
+of the side-boards. Replace the brace and securely nail it. Next cut
+two small cross-pieces (F, G, Fig. 209) and place them near the bow,
+four inches below the top of the sides of the boat. Drive the nails
+from the outside through the side-boards into the end of F and G, the
+cross-brace. Cut out a bow-piece to fit from the middle of G to the bow
+and nail it in place, driving the nails from the outside into the edge
+of the bow-piece. Fasten a small cleat along the boat from the solid
+board brace to F on each side and deck the space over with light lumber.
+
+Of the same material make a trap door to fit in between the braces F
+and G. This door should be big enough for a boy to reach through, for
+this compartment is intended as a safe place to store cooking utensils,
+foods, etc., as well as a water-tight compartment. At a point five feet
+from the stern put another cross-brace, similar to the ones in the bow,
+four inches below the top of the sides. At the same level nail a cleat
+on the stern-piece and make a stern seat by boarding over between the
+cross-piece and the cleat. When your boat is resting securely on the
+floor or level ground rig a temporary seat, then take an oar and by
+experiment find just where the rowlock will be most convenient and mark
+the spot. Also mark the spot best suited for the seat. On each side of
+the spot marked for the rowlock cut two notches in the side-boards two
+inches deep, one and a half inch wide, and three inches apart. Saw two
+more notches exactly like these upon the opposite side of your boat.
+These will make the rowlocks when the side-strips are nailed on (Fig.
+216).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 216.--Top view of rough-and-ready, with tiller
+stick.]
+
+The side-strips should each be made of one-inch plank three inches wide
+and a few inches longer than the side-boards. Nail the strips on the
+outside of the boat flush with the top of the side-boards. Make your
+thole-pins of some hard wood, and make two sets of them while you are
+about it, "one set to use and one set to lose." Screw a hard-wood cleat
+on the inside of your boat over each pair of rowlocks, as shown in Fig.
+216.
+
+
+Ready for the Water
+
+Fasten the remaining bow-piece securely over the ends of your
+side-boards, and the nose of your craft is finished.
+
+Put a good, heavy keel on your boat by screwing it tightly in the stern
+to the hard-wood rudder-post that is fastened to the centre of the
+stern; bolt your keel with four iron bolts (Fig. 211) to the bottom
+of the boat, and the ship is ready to launch, after which she can be
+equipped with sails and oars.
+
+Of course, you understand that all nail-holes and crevices should be
+puttied up, and if paint is used, it must be applied before wetting the
+boat. But if you have done your work well, there will be little need
+of paint or putty to make it tight after the wood has swelled in the
+water. Fasten your rudder on with hooks and screw-eyes, and make it as
+shown in the diagram (Fig. 211). Step your mainmast in the bow through
+a round hole in the deck and a square hole in the step, which must, of
+course, be screwed tightly to the bottom before the bow is decked over.
+
+Step your jigger or dandy mast in the stern after the same manner.
+These masts should neither of them be very large, and are intended to
+be removed at pleasure by unstepping them, that is, simply pulling them
+out of their sockets. An outrigger will be found necessary for your
+dandy-sail, and since the deck aft is below the sides of the boat, a
+block of wood will have to be nailed to the deck to the starboard, or
+right-hand, side of the rudder-post. If the builder chooses, he can
+make the decks flush with the sides of the boat and thus avoid blocks.
+A couple of staples for the out-rigger to slip through are next in
+order. They must be fastened firmly in the block or stick of wood just
+nailed to the deck. A similar arrangement can be made for the bowsprit,
+but as it is a movable bowsprit, and the stem of the boat is in the
+way, put it to the port, or left-hand, side of the stem of the craft
+(Fig. 216).
+
+
+How to Make the Sail
+
+Secure for a sail material as strong as you can find, but it need not
+be heavy. Unbleached muslin is cheap and will make good sails. Turn
+over the edges and sew or hem them, as in the diagram. Make eyelets
+like button-holes in the luff of the sail--that is, the edge of the
+sail nearest the mast. Sew a small loop of rope in each corner of the
+sail. Through the eyelets lace the luff of the sail to the mast.
+
+From spruce or pine make a sprit two inches in diameter. For a
+"sheet"--that is, the rope or line that you manage the sail with--tie a
+good stout line about a dozen feet long to the loop in the loose corner
+of the sail. Trim the upper end of the sprit to fit the loop in the top
+of the sail and make a simple notch in the other end to hold the line
+called the "snotter."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 217, with tiller.--Rudder lines.]
+
+Now, as you can readily see by referring to Fig. 211, when the sprit
+is pushed into the loop at the top of the sail the sail is spread. To
+hold it in place make a cleat like the one in the diagram and bind it
+firmly with a cord to the sprit; pass the snotter, or line, fastened to
+the mast through the notch in the sprit up to the cleat and make fast,
+and the sail is set. The jigger, or dandy, is exactly like the mainsail
+except in size, and the sheet rope is run through a block or pulley at
+the end of the outrigger and then made fast to a cleat near the man at
+the rudder or helm. The jib is a simple affair hooked on a screw-eye
+in the end of the bowsprit. The jib halyard, or line for hoisting the
+jib, runs from the top of the jib through a screw-eye in the top of the
+mast, down the port side of the mast to a cleat, where it is made fast.
+When the jib is set the jib-sheets are fastened to a loop sewed in the
+jib at the lower or loose end. There are two jib-sheets, one for each
+side of the boat, so that one may be made fast and the other loosened,
+according to the wind. The remaining details you must study out from
+the diagrams or learn by experiment.
+
+
+How to Reef Her
+
+When the wind is high reef your sails by letting go the snotter and
+pulling out the sprit. This will drop your peak and leave you with a
+simple leg-of-mutton sail. Only use the jib in light weather.
+
+In this boat, with a little knowledge of sailing, you may cruise for
+weeks, lowering your sails at night and making a tent over the cock-pit
+for a sleeping-room. Sails with boom and gaffs may be used if desired.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+HOW TO BUILD CHEAP AND SUBSTANTIAL HOUSE-BOATS
+
+Plans for a House-Boat that May Be a Camp or Built as Large as a Hotel
+
+
+WHEN the great West of the United States began to attract immigrants
+from the Eastern coast settlements, the Ohio River rolled between banks
+literally teeming with all sorts of wild game and wilder men: then it
+was that the American house-boat had its birth.
+
+The Mississippi, Ohio, and their tributaries furnished highways for
+easy travel, of which the daring pioneers soon availed themselves.
+
+Lumber was to be had for the labor of felling the trees. From the
+borders of the Eastern plantations to the prairies, and below the Ohio
+to the Mississippi, and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, was
+one vast forest of trees; trees whose trunks were unscarred by the axe,
+and whose tall tops reached an altitude which would hardly be believed
+by those of this generation, who have only seen second, third, or
+fourth growth timber.
+
+When the settlement of this new part of the country began it was not
+long before each stream poured out, with its own flood of water,
+
+
+A Unique Navy
+
+There were keel-boats, built something like a modern canal-boat, only
+of much greater dimensions; there were broad-horns, looking like Noak's
+arks from some giant's toy-shop, and there were flat-boats and rafts,
+the latter with houses built on them, all recklessly drifting, or
+being propelled by long sweeps down the current into the great solemn,
+unknown wilderness.
+
+Every island, had it a tongue, could tell of wrecks; every point or
+headland, of adventure.
+
+The perils were great and the forest solemn, but the immigrants were
+merry, and the squeaking fiddle made the red man rise up from his
+hiding-place and look with wonder upon the "long knives" and their
+squaws dancing on the decks of their rude crafts, as they swept by into
+the unknown.
+
+The advent of the steam-boat gradually drove the flat-boat, broad-horn,
+keel-boat, and all the primitive sweep-propelled craft from the rivers,
+but many of the old boatmen were loath to give up so pleasant a mode of
+existence, and they built themselves house-boats, and, still clinging
+to their nomadic habits, took their wives, and went to house-keeping on
+the bosom of the waters they loved so well.
+
+Their descendants now form what might well be called a race of
+river-dwellers, and to this day their quaint little arks line the
+shores of the Mississippi and its tributaries.
+
+
+Some of These House-Boats
+
+are as crudely made as the Italian huts we see built along the
+railroads, but others are neatly painted, and the interiors are like
+the proverbial New England homes, where everything is spick-and-span.
+
+Like the driftwood, these boats come down the stream with every
+freshet, and whenever it happens that the waters are particularly high
+they land at some promising spot and earn a livelihood on the adjacent
+water, by fishing and working aboard the other river-craft, or they
+land at some farming district, and as the waters recede they prop up
+and level their boats, on the bank, with stones or blocks of wood
+placed under the lower corners of their homes.
+
+The muddy waters, as they retire, leave a long stretch of fertile land
+between the stranded house and the river, and this space is utilized
+as a farm, where ducks, chickens, goats and pigs are raised and where
+garden-truck grows luxuriantly.
+
+From a boat their home has been transformed to a farm-house; but sooner
+or later there will be another big freshet, and when the waters reach
+the late farm-house, lo! it is a boat again, and goes drifting in its
+happy-go-lucky way down the current. If it escapes the perils of snags
+and the monster battering-rams, which the rapid current makes of the
+drifting trees in the flood, it will land again, somewhere, down-stream.
+
+Lately, while on a sketching trip through Kentucky, I was greatly
+interested in these boats, and on the Ohio River I saw several making
+good headway against the four-mile-an-hour current. This they did by
+the aid of
+
+
+Big Square Sails
+
+spread on a mast planted near their bows, thus demonstrating the
+practicability of the use of sails for house-boats.
+
+The house-boats to be described in this article are much better adapted
+for sailing than any of the craft used by the water-gypsies of the
+Western rivers.
+
+For open and exposed waters, like the large lakes which dot many of our
+inland States, or the Long Island Sound on our coast, the following
+plans of the American boy's house-boat will have to be altered, but the
+alterations will be all in the hull. If you make the hull three feet
+deep it will have the effect of lowering the cabin, while the head-room
+inside will remain the same. Such a craft can carry a good-sized sail,
+and weather any gale you are liable to encounter, even on the Sound,
+during the summer months.
+
+Since the passing away of the glorious old flat-boat days, idle people
+in England have introduced the
+
+
+House-Boat as a Fashionable Fad
+
+which has spread to this country, and the boys now have a new source of
+fun, as a result of this English fad.
+
+There are still some nooks and corners left in every State in the
+Union which the greedy pot-hunter and the devouring saw-mill have as
+yet left undisturbed, and at such places the boy boatmen may "wind
+their horns," as their ancestors did of old, and have almost as good
+a time. But first of all they must have a boat, and for convenience
+the American boy's house-boat will probably be found to excel either a
+broad-horn or a flat-boat model, it being a link between the two.
+
+The simplest possible house-boat is a Crusoe raft,[A] with a cabin near
+the stern and a sand-box for a camp-fire at the bow. A good time can
+be had aboard even this primitive craft. The next step in evolution is
+the long open scow, with a cabin formed by stretching canvas over hoops
+that reach from side to side of the boat (see Fig. 218).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 218.--A primitive house-boat.]
+
+Every boy knows how to build
+
+
+A Flat-Bottomed Scow
+
+or at least every boy should know how to make as simple a craft as the
+scow, but for fear some lad among my readers has neglected this part of
+his education, I will give a few hints which he may follow.
+
+
+Building Material
+
+Select lumber that is free from large knots and other blemishes. Keep
+the two best boards for the sides of your boat. With your saw cut
+the side boards into the form of Fig. 219; see that they are exact
+duplicates. Set the two pieces parallel to each other upon their
+straight or top edges, as the first two pieces shown in Fig. 220. Nail
+on an end-piece at the bow and stern, as the bumper is nailed in Figs.
+221 and 222; put the bottom on as shown in Figs. 196 and 210, and you
+have a simple scow.
+
+
+Centrepiece
+
+In Fig. 219 you will notice that there are two sides and a centrepiece,
+but this centrepiece is not necessary for the ordinary open boat, shown
+by Fig. 218. Here you have one of the simple forms of house-boat, and
+you can make it of dimensions to suit your convenience. I will not
+occupy space with the details of this boat, because they may be seen by
+a glance at the diagrams, and my purpose is to tell you how to build
+the American boy's house-boat, which is a more elegant craft than the
+rude open scow, with a canvas-covered cabin, shown by Fig. 218.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 219.--Unfinished.]
+
+
+The Sides of the House-Boat
+
+are 16 feet long, and to make them you need some sound two-inch planks.
+After selecting the lumber plane it off and make the edges true and
+straight. Each side and the centrepiece should now measure exactly 16
+feet in length by 14 inches in width, and about 2 inches thick. Cut off
+from each end of each piece a triangle, as shown by the dotted lines
+at G, H, I (Fig. 220); from H to G is 1 foot, and from H to I is 7
+inches. Measure from H to I 7 inches, and mark the point. Then measure
+from H to G, 12 inches, and mark the point. Then, with a carpenter's
+pencil, draw a line from G to I, and saw along this line. Keep the two
+best planks for the sides of your boat, and use the one that is left
+for the centrepiece. Measure 2 feet on the top or straight edge of your
+centrepiece, and mark the point A (Fig. 220). From A measure 8 feet 10
+inches, and mark the point C (Fig. 220).
+
+With a carpenter's square rule the lines A, B and C, D, and make them
+each 10 inches long, then rule the line B, D (Fig. 220). The piece A,
+B, C, D must now be carefully cut out: this can be done by using the
+saw to cut A, B and D, C. Then, about 6 inches from A, saw another line
+of the same length, and with a chisel cut the block out. You then have
+room to insert a rip-saw, at B, and can saw along the line B, D until
+you reach D, when the piece may be removed, leaving the space A, B, D,
+C for the cabin of the boat (see Figs. 221 and 222.)
+
+At a point 9 inches from the bow of the boat make a mark on the
+centrepiece, and another mark 5 inches farther away, at F (Fig. 220).
+With the saw cut a slit at each mark, 1 inch deep, and with a chisel
+cut out, as shown by the dotted lines; do the same at E, leaving a
+space of 1½ feet between the two notches, which are made to allow
+the two planks shown in the plan (Fig. 221) to rest on. These planks
+support the deck and the hatch, at the locker in the bow. The notches
+at E and F are not on the side-boards, the planks being supported at
+the sides by uprights, Figs. 221 and 222.
+
+All that now remains to be done with the centrepiece is to saw some
+three-cornered notches on bottom edge, one at bow, one at stern, and
+one or two amidship; this is to allow the water which may leak in to
+flow freely over the whole bottom, and to prevent it from gathering at
+one side and causing your craft to rest upon an uneven keel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 220.--Center board of house boat.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 221.--Plan of house boat.]
+
+Next select a level piece of ground near by and arrange the three
+pieces upon some supports, as shown in Fig. 219, so that from outside
+to outside of side-pieces it will measure just 8 feet across the bow
+and stern. Of 1-inch board
+
+
+Make Four End-Pieces
+
+for the bow and stern (see A, A´, Fig. 219), to fit between the sides
+and centrepiece. Make them each a trifle wider than H, I, Fig. 220,
+so that after they have been fitted they can be trimmed down with a
+plane, and bevelled on the same slant as the bottom at G, I, Fig. 220.
+It being 8 feet between the outside of each centrepiece, and the sides
+and the centrepiece being each 2 inches thick, that gives us 8 feet 6
+inches, or 7½ feet as the combined length of A and A´ (Fig. 219). In
+other words, each end-piece will be half of 7½ feet long--that is, 3
+feet 9 inches long. After making the four end-pieces, each 3 feet 9,
+by 9 inches, fit the ends in place so that there is an inch protruding
+above and below. See that your bow and stern are perfectly square, and
+nail with wire nails through the sides into A and A´; toe-nail at the
+centrepiece--that is, drive the nails from the broad side of A and A´
+slantingly, into the centrepiece, after which trim down with your plane
+the projecting inch on bottom, to agree with the slant of the bottom of
+the boat.
+
+
+Now for the Bottom
+
+This is simple work. All that is necessary is to have straight, true
+edges to your one-inch planks, fit them together, and nail them in
+place. Of course, when you come to the slant at bow and stern the
+bottom-boards at each end will have to have a bevelled edge, to fit
+snugly against the boards on the flat part of the bottom of the boat;
+but any boy who is accustomed to shake the gray matter in his brain can
+do this. Remember, scientists say that thought is the agitation of the
+gray matter of the brain, and if you are going to build a boat or play
+a good game of football you must shake up that gray stuff, or the other
+boys will put you down as a "stuff." No boy can expect to be successful
+in building a boat, of even the crudest type, unless he keeps his wits
+about him, so I shall take it for granted that there are no "stuffs"
+among my readers.
+
+After the boards are all snugly nailed on the bottom, and fitted
+together so that there are no cracks to calk up; the hull is ready to
+have
+
+
+The Bumpers
+
+nailed in place, at bow and stern. See the plan, Fig. 221, and the
+elevation, Fig. 222. The bumpers must be made of 2-inch plank, 8 feet
+long by about 9 inches wide; wide enough to cover A and A´ of Fig. 219,
+and to leave room for a bevel at the bottom edge to meet the slant of
+the bow and stern, and still have room at the top to cover the edge of
+the deck to the hull (see Fig. 222).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 222.--Cross-section of boat]
+
+
+The Hull May Now Be Painted
+
+with two coats of good paint, and after it is dry may be turned over
+and allowed to rest on a number of round sticks, called rollers.
+
+If you will examine Fig. 221 you will see there
+
+
+Twenty-Odd Ribs
+
+These are what are called two-by-fours-that is, 2 inches thick by 4
+inches wide. They support the floor of the cabin and forward locker, at
+the same time adding strength to the hull.
+
+The ribs are each the same length as the end-board. A and A´ of Fig.
+219, are nailed in place in the same manner. Each bottom-rib must
+have a notch 2 inches deep cut in the bottom edge to allow the free
+passage of water, so as to enable you to pump dry. Commencing at the
+stern, the distance between the inside of the bumper and the first rib
+is 1 foot 6 inches. This is a deck-rib, as may be seen by reference to
+Figs. 221 and 222. After measuring 1½ foot from the bumper, on inside
+of side-board, mark the point with a carpenter's pencil. Measure the
+same distance on the centrepiece, and mark the point as before; then
+carefully fit your rib in flush or even with the top of the side-piece,
+and fasten it in place by nails driven through the side-board into the
+end of the rib, and toe-nailed to centrepiece. Do the same with its
+mate on the other side of centrepiece.
+
+
+The Cabin of this House-Boat
+
+is to fit in the space, A, B, D, C of the centrepiece, Fig. 220. There
+is to be a one-inch plank at each end (see Fig. 222), next to which the
+side-supports at each end of cabin fit. The supports are two-by-twos;
+so, allowing 1 inch for the plank and 2 inches for the upright support,
+the next pair of ribs will be just 3 inches from A B, Fig. 220, of the
+centrepiece (see Figs. 221 and 222). The twin ribs at the forward end
+of the cabin will be the same distance from D C, Fig. 220, as shown in
+the plan and elevation, Figs. 221 and 222. This leaves five pairs of
+ribs to be distributed between the front and back end of the cabin.
+From the outside of each end-support to the inside of the nearest
+middle-support is 2 feet 6 inches. Allowing 2 inches for the supports,
+this will place the adjoining ribs 2 feet 8 inches from the outside of
+the end-supports. The other ribs are placed midway between, as may be
+seen by the elevation, Fig. 222.
+
+There is another pair of
+
+
+Deck-Ribs
+
+at the forward end of the cabin, which are placed flush with the line
+D, C, Fig. 220 (see Figs. 221 and 222). The two pairs of ribs in the
+bow are spaced, as shown in the diagram. This description may appear
+as if it was a complicated affair; but you will find it a simple thing
+to work out if you will remember to allow space for your pump in the
+stern, space for the end-planks at after and forward end of cabin, and
+space for your uprights. The planks at after and forward end of cabin
+are to box in the cabin floor.
+
+
+The Boat May Now Be Launched
+
+by sliding it over the rollers, which will not be found a difficult
+operation.
+
+
+The Plans Show Three Lockers
+
+--two in the bow under the hatch and one under the rear bunk--but if it
+is deemed necessary the space between-decks, at each side of the cabin,
+may be utilized as lockers. In this space you can store enough truck
+to last for months. A couple of doors in the plank at the front of the
+cabin opening, under the deck, will be found very convenient to reach
+the forward locker in wet weather.
+
+
+The Keel
+
+is a triangular piece of 2-inch board, made to fit exactly in the
+middle of the stern, and had best be nailed in place before the boat
+is launched (see Fig. 222). The keel must have its bottom edge flush
+with the bottom of the boat, and a strip of hard-wood nailed on the
+stern-end of the keel and bumper, as shown in the diagram. A couple of
+strong screw-eyes will support the rudder.
+
+After the boat is launched the
+
+
+Side-Supports for the Cabin May Be Erected
+
+These are "two-by-twos" and eight in number, and each 5 feet 9 inches
+long. Nail them securely at their lower ends to the adjoining ribs. See
+that they are plumb, and fasten them temporarily with diagonal pieces,
+to hold the top ends in place, while you nail down the lower deck or
+flooring.
+
+Now fit and nail the two 1-inch planks in place, at the bow and
+stern-end of the cabin, each of which has its top one inch above the
+sides, even with the proposed deck (see dotted lines in Fig. 222).
+
+
+Use Ordinary Flooring
+
+or if that is not obtainable use ¾-inch pine boards, and run them
+lengthwise from the bow to the front end of the cabin and along the
+sides of the cabin. Then floor the cabin lengthwise from bow to stern.
+This gives you a dry cabin floor, for there are 4 inches of space
+underneath for bilge-water, which unless your boat is badly made and
+very leaky, is plenty of room for what little water may leak in from
+above or below. The two side-boards of the cabin floor must, of course,
+have square places neatly cut out to fit the uprights of the cabin.
+This may be done by slipping the floor-board up against the uprights
+and carefully marking the places with a pencil where they will come
+through the board, and then at each mark sawing two inches in the floor
+plank, and cutting out the blocks with a chisel.
+
+
+The Hatch
+
+Now take a "four-by-four" and saw off eight short supports for the two
+1-inch planks which support the hatch, Figs. 221 and 222. Toe-nail
+the middle four-by-four to the floor in such a position that the two
+cross-planks (which are made to fit in the notches E and F, Fig.
+220) will rest on the supports. Nail the four other supports to the
+side-boards of your boat, and on top of these nail the cross-planks, as
+shown in the diagrams.
+
+The boat is now ready for its
+
+
+Upper Deck
+
+of 1-inch pine boards. These are to be nailed on lengthwise, bow and
+stern and at sides of cabin, leaving, of course, the cabin open, as
+shown by the position of the boys in Fig. 222, and an opening, 3 feet
+by 2, for the hatch (Fig. 221). The two floors will act as benches for
+the uprights of the cabin, and hold them stiff and plumb.
+
+To further stiffen the frame, make two diagonals for the stern-end, as
+shown in Fig. 223, and nail them in place.
+
+
+The Rafters
+
+or roof-rods, should extend a foot each way beyond the cabin, hence cut
+them two feet longer than the cabin, and after testing your uprights,
+to see that they are exactly plumb, nail the two side roof-rods in
+place (see dotted lines in Fig. 222). The cross-pieces at the ends, as
+they support no great weight, may be fitted between the two side-rods,
+and nailed there.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 223.--End view.]
+
+The roof is to be made of ½-inch boards bent into a curve, and the
+ridge-pole, or centre roof-rod, must needs have some support. This is
+obtained by two short pieces of 2 by 4, each 6 inches long, which are
+toe-nailed to the centre of each cross-rod, and the ridge-pole nailed
+to their tops. At 3 feet from the upper deck the side frame-pieces
+are toe-nailed to the uprights. As may be seen, there are three
+two-by-fours on each side (Fig. 222).
+
+The space between the side frame-pieces, the two middle uprights, and
+side roof-rods, is where the windows are to be placed.
+
+Use ½-inch (tongue and groove preferred) pine boards for sidings, and
+
+
+Box In Your Cabin
+
+neatly, allowing space for windows on each side, as indicated. Leave
+the front open. Of the same kind of boards make your roof; the boards
+being light you can bend them down upon each side and nail them to
+the side roof-rods, forming a pretty curve, as may be seen in the
+illustration of the American boy's house-boat.
+
+
+This Roof
+
+to be finished neatly and made entirely water-proof, should be covered
+with tent-cloth or light canvas, smoothly stretched over and tacked
+upon the under side of the projecting edges. Three good coats of paint
+will make it water-proof and pleasant to look upon.
+
+The description, so far, has been for a neatly finished craft, but I
+have seen very serviceable and comfortable house-boats built of rough
+lumber, in which case the curved roof, when they had one, had narrow
+strips nailed over the boards where they joined each other or was
+covered with tar-paper.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 224.--End view.]
+
+
+To Contrive a Movable Front
+
+to your cabin, make two doors to fit and close the front opening,
+but in place of hanging the doors on hinges, set them in place. Each
+door should have a good strong strap nailed securely on the inside,
+for a handle, and a batten or cross-piece at top and bottom of inside
+surface. A 1½ by 4, run parallel to the front top cross-frame and
+nailed there, just a sufficient distance from it to allow the top
+of the door to be inserted between, will hold the top of the door
+securely. A two-by-four, with bolt-holes near either end to correspond
+with bolt-holes in the floor, will hold the bottom when the door is
+pushed in place, the movable bottom-piece shoved against it and the
+bolts thrust in (see Fig. 225, view from inside of cabin. Fig. 226,
+side view). It will be far less work to break in the side of the cabin
+than to burst in such doors, if they are well made. These doors possess
+this advantage: they can be removed and used as table-tops, leaving
+the whole front open to the summer breeze, or one may be removed, and
+still allow plenty of ventilation. A moulding on deck around the cabin
+is not necessary, but it will add finish and prevent the rain-water
+from leaking in.
+
+To lock up the boat you must set the doors from the inside, and if you
+wish to leave the craft locked you must crawl out of the window and
+fasten the latter with a lock.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 225.--Inside view of door.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig 226--Side view of door.]
+
+Fig. 227 shows the construction of
+
+
+The Rudder
+
+and also an arrangement by which it may be worked from the front of the
+boat, which, when the boat is towed, will be found most convenient.
+
+The hatch should be made of 1-inch boards, to fit snugly flush with the
+deck, as in the illustration, or made of 2-inch plank, and a moulding
+fitted around the opening, as shown in Fig. 222.
+
+
+A Pair of Rowlocks
+
+made of two round oak sticks with an iron rod in their upper ends,
+may be placed in holes in the deck near the bow, and the boat can be
+propelled by two oarsmen using long "sweeps," which have holes at the
+proper places to fit over the iron rods projecting from the oaken
+rowlocks. These rowlocks may be removed when not in use, and the holes
+closed by wooden plugs, while the sweeps can be hung at the side of the
+cabin, under its eaves, or lashed fast to the roof.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 227.--Side elevation.]
+
+
+Two or More Ash Poles
+
+for pushing or poling the boat over shallow water or other difficult
+places for navigation are handy, and should not be left out of the
+equipment. The window-sashes may be hung on hinges and supplied with
+hooks and screw-eyes to fasten them open by hooking them to the eaves
+when it is desired to let in the fresh air. All window openings should
+be protected by wire netting to keep out insects.
+
+Two bunks can be fitted at the rear end of the cabin, one above the
+other, the bottom bunk being the lid to a locker (see Fig. 222).
+
+
+The Locker
+
+is simply a box, the top of which is just below the deck-line and
+extending the full width of the cabin. It has hinges at the back, and
+may be opened for the storage of luggage.
+
+Over the lid blankets are folded, making a divan during the day and a
+bed at night.
+
+The top bunk is made like the frame of a cheap cot, but in place of
+being upholstered it has a strong piece of canvas stretched across it.
+This bunk is also hinged to the back of the cabin, so that when not in
+use it can be swung up against the roof and fastened there as the top
+berth in a sleeping-car is fastened. Four 4 by 4 posts can be bolted
+to the side-support at each corner of the bottom bunk; they will amply
+support the top bunk, as the legs do a table-top when the frame is
+allowed to rest upon their upper ends. This makes accommodation for
+two boys, and there is still room for upper and lower side bunks, the
+cabin being but six feet wide. If you put bunks on both sides you will
+be rather crowded, it is true, but by allowing a 1-foot passage in the
+middle, you can have two side bunks and plenty of head room. This will
+accommodate four boys, and that is a full crew for a boat of this size.
+
+On board a yacht I have often seen four full-grown men crowded into a
+smaller space in the cabin, while the sailormen in the fo'-castle had
+not near that amount of room.
+
+
+A More Simple Set of Plans
+
+Here the cabin is built on top of the upper deck, and there are no
+bottom-ribs, the uprights being held in place by blocks nailed to the
+bottom of the boat, and by the deck of the boat. This is secure enough
+for well-protected waters, small lakes, and small streams. Upon the
+inland streams of New York State I have seen two-story house-boats, the
+cabin, or house, being only a framework covered with canvas. One such
+craft I saw in central New York, drifting downstream over a shallow
+riff, and as it bumped along over the stones it presented a strange
+sight. The night was intensely dark, and the boat brightly lighted. The
+lights shone through the canvas covering, and this big, luminous house
+went bobbing over the shallow water, while shouts of laughter and the
+"plinky-plunk" of a banjo told in an unmistakable manner of the jolly
+time the crew were having.
+
+
+Canvas-Cabined House-Boat
+
+If you take an ordinary open scow and erect a frame of uprights and
+cross-pieces, and cover it with canvas, you will have just such a boat
+as the one seen in central New York. This boat may be propelled by
+oars, the rowers sitting under cover, and the canvas being lifted at
+the sides to allow the sweeps to work; but of course it will not be as
+snug as the well-made American boy's house-boat, neither can it stand
+the same amount of rough usage, wind, and rain as the latter boat.
+
+In the frontispiece the reader will notice a stove-pipe at the stern;
+there is room for a small stove back of the cabin, and in fair weather
+it is much better to cook outside than inside the cabin. When you tie
+up to the shore for any length of time, a rude shelter of boughs and
+bark will make a good kitchen on the land, in which the stove may be
+placed, and you will enjoy all the fun of a camp, with the advantage of
+a snug house to sleep in.
+
+For the benefit of boys who doubt their ability to build a boat of
+this description, it may be well to state that other lads have used
+these directions and plans with successful results, and their boats now
+gracefully float on many waters, a source of satisfaction and pride to
+their owners.
+
+
+Information for Old Boys
+
+On all the Western rivers small flat-boats or scows are to be had at
+prices which vary in accordance with the mercantile instincts of the
+purchaser, and with the desire of the seller to dispose of his craft.
+Such boats are propelled by "sweeps," a name used to designate the long
+poles with boards on their outer edges that serve as blades and form
+the oars. These boats are often supplied with a deck-house, extending
+almost from end to end, and if such a house is lacking one may be
+built with little expense. The cabin may be divided into rooms and the
+sleeping apartments supplied with cheaply made bunks. It is not the
+material of the bunk which makes it comfortable--it is the mattress
+in the bunk upon which your comfort will depend. The kitchen and
+dining-room may be all in one. An awning spread over the roof will make
+a delightful place in which to lounge and catch the river breezes.
+
+
+The Cost of House-Boats
+
+The cost of a ready-made flat-bottomed house-boat is anywhere from
+thirty dollars to one or more thousands. In Florida such a boat, 40
+by 20 feet, built for the quiet waters of the St. John's River or its
+tributaries, or the placid lagoons, will cost eight hundred dollars.
+This boat is well painted outside and rubbed down to a fine oil finish
+inside; it has one deck, and the hull is used for toilet apartments
+and state-rooms; the hull is well calked and all is in good trim. Such
+expense is, however, altogether unnecessary--there need be no paint or
+polish. All you need is a well-calked hull and a water-tight roof of
+boards or canvas overhead; cots or bunks to sleep in; chairs, stools,
+boxes or benches to sit on; hammocks to loll in, and a good supply of
+provisions in the larder.
+
+House-boats for the open waters are necessarily more expensive. As a
+rule they need round bottoms that stand well out of the water, and
+are built like the hull of a ship. These boats cost as much to build
+as a small yacht. From twelve to fifteen hundred dollars will build a
+good house-boat, with comfortable sleeping-berths, toilet-rooms and
+store-rooms below; a kitchen, dining-room, and living-rooms on the
+cabin deck, with wide, breezy passageways separating them.
+
+If a bargain can be found in an old schooner with a good hull, for two
+or three hundred dollars, a first-class house-boat can be made by the
+expenditure of as much more for a cabin. The roofs of all house-boats
+should extend a foot or more beyond the sides of the cabin.
+
+
+For People of Limited Means
+
+For people with little money to spend, these expensive boats are as
+much out of reach as a yacht, but they may often be rented for prices
+within the means of people in moderate circumstances. At New York I
+have known a good schooner-yacht, 84 feet over all, to be chartered for
+two weeks, with crew of skipper and two men, the larder plentifully
+supplied with provisions and luxuries for six people and the crew,
+making nine in all, at a cost of thirty-six dollars apiece for each of
+the six passengers. An equally good house-boat should not cost over
+twelve dollars a week per passenger for a party of ten. In inland
+waters, if a boat could be rented, the cost should not exceed seven or
+eight dollars a week per passenger.
+
+A canal-boat is a most excellent house-boat for a pleasure party,
+either on inland streams or along our coast.
+
+
+Street-Car Cabins
+
+Since the introduction of cable and trolley-cars the street-car
+companies have been selling their old horse-cars, in some instances at
+figures below the cost of the window-glass in them; so cheap, in fact,
+that poor people buy them to use as woodsheds and chicken-coops.
+
+One of these cars will make an ideal cabin for a house-boat, and can be
+adapted for that purpose with little or no alterations. All it needs is
+a good flat-boat to rest in, and you have a palatial house-boat.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[A] See p. 10.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+A CHEAP AND SPEEDY MOTOR-BOAT
+
+    How To Build the Jackson Glider--A Very Simple Form of
+    Motor-Boat, Which Will Hold Its Own in Speed With Even
+    Expensive Boats of Double Horse-Power
+
+
+THIS boat is intended to slide over the top of the water and not
+through it, consequently it is built in the form of a flat-bottom scow.
+Order your wood dressed on both sides, otherwise it will come with one
+side rough. For the side-boards we need two pine, or cedar boards, to
+measure, when trimmed, 14 feet (Fig. 228), and to be 16 or 18 inches
+wide.
+
+
+The Stern-Board
+
+when trimmed, will be 2½ feet long by 1 foot, 8½ inches wide. It may
+even be a little wider, because the protruding part can be planed down
+after the boat is built (Fig. 229).
+
+To make the bow measure from the point E (Fig. 228) 1 foot 8½ inches
+and mark the point C. Measure along the same line 13½ inches and mark
+the point D. Next measure from B down along the edge of the boat one
+inch and mark the point F. Again measure down from B, 5¾ inches and
+mark the point G. With a carpenter's pencil draw the lines F D and G C
+and saw these pieces off along the dotted line (Fig. 232). The bow can
+then be rounded at the points A and B with a sharp knife or jackplane.
+
+To get the proper slant on the stern, measure from H 4½ inches to L and
+saw off the triangle LHK. Make the other side board an exact duplicate
+of the first one, as in Fig. 228. Next set these two boards on edge,
+like sledge runners (Fig. 230), and let them be 2 feet, 6 inches apart
+(the boat will be safer if made six inches wider, and its speed will
+be almost as great), which can be tested by fitting the stern-boards
+between them before nailing the temporary boards on, which are to hold
+them in place (Fig. 230). Do not drive the nails home, but leave the
+heads protruding on all temporary braces, so that they may be easily
+removed when necessary.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 228.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 229.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 230.--Parts of motor-boat.]
+
+Now turn the boat bottom side up and nail the bottom on, as already
+described in previous chapters (Fig. 232). The bottom-boards are to
+be so planed upon their edges that they leave V-shaped grooves on the
+inside of the boat to be calked with candlewick and putty (Fig. 231).
+Next make a shaft-log by cutting a board in a triangular piece, as
+shown in Fig. 233, and nailing two other pieces of board on it, and
+leaving a space for the shaft-rod, over which is nailed a duplicate
+of the bottom-board, as shown in Fig. 234. Make the shaft-log of three
+thicknesses of 1-inch plank. To make it more secure there should be a
+board nailed on the inside bottom of the boat, as shown in Fig. 235 by
+the dotted lines.
+
+This board is put there to strengthen the bottom and allow us to cut a
+slot through for the admission of a shaft (Fig. 236) which is drawn on
+a scale shown below it. With the engine comes a stuffing box, through
+which the shaft passes and which prevents the water from coming up
+through the shaft-hole. The stuffing boxes, which are furnished to fit
+upon the inside of the boat, are expensive, but one to fit upon the
+stern of the shaft-log costs but little, and will answer all purposes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 231.]
+
+Of course, when attaching the shaft-log to the bottom, it must be in
+the exact centre of the boat. Find the centre of the boat at the bow
+and stern, mark the points and snap a chalk-line between them. Now
+place the shaft-log in position on this line and while holding that
+there firmly, mark around it with a carpenter's pencil. Next lay the
+shaft-log flat on its side with its edge along this line and with
+your pencil mark on the bottom of the boat the exact place where the
+shaft-hole must be cut to correspond with the one in the shaft-log.
+As may be seen by Fig. 236, the shaft runs through at an acute angle;
+hence the hole must be bored on a slant, or better still a slot cut
+through the floor long enough to allow for the slant.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 232.
+
+Fig. 233.
+
+Fig. 234.
+
+Fig. 239.
+
+Fig. 235.
+
+Fig. 236.
+
+Fig. 237.
+
+Fig. 238.
+
+Details of motor-boat.]
+
+The leak, which would naturally occur here is prevented by the stuffing
+box which is fastened on to the stern-end of the shaft-log where the
+latter protrudes for the propeller. To set the engine in the boat it is
+necessary to have an engine-bed. This is made of two pieces of board
+cut diagonally, upon which the engine rests.
+
+Fig. 237 shows a piece of 2-inch board and a method of sawing it to
+make the duplicate pieces to form the engine-bed. The dimension of
+these pieces must be obtained by measuring the width of the engine
+rest, which is to be installed. The angle, of course, must correspond
+to the angle of the shaft.
+
+Make your own rudder of any shape that suits your fancy, square or
+paddle-shaped, of a piece of galvanized iron or of wood, as shown in
+the diagram; or you can simply fasten the rudder-stem to the transom
+(stern-board), as is often done on row-boats and sail-boats. If you
+desire to make your rudder like the one shown here, use two pieces
+of galvanized pipes for your rudder-posts, one of which fits loosely
+inside of the other. Make the rudder-posts of what is known as 3/8-inch
+(which means literally a 3/8-inch opening) and for its jacket use a
+¾-inch pipe, or any two kinds of pipe, which will allow one to turn
+loosely inside the other. The smaller pipe can be bent easily by hand
+to suit your convenience, after it has been thrust through the larger
+pipe.
+
+First bend the lower end of the small pipe to fit your proposed rudder,
+then remove the larger pipe and flatten the lower end of the small one
+by beating it with the hammer. To bore the screw-holes in the flattened
+end you will use a small tool for drilling metal. One of these drills,
+which will fit any carpenter's brace, can be procured for the cost of a
+few cents.
+
+Drill holes through the flattened end of your pipe for the reception of
+your screws, which are to secure it to the rudder. It is now necessary
+to fasten a block of 2-inch plank securely to the bottom of the boat
+upon the inside where the rudder-post is to be set. This block might
+best be secured on with four bolts. A hole is then bored through the
+block and the bottom of the boat a trifle smaller than the largest
+piece of pipe; the latter is supposed to have screw threads upon its
+lower end (Fig. 238) so that it may be screwed into the wood, but
+before doing so coat the threads with white lead and also the inside of
+the hole in the block with the same substance.
+
+When the larger pipe is now screwed into the block until its lower end
+is flushed with the outside bottom of the boat, the white lead will not
+only make the process easier, but will tend to keep out the moisture
+and water from the joint.
+
+From the outside thrust the upper end of the small pipe through the
+hole in the bottom until it protrudes the proper distance above the
+larger pipe, and with the point of a nail scratch a mark on the surface
+of the small pipe where it issues from the big one. At this point drill
+a hole through the small pipe to admit a nail which is to act as a peg
+to keep the helm from sliding down and jamming in its bearings.
+
+If you choose, a small seat or deck may be inserted in the stern,
+through which the helm extends and which will help to steady it. The
+top of the helm, or protruding ends of the small pipe may now be bent
+over toward the bow, as shown in the diagram, and by holding some hard
+substance under it, the end may be flattened with a hammer and two
+holes drilled through the flattened end for the rudder-line, as in Fig.
+239. These lines work the rudder and extend on each side of the boat
+through some clothes-lines pulleys, as shown in Fig. 239.
+
+If you slice off the ring from a common rubber hose and slip it
+over the inside pipe before you fasten it in place, it will prevent
+the water from spurting up through the rudder pipe when the boat is
+speeding.
+
+Any boat will leak if not carefully built and the simplest kind of a
+craft carefully put together is as water-tight as the most finished and
+expensive boat.
+
+For a gasoline tank any good galvanized iron vessel will answer if
+it holds five gallons or more of gasoline. It can be placed in the
+bow on a rest made for it. Of course the bottom of the tank must be
+on a level or higher than the carburetor of the engine; the tank is
+connected by a small copper, or block-tin pipe, which you procure with
+the engine.
+
+This boat, if built according to plans, should cost ten dollars or
+less, not counting the cost of the engine. The cost of the latter will
+vary according to the style of one you use, and whether you get it
+first or second hand.
+
+A ten-horse power engine drove a boat of this kind at the rate of
+eighteen miles an hour.
+
+For beginners, this is as far as it is safe to go in boat-building, but
+thus far any one with a rudimentary knowledge of the use of tools can
+go, and, if one has followed the book through from chapter to chapter
+he should be a good boat-builder at
+
+    The End
+
+
+
+
+THE BEARD BOOKS FOR BOYS
+
+_By_ DAN C. BEARD
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+THE AMERICAN BOY'S HANDY BOOK. Or, What to Do and How to Do It
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    Gives sports adapted to all seasons of the year, tells
+    boys how to make all kinds of things--boats, traps,
+    toys, puzzles, aquariums, fishing-tackle; how to
+    tie knots, splice ropes, to make bird calls, sleds,
+    blow-guns, balloons; how to rear wild birds, to train
+    dogs, and do the thousand and one things that boys take
+    delight in.
+
+
+THE OUTDOOR HANDY BOOK. For Playground, Field, and Forest
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    "How to play all sorts of games with marbles, how to
+    make and spin more kinds of tops than most boys ever
+    heard of, how to make the latest things in plain and
+    fancy kites, where to dig bait and how to fish, all
+    about boats and sailing, and a host of other things . . .
+    an unmixed delight to any boy."--_New York Tribune._
+
+
+THE FIELD AND FOREST HANDY BOOK. Or, New Ideas for Out of Doors
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    "Instructions as to ways to build boats and
+    fire-engines, make aquariums, rafts, and sleds, to
+    camp in a back-yard, etc. No better book of the kind
+    exists."--_Chicago Record-Herald._
+
+
+SHELTERS, SHACKS, AND SHANTIES
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    Easily workable directions, accompanied by very full
+    illustration, for over fifty shelters, shacks, and
+    shanties.
+
+
+BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING. A Handy Book for Beginners
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    All that Dan Beard knows and has written about the
+    building of every simple kind of boat, from a raft to a
+    cheap motor-boat, is brought together in this book.
+
+
+THE JACK OF ALL TRADES. Or, New Ideas for American Boys
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    "This book is a capital one to give any boy for a
+    present at Christmas, on a birthday, or indeed at any
+    time."--_The Outlook._
+
+
+THE BOY PIONEERS. Sons of Daniel Boone
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    "How to become a member of the 'Sons of Daniel
+    Boone' and take part in all the old pioneer
+    games, and many other things in which boys are
+    interested."--_Philadelphia Press._
+
+
+THE BLACK WOLF-PACK
+
+    "A genuine thriller of mystery and red-blooded
+    conflicts, well calculated to hold the mind and the
+    heart of its boy and, for that matter, its adult
+    reader."--_Philadelphia North American._
+
+
+
+
+THE BEARD BOOKS FOR GIRLS
+
+_By_ LINA BEARD _and_ ADELIA B. BEARD
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+THE AMERICAN GIRL'S HANDY BOOK. How to Amuse Yourself and Others
+
+    _With nearly 500 illustrations_
+
+    "It is a treasure which, once possessed, no practical
+    girl would willingly part with."--GRACE GREENWOOD.
+
+
+THINGS WORTH DOING AND HOW TO DO THEM
+
+    _With some 600 drawings by the authors that show exactly how they
+    should be done_
+
+    "The book will tell you how to do nearly anything that
+    any live girl really wants to do."--_The World To-day._
+
+
+HANDICRAFT AND RECREATION FOR GIRLS
+
+    _With over 700 illustrations by the authors_
+
+    "It teaches how to make serviceable and useful things
+    of all kinds out of every kind of material. It also
+    tells how to play and how to make things to play
+    with."--_Chicago Evening Post._
+
+
+WHAT A GIRL CAN MAKE AND DO. New Ideas for Work and Play
+
+    _With more than 300 illustrations by the authors_
+
+    "It would be a dull girl who could not make herself
+    busy and happy following its precepts. . . . A most
+    inspiring book for an active-minded girl."--_Chicago
+    Record-Herald._
+
+ON THE TRAIL
+
+    _Illustrated by the authors_
+
+    This volume tells how a girl can live outdoors, camping
+    in the woods, and learning to know its wild inhabitants.
+
+
+MOTHER NATURE'S TOY SHOP
+
+    _Profusely illustrated by the authors_
+
+    How children can make toys easily and economically from
+    wild flowers, grasses, green leaves, seed-vessels,
+    fruits, etc.
+
+
+LITTLE FOLKS' HANDY BOOK
+
+    _With many illustrations_
+
+    Contains a wealth of devices for entertaining children
+    by means of paper building-cards, wooden berry-baskets,
+    straw and paper furniture, paper jewelry, etc.
+
+    CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Punctuation errors were corrected.
+
+Inconsistent hyphenation was retained.
+
+Page 42, "staps" changed to "straps" (straps with your hand)
+
+Page 58, "mechancial" changed to "mechanical" (with mechanical aid)
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING***
+
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+<body>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Boat-Building and Boating, by Daniel Carter
+Beard, Illustrated by Daniel Carter Beard</h1>
+<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a
+href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p>
+<p>Title: Boat-Building and Boating</p>
+<p>Author: Daniel Carter Beard</p>
+<p>Release Date: November 18, 2013  [eBook #44228]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Emmy, Henry Gardiner,<br />
+    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br />
+    from page images generously made available by<br />
+    Internet Archive<br />
+    (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      <a href="https://archive.org/details/boatbuildingboat00bear">
+      https://archive.org/details/boatbuildingboat00bear</a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="380" height="600" alt="cover" />
+</div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='maintitle'>Boat-Building<br />
+and Boating</div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_005.png" width="600" height="459" alt="boys on a boat (sort of like a small houseboat)" />
+<div class="caption">Bound for a good time</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class='bbox'>
+<h1>Boat-Building<br />
+and Boating</h1>
+
+<div class='center'>
+By<br />
+<span class='author'>D. C. BEARD</span><br />
+<br /><br /><br />
+With Many Illustrations<br />
+by the Author<br />
+<br /><br /><br /><br />
+NEW YORK<br />
+Charles Scribner's Sons<br />
+1931<br />
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class='copyright'>
+<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1911, by</span><br />
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS<br />
+&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;<br />
+Printed in the United States of America<br />
+
+
+&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;<br />
+SPECIAL NOTICE</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot'><small>All the material in this book, both text and cuts, is original with the
+author and invented by him; and warning is hereby given that the
+unauthorized printing of any portion of the text and the reproduction
+of any of the illustrations or diagrams are expressly forbidden.</small><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 179px;">
+<img src="images/i_007.png" width="179" height="200" alt="embelem: The Scribner Press" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+AFFECTIONATELY<br />
+DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF<br />
+TOM AND HI<br />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">This</span> is not a book for yacht-builders, but it is intended for
+beginners in the art of boat-building, for boys and men who wish
+to make something with which they may navigate the waters
+of ponds, lakes, or streams. It begins with the most primitive
+crafts composed of slabs or logs and works up to scows, house-boats,
+skiffs, canoes and simple forms of sailing craft, a motor-boat,
+and there it stops. There are so many books and magazines
+devoted to the higher arts of ship-building for the graduates
+to use, besides the many manufacturing houses which furnish all
+the parts of a sail-boat, yacht, or motor-boat for the ambitious
+boat-builder to put together himself, that it is unnecessary for the
+author to invade that territory.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the designs in this book have appeared in magazines
+to which the author contributed, or in his own books on general
+subjects, and all these have been successfully built by hundreds of
+boys and men.</p>
+
+<p>Many of them are the author's own inventions, and the others
+are his own adaptations of well-known and long-tried models.
+In writing and collecting this material for boat-builders from his
+other works and placing them in one volume, the author feels that
+he is fulfilling the wishes of many of his old readers and offering a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>
+useful book to a large audience of new recruits to the army of
+those who believe in the good old American doctrine of: "If
+you want a thing done, do it yourself." And by doing it yourself
+you not only add to your skill and resourcefulness, but, what
+is even more important, you develop your own self-reliance and
+manhood.</p>
+
+<p>No one man can think of everything connected with any one
+subject, and the author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness
+to several sportsmen friends, especially to his camp-mate, Mr.
+F. K. Vreeland, and his young friend, Mr. Samuel Jackson, for
+suggestions of great value to both writer and reader.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+<span class="smcap">Dan Beard.</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<p><small><span class="smcap">Flushing, L. I.</span>, <i>Sept., 1911.</i></small><br /></p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="contents">
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='2'><small>CHAPTER</small></td>
+<td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">I.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">How to Cross a Stream on a Log</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">II.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">Home-Made Boats</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">III.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Raft that Will Sail</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">IV.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">Canoes</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">V.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">Canoes and Boating Stunts</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VI.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Birch-Bark</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VII.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">How to Build a Paddling Dory</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VIII.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Landlubber's Chapter</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">IX.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">How to Rig and Sail Small Boats</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">X.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">More Rigs of All Kinds for Small Boats</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XI.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">Knots, Bends, and Hitches</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XII.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">How to Build a Cheap Boat</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XIII.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">A "Rough-and-Ready" Boat</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XIV.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">How to Build Cheap and Substantial House-Boats</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XV.</td>
+<td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Cheap and Speedy Motor-Boat</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Boat-Building and Boating</h2>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_015.png" width="600" height="394" alt="boys on boat" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_1"></a>Fig. 1.&mdash;The logomaran.</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>CHAPTER I<br />
+<small>HOW TO CROSS A STREAM ON A LOG</small></h2>
+
+<h3>How to Build a Logomaran</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">There</span> is a widespread notion that all wood will float on water,
+and this idea often leads to laughable errors. I know a lot of
+young backwoods farmers who launched a raft of green oak logs,
+and were as much astonished to see their craft settle quietly to
+the bottom of the lake as they would have been to see the leaden
+sinkers of their fish-lines dance lightly on the surface of the waves.
+The young fellows used a day's time to discover what they might
+have learned in a few moments by watching the chips sink when
+they struck the water as they flew from the skilful blows of their
+axes.</p>
+
+<p>The stream which cuts your trail is not always provided with
+bridges of fallen trees. It may be a river too deep to ford and
+too wide to be bridged by a chance log. Of course it is a simple
+matter to swim, but the weather may be cold and the water still
+colder; besides this, you will probably be encumbered with a
+lot of camp equipage&mdash;your gun, rod, and camera&mdash;none of which
+will be improved by a plunge in the water. Or it may so happen
+that you are on the shores of a lake unsupplied with boats,
+and you have good reasons for supposing that big fish lurk in
+some particular spot out of reach from the shore. A thousand
+and one emergencies may arise when a craft of some kind will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+be not only a great convenience, but almost a necessity. Under
+these circumstances</p>
+
+
+<h3>A Logomaran</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>may be constructed in a very short time which can bear you and
+your pack safely to the desired goal (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>).</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 101px;">
+<img src="images/i_017a.png" width="101" height="259" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_2"></a>Fig. 2.&mdash;The notch.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 347px;">
+<img src="images/i_017b.png" width="347" height="464" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_3"></a>Fig. 3.&mdash;Top view of logomaran.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Rocky, Cascade, and Selkirk Mountains, the lakes
+and streams have their shores plentifully supplied with "whim
+sticks," logs of fine dry timber, which the freshets have brought
+down from the mountain sides and which the rocks and surging
+torrents have denuded of bark. These whim sticks are of all
+sizes, and as sound and perfect as kiln-dried logs. Even in the
+mountains of Pennsylvania, where the lumberman's axe years ago
+laid waste the primeval forest, where the saw-mills have devoured
+the second growth, the tie-hunter the third growth, the excelsior-mills
+and birch-beer factories the saplings, I still find good sound<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+white pine-log whim sticks strewn along the shores of the lakes
+and streams, timber which is suitable for temporary rafts and
+logomarans.</p>
+
+<p>In the North Woods, where in many localities the original
+forest is untouched by the devouring pulp-mills, suitable timber
+is not difficult to find; so let the green wood stand and select
+a log of dry wood from the shore where the floods or ice have
+deposited it. Cut it into a convenient length, and with a lever
+made of a good stout sapling, and a fulcrum of a stone or chunk
+of wood, pry the log from its resting-place and roll it into the shallow
+water. Notch the log on the upper side, as shown by <a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2</a>,
+making a notch near each end for the cross-pieces.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Illustrations">
+<tr><td align="left"><a id="Fig_4"></a><img src="images/i_018a.png" width="336" height="147" alt="drawing" /></td>
+<td align="left" colspan='2' valign='bottom'><a id="Fig_5"></a><a id="Fig_6"></a><img src="images/i_018b.png" width="335" height="83" alt="drawings" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><div class="caption">Fig. 4.&mdash;Flattened joint.</div></td>
+<td align="center"><div class="caption">Fig. 5.</div></td>
+<td align="center"><div class="caption">Fig. 6.</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center" colspan='2'><div class="caption">Matched joints.</div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The two side floats may be made of pieces split, by the aid of
+wooden wedges, from a large log, or composed of small whim
+sticks, as shown by <a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The floats, as may be seen by reference to <a href="#Fig_1">Figs. 1</a> and <a href="#Fig_3">3</a>, are
+shorter than the middle log.</p>
+
+<p>It is impracticable to give dimensions, for the reason that they
+are relative; the length of the middle log depends, to some extent,
+upon its diameter, it being evident that a thick log will support
+more than a thin one of the same length; consequently if your
+log is of small diameter, it must be longer, in order to support
+your weight, than will be necessary for a thicker piece of timber.
+The point to remember is to select a log which will support you and
+your pack, and then attach two side floats to balance your craft and
+prevent it from rolling over and dumping its load in the water.</p>
+
+<p>An ordinary single shell-boat without a passenger will upset,
+but when the oarsman takes his seat and grasps his long spoon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+oars, the sweeps, resting on the water, balance the cranky craft,
+and it cannot upset as long as the oars are kept there. This is
+the principle of the logomaran, as well as that of the common catamaran.
+The cross-pieces should be only thick enough to be secure
+and long enough to prevent the log from wabbling and wetting
+your feet more than is necessary.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 335px;">
+<img src="images/i_019a.png" width="335" height="320" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_7"></a>Fig. 7.&mdash;The saw-buck crib.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 348px;">
+<img src="images/i_019b.png" width="348" height="422" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_8"></a>Fig. 8.&mdash;The staked crib.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>If You Have an Auger and No Nails</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>the craft may be fastened together with wooden pegs cut somewhat
+larger than the holes bored to receive them, and driven in
+with blows from your axe.</div>
+
+<p>If you have long nails or spikes the problem is a simple one;
+but if you have neither auger, nails, nor spikes you must bind the
+joints with rope or hempen twine.</p>
+
+<p>If you have neither nails, auger, nor rope, a good substitute
+for the latter can be made from the long,</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Fibrous Inner Bark</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>of a dead or partly burned tree. For experiment I took some
+of the inner bark of a chestnut-tree which had been killed by
+fire and twisted it into a rope the size of a clothes-line, then I
+allowed two strong men to have a tug-of-war with it, and the
+improvised rope was stronger than the men.</div>
+
+
+<h3>How to Make a Fibre Rope</h3>
+
+<p>Take one end of a long, loose strand of fibres, give the other
+end to another person, and let both twine the ends between the
+fingers until the material is well twisted throughout its entire
+length; then bring the two ends together, and two sides of the
+loop thus made will twist themselves into a cord or rope half the
+length of the original strand.</p>
+
+<p>If you nail or peg the parts, use your axe to flatten the joints
+by striking off a chip, as in <a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4</a>.</p>
+
+<p>If you must lash the joints together, cut them with log-cabin
+notches, as in <a href="#Fig_5">Figs. 5</a> and <a href="#Fig_6">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p>If you have baggage to transport, make</p>
+
+
+<h3>A Dunnage Crib</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>by driving four stakes in cuts made near the end of the centre
+log and binding them with rope or fibre (<a href="#Fig_7">Figs. 7</a> and <a href="#Fig_8">8</a>), or by
+working green twigs basket-fashion around them, or make the
+rack saw-buck fashion, as shown by <a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>, and this will keep
+your things above water.</div>
+
+<p>A couple of cleats nailed on each side of the log will be of
+great assistance and lessen the danger and insecurity of the footing.</p>
+
+<p>A skilfully made logomaran will enable you to cross any
+stream with a moderate current and any small lake in moderate
+weather. It is not an especially dry craft, but it won't sink or
+upset, and will take one but a short time to knock it together.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II<br />
+<small>HOME-MADE BOATS</small></h2>
+
+
+
+<div class='summary2'>Birth of the "Man-Friday" Catamaran&mdash;The Crusoe Raft and
+Chump Rafts</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Not</span> so very many years ago I remember visiting, in company
+with my cousin Tom, a small lake at the headwaters of the
+Miami. High and precipitous cliffs surround the little body of
+water. So steep were the great weather-beaten rocks that it
+was only where the stream came tumbling down past an old
+mill that an accessible path then existed. Down that path Tom
+and I scrambled, for we knew that large bass lurked in the deep,
+black holes among the rocks.</p>
+
+<p>We had no jointed split-bamboo rods nor fancy tackle, but
+the fish there in those days were not particular and seldom
+hesitated to bite at an angle-worm or grasshopper though the
+hook upon which the bait squirmed was suspended by a coarse
+line from a freshly cut hickory sapling.</p>
+
+<p>Even now I feel the thrill of excitement and expectancy as,
+in imagination, my pole is bent nearly double by the frantic struggles
+of those "gamy" black bass. After spending the morning
+fishing we built a fire upon a short stretch of sandy beach, and
+cleaning our fish and washing them in the spring close at hand,
+we put them among the embers to cook.</p>
+
+<p>While the fire was getting our dinner ready for us we threw
+off our clothes and plunged into the cool waters of the lake. Inexpert
+swimmers as we were at that time, the opposite shore,
+though apparently only a stone's throw distant, was too far off
+for us to reach by swimming. Many a longing and curious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+glance we cast toward it, however, and strong was the temptation
+that beset us to try the unknown depths intervening. A
+pair of brown ears appeared above the ferns near the water's
+edge, and a fox peeped at us; squirrels ran about the fallen
+trunks of trees or scampered up the rocks as saucily as though
+they understood that we could not swim well enough to reach
+their side of the lake; and high up the face of the cliff was a dark
+spot which we almost knew to be the entrance to some mysterious
+cavern.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 678px;">
+<img src="images/i_022.png" width="678" height="305" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_8_5"></a>Fig. 8½.&mdash;The Man-Friday.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>How we longed for a boat! But not even a raft nor a dugout
+could be seen anywhere upon the glassy surface of the water
+or along its rocky border. We nevertheless determined to explore
+the lake next day, even if we should have to paddle astride
+of a log.</p>
+
+<p>The first rays of the morning sun had not reached the dark
+waters before my companion and I were hard at work, with axe
+and hatchet, chopping in twain a long log we had discovered
+near the mill. We had at first intended to build a raft; but
+gradually we evolved a sort of catamaran. The two pieces of
+log we sharpened at the ends for the bow; then we rolled the
+logs down upon the beach, and while I went into the thicket to
+chop down some saplings my companion borrowed an auger<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+from the miller. We next placed the logs about three feet
+apart, and marking the points where we intended to put the
+cross-pieces, we cut notches there; then we placed the saplings
+across, fitting them into these notches. To hold them securely
+we bored holes down through the sapling cross-pieces into the
+logs; with the hatchet we hammered wooden pegs into these
+holes. For the seat we used the half of a section of log, the flat
+side fitting into places cut for that purpose. All that remained
+to be done now was to make a seat in the stern and a pair of
+rowlocks. At a proper distance from the oarsman's seat we
+bored two holes for a couple of forked sticks, which answered
+admirably for rowlocks; across the stern we fastened another
+piece of log similar to that used for the oarsman's seat (<a href="#Fig_8_5">Fig. 8½</a>).
+With the help of a man from the mill our craft was launched;
+and with a pair of oars made of old pine boards we rowed off,
+leaving the miller waving his hat.</p>
+
+<p>Our catamaran was not so light as a row-boat, but it floated,
+and we could propel it with the oars, and, best of all, it was our
+own invention and made with our own hands. We called it a
+"Man-Friday," and by its means we explored every nook in
+the length and breadth of the lake; and ever afterward when
+we wanted a boat we knew a simple and inexpensive way to
+make one&mdash;and a safe one, too.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Crusoe Raft</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is another rustic craft, but it is of more ambitious dimensions
+than the "Man-Friday." Instead of being able to float only
+one or two passengers, the "Crusoe," if properly built, ought
+to accommodate a considerable party of raftsmen. Of course
+the purpose for which the raft is to be used, and the number of
+the crew that is expected to man it, must be taken into consideration
+when deciding upon the dimensions of the proposed craft.</div>
+
+<p>All the tools that are necessary for the construction of a good
+stout raft are an axe, an auger, and a hatchet, with some strong
+arms to wield them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The building material can be gathered from any driftwood
+heap on lake or stream.</p>
+
+<p>For a moderate-sized raft collect six or seven logs, the longest
+not being over sixteen feet in length nor more than a foot in
+diameter; the logs must be tolerably straight. Pick out the
+longest and biggest for the centre, sharpen one end, roll the
+log into the water, and there secure it.</p>
+
+<p>Select two logs as nearly alike as possible, to lie one at each
+side of the centre log. Measure the centre log, and make the
+point of each side log, not at its own centre, but at that side of
+it which will lie against the middle log, so that this side point
+shall terminate where the pointing of the middle log begins (see
+<a href="#Fig_9">Fig. 9</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 513px;">
+<img src="images/i_024.png" width="513" height="249" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_9"></a>Fig. 9.&mdash;Plan of Crusoe raft.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>After all the logs needed have been trimmed and sharpened
+in the manner just described, roll them into the water and arrange
+them in order (<a href="#Fig_9">Fig. 9</a>). Fasten them together with "cross-strips,"
+boring holes through the strips to correspond with holes
+bored into the logs lying beneath, and through these holes drive
+wooden pegs. The pegs should be a trifle larger than the holes;
+the water will cause the pegs to swell, and they will hold much
+more firmly than iron nails.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 521px;"><a id="Fig_10"></a>
+<img src="images/i_025a.png" width="521" height="336" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 10.&mdash;Skeleton of Crusoe raft.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 509px;"><a id="Fig_11"></a>
+<img src="images/i_025b.png" width="509" height="344" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 11.&mdash;Crusoe with cabin covered.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The skeleton of the cabin can be made of saplings; such as
+are used for hoop-poles are the best.</p>
+
+<p>These are each bent into an arch, and the ends are thrust
+into holes bored for that purpose. Over this hooping a piece of
+canvas is stretched, after the manner of old-fashioned country
+wagons (<a href="#Fig_10">Figs. 10</a> and <a href="#Fig_11">11</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Erect a "jack-staff," to be used as a flag-pole or a mast to
+rig a square sail on.</p>
+
+<p>A stout stick should be erected at the stern, and a similar
+one upon each side of the raft near the bow; these sticks, when
+their ends are made smaller, as shown in the illustration (<a href="#Fig_10">Fig.
+10</a>), serve as rowlocks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 522px;">
+<img src="images/i_026.png" width="522" height="121" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_12"></a>Fig. 12.&mdash;Sweeps.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For oars use "sweeps"&mdash;long poles, each with a piece of board
+for a blade fastened at one end (<a href="#Fig_12">Fig. 12</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Holes must be bored through the poles of the sweeps about
+three feet from the handle, to slip over the pegs used as rowlocks,
+as described above. These pegs should be high enough
+to allow the oarsman to stand while using the sweeps.</p>
+
+<p>A flat stone or earth box placed at the bow will serve as a fireplace.</p>
+
+<p>If the cracks between the logs under the cabin are filled up
+to prevent the water splashing through, and the cabin is floored
+with cross-sticks, a most comfortable bed at night can be made of
+hay, by heaping it under the canvas cover in sufficient quantities.</p>
+
+<p>The Crusoe raft has this great advantage over all boats: you
+may take a long trip down the river, allowing the current to bear
+you along, using the sweeps only to assist the man at the helm
+(rear sweep); then, after your excursion is finished you may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+abandon your raft and return by steam-boat or train. A very
+useful thing to the swimmers, when they are skylarking in the
+water, is</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Chump's Raft</h3>
+
+<p>Its construction is simple. Four boards, each about six feet
+long, are nailed together in the form of a square, with the ends
+of the boards protruding, like the figure drawn upon a school-boy's
+slate for the game of "Tit, tat, toe" (<a href="#Fig_13">Fig. 13</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 266px;">
+<img src="images/i_027.png" width="266" height="254" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_13"></a>Fig. 13.&mdash;The chump's raft.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>All nail-points must be knocked off and the heads hammered
+home, to prevent serious scratches and wounds on the bather's
+body when he clambers over the raft or slips off in an attempt to
+do so (<a href="#Fig_14">Fig. 14</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Beginners get in the middle hole, and there, with a support
+within reach all around them, they can venture with comparative
+safety in deep water.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 436px;"><a id="Fig_14"></a>
+<img src="images/i_028.png" width="436" height="448" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 14.&mdash;A beginner in a chump's raft.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The raft, which I built as a model fifteen years ago, is still in
+use at my summer camp, where scores of young people have
+used it with a success proved by their present skill as swimmers.
+But many camps are located in a section of the country<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+where boards are as scarce as boarding-houses, but where timber,
+in its rough state, exists in abundance. The campers in such
+locations can make</p>
+
+
+<h3>A Chump's Raft of Logs</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 517px;"><a id="Fig_15"></a>
+<img src="images/i_029a.png" width="517" height="261" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 15.&mdash;Looking down on a chump's raft in motion.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a id="Fig_16"></a>
+<img src="images/i_029b.png" width="550" height="169" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 16.&mdash;Side view of chump's log raft.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such a float consists of two dried logs fastened together at each
+end by cross-slabs, so as to form a rude catamaran. These rafts
+can be towed through deep water by a canoe or row-boat, with
+the tenderfoot securely swung in a sling between the logs, where
+he may practice the hand-and-foot movement with a sense of
+security which only the certainty that he is surrounded by a
+wooden life-preserver will give him. <a href="#Fig_15">Fig. 15</a> shows a top view
+of the new chump's raft. In <a href="#Fig_16">Fig. 16</a> the two logs are connected
+fore and aft by cross-slabs; two more upright slabs are nailed
+securely to the side of the logs; notches having been cut in the
+top ends of these slabs, a stout cross-piece is securely nailed to
+them and the towel or rope sling suspended from the middle of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+the cross-piece. In regard to the dimensions of the raft it is only
+necessary to say that it should be wide and long enough to allow
+free movement of the arms and legs of the pupil who is suspended
+between the logs. In almost every wilderness stream there can
+be found piles of driftwood on the shore where one may select
+good, dried, well-seasoned pine or spruce logs from which to
+make rafts. If such heaps of driftwood are not within reach, look
+for some standing dead timber and select that which is of sufficient
+dimensions to support a swimmer, and be careful that it is
+not hollow or rotten in the core. Rotten wood will soon become
+water-logged and heavy. <a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a> shows the position of the
+swimmer supported by the chump's sling. If your raft has a
+tendency to work so that one log pulls ahead of the other, it may
+be braced by cross-pieces, such as are shown at J and K in <a href="#Fig_18">Fig.
+18</a>. This figure also shows supports for a suspension pole made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+by nailing two sticks to each side and allowing the ends to cross
+so as to form a crotch in which the supporting rod rests and to
+which it is securely fastened by nails, or by being bound there by
+a piece of rope, as in A, <a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>. B, <a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>, shows the crotch
+made by resting L in a fork on the M stick and then nailing or
+binding it in place. C, <a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>, shows the two sticks, L and M,
+joined by notches cut log-cabin fashion before they are nailed
+in place.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 446px;"><a id="Fig_17"></a>
+<img src="images/i_030a.png" width="446" height="251" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 17.&mdash;Learning to swim by aid of a chump sling.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 201px;"><a id="Fig_19"></a>
+<img src="images/i_030a2.png" width="201" height="265" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 19.&mdash;Details of saw-buck
+supports.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although many summers have rolled around since the author
+first made his advent on this beautiful earth, he still feels the call
+of the bathing pool, the charm of the spring-board, almost as
+keenly as he did when he was wont to swim in Blue Hole at
+Yellow Springs, Ohio, or dive from the log rafts into the Ohio
+River, or slide down the "slippery" made in the steep muddy
+banks of the Licking River, Kentucky.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_18"></a>
+<img src="images/i_030b.png" width="600" height="232" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 18.&mdash;Another way to rig a chump.</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III<br />
+<small>A RAFT THAT WILL SAIL</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary1'>The Raft is Just the Thing for Camp Life&mdash;Pleasurable Occupation
+for a Camping Party Where Wood is Plentiful&mdash;You
+Will Need Axes and Hatchets and a Few Other Civilized
+Implements</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">First</span> we will select two pine logs of equal length, and, while
+the water is heating for our coffee, we will sharpen the butt, or
+larger end, of the logs on one side with the axe, making a "chisel
+edge," as shown in <a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20</a>. This gives us an appetite for breakfast
+and makes the big fish in the lake, as they jump above the
+water, cast anxious looks toward our camp.</p>
+
+<p>Breakfast finished, we will cut some cross-pieces to join our
+two logs together, and at equal distances apart we will bore holes
+through the cross-pieces for peg-holes (<a href="#Fig_21">Figs. 21</a>, <a href="#Fig_22">22</a>, and <a href="#Fig_23">23</a>).
+While one of the party is fashioning a number of pegs, each with
+a groove in one side, like those shown in <a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>, the others will
+roll the logs into the water and secure them in a shallow spot.</p>
+
+<p>Shoes and stockings must be removed, for most of the work
+is now to be done in the water. Of course, it would be much
+easier done on land, but the raft will be very heavy and could
+never be launched unless under the most favorable circumstances.
+It is better to build the craft in the element which is to be its home.</p>
+
+<p>Cut two long saplings for braces, and after separating the logs
+the proper distance for your cross-pieces to fit, nail your braces
+in position, as represented by <a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20</a>.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;"><a id="Fig_20"></a><a id="Fig_21"></a><a id="Fig_22"></a><a id="Fig_23"></a><a id="Fig_24"></a><a id="Fig_25"></a><a id="Fig_26"></a><a id="Fig_27"></a><a id="Fig_28"></a>
+<img src="images/i_032.png" width="640" height="705" alt="many drawings" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Parts of Man-Friday sailing-raft.</span><br />20.&mdash;Logs in place with braces. Figs. 21, 22, and 23.&mdash;Struts. Fig. 24.&mdash;Pegs. Fig. 25.&mdash;Raft
+with middle and stern strut in place. Fig. 26.&mdash;Springs for dry deck. Fig. 27.&mdash;Dry deck.
+Fig. 28.&mdash;Dry deck in place</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>This holds the logs steady, and we may now lay the two cross-pieces
+in position, and mark the points on the logs carefully<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a><br /><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+where the holes are to be bored to correspond with the ones in
+the cross-pieces. Bore the holes in one log first; make the holes
+deep enough and then fill them with water, after which drive
+the pegs through the ends of the cross-pieces and into the log.
+The grooves in the pegs (<a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>) will allow the water to escape
+from the holes and the water will cause the peg to swell and
+tighten its hold on the log and cross-pieces.</p>
+
+<p>Now bore holes in the other log under those in the cross-pieces
+and fill them with water before driving the pegs home, as you
+did in the first instance. <a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a> is a Man-Friday raft.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Deck</h3>
+
+<p>Before placing the bow in position we must go ashore and
+make a dry deck. Selecting for the springs two long green ash
+or hickory poles, trim the ends off flat on one side, as shown by
+<a href="#Fig_26">Fig. 26</a>. This flat side is the bottom, so roll them over, with the
+flat side toward the ground, and if you can find no planks or
+barrel staves for a deck, split in half a number of small logs and
+peg or nail them on the top side of the springs, as in <a href="#Fig_27">Fig. 27</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Now all hands must turn out and carry the deck down to the
+raft and place it in position, with the flattened sides of the springs
+resting on top of the logs at the bow. Prop it up in this position,
+and then bore holes through the springs into the logs and peg
+the springs down. Over the flat ends place the heavy bow cross-piece,
+bore the peg-holes, and fasten it in position (<a href="#Fig_28">Fig. 28</a>).</p>
+
+<p>In the centre of the bow cross-piece bore several holes close
+together and chip out the wood between to make a hole, as square
+a one as possible, for the mast to fit or "step" in. With the wood
+from a packing-box or a slab from a log make the bench for the
+mast.</p>
+
+<p>Bore a hole through the bench a trifle astern of the step, or
+hole, for the mast below. It will cause the mast to "rake" a
+little "aft." You have done a big day's work, but a couple of
+days ought to be sufficient time to finish the craft.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 526px;"><a id="Fig_29"></a>
+<img src="images/i_034.png" width="526" height="624" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 29.&mdash;Sail for Man-Friday.</div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>The Sail</h3>
+
+
+
+<p>Turn over the raw edges of the old sail-cloth and stitch them
+down, as in <a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29</a>&mdash;that is, if you have the needle and thread
+for the purpose; if not, trim the cloth to the proper form and two
+inches from the luff (the side next to the mast). Cut a number
+of holes; these should be stitched like button-holes, if possible,
+but if the sail-cloth is tough and we have no needle, we shall have
+to let them go unstitched. A small loop of rope must be sewed
+or fastened in some other manner very securely to each corner of
+the sail.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>From spruce pine or an old fishing-pole make a sprit, and of a
+good, straight piece of pine manufacture your mast somewhat
+longer than the luff of the sail (<a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Through the eyelets lace the luff of the sail to the mast, so that
+its lower edge will clear the dry deck by about a foot.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_30"></a>
+<img src="images/i_035.png" width="600" height="502" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 30.&mdash;Scudding before the wind.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Through the hole made for the purpose in the bench (<a href="#Fig_30">Fig. 30</a>)
+thrust the mast into the step, or socket, that we have cut in the
+bow cross-piece. Tie to the loop at the bottom corner of the sail
+a strong line about twelve feet long for a sheet with which to
+control the sail.</p>
+
+<p>Trim the upper end of the sprit to fit in the loop at the upper
+outer corner of the sail, and make a notch in the lower end to fit
+in the loop of the line called the "snotter."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now, as you can readily see, when the sprit is pushed diagonally
+upward the sail is spread; to hold it in place make a loop of line
+for a "snotter" and attach the loop to the mast, as in Figs. 29
+and 30. Fit the loop in the notch in the lower end of the sprit,
+and the sail is set.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Keelig</h3>
+
+<p>We need anchors, one for the bow and one for the stern. It
+takes little time to make them, as you only need a forked stick,
+a stone, and a piece of plank, or, better still, a barrel stave.
+Figs. 35 to 39 show how this is made. Down East the fishermen
+use the "keelig" in preference to any other anchor.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a id="Fig_31"></a><a id="Fig_32"></a><a id="Fig_33"></a><a id="Fig_34"></a><a id="Fig_35"></a><a id="Fig_36"></a><a id="Fig_37"></a><a id="Fig_38"></a><a id="Fig_39"></a>
+<img src="images/i_036.png" width="550" height="451" alt="Figures 31-39" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>Make fast your lines to the "keelig" thus: Take the end of
+the rope in your right hand and the standing part (which is the
+part leading from the boat) in your left hand and form the loop
+(A, <a href="#Fig_31">Fig. 31</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Then with the left hand curve the cable from you, bringing
+the end through the loop, as in B, <a href="#Fig_32">Fig. 32</a>; then lead it around
+and down, as in C, <a href="#Fig_33">Fig. 33</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Draw it tight, as in D, <a href="#Fig_34">Fig. 34</a>, and you have the good, old-fashioned
+knot, called by sailors the "bow-line."</p>
+
+<p>To make it look neat and shipshape you may take a piece of
+string and bind the standing part to the shaft of your anchor or
+keelig&mdash;keelek&mdash;killick&mdash;killeck&mdash;kelleck&mdash;kellock&mdash;killock, etc.,
+as you may choose to spell it.</p>
+
+<p>A paddle to steer with and two pegs in the stern cross-piece
+to rest it in complete the craft; and now the big bass had better
+use due caution, because our lines will reach their haunts, and
+we are after them!</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV<br />
+<small>CANOES</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary1'>The Advantages of a Canoe&mdash;How to Make the Slab Canoe and
+the Dugout&mdash;How to Make a Siwash and a White Man's
+Dugout</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are many small freak crafts invented each year, but
+none of them has any probabilities of being popularly used as
+substitutes for the old models.</p>
+
+<p>Folding canoes, as a rule, are cranky, but the writer has found
+them most convenient when it was necessary to transport them
+long distances overland. They are not, however, the safest of
+crafts; necessarily they lack the buoyant wooden frame and lining
+of the ordinary canvas canoe, which enables it to float even when
+filled with water.</p>
+
+<p>The author owes his life to the floating properties of his canvas
+canoe. On one occasion when it upset in a driving easterly
+storm the wind was off shore, and any attempt upon the canoeist's
+part to swim toward shore would have caused him to have been
+suffocated by the tops of the waves which the wind cut off, driving
+the water with stinging force into his face so constantly that,
+in order to breathe at all, he had to face the other way. He was
+at length rescued by a steamer, losing nothing but the sails and
+his shoes. Nevertheless, the same storm which capsized his
+little craft upset several larger boats and tore the sails from
+others.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of a good canoe are many for the young navigators:
+they can launch their own craft, pick it up when occasion
+demands and carry it overland. It is safe in experienced hands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+in any weather which is fit for out-door amusement. When you
+are "paddling your own canoe" you are facing to the front and
+can see what is ahead of you, which is much safer and more
+pleasant than travelling backward, like a crawfish.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 506px;"><a id="Fig_40"></a>
+<img src="images/i_039.png" width="506" height="105" alt="Drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 40.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The advance-guard of modern civilization is the lumberman,
+and following close on his heels comes the all-devouring saw-mill.
+This fierce creature has an abnormal appetite for logs,
+and it keeps an army of men, boys, and horses busy in supplying
+it with food. While it supplies us with lumber for the carpenter,
+builder, and cabinet-maker, it at the same time, in the most
+shameful way, fills the trout streams and rivers with great
+masses of sawdust, which kills and drives away the fish. But
+near the saw-mill there is always to be found material for a</p>
+
+
+<h3>Slab Canoe</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>which consists simply of one of those long slabs, the first cut
+from some giant log (<a href="#Fig_43">Fig. 43</a>).</div>
+
+<p>These slabs are burned or thrown away by the mill-owners,
+and hence cost nothing; and as the saw-mill is in advance of
+population, you are most likely to run across one on a hunting
+or fishing trip.</p>
+
+<p>Near one end, and on the flat side of the slab (<a href="#Fig_40">Fig. 40</a>), bore
+four holes, into which drive the four legs of a stool made of a section
+of a smaller slab (<a href="#Fig_41">Fig. 41</a>), and your boat is ready to launch.
+From a piece of board make a double or single paddle (<a href="#Fig_42">Fig. 42</a>),
+and you are equipped for a voyage. An old gentleman, who in
+his boyhood days on the frontier frequently used this simple
+style of canoe, says that the speed it makes will compare favorably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+with that of many a more pretentious vessel. See <a href="#Fig_43">Fig. 43</a>
+for furnished boat.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Dugout</h3>
+
+<p>Although not quite as delicate in model or construction as
+the graceful birch-bark canoe, the "dugout" of the Indians is a
+most wonderful piece of work, when we consider that it is carved
+from the solid trunk of a giant tree with the crudest of tools, and
+is the product of savage labor.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 210px;"><a id="Fig_41"></a>
+<img src="images/i_040a.png" width="210" height="158" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 41.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Few people now living have enjoyed the opportunity of seeing
+one built by the Indians, and, as the author is not numbered
+among that select few, he considers it a privilege to be able to
+quote the following interesting account given by Mr. J. H. Mallett,
+of Helena.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Build a Siwash Canoe</h3>
+
+<p>"While visiting one of the small towns along Puget Sound,
+I was greatly interested in the way the Indians built their canoes.
+It is really wonderful how these aborigines can, with the crudest
+means and with a few days' work, convert an unwieldy log into
+a trim and pretty canoe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 423px;"><a id="Fig_42"></a>
+<img src="images/i_040b.png" width="423" height="96" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 42.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 664px;"><a id="Fig_43"></a>
+<img src="images/i_041.png" width="664" height="486" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 43.&mdash;Slab canoe.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>"One Monday morning I saw a buck building a fire at the base
+of a large cedar-tree, and he told me that this was the first step
+in the construction of a canoe that he intended to use upon the
+following Saturday. He kept the fire burning merrily all that
+day and far into the night, when a wind came up and completed
+the downfall of the monarch of the forest. The next day the
+man arose betimes, and, borrowing a cross-cut saw from a logger,
+cut the trunk of the tree in twain at a point some fifteen feet
+from where it had broken off, and then with a dull hatchet he
+hacked away until the log had assumed the shape of the desired
+canoe. In this work he was helped by his squaw. The old fellow
+then built a fire on the upper part of the log, guiding the course
+of the fire with daubs of clay, and in due course of time the interior
+of the canoe had been burned out. Half a day's work with
+the hatchet rendered the inside smooth and shapely.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"The canoe was now, I thought, complete, though it appeared
+to be dangerously narrow of beam. This the Indian soon remedied.
+He filled the shell two-thirds full of water, and into the
+fluid he dropped half a dozen stones that had been heating in
+the fire for nearly a day. The water at once attained a boiling
+point, and so softened the wood that the buck and squaw
+were enabled to draw out the sides and thus supply the necessary
+breadth of beam. Thwarts and slats were then placed in
+the canoe and the water and stones thrown out. When the
+steamed wood began to cool and contract, the thwarts held it
+back, and the sides held the thwarts, and there the canoe was
+complete, without a nail, joint, or crevice, for it was made of one
+piece of wood. The Siwash did not complete it as soon as he
+had promised, but it only took him eight days."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_44"></a>
+<img src="images/i_042.png" width="600" height="243" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 44.&mdash;The dugout.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the North-eastern part of our country, before the advent
+of the canvas canoe, beautiful and light birch-bark craft were
+used by the Indians, the voyagers, trappers, and white woodsmen.
+But in the South and in the North-west, the dugout takes
+the place of the birch-bark. Among the North-western Indians
+the dugouts are made from the trunks of immense cedar-trees
+and built with high, ornamental bows, which are brilliantly
+decorated with paint. On the eastern shore of Maryland and
+Virginia the dugout is made into a sail-boat called the buck-eye,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+or bug-eye. But all through the Southern States, from the Ohio
+River to the Gulf of Mexico and in Mexico, the dugout is made
+of a hollowed log after the manner of an ordinary horse trough,
+and often it is as crude as the latter, but it can be made almost
+as beautiful and graceful as a birch-bark canoe.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Make a White Man's Dugout Canoe</h3>
+
+<p>To make one of these dugout canoes one must be big and
+strong enough to wield an axe, but if the readers are too young
+for this work, they are none too young to know how to make
+one, and their big brothers and father can do the work. Since
+the dugout occupies an important position in the history of our
+country, every boy scout should know how it is made.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 502px;"><a id="Fig_45"></a>
+<img src="images/i_043a.png" width="502" height="333" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 45.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"><a id="Fig_48"></a>
+<img src="images/i_043b1.png" width="390" height="83" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 48.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"><a id="Fig_49"></a>
+<img src="images/i_043b2.png" width="390" height="78" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 49.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"><a id="Fig_50"></a>
+<img src="images/i_043b3.png" width="390" height="74" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 50.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_44">Fig. 44</a> shows one of these canoes afloat; <a href="#Fig_45">Fig. 45</a> shows a tall,
+straight tree suitable for our purpose, and it also shows how the
+tree is cut and the arrangement of the kerfs, or two notches, so that
+it will fall in the direction of the arrow in the diagram. You will
+notice along the ground are shown the ends of a number of small
+logs. These are the skids, or rollers, upon which the log will rest
+when the tree is cut and felled. The tree will fall in the direction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+in which the arrow is pointed if there is no wind. If you have
+never cut down a tree, be careful to take some lessons of a good
+woodsman before you attempt it.</p>
+
+<p>When the log is trimmed off at both ends like <a href="#Fig_46">Fig. 46</a>, flatten
+the upper side with the axe. This is for the bottom of the canoe;
+the flat part should be about a foot and a half wide to extend
+from end to end of the log. Now, with some poles for pryers,
+turn your log over so that it will rest with the flat bottom on the
+skids, as in <a href="#Fig_46">Fig. 46</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 416px;"><div class="caption"><a id="Fig_46"></a>Fig. 46.</div>
+<img src="images/i_044.png" width="416" height="178" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption"><a id="Fig_47"></a>Fig. 47.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Next take a chalk-line and fasten it at the two ends of the log,
+as shown by the dotted line in <a href="#Fig_46">Figs. 46</a>, <a href="#Fig_47">47</a>, <a href="#Fig_48">48</a>, <a href="#Fig_49">49</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Snap the line so that it will make a straight mark as shown
+by the dotted line; then trim off the two ends for the bow and
+stern, as shown in <a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 47</a>. Next cut notches down to the dotted
+line, as illustrated in <a href="#Fig_48">Fig. 48</a>; then cut away from the bow down
+to the first notch, making a curved line, as shown in <a href="#Fig_49">Fig. 49</a>
+(which is cut to second notch). Do the same with the stern,
+making duplicates of the bow and stern. The spaces between
+the notches amidships may now be split off by striking your axe
+along the chalk-line and then carefully driving in wooden wedges.
+When this is all done you will have <a href="#Fig_50">Fig. 50</a>. You can now turn the
+log over and trim off the edges of the bow and stern so that they
+will slope, as shown in <a href="#Fig_44">Fig. 44</a>, in a rounded curve; after which
+roll the canoe back again upon its bottom and with an adze and
+axe hollow out the inside, leaving some solid wood at both bow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+and stern&mdash;not that you need the wood for strength, but to save
+labor. When you have decided upon the thickness of the sides
+of your canoe, take some small, pointed instrument, like an awl,
+for instance, and make holes with it to the required depth at intervals
+along the sides and bottom of the canoe. Then take some
+small sticks (as long as the canoe sides are to be thick), make them
+to fit the holes, blacken their ends, and drive them into the holes.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as you see one from the inside, you will know that
+you have made the shell thin enough. Use a jack-plane to smooth
+it off inside and out; then build a big fire and heat some stones.
+Next fill the canoe with water and keep dumping the hot stones
+in the water until the latter is almost or quite to boiling point.
+The hot water will soften the wood so that the sides will become
+flexible, and you can then fit in some braces at the bow, stern, and
+centre of the canoe. Make the centre brace or seat some inches
+wider than the log, so that when it is forced in place it will spread
+the canoe in the middle.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER V<br />
+<small>CANOES AND BOATING STUNTS</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary1'>How to Build a War Canoe&mdash;How to Build a Canvas Canoe&mdash;How
+to Build an Umbrella Canoe&mdash;How Old Shells Can be
+Turned into Boys' Boats&mdash;Cause of Upsets&mdash;Landing from,
+and Embarking in, a Shell&mdash;How to Mend Checks and Cracks</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> making canoes the Indians used birch bark for the cover,
+rock maple for the cross-bars, and white cedar for the rest of the
+frame. We will substitute canvas for the birch bark and any old
+wood that we can for the rock maple and the white cedar. <i>Real
+woodcraft is best displayed in the ability to use the material at
+hand.</i></p>
+
+<p>David Abercrombie, the outfitter, some time ago presented
+Andrew J. Stone, the Arctic explorer and mighty hunter, with a
+small piece of light, water-proof cloth to use as a shelter tent in
+bad weather. But Stone, like the hunter that he was, slept unprotected
+on the mountain side in the sleet and driving storms,
+and used the water-proof cloth to protect the rare specimens he
+had shot. One day a large, rapid torrent lay in his path; there
+was no lumber large enough with which to build a raft, and the
+only wood for miles around was small willow bushes growing
+along the river bank. At his command, his three Indians made
+a canoe frame of willow sticks, tied together with bits of cloth
+and string. Stone set this frame in the middle of his water-proof
+cloth, tied the cloth over the frame with other pieces of string,
+and using only small clubs for paddles, he and his men crossed
+the raging torrent in this makeshift, which was loaded with their
+guns, camera, and specimens that he had shot on the trip.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After reading the above there is no doubt the reader will be
+able to build a war canoe with barrel-hoop ribs and lattice-work
+slats. In the writer's studio is a long piece of maple, one and
+one-half inches wide and one-quarter inch thick, which was left
+by the workmen when they put down a hard-wood floor. If you
+can get some similar strips, either of oak, maple, or birch, from the
+dealers in flooring material, they will not be expensive and will
+make splendid gunwales for your proposed canoe. There should
+be four such strips. The hard-wood used for flooring splits easily,
+and holes should be bored for the nails or screws to prevent cracking
+the wood when the nails or screws are driven home. <a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a>
+shows the framework (side view) of the canoe; <a href="#Fig_52">Fig. 52</a> shows
+an end view of the same canoe; <a href="#Fig_53">Fig. 53</a> shows the middle section,
+and <a href="#Fig_54">Fig. 54</a> shows the form of the bow and stern sections. This
+boat may be built any length you wish, and so that you may
+get the proper proportions, the diagrams from one to five are
+marked off in equal divisions. To make patterns of the moulds,
+<a href="#Fig_53">Figs. 53</a> and <a href="#Fig_54">54</a>, take a large piece of manila paper, divide it up
+into the same number of squares as the diagram, make the squares
+any size you may decide upon, and then trace the line, 1-H-10,
+as it is in the diagrams. This will give you the patterns of the
+two moulds (<a href="#Fig_53">Figs. 53</a> and <a href="#Fig_54">54</a>). While you are looking at these
+figures, it may be well to call your attention to the way bow and
+stern pieces are made. In <a href="#Fig_63">Fig. 63</a> the pieces Y and X are made
+from pieces of a packing-box, notched and nailed together with
+a top piece, U, and a brace, V.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_51"></a><a id="Fig_52"></a><a id="Fig_53"></a><a id="Fig_54"></a><a id="Fig_55"></a><a id="Fig_56"></a><a id="Fig_57"></a><a id="Fig_58"></a><a id="Fig_59"></a>
+<img src="images/i_048.png" width="600" height="402" alt="Fig. 51-59." />
+</div>
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_048-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 647px;"><a id="Fig_61"></a><a id="Fig_60"></a><a id="Fig_62"></a>
+<img src="images/i_050.png" width="647" height="647" alt="Fig. 62. Fig. 60. Fig. 61." />
+<div class="caption">Conventional bow, but made of barrel-heads.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>The other end of the same canoe is, as you may see, strengthened
+and protected by having a barrel-hoop tacked over the
+stem-pieces, Y, X, U. In <a href="#Fig_64">Fig. 64</a> we use different material;
+here the stem-piece is made of a broken bicycle rim, U, braced
+by the pieces of packing-box, Y, V, and W. The left-hand end
+of <a href="#Fig_64">Fig. 64</a> is made with pieces of head of a barrel, X and U.
+The bottom of the stem-piece Y is made of the piece of a packing-box.
+The two braces V are parts of the barrel-stave. <a href="#Fig_60">Fig. 60</a>
+shows the common form of the bow of a canoe. The stem-pieces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a><br /><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+X, Y are made of the parts of the head of a barrel, as shown in
+<a href="#Fig_62">Fig. 62</a>. To make a stem from a barrel-head, nail the two
+pieces X and Y, <a href="#Fig_56">Fig. 56</a>, together as shown in this particular
+diagram. Now take another piece of barrel-head, <a href="#Fig_57">Fig. 57</a>, and
+saw off a piece, A´, D´, C´, so that it will fit neatly over A, C, D,
+on <a href="#Fig_56">Fig. 56</a>. Nail this securely in place, and then in the same
+manner cut another piece to fit over the part E, C, B, and nail
+that in place. Use small nails, but let them be long enough so
+that you may clinch them by holding an axe or an iron against the
+head while you hammer the protruding points down, or drive the
+nail a little on the bias and holding the axe or iron on the side it is
+to come through and let it strike the nail as it comes out and it
+will clinch itself. To fasten the stem-piece to the keel use two
+pieces of packing-box or board, cut in the form of <a href="#Fig_58">Fig. 58</a>, and
+nail these securely to the bow-piece as in Z, in <a href="#Fig_60">Fig. 60</a>. Then
+from the bottom side of the keel H, nail the keel-pieces firmly to
+the keel as in <a href="#Fig_61">Fig. 61</a>. Also drive some nails from Z to the top
+down to the keel, as shown by the dotted lines in <a href="#Fig_60">Fig. 60</a>. The
+end view, <a href="#Fig_59">Fig. 59</a>, shows how the two Z pieces hug and support
+the stem-piece on the keel H. <a href="#Fig_55">Fig. 55</a> shows a half of the top
+view of the canoe gunwales; the dimensions, marked in feet and
+inches, are taken from an Indian birch-bark canoe. You see
+by the diagram that it is eight feet from the centre of the middle
+cross-piece to the end of the big opening at the bow. It is also
+three feet from the centre of the middle cross-piece to the next
+cross-piece, and thirty inches from the centre of that cross-piece
+to the bow cross-piece, which is just thirty inches from the eight-foot
+mark. The middle cross-piece in a canoe of these dimensions
+is seven-eighths of an inch thick, and thirty inches long between
+the gunwales; the next cross-piece is three-quarters of an
+inch thick and twenty-two and one-half inches long. The next
+one is half an inch wide, two inches thick and twelve inches between
+the gunwales. These cross-pieces can be made of the
+staves of a barrel. Of course, this would be a canoe of sixteen
+feet inside measurement, not counting the flattened part of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+bow and stern. Now, then, to build the canoe. First take the
+keel-piece, H, which is in this case a piece of board about six
+inches wide and only thick enough to be moderately stiff. Lay
+the keel on any level surface and put the stem-pieces on as already
+described, using packing-box for X, U, V, Y, and Z, and
+bracing them with a piece of packing-box on each side, marked
+W in diagram (<a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a>). Then make three moulds, one for the
+centre (<a href="#Fig_53">Fig. 53</a>), and two more for the bow and stern (<a href="#Fig_54">Fig. 54</a>).
+Notch the bottom of these moulds to fit the keel and with wire
+nails make them fast to the keel, leaving the ends of the nails
+protruding far enough to be easily withdrawn when you wish
+to remove the moulds. In nailing the laths to the moulds (<a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a>)
+leave the heads of the nails also protruding so that they may be
+removed. Place the moulds in position, with the middle one in
+the exact centre, and the two ends located like those in <a href="#Fig_63">Figs. 63</a>
+and <a href="#Fig_64">64</a>. Place and nail gunwale, L, on as in <a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a>, tacking
+it to the bow and stern and bending it around to fit the moulds;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+tack the lattice slats M, N, O, P on to the bow, stern, and
+moulds, as shown in <a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a>.</p>
+
+<p>If your barrel-hoops are stiff and liable to break while bending
+and unbending, let them soak a couple of days in a tub of water,
+then before fitting them to the form of the canoe make them more
+pliable by pouring hot water on them. The barrel-hoop S, R,
+at the bow of the canoe, is nailed to the top-piece U, to the inside
+of the slats L, M, N, O, P, and to the outside of H. The next
+three ribs on each side are treated in the same manner; repeat
+this at the other end of the canoe and nail the intervening ribs
+to the top of H and to the inside of the slats, following the model
+of the boat. Put the ribs about four inches apart and clinch the
+nails as already described.</p>
+
+<p>In the diagrams there is no temporary support for the canoe
+frame except the wooden horses, as in <a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a>. These supports
+have been purposely omitted in the drawing, as it is desirable to
+keep it as simple as possible. Some temporary support will be
+necessary to hold the bow and stern-piece in <a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a>. These
+supports can be nailed or screwed temporarily to the canoe frame
+so as to hold it rigid while you are at work on it.</p>
+
+<p>After the ribs are all in place and the framework completed,
+turn the canoe upside down upon the wooden horses&mdash;for a canoe
+as large as the one in the first diagram you will need three horses,
+one at each end and one in the middle. For a canoe of the dimensions
+marked in <a href="#Fig_55">Fig. 55</a>, that is, sixteen feet inside measurement,
+you would need about seven yards of ten-ounce cotton canvas,
+of sufficient width to reach up over the sides of your canoe. Take
+a tape-measure or a piece of ordinary tape or a long strip of manila
+paper and measure around the bottom of the boat at its widest
+part in the middle from one gunwale (top of side) to the other, and
+see that your cloth is fully as wide as your measurement. Fold
+the canvas lengthwise so as to find its exact centre and crease it.
+With two or three tacks fasten the cloth at its centre line (the
+crease) to the stem-piece of the canoe. Stretch the canvas the
+length of the boat with the crease of centre-line along the centre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+of the keel; pull it as taut as may be and again tack the centre
+line to the stem at this end of the craft. If this has been done
+carefully the cloth will hang an equal length over each side of the
+canoe. Now begin amidships and drive tacks about two inches
+apart along the gunwale, say an inch below the top surface.
+After having tacked it for about two feet, go to the other side of
+the boat, pull the cloth taut and in the same manner tack about
+three feet. Continue this process first one side and then the other
+until finished. While stretching the cloth knead it with the hand
+and fingers so as to thicken or "full" it where it would otherwise
+wrinkle; by doing this carefully it is possible to stretch the canvas
+over the frame without the necessity of cutting it. The
+cloth that extends beyond the frame may be brought over the
+gunwale and tacked along the inside. Use four-ounce tinned
+or copper tacks. The canvas is now stretched on every part
+except on the high, rolling bow and stern. With a pair of shears
+slit the canvas from the outer edge of the bow and stern within a
+half inch of the ends of the keel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_63"></a><a id="Fig_64"></a>
+<img src="images/i_052.png" width="600" height="365" alt="Fig. 63-64" />
+<div class="caption">High bows framework made of packing-box and barrel-heads.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Fold the right-hand flap thus made at the left-hand end around<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+the bow and stern and, drawing tight, tack it down, then fold the
+left-hand flap over the right-hand side and tack it in a similar
+manner, trimming off the remaining cloth neatly. The five
+braces, three of which are shown in <a href="#Fig_55">Fig. 55</a>, may be nailed to the
+gunwales of the canoe, as the temporary moulds are removed.
+The braces should be so notched that the top ends of the braces
+will fit over the top edge of the gunwale and their lower edges
+will fit against the sides. Give the boat at least three good coats
+of paint and nail the two extra gunwale strips on the outside of
+the canvas for guards.</p>
+
+<p>When it is dry and the boat is launched you may startle the
+onlookers and make the echoes ring with:</p>
+
+<p>"Wo-ach! wo-ach! Ha-ha-ha-hack&mdash;wo-ach!" which is said
+to be the identical war cry with which the Indians greeted the
+landing of our Pilgrim Fathers.</p>
+
+<p>The reader must not suppose that barrel-hoops are the best
+material for ribs; they are but a makeshift, and although good-looking,
+servicable canoes have been built of this material from
+the foregoing descriptions, better ones may be made by using
+better material, such, for instance, as is described in the making
+of the birch-bark canoe.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Old Shells</h3>
+
+<p>Where there are oarsmen and boat-clubs, there you will find
+beautiful shell boats of paper or cedar, shaped like darning-needles,
+so slight in structure that a child can knock a hole in them,
+and yet very seaworthy boats for those who understand how to
+handle them. The expensive material and skilled labor necessary
+to build a racing shell puts the price of one so high that few
+boys can afford to buy one; but where new shells are to be found
+there are also old ones, and when they are too old to sell they are
+thrown away. Many an old shell rots on the meadows near the
+boat-houses or rests among the rafters forgotten and unused,
+which with a little work would make a boat capable of furnishing
+no end of fun to a boy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Checks or Cracks</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>can be pasted over with common manila wrapping-paper by
+first covering the crack with a coat of paint, or, better still, of
+varnish, then fitting the paper smoothly over the spot and varnishing
+the paper. Give the paper several coats of varnish, allowing
+it to dry after each application, and the paper will become
+impervious to water. The deck of a shell is made of thin muslin
+or paper, treated with a liberal coat of varnish, and can be patched
+with similar material. There are always plenty of slightly damaged
+oars which have been discarded by the oarsmen. The use
+of a saw and jack-knife in the hands of a smart boy can transform
+these wrecks into serviceable oars for his patched-up old
+shell, and if the work is neatly done, the boy will be the proud
+owner of a real shell boat, and the envy of his comrades.</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Cause of Upsets</h3>
+
+<p>A single shell that is very cranky with a man in it is comparatively
+steady when a small boy occupies the seat. Put on your
+bathing clothes when you wish to try a shell, so that you may be
+ready for the inevitable upset. Every one knows, when he looks
+at one of these long, narrow boats, that as long as the oars are
+held extended <i>on the water</i> it cannot upset. But, in spite of that
+knowledge, every one, when he first gets into a shell, endeavors
+to balance himself by <i>lifting the oars</i>, and, of course, goes over in
+a jiffy.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Delights of a Shell</h3>
+
+<p>It is an error to suppose that the frail-looking, needle-like
+boat is only fit for racing purposes. For a day on the water, in
+calm weather, there is, perhaps, nothing more enjoyable than a
+single shell. The exertion required to send it on its way is so
+slight, and the speed so great, that many miles can be covered
+with small fatigue. Upon referring to the log-book of the Nereus
+Club, where the distances are all taken from the United States<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+chart, the author finds that twenty and thirty miles are not uncommon
+records for single-shell rows.</p>
+
+<p>During the fifteen or sixteen seasons that the author has devoted
+his spare time to the sport he has often planned a heavy
+cruising shell, but owing to the expense of having such a boat
+built he has used the ordinary racing boat, and found it remarkably
+well adapted for such purposes. Often he has been caught
+miles away from home in a blow, and only once does he remember
+of being compelled to seek assistance.</p>
+
+<p>He was on a lee shore and the waves were so high that after
+once being swamped he was unable to launch his boat again,
+for it would fill before he could embark. So a heavy rowboat
+and a coachman were borrowed from a gentleman living on the
+bay, and while the author rowed, the coachman towed the little
+craft back to the creek where the Nereus club-house is situated.</p>
+
+<p>In the creek, however, the water was calmer, and rather than
+stand the jeers of his comrades, the writer embarked in his shell
+and rowed up to the boat-house float. He was very wet and his
+boat was full of water, but to the inquiry of "Rough out in the
+bay?" he confined himself to the simple answer&mdash;"Yes." Then
+dumping the water from his shell and placing it upon the rack
+he put on his dry clothes and walked home, none the worse for
+the accident.</p>
+
+<p>After ordinary skill and confidence are acquired it is really
+astonishing what feats can be accomplished in a frail racing boat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_65"></a><a id="Fig_66"></a><a id="Fig_67"></a><a id="Fig_68"></a><a id="Fig_69"></a><a id="Fig_70"></a><a id="Fig_71"></a><a id="Fig_72"></a><a id="Fig_73"></a><a id="Fig_74"></a><a id="Fig_75"></a>
+<img src="images/i_056.png" width="600" height="367" alt="Fig. 65. A Fig. 66. B Fig. 67. C  Fig. 68. D Fig. 69. E  Fig. 70. F  Fig. 71. Fig. 72. Fig. 73. Fig. 74. Fig. 75" />
+</div>
+
+<div class='caption'>
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Parts of the Umbrella Canoe.</span></div>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Umbrella Canoe">
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='3'>A = &nbsp;Plank.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">B =</td><td align="left" class='brt'>&nbsp;Rib</td><td align="left" rowspan='5'>&nbsp;in process of construction.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">C =</td><td align="left" class='br'>Rib</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">D =</td><td align="left" class='br'>Rib</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">E =</td><td align="left" class='br'>Rib</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">F =</td><td align="left" class='brb'>Rib</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='3'>G, G´ = Thimbles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='3'>H = Plank.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='3'>J and K = Stretcher unfinished and finished.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is not difficult to</p>
+
+
+<h3>Stand Upright In a Shell</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>if you first take one of your long stockings and tie the handles
+of your oars together where they cross each other in front of you.
+The ends will work slightly and the blades will keep their positions
+on the water, acting as two long balances. Now slide your seat
+as far forward as it will go, slip your feet from the straps and grasp
+the straps with your hand, moving the feet back to a comfortable
+position. When all ready raise yourself by pulling on the foot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a><br /><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+strap, and with ordinary care you can stand upright in the needle-shaped
+boat, an apparently impossible thing to do when you look
+at the narrow craft.</div>
+
+
+<h3>How to Land Where There Is No Float</h3>
+
+<p>When for any reason you wish to land where there is no float,
+row into shallow water and put one foot overboard until it touches
+bottom. Then follow with the other foot, rise, and you are standing
+astride of your boat.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Embark Where There Is No Float</h3>
+
+<p>Wade out and slide the shell between your extended legs until
+the seat is underneath you. Sit down, and, with the feet still
+in the water, grasp your oars. With these in your hands it is
+an easy task to balance the boat until you can lift your feet into it.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Ozias Dodge's Umbrella Canoe</h3>
+
+<p>Mr. Dodge is a Yale man, an artist, and an enthusiastic canoeist.
+The prow of his little craft has ploughed its way through the
+waters of many picturesque streams in this country and Europe,
+by the river-side, under the walls of ruined castles, where the
+iron-clad warriors once built their camp-fires, and near pretty
+villages, where people dress as if they were at a fancy-dress ball.</p>
+
+<p>When a young man like Mr. Dodge says that he has built a
+folding canoe that is not hard to construct, is inexpensive and
+practical, there can be little doubt that such a boat is not only
+what is claimed for it by its inventor, but that it is a novelty in its
+line, and such is undoubtedly the case with the umbrella canoe.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How the Canoe Was Built</h3>
+
+<p>The artist first secured a white-ash plank (A, <a href="#Fig_65">Fig. 65</a>), free
+from knots and blemishes of all kinds. The plank was one inch
+thick and about twelve feet long. At the mill he had this sawed
+into eight strips one inch wide, one inch thick, and twelve feet
+long (B and C, <a href="#Fig_66">Figs. 66</a> and <a href="#Fig_67">67</a>). Then he planed off the square<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+edges of each stick until they were all octagonal in form, and
+looked like so many great lead-pencils (D, <a href="#Fig_68">Fig. 68</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_76"></a>
+<img src="images/i_058a.png" width="600" height="110" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 76.&mdash;Frame of umbrella canoe.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Dodge claims that, after you have reduced the ash poles
+to this octagonal form, it is an easy matter to whittle them with
+your pocket-knife or a draw-knife, and by taking off all the angles
+of the sticks make them cylindrical in form (E, <a href="#Fig_69">Fig. 69</a>); then
+smooth them off nicely with sand-paper, so that each pole has a
+smooth surface and is three-quarters of an inch in diameter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_77"></a>
+<img src="images/i_058b.png" width="600" height="107" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 77.&mdash;Umbrella canoe.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the poles were reduced to this state he whittled all the
+ends to the form of a truncated cone&mdash;that is, like a sharpened
+lead-pencil with the lead broken off (F, <a href="#Fig_70">Fig. 70</a>)&mdash;a blunt point.
+He next went to a tinsmith and had two sheet-iron cups made
+large enough to cover the eight pole-ends (G and G´, <a href="#Fig_71">Figs. 71</a>
+and <a href="#Fig_72">72</a>). Each cup was six inches deep. After trying the cups,
+or thimbles, on the poles to see that they would fit, he made two
+moulds of oak. First he cut two pieces of oak plank two feet six
+inches long by one foot six inches (H, <a href="#Fig_74">Fig. 74</a>), which he trimmed
+into the form shown by J, <a href="#Fig_75">Fig. 75</a>, making a notch to fit each of
+the round ribs, and to spread them as the ribs of an umbrella are
+spread. He made two other similar moulds for the bow and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+stern, each of which, of course, is smaller than the middle one.
+After spreading the ribs with the moulds, and bringing the ends
+together in the tin cups, he made holes in the bottom of the cups
+where the ends of the ribs came, and fastened the ribs to the cups
+with brass screws, fitted with leather washers, and run through
+the holes in the tin and screwed into the ends of the poles or ribs.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_78"></a>
+<img src="images/i_059.png" width="600" height="227" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 78.&mdash;Canoe folded for transportation. Canoe in water in distance.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A square hole was then cut through each mould (K, <a href="#Fig_75">Fig. 75</a>),
+and the poles put in place, gathered together at the ends, and held
+in place by the tin thimbles. The square holes in the moulds
+allow several small, light floor planks to form a dry floor to the
+canoe.</p>
+
+<p>The canvas costs about forty-five cents a yard, and five yards
+are all you need. The deck can be made of drilling, which comes
+about twenty-eight inches wide and costs about twenty cents a
+yard. Five yards of this will be plenty. Fit your canvas over
+the frame, stretch it tightly, and tack it securely to the two top
+ribs only. Fasten the deck on in the same manner.</p>
+
+<p>When Mr. Dodge had the canoe covered and decked, with a
+square hole amidship to sit in, he put two good coats of paint on
+the canvas, allowed it to dry, and his boat was ready for use
+(<a href="#Fig_77">Fig. 77</a>). He quaintly says that "it looked like a starved dog,
+with all its ribs showing through the skin," just as the ribs of an
+umbrella show on top through the silk covering. But this does<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+not in any way impede the progress of the boat through the
+water.</p>
+
+<p>Where the moulds are the case is different, for the lines of the
+moulds cross the line of progress at right angles and must necessarily
+somewhat retard the boat. But even this is not perceptible.
+The worst feature about the moulds is that the canvas is very apt
+to be damaged there by contact with the shore, float, or whatever
+object it rubs against.</p>
+
+<p>With ordinary care the umbrella canoe</p>
+
+
+<h3>Will Last for Years</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>and is a good boat for paddling on inland streams and small
+bodies of water; and when you are through with it for the night,
+all that is necessary is to remove the stretchers by springing the
+poles from the notches in the spreaders, roll up the canvas around
+the poles, put it on your shoulder, and carry it home or to camp,
+as shown in <a href="#Fig_78">Fig. 78</a>.</div>
+
+<p>To put your canoe together again put in the moulds, fit the
+poles in their places, and the umbrella is raised, or, rather, the
+canoe is, if we can use such an expression in regard to a boat.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VI<br />
+<small>THE BIRCH-BARK</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary1'>How to Build a Real Birch-Bark Canoe or a Canvas Canoe on
+a "Birch-Bark" Frame&mdash;How to Mend a Birch-Bark</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Although</span> the Indian was the first to build these simple little
+boats, some of his white brothers are quite as expert in the work.
+But the red man can outdo his white brother in navigating the
+craft. The only tools required in building a canoe are a knife
+and awl, a draw-shave and a hammer. An Indian can do all of
+his work with a knife.</p>
+
+<p>Several years ago canvas began to be used extensively in canoe-building,
+instead of birch bark, and it will eventually entirely
+supersede birch, although nothing can be found that bends so
+gracefully. There are several canvas-canoe factories in Maine,
+and the canoes made of canvas have both the symmetry and the
+durability of the birches. They are also a trifle cheaper, but if
+the real thing and sentiment are wanted, one should never have
+anything but a bark craft.</p>
+
+<p>If properly handled, a good canoe will safely hold four men.
+Canoes intended for deep water should have considerable depth.
+Those intended for shoal water, such as trout-fishers use, are made
+as flat as possible. Up to the time when canoeing was introduced
+the materials for building craft of this kind could be found all
+along the rivers. Big birch-trees grew in countless numbers, and
+clear, straight cedar was quite as plentiful within a few feet of the
+water's edge. Now one must go miles back into the dense forests
+for such materials, and even then seldom does it happen that two
+suitable trees are found within sight of one or the other. Cedar
+is more difficult of the two to find.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>The Tree</h3>
+
+<p>The tree is selected, first, for straightness; second, smoothness;
+third, freedom from knots or limbs; fourth, toughness of bark;
+fifth, small size of eyes; sixth, length (the last is not so important,
+as two trees can be put together), and, seventh, size (which is
+also not so important, as the sides can be pieced out).</p>
+
+
+<h3>Dimensions</h3>
+
+<p>The average length of canoe is about 19 feet over all, running,
+generally, from 18 to 22 feet for a boat to be used on inland waters,
+the sea-going canoes being larger, with relatively higher bows.
+The average width is about 30 inches inside, measured along the
+middle cross-bar; the greatest width inside is several inches below
+the middle cross-bar, and is several inches greater than the width
+measured along said cross-bar.</p>
+
+<p>The measurements given below are those of a canoe 19 feet
+over all: 16 feet long inside, measured along the curve of the gunwale;
+30 inches wide inside. The actual length inside is less
+than 16 feet, but the measurement along the gunwales is the most
+important.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Bark</h3>
+
+<p>Bark can be peeled when the sap is flowing or when the tree
+is not frozen&mdash;at any time in late spring, summer, and early fall
+(called summer bark); in winter during a thaw, when the tree
+is not frozen, and when the sap may have begun to flow.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Difference in the Bark</h3>
+
+<p>Summer bark peels readily, is smooth inside, of a yellow color,
+which turns reddish upon exposure to the sun, and is chalky-gray
+in very old canoes. Winter bark adheres closely, and forcibly
+brings up part of the inner bark, which on exposure turns
+dark red. This rough surface may be moistened and scraped
+away. All winter-bark canoes must be thus scraped and made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+smooth. Sometimes the dark red is left in the form of a decorative
+pattern extending around the upper edge of the canoe, the
+rest of the surface being scraped smooth.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Process of Peeling</h3>
+
+<p>The tree should be cut down so that the bark can be removed
+more easily.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_79"></a>
+<img src="images/i_063a.png" width="600" height="144" alt="Drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 79.&mdash;Showing how the butt is kept off the ground.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 233px;"><a id="Fig_80"></a>
+<img src="images/i_063b.png" width="233" height="136" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 80.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 128px;"><a id="Fig_81"></a>
+<img src="images/i_063c.png" width="128" height="279" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 81.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A log called a skid (<a href="#Fig_79">Fig. 79</a>) is laid on the ground a few feet
+from the base of the tree, which will keep the butt of the tree
+off the ground when the tree is felled. The limbs at the top will
+keep the other end off the ground. A space is cleared of bushes
+and obstructions where the tree is to fall.</p>
+
+
+<p>After the tree has been cut down, a cut is made in a straight
+line (A, B, <a href="#Fig_79">Fig. 79</a>), splitting the bark from top to bottom, and
+a ring cut at A and B (<a href="#Fig_79">Fig. 79</a>). When sap is flowing, the bark
+is readily removed; but in winter the edges of the cut are raised
+with a knife, and a thin, pliant hard-wood knife or "spud" is
+pushed around under the bark.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Toasting</h3>
+
+<p>After the bark has dropped upon the ground the inside surface
+is warmed with a torch, which softens and straightens it out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+flat. The torch is made of a bundle of birch bark held in a
+split stick (<a href="#Fig_81">Fig. 81</a>).</p>
+
+<p>It is then rolled up like a carpet, with inside surface out, and
+tightly bound, generally with cedar bark when the latter can be
+procured (<a href="#Fig_80">Fig. 80</a>).</p>
+
+<p>If the tree is long enough, a piece is taken off at least nineteen
+feet in length, so that the ends of the canoe may not be pieced
+out. A few shorter pieces are
+wrapped up with the bundle
+for piecing out the sides.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Roll</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is taken on the back in an
+upright position, and is carried
+by a broad band of cedar
+bark, passing under the lower
+end of the roll and around in
+front of the breast and shoulders
+(<a href="#Fig_82">Fig. 82</a>).</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;"><a id="Fig_82"></a>
+<img src="images/i_064.png" width="281" height="401" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 82.&mdash;Mode of carrying roll.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>Effects of Heat</h3>
+
+<p>It is laid where the sun will
+not shine on it and harden it.
+The first effect of heat is to make it pliant. Long exposure to
+heat or to dry atmosphere makes it hard and brittle.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Woodwork</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is as follows:</div>
+
+<p>Five cross-bars of rock-maple (<a href="#Fig_83">Figs. 83</a>, <a href="#Fig_85">85</a>, and <a href="#Fig_91">91</a>). All the
+rest is of white cedar, taken from the heart. The sap-wood
+absorbs water, and would make the canoe too heavy, so it is rejected.
+The wood requires to be straight and clear, and it is
+best to use perfectly green wood for the ribs.</p>
+
+<p>Two strips 16½ feet long, 1½ inch square, tapering toward either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+end, the ends being notched (<a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a> A) is a section of the 16½
+foot strip. Each strip is mortised for the cross-bars (see <a href="#Fig_85">Fig. 85</a>).
+The lower outside edge is bevelled off to receive the ends of the
+ribs.</p>
+
+<p>The dimensions of the cross-bars (<a href="#Fig_85">Fig. 85</a>) are 12 x 2 x ½ inch,
+22½ x 2 x ¾ inch, and 30 x 2 x <small><sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></small> inch. The cross-bars are placed
+in position, and the ends of the gunwales are tied with spruce
+roots after being nailed together to prevent splitting. Each
+bar is held in place by a peg of hard wood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_83"></a><a id="Fig_83_5"></a>
+<img src="images/i_065.png" width="600" height="213" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Figs. 83 and 83½.&mdash;Showing section of canoe amidship and section and shape of gunwale and top view.</div>
+</div><div class='tnote'><div class='center'>Transcriber's Note: To see a
+larger version of this image, click <a href="images/i_065-big.png">here</a>.</div></div>
+
+<p>For stitching and wrapping, long, slender roots of spruce, or
+sometimes of elm, are peeled and split in two. Black ash splits
+are rarely used except for repairing (<a href="#Fig_86">Figs. 86</a>, <a href="#Fig_87">87</a>, <a href="#Fig_88">88</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Next we need (B, <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>) two strips 1 or 1¼ inch by ½ inch, a
+little over 19 feet long, to go outside of gunwales, and (C, <a href="#Fig_83">Fig.
+83</a>) two top strips, same length, 2 inches wide in middle, tapering
+to 1 inch at either end, 1½ inch thick.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_84"></a><a id="Fig_85"></a><a id="Fig_86"></a><a id="Fig_87"></a><a id="Fig_88"></a><a id="Fig_89"></a><a id="Fig_90"></a><a id="Fig_91"></a>
+<img src="images/i_066.png" width="600" height="843" alt="Figs. 84-91" />
+<div class="caption">Details of sticking and framework of canoe.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_066-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+<h3>Ribs</h3>
+
+<p>About fifty in number (<a href="#Fig_91">Figs. 91</a>, <a href="#Fig_92">92</a>) are split with the grain
+(F, <a href="#Fig_92">Fig. 92</a>), so that the heart side of the wood will be on the inner
+side when the rib is bent. The wood bends better this way.
+They must be perfectly straight-grained and free from knots.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+Ribs for the middle are four inches wide, ribs for the ends about
+three inches wide (<a href="#Fig_91">Fig. 91</a> and G, <a href="#Fig_92">Fig. 92</a>), and are whittled down
+to a scant half an inch (<a href="#Fig_93">Fig. 93</a>). Green wood is generally used,
+and before it has had any time to season. The ribs may be softened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+by pouring hot water on them, and should be bent in pairs
+to prevent breaking (<a href="#Fig_90">Fig. 90</a>). They are held in shape by a band
+of cedar bark passed around outside.</p>
+
+<p>The ribs are of importance in the shaping of the canoe. The
+sides bulge out (<a href="#Fig_91">Figs. 91</a>, <a href="#Fig_92">92</a>).
+The shape of the ribs determines
+the depth and stability of the
+canoe.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Lining Strips</h3>
+
+<p>Other strips, an eighth of an
+inch thick, are carefully whittled
+out, with straight edges. They
+are a little over eight feet long,
+and are designed to be laid inside
+on the bark, edge to edge,
+between the bark and the ribs.
+These strips lap an inch or two
+where they meet, in the middle
+of the canoe, and are wider here
+than at the ends, owing to the
+greater circumference of the canoe
+in the middle.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Seasoning</h3>
+
+<p>All the timber is carefully tied
+up before building and laid
+away. The ribs are allowed to
+season perfectly, so that they will keep their shape and not
+spring back.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 478px;"><a id="Fig_92"></a>
+<img src="images/i_067a.png" width="478" height="326" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 92.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;"><a id="Fig_93"></a>
+<img src="images/i_067b.png" width="283" height="322" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 93.<br />Details of ribs, Indian knives and method of
+using them.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>The Bed</h3>
+
+<p>Next the bed is prepared on a level spot, if possible shaded
+from the sun. A space is levelled about three and a half feet
+wide and a little longer than the canoe. The surface is made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+perfectly smooth. The middle is one or two inches higher than
+either end.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Building</h3>
+
+<p>The frame is laid exactly in the middle of the bed. A small
+post is driven in the ground (<a href="#Fig_94">Fig. 94</a>), on which each end of the
+frame will rest. Stakes, two or three feet long and about two
+inches in diameter, are whittled flat on one side, and are driven
+with the flat side toward the frame at the following points, leaving
+a space of about a quarter of an inch between the stake and
+the frame (<a href="#Fig_94">Fig. 94</a>): One stake an inch or two on either side of
+each cross-bar, and another stake half way between each cross-bar.
+This makes eleven stakes on each side of the frame.
+Twelve additional stakes are driven as follows: One pair facing
+each other, at the end of the frame; another pair, an inch apart,
+about six inches from the last pair, measuring toward the ends
+of the canoe; and another pair, an inch apart, a foot from these.
+These last stakes will be nine and a half feet from the middle of
+the frame, and nineteen feet from the corresponding stakes at
+the other end. Next, these stakes are all taken up, and the
+frame laid aside.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_94"></a>
+<img src="images/i_068.png" width="600" height="189" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 94.&mdash;Showing stakes supporting bark sides; note stones on the bottom.</div>
+</div>
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_068x.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+
+<h3>To Soften the Bark</h3>
+
+<p>Next the bark is unrolled. If it has laid until it has become
+a little hardened, it is placed in the river or stream for a day or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+two. It is spread out flat, and laid upon the bed with the gray
+or outside surface up. The inside surface is placed downward,
+and becomes the outside of the canoe.</p>
+
+<p>The frame is replaced upon the bark, so that it will be at the
+same distance from each side and end of the bed that it was before.
+At each cross-bar boards are laid across the frame, and
+heavy stones are laid upon them to keep the frame solid and immovable
+upon the bark (<a href="#Fig_85">Fig. 85</a>, C). The edges of the bark are
+next bent up in a perpendicular position, and in order that it
+may bend smoothly slits are made in the bark in an outward direction,
+at right angles to the frame. A cut is made close to the
+end of each cross-bar, and one half way between each bar,
+which is generally sufficient to allow the bark to be bent up
+smoothly. As the bark is bent up, the large stakes are slipped
+back in the holes which they occupied before, and the tops of
+each opposite pair are connected with a strip of cedar bark which
+keeps the stakes perfectly perpendicular. At each end it is
+necessary to take out a small triangular piece or gore, so that the
+edges may come together without overlapping.</p>
+
+<p>Next twenty-two pieces of cedar, one to two feet long, and
+about ½ or ¾ inch thick, are split out, and whittled thin and flat
+at one end. This sharpened edge is inserted between the outside
+edge of the frame and the bent-up bark, opposite each large
+stake. The other end of the chisel-shaped piece is tightly tied
+to the large stake outside. By means of the <i>large outside stake</i>
+and the inside "<i>stake</i>," so-called, the bark is held in a perfectly
+upright position; and in order to keep the bent-up part more
+perfectly flat and smooth, the strips of cedar are pushed in lengthwise
+between the stakes and the bark, on each side of the bark,
+as shown in sectional views (<a href="#Fig_85">Fig. 85</a>, C, D).</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, in place of having temporary strips to go on outside
+of the bark, the long outside strip (B, <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>), is slipped
+in place instead.</p>
+
+<p>It may now be seen if the bark is not wide enough. If it is
+not, the sides must be pieced out with a narrow piece, cut in such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+a way that the eyes in the bark will run in the same direction as
+those of the large piece.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule, from the middle to the next bar the strip
+for piecing is placed on the inside of the large piece, whose upper
+edge has previously been trimmed straight, and the two are sewed
+together by the stitch shown in <a href="#Fig_86">Fig. 86</a>, the spruce root being
+passed over another root laid along the trimmed-off edge of the
+large piece of bark to prevent the stitches from tearing out.
+From the second bar to the end of the canoe, or as far as may be
+necessary, the strip is placed outside the large piece, and from the
+second to the end bar is sewed as in <a href="#Fig_87">Fig. 87</a>, and from the end
+bar to the end of the canoe is stitched as in <a href="#Fig_88">Fig. 88</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Next, the weights are taken off the frame, which is raised up as
+follows, the bark remaining flat on the bed as before:</p>
+
+<p>A post eight inches long is set up under each end of middle
+cross-bar (<a href="#Fig_85">Fig. 85</a>, D), one end resting on the bark and the other
+end supporting either end of the middle cross-bar. Another
+post, nine inches long, is similarly placed under each end of the
+next cross-bar. Another, twelve inches long, is placed under
+each end of the end cross-bar; and another, sixteen and a half or
+seventeen inches, supports each end of the frame.</p>
+
+<p>As the posts are placed under each cross-bar, the weights are
+replaced; and as these posts are higher at the ends than in the
+middle, the proper curve is obtained for the gunwales. The
+temporary strips, that have been placed outside the bent-up
+portion of the bark, are removed, and the long outside strip before
+mentioned (B, <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>) is slipped in place between the outside
+stakes and the bark. This strip is next nailed to the frame
+with wrought-iron nails that pass through the bark and are
+clinched on the inside. This outside strip has taken exactly the
+curve of the frame, but its upper edge, before nailing, was raised
+so as to be out an eighth of an inch (or the thickness of the bark)
+higher than the top surface of the frame, so that when the edges
+of the bark have been bent down, and tacked flat to the frame,
+a level surface will be presented, upon which the wide top strip<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+will eventually be nailed. Formerly the outer strip was bound to
+the frame with roots every few inches, but now it is nailed.</p>
+
+<p>The cross-bars are now lashed to the frame, having previously
+been held only by a peg. The roots are passed through holes
+in the end of the bars, around the outside strip (see right-hand side
+of <a href="#Fig_85">Fig. 85</a>). A two-inch piece of the bark, which has been tacked
+down upon the frame, is removed at the ends by the cross-bars,
+where the spruce roots are to pass around, and the outside strip
+is cut away to a corresponding extent, so that the roots, when
+wrapped around, will be flush with the surface above.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_95"></a>
+<img src="images/i_071.png" width="600" height="130" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 95.&mdash;Shows how to describe arc of circle for bow, also ornamentation of winter bark.</div>
+</div>
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_071-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+<p>All the stakes are now removed, and laid away to be ready
+for the next canoe that may be built, and the canoe taken upside
+down upon two horses or benches, that will keep the craft clear
+of the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The shape of the bow is now marked out, either by the eye or
+with mechanical aid, according to the following rule: An arc of
+a circle, with a radius of seventeen inches, is described (<a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95</a>)
+having as a centre a point shown in diagram. The bark is then
+cut away to this line.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Bow-piece</h3>
+
+<p>To stiffen the bow, a bow-piece of cedar, nearly three feet long
+(<a href="#Fig_96">Fig. 96</a>), an inch and a half wide, and half an inch thick on one
+edge, bevelled and rounded off toward the other edge, is needed.
+To facilitate bending edgeways it is split into four or five sections
+(as in <a href="#Fig_98">Fig. 98</a>) for about thirty inches. The end that remains
+unsplit is notched on its thicker edge (<a href="#Fig_96">Fig. 96</a>) to receive the lower
+end of an oval cedar board (<a href="#Fig_97">Fig. 97</a>) that is placed upright in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+bow underneath the tip of the frame. It is bent to correspond
+with the curve of the boat, with the thin edge toward the outside
+of the circle, and wrapped with twine, so that it will keep its shape.
+The bow-piece is placed between the edges of the bark, which are
+then sewed together by an
+over-and-over stitch, which
+passes through the bow-piece.</p>
+
+<p>A pitch is prepared of
+rosin and grease, in such
+proportions that it will
+neither readily crack in
+cold water nor melt in the
+sun. One or the other ingredient
+is added until by
+test it is found just right.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Patching and Pitching</h3>
+
+<p>The canoe is now placed
+on the ground, right side up,
+and all holes are covered
+on the inside with thin
+birch bark that is pasted down with hot pitch. A strip of cloth
+is saturated with hot pitch, and pressed into the cracks on either
+side of the bow-piece inside, between the bark and the bow-piece
+(<a href="#Fig_99">Fig. 99</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 590px;"><a id="Fig_96"></a><a id="Fig_97"></a><a id="Fig_98"></a><a id="Fig_99"></a><a id="Fig_100"></a>
+<img src="images/i_072.png" width="590" height="653" alt="drawings" />
+<div class="caption">Figs. 97-100.&mdash;Show details of canoe bow.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The thin longitudinal strips are next laid in position, edge to
+edge, lapping several inches by the middle; they are whittled
+thin here so as to lap evenly.</p>
+
+<p>The ribs are next tightly driven in place, commencing at the
+small end ones and working toward the middle. The end ribs
+may be two or three inches apart, being closer toward the middle,
+where, in many cases, they touch. Usually, they are about half
+an inch apart in the middle. Each rib is driven into place with
+a square-ended stick and a mallet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The ends are stuffed with shavings (<a href="#Fig_100">Fig. 100</a> and "Section"
+<a href="#Fig_100_5">Fig. 100½</a>), and an oval cedar board is put in the place formerly
+occupied by the post that supported the end of the frame. The
+lower end rests in the notch of the bow-piece, while the upper is
+cut with two shoulders that fit underneath each side of the frame;
+<a href="#Fig_97">Fig. 97</a> shows the cedar board.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 444px;"><a id="Fig_100_5"></a>
+<img src="images/i_073.png" width="444" height="205" alt="Drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 100½.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 636px;"><a id="Fig_101"></a>
+<img src="images/i_073b.png" width="636" height="284" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 101.<br />Canoe paddles.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The top strip is next nailed on to the frame. Almost always a
+piece of bark, a foot or more long, and nine or ten inches wide,
+is bent and slipped under, between
+both top and side strips
+and the bark. The ends of this
+piece hang down about three
+inches below the side strips.
+The loose ends of the strips are
+bound together, as in diagram,
+and the projecting tips of both
+strips and bow-piece are trimmed
+off close.</p>
+
+<p>Next the canoe is turned upside
+down. If winter bark has
+been used, the surface is moistened
+and the roughness scraped
+off with a knife. Generally the
+red rough surface is left in the form of a decorative pattern
+several inches wide around the upper edge (<a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95</a>). Sometimes
+the maker's name and date are left in this way.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, a strip of stout canvas, three or four inches wide, is
+dipped in the melted pitch and laid on the stitching at the ends,
+extending up sufficiently far above the water-line. All cracks and
+seams are covered with pitch, laid on with a small wooden paddle.
+While still soft, a wet finger or the palm of the hand is
+rubbed over the pitch to smooth it down before it hardens.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Leaks</h3>
+
+<p>Water is placed inside, and the leaky places marked, to be
+stopped when dry. A can of rosin is usually carried in the canoe,
+and when a leak occurs, the canoe is taken out of the water, the
+leak discovered by sucking, the place dried with a torch of wood
+or birch bark, and the pitch applied.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_101_5"></a>
+<img src="images/i_074.png" width="600" height="350" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 101½.&mdash;From photograph of Indian building a birch-bark canoe.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Paddles are made of rock maple, and sometimes of birch and
+even cedar. Bow paddles are usually longer and narrower in
+the blade than stern paddles (<a href="#Fig_101">Fig. 101</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3>Bottom Protection</h3>
+
+<p>Sometimes the canoe is shod with "shoes," or strips of cedar,
+laid lengthwise and tied to the outside of the bark with ash splits
+that pass through holes in the cedar shoes, and are brought up
+around the sides of the canoe and tied to each cross-bar. This
+protects the bottom of the boat from the sharp rocks that abound
+in some rapid streams.</p>
+
+<p>All canoes are of the general shape of the one described,
+though this is considerably varied in different localities, some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+being built with high rolling bows, some slender, some wider,
+some nearly straight on the bottom, others decidedly curved.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the two paddles the canoe should carry a pole ten feet
+long, made of a slender spruce, whittled so as to be about one
+and three-fourths inch in diameter in the middle and smaller
+at either end, and having at one end either a ring and a spike or
+else a pointed cap of iron. The pole is used for propelling the
+canoe up swift streams. This, says Tappan Adney, "is absolutely
+indispensable." The person using the pole stands in one
+end, or nearer the middle if alone, and pushes the canoe along
+close to the bank, so as to take advantage of the eddies, guiding
+the canoe with one motion, only to be learned by practice, and
+keeping the pole usually on the side next the bank. Where the
+streams have rocky and pebbly bottoms poling is easy, but in
+muddy or soft bottoms it is tiresome work; muddy bottoms, however,
+are not usually found in rapid waters.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A Canvas Canoe</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>can be made by substituting canvas in the place of birch bark;
+and if it is kept well painted it makes not only a durable but a
+very beautiful boat. The writer once owned a canvas canoe
+that was at least fifteen years old and still in good condition.</div>
+
+<p>About six yards of ten-ounce cotton canvas, fifty inches wide,
+will be sufficient to cover a canoe, and it will require two papers
+of four-ounce copper tacks to secure the canvas on the frame.</p>
+
+<p>The boat should be placed, deck down, upon two "horses" or
+wooden supports, such as you see carpenters and builders use.</p>
+
+<p>Fold the canvas lengthwise, so as to find the centre, then tack
+the centre of one end of the cloth to top of bow-piece, or stem,
+using two or three tacks to hold it securely. Stretch the cloth
+the length of the boat, pull it taut, with the centre line of the canvas
+over the keel line of the canoe, and tack the centre of the other
+end of the cloth to the top of the stern-piece.</p>
+
+<p>If care has been taken thus far, an equal portion of the covering
+will lap the gunwale on each side of the boat.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Begin amidships and drive the tacks, about two inches apart,
+along the gunwale and an inch below the deck (on the outside).
+Tack about two feet on one side, pull the cloth tightly across,
+and tack it about three feet on the other side. Continue to alternate,
+tacking on one side and then the other, until finished.</p>
+
+<p>With the hands and fingers knead the cloth so as to thicken
+or "full" it where it would otherwise wrinkle, and it will be possible
+to stretch the canvas without cutting it over the frame.</p>
+
+<p>The cloth that projects beyond the gunwale may be used for
+the deck, or it may be cut off after bringing it over and tacking
+upon the inside of the gunwale, leaving the canoe open like a
+birch-bark.</p>
+
+
+<h3>To Paddle a Canoe</h3>
+
+<p>No one can expect to learn to paddle a canoe from a book, however
+explicit the directions may be. There is only one way to
+learn to swim and that is by going into the water and trying it,
+and the only proper way to learn to paddle a canoe is to paddle
+one until you catch the knack.</p>
+
+<p>In the ordinary canoe, to be found at the summer watering
+places, there are cane seats and they are always too high for safety.
+A top load on any sort of a boat is always dangerous, and every
+real canoeist seats his passengers on the bottom of the boat and
+kneels on the bottom himself while paddling. Of course, one's
+knees will feel more comfortable if there is some sort of a cushion
+under them, and a passenger will be less liable to get wet if he
+has a pneumatic cushion on which to sit. No expert canoeist
+paddles alternately first on the one side, and then on the other;
+on the contrary, he takes pride in his ability to keep his paddle
+continuously on either side that suits his convenience.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians of the North Woods are probably the best paddlers,
+and from them we can take points in the art. It is from them
+we first learned the use of the canoe, for our open canvas canoes
+of to-day are practically modelled on the lines of the old birch-barks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='bbox2'>
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="canoeing and illustratiosn">
+<tr><td align="left" rowspan='2'><img src="images/i_077a.png" width="258" height="179" alt="Fig. 102" />
+</td><td align="left" colspan='2'><div class='unindent'>From photographs taken
+especially for this book by
+Mr. F. K. Vreeland, Camp
+Fire Club of America.</div></td><td align="left" rowspan='2'><img src="images/i_077b.png" width="256" height="172" alt="Fig. 102a" />
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a id="Fig_102"></a><b>Fig. 102.</b></td>
+<td align="left"><a id="Fig_102a"></a><b>Fig. 102<i>a</i>.</b></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='4'><p>Fig. 102.&mdash;Beginning of stroke. Paddle should not be reached farther forward than this. It is immersed
+<i>edgewise</i> (not point first) with a slicing motion. Note the angle of paddle&mdash;rear face of blade
+turned <i>outward</i> to avoid tendency of canoe to turn. Staff of paddle is 6 inches too short. Left hand
+should be lower.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 102<i>a</i>.&mdash;A moment later. Right hand pushing forward, left hand swinging down. Left hand
+should be lower on full-sized paddle.</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><img src="images/i_077c.png" width="251" height="171" alt="Fig. 103" /></td>
+<td align="left"><a id="Fig_103"></a><b>Fig. 103.</b></td>
+<td align="left"><a id="Fig_103a"></a><b>Fig. 103<i>a</i>.</b></td>
+<td align="left"><img src="images/i_077d.png" width="272" height="164" alt="Fig. 103a" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='4'><p>Fig. 103.&mdash;Putting the power of the body in the stroke by bending slightly forward. Left hand held
+stationary from now on, to act as fulcrum. The power comes from the right arm and shoulders.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 103<i>a</i>.&mdash;The final effort, full weight of the body on the paddle. The right arm and body are
+doing the work, the left arm (which is weak at this point) acting as fulcrum. Note twist of the right
+wrist to give blade the proper angle.</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><img src="images/i_077e.png" width="275" height="171" alt="Fig. 104" /></td>
+<td align="left"><a id="Fig_104"></a><b>Fig. 104.</b></td>
+<td align="left"><a id="Fig_104a"></a><b>Fig. 104<i>a</i>.</b></td>
+<td align="left"><img src="images/i_077f.png" width="260" height="158" alt="Fig. 104a" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='4'><p>Fig. 104.&mdash;End of stroke. Arms relaxed and body straightening.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 104<i>a</i>.&mdash;Beginning of recovery. Paddle slides out of water gently. Note that blade is perfectly
+flat on the surface. No steering action is required. If the canoe tends to swerve it is because the <i>stroke</i>
+was not correct. Only a duffer <i>steers</i> with his paddle after the stroke is over. The left hand now
+moves forward, the right swinging out and back, moving paddle forward horizontally.</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><img src="images/i_077g.png" width="263" height="162" alt="Fig. 104b" /></td>
+<td align="left"><a id="Fig_104b"></a><b>Fig. 104<i>b</i>.</b></td>
+<td align="left"><a id="Fig_104c"></a><b>Fig. 104<i>c</i>.</b></td>
+<td align="left"><img src="images/i_077h.png" width="271" height="159" alt="Fig. 104c" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='4'><p>Fig. 104<i>b</i>.&mdash;Turning to right. The latter part of a broad sweep outward, away from the canoe. The
+blade is now being swept toward the canoe, the left hand pulling in, the right pushing out. Position of
+right wrist shows that blade has the opposite slant to that shown in the straightaway stroke&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, the
+near face of blade is turned <i>inward</i>. Blade leaves water with <i>outer</i> edge up. Wake of canoe shows
+sharpness of turn.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 104<i>c</i>.&mdash;Turning to left. The last motion of a stroke in which the paddle is swept close to the
+canoe with the blade turned much farther outward than in the straightaway stroke. At end of stroke
+blade is given an outward sweep and leaves the water with the <i>inner</i> edge up. <i>This is not a steering</i> or
+dragging motion. It is a powerful sweep of the paddle. Note swirl in wake of canoe showing sharp turn.]</p>
+</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When you are standing upright and your paddle is in front of
+you with the blade upon the ground, the handle should reach to
+your eye-brows. (See Figs. <a href="#Fig_101">101</a>, <a href="#Fig_102">102</a>, <a href="#Fig_103">103</a>, etc.)</p>
+
+<p>Kneel with the paddle across the canoe and not farther forward
+than the knees. Then dip the blade <i>edgewise</i> (not point first) by
+raising the upper hand without bending the elbow. Swing the
+paddle back, keeping it close to the canoe, and give a little twist
+to the upper wrist to set the paddle at the proper angle shown in
+the photos. The exact angle depends upon the trim of the boat,
+the wind, etc., and must be such that the canoe does not swerve
+<i>at any part</i> of the stroke, but travels straight ahead. The lower
+arm acts mainly as a fulcrum and does not move back and forth
+more than a foot. The power comes from the upper arm and
+shoulder, and the body bends forward as the weight is thrown on
+the paddle. The stroke continues until the paddle slides out of
+the water endwise, flat on the surface. Then for recovery the
+blade is brought forward by a swing from the shoulder, <i>not</i> lifting it
+vertically, but swinging it horizontally with the blade parallel to
+the water and the upper hand low. When it reaches a point
+opposite the knee it is slid into the water again, edgewise, for another
+stroke. The motion is a more or less rotary one, like stirring
+cake, not a simple movement back and forth.</p>
+
+
+<h3>To Carry a Canoe</h3>
+
+<p>To pick up a canoe and carry it requires not only the knack but
+also muscle, and no undeveloped boy should make the attempt,
+as he might strain himself, with serious results. But there are
+plenty of young men&mdash;good, husky fellows&mdash;who can learn to do
+this without any danger of injury if they are taught <i>how</i> to lift
+by a competent physical instructor.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_105"></a><a id="Fig_106"></a><a id="Fig_107"></a><a id="Fig_108"></a><a id="Fig_109"></a>
+<img src="images/i_079.png" width="600" height="533" alt="Fig. 106.  Fig. 105.  Fig. 107. Fig. 108.  Fig. 109." />
+</div>
+<p>To pick up a canoe for a "carry," stoop over and grasp the
+middle brace with the right arm extended, and a short hold with
+the left hand, as shown in <a href="#Fig_105">Fig. 105</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When you have a secure hold, hoist the canoe up on your legs,
+as shown in <a href="#Fig_106">Fig. 106</a>. Without stopping the motion give her
+another boost, until you have the canoe with the upper side above
+your head, as in <a href="#Fig_107">Fig. 107</a>. In the diagram the paddles are not
+spread apart as far as they should be. If the paddles are too
+close together a fall may break ones neck.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 565px;">
+<img src="images/i_080.png" width="565" height="725" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 110.&mdash;Northern Quebec Indians crossing the "ladder portage."</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now turn the canoe over your head and slide your head between
+the paddles (which are lashed to the spreaders, as shown in
+<a href="#Fig_105">Fig. 105</a>), and twist your body around as you let the canoe
+settle down over your head (<a href="#Fig_108">Fig. 108</a>). If you have a sweater or a
+coat, it will help your shoulders by making a roll of it to serve as
+a pad under the paddles, as in <a href="#Fig_109">Fig. 109</a>. I have seen an Indian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+carry a canoe in this manner on a dog-trot over a five-mile portage
+without resting. I also have seen Indians carry canoes over mountains,
+crossing by the celebrated Ladder Portage in western
+Quebec, where the only means of scaling a cliff is by ascending
+a ladder made of notched logs. For real canoe work it is
+necessary that a man should know how to carry his craft across<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+country from one body of water to another. All through the
+Lakelands of Canada, and also the Lake St. John district, up
+to Hudson Bay itself, the only trails are by water, with portage
+across from one stream or lake to the other.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VII<br />
+<small>HOW TO BUILD A PADDLING DORY</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary2'>A Simple Boat Which Any One Can Build&mdash;The Cheapest Sort
+of a Boat</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">To</span> construct this craft it is, of course, necessary that we shall
+have some lumber, but we will use the smallest amount and the
+expense will come within the limits of a small purse.</p>
+
+<p>First we must have two boards, their lengths depending upon
+circumstances and the lumber available. The ones in the
+diagram are supposed to be of pine to measure (after being
+trimmed) 18 feet long by 18 inches wide and about 1 inch thick.
+When the boards are trimmed down so as to be exact duplicates
+of each other, place one board over the other so that their edges
+all fit exactly and then nail each end of the two boards together
+for the distance of about six inches. Turn the boards over and
+nail them upon the opposite side in the same manner, clamping
+the nail ends if they protrude. Do this by holding the head of a
+hammer or a stone against the heads of the nails while you
+hold a wire nail against the protruding end, and with a hammer
+bend it over the nail until it can be mashed flat against the board
+so that it will not project beyond its surface.</p>
+
+<p>After you have proceeded thus far, take some pieces of tin (<a href="#Fig_112">Fig.
+112</a>) and bend the ragged edges over, so as to make a clean,
+straight fold, and hammer it down flat until there are no rough or
+raw edges exposed. Now tack a piece of this tin over the end of
+the boards which composed the sides of the boat, as in <a href="#Fig_114">Fig. 114</a>.
+Make the holes for the tacks first by driving the pointed end of a
+wire nail through the tin where you wish the tacks to go and
+then tack the tin snugly and neatly on, after which tack on
+another piece of tin on both bow and stern, as in <a href="#Fig_116">Fig. 116</a>. This
+will hold the two ends of the boards securely together so that they
+may be carefully sprung apart in the middle to receive the middle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+mould which is to hold them in shape until the bottom of the boat
+is nailed on, and the permanent thwarts, or seats, fastened inside.
+When the latter are permanently fixed they will keep the boat in
+shape.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 622px;"><a id="Fig_111"></a>
+<img src="images/i_083a.png" width="622" height="126" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 111.&mdash;Parts of dory.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>To make the mould, which is only a temporary thing, you
+may use any rough board, or boards nailed together with cleats
+to hold them. The mould should be 2 feet 6 inches long and 1 foot
+4 inches high. <a href="#Fig_111">Fig. 111</a> will show you how to cut off the ends
+to give the proper slant. The dotted lines show the board before
+it is trimmed in shape. By measuring along the edge of the board
+from each end 10.8 inches and marking the points, and then, with
+a carpenter's pencil ruling the diagonal lines to the other edge and
+ends of the board, the triangles may be sawed off with a hand saw.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_112"></a><a id="Fig_113"></a><a id="Fig_114"></a><a id="Fig_115"></a><a id="Fig_116"></a>
+<img src="images/i_083b.png" width="600" height="191" alt="Fig. 113. Fig. 114. Fig. 112. Fig. 115. Fig. 116." />
+<div class="caption">The simple details of the dory.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_111">Fig. 111</a> shows where the mould is to be placed in the center
+of the two side boards. As the boards in this diagram are supposed
+to be on the slant, and consequently in the perspective,
+they do not appear as wide as they really are. The diagram is
+made also with the ends of the side boards free so as to better
+show the position of the mould. But when the side boards are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+sprung apart and the mould placed in position (<a href="#Fig_113">Fig. 113</a>), it will
+appear as in <a href="#Fig_116">Fig. 116</a> or <a href="#Fig_117">Fig. 117</a>. <a href="#Fig_115">Fig. 115</a> shows the shape of
+the stem-posts to be set in both bow and stern and nailed securely
+in place.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 619px;"><a id="Fig_118"></a>
+<img src="images/i_084a.png" width="619" height="251" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 118.<br />Top views of dory and parts of dory.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When you have gone thus far fit in two temporary braces near
+the bow and stern, as shown in <a href="#Fig_117">Fig. 117</a>. These braces are simply
+narrow pieces of boards held in position by nails driven
+through the outside of the boat, the latter left with their heads
+protruding, so that they may be easily drawn when necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Now turn the boat over bottom up and you will find that the
+angle at which the sides are bent will cause the bottom boards
+to rest upon a thin edge of the side boards, as shown in <a href="#Fig_119">Fig. 119</a>.
+With an ordinary jack-plane trim this down so that the bottom
+boards will rest flush and
+snug, as in <a href="#Fig_120">Fig. 120</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a id="Fig_118_5"></a>
+<img src="images/i_084b.png" width="350" height="138" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 118½.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>How to Calk a Boat so That
+It Won't Leak</h3>
+
+<p>If you wish to make a
+bottom that will never leak,
+not even when it is placed in the water for the first time, plane off
+the boards on their sides, so that when fitted together they will
+leave a triangular groove between each board, as shown in Fig.
+<a href="#Fig_118_5">118½</a>. These grooves will show upon the inside of the boat, and not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+upon the outside, and in this case the calking is done from the
+inside and not from the outside. They are first calked with
+candlewick, over which putty is used, but for a rough boat it is
+not even necessary to use any calking. When the planks swell
+they will be forced together, so as to exclude all water.</p>
+
+<p>To fasten the bottom on the boat put a board lengthwise at the
+end, as shown in <a href="#Fig_121">Fig. 121</a>. One end shows the end board as it is
+first nailed on, and the other end shows it after it has been trimmed
+off to correspond with the sides of the boat. Now put your short
+pieces of boards for the bottom on one at a time, driving each one
+snug up against its neighbor before nailing it in place and leaving
+the rough or irregular ends of each board protrude on each side,
+as shown at the right-hand end of <a href="#Fig_121">Fig. 121</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 679px;"><a id="Fig_117"></a><a id="Fig_119"></a><a id="Fig_120"></a><a id="Fig_121"></a>
+<img src="images/i_085.png" width="679" height="295" alt="Fig. 117. Fig. 119.  Fig. 120.  Fig. 121." />
+<div class="caption">Top view with sides in place, also reversed view showing how bottom boards are laid.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When all the boards are nailed in place (by beginning at one
+end and fitting them against each other until the other end is
+reached) they may be trimmed off with a saw (<a href="#Fig_121">Fig. 121</a>) and
+your boat is finished with the exception of the thwarts, or seats.</p>
+
+<p>If you intend to propel this with paddles like a canoe, you will
+need a seat in the centre for your passenger, and this may be
+placed in the position occupied by the form (<a href="#Fig_111">Figs. 111</a> and <a href="#Fig_117">117</a>)
+after the latter is removed. To fit a seat in it is only necessary to
+cut two cleats and nail them to the sides of the boat for the seat
+to rest upon and saw off a board the proper length to fit upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+cleats. It would be well now to fasten the braces in the bow and
+stern permanently, adjusting them to suit your convenience.
+The seat should be as low as possible for safety. With this your
+paddling dory is finished, and may be used even without being
+painted. A coat of paint, however, improves not only the looks
+but the tightness and durability of any boat.</p>
+
+<p>We have now advanced so far in our boat-building that it
+becomes necessary that the beginner should learn more about
+boats and boating, and since this book is written for beginners,
+we will take it for granted that they know absolutely nothing
+about the subject and will give all the rudimentary knowledge
+for landlubbers in the next chapter.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII<br />
+<small>THE LANDLUBBER'S CHAPTER</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary1'>Common Nautical Terms and Expressions Defined&mdash;How to Sail
+a Boat&mdash;Boat Rigs&mdash;Rowing-clothes&mdash;How to Make a Bathing-suit&mdash;How
+to Avoid Sunburn</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are a few common terms with which all who venture
+on the water should be familiar, not only for convenience, but
+for prudential reasons.</p>
+
+<p>Accidents are liable to happen to boats of all descriptions, and
+often the safety of property and life depend upon the passengers'
+ability to understand what is said to them by the officers or sailors
+in charge of the craft.</p>
+
+<p>To those who are familiar with the water and shipping it may
+seem absurd to define the bow and stern of a boat, but there are
+people who will read this book who cannot tell the bow from
+the stern, so we will begin this chapter with the statement that</p>
+
+<p><b>The bow</b> is the front end of the boat, and</p>
+
+<p><b>The stern</b> is the rear end of the boat.</p>
+
+<p><b>For'ard</b> is toward the bow of the boat.</p>
+
+<p><b>Aft</b> is toward the stern of the boat. Both terms are used by
+sailors as forward and backward are used by landsmen.</p>
+
+<p><b>The hull</b> is the boat itself without masts, spars, or rigging. A
+skiff and a birch-bark canoe are hulls.</p>
+
+<p><b>The keel</b> is the piece of timber running along the centre of the
+bottom of the hull, like the runner of a skate, and used to give
+the boat a hold on the water, so that she will not slide sideways.</p>
+
+<p>When you are sitting in the stern of a boat, facing the bow,
+the side next to your right hand is the right-hand side of the boat,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+and the side next to your left hand is the left-hand side of the boat.
+But these terms are not used by seamen; they always say</p>
+
+<p><b>Starboard</b> for the right-hand side of the boat, and</p>
+
+<p><b>Port</b> for the left-hand side of the boat. Formerly the left-hand
+side was called the larboard, but this occasioned many serious
+mistakes on account of the similarity of the sound of larboard and
+starboard when used in giving orders.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_122"></a>
+<img src="images/i_088.png" width="600" height="223" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 122.&mdash;Top view of small boat.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>Red and Green Lights</h3>
+
+<p>After dark a red light is carried on the port side and a green
+light on the starboard side of all vessels in motion. If you can
+remember that port wine is red, and that the port light is of the
+same color, you will always be able to tell in which direction an
+approaching craft is pointing by the relative location of the lights.</p>
+
+<div class='poem'>
+"When both lights you see ahead,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Port your helm and show your red!</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Green to green and red to red,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">You're all right, and go ahead!"</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>If you are a real landlubber, the verse quoted will be of little
+service, because you will not know how to port your helm. In
+fact, you probably will not know where to look for the helm or
+what it looks like; but only a few of our readers are out-and-out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+landlubbers, and most of them know that the helm is in some
+way connected with the steering apparatus.</p>
+
+<p><b>The rudder</b> is the movable piece of board at the stern of the
+boat by means of which the craft is guided. The rudder is moved
+by a lever, ropes, or a wheel.</p>
+
+<p><b>The tiller</b> is the lever for moving the rudder, or the ropes used
+for the same purpose (<a href="#Fig_123">Fig. 123</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_123"></a>
+<img src="images/i_089.png" width="600" height="373" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 123.&mdash;Helm&mdash;Lever, or stick, for tiller.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The wheel</b> is the wheel whose spokes end in handles on the
+outer edge of the rim, or felly, and it is used for moving the rudder
+(<a href="#Fig_124">Fig. 124</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The helm</b> is that particular part of the steering apparatus that
+you put your hands on when steering.</p>
+
+<p><b>The deck</b> is the roof of the hull.</p>
+
+<p><b>The centreboard</b> is an adjustable keel that can be raised or
+lowered at pleasure. It is an American invention. The centreboard,
+as a rule, is only used on comparatively small vessels.
+The inventor of the centreboard is Mr. Salem Wines, who kept
+a shop on Water Street, near Market Slip, and, when alive, was a
+well-known New York boat-builder. His body now lies in Greenwood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+Cemetery, and upon the headstone of his grave is the
+inscription, "The Inventor of the Centreboard."</p>
+
+<p>For sailing, the boat, or hull, is rigged with masts and spars
+for spreading the sails to catch the wind.</p>
+
+<p><b>The masts</b> are the upright poles, or sticks, that hold the sails.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_124"></a>
+<img src="images/i_090.png" width="600" height="482" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 124.&mdash;Helm&mdash;The wheel.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The yards</b> are the poles, or sticks, at right angles with the masts
+that spread the sails.</p>
+
+<p><b>The boom</b> is the movable spar at the bottom of the sail.</p>
+
+<p><b>The gaff</b> is the pole, or spar, for spreading the top, or head, of
+the sail (<a href="#Fig_125">Fig. 125</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The sail</b> is a big canvas kite, of which the boom, gaff, and masts
+are the kite-sticks. You must not understand by this that the
+sail goes soaring up in the air, for the weight of the hull prevents
+that; but if you make fast a large kite to the mast of a boat it
+would be a sail, and if you had a line long and strong enough,
+and should fasten any spread sail to it, there can be no doubt that
+the sail would fly.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>The spars</b> are the masts, bowsprit, yards, and gaffs.</p>
+
+<p><b>The bowsprit</b> is the stick, or sprit, projecting from the bow of the
+boat (<a href="#Fig_161">Fig. 161</a>, Sloop).</p>
+
+<p><b>The foremast</b> is the mast next to the bow&mdash;the forward mast
+(<a href="#Fig_159">Fig. 159</a>, Ship).</p>
+
+<p><b>The mainmast</b> is the second mast&mdash;the mast next to the foremast.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mizzen-mast</b> is the mast next to and back of the mainmast
+(<a href="#Fig_159">Fig. 159</a>, Ship).</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 315px;"><a id="Fig_125"></a>
+<img src="images/i_091.png" width="315" height="366" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 125.&mdash;A sail.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The rigging</b> of a boat consists of the ropes, or lines, attached to
+its masts and sails, but a boat's rig refers to the
+number of masts as well as to the shape of its
+sails.</p>
+
+<p><b>Stays</b> are strong ropes supporting the masts,
+fore and aft.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shrouds</b> are strong ropes reaching from the
+mastheads to the sides of the vessel; supports
+for the masts, starboard and port.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ratlines</b> are the little ropes that form the
+steps, or foot ropes, that run crosswise between the shrouds.</p>
+
+<p><b>The painter</b> is the rope at the bow of a small boat, used for the
+same purpose as is a hitching-strap on a horse.</p>
+
+<p><b>The standing rigging</b> consists of the stays and shrouds.</p>
+
+<p><b>The running rigging</b> consists of all the ropes used in handling
+yards and sails.</p>
+
+<p><b>The sheets</b> are the ropes, or lines, attached to the corners of sails,
+by which they are governed (<a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The main sheet</b> is the rope that governs the mainsail.</p>
+
+<p><b>The jib-sheet</b> is the rope that governs the jib-sail.</p>
+
+<p><b>The gaskets</b> are the ropes used in lashing the sails when furled.</p>
+
+<p><b>The braces</b> are the ropes used in swinging the yards around.</p>
+
+<p><b>The jib-stay</b> is the stay that runs from the foremast to the
+bowsprit.</p>
+
+<p><b>The bob-stay</b> is practically an extension of the jib-stay and the
+chief support of the spars. It connects the bow of the boat with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+the bowsprit and prevents the latter from bobbing up and
+down.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the port and starboard sides of a boat there are the
+windward and leeward sides. Do not understand by this that the
+boat has four sides, like a square. Windward may be the port
+or the starboard side, according to the direction the wind blows;
+because</p>
+
+<p><b>Windward</b> means the side of the boat against which the wind
+blows&mdash;the side where the wind climbs aboard; or it may mean
+the direction from which the wind comes. The opposite side
+is called</p>
+
+<p><b>Leeward</b>&mdash;that is, the side of the boat opposite to that against
+which the wind blows, where the wind tumbles overboard, or the
+side opposite to windward. When you are sailing you may be
+near a</p>
+
+<p><b>Lee Shore</b>&mdash;that is, the shore on your lee side against which
+the wind blows; or a</p>
+
+<p><b>Windward Shore</b>&mdash;that is, the land on your windward side
+from which the wind blows.</p>
+
+<p>All seamen dread a lee shore, as it is a most dangerous shore to
+approach, from the fact that the wind is doing its best to blow
+you on the rocks or beach. But the windward shore can be approached
+with safety, because the wind will keep you off the
+rocks, and if it is blowing hard, the land will break the force of
+the wind.</p>
+
+<p>In a canoe or shell the boatman sits either directly on the bottom,
+or, as in the shell, very close to it, and the weight of his body
+serves to keep the boat steady, but larger crafts seldom rely upon
+live weights to steady them. They use</p>
+
+<p><b>Ballast</b>&mdash;that is, weights of stone, lead, iron, or sand-bags,
+used to balance the boat and make her steady.</p>
+
+<p>As has been said before in this chapter, the sail is a big canvas
+kite made fast to the boat and called a sail, but the ordinary kite
+has its covering stretched permanently on rigid sticks.</p>
+
+<p>The sail, however, can be stretched to its full extent or only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+partially, or it may be rolled up, exposing nothing but the masts
+to the force of the wind. To accomplish all this there are various
+ropes and attachments, all of which are named.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 513px;"><a id="Fig_126"></a>
+<img src="images/i_093a.png" width="513" height="600" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 126.&mdash;Sail and sheet.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 447px;"><a id="Fig_127"></a>
+<img src="images/i_093b.png" width="447" height="528" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 127.&mdash;Parts of sail.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is quite important that the beginner should know the
+names of all the</p>
+
+
+<h3>Parts of a Sail</h3>
+
+<p><b>Luff.</b>&mdash;That part of the sail adjoining the mast&mdash;the front of
+the sail (<a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Leach.</b>-That part of the sail stretched between the outer or
+after end of the boom and the outer end of the gaff&mdash;the back
+part of the sail (<a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Head.</b>&mdash;That part of the sail adjoining the gaff&mdash;the top of the
+sail.</p>
+
+<p><b>Foot.</b>&mdash;That part of the sail adjoining the boom&mdash;the bottom
+of the sail (<a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Clews.</b>&mdash;A general name for the four corners of the sail.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Clew.</b>&mdash;The particular corner at the foot of the sail where the
+leach and boom meet (<a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Tack.</b>&mdash;The corner of the sail where boom and mast meet
+(<a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Throat, or Nock.</b>&mdash;The corner of the sail where gaff and mast
+meet (<a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Peak.</b>&mdash;Corner of the sail where the leach and gaff meet
+(<a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 182px;"><a id="Fig_128"></a>
+<img src="images/i_094a.png" width="182" height="364" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 128.&mdash;Starboard helm</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 190px;"><a id="Fig_129"></a>
+<img src="images/i_094b.png" width="190" height="364" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 129&mdash;Port helm.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>How to Steer a Boat</h3>
+
+<p>When you wish your boat to turn to the right push your helm
+to the left. This will push the rudder to the right and turn the
+boat in that direction. When you wish your boat to turn to the
+left push your helm to the right. In other words, starboard your
+helm and you will turn to the port (<a href="#Fig_128">Fig. 128</a>). Port your helm
+and you will turn to the starboard (<a href="#Fig_129">Fig. 129</a>).</p>
+
+<p>From a reference to the diagram you may see that when you
+<b>port your helm</b> you move the tiller to the port side of the boat,
+and when you <b>starboard your helm</b> you move your tiller to the
+starboard side of the boat (<a href="#Fig_128">Fig. 128</a>), but to <b>ease your helm</b> you
+move your helm toward the centre of the boat&mdash;that is, amidships.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Sail a Boat</h3>
+
+<p>If you fasten the bottom of a kite to the ground, you will find
+that the wind will do its best to blow the kite over, and if the kite
+is fastened to the mast of a toy boat, the wind will try to blow the
+boat over.</p>
+
+<p>In sailing a boat the effort of the wind apparently has but one
+object, and that is the upsetting of the boat. The latter, being
+well balanced, is constantly endeavoring to sit upright on its keel,
+and you, as a sailor, are aiding the boat in the struggle, at the
+same time subverting the purpose of the wind to suit your own
+ideas. It is an exciting game, in which man usually comes out
+ahead, but the wind gains enough victories to keep its courage up.</p>
+
+<p>Every boat has peculiarities of its own, and good traits as well
+as bad ones, which give the craft a personal character that lends
+much to your interest, and even affects your sensibilities to the
+extent of causing you to have the same affection for a good, trustworthy
+craft that you have for an intelligent and kind dog or
+horse.</p>
+
+<p>A properly balanced sail-boat, with main sheet trimmed flat
+and free helm, should be as sensitive as a weathercock and act
+like one&mdash;that is, she ought to swing around until her bow pointed
+right into the "eye of the wind," the direction from which the
+wind blows. Such a craft it is not difficult to sail, but it frequently
+happens that the boat that is given to you to sail is not properly
+balanced, and shows a constant tendency to "come up in the
+wind"&mdash;face the wind&mdash;when you are doing your best to keep her
+sails full and keep her on her course. This may be caused by too
+much sail aft. The boat is then said to carry a weather helm.</p>
+
+<p><b>Weather Helm.</b>&mdash;When a boat shows a constant tendency to
+come up in the wind.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lee Helm.</b>&mdash;When a boat shows a constant tendency to fall
+off the wind&mdash;that is, when the wind blows her bow to the leeward.
+This is a much worse trait than the former, and a boat with a lee
+helm is a dangerous boat. It may be possible to remedy it by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+adding sail aft or reducing sail forward, which should immediately
+be done.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the fact, already stated, that the wind's constant
+effort is to capsize a boat, there is little or no danger of a properly
+rigged boat upsetting unless the sheets are fast or hampered in
+some way. When a sail-boat upsets it is, of course, because the
+wind blows it over. Now, the wind cannot blow a boat over
+unless the boat presents some surface larger than its hull for the
+wind to blow against, and the sail is the only object that offers
+enough surface to the breeze to cause an upset.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="illustrations and shared caption">
+<tr><td align="left"><div class="figleft" style="width: 223px;"><a id="Fig_130"></a>
+<img src="images/i_096a.png" width="223" height="463" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 130&mdash;Close-hauled.</div>
+</div></td>
+<td align="left"><div class="figright" style="width: 378px;"><a id="Fig_131"></a>
+<img src="images/i_096b.png" width="378" height="502" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 131.&mdash;Before the wind.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan='2'><div class='caption'>Top view of boats, showing position of helm and boom.</div>
+</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p>If the sheet is slackened, the sail will swing around until it
+flaps like a flag and only the thin edge is presented to the wind;
+and a boat that a flag will upset is no boat for beginners to trust
+themselves in. True, the boom may be very long and heavy
+enough to make it dangerous to let so much of it overboard, but
+this is seldom the case. A good sailor keeps his eyes constantly
+on the sails and trims them to take advantage of the slightest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+favorable breeze. In place of losing control of his sail by letting
+go the sheets he will ease the tiller so as to "spill" part of the wind
+that is, let the forward part, or luff, of the sail shake a bit. Or,
+in case of a sudden puff of wind, he may deem it necessary to
+"luff"&mdash;that is, let her shake&mdash;and slacken the sheets too.</p>
+
+<p><b>Trimmed Flat.</b>&mdash;Sheets hauled in until the boom is only a little
+to the leeward of the helm (<a href="#Fig_130">Fig. 130</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Close-hauled.</b>&mdash;Sheets trimmed flat and the boat pointing as
+near as possible to the eye of the wind. Then the sail cannot
+belly, and is called flat (<a href="#Fig_130">Fig. 130</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3>To Sail Close-hauled</h3>
+
+<p>The skipper must watch that his sail does not flap or ripple at
+the throat, for that means that he is pointing too close to the
+wind and that some of the breeze is blowing on both sides of
+his sail, which even a novice can see will retard the boat.</p>
+
+<p>Upon discovering a rippling motion at the luff of the sail put
+the helm up&mdash;that is, move the tiller a little to windward until the
+sail stops its flapping.</p>
+
+<p><b>Before the Wind.</b>&mdash;When the wind is astern; sailing with the
+wind; sailing directly from windward to leeward (<a href="#Fig_131">Fig. 131</a>).</p>
+
+<p>In order to reach the desired point it is often expedient to sail
+before the wind, but unless the wind is light, beginners had
+better not try this. To sail before the wind you let your sheets
+out until the boom stands at <i>almost</i> right angles with the boat.
+Keep your eye on the sail and see that it does not flap, for if the
+man at the helm is careless and allows the boat to point enough
+away from the direction of the wind to allow the wind to get on
+the other side of the sail, the latter will swing around or jibe with
+such force as to endanger the mast, if it does not knock some one
+overboard.</p>
+
+<p>The price of liberty is constant vigilance, and the price of a
+good sail is the same. I have seen a mast snapped off clean at
+the deck by a jibe, and once when out after ducks every one was
+so intent upon the game that proper attention was not paid to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+the sail. The wind got round and brought the boom with a
+swing aft, knocking the captain of our boat club overboard.
+Had the boom hit him in the head and stunned him, the result
+might have been fatal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 490px;"><a id="Fig_131_5"></a><a id="Fig_132"></a><a id="Fig_133"></a>
+<img src="images/i_098.png" width="490" height="512" alt="Fig. 132.&mdash;Boom hauled in. Fig. 133.&mdash;On new course. Fig. 131½.&mdash;Before the wind." />
+<div class="caption">Figs. 131½, 132, and 133.&mdash;Jibing.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Wing and Wing.</b>&mdash;When a schooner goes before the wind with
+one sail out at nearly right angles on the port side and the other
+in the same position on the starboard side she is said to be wing
+and wing and presents a beautiful sight.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Tacking.</b>&mdash;Working to the windward by a series of diagonal
+moves.</p>
+
+<p><b>Legs.</b>&mdash;The moves or diagonal courses made in tacking. It is
+apparent to the most unthinking observer that no vessel propelled
+by sail can move against the direct course of the wind&mdash;that is,
+nothing but electricity, naphtha, steam, or some such power can
+drive a boat into the eye of the wind. But what cannot be accomplished
+in a direct manner can be done by a series of compromises,
+each of which will bring us nearer to the desired
+point.</p>
+
+<p>First we point the boat to the right or left, as the case may be,
+as near or as close to the wind as the boat will sail. Then we
+come about and sail in the other direction as close as practicable
+to the eye of the wind, and each time we gain something in a direct
+line.</p>
+
+<p>When your boat changes its direction on a tack it is done by
+"jibing," or "coming about."</p>
+
+<p><b>Jibing.</b>&mdash;With the wind on the quarter, haul the main boom
+aft or amidship with all possible speed, by means of the main
+sheets (<a href="#Fig_132">Fig. 132</a>), and as the wind strikes the sail on the other
+side let it out as deliberately as possible until it reaches the position
+desired (<a href="#Fig_133">Fig. 133</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Beginners should never attempt to jibe, for if there is more
+than a capful of wind, the sail will probably get away from them,
+and, as described in going before the wind, some disaster is liable
+to occur. Experts only jibe in light winds, and frequently lower
+the peak, so as to reduce sail, before attempting a jibe.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Coming About</h3>
+
+<p>When you wish to come about see that all the tackle, ropes,
+etc., are clear and in working order, and that you are making
+good headway; then call out: "Helm's a-lee!" or "Ready about!"
+and push the tiller in the direction opposite to that from which the
+wind blows&mdash;that is, to the lee side of the boat. This will bring
+the bow around until the wind strikes the sail upon the side opposite<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+to that which it struck before the helm was a-lee (<a href="#Fig_134">Figs.
+134</a>, <a href="#Fig_135">135</a>, <a href="#Fig_136">136</a>, <a href="#Fig_137">137</a>).</p>
+
+<p>If you are aboard a sloop or schooner, ease off the jib-sheet, but
+keep control of it, so that as the boat comes up to the wind you
+can make the jib help the bow around by holding the sheets so as
+to catch the wind aback. When the bow of the craft has passed
+the eye of the wind and the sail begins to fill give the order to
+make fast, or trim, the jib, and off you go upon the opposite tack,
+or on a new leg.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 586px;"><a id="Fig_134"></a><a id="Fig_135"></a><a id="Fig_136"></a><a id="Fig_137"></a>
+<img src="images/i_100.png" width="586" height="307" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Figs. 134, 135, 136, and 137.&mdash;Coming about.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>If the wind is light, or if, for any cause, the boat works slowly,
+you can sometimes help her by trimming in the main sheet when
+you let the jib-sheet fly. In the diagram of coming about no
+jib is shown.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wearing</b> is a term sometimes used in place of jibing.</p>
+
+
+<h3>In a Thunder-storm</h3>
+
+<p>A thunder-storm is always an uncertain thing. There may be
+a veritable tornado hidden in the black clouds that we see rising
+on the horizon, or it may simply "iron out the wind"&mdash;that is,
+go grumbling overhead&mdash;and leave us becalmed, to get home the
+best way we can; generally by what the boys call a "white-ash
+breeze"&mdash;that is, by using the sweeps or oars.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On Long Island Sound a thunder-storm seems to have certain
+fixed rules of conduct. In the first place, it comes up from the
+leeward, or <i>against the wind</i>. Just before the storm strikes you
+for an instant the wind ceases and the sails flap idly. Then look
+out! for in nine cases out of ten you are struck the next moment
+by a sudden squall from exactly the opposite direction from which
+the wind blew a moment before.</p>
+
+
+<h3>What to Do</h3>
+
+<p>Make for the nearest port with all speed, and keep a man at the
+downhaul ready at a moment's notice to lower sail. The moment
+the wind stops drop the sail and make everything snug, leaving
+only bare poles. When the thunder-squall strikes you, be it
+ever so hard, you are now in little danger; and if the wind from
+the new quarter is not too fresh, you can hoist sail again and make
+the best of your way to the nearest port, where you can "get in
+out of the wet."</p>
+
+<p>If the wind is quite fresh keep your peak down, and with a
+reefed sail speed on your way. If it is a regular howler, let your
+boat drive before the wind under bare poles until you can find
+shelter or until it blows over, and the worst mishap you are likely
+to incur is a good soaking from the rain.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shortening Sail.</b>&mdash;Just as soon as the boat heels over too far
+for safety, or as soon as you are convinced that there is more wind
+than you need for comfortable sailing, it is time to take a reef&mdash;that
+is, to roll up the bottom of the sail to the row of little ropes,
+or reefing points, on the sail and make fast there. This, of course,
+makes a smaller sail, and that is what you wish.</p>
+
+<p>While under way it will be found impossible to reef a sail except
+when sailing close-hauled. So the boat is brought up into
+the wind by pushing the helm down, as if you intended to come
+about. When possible it is better to lower the sail entirely before
+attempting to put in a reef.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>To Reef Without Lowering Sail</h3>
+
+<p>It sometimes happens that on account of the proximity of a
+lee shore, and the consequent danger of drifting in that direction,
+or for some other equally good reason, it is inadvisable to lower
+sail and lose headway. Under such circumstances the main
+sheet must be trimmed flat, keeping the boat as close as possible
+to the wind, the helm must be put up hard a-lee, and jib-sheet
+trimmed to windward (<a href="#Fig_138">Fig. 138</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 410px;"><a id="Fig_138"></a>
+<img src="images/i_102.png" width="410" height="420" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 138.&mdash;Squirming; jib on port side, boom close-hauled
+on starboard side.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When this is done the wind will hit the jib, "paying her head
+off," or pushing her bow to leeward, and this tendency is counteracted
+by the helm and mainsail, bringing the bow up into the
+wind. This keeps the boat squirming. Lower the mainsail
+until the row of reef points is just on a line with the boom, keeping
+to the windward of the sail. Tie the first point&mdash;that is, the one
+on the luff rope&mdash;then the one on the leach, being careful to stretch
+out the foot of the sail. Then tie the remaining points, always<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+making a square or reefing knot. Tie them to the jack-stay on
+the boom or around the boom.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Reef or Square Knot</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is most frequently used, as its name implies, in reefing sails.
+First make a plain overhand knot, as in <a href="#Fig_139">Fig. 139</a>. Then repeat
+the operation by taking the end and passing it
+over and under the loop, drawing the parts
+tight, as shown in <a href="#Fig_140">Fig. 140</a>. Care should be
+observed in crossing the ends so that they will
+always lay fairly alongside the main parts.
+Otherwise the knot will prove a <i>granny</i> and be comparatively
+worthless.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 353px;"><a id="Fig_139"></a><a id="Fig_140"></a>
+<img src="images/i_103.png" width="353" height="86" alt="drawings" />
+<div class="caption">Figs. 139 and 140.&mdash;Square
+or reef knot.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>To Shake Out a Reef</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>untie the knots, keeping to the windward of the sail. Untie the
+knot at the leach first, next the one at the luff, and then the remaining
+points. In lowering a sail you use a rope called the
+<b>downhaul</b>.</div>
+
+<p><b>Starboard Tack.</b>&mdash;When the main boom is over the port side.</p>
+
+<p><b>Port Tack.</b>&mdash;When the main boom is over the starboard side.</p>
+
+<p><b>Right of Way.</b>&mdash;All boats sailing on the starboard tack have
+the right of way over all those on the port tack. In other words,
+if you are on the starboard tack, those on the port tack must keep
+out of your way. Any boat sailing close-hauled has the right of
+way over a boat sailing free.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Lights for Canoe</h3>
+
+<p>A canoe under sail at night should have an uncolored lantern
+hung to her mizzen-mast to notify other craft that she is out and
+objects to being run down. The light is put on the mizzen so that
+it may be behind the skipper and not dazzle him.</p>
+
+<p>What you have read in the foregoing pages will not be found
+very difficult to remember, but there is only one way to learn to
+sail and that is by <i>sailing</i>. If possible, sail with some one who is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+a good seaman. If this sort of companion cannot be had, try it
+alone on smooth water and with short sail until you accustom
+yourself to the boat and its peculiarities. No boy ever learned
+to skate or swim from books, but books often have been helpful
+in giving useful hints to those who were really learning by practical
+experience.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Some Do Nots</h3>
+
+<div class='poem2'>
+Do not overload the boat.<br />
+Do not carry too much sail.<br />
+Do not sail in strange waters without chart or compass.<br />
+Do not forget your anchor.<br />
+Do not forget your paddles or oars.<br />
+Do not attempt to learn to sail before you know how to swim.<br />
+Do not sit on the gunwale.<br />
+Do not put the helm down too suddenly or too far.<br />
+Do not let go the helm.<br />
+Do not mistake caution for cowardice.<br />
+Do not be afraid to reef.<br />
+Do not fear the ridicule of other landlubbers.<br />
+Do not fail to keep the halyards and sheets clear.<br />
+Do not jibe in a stiff wind.<br />
+Do not fail to keep your head in times of emergency.<br />
+Do not make a display of bravery until the occasion demands it.<br />
+Do not allow mistakes or mishaps to discourage you.<br />
+Do not associate with a fool who rocks a boat.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>You will soon become an expert and be able to engage in one of
+our most exhilarating, healthy, and manly sports and earn the
+proud distinction of being a good small-boat sailor.</p>
+
+
+<h3>It is Necessary to Learn to Swim</h3>
+
+<p>From the parents' point of view, nowhere that a boy's restless
+nature impels him to go is fraught with so much peril as the water,
+and nowhere is a boy happier than when he is on the water, unless<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+it is when he is in it. Nowhere can be found a better school
+for his young mind and body than that furnished by boating.
+Hence it appears to be the imperative duty for parents personally
+to see that their children are taught to swim as soon as their little
+limbs have strength enough to make the proper motions.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Boating-Clothes</h3>
+
+<p>In aquatic sports of all kinds, if you expect to have fun, you
+must dress appropriately. You should have a suit of old clothes
+that you can change for dry ones when the sport is over. When
+boating, it is nonsense to pretend you can keep dry under all the
+varying conditions of wind and weather. If your purse is small,
+and you want a good rowing-suit, it can be made of last winter's
+woollen underclothes, and will answer for the double purpose of
+rowing and bathing.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Make a Bathing-Suit</h3>
+
+<p>First take an old woollen undershirt and cut the sleeves off
+above the elbows. Then coax your mother, aunt, or sister to sew
+it up in front like a sweater, and hem the edges of the sleeves where
+they have just been cut off.</p>
+
+<p>Next take a pair of woollen drawers and have them sewed up in
+front, leaving an opening at the top about four inches in length;
+turn the top edge down all around to cover a piece of tape that
+should be long enough to tie in front. Have this hem or flap
+sewed down to cover the tape, and allow the two ends of the tape
+to protrude at the opening in front. The tape should not be
+sewed to the cloth, but should move freely, so that you can tighten
+or loosen it at will. Cut the drawers off at the knees and have
+the edges hemmed, and you will have a first-class bathing or
+rowing-suit.</p>
+
+<p>If woollen clothes are not to be had, cotton will do, but wool is
+coolest and warmest, as the occasion may require.</p>
+
+<p>When rowing wear old socks, woollen ones if you have them,
+and old shoes cut down like slippers. The latter can be kicked<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+off at a moment's notice, and, if lost, they are of no value, and
+may be easily replaced.</p>
+
+<p>When on shore a long pair of woollen stockings to cover your
+bare legs and a sweater to pull over your sleeveless shirt are handy
+and comfortable, but while sailing, paddling, or rowing in hot
+weather the rowing-suit is generally all that comfort requires.
+Of course, if your skin is tender, you are liable to be terribly sunburned
+on your arms, neck, and legs; but</p>
+
+
+<h3>Sunburn</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>may be avoided by gradually accustoming your limbs to the exposure.
+Dearly will you pay for your negligence if you go out
+for a day with bare arms or legs in the hot sun before you have
+toughened yourself, and little will you sleep that night.</div>
+
+<p>I have seen young men going to business the day following a
+regatta with no collars on their red necks, and no shirt over their
+soft undershirts, the skin being too tender to bear the touch of the
+stiff, starched linen, and I have known others who could not sleep
+a wink on account of the feverish state of their bodies, caused by
+the hot sun and a tender skin. Most boys have had some experience
+from sunburn, acquired while bathing. If care is taken
+to cover your arms and legs after about an hour's exposure, you
+will find that in place of being blistered, your skin will be first
+pink and then a faint brownish tint, which each succeeding exposure
+will deepen until your limbs will assume that dark, rich
+mahogany color of which athletes are so proud. This makes your
+skin proof against future attacks of the hottest rays of the sun.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the pain and discomfort of a sudden and bad sunburn
+on your arms, the effect is not desirable, as it is very liable to
+cover your arms with freckles. I have often seen men with
+beautifully bronzed arms and freckled shoulders, caused by
+going out in their shells first with short sleeves and then with
+shirts from which the sleeves were entirely cut away, exposing
+the white, tender shoulders to the fierce heat, to which they
+were unaccustomed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is a good plan to cover the exposed parts of your body with
+sweet-oil, vaseline, mutton-tallow, beef-tallow, or lard. This is
+good as a preventive while in the sun, and excellent as an application
+after exposure. Any sort of oil or grease that does not contain
+salt is good for your skin.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Clothes for Canoeing</h3>
+
+<p>In canoeing I have found it convenient to dress as I would in a
+shell boat, but I generally have had a sweater and a pair of long
+trousers stowed away, ready to be pulled on over my rowing-clothes
+when I landed. Once, when I neglected to put these
+extra clothes aboard, I was storm-bound up Long Island Sound,
+and, leaving my boat, I took the train home, but I did not enjoy
+my trip, for the bare legs and arms and knit cap attracted more
+attention than is pleasant for a modest man.</p>
+
+<p>Do not wear laced shoes in a canoe, for experience has taught
+boating-men that about the most inconvenient articles of clothing
+to wear in the water are laced shoes. While swimming your feet
+are of absolutely no use if incased in this style of foot-gear, and
+all the work must be done with the arms. But if you have old
+slippers, they may be kicked off, and then you are dressed practically
+in a bathing-suit, and can swim with comfort and ease.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly these precautions may suggest the idea that a ducking
+is not at all an improbable accident, and it must be confessed
+that the boy who thinks he can learn to handle small boats without
+an occasional unlooked-for swim is liable to discover his mistake
+before he has become master of his craft.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Stick to Your Boat</h3>
+
+<p>Always remember that a wet head is a very small object in
+the water, and liable to be passed by unnoticed, but that a
+capsized boat can scarcely fail to attract attention and insure a
+speedy rescue from an awkward position. As for the real danger
+of boating, it cannot be great where care is used. Not one fatality
+has occurred on the water, among all of my large circle of boating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+friends, and personally I have never witnessed a fatal accident in
+all the years I have spent rowing and sailing.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Life-Preservers</h3>
+
+<p>All canoes should have a good cork life-preserver in them when
+the owner ventures away from land. I never but once ventured
+any distance without one, and that is the only time I was ever in
+need of a life-preserver. The ordinary cork jacket is best. It
+can be used for a seat, and when spread on the bottom of your
+canoe, with an old coat or some article thrown over it for a cushion,
+it is not at all an uncomfortable seat. Most canoes have airtight
+compartments fore and aft&mdash;that is, at both ends&mdash;and the
+boat itself is then a good life-preserver. Even without the airtight
+compartments, unless your boat is loaded with ballast or
+freight, there is no danger of its sinking. A canvas canoe, as a
+rule, has enough woodwork about it to support your weight when
+the boat is full of water.</p>
+
+<p>An upset canvas canoe supported me for an hour and a half
+during a blow on Long Island Sound, and had not a passing
+steamer rescued me, the canoe would evidently have buoyed me
+up as long as I could have held on to the hull.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IX<br />
+<small>HOW TO RIG AND SAIL SMALL BOATS</small></h2>
+
+
+<h3>How to Make a Lee-Board for a Canoe</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Now</span> that the open canvas canoe has become so popular the
+demand has arisen for some arrangement by which it may be
+used with sails. Of course it is an easy matter to rig sails on almost
+any sort of craft, but unless there is a keel or a centreboard
+the boat will make lee-way, <i>i. e.</i>, it will have no hold on the water,
+and when you try to tack, the boat will blow sideways, which may
+be fraught with serious results. The only time that the author
+ever got in a serious scrape with his canoe, was when he carelessly
+sailed out in a storm, leaving the key to his fan centreboard at
+the boat-house. Being unable to let down the centreboard, he
+was eventually driven out to sea, and when he became too fatigued
+to move quickly was capsized.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 610px;"><a id="Fig_140_2"></a><a id="Fig_140a"></a>
+<img src="images/i_110.png" width="610" height="525" alt="drawings" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 140.&mdash;Lee-board.  Fig. 140<i>a</i>.&mdash;Bolt and thumb-screw.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now to prevent such occurrences and to do away with the inconvenience
+of the centreboard in an open canoe, various designs
+of lee-boards have been made. A lee-board is, practically speaking,
+a double centreboard. The paddle-like form of the blades
+of the boards given in <a href="#Fig_140_2">Fig. 140</a> give them a good hold on the
+water when they are below the surface, and they can also be allowed
+to swing clear of the water when temporarily out of use. Or
+they may be removed and stowed away in the canoe. As you
+see by the diagram the two blades are connected by a spruce
+rod; the blades themselves may be made of some hard wood,
+like cherry, and bevelled at the edges like a canoe-paddle.
+They should be a scant foot in width and a few inches over<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+two feet long, and cut out of three-quarter-inch material. The
+spruce cross-bar is about one and a half inch in diameter, the
+ends of which are thrust through a hole in the upper end of each
+lee-board. A small hole is bored in the top of each lee-board,
+down through the ends of the cross-board, and when a galvanized-iron
+pin is pushed down through this hole, it will prevent the bar
+from turning in its socket. A couple more galvanized-iron pins
+or bars fit in holes in the spruce cross-bar, as shown in the diagram
+(<a href="#Fig_140_2">Fig. 140</a>). At the top end of each of these metal bolts
+is a thumb-screw which runs down over the thread of the bolt.
+The bottom or lower end is bent at right angles that it may be
+fitted under the gunwale of the canoe, and tightened by twisting
+the thumb-screws. The advantage of this sort of arrangement
+is that the lee-boards may be slid backward or forward and so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+adjusted that the canoe will sail in the direction in which it is
+steered. The place where the lee-board is to be fastened can
+only be found by experiment. When it is too far toward the
+bow, the boat will show a desire to come up against the wind,
+thus making work for the steersman to keep the wind in the sails.
+If the lee-board is fastened too far toward the stern the canoe
+will show a decided determination to swing around with its stern
+to the wind, which is a dangerous trick for a well-trained craft to
+indulge in.</p>
+
+<p>I have seen open canvas canoes at the outfitting stores marked
+as low as seventeen dollars, but they usually cost twenty-five dollars
+or more, and I would advise ambitious canoeists to build
+their own canoes, and even to make their own lee-boards,
+although it would be cheaper to buy the latter.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Rig and Sail Small Boats</h3>
+
+<p>To have the tiller in one's own hands and feel competent, under
+all ordinary circumstances, to bring a boat safely into port,
+gives the same zest and excitement to a sail (only in a far greater
+degree) that the handling of the whip and reins over a lively
+trotter does to a drive.</p>
+
+<p>Knowing and feeling this, it was my intention to devote a couple
+of chapters to telling how to sail a boat; but through the kind
+courtesy of the editor of <i>The American Canoeist</i>, I am able
+to do much better by giving my readers a talk on this subject by
+one whose theoretical knowledge and practical experience renders
+him pre-eminently fit to give reliable advice and counsel. The
+following is what Mr. Charles Ledyard Norton, editor of the
+above-mentioned journal, says:</p>
+
+<p>Very many persons seem to ignore the fact that a boy who
+knows how to manage a gun is, upon the whole, less likely to be
+shot than one who is a bungler through ignorance, or that a good
+swimmer is less likely to be drowned than a poor one. Such,
+however, is the truth beyond question. If a skilled sportsman is
+now and then shot, or an expert swimmer drowned, the fault is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+not apt to be his own, and if the one who is really to blame had
+received proper training, it is not likely that the accident would
+have occurred at all. The same argument holds good with
+regard to the management of boats, and the author is confident
+that he merits the thanks of mothers, whether he receives them or
+not, for giving their boys a few hints as to practical rigging and
+sailing.</p>
+
+<p>In general, there are three ways of learning how to sail boats.
+First, from the light of nature, which is a poor way; second, from
+books, which is better; and third, from another fellow who knows
+how, which is best of all. I will try to make this article as much
+like the other fellow and as little bookish as possible.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, what I shall say in these few paragraphs will be
+of small use to those who live within reach of the sea or some
+big lake and have always been used to boats; but there are
+thousands and thousands of boys and men who never saw the
+sea, nor even set eyes on a sail, and who have not the least idea
+how to make the wind take them where they want to go. I once
+knew some young men from the interior who went down to the
+sea-side and hired a boat, with the idea that they had nothing to
+do but hoist the sail and be blown wherever they liked. The
+result was that they performed a remarkable set of man&oelig;uvres
+within sight of the boat-house, and at last went helplessly out to
+sea and had to be sent after and brought back, when they were
+well laughed at for their performances, and had reason to consider
+themselves lucky for having gotten off so cheaply.</p>
+
+<p>The general principles of sailing are as simple as the national
+game of "one ole cat." That is to say, if the wind always blew
+moderately and steadily, it would be as easy and as safe to sail a
+boat as it is to drive a steady old family horse of good and regular
+habits. The fact, however, is that winds and currents are variable
+in their moods, and as capable of unexpected freaks as
+the most fiery of unbroken colts; but when properly watched
+and humored they are tractable and fascinating playmates and
+servants.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now, let us come right down to first principles. Take a bit
+of pine board, sharpen it at one end, set up a mast about a
+quarter of the length of the whole piece from the bow, fit on a
+square piece of stiff paper or card for a sail, and you are ready
+for action. Put this in the water, with the sail set squarely
+across (A, <a href="#Fig_141">Fig. 141</a>), and she will run off before the wind&mdash;which
+is supposed to be blowing as indicated by the arrow&mdash;at a good
+rate of speed. If she does not steer herself, put a small weight
+near the stern, or square end; or, if you like, arrange a thin bit
+of wood for a rudder.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 496px;"><a id="Fig_141"></a>
+<img src="images/i_113.png" width="496" height="368" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 141. Lesson in sailing for beginners.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Probably the first primeval man who was born with nautical
+instincts discovered this fact, and, using a bush for a sail,
+greatly astonished his fellow primevals by winning some prehistoric
+regatta. But that was all he could do. He was as helpless
+as a balloonist is in midair. He could go, but he could not
+get back, and we may be sure that ages passed away before the
+possibility of sailing to windward was discovered.</p>
+
+<p>Now, put up or "step" another mast and sail like the first,
+about as far from the stern as the first is from the bow. Turn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+the two sails at an angle of forty-five degrees across the boat
+(B or C, <a href="#Fig_141">Fig. 141</a>) and set her adrift. She will make considerable
+progress across the course of the wind, although she will at
+the same time drift with it. If she wholly refuses to go in the
+right direction, place a light weight on her bow, so that she will
+be a little "down by the head," or move the aftermost mast and
+sail a little nearer to the stern.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 568px;"><a id="Fig_142"></a>
+<img src="images/i_114.png" width="568" height="274" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 142.&mdash;Tacking.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The little rude affair thus used for experiment will not actually
+make any progress to windward, because she is so light that she
+moves sidewise almost as easily as she does forward. With a
+larger, deeper boat, and with sails which can be set at any angle,
+the effect will be different. So long as the wind presses against
+the after side of the sail, the boat will move through the water in
+the direction of the least resistance, which is forward. A square
+sail having the mast in the middle was easiest to begin with for
+purposes of explanation; but now we will change to a "fore-and-aft"
+rig&mdash;that is, one with the mast at the forward edge or "luff"
+of the sail, as in <a href="#Fig_142">Fig. 142</a>. Suppose the sail to be set at the angle
+shown, and the wind blowing as the arrow points. The boat cannot
+readily move sidewise, because of the broadside resistance;
+she does not move backward, because the wind is pressing on the
+aftermost side of the sail. So she very naturally moves forward.
+When she nears buoy No. 1, the helmsman moves the "tiller," or
+handle of the rudder, toward the sail. This causes the boat to
+turn her head toward buoy No. 2, the sail swings across to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+other side of the boat and fills on that side, which now in turn becomes
+the aftermost, and she moves toward buoy No. 2 nearly at
+right angles to her former course. Thus, through a series of zigzags,
+the wind is made to work against itself. This operation is
+called "tacking," or "working to windward," and the act of turning,
+as at the buoys No. 1 and No. 2, is called "going about."</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen, then, that the science of sailing lies in being
+able to manage a boat with her head pointing at any possible
+angle to or from the wind. Nothing but experience can teach
+one all the niceties of the art, but a little aptitude and address will
+do to start with, keeping near shore and carrying little sail.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Simplest Rig Possible</h3>
+
+<p>I will suppose that the reader has the use of a broad, flat-bottomed
+boat without any rudder. (See <a href="#Fig_143">Fig. 143</a>.) She cannot
+be made to work like a racing yacht under canvas, but lots
+of fun can be had out of her.</p>
+
+<p>Do not go to any considerable expense at the outset. Procure
+an old sheet, or an old hay cover, six or eight feet square,
+and experiment with that before spending your money on new
+material. If it is a sheet, and somewhat weakly in its texture,
+turn all the edges in and sew them, so that it shall not give way
+at the hems. At each corner sew on a few inches of strong twine,
+forming loops at the angles. Sew on, also, eyelets or small loops
+along the edge which is intended for the luff of the sail, so that it
+can be laced to the mast.</p>
+
+<p>You are now ready for your spars, namely, a mast and a
+"sprit," the former a couple of feet longer than the luff of the sail,
+and the latter to be cut off when you find how long you want it.
+Let these spars be of pine, or spruce, or bamboo&mdash;as light as possible,
+especially the sprit. An inch and a half diameter will do
+for the mast, and an inch and a quarter for the sprit, tapering to
+an inch at the top. To "step" the mast, bore a hole through one
+of the thwarts (seats) near the bow and make a socket or step on
+the bottom of the boat, just under the aforesaid hole&mdash;or if anything<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+a trifle farther forward&mdash;to receive the foot of the mast.
+This will hold the mast upright, or with a slight "rake" aft.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 636px;"><a id="Fig_143"></a>
+<img src="images/i_116.png" width="636" height="404" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 143.&mdash;A simple rig.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Lace the luff of the sail to the mast so that its lower edge will
+swing clear by a foot or so of the boat's sides. Make fast to the
+loop at D a stout line, ten or twelve feet long. This is called the
+"sheet," and gives control of the sail. The upper end of the sprit,
+C, E, is trimmed so that the loop at C will fit over it but not slip
+down. The lower end is simply notched to receive a short line
+called a "snotter," as shown in the detailed drawing at the right of
+the cut (<a href="#Fig_143">Fig. 143</a>). It will be readily understood that, when the
+sprit is pushed upward in the direction of C, the sail will stand
+spread out. The line is placed in the notch at E and pulled up
+until the sail sets properly, when it is made fast to a cleat or to a
+cross-piece at F. This device is in common use and has its advantages,
+but a simple loop for the foot of the sprit to rest in is
+more easily made and will do nearly as well. H is an oar for
+steering. Having thus described the simplest rig possible, we
+may turn our attention to more elegant and elaborate but not
+always preferable outfits.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Leg-of-Mutton Rig</h3>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 201px;"><a id="Fig_144"></a>
+<img src="images/i_117.png" width="201" height="281" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 144.</div>
+</div>
+<p>One of the prettiest and most convenient rigs for a small
+boat is known as the "leg-of-mutton sharpie rig" (<a href="#Fig_144">Fig. 144</a>).
+The sail is triangular, and the sprit, instead of reaching to its
+upper corner, stands nearly at right angles to the mast. It is held
+in position at the mast by the devices already described. This
+rig has the advantage of keeping the whole sail flatter than any
+other, for the end of the sprit cannot "kick
+up," as the phrase goes, and so the sail holds
+all the wind it receives.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_145">Fig. 145</a> shows a device, published for the
+first time in the <i>St. Nicholas Magazine</i> for
+September, 1880, which enables the sailor to
+step and unstep his mast, and hoist or lower
+his sail without leaving his seat&mdash;a matter of
+great importance when the boat is light and
+tottlish, as in the case of that most beautiful
+of small craft, the modern canoe, where the
+navigator sits habitually amidships. The
+lower mast (A, B, <a href="#Fig_145">Fig. 145</a>) stands about two and a half feet
+above the deck. It is fitted at the head with a metal ferrule
+and pin, and just above the deck with two half-cleats or other
+similar devices (A). The topmast (C, D) is fitted at F with a
+stout ring, and has double halyards (E) rove through or around
+its foot. The lower mast being in position (see lower part of <a href="#Fig_145">Fig.
+145</a>), the canoeist desiring to make sail brings the boat's head to
+the wind, takes the topmast with the sail loosely furled in one
+hand and the halyards in the other. It is easy for him by raising
+this mast, without leaving his seat, to pass the halyards one on
+each side of the lower mast and let them fall into place close to the
+deck under the half-cleats at A. Then, holding the halyards taut
+enough to keep them in position, he will hook the topmast ring
+over the pin in the lower mast-heat and haul away (see top part
+of <a href="#Fig_145">Fig. 145</a>). The mast will rise into place, where it is made fast.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+A collar of leather, or a knob of some kind, placed on the topmast
+just below the ring, will act as a fulcrum when the halyards
+are hauled taut and keep the mast from working to and fro.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_145"></a>
+<img src="images/i_118.png" width="600" height="984" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 145.&mdash;A new device.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The advantages of the rig are obvious. The mast can be
+raised without standing up, and in case of necessity the halyards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+can be let go and the mast and sail unshipped and stowed below
+with the greatest ease and expedition, leaving only the short lower
+mast standing. A leg-of-mutton sail with a common boom along
+the foot is shown in the cut as the most easily illustrated application
+of the device, but there is no reason why it may not be applied
+to a sail of different shape, with a
+sprit instead of a boom, and a square
+instead of a pointed head.</p>
+
+<h3>The Latteen Rig</h3>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 402px;"><a id="Fig_146"></a>
+<img src="images/i_119.png" width="402" height="662" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 146.&mdash;The latteen rig.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is recommended only for boats which
+are "stiff"&mdash;not tottlish, that is. The
+fact that a considerable portion of the
+sail projects forward of the mast renders
+it awkward in case of a sudden shift of
+wind. Its most convenient form is
+shown in <a href="#Fig_146">Fig. 146</a>. The arrangement
+for shipping and unshipping the yard is
+precisely like that shown in <a href="#Fig_145">Fig. 145</a>&mdash;a
+short lower mast with a pin at the top
+and a ring fitted to the yard. It has a
+boom at the foot which is joined to the
+yard at C by means of a hook or a
+simple lashing, having sufficient play to allow the two spars to
+shut up together like a pair of dividers. The boom (C, E) has,
+where it meets the short lower mast, a half-cleat, or jaw, shown in
+detail at the bottom of the cut (<a href="#Fig_146">Fig. 146</a>), the circle representing a
+cross-section of the mast. This should be lashed to the boom, as
+screws or bolts would weaken it. To take in sail, the boatman brings
+the boat to the wind, seizes the boom and draws it toward him.
+This disengages it from the mast. He then shoves it forward, when
+the yard (C, D) falls of its own weight into his hands and can be
+at once lifted clear of the lower mast. To keep the sail flat, it is
+possible to arrange a collar on the lower mast so that the boom,
+when once in position, cannot slip upward and suffer the sail to bag.</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>The Cat-Rig</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>so popular on the North Atlantic coast, is indicated in <a href="#Fig_148">Fig. 148</a>.
+The spar at the head of the sail is called a "gaff," and, like the
+boom, it fits the mast with semicircular jaws. The sail is hoisted
+and lowered by means of halyards rove through a block near
+the mast-head. The mast is set in the bows&mdash;"Chock up in the
+eyes of her," as a sailor would say. A single leg-of-mutton sail will
+not work in this position, because the greater part of its area is
+too far forward of amidships. No rig is handier or safer than
+this in working to windward; but off the wind&mdash;running before,
+or nearly before it, that is&mdash;the weight of mast and sail, and the
+pressure of the wind at one side and far forward, make the boat
+very difficult and dangerous to steer. Prudent boatmen often
+avoid doing so by keeping the wind on the quarter and, as it were,
+tacking to leeward.</div>
+
+<p>This suggests the question of "jibing," an operation always
+to be avoided if possible. Suppose the wind to be astern, and the
+boat running nearly before it, it becomes necessary to change
+your course toward the side on which the sail is drawing. The
+safest way is to turn at first in the opposite direction, put the helm
+"down" (toward the sail), bring the boat up into the wind, turn
+her entirely around, and stand off on the new tack. This, however,
+is not always possible. Hauling in the sheet until the sail
+fills on the other side is "jibing"; but when this happens it goes
+over with a rush that sometimes carries mast and sheet or upsets
+the boat; hence the operation should be first undertaken in a light
+wind. It is necessary to know how to do it, for sometimes a sail
+insists upon jibing very unexpectedly, and it is best to be prepared
+for such emergencies.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Make a Sail</h3>
+
+<p>For the sails of small boats there is no better material than unbleached
+twilled cotton sheeting. It is to be had two and a half
+or even three yards wide. In cutting out your sail, let the selvage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+be at the "leech," or after-most edge. This, of course, makes it
+necessary to cut the luff and foot "bias," and they are very likely
+to stretch in the making, so that the sail will assume a different
+shape from what was intended. To avoid this, baste the hem
+carefully before sewing, and "hold in" a little to prevent fulling.
+It is a good plan to tack the material on the floor before cutting,
+and mark the outline of the sail with pencil. Stout tape stitched
+along the bias edges will make a sure thing of it, and the material
+can be cut, making due allowance for the hem. Better take
+feminine advice on this process. The hems should be half an
+inch deep all around, selvage and all, and it will do no harm to
+reinforce them with cord if you wish to make a thoroughly good
+piece of work.</p>
+
+<p>For running-rigging, nothing is better than laid or braided
+cotton cord, such as is used for awnings and sash-cords. If this
+is not easily procured, any stout twine will answer. It can be
+doubled and twisted as often as necessary. The smallest manila
+rope is rather stiff and unmanageable for such light sails as ours.</p>
+
+<p>In fitting out a boat of any kind, iron, unless galvanized, is
+to be avoided as much as possible, on account of its liability to
+rust. Use brass or copper instead.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Hints to Beginners</h3>
+
+<p>Nothing has been said about reefing thus far, because small
+boats under the management of beginners should not be afloat
+in a "reefing breeze." Reefing is the operation of reducing the
+spread of sail when the wind becomes too fresh. If you will look
+at <a href="#Fig_146">Fig. 146</a> you will see rows of short marks on the sail above the
+boom. These are "reef-points"&mdash;bits of line about a foot long
+passing through holes in the sail and knotted so that they will not
+slip. In reefing, the sail is lowered and that portion of it between
+the boom and the reef-points is gathered together, and the points
+are tied around both it and the boom. When the lower row of points
+is used it is a single reef. Both rows together are a double reef.</p>
+
+<p>Make your first practical experiment <i>with a small sail and</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+<i>with the wind blowing toward the shore</i>. Row out a little way,
+and then sail in any direction in which you can make the boat go,
+straight back to shore if you can, with the sail out nearly at right
+angles with the boat. Then try running along shore with the sheet
+hauled in a little and the sail on the side nearest the shore. You
+will soon learn what your craft can do, and will probably find that
+she will make very little, if any, headway to windward. This is
+partly because she slides sidewise over the water. To prevent it
+you may use a "lee-board"&mdash;namely,
+a broad board hung over
+the side of the boat (G, <a href="#Fig_143">Fig. 143</a>).
+This must be held by stout lines,
+as the strain upon it is very heavy.
+It should be placed a little forward
+of the middle of the boat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 496px;"><a id="Fig_147"></a>
+<img src="images/i_122.png" width="496" height="312" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 147.&mdash;Making port.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It must be on the side away from
+the wind&mdash;the lee side&mdash;and must
+be shifted when you go about. Keels and centreboards are
+permanent contrivances for the same purpose, but a lee-board
+answers very well as a makeshift, and is even used habitually
+by some canoeists and other boatmen.</p>
+
+<p>In small boats it is sometimes desirable to sit amidships,
+because sitting in the stern raises the bow too high out of water;
+steering may be done with an oar over the lee side, or with "yoke-lines"
+attached to a cross-piece on the rudder-head, or even to the
+tiller. In this last case the lines must be rove through rings or
+pulleys at the sides of the boat opposite the end of the tiller.
+When the handle of the oar (H, <a href="#Fig_143">Fig. 143</a>)&mdash;or the tiller (F, <a href="#Fig_146">Fig.
+146</a>) if a rudder is used&mdash;is pushed to the right, the boat will turn
+to the left, and <i>vice versa</i>. The science of steering consists in
+knowing when to push and how much to push&mdash;very simple, you
+see, in the statement, but not always so easy in practice.</p>
+
+<p>The sail should be so adjusted in relation to the rest of the
+boat that, when the sheet is hauled close in and made fast, the
+boat, if left to herself, will point her head to the wind like a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+weather-cock and drift slowly astern. If it is found that the
+sail is so far forward that she will not do this, the fault may be
+remedied by stepping the mast further aft or by rigging a small
+sail near the stern. This is called a "dandy" or "steering sail,"
+and is especially convenient in a boat whose size or arrangement
+necessitates sitting amidships. It may be rigged like the mainsail,
+and when its sheet is once made fast will ordinarily take care of
+itself in tacking.</p>
+
+<p>Remember that, if the wind freshens or a squall strikes you,
+the position of safety is with the boat's head to the wind. When
+in doubt what to do, push the helm down (toward the sail) and
+haul in the slack of the sheet as the boat comes up into the wind.
+If she is moving astern, or will not mind her helm&mdash;and of course
+she will not if she is not moving&mdash;pull her head around to the wind
+with an oar and experiment cautiously until you find which way
+you can make her go.</p>
+
+<p>In making a landing, always calculate to have the boat's
+head as near the wind as possible when she ceases to move,
+this whether you lower your sail or not.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, if the wind is off shore, as shown at A, <a href="#Fig_147">Fig. 147</a>, land
+at F or G, with the bow toward the shore. If the wind is from the
+direction of B, land at E, with the bow toward B or at F; if at the
+latter, the boom will swing away from the wharf and permit you
+to lie alongside. If the wind is from D, reverse these positions.
+If the wind comes from the direction of C, land either at F or G,
+with the bow pointing off shore.</p>
+
+<p>If you have no one to tell you what to do, you will have to
+feel your way slowly and learn by experience; but if you have
+nautical instincts you will soon make your boat do what you wish
+her to do as far as she is able. <i>But first learn to swim before you
+try to sail a boat.</i></p>
+
+<p>Volumes have been written on the subject treated in these few
+pages, and it is not yet exhausted. The hints here given are safe
+ones to follow, and will, it is hoped, be of service to many a young
+sailor in many a corner of the world.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER X<br />
+<small>MORE RIGS OF ALL KINDS FOR SMALL BOATS</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary1'>How to Distinguish between a Ship, Bark, Brig, and Schooner&mdash;Merits
+and Defects of Catboats&mdash;Advantages of the Sloop&mdash;Rigs
+for Canoes&mdash;Buckeyes and Sharpies</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> two principal rigs for vessels are the fore-and-aft and the
+square rig.</p>
+
+<p><b>Square rigged</b> consists in having the principal sails extended by
+yards suspended at the middle (<a href="#Fig_159">Fig. 159</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Fore-and-aft rigged</b> is having the principal sails extended by
+booms and gaffs suspended by their ends (<a href="#Fig_148">Figs. 148</a>, <a href="#Fig_149">149</a>, <a href="#Fig_150">150</a>,
+<a href="#Fig_156">156</a>, and <a href="#Fig_161">161</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Barks, brigs, and ships are all more or less square rigged, but
+schooners, sloops, and catboats are all fore-and-aft rigged. In
+these notes the larger forms of boats are mentioned only because
+of the well-known interest boys take in all nautical matters, but
+no detailed description of the larger craft will be given. All that
+is aimed at here is to give the salient points, so that the youngsters
+will know the name of the rig when they see it.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Cat</h3>
+
+<p>There is a little snub-nosed American who, in spite of her short
+body and broad waist, is deservedly popular among all our
+amateur sailors.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="drawings">
+<tr><td align="left"><div class="figleft" style="width: 260px;"><a id="Fig_148"></a>
+<img src="images/i_125a.png" width="260" height="283" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 148.&mdash;The snub-nosed
+American cat.</div>
+</div></td><td align="left"><div class="figright" style="width: 429px;"><a id="Fig_149"></a>
+<img src="images/i_125b.png" width="429" height="329" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 149.&mdash;Jib and mainsail.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p>The appreciation of her charms is felt and acknowledged by
+all her companions without envy, not because of her saucy looks,
+but on account of her accommodating manners.</p>
+
+<p>Possessing a rare ability for quick movement, and a wonderful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+power to bore her way almost into the very eye of the wind, or
+with double-reefed sail to dash through the storm or gently slide
+up alongside of a wharf or dock as easily as a rowboat, the American
+catboat, with her single mast "chock up in the eyes of her,"
+has made a permanent place for herself among our pleasure craft,
+and is omnipresent in our crowded bays and harbors.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 427px;"><a id="Fig_150"></a>
+<img src="images/i_125c.png" width="427" height="274" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 150.&mdash;Schooner rig for open boat.
+Boom on mainsail, none on foresail.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Knowing that there is little danger of the catboat losing its
+well-earned popularity, and being somewhat familiar with many
+of her peculiarities, I am free to say that this rig, notwithstanding
+its numerous good points, has many serious defects as a school-ship,
+and the beginner had better select some other rig with which
+to begin his practice sailing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 254px;"><a id="Fig_151"></a>
+<img src="images/i_125d.png" width="254" height="317" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 151.&mdash;The balance lug.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>First, the great sail is very heavy and difficult to hoist and reef.
+Second, in going before the wind there is constant danger of jibing,
+with serious results. Third, the catboat has a very bad habit
+of rolling when sailing before the wind, and each time the boat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+rolls from side to side she is liable to dip the end of her heavy
+boom in the water and "trip herself up." When a boat trips <i>up</i>
+she does not necessarily go <i>down</i>, but she is likely to upset, placing
+the young sailors in an unenviable, if not a dangerous, position.
+Fourth, when the craft begins to swagger before the wind she is
+liable to "goose-neck"; that is, throw her boom up against the
+mast, which is another accident fraught with the possibilities of
+serious mischief.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="drawings">
+<tr><td align="left"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 214px;"><a id="Fig_152"></a>
+<img src="images/i_126a.png" width="214" height="265" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 152.&mdash;Standing lug.</div>
+</div></td><td align="left"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 332px;"><a id="Fig_153"></a>
+<img src="images/i_126b.png" width="332" height="272" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 153.&mdash;Leg-of-mutton sail.
+Jib and main sail rig.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The catboat has no bowsprit, no jib, and no topsail (<a href="#Fig_148">Fig. 148</a>),
+but that most graceful of all single-stickers,</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Sloop</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>possesses several jibs, a bowsprit, and topsail. Besides these,
+when she is in racing trim, a number of additional sails are used.
+All our great racers are sloops, and this rig is the most convenient
+for small yachts and cutters.</div>
+
+<h3>Racing Sloops</h3>
+
+<p>A racing sloop (<a href="#Fig_161">Fig. 161</a>) carries a mainsail, A, a fore staysail,
+B, a jib, C, a gaff topsail, D, a club topsail, E, a baby jib topsail,
+F, a No. 2 jib topsail, G, a No. 1 jib topsail, H, a balloon jib topsail,
+J (<a href="#Fig_157">Fig. 157</a>), and a spinnaker, K (<a href="#Fig_157">Fig. 157</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_154"></a><a id="Fig_155"></a><a id="Fig_156"></a><a id="Fig_157"></a><a id="Fig_158"></a><a id="Fig_159"></a><a id="Fig_160"></a><a id="Fig_161"></a>
+<img src="images/i_127.png" width="600" height="427" alt="drawings" />
+<div class="caption">Figs. 154-161.&mdash;Rigs that we meet at sea.</div>
+</div>
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_127-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Jib and Mainsail</h3>
+
+<p>A small sloop's sails are a mainsail, jib, and topsail. A sloop
+rig without topsail is called a jib and mainsail (<a href="#Fig_149">Fig. 149</a>).</p>
+
+<p>While every small-boat sailor should know a catboat and a
+sloop when he sees them, and even be able to give the proper name
+to their sails, neither of these rigs is very well suited for canoes,
+sharpies, or other boats of the mosquito fleet; but the</p>
+
+
+<h3>Schooner Rig</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class='unindent'>which is the form of boat generally used for the larger yachts,
+is also very much used for open boats. As you can see, by referring
+to <a href="#Fig_150">Fig. 150</a>, the schooner rig consists of a bowsprit, fore and
+main mast, with their appropriate sails. Lately freight schooners
+have appeared with four or more masts. For small boats two
+adjustable masts and an adjustable bowsprit, as described in the
+Rough and Ready, Chapter XIII, are best. The sails may be
+sprit sails, Figs. 164-169; balance lug, <a href="#Fig_151">Fig. 151</a>; standing lug, <a href="#Fig_152">Fig.
+152</a>; leg-of-mutton, <a href="#Fig_153">Fig. 153</a>, or the sliding gunter, <a href="#Fig_163">Fig. 163</a>.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 344px;"><a id="Fig_162"></a>
+<img src="images/i_128a.png" width="344" height="327" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 162.&mdash;The buckeye.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 413px;"><a id="Fig_163"></a>
+<img src="images/i_128b.png" width="413" height="258" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 163.&mdash;The sliding gunter.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the chapter on how to build the Rough and Ready, the sprit
+sail is depicted and fully described.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Balance Lug</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>comes as near the square sail of a ship as any canvas used on
+small boats, but you can see, by referring to the diagram, <a href="#Fig_151">Fig. 151</a>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+that the leach and the luff are not parallel and that the gaff hangs
+at an angle. To boom out the canvas and make it sit flat there
+are three sticks extended across the sail from the front to the
+back, luff to leach, called battens. This has caused some people
+to call this a batten lug. Like the lateen sail, part of the balance
+lug hangs before the mast and serves the purpose of a jib. This
+rig is said to be easily managed and to possess good sailing qualities.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 335px;"><a id="Fig_164"></a>
+<img src="images/i_129a.png" width="335" height="261" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 164.&mdash;Sharpie with sprit and
+club leg-of-mutton sails.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 528px;"><a id="Fig_165"></a><a id="Fig_166"></a>
+<img src="images/i_129b.png" width="528" height="409" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Showing detail of sprit club sail.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Standing Lug</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is another sail approaching the square in pattern (<a href="#Fig_152">Fig. 152</a>), and,
+as any novice can see, is a good canvas with which to scud before
+the wind. It is very convenient for open boats built to be propelled
+by paddles. While the standing lug cannot point up to the
+eye of the wind like a schooner or cat, it is very fast on the wind
+or when running with the wind astern. Probably the safest form
+of sail used is the old reliable</div>
+
+
+<h3>Leg-of-Mutton Sail</h3>
+
+<p>This is used by the fishermen on their stanch little dories away
+up on the coast of Maine, and by the "tide-water" people in their
+"buckeyes" on Chesapeake Bay. The latter boat is very little
+known outside of the locality where it makes its home, but, like
+the New Haven sharpies, it is very popular in its own waters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>The Buckeye</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>or "bugeye," as it is sometimes vulgarly called, has a great reputation
+for speed and sea-going qualities. When it cannot climb
+a wave it goes through it. This makes a wet boat in heavy
+weather, but when you travel at a high rate of speed you can endure
+a wet jacket with no complaint, especially when you feel
+that, in spite of the fast-sailing qualities of this boat, it is considered
+a particularly safe craft.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 174px;"><a id="Fig_167"></a>
+<img src="images/i_130a.png" width="174" height="276" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 167.&mdash;Plain sprit
+leg-of-mutton.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a id="Fig_168"></a><a id="Fig_169"></a>
+<img src="images/i_130b.png" width="500" height="257" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Another form of the sprit sail.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The construction of a <b>buckeye</b> (<a href="#Fig_162">Fig. 162</a>) has been evolved from
+the old dugout canoe of the Indians and the first white settlers.
+America was originally covered with vast forests of immense trees.
+Remnants of these forests still exist in a few localities. It was
+once possible to make a canoe of almost any dimensions desired,
+but now in the thickly settled regions big trees are scarce.</p>
+
+<p>So the Chesapeake Bay boat-builders, while still adhering to the
+old dugout, have overcome the disadvantage of small logs by
+using more than one and bolting the pieces together. Masts and
+sails have been added, and since the increased proportions made
+it impracticable to drag such a craft on the beach when in port,
+anchors and cables are supplied. Two holes bored, one on each
+side of the stem, for the cables to run through, have given the
+boat the appearance of having eyes, and as the eyes are large and
+round, the negroes called them buckeyes, and this is now the
+name by which all such craft are known.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At first only two masts with leg-of-mutton sails were used, but
+now they have a jib and two sails. With the greatest width or
+beam about one-third the distance from bow to stern, sharp at
+both ends, its long, narrow, and heavy hull is easily driven through
+the water and makes both a fast and stiff boat.</p>
+
+<p>The buckeye travels in shallow as well as deep waters, and
+hence is a centreboard boat, but there is nothing unnecessary on
+the real buckeye&mdash;no overhanging bow or stern, for that means
+additional labor; no stays to the masts, for the same reason. The
+lack of stays to stiffen the masts leaves them with "springiness,"
+which in case of a sudden squall helps to spill the wind and prevents
+what might otherwise be a "knock-down."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 381px;"><a id="Fig_170"></a>
+<img src="images/i_131a.png" width="381" height="231" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 170.&mdash;Lug rig with jigger.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>The foremast is longer than the mainmast and does not rake
+aft so much, but the mainmast has a decided rake, which the colored
+sailors say makes the boat faster on the wind. Sometimes
+in the smaller boats the mainmast can be set upright when going
+before the wind.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;"><a id="Fig_171"></a>
+<img src="images/i_131b.png" width="420" height="251" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 171.&mdash;Lug rig with jigger and jib.</div>
+</div>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 126px;"><a id="Fig_172"></a>
+<img src="images/i_132a.png" width="126" height="171" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 172.&mdash;Jib.</div>
+</div>
+<p>Wealthy gentlemen on the Chesapeake are now building regularly
+equipped yachts on the buckeye plan, and some of them
+are quite large boats. A correspondent of the <i>Forest and Stream</i>,
+in speaking of the buckeye, says:</p>
+
+<p>"Last summer I cruised in company with a buckeye, forty-two
+feet long, manned by two gentlemen of Baltimore city. She drew
+twenty inches without the board. In sudden and heavy flaws she
+was rarely luffed. She would lie over and appear to spill the wind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+out of her tall, sharp sails and then right again. Her crew took
+pleasure in tackling every sailing craft for a race; nothing under
+seventy feet in length ever beat her. She steered under any two
+of her three sails. On one occasion this craft, on her way from
+Cape May to Cape Charles, was driven out to sea before a heavy
+north-west blow. Her crew, the aforesaid gentlemen, worn out by
+fatigue, hove her to and went to sleep. She broke her tiller lashing
+during the night, and when they awoke she was pegging away
+on a south-east course under her jib. They put her about, and in
+twenty hours were inside Cape Henry, pretty well tired out. Buckeyes
+frequently run from Norfolk to New York with fruit. For
+shallow waters, I am satisfied there is no better craft afloat.
+Built deep, with a loaded keel, they would rival the English cutter
+in seaworthiness and speed."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 336px;"><a id="Fig_173"></a>
+<img src="images/i_132b.png" width="336" height="169" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 173.&mdash;Sprit sail, schooner rig, with dandy.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the hardy, bold fishermen of our Eastern States and the
+brave fishermen down South both use the leg-of-mutton sail,
+beginners cannot object to using it while practising; knowing that
+even if it is a safe sail, it cannot be called a "baby rig." Another
+safe rig, differing little from the leg-of-mutton, is the</p>
+
+
+<h3>Sliding Gunter</h3>
+
+<p>In this rig the sail is laced to a yard which slides up or down
+the mast by means of two iron hooks or travellers (<a href="#Fig_163">Fig. 163</a>). No
+sail with a narrow-pointed top is very serviceable before the wind,
+and the sliding gunter is no exception to the rule. But it is useful
+on the wind, and can be reefed easily and quickly, qualities which
+make it many friends.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the smooth, shallow waters along the coast of North Carolina
+may be seen the long, flat-bottomed</p>
+
+
+<h3>Sharpies</h3>
+
+<p>Without question they are to be ranked among the fastest boats
+we have. These boats are rigged with a modification of the leg-of-mutton
+sail. The ends of the sprit in the foresail project at the
+luff and leach. At the luff it is fastened to the mast by a line like
+a snotter at the leach. It is fastened to a stick sewed into the sail,
+called a club. The sheet is attached to the end of the sprit
+(Figs. 164-168).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 247px;"><a id="Fig_174"></a>
+<img src="images/i_133a.png" width="247" height="157" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 174.&mdash;Sprit sail jib and dandy.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>The Sprit Leg-of-Mutton Sail</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>has this advantage, that the clew of the sail is much higher than
+the tack, thus avoiding the danger of dipping the clew in the water
+and tripping the boat.</div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 261px;"><a id="Fig_175"></a>
+<img src="images/i_133b.png" width="261" height="181" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 175.&mdash;The lateen rig with dandy.</div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>The Dandy Jigger, or Mizzen Rig</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is named after the small sail aft, near the rudder-head. This
+jigger, mizzen, or dandy may have a boom, a sprit, or be rigged
+as a lug. (See <a href="#Fig_170">Figs. 170</a>, <a href="#Fig_171">171</a>, <a href="#Fig_173">173</a>, <a href="#Fig_174">174</a>, <a href="#Fig_175">175</a>, <a href="#Fig_178">178</a>, <a href="#Fig_180">180</a>, and <a href="#Fig_184">184</a>,
+which show the principal mizzen rigs in use.)</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_176"></a><a id="Fig_177"></a><a id="Fig_178"></a><a id="Fig_179"></a><a id="Fig_180"></a><a id="Fig_181"></a><a id="Fig_182"></a><a id="Fig_183"></a><a id="Fig_184"></a>
+<img src="images/i_134.png" width="600" height="715" alt="drawings of ships" />
+<div class="caption">Figs. 176-184.&mdash;Hybrid rigs for small boats; also two useful tackles.</div></div>
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_134-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+<p>In puffy wind and lumpy water the main and mizzen rig will
+be found to work well. The little sail aft should be trimmed as
+flat as possible. It will be found of great help in beating to the
+windward, and will keep the nose of the boat facing the wind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a><br /><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+when the mainsail is down. Different rigs are popular in different
+localities. For instance:</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Lateen Rig</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is very popular in some parts of the Old World, yet it has only
+few friends here. It may be because of my art training that I feel
+so kindly toward this style of sail, or it may be from association in
+my mind of some of the happiest days of my life with a little black
+canoe rigged with lateen sails. At any rate, in spite of the undeniable
+fact that the lateen is unpopular, I never see a small boat
+rigged in this style without a feeling of pleasure. The handy little
+stumps of masts end in a spike at the top and are adorned by
+the beautiful sails lashed to slender spars, which, by means of
+metal rings, are lightly, but securely, fastened to the mast by
+simply hooking the ring over the spike. I freely acknowledge that
+when the sails are lowered and you want to use your paddle the
+lateen sails are in your way. It is claimed that they are awkward
+to reef, and this may be true. I never tried it. When the wind
+was too strong for my sails I made port or took in either the large
+or the small sail, as the occasion seemed to demand.</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Ship</h3>
+
+<p>When you are out sailing and see a vessel with three masts, all
+square rigged, you are looking at a ship proper, though ship is a
+word often used loosely for any sort of a boat (<a href="#Fig_159">Fig. 159</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The bark</b> is a vessel with square-rigged foremast and mainmast
+and a fore-and-aft rigged mizzen-mast (<a href="#Fig_160">Fig. 160</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The brig</b> is a vessel with only two masts, both of which are
+square rigged (<a href="#Fig_158">Fig. 158</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The brigantine</b> has two masts&mdash;foremast square rigged and
+mainmast fore-and-aft rigged (<a href="#Fig_155">Fig. 155</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The barkentine</b> has three masts&mdash;mainmast and mizzen-mast
+fore-and-aft rigged and foremast square rigged. (See <a href="#Fig_154">Fig. 154</a>.)</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XI<br />
+<small>KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES</small></h2>
+
+
+<div class='summary2'>How to Tie Knots Useful on Both Land and Water</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> art of tying knots is an almost necessary adjunct to not a
+few recreations. Especially is this true of summer sports, many
+of which are nautical or in some manner connected with the water.</p>
+
+<p>Any boy who has been aboard a yacht or a sail-boat must have
+realized that the safety of the vessel and all aboard may be imperilled
+by ignorance or negligence in the tying of a knot or fastening
+of a rope.</p>
+
+<p>With some the knack of tying a good, strong knot in a heavy
+rope or light cord seems to be a natural gift; it is certainly a very
+convenient accomplishment, and one that with practice and a
+little perseverance may be acquired even by those who at first
+make the most awkward and bungling attempts.</p>
+
+<p>A bulky, cumbersome knot is not only ungainly, but is generally
+insecure.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, the strength of a knot is in direct proportion to its neat
+and handsome appearance.</p>
+
+<p>To my mind it is as necessary that the archer should know how
+to make the proper loops at the end of his bow-string as it is that
+a hunter should understand how to load his gun.</p>
+
+<p>Every fisherman should be able to join two lines neatly and securely,
+and should know the best and most expeditious method
+of attaching an extra hook or fly; and any boy who rigs up a hammock
+or swing with a "granny" or other insecure knot deserves
+the ugly tumble and sore bones that are more than liable to result
+from his ignorance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A knot, nautically speaking, is a "bend" that is more permanent
+than a "hitch." A knot properly tied never slips, nor
+does it jam so that it cannot be readily untied. A "hitch" might
+be termed a temporary bend, as it is seldom relied upon for permanent
+service. The "hitch" is so made that it can be cast off
+or unfastened more quickly than a knot.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible for the brightest boy to learn to make "knots,
+bends, and hitches" by simply reading over a description of the
+methods; for, although he may understand them at the time,
+five minutes after reading the article the process will have escaped
+his memory. But if he take a piece of cord or rope and sit down
+with the diagrams in front of him, he will find little difficulty in
+managing the most complicated knots; and he will not only acquire
+an accomplishment from which he can derive infinite amusement
+for himself and a means of entertainment for others, but the
+knowledge gained may, in case of accident by fire or flood, be the
+means of saving both life and property.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying diagrams show a number of useful and
+important bends, splices, etc. To simplify matters, let us commence
+with <a href="#Fig_57">Fig. 57</a>, and go through the diagrams in the order in
+which they come:</p>
+
+<p>The "English" or "common single fisherman's knot" (<a href="#Fig_185">Fig.
+185</a>, I) is neat and strong enough for any ordinary strain. The
+diagram shows the knots before being tightened and drawn together.</p>
+
+<p>When exceptional strength is required it can be obtained by
+joining the lines in the ordinary single fisherman's knot (<a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, I)
+and pulling each of the half knots as tight as possible, then drawing
+them within an eighth of an inch of each other and wrapping
+between with fine gut that has been previously softened in water,
+or with light-colored silk.</p>
+
+<p>An additional line or a sinker may be attached by tying a knot
+in the end of the extra line and inserting it between the parts of
+the single fisherman's knot before they are drawn together and
+tightened.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_185"></a>
+<img src="images/i_138.png" width="600" height="746" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 185.&mdash;Some useful knots.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The "fisherman's double half knot," <a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a> (II and III).
+After the gut has been passed around the main line and through
+itself, it is passed around the line once more and through the same
+loop again and drawn close.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a> (IV, V, and IX). Here are three methods of joining
+the ends of two lines together; the diagrams explain them
+much better than words can. Take a piece of string, try each
+one, and test their relative strength.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a> (VI). It often happens, while fishing, that a hook is
+caught in a snag or by some other means lost. The diagram
+shows the most expeditious manner of attaching another hook
+by what is known as the "sinker hitch," described further on
+(<a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, D, D, D, and <a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XIV, XV, and XVI).</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, VII is another and more secure method of attaching
+a hook by knitting the line on with a succession of half-hitches.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Make a Horse-Hair Watch-Guard</h3>
+
+<p>The same hitches are used in the manufacture of horse-hair
+watch-guards, much in vogue with the boys in some sections of
+the country. As regularly as "kite-time," "top-time," or "ball-time,"
+comes "horse-hair watch-guard time."</p>
+
+<p>About once a year the rage for making watch-guards used to
+seize the boys of our school, and by some means or other almost
+every boy would have a supply of horse-hair on hand. With the
+first tap of the bell for recess, some fifty hands would dive into
+the mysterious depths of about fifty pockets, and before the bell
+had stopped ringing about fifty watch-guards, in a more or less incomplete
+state, would be produced.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever a teamster's unlucky stars caused him to stop near
+the school-house, a chorus of voices greeted him with "Mister,
+please let us have some hair from your horses' tails."</p>
+
+<p>The request was at first seldom refused, possibly because its
+nature was not at the time properly understood; but lucky was
+the boy considered who succeeded in pulling a supply of hair
+from the horses' tails without being interrupted by the heels of
+the animals or by the teamster, who, when he saw the swarm of
+boys tugging at his horses' tails, generally repented his first good-natured
+assent, and with a gruff, "Get out, you young rascals!"
+sent the lads scampering to the school-yard fence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Select a lot of long hair of the color desired; make it into a
+switch about an eighth of an inch thick by tying one end in a
+simple knot. Pick out a good, long hair and tie it around the
+switch close to the knotted end; then take the free end of the single
+hair in your right hand and pass it under the switch on one side,
+thus forming a loop through which the end of the hair must pass
+after it is brought up and over from the other side of the switch.
+Draw the knot tight by pulling the free end of the hair as shown
+by <a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, VII. Every time this operation is repeated a wrap
+and a knot is produced. The knots follow each other in a spiral
+around the switch, giving it a very pretty, ornamented appearance.
+When one hair is used up select another and commence knitting
+with it as you did with the first, being careful to cover and conceal
+the short end of the first hair, and to make the knots on the second
+commence where the former stop. A guard made of white
+horse-hair looks as if it might be composed of spun glass, and produces
+a very odd and pretty effect. A black one is very genteel
+in appearance. These ornaments are much prized by cowboys,
+and I have seen bridles for horses made of braided horsehair.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Miscellaneous</h3>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, VIII shows a simple and expeditous manner of attaching
+a trolling-hook to a fish-line.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, F is a hitch used on shipboard, or wherever lines
+and cables are used. It is called the Blackwall hitch.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, E is a fire-escape made of a double bow-line knot,
+useful as a sling for hoisting persons up or letting them down from
+any high place; the window of a burning building, for instance.
+<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XVIII, XIX, and XX show how this knot is made. It
+is described on <a href="#Page_77">page 77</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, A is a "bale hitch," made of a loop of rope. To make
+it, take a piece of rope that has its two ends joined; lay the rope
+down and place the bale on it; bring the loop opposite you up, on
+that side of the bale, and the loop in front up, on the side of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+bale next to you; thrust the latter loop under and through the first
+and attach the hoisting rope. The heavier the object to be lifted,
+the tighter the hitch becomes. An excellent substitute for a shawl-strap
+can be made of a cord by using the bale hitch, the loop at
+the top being a first-rate handle.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, B is called a cask sling, and C (<a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>) is called a
+butt sling. The manner of making these last two and their uses
+may be seen by referring to the illustration. It will be noticed
+that a line is attached to the bale hitch in a peculiar manner
+(<i>a</i>, <a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>). This is called the "anchor bend." If while
+aboard a sail-boat you have occasion to throw a bucket over for
+water, you will find the anchor bend a very convenient and safe
+way to attach a line to the bucket handle, but unless you are an
+expert you will need an anchor hitched to your body or you will
+follow the bucket.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, I and II are loops showing the elements of the simplest
+knots.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, III is a simple knot commenced.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, IV shows the simple knot tightened.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, V and VI show how the Flemish knot looks when
+commenced and finished.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, VII and VIII show a "rope knot" commenced and
+finished.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, IX is a double knot commenced.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, X is the same completed.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XI shows a back view of the double knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XII is the first loop of a "bow-line knot." One end
+of the line is supposed to be made fast to some object. After the
+turn, or loop (<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XII), is made, hold it in position with your
+left hand and pass the end of the line up through the loop, or turn,
+you have just made, behind and over the line above, then down
+through the loop again, as shown in the diagram (<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XIII);
+pull it tight and the knot is complete. The "sinker hitch" is a
+very handy one to know, and the variety of uses it may be put to
+will be at once suggested by the diagrams.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 519px;"><a id="Fig_186"></a>
+<img src="images/i_142.png" width="519" height="800" alt="drawings of knots" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 186.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Lines that have both ends made fast may have weights attached
+to them by means of the sinker hitch (<a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, D, D, D).</p>
+
+<p>To accomplish this, first gather up some slack and make it in
+the form of the loop (<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XIV); bend the loop back on itself
+(<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XV) and slip the weight through the double loop thus
+formed (<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XVI); draw tight by pulling the two top lines,
+and the sinker hitch is finished (<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XVII).</p>
+
+<p>The "fire-escape sling" previously mentioned, and illustrated
+by <a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, E, is made with a double line.</p>
+
+<p>Proceed at first as you would to make a simple bow-line knot
+(<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XVIII).</p>
+
+<p>After you have run the end loop up through the turn (<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>,
+XIX), bend it downward and over the bottom loop and turn, then
+up again until it is in the position shown in <a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>, XX; pull it
+downward until the knot is tightened, as in <a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, E, and it
+makes a safe sling in which to lower a person from any height.
+The longer loop serves for a seat, and the shorter one, coming
+under the arms, makes a rest for the back.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXI is called a "boat knot," and is made with the
+aid of a stick. It is an excellent knot for holding weights which
+may want instant detachment. To detach it, lift the weight
+slightly and push out the stick, and instantly the knot is untied.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXII. Commencement of a "six-fold knot."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXIII. Six-fold knot completed by drawing the
+two ends with equal force. A knot drawn in this manner is said
+to be "nipped."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXIV. A simple hitch or "double" used in making
+loop knots.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXV. "Loop knot."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXVI shows how the loop knot is commenced.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXVII is the "Dutch double knot," sometimes called
+the "Flemish loop."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXVIII shows a common "running knot."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXIX. A running knot with a check knot to hold.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXX. A running knot checked.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 368px;"><a id="Fig_186_5"></a>
+<img src="images/i_144t.png" width="368" height="572" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 186½.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXXI. The right-hand part of the rope shows how
+to make the double loop for the "twist knot." The left-hand
+part of the same rope shows a finished twist knot. It is made
+by taking a half turn on both the right-hand and left-hand lines
+of the double loop and passing the end through the "bight"
+(loop) so made.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Whiplashes</h3>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXXII is called the "chain knot," which is often
+used in braiding leather whiplashes. To make a "chain knot,"
+fasten one end of the thong, or line; make a simple loop and pass
+it over the left hand; retain hold of the free end with the right
+hand; with the left hand seize the line above the right hand and
+draw a loop through the loop already formed; finish the knot by
+drawing it tight with the left hand. Repeat the operation until the
+braid is of the required length, then secure it by passing the free
+end through the last loop.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXXIII shows a double chain knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXXIV is a double chain knot pulled out. It shows
+how the free end is thrust through the last loop.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, XXXV. Knotted loop for end of rope, used to prevent
+the end of the rope from slipping, and for various other
+purposes.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Splices, Timber-Hitches, etc.</h3>
+
+<p>Although splices may not be as useful to boys as knots and
+hitches, for the benefit of those among my readers who are interested
+in the subject, I have introduced a few bands and splices
+on the cables partly surrounding <a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>½.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>a</i> shows the knot and upper side of a "simple band."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>b</i> shows under side of the same.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> show a tie with cross-ends. To hold the ends
+of the cords, a turn is taken under the strands.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_187"></a>
+<img src="images/i_146t.png" width="600" height="323" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 187.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>e</i> and <i>f</i>: Bend with cross-strands, one end looped
+over the other.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>g</i> shows the upper side of the "necklace tie."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>h</i> shows the under side of the same. The advantage
+of this tie is that the greater the strain on the cords, the tighter
+it draws the knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>i</i> and <i>j</i> are slight modifications of <i>g</i> and <i>h</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>p</i> shows the first position of the end of the ropes for
+making the splice <i>k</i>. Untwist the strands and put the ends of two
+ropes together as close as possible, and place the strands of the one
+between the strands of the other alternately, so as to interlace, as
+in <i>k</i>. This splice should only be used when there is not time to
+make the "long splice," as the short one is not very strong.</p>
+
+<p>From <i>l</i> to <i>m</i> is a long splice, made by underlaying the strands
+of each of the ropes joined about half the length of the splice, and
+putting each strand of the one between two of the other; <i>q</i> shows
+the strands arranged for the long splice.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a> <i>n</i> is a simple mode of making a hitch on a rope.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>o</i> is a "shroud knot."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_186_5">Fig. 186½</a>, <i>r</i> shows a very convenient way to make a handle on
+a rope, and is used upon large ropes when it is necessary for
+several persons to take hold to pull.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, A. Combination of half-hitch and timber-hitch.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, B. Ordinary half-hitch.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, C. Ordinary timber-hitch.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, D. Another timber-hitch, called the "clove-hitch."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, E. "Hammock-hitch," used for binding bales of
+goods or cloth.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, F. "Lark-head knot," used by sailors and boatmen
+for mooring their crafts.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, P shows a lark-head fastening to a running knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, G is a double-looped lark-head.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, H shows a double-looped lark-head knot fastened to
+the ring of a boat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"><a id="Fig_187_5"></a>
+<img src="images/i_148.png" width="700" height="531" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 187½.&mdash;Timber-hitches, etc.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, I is a "treble lark-head." To make it you must first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a><br /><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+tie a single lark-head, then divide the two heads and use each
+singly, as shown in the diagram.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, J shows a simple boat knot with one turn.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, K. "Crossed running knot." It is a strong and
+handy tie, not as difficult to make as it appears to be.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, L is the bow-line knot, described by the diagrams
+XII and XIII (<a href="#Fig_186">Fig. 186</a>). The free end of the knot is made fast
+by binding it to the "bight," or the loop. It makes a secure sling
+for a man to sit in at his work among the rigging.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187">Fig. 187</a>, M, N, and O. "Slip clinches," or "sailors' knots."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, Q shows a rope fastened by the chain-hitch. The
+knot at the left-hand end explains a simple way to prevent a rope
+from unravelling.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, R. A timber-hitch; when tightened the line binds
+around the timber so that it will not slip.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, S. Commencement of simple lashing knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, T. Simple lashing knot finished.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, U. "Infallible loop;" not properly a timber-hitch,
+but useful in a variety of ways, and well adapted for use in archery.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, V. Same as R, reversed. It looks like it might give
+way under a heavy strain, but it will not.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, W. Running knot with two ends.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, X. Running knot with a check knot that can only
+be opened with a marline-spike.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, Y. A two-ended running knot with a check to the
+running loops. This knot can be untied by drawing both ends
+of the cord.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, Z. Running knot with two ends, fixed by a double
+Flemish knot. When you wish to encircle a timber with this
+tie, pass the ends on which the check knot is to be through the
+cords before they are drawn tight. This will require considerable
+practice.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>a</i> shows an ordinary twist knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>a</i><sup>1</sup> shows the form of loop for builder's knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>b</i>. Double twist knot.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>c</i>. Builder's knot finished.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>d</i> represents a double builder's knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>e</i>. "Weaver's knot," same as described under the
+head of Becket hitch (<a href="#Fig_185">Fig. 185</a>, V).</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>f</i>. Weaver's knot drawn tight.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>g</i> shows how to commence a reef knot. This is
+useful for small ropes; with ropes unequal in size the knot is
+likely to draw out of shape, as <i>m</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>h</i> shows a reef knot completed.</p>
+
+<p>Of all knots, avoid the "granny"; it is next to useless under a
+strain, and marks the tier as a "landlubber."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>i</i> shows a granny knot; <i>n</i> shows a granny under strain.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>j</i> shows the commencement of a common "rough
+knot."</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>k</i>. The front view of finished knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>l</i>. The back view of finished knot. Although this
+knot will not untie nor slip, the rope is likely to part at one side
+if the strain is great. Awkward as it looks, this tie is very useful
+at times on account of the rapidity with which it can be made.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>o</i> and <i>p</i>. Knot commenced and finished, used for
+the same purposes as the Flemish knot.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>q</i> and <i>q</i><sup>1</sup>. An ordinary knot with ends used separately.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>s</i>. Sheep-shank, or dog-shank as it is sometimes
+called, is very useful in shortening a line. Suppose, for instance,
+a swing is much longer than necessary, and you wish to shorten
+it without climbing aloft to do so, it can be done with a sheep-shank.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>r</i> shows the first position of the two loops. Take two
+half hitches, and you have a bend of the form shown by <i>s</i>. Pull
+tightly from above and below the shank, and you will find that
+the rope is shortened securely enough for ordinary strain.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>t</i>. Shortening by loop and turns made where the end
+of the rope is free.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>u</i>. A shortened knot that can be used when either
+end is free.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>v</i>, <i>w</i>, and <i>x</i>. Shortening knots.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_187_5">Fig. 187½</a>, <i>y</i> and <i>z</i>. A "true lover's knot," and the last one that
+you need to practise on, for one of these knots is as much as most
+persons can attend to, and ought to last a lifetime.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 201px;">
+<img src="images/i_151.png" width="201" height="217" alt="drawing of cherub tying a knot" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XII<br />
+<small>HOW TO BUILD A CHEAP BOAT</small></h2>
+
+
+<h3>The Yankee Pine</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">From</span> the saw-mills away up among the tributaries of the Ohio
+River come floating down to the towns along the shore great
+rafts of pine lumber. These rafts are always objects of interest
+to the boys, for the youngsters know that when moored to the
+shore the solidly packed planks make a splendid platform to
+swim from. Fine springing-boards can be made of the projecting
+blades of the gigantic sweeps which are used to guide the
+mammoth rafts, and, somewhere aboard, there is always to be
+found a "Yankee pine." Just when or why this style of skiff
+was dubbed with such a peculiar name I am unable to state;
+but this I know, that when a raft is to be broken up and carted
+away to the lumber yards there is, or always used to be, a good,
+light skiff to be had cheap.</p>
+
+<p>However, all boys do not live on the bank of the river, and if
+they did there would hardly be "Yankee pines" enough to go
+round; so we will at once proceed to see how to build one for ourselves.
+Although my readers may find the "Yankee pine" a little
+more difficult to build than the blunt-ended, flat-bottomed scow,
+it really is a comparatively simple piece of work for boys familiar
+with the use of carpenters' tools.</p>
+
+<p>For the side-pieces select two straight-grained pine boards free
+from knots. These boards should be about 13 or 14 feet long,
+a couple of inches over a foot in width, and as nearly alike as
+possible in texture. Besides these there should be in the neighborhood
+of a dozen other ¾-inch planks, an inch or two over a half<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+foot in width. A small piece of 2-inch plank for the stern-piece is
+also necessary. Upon the bottom edge of the side-board measure
+off from each end toward the centre 4 inches, mark the points, and
+saw off the corners shown by the dotted line in <a href="#Fig_188">Fig. 188</a>. Next
+take a piece of board 4 feet long and a foot wide, saw off the corners
+as you did on the side-board, making it 4 feet on the top and
+3 feet 4 inches on the bottom. This board is to be used only as
+a centre brace while modelling the boat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"><a id="Fig_188"></a>
+<img src="images/i_153a.png" width="390" height="75" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 188.&mdash;Side-board.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 518px;"><a id="Fig_189"></a>
+<img src="images/i_153b.png" width="518" height="155" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 189.&mdash;Frame.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Out of the 2-inch plank make a stern-piece of the same shape
+as the centre brace; let it be 1 foot wide, 14 inches long on the
+bottom, and 20 inches long on top. Set the side-boards on their
+shorter or bottom edges and place the centre brace in the middle,
+as shown by <a href="#Fig_189">Fig. 189</a>; nail the side-boards to it, using only enough
+nails to hold temporarily. Draw the side-boards together at the
+bow and against the stern-board at the stern (<a href="#Fig_189">Fig. 189</a>). Hold the
+side-pieces in position by the means of ropes. A stem should be
+ready to fix in the bow (<a href="#Fig_190">Fig. 190</a>). This had better be a few inches
+longer than the sides are broad, as it is a simple matter to saw off
+the top after it is fitted. Make the stem of a triangular piece of
+timber, by planing off the front edge until a flat surface about
+½ inch broad is obtained; 2 inches from the front, upon each side,
+cut a groove just the thickness of the side-boards (¾ inch). Trim<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+the stem so that the side-pieces at the bow fit the grooves snugly,
+and nail the side-boards to the stem and to the stern-piece (<a href="#Fig_189">Fig.
+189</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a id="Fig_190"></a>
+<img src="images/i_154a.png" width="500" height="97" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 190.&mdash;Stem-piece.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 593px;"><a id="Fig_191"></a>
+<img src="images/i_154b.png" width="593" height="250" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 191.&mdash;Finished skiff.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Turn the boat upside down, and it will be discovered that the
+outlines of the bottom form an arch from stem to stern. If left
+in this shape the boat will sink
+too deep amidship. Remedy
+the defect by planing the bottom
+edge of both side pieces,
+reducing the convex form to
+straight lines in the middle. This will allow the bow and stern
+to sheer, but at the same time will make the central part of
+the bottom flat, and, by having less to drag through the water,
+make it easier to row. Nail the bottom-boards on crosswise,
+and as, on account of the form of the boat, no two boards will be
+of the same size, they must be first nailed on and the projecting
+ends sawed off afterward. The centre brace may now be taken
+out and a long bottom-board nailed to the centre of the bottom
+upon the inside of the boat (<a href="#Fig_191">Fig. 191</a>). Cut a small cross-piece
+(B, <a href="#Fig_191">Fig. 191</a>) so that it will fit across the bow 3 inches below the
+top of the side-boards. Nail it in place, driving the nails from the
+outside of the side-board through and into the end of the stick B.
+Saw out a bow seat, and, allowing the broad end to rest on the
+cross-stick B, fit the seat in and secure it with nails (<a href="#Fig_191">Fig. 191</a>);<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+3 inches below the top of the stern-piece nail a cleat across. At
+the same distance below the side-board put a cross-stick similar
+to the one in the bow. This and the cleat on the stern-piece form
+rests for the stern seat. Five feet from the stern saw a notch
+2 inches deep and 1½ inch long in
+each side-board (A, A<sup>1</sup>, <a href="#Fig_191">Fig. 191</a>).
+Saw two more notches of the same
+size 3 inches from the first; these
+will make the rowlock when the
+side strips have been fastened on.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 459px;"><a id="Fig_192"></a>
+<img src="images/i_155a.png" width="459" height="166" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 192.&mdash;Keel board or skeg.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These strips should each be made of 1-inch plank, 2 inches
+wide and an inch or two longer than the side-boards. Nail the
+strips on the outside of the boat flush with the top of the side-boards,
+making a neat joint at the stern-piece, as shown in the illustration
+(<a href="#Fig_191">Fig. 191</a>). Cut two short strips to fit upon the inside at
+the rowlocks and fasten them firmly on with screws (<a href="#Fig_191">Fig. 191</a>, A).
+Next cut two cleats for the oarsman's seat to rest upon. Nail
+them to the side-boards amidship a little nearer the bottom than
+the top, so that the seat, when resting upon the cleats, will be
+about half the distance from the top edge to the bottom of the
+side-boards. Let the aft end of the cleats be about 6 feet 2 inches
+from the stern. Make thole-pins of some hard wood to fit in the
+rowlocks, like those described
+and illustrated
+by <a href="#Fig_203">Figs. 203</a> and <a href="#Fig_204">204</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 417px;">
+<img src="images/i_155b.png" width="417" height="172" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Top view of "Man Friday."</div>
+</div>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 184px;"><a id="Fig_193"></a>
+<img src="images/i_156.png" width="184" height="394" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 193.&mdash;The side-boards.</div>
+</div>
+<p>The Yankee pine now
+only needs a skeg to
+complete it. This must
+be placed exactly in the
+centre, and is fastened
+on by a couple of screws at the thin end and nails from the inside
+of the boat. It is also fastened to the upright stick at the
+stern by screws (<a href="#Fig_192">Fig. 192</a>).</p>
+
+<p>If the joints have been carefully made, your Yankee pine is
+now ready for launching. Being made of rough lumber it needs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+no paint or varnish, but is a sort of rough-and-ready affair, light
+to row; and it ought to float four people with ease. By using
+planed pine or cedar lumber, and
+with hard-wood stem and stern,
+a very pretty row-boat can be
+made upon the same plan as a
+Yankee pine, or by putting in
+a centreboard and "stepping" a
+mast in the bow, the Yankee
+pine can be transformed into a
+sail-boat. But before experimenting
+in this line of boat-building,
+the beginner had better read
+carefully the chapter on how to
+rig and sail small boats.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>How to Build a Better Finished
+Boat</h3>
+
+<p>The old-time raftsmen formerly
+built their "Yankee pines"
+of the rough, unplaned boards
+fresh from the saw-mills on the
+river banks, and these raw,
+wooden skiffs were stanch, light,
+and tight boats, but to-day
+smooth lumber is as cheap as
+the rough boards, so select
+enough planed pine lumber for
+a 12½-foot boat, and you may
+calculate the exact amount by reference to the accompanying
+diagrams, which are all drawn as near as may be to a regular
+scale.</p>
+
+<p>By reference to <a href="#Fig_193">Fig. 193</a> you will see that A, A represent
+the two</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Side-Boards</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>These should be of sufficient dimensions to produce two side-pieces
+each 13 feet long, 17 inches wide, and <small><sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></small> inch thick (A, <a href="#Fig_194">Fig.
+194</a>). You will also need a piece for a</div>
+
+
+<h3>Spreader</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>54 inches long, 18 inches wide, and about 1½ inch thick, but
+as this is a temporary affair almost any old piece of proper dimensions
+will answer (B, <a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>), and another piece of good 1½-inch
+plank (C, <a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>) 36 inches long by 15 inches wide, for a stern-piece.
+Besides the above there must be enough 1-inch lumber to
+make seats and to cover the bottom. At a point on one end,
+6½ inches from the edge of the A plank, mark the point <i>c</i> (<a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>),
+then measure 37 inches back along the edge of the plank and mark
+the point <i>b</i> (<a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>). Rule a pencil line (<i>b</i>, <i>c</i>) between these two
+points and starting at <i>c</i> saw off the triangle <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>. Make the second
+side-board an exact duplicate of the one just described and
+prepare the spreader by sawing off the triangle with 9-inch bases
+at each end of B (<a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>). This will leave you a board (<i>h</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>n</i>)
+that will be 36 inches long on its lower edge and 54 inches long on
+its top edge.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_194"></a>
+<img src="images/i_157.png" width="600" height="251" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 194.&mdash;A, the side. B, the spreader. C, the stern-piece.</div>
+</div>
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_157-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+<p>Next saw off the corners of the stern-piece C (<a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>) along<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+the lines <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, the <i>g</i> points being each 6½ inches from the corners;
+and a board (<i>ff</i>, <i>gg</i>) 18 inches wide and 30 inches top measurement,
+with 23 inches at the bottom. Now fit the edge of the
+stern-piece along the line <i>e</i>, <i>d</i> (<a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>), or at a slant to please your
+fancy. In <a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>, upper C, the slant makes the base of the
+triangle about 4½ inches, which is sufficient. Be careful that both
+side-boards are fitted exactly alike, and to do this nail the port
+side with nails driven only partly in, as shown at D (<a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>);
+then nail the starboard side and, if they are both seen to be even
+and of the right slant, drive the nails home; if not correct, the
+nails may be pulled out by using a small block under the hammer
+(D, <a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>), without bending the nails or injuring the wood.
+Leave the stern-ends of the side-boards protruding, as in the
+upper C, until you have the spreader and stem in place.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 669px;"><a id="Fig_195"></a>
+<img src="images/i_158.png" width="669" height="373" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 195.&mdash;Details of the boat.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_158-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+<p>We are now ready for the spreader (<i>h</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>n</i>) (B, <a href="#Fig_194">Fig. 194</a>)
+amidship, or, more accurately speaking, 6 feet 9 inches from
+the bow (B, <a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>). Nail this as shown by D (<a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>), so
+that the nails may be removed at pleasure. Bring the bow ends
+of the A boards together and secure them by a strip nailed temporarily
+across, as shown in the diagram E (<a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>The Stem-piece</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>may be made of two pieces, as is shown at G and F (<a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>)
+or if you are more skilful than the ordinary non-professional, the
+stem may be made of one piece, as shown by the lower diagram
+at F (<a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>). It is desirable to have oak for the stem, but any
+hard wood will answer the purpose, and even pine may be used
+when no better is to be had. Take a piece of cardboard or an old
+shingle on which to draw a pattern for the end of the stem and
+make the outline with a lead-pencil by placing the shingle over
+the apex <i>c</i> of diagram E (<a href="#Fig_195">Fig. 195</a>); from the inside trace the line
+of the sides thus, <b>V</b>. Trim your stem down to correspond to these
+lines and let the stick be somewhat longer than the width of the
+sides A, A.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_196"></a>
+<img src="images/i_159.png" width="600" height="290" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 196.&mdash;Put on a bottom of 1-inch boards.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When this is done to your satisfaction, fit the stem in place and
+nail the side boards to the stem.</p>
+
+<p>Turn the boat over and nail on a bottom of 1-inch boards as
+shown by <a href="#Fig_196">Fig. 196</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Don't</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>use tongue and grooved or any sort of fancy cabinet or floor joining
+when wet&mdash;such matched lumber warps up in waves&mdash;but
+use boards with smooth, flat edges; if these are true and fitted
+snugly together in workmanlike manner the first wetting will swell
+them in a very short time, until not a drop of water will leak
+through the cracks, for the reason that there will be none. Fit
+the bottom-boards on regardless of their protruding ends, as these
+may be sawed off after the boards are nailed in place.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 673px;"><a id="Fig_197"></a>
+<img src="images/i_160.png" width="673" height="286" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 197.&mdash;Details of bow, stern, seats, and finished boat.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Seats</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>consist of a triangular one at the bow (J), the oarsman's seat
+(L), and the stern seat (K, <a href="#Fig_197">Fig. 197</a>). The bow seat is made of
+1-inch boards nailed to two cleats shown at M (<a href="#Fig_197">Fig. 197</a>). N
+shows the bench for the stern seat and O explains the arrangement
+of the oarsman's seat a little forward amidship. As may be
+seen, it rests upon the cleats <i>x</i> (diagram O, <a href="#Fig_197">Fig. 197</a>), which are
+fitted between two upright cleats on each side of the boat; this
+makes a seat which will not slip out of place, and the cleats serve
+to strengthen the sides of the otherwise ribless boat. Make the
+cleats of 1 by 2 inch lumber and let the seat be about 12 inches
+wide. The stern seat may be wider, 1½ feet at K and 4 or 5 inches<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+more at the long sides of the two boards each side of K (<a href="#Fig_197">Fig. 197</a>).
+Of course, it is not necessary to fit a board in against the stern-piece,
+for a cleat will answer the purpose, but a good, heavy stern-piece
+is often desirable and the board shown in diagram N (<a href="#Fig_197">Fig.
+197</a>) will serve to add strength to the stern as well as to furnish a
+firm rest for the stern seat, but it will also add weight.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><div class="caption">Fig. 198.</div><a id="Fig_198"></a><a id="Fig_199"></a>
+<img src="images/i_161.png" width="600" height="288" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 199.&mdash;Fitting the skeg.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Keel-Board</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is an advisable addition to the boat, but may also be omitted without
+serious results (H, <a href="#Fig_197">Fig. 197</a>).</div>
+
+<p>The keel-board should be 4½ inches wide, 1 inch thick, and
+should be cut pointed, to fit snugly in the bow, and nailed in place
+along the centre of the floor, before the seats are put in the boat.
+A similar board along the bottom, joining the two cleats each side
+of the skeg at <i>y</i> (<a href="#Fig_199">Fig. 199</a>) and extending to the bow will prevent
+the danger of loosening the bottom-planks when bumping over
+rifts, shallow places, or when the boat needs to be hauled on a
+stony shore; this bottom-board may also be omitted to save time
+and lumber and is not shown in the diagram.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>The Skeg</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is a triangular board (<a href="#Fig_198">Figs. 198</a> and <a href="#Fig_199">199</a>), roughly speaking, of
+the same dimensions as the pieces sawed from the side-board
+<i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i> (<a href="#Fig_196">Fig. 196</a>). The stern-end will be about 7 inches wide and
+it will taper off to nothing at <i>y</i> (<a href="#Fig_198">Fig. 198</a>). The skeg is held in
+place by cleats of 1-inch lumber, 2 inches wide, nailed to the bottom
+on each side of the skeg. To get the proper dimensions experiment
+with the pieces sawed from the A boards and cut your
+skeg board so that its bottom edge will be level with the bottom at
+<i>y</i> (<a href="#Fig_198">Fig. 198</a>); the diagonal line, to correspond with the slant of
+the stern, can be accurately drawn if the skeg is left untrimmed
+until it is fastened in place.</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="illustrations">
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='3'><a id="Fig_200"></a><a id="Fig_201"></a><a id="Fig_202"></a><img src="images/i_162.png" width="670" height="212" alt="drawing" />
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><div class="caption">Fig. 200.</div></td>
+<td align="center"><div class="caption">Fig. 201.<br />Rowlocks.</div></td>
+<td align="center"><div class="caption">Fig. 202.</div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<h3>To Fasten on the Skeg</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>rule a line from the centre of the stern to the centre of the bow
+and toe-nail the skeg on along this line. This must be accurately
+done or you will make a boat which will have an uncomfortable
+tendency to move in circles. After toe-nailing the skeg to the bottom,
+nail the two cleats, one on each side of the skeg, and let them
+fit as closely as may be to the keel. Now saw off the stern-ends
+of the cleats and lay a rule along the stern, as the stick is placed in
+<a href="#Fig_198">Fig. 198</a>, where the boy has his finger; rule a pencil line across the
+protruding end of the keel and saw off the end along the diagonal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+line, so that the stern-cleat <i>z</i> (<a href="#Fig_198">Fig. 198</a>) may be nailed in place to
+finish the work.</div>
+
+<p>You can buy rowlocks of galvanized iron for about a quarter
+of a dollar a pair; the brass ones are not expensive, but even when
+the store furnishes the hardware there must be a firm support of
+some sort to hold the rowlock.</p>
+
+<p>If you use the manufactured article, to be found at any hardware
+store, the merchant will supply you with the screws, plates,
+and rowlocks, but he will not furnish you with the blocks for the
+holes in which the spindles of the rowlocks fit. <a href="#Fig_202">Fig. 202</a> shows a
+rude, but serviceable, support for the lock made of short oaken
+posts much in vogue in Pennsylvania, but <a href="#Fig_201">Fig. 201</a> is much better,
+and if it is made of oak and bolted to the sides of the boat it will
+last as long as the boat. <a href="#Fig_201">Fig. 201</a> may be put upon either the outside
+or inside of the boat, according to the width amidship.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A Guard Rail</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>or fender, of 1 by 2 inch lumber, alongside of and even with the
+top of the side-boards, from bow to stern, gives finish and strength
+to the craft; but in a cheap boat, or a hastily constructed one, this
+may be omitted, as it is in these diagrams.</div>
+
+<p>If you are building your boat out of the convenient reach of
+the hardware shop, you must make your own rowlocks. <a href="#Fig_200">Fig.
+200</a> shows the crude ones formerly used by the raftsmen for the
+Yankee pines, and <a href="#Fig_203">Figs. 203</a> and <a href="#Fig_204">204</a> show rowlocks made with the
+oaken or hard-wood thole-pins fitting in holes cut for that purpose
+in the form of notches (U, <a href="#Fig_204">Fig. 204</a>) in the side of the boat,
+or as spaces left between the blocks, as shown by R (<a href="#Fig_203">Fig. 203</a>).
+When the side-boards A, A of the boat are notched a cleat of hard
+wood 5 or 6 inches wide, and extending some distance each side
+of the side-boards, must be used, as is shown by diagram V (<a href="#Fig_204">Fig.
+204</a>) and <a href="#Fig_203">Fig. 203</a>. The diagram R (<a href="#Fig_203">Fig. 203</a>) explains itself;
+there is a centre block nailed to the side-board and two more each
+side, leaving spaces for the thole-pins T (<a href="#Fig_203">Fig. 203</a>) to fit and
+guarded by another piece (R) bolted through to the sides.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If bolts are out of your reach, nails and screws may act as substitutes,
+and <a href="#Fig_204">Fig. 204</a> will then be the best form of rowlock to
+adopt.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="illustrations">
+<tr><td align="left" colspan='2'><div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_203"></a><a id="Fig_204"></a>
+<img src="images/i_164.png" width="600" height="154" alt="drawing" />
+</div>
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><div class="caption">Fig. 203.</div></td>
+<td align="center"><div class="caption">Fig. 204.</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan='2'><div class="caption">Thole-pins.</div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>To fix the place for rowlocks, seat yourself in the oarsman's
+seat, grasp the oars as in rowing, and mark the place which best
+fits the reach of your arms and oars as in rowing. It will probably
+be about 13 inches aft from the centre of the seat.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_205"></a>
+<img src="images/i_165.png" width="600" height="620" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 205.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>To Transform an Ordinary Skiff or Scow Into a Sailing-Boat</h3>
+
+<p>It is necessary to build the centreboard box and cut a hole
+through the bottom of the boat. For the average row-boat or
+skiff, you can make the centreboard box about 48 inches long
+and not higher, of course, than the gunwales of the boat. Make
+the box of 2-inch plank, and before nailing the sides together
+coat the seams thoroughly with white lead so as to prevent it
+from leaking. The centreboard should be made of 2-inch plank,
+which when planed down and smoothed will be about 1<small><sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub></small> of an inch
+thick, and the space in the box should be wide enough to allow it
+to move freely up and down, with no danger of its jamming. A
+hole should be cut in the bottom of the boat to correspond with the
+opening in the centreboard box, which, with a 48-inch box, will
+probably be an opening of 40 inches long and 1 inch wide. The
+centreboard is hinged to the box by a bolt run through at the
+point marked A on <a href="#Fig_205">Fig. 205</a>. The centreboard should move
+freely on the bolt, but the bolt itself should fit tightly in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+sides of the box, otherwise the water will leak through. There
+will be no danger of the bolt's turning in its socket if the
+hole through the centreboard through which the bolt is thrust is
+made large enough. The centreboard box should be generously
+painted with white lead on the bottom edges where it fits on the
+floor of the boat around the centreboard hole. The bottom of
+the boat floor should also be coated with white lead and over this
+a strip of muslin spread before the box is securely nailed to the floor
+of the boat from the bottom or under side of the boat. When this
+is done the muslin covering the hole can be cut away with a sharp<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+knife. A rope may then be fastened to the loose end of the centreboard
+with a cross-stick attached to the end of the rope to prevent
+it from slipping down the hole in the box. With this rope the
+centreboard may be raised or lowered to suit the pleasure of the
+sailor. (<a href="#Fig_205">Fig. 205</a>.)</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII<br />
+<small>A "ROUGH-AND-READY" BOAT</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary2'>Just What One Must Do to Build It&mdash;Detailed Instructions as to
+How to Make the Boat and How to Rig It</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Good</span> straight-grained pine wood is, without doubt, the best
+"all-around" wood for general use. It is easily whittled with a
+pocket-knife; it works smoothly under a plane; can be sawed
+without fatiguing the amateur carpenter; it is elastic and pliable;
+therefore use pine lumber to build your boat.</p>
+
+<p>Examine the lumber pile carefully and select four boards nearly
+alike. Do not allow the dealer or his men to talk you into taking
+lumber with blemishes. The side pieces should be of straight-grained
+wood, with no large knots and no "checks" (cracks) in
+them, and must not be "wind shaken."</p>
+
+<p>Measure the wood and see that it is over twenty-two feet long
+by one foot four or five inches wide and one inch thick. Trim
+two of the side-pieces until they are exact duplicates (<a href="#Fig_206">Fig. 206</a>).
+The stem-piece (or bow-piece) should be made from a triangular
+piece of oak (<a href="#Fig_212">Fig. 212</a>), and it is wise to make it a few inches longer
+than will be necessary, so that there may be no danger of finding,
+after all your labor, that the stick is too short; much better too
+long, for it is a simple matter to saw it off. Make a second stem-piece
+(<a href="#Fig_213">Fig. 213</a>) of oak about one inch thick and the same length
+as the first, and two or three inches wide, or twice as wide as the
+thickness of the side-boards.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Stern-piece</h3>
+
+<p>The stern-piece can be fashioned out of two-inch pine boards,
+and may be made as wide or narrow as you choose. A narrow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+stern makes a trim-looking craft. With your saw cut off the corner
+of the tail-piece, so that it will be in the form of a blunted triangle
+(<a href="#Fig_214">Fig. 214</a>), measuring three feet ten and one-half inches
+across the base, three feet four inches on each side, and nine and
+one-half inches at the apex. The base of the triangle will be the
+top and the apex will be the bottom of the stern-board of your
+boat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_206"></a><a id="Fig_207"></a><a id="Fig_208"></a><a id="Fig_209"></a><a id="Fig_210"></a>
+<img src="images/i_168.png" width="600" height="417" alt="drawings" />
+<div class="caption">Diagrams showing the construction of the rough-and-ready.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now make a brace on which to model your boat. Let it be of
+two-inch pine wood, two and one-half feet wide and seven and
+one-half feet long (<a href="#Fig_207">Fig. 207</a>). Measure twelve inches on one
+edge of this board from each end toward the centre and mark the
+points; then rule lines from these points diagonally across the
+width of the board (A, B and C, D&mdash;Fig. 207), and saw off the
+corners, as shown by the dotted line in <a href="#Fig_207">Fig. 207</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lay the boards selected for the lower side-boards on a level floor
+and measure off one and one-half foot on the bottom edge, then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+in a line with the end of the board mark a point on the floor that
+would be the top edge of the board if the board were two and one-half
+feet wide; rule a line from the point on the floor to the point
+marked on the board and saw off the corner as marked; make the
+other side-piece correspond exactly with the first (<a href="#Fig_206">Fig. 206</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3>Use Rope for Binding</h3>
+
+<p>Set the side-pieces upon their bottoms or shorter edges and place
+the brace between the sides. Now bind the stern ends with a
+rope and bring the bow-pieces together until they touch; rope
+them in this position, and when all is fast push the brace up until
+it rests at a point nine feet from the bow; fasten it here with a
+couple of nails driven in, but leaving their heads far enough from
+the wood to render it easy to draw them out. Now adjust the
+bow-piece, and use the greatest of care in making the sides exactly
+alike, otherwise you will wonder how you happened to have such
+an unaccountable twist in your craft. When the stem is properly
+adjusted fasten on the side-boards with screws. Do not try to
+hammer the screws in place, but bore holes first and use a screwdriver.</p>
+
+<p>Take your stern-piece and measure the exact width of the stern
+end of the bottom-boards and mark it at the bottom of the stern-piece;
+or, better still, since the stern-board will set at an angle, put
+it temporarily in place, bind it fast with the ropes, and mark with
+a pencil just where the side-boards cross the ends of the
+stern-board. Remove the stern-board and saw out a piece one inch
+wide, the thickness of the bottom-board, from the place marked
+to the bottom of the stern-board. Because the top side-board
+overlaps the bottom one at the stern, there must be either a large
+crack left there or the stern-board notched to fit the side-boards
+(<a href="#Fig_214">Fig. 214</a>). Replace the stern-board and nail side-boards fast
+to it; now loosen the ropes which have held your boat in shape,
+and fit on the upper side-boards so that at the stern they will overlap
+the lower side-boards an inch. Hold in place with your rope,
+then bring the bow end up against the stern-piece over the top of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+the lower side-board and fasten it in place with a rope. With your
+carpenter's pencil mark the overlap, and with a plane made for
+that purpose, called a rabbet, trim down your board so that it will
+have a shoulder and an overlap to rest on the bottom-board, running
+out to nothing at the bow. When the boards fit all right
+over the lower ones bind them in place and then nail them there
+(<a href="#Fig_208">Fig. 208</a>). If you can obtain two good boards of the requisite
+size, you need have but one board for each side of your boat;
+this will obviate the necessity of using the rabbet, and be very
+much easier; but with single boards of the required dimensions
+there is great danger of splitting or cracking while bending the
+boards.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 681px;"><a id="Fig_211"></a><a id="Fig_212"></a><a id="Fig_213"></a><a id="Fig_214"></a><a id="Fig_215"></a>
+<img src="images/i_170.png" width="681" height="464" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">The rough-and-ready.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>Planing the Bottom</h3>
+
+<p>Turn the boat upside down and you will see that there is a decided
+arch extending from stem to stern. This would cause the
+boat to sink too deep amidship, and must be remedied to some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+extent by cutting away the middle of the arch, so that the sides
+in the exact centre will measure at least four inches less in width
+than at the bow and stern, and reducing the convex or curved form
+to a straight line in the middle, which will give a sheer to the bow
+and stern. A good plane is the best tool to use for this purpose,
+as with it there is no danger of cutting too deep or of splitting the
+side-boards. Saw off the projecting ends of the side-boards at the
+stern.</p>
+
+<p>Make the bottom of three-quarter-inch boards, they may be
+bevelled like <a href="#Fig_231">Fig. 231</a>. Lay the boards crosswise, nail them in
+place, leaving the irregular ends projecting on each side. The
+reason for this is obvious. When you look at the bottom of the
+boat you will at once see that on account of the form no two
+boards can be the same shape, and the easiest way is to treat the
+boat bottom as if it were a square-sided scow. Fit the planks
+closely together, nail them on securely, and then neatly saw off
+the projecting ends (<a href="#Fig_210">Fig. 210</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Deck</h3>
+
+<p>The brace may now be removed by carefully drawing the nails,
+so that a bottom plank trimmed to fit the bow and the stern can
+be securely nailed in place (<a href="#Fig_216">Fig. 216</a>). Cut a notch in your brace
+to fit tightly over the bottom plank just laid. Plane off the top
+of the brace so that when in the boat the top of the brace will be
+four inches below the top of the side-boards. Replace the brace
+and securely nail it. Next cut two small cross-pieces (F, G, <a href="#Fig_209">Fig.
+209</a>) and place them near the bow, four inches below the top of the
+sides of the boat. Drive the nails from the outside through the
+side-boards into the end of F and G, the cross-brace. Cut out a
+bow-piece to fit from the middle of G to the bow and nail it in
+place, driving the nails from the outside into the edge of the bow-piece.
+Fasten a small cleat along the boat from the solid board
+brace to F on each side and deck the space over with light lumber.</p>
+
+<p>Of the same material make a trap door to fit in between the
+braces F and G. This door should be big enough for a boy to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+reach through, for this compartment is intended as a safe place to
+store cooking utensils, foods, etc., as well as a water-tight compartment.
+At a point five feet from the stern put another cross-brace,
+similar to the ones in the bow, four inches below the top of the
+sides. At the same level nail a cleat on the stern-piece and make
+a stern seat by boarding over between the cross-piece and the cleat.
+When your boat is resting securely on the floor or level ground rig
+a temporary seat, then take an oar and by experiment find just
+where the rowlock will be most convenient and mark the spot.
+Also mark the spot best suited for the seat. On each side of the
+spot marked for the rowlock cut two notches in the side-boards
+two inches deep, one and a half inch wide, and three inches
+apart. Saw two more notches exactly like these upon the opposite
+side of your boat. These will make the rowlocks when the side-strips
+are nailed on (<a href="#Fig_216">Fig. 216</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 689px;"><a id="Fig_216"></a>
+<img src="images/i_172.png" width="689" height="201" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 216.&mdash;Top view of rough-and-ready, with tiller stick.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The side-strips should each be made of one-inch plank three
+inches wide and a few inches longer than the side-boards. Nail
+the strips on the outside of the boat flush with the top of the side-boards.
+Make your thole-pins of some hard wood, and make
+two sets of them while you are about it, "one set to use and one
+set to lose." Screw a hard-wood cleat on the inside of your boat
+over each pair of rowlocks, as shown in <a href="#Fig_216">Fig. 216</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Ready for the Water</h3>
+
+<p>Fasten the remaining bow-piece securely over the ends of your
+side-boards, and the nose of your craft is finished.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Put a good, heavy keel on your boat by screwing it tightly in the
+stern to the hard-wood rudder-post that is fastened to the centre
+of the stern; bolt your keel with four iron bolts (<a href="#Fig_211">Fig. 211</a>) to the
+bottom of the boat, and the ship is ready to launch, after which
+she can be equipped with sails and oars.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, you understand that all nail-holes and crevices
+should be puttied up, and if paint is used, it must be applied before
+wetting the boat. But if you have done your work well, there
+will be little need of paint or putty to make it tight after the wood
+has swelled in the water. Fasten your rudder on with hooks and
+screw-eyes, and make it as shown in the diagram (<a href="#Fig_211">Fig. 211</a>).
+Step your mainmast in the bow through a round hole in the deck
+and a square hole in the step, which must, of course, be screwed
+tightly to the bottom before the bow is decked over.</p>
+
+<p>Step your jigger or dandy mast in the stern after the same manner.
+These masts should neither of them be very large, and are
+intended to be removed at pleasure by unstepping them, that is,
+simply pulling them out of their sockets. An outrigger will be
+found necessary for your dandy-sail, and since the deck aft is below
+the sides of the boat, a block of wood will have to be nailed to
+the deck to the starboard, or right-hand, side of the rudder-post.
+If the builder chooses, he can make the decks flush with the sides
+of the boat and thus avoid blocks. A couple of staples for the
+out-rigger to slip through are next in order. They must be fastened
+firmly in the block or stick of wood just nailed to the deck.
+A similar arrangement can be made for the bowsprit, but as it is
+a movable bowsprit, and the stem of the boat is in the way, put
+it to the port, or left-hand, side of the stem of the craft (<a href="#Fig_216">Fig. 216</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Make the Sail</h3>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 201px;"><a id="Fig_217"></a>
+<img src="images/i_174.png" width="201" height="646" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 217, with tiller.&mdash;Rudder lines.</div>
+</div>
+<p>Secure for a sail material as strong as you can find, but it need
+not be heavy. Unbleached muslin is cheap and will make good
+sails. Turn over the edges and sew or hem them, as in the diagram.
+Make eyelets like button-holes in the luff of the sail&mdash;that
+is, the edge of the sail nearest the mast. Sew a small loop of rope<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+in each corner of the sail. Through
+the eyelets lace the luff of the sail to
+the mast.</p>
+
+<p>From spruce or pine make a sprit
+two inches in diameter. For a "sheet"&mdash;that
+is, the rope or line that you
+manage the sail with&mdash;tie a good stout
+line about a dozen feet long to the
+loop in the loose corner of the sail.
+Trim the upper end of the sprit to fit
+the loop in the top of the sail and make
+a simple notch in the other end to hold
+the line called the "snotter."</p>
+
+<p>Now, as you can readily see by referring
+to <a href="#Fig_211">Fig. 211</a>, when the sprit is
+pushed into the loop at the top of the
+sail the sail is spread. To hold it in
+place make a cleat like the one in the
+diagram and bind it firmly with a
+cord to the sprit; pass the snotter, or
+line, fastened to the mast through the
+notch in the sprit up to the cleat and
+make fast, and the sail is set. The
+jigger, or dandy, is exactly like the
+mainsail except in size, and the sheet
+rope is run through a block or pulley
+at the end of the outrigger and then
+made fast to a cleat near the man at
+the rudder or helm. The jib is a
+simple affair hooked on a screw-eye in
+the end of the bowsprit. The jib halyard,
+or line for hoisting the jib, runs
+from the top of the jib through a screw-eye in the top of the mast,
+down the port side of the mast to a cleat, where it is made fast.
+When the jib is set the jib-sheets are fastened to a loop sewed in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+the jib at the lower or loose end. There are two jib-sheets, one
+for each side of the boat, so that one may be made fast and the
+other loosened, according to the wind. The remaining details
+you must study out from the diagrams or learn by experiment.</p>
+
+
+<h3>How to Reef Her</h3>
+
+<p>When the wind is high reef your sails by letting go the snotter
+and pulling out the sprit. This will drop your peak and leave
+you with a simple leg-of-mutton sail. Only use the jib in light
+weather.</p>
+
+<p>In this boat, with a little knowledge of sailing, you may cruise
+for weeks, lowering your sails at night and making a tent over the
+cock-pit for a sleeping-room. Sails with boom and gaffs may be
+used if desired.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XIV<br />
+<small>HOW TO BUILD CHEAP AND SUBSTANTIAL HOUSE-BOATS</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary2'>Plans for a House-Boat that May Be a Camp or Built as Large
+as a Hotel</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">When</span> the great West of the United States began to attract immigrants
+from the Eastern coast settlements, the Ohio River
+rolled between banks literally teeming with all sorts of wild game
+and wilder men: then it was that the American house-boat had its
+birth.</p>
+
+<p>The Mississippi, Ohio, and their tributaries furnished highways
+for easy travel, of which the daring pioneers soon availed themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Lumber was to be had for the labor of felling the trees. From
+the borders of the Eastern plantations to the prairies, and below
+the Ohio to the Mississippi, and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf
+of Mexico, was one vast forest of trees; trees whose trunks were
+unscarred by the axe, and whose tall tops reached an altitude
+which would hardly be believed by those of this generation, who
+have only seen second, third, or fourth growth timber.</p>
+
+<p>When the settlement of this new part of the country began it was
+not long before each stream poured out, with its own flood of
+water,</p>
+
+
+<h3>A Unique Navy</h3>
+
+<p>There were keel-boats, built something like a modern canal-boat,
+only of much greater dimensions; there were broad-horns,
+looking like Noak's arks from some giant's toy-shop, and there
+were flat-boats and rafts, the latter with houses built on them, all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+recklessly drifting, or being propelled by long sweeps down the current
+into the great solemn, unknown wilderness.</p>
+
+<p>Every island, had it a tongue, could tell of wrecks; every point
+or headland, of adventure.</p>
+
+<p>The perils were great and the forest solemn, but the immigrants
+were merry, and the squeaking fiddle made the red man rise up
+from his hiding-place and look with wonder upon the "long
+knives" and their squaws dancing on the decks of their rude crafts,
+as they swept by into the unknown.</p>
+
+<p>The advent of the steam-boat gradually drove the flat-boat,
+broad-horn, keel-boat, and all the primitive sweep-propelled craft
+from the rivers, but many of the old boatmen were loath to give
+up so pleasant a mode of existence, and they built themselves
+house-boats, and, still clinging to their nomadic habits, took their
+wives, and went to house-keeping on the bosom of the waters they
+loved so well.</p>
+
+<p>Their descendants now form what might well be called a race
+of river-dwellers, and to this day their quaint little arks line the
+shores of the Mississippi and its tributaries.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Some of These House-Boats</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>are as crudely made as the Italian huts we see built along the railroads,
+but others are neatly painted, and the interiors are like the
+proverbial New England homes, where everything is spick-and-span.</div>
+
+<p>Like the driftwood, these boats come down the stream with
+every freshet, and whenever it happens that the waters are particularly
+high they land at some promising spot and earn a livelihood
+on the adjacent water, by fishing and working aboard the
+other river-craft, or they land at some farming district, and as the
+waters recede they prop up and level their boats, on the bank, with
+stones or blocks of wood placed under the lower corners of their
+homes.</p>
+
+<p>The muddy waters, as they retire, leave a long stretch of fertile
+land between the stranded house and the river, and this space is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+utilized as a farm, where ducks, chickens, goats and pigs are
+raised and where garden-truck grows luxuriantly.</p>
+
+<p>From a boat their home has been transformed to a farm-house;
+but sooner or later there will be another big freshet, and when
+the waters reach the late farm-house, lo! it is a boat again, and goes
+drifting in its happy-go-lucky way down the current. If it escapes
+the perils of snags and the monster battering-rams, which the rapid
+current makes of the drifting trees in the flood, it will land again,
+somewhere, down-stream.</p>
+
+<p>Lately, while on a sketching trip through Kentucky, I was
+greatly interested in these boats, and on the Ohio River I saw
+several making good headway against the four-mile-an-hour current.
+This they did by the aid of</p>
+
+
+<h3>Big Square Sails</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>spread on a mast planted near their bows, thus demonstrating
+the practicability of the use of sails for house-boats.</div>
+
+<p>The house-boats to be described in this article are much better
+adapted for sailing than any of the craft used by the water-gypsies
+of the Western rivers.</p>
+
+<p>For open and exposed waters, like the large lakes which dot
+many of our inland States, or the Long Island Sound on our coast,
+the following plans of the American boy's house-boat will have to
+be altered, but the alterations will be all in the hull. If you make
+the hull three feet deep it will have the effect of lowering the cabin,
+while the head-room inside will remain the same. Such a craft
+can carry a good-sized sail, and weather any gale you are liable
+to encounter, even on the Sound, during the summer months.</p>
+
+<p>Since the passing away of the glorious old flat-boat days, idle
+people in England have introduced the</p>
+
+
+<h3>House-Boat as a Fashionable Fad</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>which has spread to this country, and the boys now have a new
+source of fun, as a result of this English fad.</div>
+
+<p>There are still some nooks and corners left in every State in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+Union which the greedy pot-hunter and the devouring saw-mill
+have as yet left undisturbed, and at such places the boy boatmen
+may "wind their horns," as their ancestors did of old, and have
+almost as good a time. But first of all they must have a boat, and
+for convenience the American boy's house-boat will probably be
+found to excel either a broad-horn
+or a flat-boat model, it
+being a link between the two.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest possible house-boat
+is a Crusoe raft,<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> with a
+cabin near the stern and a
+sand-box for a camp-fire at the
+bow. A good time can be had aboard even this primitive craft.
+The next step in evolution is the long open scow, with a cabin
+formed by stretching canvas over hoops that reach from side to
+side of the boat (see <a href="#Fig_218">Fig. 218</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 517px;"><a id="Fig_218"></a>
+<img src="images/i_179.png" width="517" height="194" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 218.&mdash;A primitive house-boat.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Every boy knows how to build</p>
+
+
+<h3>A Flat-Bottomed Scow</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>or at least every boy should know how to make as simple a craft
+as the scow, but for fear some lad among my readers has neglected
+this part of his education, I will give a few hints which he may
+follow.</div>
+
+
+<h3>Building Material</h3>
+
+<p>Select lumber that is free from large knots and other blemishes.
+Keep the two best boards for the sides of your boat. With your
+saw cut the side boards into the form of <a href="#Fig_219">Fig. 219</a>; see that they
+are exact duplicates. Set the two pieces parallel to each other
+upon their straight or top edges, as the first two pieces shown
+in <a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>. Nail on an end-piece at the bow and stern, as the
+bumper is nailed in <a href="#Fig_221">Figs. 221</a> and <a href="#Fig_222">222</a>; put the bottom on as
+shown in <a href="#Fig_196">Figs. 196</a> and <a href="#Fig_210">210</a>, and you have a simple scow.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Centrepiece</h3>
+
+<p>In <a href="#Fig_219">Fig. 219</a> you will notice that there are two sides and a centrepiece,
+but this centrepiece is not necessary for the ordinary open
+boat, shown by <a href="#Fig_218">Fig. 218</a>. Here you have one of the simple forms
+of house-boat, and you can make it of dimensions to suit your convenience.
+I will not occupy space with the details of this boat,
+because they may be seen by a glance at the diagrams, and my purpose
+is to tell you how to build the American boy's house-boat,
+which is a more elegant craft than the rude open scow, with a canvas-covered
+cabin, shown by <a href="#Fig_218">Fig. 218</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 676px;"><a id="Fig_219"></a>
+<img src="images/i_180.png" width="676" height="318" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 219.&mdash;Unfinished.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Sides of the House-Boat</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>are 16 feet long, and to make them you need some sound two-inch
+planks. After selecting the lumber plane it off and make the
+edges true and straight. Each side and the centrepiece should
+now measure exactly 16 feet in length by 14 inches in width, and
+about 2 inches thick. Cut off from each end of each piece a triangle,
+as shown by the dotted lines at G, H, I (<a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>); from H
+to G is 1 foot, and from H to I is 7 inches. Measure from H to I
+7 inches, and mark the point. Then measure from H to G, 12<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+inches, and mark the point. Then, with a carpenter's pencil,
+draw a line from G to I, and saw along this line. Keep the two
+best planks for the sides of your boat, and use the one that is left
+for the centrepiece. Measure 2 feet on the top or straight edge
+of your centrepiece, and mark the point A (<a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>). From A
+measure 8 feet 10 inches, and mark the point C (<a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>).</div>
+
+<p>With a carpenter's square rule the lines A, B and C, D, and
+make them each 10 inches long, then rule the line B, D (<a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>).
+The piece A, B, C, D must now be carefully cut out: this can be
+done by using the saw to cut A, B and D, C. Then, about 6
+inches from A, saw another line of the same length, and with a
+chisel cut the block out. You then have room to insert a rip-saw,
+at B, and can saw along the line B, D until you reach D, when the
+piece may be removed, leaving the space A, B, D, C for the cabin
+of the boat (see <a href="#Fig_221">Figs. 221</a> and <a href="#Fig_222">222</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>At a point 9 inches from the bow of the boat make a mark on
+the centrepiece, and another mark 5 inches farther away, at F
+(<a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>). With the saw cut a slit at each mark, 1 inch deep,
+and with a chisel cut out, as shown by the dotted lines; do the
+same at E, leaving a space of 1½ feet between the two notches,
+which are made to allow the two planks shown in the plan (<a href="#Fig_221">Fig.
+221</a>) to rest on. These planks support the deck and the hatch,
+at the locker in the bow. The notches at E and F are not on the
+side-boards, the planks being supported at the sides by uprights,
+<a href="#Fig_221">Figs. 221</a> and <a href="#Fig_222">222</a>.</p>
+
+<p>All that now remains to be done with the centrepiece is to saw
+some three-cornered notches on bottom edge, one at bow, one at
+stern, and one or two amidship; this is to allow the water which
+may leak in to flow freely over the whole bottom, and to prevent it
+from gathering at one side and causing your craft to rest upon
+an uneven keel.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="illustrations">
+<tr><td align="left"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 66px;"><a id="Fig_220"></a>
+<img src="images/i_182a.png" width="66" height="600" alt="drawing" />
+</div></td><td align="left"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 309px;"><a id="Fig_221"></a>
+<img src="images/i_182b.png" width="309" height="600" alt="drawings" />
+</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><div class="caption">Fig. 220.&mdash;Center board of house boat.</div>
+</td><td align="left"><div class="caption">Fig. 221.&mdash;Plan of house boat.</div>
+</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger versions of these
+images, click <a href="images/i_182-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+
+<p>Next select a level piece of ground near by and arrange the
+three pieces upon some supports, as shown in <a href="#Fig_219">Fig. 219</a>, so that
+from outside to outside of side-pieces it will measure just 8 feet
+across the bow and stern. Of 1-inch board</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a><br /><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>Make Four End-Pieces</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>for the bow and stern (see A, A´, <a href="#Fig_219">Fig. 219</a>), to fit between the
+sides and centrepiece. Make them each a trifle wider than H,
+I, <a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>, so that after they have been fitted they can be trimmed
+down with a plane, and bevelled on the same slant as the bottom
+at G, I, <a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>. It being 8 feet between the outside of each
+centrepiece, and the sides and the centrepiece being each 2 inches
+thick, that gives us 8 feet 6 inches, or 7½ feet as the combined
+length of A and A´ (<a href="#Fig_219">Fig. 219</a>). In other words, each end-piece
+will be half of 7½ feet long&mdash;that is, 3 feet 9 inches long. After
+making the four end-pieces, each 3 feet 9, by 9 inches, fit the ends
+in place so that there is an inch protruding above and below.
+See that your bow and stern are perfectly square, and nail with
+wire nails through the sides into A and A´; toe-nail at the centrepiece&mdash;that
+is, drive the nails from the broad side of A and A´
+slantingly, into the centrepiece, after which trim down with your
+plane the projecting inch on bottom, to agree with the slant of the
+bottom of the boat.</div>
+
+
+<h3>Now for the Bottom</h3>
+
+<p>This is simple work. All that is necessary is to have straight,
+true edges to your one-inch planks, fit them together, and nail them
+in place. Of course, when you come to the slant at bow and stern
+the bottom-boards at each end will have to have a bevelled edge,
+to fit snugly against the boards on the flat part of the bottom of
+the boat; but any boy who is accustomed to shake the gray matter
+in his brain can do this. Remember, scientists say that thought
+is the agitation of the gray matter of the brain, and if you are going
+to build a boat or play a good game of football you must shake
+up that gray stuff, or the other boys will put you down as a "stuff."
+No boy can expect to be successful in building a boat, of even the
+crudest type, unless he keeps his wits about him, so I shall take
+it for granted that there are no "stuffs" among my readers.</p>
+
+<p>After the boards are all snugly nailed on the bottom, and fitted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+together so that there are no cracks to calk up; the hull is ready to
+have</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Bumpers</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>nailed in place, at bow and stern. See the plan, <a href="#Fig_221">Fig. 221</a>, and
+the elevation, <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>. The bumpers must be made of 2-inch
+plank, 8 feet long by about 9 inches wide; wide enough to cover
+A and A´ of <a href="#Fig_219">Fig. 219</a>, and to leave room for a bevel at the bottom
+edge to meet the slant of the bow and stern, and still have room
+at the top to cover the edge of the deck to the hull (see <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>).</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 683px;"><a id="Fig_222"></a>
+<img src="images/i_184.png" width="683" height="299" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 222.&mdash;Cross-section of boat</div>
+</div>
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_184-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+<h3>The Hull May Now Be Painted</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>with two coats of good paint, and after it is dry may be turned
+over and allowed to rest on a number of round sticks, called rollers.</div>
+
+<p>If you will examine <a href="#Fig_221">Fig. 221</a> you will see there</p>
+
+
+<h3>Twenty-Odd Ribs</h3>
+
+<p>These are what are called two-by-fours-that is, 2 inches thick
+by 4 inches wide. They support the floor of the cabin and forward
+locker, at the same time adding strength to the hull.</p>
+
+<p>The ribs are each the same length as the end-board. A and A´
+of <a href="#Fig_219">Fig. 219</a>, are nailed in place in the same manner. Each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+bottom-rib must have a notch 2 inches deep cut in the bottom
+edge to allow the free passage of water, so as to enable you to
+pump dry. Commencing at the stern, the distance between the
+inside of the bumper and the first rib is 1 foot 6 inches. This is a
+deck-rib, as may be seen by reference to <a href="#Fig_221">Figs. 221</a> and <a href="#Fig_222">222</a>. After
+measuring 1½ foot from the bumper, on inside of side-board, mark
+the point with a carpenter's pencil. Measure the same distance
+on the centrepiece, and mark the point as before; then carefully
+fit your rib in flush or even with the top of the side-piece, and fasten
+it in place by nails driven through the side-board into the end of
+the rib, and toe-nailed to centrepiece. Do the same with its mate
+on the other side of centrepiece.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Cabin of this House-Boat</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is to fit in the space, A, B, D, C of the centrepiece, <a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>.
+There is to be a one-inch plank at each end (see <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>), next
+to which the side-supports at each end of cabin fit. The supports
+are two-by-twos; so, allowing 1 inch for the plank and 2 inches
+for the upright support, the next pair of ribs will be just 3 inches
+from A B, <a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>, of the centrepiece (see <a href="#Fig_221">Figs. 221</a> and <a href="#Fig_222">222</a>).
+The twin ribs at the forward end of the cabin will be the same
+distance from D C, <a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>, as shown in the plan and elevation,
+<a href="#Fig_221">Figs. 221</a> and <a href="#Fig_222">222</a>. This leaves five pairs of ribs to be distributed
+between the front and back end of the cabin. From the outside
+of each end-support to the inside of the nearest middle-support
+is 2 feet 6 inches. Allowing 2 inches for the supports, this will
+place the adjoining ribs 2 feet 8 inches from the outside of the
+end-supports. The other ribs are placed midway between, as
+may be seen by the elevation, <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>.</div>
+
+<p>There is another pair of</p>
+
+
+<h3>Deck-Ribs</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>at the forward end of the cabin, which are placed flush with the
+line D, C, <a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a> (see <a href="#Fig_221">Figs. 221</a> and <a href="#Fig_222">222</a>). The two pairs of ribs
+in the bow are spaced, as shown in the diagram. This description<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+may appear as if it was a complicated affair; but you will find it a
+simple thing to work out if you will remember to allow space for
+your pump in the stern, space for the end-planks at after and forward
+end of cabin, and space for your uprights. The planks at
+after and forward end of cabin are to box in the cabin floor.</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Boat May Now Be Launched</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>by sliding it over the rollers, which will not be found a difficult
+operation.</div>
+
+
+<div class='unindent'>The Plans Show Three Lockers</div>
+
+<div class='unindent'>&mdash;two in the bow under the hatch and one under the rear bunk&mdash;but
+if it is deemed necessary the space between-decks, at each
+side of the cabin, may be utilized as lockers. In this space you
+can store enough truck to last for months. A couple of doors in
+the plank at the front of the cabin opening, under the deck, will
+be found very convenient to reach the forward locker in wet
+weather.</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Keel</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is a triangular piece of 2-inch board, made to fit exactly in the middle
+of the stern, and had best be nailed in place before the boat is
+launched (see <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>). The keel must have its bottom edge
+flush with the bottom of the boat, and a strip of hard-wood nailed
+on the stern-end of the keel and bumper, as shown in the diagram.
+A couple of strong screw-eyes will support the rudder.</div>
+
+<p>After the boat is launched the</p>
+
+
+<h3>Side-Supports for the Cabin May Be Erected</h3>
+
+<p>These are "two-by-twos" and eight in number, and each 5 feet
+9 inches long. Nail them securely at their lower ends to the adjoining
+ribs. See that they are plumb, and fasten them temporarily
+with diagonal pieces, to hold the top ends in place, while you
+nail down the lower deck or flooring.</p>
+
+<p>Now fit and nail the two 1-inch planks in place, at the bow and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+stern-end of the cabin, each of which has its top one inch above the
+sides, even with the proposed deck (see dotted lines in <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3>Use Ordinary Flooring</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>or if that is not obtainable use ¾-inch pine boards, and run them
+lengthwise from the bow to the front end of the cabin and along
+the sides of the cabin. Then floor the cabin lengthwise from bow
+to stern. This gives you a dry cabin floor, for there are 4 inches
+of space underneath for bilge-water, which unless your boat is
+badly made and very leaky, is plenty of room for what little water
+may leak in from above or below. The two side-boards of the
+cabin floor must, of course, have square places neatly cut out to
+fit the uprights of the cabin. This may be done by slipping the
+floor-board up against the uprights and carefully marking the
+places with a pencil where they will come through the board,
+and then at each mark sawing two inches in the floor plank, and
+cutting out the blocks with a chisel.</div>
+
+
+<h3>The Hatch</h3>
+
+<p>Now take a "four-by-four" and saw off eight short supports
+for the two 1-inch planks which support the hatch, Figs. 221 and
+222. Toe-nail the middle four-by-four to the floor in such a position
+that the two cross-planks (which are made to fit in the notches
+E and F, <a href="#Fig_220">Fig. 220</a>) will rest on the supports. Nail the four other
+supports to the side-boards of your boat, and on top of these nail
+the cross-planks, as shown in the diagrams.</p>
+
+<p>The boat is now ready for its</p>
+
+
+<h3>Upper Deck</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>of 1-inch pine boards. These are to be nailed on lengthwise, bow
+and stern and at sides of cabin, leaving, of course, the cabin open,
+as shown by the position of the boys in <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>, and an opening,
+3 feet by 2, for the hatch (<a href="#Fig_221">Fig. 221</a>). The two floors will act as
+benches for the uprights of the cabin, and hold them stiff and
+plumb.</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>To further stiffen the frame, make two diagonals for the stern-end,
+as shown in <a href="#Fig_223">Fig. 223</a>, and nail them in place.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Rafters</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>or roof-rods, should extend a foot each way beyond the cabin,
+hence cut them two feet longer than the cabin, and after testing
+your uprights, to see that they are exactly plumb, nail the two side
+roof-rods in place (see dotted lines in <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>). The cross-pieces
+at the ends, as they support no great weight, may be fitted between
+the two side-rods, and nailed there.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 392px;"><a id="Fig_223"></a>
+<img src="images/i_188.png" width="392" height="371" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 223.&mdash;End view.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The roof is to be made of ½-inch boards bent into a curve, and
+the ridge-pole, or centre roof-rod, must needs have some support.
+This is obtained by two short pieces of 2 by 4, each 6 inches long,
+which are toe-nailed to the centre of each cross-rod, and the ridge-pole
+nailed to their tops. At 3 feet from the upper deck the side
+frame-pieces are toe-nailed to the uprights. As may be seen, there
+are three two-by-fours on each side (<a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The space between the side frame-pieces, the two middle uprights,
+and side roof-rods, is where the windows are to be placed.</p>
+
+<p>Use ½-inch (tongue and groove preferred) pine boards for
+sidings, and</p>
+
+
+<h3>Box In Your Cabin</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>neatly, allowing space for windows on each side, as indicated.
+Leave the front open. Of the same kind of boards make your
+roof; the boards being light you can bend them down upon each
+side and nail them to the side roof-rods, forming a pretty curve,
+as may be seen in the illustration of the American boy's house-boat.</div>
+
+
+<h3>This Roof</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>to be finished neatly and made entirely water-proof, should be
+covered with tent-cloth or light canvas, smoothly stretched over
+and tacked upon the under side of the projecting edges. Three
+good coats of paint will make it water-proof and pleasant to look
+upon.</div>
+
+<p>The description, so far, has been for a neatly finished craft, but
+I have seen very serviceable and comfortable house-boats built of
+rough lumber, in which case the curved roof, when they had one,
+had narrow strips nailed over the boards where they joined each
+other or was covered with tar-paper.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a id="Fig_224"></a>
+<img src="images/i_190.png" width="500" height="434" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 224.&mdash;End view.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>To Contrive a Movable Front</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>to your cabin, make two doors to fit and close the front opening,
+but in place of hanging the doors on hinges, set them in place.
+Each door should have a good strong strap nailed securely on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+inside, for a handle, and a batten or cross-piece at top and bottom
+of inside surface. A 1½ by 4, run parallel to the front top
+cross-frame and nailed there, just a sufficient distance from it to
+allow the top of the door to be inserted between, will hold the top
+of the door securely. A two-by-four, with bolt-holes near either
+end to correspond with bolt-holes in the floor, will hold the bottom
+when the door is pushed in place, the movable bottom-piece
+shoved against it and the bolts thrust in (see <a href="#Fig_225">Fig. 225</a>, view from
+inside of cabin. <a href="#Fig_226">Fig. 226</a>, side view). It will be far less work to
+break in the side of the cabin than to burst in such doors, if they
+are well made. These doors possess this advantage: they can be
+removed and used as table-tops, leaving the whole front open to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+the summer breeze, or one may be removed, and still allow plenty
+of ventilation. A moulding on deck around the cabin is not
+necessary, but it will add finish and prevent the rain-water from
+leaking in.</div>
+
+<p>To lock up the boat you must set the doors from the inside,
+and if you wish to leave the craft locked you must crawl out of the
+window and fasten the latter with a lock.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="illustrations">
+<tr><td align="left"><div class="figleft" style="width: 266px;"><a id="Fig_225"></a>
+<img src="images/i_191a.png" width="266" height="334" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 225.&mdash;Inside view of door.</div>
+</div></td>
+<td align="left"><div class="figright" style="width: 178px;"><a id="Fig_226"></a>
+<img src="images/i_191b.png" width="178" height="443" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig 226&mdash;Side view
+of door.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_227">Fig. 227</a> shows the construction of</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Rudder</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>and also an arrangement by which it may be worked from the
+front of the boat, which, when the boat is towed, will be found
+most convenient.</div>
+
+<p>The hatch should be made of 1-inch boards, to fit snugly flush
+with the deck, as in the illustration, or made of 2-inch plank,
+and a moulding fitted around the opening, as shown in <a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>A Pair of Rowlocks</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>made of two round oak sticks with an iron rod in their upper ends,
+may be placed in holes in the deck near the bow, and the boat can
+be propelled by two oarsmen using long "sweeps," which have
+holes at the proper places to fit over the iron rods projecting from
+the oaken rowlocks. These rowlocks may be removed when not
+in use, and the holes closed by wooden plugs, while the sweeps
+can be hung at the side of the cabin, under its eaves, or lashed fast
+to the roof.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 523px;"><a id="Fig_227"></a>
+<img src="images/i_192.png" width="523" height="228" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 227.&mdash;Side elevation.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>Two or More Ash Poles</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>for pushing or poling the boat over shallow water or other difficult
+places for navigation are handy, and should not be left out of the
+equipment. The window-sashes may be hung on hinges and
+supplied with hooks and screw-eyes to fasten them open by hooking
+them to the eaves when it is desired to let in the fresh air. All
+window openings should be protected by wire netting to keep
+out insects.</div>
+
+<p>Two bunks can be fitted at the rear end of the cabin, one
+above the other, the bottom bunk being the lid to a locker (see
+<a href="#Fig_222">Fig. 222</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>The Locker</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>is simply a box, the top of which is just below the deck-line and
+extending the full width of the cabin. It has hinges at the back,
+and may be opened for the storage of luggage.</div>
+
+<p>Over the lid blankets are folded, making a divan during the
+day and a bed at night.</p>
+
+<p>The top bunk is made like the frame of a cheap cot, but in place
+of being upholstered it has a strong piece of canvas stretched
+across it. This bunk is also hinged to the back of the cabin, so
+that when not in use it can be swung up against the roof and fastened
+there as the top berth in a sleeping-car is fastened. Four
+4 by 4 posts can be bolted to the side-support at each corner of
+the bottom bunk; they will amply support the top bunk, as the
+legs do a table-top when the frame is allowed to rest upon their
+upper ends. This makes accommodation for two boys, and
+there is still room for upper and lower side bunks, the cabin
+being but six feet wide. If you put bunks on both sides you will
+be rather crowded, it is true, but by allowing a 1-foot passage in
+the middle, you can have two side bunks and plenty of head room.
+This will accommodate four boys, and that is a full crew for a boat
+of this size.</p>
+
+<p>On board a yacht I have often seen four full-grown men
+crowded into a smaller space in the cabin, while the sailormen
+in the fo'-castle had not near that amount of room.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A More Simple Set of Plans</h3>
+
+<p>Here the cabin is built on top of the upper deck, and there are
+no bottom-ribs, the uprights being held in place by blocks nailed
+to the bottom of the boat, and by the deck of the boat. This is
+secure enough for well-protected waters, small lakes, and small
+streams. Upon the inland streams of New York State I have seen
+two-story house-boats, the cabin, or house, being only a framework
+covered with canvas. One such craft I saw in central New
+York, drifting downstream over a shallow riff, and as it bumped<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+along over the stones it presented a strange sight. The night was
+intensely dark, and the boat brightly lighted. The lights shone
+through the canvas covering, and this big, luminous house went
+bobbing over the shallow water, while shouts of laughter and the
+"plinky-plunk" of a banjo told in an unmistakable manner of the
+jolly time the crew were having.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Canvas-Cabined House-Boat</h3>
+
+<p>If you take an ordinary open scow and erect a frame of uprights
+and cross-pieces, and cover it with canvas, you will have just such
+a boat as the one seen in central New York. This boat may be
+propelled by oars, the rowers sitting under cover, and the canvas
+being lifted at the sides to allow the sweeps to work; but of course
+it will not be as snug as the well-made American boy's house-boat,
+neither can it stand the same amount of rough usage, wind, and
+rain as the latter boat.</p>
+
+<p>In the frontispiece the reader will notice a stove-pipe at the stern;
+there is room for a small stove back of the cabin, and in fair
+weather it is much better to cook outside than inside the cabin.
+When you tie up to the shore for any length of time, a rude
+shelter of boughs and bark will make a good kitchen on the land,
+in which the stove may be placed, and you will enjoy all the fun
+of a camp, with the advantage of a snug house to sleep in.</p>
+
+<p>For the benefit of boys who doubt their ability to build a boat
+of this description, it may be well to state that other lads have used
+these directions and plans with successful results, and their boats
+now gracefully float on many waters, a source of satisfaction and
+pride to their owners.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Information for Old Boys</h3>
+
+<p>On all the Western rivers small flat-boats or scows are to be had
+at prices which vary in accordance with the mercantile instincts
+of the purchaser, and with the desire of the seller to dispose of his
+craft. Such boats are propelled by "sweeps," a name used to
+designate the long poles with boards on their outer edges that serve<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+as blades and form the oars. These boats are often supplied with
+a deck-house, extending almost from end to end, and if such a
+house is lacking one may be built with little expense. The cabin
+may be divided into rooms and the sleeping apartments supplied
+with cheaply made bunks. It is not the material of the bunk
+which makes it comfortable&mdash;it is the mattress in the bunk upon
+which your comfort will depend. The kitchen and dining-room
+may be all in one. An awning spread over the roof will make a
+delightful place in which to lounge and catch the river breezes.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Cost of House-Boats</h3>
+
+<p>The cost of a ready-made flat-bottomed house-boat is anywhere
+from thirty dollars to one or more thousands. In Florida such a
+boat, 40 by 20 feet, built for the quiet waters of the St. John's
+River or its tributaries, or the placid lagoons, will cost eight hundred
+dollars. This boat is well painted outside and rubbed down
+to a fine oil finish inside; it has one deck, and the hull is used for
+toilet apartments and state-rooms; the hull is well calked and all
+is in good trim. Such expense is, however, altogether unnecessary&mdash;there
+need be no paint or polish. All you need is a well-calked
+hull and a water-tight roof of boards or canvas overhead;
+cots or bunks to sleep in; chairs, stools, boxes or benches to sit
+on; hammocks to loll in, and a good supply of provisions in
+the larder.</p>
+
+<p>House-boats for the open waters are necessarily more expensive.
+As a rule they need round bottoms that stand well out of the water,
+and are built like the hull of a ship. These boats cost as much to
+build as a small yacht. From twelve to fifteen hundred dollars
+will build a good house-boat, with comfortable sleeping-berths,
+toilet-rooms and store-rooms below; a kitchen, dining-room, and
+living-rooms on the cabin deck, with wide, breezy passageways
+separating them.</p>
+
+<p>If a bargain can be found in an old schooner with a good hull,
+for two or three hundred dollars, a first-class house-boat can be
+made by the expenditure of as much more for a cabin. The roofs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+of all house-boats should extend a foot or more beyond the sides
+of the cabin.</p>
+
+
+<h3>For People of Limited Means</h3>
+
+<p>For people with little money to spend, these expensive boats
+are as much out of reach as a yacht, but they may often be rented
+for prices within the means of people in moderate circumstances.
+At New York I have known a good schooner-yacht, 84 feet over all,
+to be chartered for two weeks, with crew of skipper and two men,
+the larder plentifully supplied with provisions and luxuries for six
+people and the crew, making nine in all, at a cost of thirty-six dollars
+apiece for each of the six passengers. An equally good house-boat
+should not cost over twelve dollars a week per passenger for
+a party of ten. In inland waters, if a boat could be rented, the
+cost should not exceed seven or eight dollars a week per passenger.</p>
+
+<p>A canal-boat is a most excellent house-boat for a pleasure party,
+either on inland streams or along our coast.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Street-Car Cabins</h3>
+
+<p>Since the introduction of cable and trolley-cars the street-car
+companies have been selling their old horse-cars, in some instances
+at figures below the cost of the window-glass in them; so cheap,
+in fact, that poor people buy them to use as woodsheds and
+chicken-coops.</p>
+
+<p>One of these cars will make an ideal cabin for a house-boat,
+and can be adapted for that purpose with little or no alterations.
+All it needs is a good flat-boat to rest in, and you have a palatial
+house-boat.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1">[A]</a> See <a href="#Page_10">p. 10</a>.</p></div></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XV<br />
+<small>A CHEAP AND SPEEDY MOTOR-BOAT</small></h2>
+
+<div class='summary1'>How To Build the Jackson Glider&mdash;A Very Simple Form of Motor-Boat,
+Which Will Hold Its Own in Speed With Even
+Expensive Boats of Double Horse-Power</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">This</span> boat is intended to slide over the top of the water and not
+through it, consequently it is built in the form of a flat-bottom
+scow. Order your wood dressed on both sides, otherwise it will
+come with one side rough. For the side-boards we need two pine,
+or cedar boards, to measure, when trimmed, 14 feet (<a href="#Fig_228">Fig. 228</a>),
+and to be 16 or 18 inches wide.</p>
+
+
+<h3>The Stern-Board</h3>
+
+<div class='unindent'>when trimmed, will be 2½ feet long by 1 foot, 8½ inches wide.
+It may even be a little wider, because the protruding part can be
+planed down after the boat is built (<a href="#Fig_229">Fig. 229</a>).</div>
+
+<p>To make the bow measure from the point E (<a href="#Fig_228">Fig. 228</a>) 1 foot
+8½ inches and mark the point C. Measure along the same line
+13½ inches and mark the point D. Next measure from B down
+along the edge of the boat one inch and mark the point F. Again
+measure down from B, 5¾ inches and mark the point G. With
+a carpenter's pencil draw the lines F D and G C and saw these
+pieces off along the dotted line (<a href="#Fig_232">Fig. 232</a>). The bow can then be
+rounded at the points A and B with a sharp knife or jackplane.</p>
+
+<p>To get the proper slant on the stern, measure from H 4½ inches
+to L and saw off the triangle LHK. Make the other side board
+an exact duplicate of the first one, as in <a href="#Fig_228">Fig. 228</a>. Next set these
+two boards on edge, like sledge runners (<a href="#Fig_230">Fig. 230</a>), and let them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+be 2 feet, 6 inches apart (the boat will be safer if made six inches
+wider, and its speed will be almost as great), which can be tested
+by fitting the stern-boards between them before nailing the temporary
+boards on, which are to hold them in place (<a href="#Fig_230">Fig. 230</a>). Do
+not drive the nails home, but leave the heads protruding on all
+temporary braces, so that they may be easily removed when
+necessary.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_228"></a><a id="Fig_229"></a><a id="Fig_230"></a>
+<img src="images/i_198.png" width="600" height="467" alt="Figs. 228-230 Parts of a motor-boat" />
+</div>
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_198-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 334px;"><a id="Fig_231"></a>
+<img src="images/i_199.png" width="334" height="475" alt="drawing" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 231.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now turn the boat bottom side up and nail the bottom on, as
+already described in previous chapters (<a href="#Fig_232">Fig. 232</a>). The bottom-boards
+are to be so planed upon their edges that they leave V-shaped
+grooves on the inside of the boat to be calked with candlewick
+and putty (<a href="#Fig_231">Fig. 231</a>). Next make a shaft-log by cutting a
+board in a triangular piece, as shown in <a href="#Fig_233">Fig. 233</a>, and nailing two
+other pieces of board on it, and leaving a space for the shaft-rod,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+over which is nailed a duplicate of the bottom-board, as shown
+in <a href="#Fig_234">Fig. 234</a>. Make the shaft-log of three thicknesses of 1-inch
+plank. To make it more secure there should be a board nailed on
+the inside bottom of the boat, as shown in <a href="#Fig_235">Fig. 235</a> by the dotted
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>This board is put there to strengthen the bottom and allow us
+to cut a slot through for the admission of a shaft (<a href="#Fig_236">Fig. 236</a>) which
+is drawn on a scale shown below
+it. With the engine comes a
+stuffing box, through which the
+shaft passes and which prevents
+the water from coming up
+through the shaft-hole. The
+stuffing boxes, which are furnished
+to fit upon the inside of
+the boat, are expensive, but one
+to fit upon the stern of the shaft-log
+costs but little, and will answer
+all purposes.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Of course, when attaching the
+shaft-log to the bottom, it must
+be in the exact centre of the
+boat. Find the centre of the
+boat at the bow and stern, mark
+the points and snap a chalk-line
+between them. Now place the
+shaft-log in position on this line and while holding that there
+firmly, mark around it with a carpenter's pencil. Next lay the
+shaft-log flat on its side with its edge along this line and with
+your pencil mark on the bottom of the boat the exact place
+where the shaft-hole must be cut to correspond with the one in the
+shaft-log. As may be seen by <a href="#Fig_236">Fig. 236</a>, the shaft runs through
+at an acute angle; hence the hole must be bored on a slant, or
+better still a slot cut through the floor long enough to allow for
+the slant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="Fig_232"></a><a id="Fig_233"></a><a id="Fig_234"></a><a id="Fig_235"></a><a id="Fig_236"></a><a id="Fig_237"></a><a id="Fig_238"></a><a id="Fig_239"></a>
+<img src="images/i_200.png" width="600" height="368" alt="Details of Motor-boat" />
+</div>
+
+<div class='tnote'><div class='center'>[Transcriber's Note: To see a larger version of this
+image, click <a href="images/i_200-big.png">here</a>.]</div></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The leak, which would naturally occur here is prevented by the
+stuffing box which is fastened on to the stern-end of the shaft-log
+where the latter protrudes for the propeller. To set the engine
+in the boat it is necessary to have an engine-bed. This is made
+of two pieces of board cut diagonally, upon which the engine
+rests.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_237">Fig. 237</a> shows a piece of 2-inch board and a method of sawing
+it to make the duplicate pieces to form the engine-bed. The
+dimension of these pieces must be obtained by measuring the
+width of the engine rest, which is to be installed. The angle, of
+course, must correspond to the angle of the shaft.</p>
+
+<p>Make your own rudder of any shape that suits your fancy,
+square or paddle-shaped, of a piece of galvanized iron or of wood,
+as shown in the diagram; or you can simply fasten the rudder-stem
+to the transom (stern-board), as is often done on row-boats
+and sail-boats. If you desire to make your rudder like the one
+shown here, use two pieces of galvanized pipes for your rudder-posts,
+one of which fits loosely inside of the other. Make the
+rudder-posts of what is known as <small><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></small>-inch (which means literally
+a <small><sup>3</sup>/<sub>8</sub></small>-inch opening) and for its jacket use a ¾-inch pipe, or any two
+kinds of pipe, which will allow one to turn loosely inside the other.
+The smaller pipe can be bent easily by hand to suit your convenience,
+after it has been thrust through the larger pipe.</p>
+
+<p>First bend the lower end of the small pipe to fit your proposed
+rudder, then remove the larger pipe and flatten the lower end of
+the small one by beating it with the hammer. To bore the screw-holes
+in the flattened end you will use a small tool for drilling
+metal. One of these drills, which will fit any carpenter's brace,
+can be procured for the cost of a few cents.</p>
+
+<p>Drill holes through the flattened end of your pipe for the reception
+of your screws, which are to secure it to the rudder. It is
+now necessary to fasten a block of 2-inch plank securely to the
+bottom of the boat upon the inside where the rudder-post is to be
+set. This block might best be secured on with four bolts. A
+hole is then bored through the block and the bottom of the boat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+a trifle smaller than the largest piece of pipe; the latter is supposed
+to have screw threads upon its lower end (<a href="#Fig_238">Fig. 238</a>) so that
+it may be screwed into the wood, but before doing so coat the
+threads with white lead and also the inside of the hole in the block
+with the same substance.</p>
+
+<p>When the larger pipe is now screwed into the block until its
+lower end is flushed with the outside bottom of the boat, the white
+lead will not only make the process easier, but will tend to keep
+out the moisture and water from the joint.</p>
+
+<p>From the outside thrust the upper end of the small pipe through
+the hole in the bottom until it protrudes the proper distance above
+the larger pipe, and with the point of a nail scratch a mark on the
+surface of the small pipe where it issues from the big one. At this
+point drill a hole through the small pipe to admit a nail which is
+to act as a peg to keep the helm from sliding down and jamming in
+its bearings.</p>
+
+<p>If you choose, a small seat or deck may be inserted in the stern,
+through which the helm extends and which will help to steady it.
+The top of the helm, or protruding ends of the small pipe may
+now be bent over toward the bow, as shown in the diagram, and
+by holding some hard substance under it, the end may be flattened
+with a hammer and two holes drilled through the flattened end
+for the rudder-line, as in <a href="#Fig_239">Fig. 239</a>. These lines work the rudder
+and extend on each side of the boat through some clothes-lines
+pulleys, as shown in <a href="#Fig_239">Fig. 239</a>.</p>
+
+<p>If you slice off the ring from a common rubber hose and slip
+it over the inside pipe before you fasten it in place, it will prevent
+the water from spurting up through the rudder pipe when the boat
+is speeding.</p>
+
+<p>Any boat will leak if not carefully built and the simplest kind
+of a craft carefully put together is as water-tight as the most finished
+and expensive boat.</p>
+
+<p>For a gasoline tank any good galvanized iron vessel will answer
+if it holds five gallons or more of gasoline. It can be placed in the
+bow on a rest made for it. Of course the bottom of the tank must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+be on a level or higher than the carburetor of the engine; the tank
+is connected by a small copper, or block-tin pipe, which you procure
+with the engine.</p>
+
+<p>This boat, if built according to plans, should cost ten dollars or
+less, not counting the cost of the engine. The cost of the latter
+will vary according to the style of one you use, and whether you
+get it first or second hand.</p>
+
+<p>A ten-horse power engine drove a boat of this kind at the rate of
+eighteen miles an hour.</p>
+
+<p>For beginners, this is as far as it is safe to go in boat-building,
+but thus far any one with a rudimentary knowledge of the use of
+tools can go, and, if one has followed the book through from
+chapter to chapter he should be a good boat-builder at</p>
+
+<div class='center'><br />
+The End
+</div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span></p>
+<div class='bbox'>
+<div class='adtitle2'>THE BEARD BOOKS FOR BOYS</div>
+
+<div class='center'><big><i>By</i> <span class="smcap">Dan C. Beard</span></big></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 54px;">
+<img src="images/decoration.png" width="54" height="14" alt="decoration" />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>THE AMERICAN BOY'S HANDY BOOK. Or, What
+to Do and How to Do It</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Illustrated by the author</i><br />
+Gives sports adapted to all seasons of the year, tells boys how to make all
+kinds of things&mdash;boats, traps, toys, puzzles, aquariums, fishing-tackle; how
+to tie knots, splice ropes, to make bird calls, sleds, blow-guns, balloons; how
+to rear wild birds, to train dogs, and do the thousand and one things that
+boys take delight in.</div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>THE OUTDOOR HANDY BOOK. For Playground,
+Field, and Forest</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Illustrated by the author</i><br />
+"How to play all sorts of games with marbles, how to make and spin more
+kinds of tops than most boys ever heard of, how to make the latest things
+in plain and fancy kites, where to dig bait and how to fish, all about boats
+and sailing, and a host of other things .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. an unmixed delight to any
+boy."&mdash;<i>New York Tribune.</i></div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>THE FIELD AND FOREST HANDY BOOK. Or, New
+Ideas for Out of Doors</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Illustrated by the author</i><br />
+"Instructions as to ways to build boats and fire-engines, make aquariums,
+rafts, and sleds, to camp in a back-yard, etc. No better book of the kind exists."&mdash;<i>Chicago
+Record-Herald.</i></div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>SHELTERS, SHACKS, AND SHANTIES</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Illustrated by the author</i><br />
+Easily workable directions, accompanied by very full illustration, for over
+fifty shelters, shacks, and shanties.</div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING. A Handy Book
+for Beginners</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Illustrated by the author</i><br />
+All that Dan Beard knows and has written about the building of every simple
+kind of boat, from a raft to a cheap motor-boat, is brought together in
+this book.</div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>THE JACK OF ALL TRADES. Or, New Ideas for
+American Boys</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'><i>Illustrated by the author</i><br />
+"This book is a capital one to give any boy for a present at Christmas, on
+a birthday, or indeed at any time."&mdash;<i>The Outlook.</i></div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>THE BOY PIONEERS. Sons of Daniel Boone</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Illustrated by the author</i><br />
+"How to become a member of the 'Sons of Daniel Boone' and take part in
+all the old pioneer games, and many other things in which boys are interested."&mdash;<i>Philadelphia
+Press.</i></div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>THE BLACK WOLF-PACK</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>"A genuine thriller of mystery and red-blooded conflicts, well calculated to
+hold the mind and the heart of its boy and, for that matter, its adult
+reader."&mdash;<i>Philadelphia North American.</i></div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='bbox'>
+<div class='adtitle2'>THE BEARD BOOKS FOR GIRLS</div>
+
+<div class='center'><big><i>By</i> <span class="smcap">Lina Beard</span> <i>and</i> <span class="smcap">Adelia B. Beard</span></big></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 54px;">
+<img src="images/decoration.png" width="54" height="14" alt="decoration" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>THE AMERICAN GIRL'S HANDY BOOK. How to
+Amuse Yourself and Others</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>With nearly 500 illustrations</i><br />
+"It is a treasure which, once possessed, no practical girl would willingly
+part with."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Grace Greenwood.</span></div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>THINGS WORTH DOING AND HOW TO DO THEM</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>With some 600 drawings by the authors that show exactly how they should
+be done</i><br />
+"The book will tell you how to do nearly anything that any live girl
+really wants to do."&mdash;<i>The World To-day.</i></div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>HANDICRAFT AND RECREATION FOR GIRLS</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>With over 700 illustrations by the authors</i><br />
+"It teaches how to make serviceable and useful things of all kinds
+out of every kind of material. It also tells how to play and how to
+make things to play with."&mdash;<i>Chicago Evening Post.</i></div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>WHAT A GIRL CAN MAKE AND DO. New Ideas
+for Work and Play</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>With more than 300 illustrations by the authors</i><br />
+"It would be a dull girl who could not make herself busy and happy
+following its precepts.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. A most inspiring book for an active-minded
+girl."&mdash;<i>Chicago Record-Herald.</i></div>
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>ON THE TRAIL</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Illustrated by the authors</i><br />
+This volume tells how a girl can live outdoors, camping in the woods,
+and learning to know its wild inhabitants.</div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>MOTHER NATURE'S TOY SHOP</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Profusely illustrated by the authors</i><br />
+
+How children can make toys easily and economically from wild
+flowers, grasses, green leaves, seed-vessels, fruits, etc.</div>
+
+
+<div class='adtitle3'>LITTLE FOLKS' HANDY BOOK</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>With many illustrations</i><br />
+Contains a wealth of devices for entertaining children by means of
+paper building-cards, wooden berry-baskets, straw and paper furniture,
+paper jewelry, etc.</div>
+
+<div class='center'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;<br />
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, NEW YORK<br />
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class='tnote'><h3>Transcriber's Notes:</h3>
+
+<p>Punctuation errors were corrected.</p>
+
+<p>Inconsistent hyphenation was retained.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the
+illustrations were enlarged to show greater detail.</p>
+
+<p>Page 42, "staps" changed to "straps" (straps with your hand)</p>
+
+<p>Page 58, "mechancial" changed to "mechanical" (with mechanical aid)</p>
+<p>Page 90 and 96, two different drawings are labeled "Fig. 140."</p>
+<p>Page 166, the illustration has a "Fig. 113" as part of the original, but the
+caption reads "Fig. 218." This anomaly was retained.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 44228-h.txt or 44228-h.zip *******</p>
+<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br />
+<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/4/2/2/44228">http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/2/2/44228</a></p>
+<p>
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.</p>
+
+<p>
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Boat-Building and Boating, by Daniel Carter
+Beard, Illustrated by Daniel Carter Beard
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Boat-Building and Boating
+
+
+Author: Daniel Carter Beard
+
+
+
+Release Date: November 18, 2013  [eBook #44228]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Emmy, Henry Gardiner, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images
+generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 44228-h.htm or 44228-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44228/44228-h/44228-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44228/44228-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      https://archive.org/details/boatbuildingboat00bear
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
+
+      A carat character is used to denote superscription. A
+      character enclosed by curly brackets following the carat
+      is superscripted [example: A^{1}].
+
+
+
+
+
+BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING
+
+
+[Illustration: Bound for a good time]
+
+
+BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING
+
+by
+
+D. C. BEARD
+
+With Many Illustrations by the Author
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+New York
+Charles Scribner's Sons
+1931
+
+Copyright, 1911, by
+Charles Scribner's Sons
+
+Printed in the United States of America
+
+Special Notice
+
+All the material in this book, both text and cuts, is original with
+the author and invented by him; and warning is hereby given that the
+unauthorized printing of any portion of the text and the reproduction
+of any of the illustrations or diagrams are expressly forbidden.
+
+
+[Illustration: The Scribner Press]
+
+
+
+
+    AFFECTIONATELY
+    DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF
+    TOM AND HI
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+THIS is not a book for yacht-builders, but it is intended for beginners
+in the art of boat-building, for boys and men who wish to make
+something with which they may navigate the waters of ponds, lakes, or
+streams. It begins with the most primitive crafts composed of slabs
+or logs and works up to scows, house-boats, skiffs, canoes and simple
+forms of sailing craft, a motor-boat, and there it stops. There are so
+many books and magazines devoted to the higher arts of ship-building
+for the graduates to use, besides the many manufacturing houses which
+furnish all the parts of a sail-boat, yacht, or motor-boat for the
+ambitious boat-builder to put together himself, that it is unnecessary
+for the author to invade that territory.
+
+Many of the designs in this book have appeared in magazines to which
+the author contributed, or in his own books on general subjects, and
+all these have been successfully built by hundreds of boys and men.
+
+Many of them are the author's own inventions, and the others are his
+own adaptations of well-known and long-tried models. In writing and
+collecting this material for boat-builders from his other works and
+placing them in one volume, the author feels that he is fulfilling
+the wishes of many of his old readers and offering a useful book to
+a large audience of new recruits to the army of those who believe in
+the good old American doctrine of: "If you want a thing done, do it
+yourself." And by doing it yourself you not only add to your skill and
+resourcefulness, but, what is even more important, you develop your own
+self-reliance and manhood.
+
+No one man can think of everything connected with any one subject,
+and the author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to several
+sportsmen friends, especially to his camp-mate, Mr. F. K. Vreeland, and
+his young friend, Mr. Samuel Jackson, for suggestions of great value to
+both writer and reader.
+
+                                                       DAN BEARD.
+
+  FLUSHING, L. I., _Sept., 1911._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                              PAGE
+     I. HOW TO CROSS A STREAM ON A LOG                    3
+    II. HOME-MADE BOATS                                   8
+   III. A RAFT THAT WILL SAIL                            18
+    IV. CANOES                                           25
+     V. CANOES AND BOATING STUNTS                        33
+    VI. THE BIRCH-BARK                                   48
+   VII. HOW TO BUILD A PADDLING DORY                     69
+  VIII. THE LANDLUBBER'S CHAPTER                         74
+    IX. HOW TO RIG AND SAIL SMALL BOATS                  96
+     X. MORE RIGS OF ALL KINDS FOR SMALL BOATS          111
+    XI. KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES                       123
+   XII. HOW TO BUILD A CHEAP BOAT                       139
+  XIII. A "ROUGH-AND-READY" BOAT                        154
+   XIV. HOW TO BUILD CHEAP AND SUBSTANTIAL HOUSE-BOATS  163
+    XV. A CHEAP AND SPEEDY MOTOR-BOAT                   184
+
+
+
+
+Boat-Building and Boating
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--The logomaran.]
+
+
+
+
+BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+HOW TO CROSS A STREAM ON A LOG
+
+How to Build a Logomaran
+
+
+THERE is a widespread notion that all wood will float on water, and
+this idea often leads to laughable errors. I know a lot of young
+backwoods farmers who launched a raft of green oak logs, and were as
+much astonished to see their craft settle quietly to the bottom of
+the lake as they would have been to see the leaden sinkers of their
+fish-lines dance lightly on the surface of the waves. The young fellows
+used a day's time to discover what they might have learned in a few
+moments by watching the chips sink when they struck the water as they
+flew from the skilful blows of their axes.
+
+The stream which cuts your trail is not always provided with bridges
+of fallen trees. It may be a river too deep to ford and too wide to be
+bridged by a chance log. Of course it is a simple matter to swim, but
+the weather may be cold and the water still colder; besides this, you
+will probably be encumbered with a lot of camp equipage--your gun, rod,
+and camera--none of which will be improved by a plunge in the water. Or
+it may so happen that you are on the shores of a lake unsupplied with
+boats, and you have good reasons for supposing that big fish lurk in
+some particular spot out of reach from the shore. A thousand and one
+emergencies may arise when a craft of some kind will be not only a
+great convenience, but almost a necessity. Under these circumstances
+
+
+A Logomaran
+
+may be constructed in a very short time which can bear you and your
+pack safely to the desired goal (Fig. 1).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--The notch.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Top view of logomaran.]
+
+In the Rocky, Cascade, and Selkirk Mountains, the lakes and streams
+have their shores plentifully supplied with "whim sticks," logs
+of fine dry timber, which the freshets have brought down from the
+mountain sides and which the rocks and surging torrents have denuded
+of bark. These whim sticks are of all sizes, and as sound and perfect
+as kiln-dried logs. Even in the mountains of Pennsylvania, where the
+lumberman's axe years ago laid waste the primeval forest, where the
+saw-mills have devoured the second growth, the tie-hunter the third
+growth, the excelsior-mills and birch-beer factories the saplings, I
+still find good sound white pine-log whim sticks strewn along the
+shores of the lakes and streams, timber which is suitable for temporary
+rafts and logomarans.
+
+In the North Woods, where in many localities the original forest is
+untouched by the devouring pulp-mills, suitable timber is not difficult
+to find; so let the green wood stand and select a log of dry wood from
+the shore where the floods or ice have deposited it. Cut it into a
+convenient length, and with a lever made of a good stout sapling, and a
+fulcrum of a stone or chunk of wood, pry the log from its resting-place
+and roll it into the shallow water. Notch the log on the upper side, as
+shown by Fig. 2, making a notch near each end for the cross-pieces.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Flattened joint.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
+
+Matched joints.]
+
+The two side floats may be made of pieces split, by the aid of wooden
+wedges, from a large log, or composed of small whim sticks, as shown by
+Fig. 3.
+
+The floats, as may be seen by reference to Figs. 1 and 3, are shorter
+than the middle log.
+
+It is impracticable to give dimensions, for the reason that they are
+relative; the length of the middle log depends, to some extent, upon
+its diameter, it being evident that a thick log will support more than
+a thin one of the same length; consequently if your log is of small
+diameter, it must be longer, in order to support your weight, than will
+be necessary for a thicker piece of timber. The point to remember is to
+select a log which will support you and your pack, and then attach two
+side floats to balance your craft and prevent it from rolling over and
+dumping its load in the water.
+
+An ordinary single shell-boat without a passenger will upset, but
+when the oarsman takes his seat and grasps his long spoon oars, the
+sweeps, resting on the water, balance the cranky craft, and it cannot
+upset as long as the oars are kept there. This is the principle of the
+logomaran, as well as that of the common catamaran. The cross-pieces
+should be only thick enough to be secure and long enough to prevent the
+log from wabbling and wetting your feet more than is necessary.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--The saw-buck crib.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.--The staked crib.]
+
+
+If You Have an Auger and No Nails
+
+the craft may be fastened together with wooden pegs cut somewhat larger
+than the holes bored to receive them, and driven in with blows from
+your axe.
+
+If you have long nails or spikes the problem is a simple one; but if
+you have neither auger, nails, nor spikes you must bind the joints with
+rope or hempen twine.
+
+If you have neither nails, auger, nor rope, a good substitute for the
+latter can be made from the long,
+
+
+Fibrous Inner Bark
+
+of a dead or partly burned tree. For experiment I took some of the
+inner bark of a chestnut-tree which had been killed by fire and twisted
+it into a rope the size of a clothes-line, then I allowed two strong
+men to have a tug-of-war with it, and the improvised rope was stronger
+than the men.
+
+
+How to Make a Fibre Rope
+
+Take one end of a long, loose strand of fibres, give the other end to
+another person, and let both twine the ends between the fingers until
+the material is well twisted throughout its entire length; then bring
+the two ends together, and two sides of the loop thus made will twist
+themselves into a cord or rope half the length of the original strand.
+
+If you nail or peg the parts, use your axe to flatten the joints by
+striking off a chip, as in Fig. 4.
+
+If you must lash the joints together, cut them with log-cabin notches,
+as in Figs. 5 and 6.
+
+If you have baggage to transport, make
+
+
+A Dunnage Crib
+
+by driving four stakes in cuts made near the end of the centre log and
+binding them with rope or fibre (Figs. 7 and 8), or by working green
+twigs basket-fashion around them, or make the rack saw-buck fashion, as
+shown by Fig. 7, and this will keep your things above water.
+
+A couple of cleats nailed on each side of the log will be of great
+assistance and lessen the danger and insecurity of the footing.
+
+A skilfully made logomaran will enable you to cross any stream with a
+moderate current and any small lake in moderate weather. It is not an
+especially dry craft, but it won't sink or upset, and will take one but
+a short time to knock it together.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HOME-MADE BOATS
+
+    Birth of the "Man-Friday" Catamaran--The Crusoe Raft
+    and Chump Rafts
+
+
+NOT so very many years ago I remember visiting, in company with my
+cousin Tom, a small lake at the headwaters of the Miami. High and
+precipitous cliffs surround the little body of water. So steep were
+the great weather-beaten rocks that it was only where the stream came
+tumbling down past an old mill that an accessible path then existed.
+Down that path Tom and I scrambled, for we knew that large bass lurked
+in the deep, black holes among the rocks.
+
+We had no jointed split-bamboo rods nor fancy tackle, but the fish
+there in those days were not particular and seldom hesitated to bite
+at an angle-worm or grasshopper though the hook upon which the bait
+squirmed was suspended by a coarse line from a freshly cut hickory
+sapling.
+
+Even now I feel the thrill of excitement and expectancy as, in
+imagination, my pole is bent nearly double by the frantic struggles of
+those "gamy" black bass. After spending the morning fishing we built
+a fire upon a short stretch of sandy beach, and cleaning our fish and
+washing them in the spring close at hand, we put them among the embers
+to cook.
+
+While the fire was getting our dinner ready for us we threw off our
+clothes and plunged into the cool waters of the lake. Inexpert swimmers
+as we were at that time, the opposite shore, though apparently only a
+stone's throw distant, was too far off for us to reach by swimming.
+Many a longing and curious glance we cast toward it, however, and
+strong was the temptation that beset us to try the unknown depths
+intervening. A pair of brown ears appeared above the ferns near the
+water's edge, and a fox peeped at us; squirrels ran about the fallen
+trunks of trees or scampered up the rocks as saucily as though they
+understood that we could not swim well enough to reach their side of
+the lake; and high up the face of the cliff was a dark spot which we
+almost knew to be the entrance to some mysterious cavern.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8-1/2.--The Man-Friday.]
+
+How we longed for a boat! But not even a raft nor a dugout could be
+seen anywhere upon the glassy surface of the water or along its rocky
+border. We nevertheless determined to explore the lake next day, even
+if we should have to paddle astride of a log.
+
+The first rays of the morning sun had not reached the dark waters
+before my companion and I were hard at work, with axe and hatchet,
+chopping in twain a long log we had discovered near the mill. We had
+at first intended to build a raft; but gradually we evolved a sort of
+catamaran. The two pieces of log we sharpened at the ends for the bow;
+then we rolled the logs down upon the beach, and while I went into the
+thicket to chop down some saplings my companion borrowed an auger
+from the miller. We next placed the logs about three feet apart, and
+marking the points where we intended to put the cross-pieces, we cut
+notches there; then we placed the saplings across, fitting them into
+these notches. To hold them securely we bored holes down through the
+sapling cross-pieces into the logs; with the hatchet we hammered wooden
+pegs into these holes. For the seat we used the half of a section of
+log, the flat side fitting into places cut for that purpose. All that
+remained to be done now was to make a seat in the stern and a pair
+of rowlocks. At a proper distance from the oarsman's seat we bored
+two holes for a couple of forked sticks, which answered admirably for
+rowlocks; across the stern we fastened another piece of log similar to
+that used for the oarsman's seat (Fig. 8-1/2). With the help of a man
+from the mill our craft was launched; and with a pair of oars made of
+old pine boards we rowed off, leaving the miller waving his hat.
+
+Our catamaran was not so light as a row-boat, but it floated, and
+we could propel it with the oars, and, best of all, it was our own
+invention and made with our own hands. We called it a "Man-Friday," and
+by its means we explored every nook in the length and breadth of the
+lake; and ever afterward when we wanted a boat we knew a simple and
+inexpensive way to make one--and a safe one, too.
+
+
+The Crusoe Raft
+
+is another rustic craft, but it is of more ambitious dimensions than
+the "Man-Friday." Instead of being able to float only one or two
+passengers, the "Crusoe," if properly built, ought to accommodate a
+considerable party of raftsmen. Of course the purpose for which the
+raft is to be used, and the number of the crew that is expected to man
+it, must be taken into consideration when deciding upon the dimensions
+of the proposed craft.
+
+All the tools that are necessary for the construction of a good stout
+raft are an axe, an auger, and a hatchet, with some strong arms to
+wield them.
+
+The building material can be gathered from any driftwood heap on lake
+or stream.
+
+For a moderate-sized raft collect six or seven logs, the longest not
+being over sixteen feet in length nor more than a foot in diameter; the
+logs must be tolerably straight. Pick out the longest and biggest for
+the centre, sharpen one end, roll the log into the water, and there
+secure it.
+
+Select two logs as nearly alike as possible, to lie one at each side
+of the centre log. Measure the centre log, and make the point of each
+side log, not at its own centre, but at that side of it which will lie
+against the middle log, so that this side point shall terminate where
+the pointing of the middle log begins (see Fig. 9).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Plan of Crusoe raft.]
+
+After all the logs needed have been trimmed and sharpened in the
+manner just described, roll them into the water and arrange them in
+order (Fig. 9). Fasten them together with "cross-strips," boring holes
+through the strips to correspond with holes bored into the logs lying
+beneath, and through these holes drive wooden pegs. The pegs should be
+a trifle larger than the holes; the water will cause the pegs to swell,
+and they will hold much more firmly than iron nails.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Skeleton of Crusoe raft.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Crusoe with cabin covered.]
+
+The skeleton of the cabin can be made of saplings; such as are used for
+hoop-poles are the best.
+
+These are each bent into an arch, and the ends are thrust into holes
+bored for that purpose. Over this hooping a piece of canvas is
+stretched, after the manner of old-fashioned country wagons (Figs. 10
+and 11).
+
+Erect a "jack-staff," to be used as a flag-pole or a mast to rig a
+square sail on.
+
+A stout stick should be erected at the stern, and a similar one upon
+each side of the raft near the bow; these sticks, when their ends are
+made smaller, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 10), serve as rowlocks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Sweeps.]
+
+For oars use "sweeps"--long poles, each with a piece of board for a
+blade fastened at one end (Fig. 12).
+
+Holes must be bored through the poles of the sweeps about three feet
+from the handle, to slip over the pegs used as rowlocks, as described
+above. These pegs should be high enough to allow the oarsman to stand
+while using the sweeps.
+
+A flat stone or earth box placed at the bow will serve as a fireplace.
+
+If the cracks between the logs under the cabin are filled up to
+prevent the water splashing through, and the cabin is floored with
+cross-sticks, a most comfortable bed at night can be made of hay, by
+heaping it under the canvas cover in sufficient quantities.
+
+The Crusoe raft has this great advantage over all boats: you may take a
+long trip down the river, allowing the current to bear you along, using
+the sweeps only to assist the man at the helm (rear sweep); then, after
+your excursion is finished you may abandon your raft and return by
+steam-boat or train. A very useful thing to the swimmers, when they are
+skylarking in the water, is
+
+
+The Chump's Raft
+
+Its construction is simple. Four boards, each about six feet long, are
+nailed together in the form of a square, with the ends of the boards
+protruding, like the figure drawn upon a school-boy's slate for the
+game of "Tit, tat, toe" (Fig. 13).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.--The chump's raft.]
+
+All nail-points must be knocked off and the heads hammered home, to
+prevent serious scratches and wounds on the bather's body when he
+clambers over the raft or slips off in an attempt to do so (Fig. 14).
+
+Beginners get in the middle hole, and there, with a support within
+reach all around them, they can venture with comparative safety in deep
+water.
+
+The raft, which I built as a model fifteen years ago, is still in use
+at my summer camp, where scores of young people have used it with a
+success proved by their present skill as swimmers. But many camps
+are located in a section of the country where boards are as scarce
+as boarding-houses, but where timber, in its rough state, exists in
+abundance. The campers in such locations can make
+
+
+A Chump's Raft of Logs
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--A beginner in a chump's raft.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Looking down on a chump's raft in motion.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Side view of chump's log raft.]
+
+Such a float consists of two dried logs fastened together at each end
+by cross-slabs, so as to form a rude catamaran. These rafts can be
+towed through deep water by a canoe or row-boat, with the tenderfoot
+securely swung in a sling between the logs, where he may practice
+the hand-and-foot movement with a sense of security which only the
+certainty that he is surrounded by a wooden life-preserver will give
+him. Fig. 15 shows a top view of the new chump's raft. In Fig. 16 the
+two logs are connected fore and aft by cross-slabs; two more upright
+slabs are nailed securely to the side of the logs; notches having been
+cut in the top ends of these slabs, a stout cross-piece is securely
+nailed to them and the towel or rope sling suspended from the middle
+of the cross-piece. In regard to the dimensions of the raft it is
+only necessary to say that it should be wide and long enough to allow
+free movement of the arms and legs of the pupil who is suspended
+between the logs. In almost every wilderness stream there can be found
+piles of driftwood on the shore where one may select good, dried,
+well-seasoned pine or spruce logs from which to make rafts. If such
+heaps of driftwood are not within reach, look for some standing dead
+timber and select that which is of sufficient dimensions to support a
+swimmer, and be careful that it is not hollow or rotten in the core.
+Rotten wood will soon become water-logged and heavy. Fig. 17 shows the
+position of the swimmer supported by the chump's sling. If your raft
+has a tendency to work so that one log pulls ahead of the other, it may
+be braced by cross-pieces, such as are shown at J and K in Fig. 18.
+This figure also shows supports for a suspension pole made by nailing
+two sticks to each side and allowing the ends to cross so as to form a
+crotch in which the supporting rod rests and to which it is securely
+fastened by nails, or by being bound there by a piece of rope, as in A,
+Fig. 19. B, Fig. 19, shows the crotch made by resting L in a fork on
+the M stick and then nailing or binding it in place. C, Fig. 19, shows
+the two sticks, L and M, joined by notches cut log-cabin fashion before
+they are nailed in place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Learning to swim by aid of a chump sling.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Details of saw-buck supports.]
+
+Although many summers have rolled around since the author first made
+his advent on this beautiful earth, he still feels the call of the
+bathing pool, the charm of the spring-board, almost as keenly as he did
+when he was wont to swim in Blue Hole at Yellow Springs, Ohio, or dive
+from the log rafts into the Ohio River, or slide down the "slippery"
+made in the steep muddy banks of the Licking River, Kentucky.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Another way to rig a chump.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+A RAFT THAT WILL SAIL
+
+    The Raft is Just the Thing for Camp Life--Pleasurable
+    Occupation for a Camping Party Where Wood is
+    Plentiful--You Will Need Axes and Hatchets and a Few
+    Other Civilized Implements
+
+
+FIRST we will select two pine logs of equal length, and, while the
+water is heating for our coffee, we will sharpen the butt, or larger
+end, of the logs on one side with the axe, making a "chisel edge," as
+shown in Fig. 20. This gives us an appetite for breakfast and makes the
+big fish in the lake, as they jump above the water, cast anxious looks
+toward our camp.
+
+Breakfast finished, we will cut some cross-pieces to join our two logs
+together, and at equal distances apart we will bore holes through the
+cross-pieces for peg-holes (Figs. 21, 22, and 23). While one of the
+party is fashioning a number of pegs, each with a groove in one side,
+like those shown in Fig. 24, the others will roll the logs into the
+water and secure them in a shallow spot.
+
+Shoes and stockings must be removed, for most of the work is now to be
+done in the water. Of course, it would be much easier done on land, but
+the raft will be very heavy and could never be launched unless under
+the most favorable circumstances. It is better to build the craft in
+the element which is to be its home.
+
+Cut two long saplings for braces, and after separating the logs the
+proper distance for your cross-pieces to fit, nail your braces in
+position, as represented by Fig. 20.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
+
+[Illustration: PARTS OF MAN-FRIDAY SAILING-RAFT.
+
+20.--Logs in place with braces. Figs. 21, 22, and 23.--Struts. Fig.
+24.--Pegs. Fig. 25.--Raft with middle and stern strut in place. Fig.
+26.--Springs for dry deck. Fig. 27.--Dry deck. Fig. 28.--Dry deck in
+place.]
+
+This holds the logs steady, and we may now lay the two cross-pieces in
+position, and mark the points on the logs carefully where the holes
+are to be bored to correspond with the ones in the cross-pieces. Bore
+the holes in one log first; make the holes deep enough and then fill
+them with water, after which drive the pegs through the ends of the
+cross-pieces and into the log. The grooves in the pegs (Fig. 24) will
+allow the water to escape from the holes and the water will cause the
+peg to swell and tighten its hold on the log and cross-pieces.
+
+Now bore holes in the other log under those in the cross-pieces and
+fill them with water before driving the pegs home, as you did in the
+first instance. Fig. 25 is a Man-Friday raft.
+
+
+The Deck
+
+Before placing the bow in position we must go ashore and make a dry
+deck. Selecting for the springs two long green ash or hickory poles,
+trim the ends off flat on one side, as shown by Fig. 26. This flat side
+is the bottom, so roll them over, with the flat side toward the ground,
+and if you can find no planks or barrel staves for a deck, split in
+half a number of small logs and peg or nail them on the top side of the
+springs, as in Fig. 27.
+
+Now all hands must turn out and carry the deck down to the raft and
+place it in position, with the flattened sides of the springs resting
+on top of the logs at the bow. Prop it up in this position, and then
+bore holes through the springs into the logs and peg the springs down.
+Over the flat ends place the heavy bow cross-piece, bore the peg-holes,
+and fasten it in position (Fig. 28).
+
+In the centre of the bow cross-piece bore several holes close together
+and chip out the wood between to make a hole, as square a one as
+possible, for the mast to fit or "step" in. With the wood from a
+packing-box or a slab from a log make the bench for the mast.
+
+Bore a hole through the bench a trifle astern of the step, or hole, for
+the mast below. It will cause the mast to "rake" a little "aft." You
+have done a big day's work, but a couple of days ought to be sufficient
+time to finish the craft.
+
+
+The Sail
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Sail for Man-Friday.]
+
+Turn over the raw edges of the old sail-cloth and stitch them down, as
+in Fig. 29--that is, if you have the needle and thread for the purpose;
+if not, trim the cloth to the proper form and two inches from the
+luff (the side next to the mast). Cut a number of holes; these should
+be stitched like button-holes, if possible, but if the sail-cloth is
+tough and we have no needle, we shall have to let them go unstitched. A
+small loop of rope must be sewed or fastened in some other manner very
+securely to each corner of the sail.
+
+From spruce pine or an old fishing-pole make a sprit, and of a good,
+straight piece of pine manufacture your mast somewhat longer than the
+luff of the sail (Fig. 29).
+
+Through the eyelets lace the luff of the sail to the mast, so that its
+lower edge will clear the dry deck by about a foot.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Scudding before the wind.]
+
+Through the hole made for the purpose in the bench (Fig. 30) thrust the
+mast into the step, or socket, that we have cut in the bow cross-piece.
+Tie to the loop at the bottom corner of the sail a strong line about
+twelve feet long for a sheet with which to control the sail.
+
+Trim the upper end of the sprit to fit in the loop at the upper outer
+corner of the sail, and make a notch in the lower end to fit in the
+loop of the line called the "snotter."
+
+Now, as you can readily see, when the sprit is pushed diagonally upward
+the sail is spread; to hold it in place make a loop of line for a
+"snotter" and attach the loop to the mast, as in Figs. 29 and 30. Fit
+the loop in the notch in the lower end of the sprit, and the sail is
+set.
+
+
+The Keelig
+
+We need anchors, one for the bow and one for the stern. It takes
+little time to make them, as you only need a forked stick, a stone,
+and a piece of plank, or, better still, a barrel stave. Figs. 35 to
+39 show how this is made. Down East the fishermen use the "keelig" in
+preference to any other anchor.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
+
+Make fast your lines to the "keelig" thus: Take the end of the rope in
+your right hand and the standing part (which is the part leading from
+the boat) in your left hand and form the loop (A, Fig. 31).
+
+Then with the left hand curve the cable from you, bringing the end
+through the loop, as in B, Fig. 32; then lead it around and down, as in
+C, Fig. 33.
+
+Draw it tight, as in D, Fig. 34, and you have the good, old-fashioned
+knot, called by sailors the "bow-line."
+
+To make it look neat and shipshape you may take a piece of
+string and bind the standing part to the shaft of your anchor or
+keelig--keelek--killick--killeck--kelleck--kellock--killock, etc., as
+you may choose to spell it.
+
+A paddle to steer with and two pegs in the stern cross-piece to rest it
+in complete the craft; and now the big bass had better use due caution,
+because our lines will reach their haunts, and we are after them!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CANOES
+
+    The Advantages of a Canoe--How to Make the Slab Canoe
+    and the Dugout--How to Make a Siwash and a White Man's
+    Dugout
+
+
+THERE are many small freak crafts invented each year, but none of them
+has any probabilities of being popularly used as substitutes for the
+old models.
+
+Folding canoes, as a rule, are cranky, but the writer has found them
+most convenient when it was necessary to transport them long distances
+overland. They are not, however, the safest of crafts; necessarily they
+lack the buoyant wooden frame and lining of the ordinary canvas canoe,
+which enables it to float even when filled with water.
+
+The author owes his life to the floating properties of his canvas
+canoe. On one occasion when it upset in a driving easterly storm the
+wind was off shore, and any attempt upon the canoeist's part to swim
+toward shore would have caused him to have been suffocated by the tops
+of the waves which the wind cut off, driving the water with stinging
+force into his face so constantly that, in order to breathe at all,
+he had to face the other way. He was at length rescued by a steamer,
+losing nothing but the sails and his shoes. Nevertheless, the same
+storm which capsized his little craft upset several larger boats and
+tore the sails from others.
+
+The advantages of a good canoe are many for the young navigators: they
+can launch their own craft, pick it up when occasion demands and carry
+it overland. It is safe in experienced hands in any weather which is
+fit for out-door amusement. When you are "paddling your own canoe" you
+are facing to the front and can see what is ahead of you, which is much
+safer and more pleasant than travelling backward, like a crawfish.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
+
+The advance-guard of modern civilization is the lumberman, and
+following close on his heels comes the all-devouring saw-mill. This
+fierce creature has an abnormal appetite for logs, and it keeps an
+army of men, boys, and horses busy in supplying it with food. While it
+supplies us with lumber for the carpenter, builder, and cabinet-maker,
+it at the same time, in the most shameful way, fills the trout streams
+and rivers with great masses of sawdust, which kills and drives away
+the fish. But near the saw-mill there is always to be found material
+for a
+
+
+Slab Canoe
+
+which consists simply of one of those long slabs, the first cut from
+some giant log (Fig. 43).
+
+These slabs are burned or thrown away by the mill-owners, and hence
+cost nothing; and as the saw-mill is in advance of population, you are
+most likely to run across one on a hunting or fishing trip.
+
+Near one end, and on the flat side of the slab (Fig. 40), bore four
+holes, into which drive the four legs of a stool made of a section of a
+smaller slab (Fig. 41), and your boat is ready to launch. From a piece
+of board make a double or single paddle (Fig. 42), and you are equipped
+for a voyage. An old gentleman, who in his boyhood days on the frontier
+frequently used this simple style of canoe, says that the speed it
+makes will compare favorably with that of many a more pretentious
+vessel. See Fig. 43 for furnished boat.
+
+
+The Dugout
+
+Although not quite as delicate in model or construction as the graceful
+birch-bark canoe, the "dugout" of the Indians is a most wonderful piece
+of work, when we consider that it is carved from the solid trunk of
+a giant tree with the crudest of tools, and is the product of savage
+labor.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
+
+Few people now living have enjoyed the opportunity of seeing one built
+by the Indians, and, as the author is not numbered among that select
+few, he considers it a privilege to be able to quote the following
+interesting account given by Mr. J. H. Mallett, of Helena.
+
+
+How to Build a Siwash Canoe
+
+"While visiting one of the small towns along Puget Sound, I was greatly
+interested in the way the Indians built their canoes. It is really
+wonderful how these aborigines can, with the crudest means and with a
+few days' work, convert an unwieldy log into a trim and pretty canoe.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Slab canoe.]
+
+"One Monday morning I saw a buck building a fire at the base of a
+large cedar-tree, and he told me that this was the first step in the
+construction of a canoe that he intended to use upon the following
+Saturday. He kept the fire burning merrily all that day and far
+into the night, when a wind came up and completed the downfall of
+the monarch of the forest. The next day the man arose betimes, and,
+borrowing a cross-cut saw from a logger, cut the trunk of the tree in
+twain at a point some fifteen feet from where it had broken off, and
+then with a dull hatchet he hacked away until the log had assumed the
+shape of the desired canoe. In this work he was helped by his squaw.
+The old fellow then built a fire on the upper part of the log, guiding
+the course of the fire with daubs of clay, and in due course of time
+the interior of the canoe had been burned out. Half a day's work with
+the hatchet rendered the inside smooth and shapely.
+
+"The canoe was now, I thought, complete, though it appeared to be
+dangerously narrow of beam. This the Indian soon remedied. He filled
+the shell two-thirds full of water, and into the fluid he dropped half
+a dozen stones that had been heating in the fire for nearly a day. The
+water at once attained a boiling point, and so softened the wood that
+the buck and squaw were enabled to draw out the sides and thus supply
+the necessary breadth of beam. Thwarts and slats were then placed in
+the canoe and the water and stones thrown out. When the steamed wood
+began to cool and contract, the thwarts held it back, and the sides
+held the thwarts, and there the canoe was complete, without a nail,
+joint, or crevice, for it was made of one piece of wood. The Siwash did
+not complete it as soon as he had promised, but it only took him eight
+days."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.--The dugout.]
+
+In the North-eastern part of our country, before the advent of the
+canvas canoe, beautiful and light birch-bark craft were used by the
+Indians, the voyagers, trappers, and white woodsmen. But in the South
+and in the North-west, the dugout takes the place of the birch-bark.
+Among the North-western Indians the dugouts are made from the trunks
+of immense cedar-trees and built with high, ornamental bows, which are
+brilliantly decorated with paint. On the eastern shore of Maryland and
+Virginia the dugout is made into a sail-boat called the buck-eye, or
+bug-eye. But all through the Southern States, from the Ohio River to
+the Gulf of Mexico and in Mexico, the dugout is made of a hollowed log
+after the manner of an ordinary horse trough, and often it is as crude
+as the latter, but it can be made almost as beautiful and graceful as a
+birch-bark canoe.
+
+
+How to Make a White Man's Dugout Canoe
+
+To make one of these dugout canoes one must be big and strong enough
+to wield an axe, but if the readers are too young for this work, they
+are none too young to know how to make one, and their big brothers and
+father can do the work. Since the dugout occupies an important position
+in the history of our country, every boy scout should know how it is
+made.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.]
+
+Fig. 44 shows one of these canoes afloat; Fig. 45 shows a tall,
+straight tree suitable for our purpose, and it also shows how the
+tree is cut and the arrangement of the kerfs, or two notches, so that
+it will fall in the direction of the arrow in the diagram. You will
+notice along the ground are shown the ends of a number of small logs.
+These are the skids, or rollers, upon which the log will rest when the
+tree is cut and felled. The tree will fall in the direction in which
+the arrow is pointed if there is no wind. If you have never cut down
+a tree, be careful to take some lessons of a good woodsman before you
+attempt it.
+
+When the log is trimmed off at both ends like Fig. 46, flatten the
+upper side with the axe. This is for the bottom of the canoe; the flat
+part should be about a foot and a half wide to extend from end to end
+of the log. Now, with some poles for pryers, turn your log over so that
+it will rest with the flat bottom on the skids, as in Fig. 46.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.]
+
+Next take a chalk-line and fasten it at the two ends of the log, as
+shown by the dotted line in Figs. 46, 47, 48, 49.
+
+Snap the line so that it will make a straight mark as shown by the
+dotted line; then trim off the two ends for the bow and stern, as shown
+in Fig. 47. Next cut notches down to the dotted line, as illustrated
+in Fig. 48; then cut away from the bow down to the first notch, making
+a curved line, as shown in Fig. 49 (which is cut to second notch). Do
+the same with the stern, making duplicates of the bow and stern. The
+spaces between the notches amidships may now be split off by striking
+your axe along the chalk-line and then carefully driving in wooden
+wedges. When this is all done you will have Fig. 50. You can now turn
+the log over and trim off the edges of the bow and stern so that they
+will slope, as shown in Fig. 44, in a rounded curve; after which roll
+the canoe back again upon its bottom and with an adze and axe hollow
+out the inside, leaving some solid wood at both bow and stern--not
+that you need the wood for strength, but to save labor. When you have
+decided upon the thickness of the sides of your canoe, take some small,
+pointed instrument, like an awl, for instance, and make holes with it
+to the required depth at intervals along the sides and bottom of the
+canoe. Then take some small sticks (as long as the canoe sides are to
+be thick), make them to fit the holes, blacken their ends, and drive
+them into the holes.
+
+As soon as you see one from the inside, you will know that you have
+made the shell thin enough. Use a jack-plane to smooth it off inside
+and out; then build a big fire and heat some stones. Next fill the
+canoe with water and keep dumping the hot stones in the water until the
+latter is almost or quite to boiling point. The hot water will soften
+the wood so that the sides will become flexible, and you can then fit
+in some braces at the bow, stern, and centre of the canoe. Make the
+centre brace or seat some inches wider than the log, so that when it is
+forced in place it will spread the canoe in the middle.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CANOES AND BOATING STUNTS
+
+    How to Build a War Canoe--How to Build a Canvas
+    Canoe--How to Build an Umbrella Canoe--How Old
+    Shells Can be Turned into Boys' Boats--Cause of
+    Upsets--Landing from, and Embarking in, a Shell--How to
+    Mend Checks and Cracks
+
+
+IN making canoes the Indians used birch bark for the cover, rock maple
+for the cross-bars, and white cedar for the rest of the frame. We will
+substitute canvas for the birch bark and any old wood that we can for
+the rock maple and the white cedar. _Real woodcraft is best displayed
+in the ability to use the material at hand._
+
+David Abercrombie, the outfitter, some time ago presented Andrew J.
+Stone, the Arctic explorer and mighty hunter, with a small piece of
+light, water-proof cloth to use as a shelter tent in bad weather. But
+Stone, like the hunter that he was, slept unprotected on the mountain
+side in the sleet and driving storms, and used the water-proof cloth to
+protect the rare specimens he had shot. One day a large, rapid torrent
+lay in his path; there was no lumber large enough with which to build
+a raft, and the only wood for miles around was small willow bushes
+growing along the river bank. At his command, his three Indians made
+a canoe frame of willow sticks, tied together with bits of cloth and
+string. Stone set this frame in the middle of his water-proof cloth,
+tied the cloth over the frame with other pieces of string, and using
+only small clubs for paddles, he and his men crossed the raging torrent
+in this makeshift, which was loaded with their guns, camera, and
+specimens that he had shot on the trip.
+
+After reading the above there is no doubt the reader will be able to
+build a war canoe with barrel-hoop ribs and lattice-work slats. In
+the writer's studio is a long piece of maple, one and one-half inches
+wide and one-quarter inch thick, which was left by the workmen when
+they put down a hard-wood floor. If you can get some similar strips,
+either of oak, maple, or birch, from the dealers in flooring material,
+they will not be expensive and will make splendid gunwales for your
+proposed canoe. There should be four such strips. The hard-wood used
+for flooring splits easily, and holes should be bored for the nails
+or screws to prevent cracking the wood when the nails or screws are
+driven home. Fig. 51 shows the framework (side view) of the canoe;
+Fig. 52 shows an end view of the same canoe; Fig. 53 shows the middle
+section, and Fig. 54 shows the form of the bow and stern sections. This
+boat may be built any length you wish, and so that you may get the
+proper proportions, the diagrams from one to five are marked off in
+equal divisions. To make patterns of the moulds, Figs. 53 and 54, take
+a large piece of manila paper, divide it up into the same number of
+squares as the diagram, make the squares any size you may decide upon,
+and then trace the line, 1-H-10, as it is in the diagrams. This will
+give you the patterns of the two moulds (Figs. 53 and 54). While you
+are looking at these figures, it may be well to call your attention to
+the way bow and stern pieces are made. In Fig. 63 the pieces Y and X
+are made from pieces of a packing-box, notched and nailed together with
+a top piece, U, and a brace, V.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.
+
+Fig. 54.
+
+Fig. 51.
+
+Fig. 52.
+
+Fig. 57.
+
+Fig. 58.
+
+Fig. 56.
+
+Fig. 59.
+
+Fig. 55.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62. Fig. 60. Fig. 61.
+
+Conventional bow, but made of barrel-heads.]
+
+The other end of the same canoe is, as you may see, strengthened and
+protected by having a barrel-hoop tacked over the stem-pieces, Y, X,
+U. In Fig. 64 we use different material; here the stem-piece is made
+of a broken bicycle rim, U, braced by the pieces of packing-box, Y, V,
+and W. The left-hand end of Fig. 64 is made with pieces of head of a
+barrel, X and U. The bottom of the stem-piece Y is made of the piece
+of a packing-box. The two braces V are parts of the barrel-stave. Fig.
+60 shows the common form of the bow of a canoe. The stem-pieces X,
+Y are made of the parts of the head of a barrel, as shown in Fig. 62.
+To make a stem from a barrel-head, nail the two pieces X and Y, Fig.
+56, together as shown in this particular diagram. Now take another
+piece of barrel-head, Fig. 57, and saw off a piece, A', D', C', so that
+it will fit neatly over A, C, D, on Fig. 56. Nail this securely in
+place, and then in the same manner cut another piece to fit over the
+part E, C, B, and nail that in place. Use small nails, but let them be
+long enough so that you may clinch them by holding an axe or an iron
+against the head while you hammer the protruding points down, or drive
+the nail a little on the bias and holding the axe or iron on the side
+it is to come through and let it strike the nail as it comes out and
+it will clinch itself. To fasten the stem-piece to the keel use two
+pieces of packing-box or board, cut in the form of Fig. 58, and nail
+these securely to the bow-piece as in Z, in Fig. 60. Then from the
+bottom side of the keel H, nail the keel-pieces firmly to the keel as
+in Fig. 61. Also drive some nails from Z to the top down to the keel,
+as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 60. The end view, Fig. 59, shows
+how the two Z pieces hug and support the stem-piece on the keel H. Fig.
+55 shows a half of the top view of the canoe gunwales; the dimensions,
+marked in feet and inches, are taken from an Indian birch-bark canoe.
+You see by the diagram that it is eight feet from the centre of the
+middle cross-piece to the end of the big opening at the bow. It is
+also three feet from the centre of the middle cross-piece to the next
+cross-piece, and thirty inches from the centre of that cross-piece to
+the bow cross-piece, which is just thirty inches from the eight-foot
+mark. The middle cross-piece in a canoe of these dimensions is
+seven-eighths of an inch thick, and thirty inches long between the
+gunwales; the next cross-piece is three-quarters of an inch thick and
+twenty-two and one-half inches long. The next one is half an inch
+wide, two inches thick and twelve inches between the gunwales. These
+cross-pieces can be made of the staves of a barrel. Of course, this
+would be a canoe of sixteen feet inside measurement, not counting the
+flattened part of the bow and stern. Now, then, to build the canoe.
+First take the keel-piece, H, which is in this case a piece of board
+about six inches wide and only thick enough to be moderately stiff. Lay
+the keel on any level surface and put the stem-pieces on as already
+described, using packing-box for X, U, V, Y, and Z, and bracing them
+with a piece of packing-box on each side, marked W in diagram (Fig.
+51). Then make three moulds, one for the centre (Fig. 53), and two more
+for the bow and stern (Fig. 54). Notch the bottom of these moulds to
+fit the keel and with wire nails make them fast to the keel, leaving
+the ends of the nails protruding far enough to be easily withdrawn when
+you wish to remove the moulds. In nailing the laths to the moulds (Fig.
+51) leave the heads of the nails also protruding so that they may be
+removed. Place the moulds in position, with the middle one in the exact
+centre, and the two ends located like those in Figs. 63 and 64. Place
+and nail gunwale, L, on as in Fig. 51, tacking it to the bow and stern
+and bending it around to fit the moulds; tack the lattice slats M, N,
+O, P on to the bow, stern, and moulds, as shown in Fig. 51.
+
+If your barrel-hoops are stiff and liable to break while bending and
+unbending, let them soak a couple of days in a tub of water, then
+before fitting them to the form of the canoe make them more pliable
+by pouring hot water on them. The barrel-hoop S, R, at the bow of the
+canoe, is nailed to the top-piece U, to the inside of the slats L, M,
+N, O, P, and to the outside of H. The next three ribs on each side are
+treated in the same manner; repeat this at the other end of the canoe
+and nail the intervening ribs to the top of H and to the inside of the
+slats, following the model of the boat. Put the ribs about four inches
+apart and clinch the nails as already described.
+
+In the diagrams there is no temporary support for the canoe frame
+except the wooden horses, as in Fig. 51. These supports have been
+purposely omitted in the drawing, as it is desirable to keep it as
+simple as possible. Some temporary support will be necessary to hold
+the bow and stern-piece in Fig. 51. These supports can be nailed or
+screwed temporarily to the canoe frame so as to hold it rigid while you
+are at work on it.
+
+After the ribs are all in place and the framework completed, turn the
+canoe upside down upon the wooden horses--for a canoe as large as the
+one in the first diagram you will need three horses, one at each end
+and one in the middle. For a canoe of the dimensions marked in Fig. 55,
+that is, sixteen feet inside measurement, you would need about seven
+yards of ten-ounce cotton canvas, of sufficient width to reach up over
+the sides of your canoe. Take a tape-measure or a piece of ordinary
+tape or a long strip of manila paper and measure around the bottom of
+the boat at its widest part in the middle from one gunwale (top of
+side) to the other, and see that your cloth is fully as wide as your
+measurement. Fold the canvas lengthwise so as to find its exact centre
+and crease it. With two or three tacks fasten the cloth at its centre
+line (the crease) to the stem-piece of the canoe. Stretch the canvas
+the length of the boat with the crease of centre-line along the centre
+of the keel; pull it as taut as may be and again tack the centre line
+to the stem at this end of the craft. If this has been done carefully
+the cloth will hang an equal length over each side of the canoe. Now
+begin amidships and drive tacks about two inches apart along the
+gunwale, say an inch below the top surface. After having tacked it for
+about two feet, go to the other side of the boat, pull the cloth taut
+and in the same manner tack about three feet. Continue this process
+first one side and then the other until finished. While stretching the
+cloth knead it with the hand and fingers so as to thicken or "full"
+it where it would otherwise wrinkle; by doing this carefully it is
+possible to stretch the canvas over the frame without the necessity
+of cutting it. The cloth that extends beyond the frame may be brought
+over the gunwale and tacked along the inside. Use four-ounce tinned or
+copper tacks. The canvas is now stretched on every part except on the
+high, rolling bow and stern. With a pair of shears slit the canvas from
+the outer edge of the bow and stern within a half inch of the ends of
+the keel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.
+
+High bows framework made of packing-box and barrel-heads.]
+
+Fold the right-hand flap thus made at the left-hand end around the bow
+and stern and, drawing tight, tack it down, then fold the left-hand
+flap over the right-hand side and tack it in a similar manner, trimming
+off the remaining cloth neatly. The five braces, three of which are
+shown in Fig. 55, may be nailed to the gunwales of the canoe, as the
+temporary moulds are removed. The braces should be so notched that the
+top ends of the braces will fit over the top edge of the gunwale and
+their lower edges will fit against the sides. Give the boat at least
+three good coats of paint and nail the two extra gunwale strips on the
+outside of the canvas for guards.
+
+When it is dry and the boat is launched you may startle the onlookers
+and make the echoes ring with:
+
+"Wo-ach! wo-ach! Ha-ha-ha-hack--wo-ach!" which is said to be the
+identical war cry with which the Indians greeted the landing of our
+Pilgrim Fathers.
+
+The reader must not suppose that barrel-hoops are the best material
+for ribs; they are but a makeshift, and although good-looking,
+servicable canoes have been built of this material from the foregoing
+descriptions, better ones may be made by using better material, such,
+for instance, as is described in the making of the birch-bark canoe.
+
+
+Old Shells
+
+Where there are oarsmen and boat-clubs, there you will find beautiful
+shell boats of paper or cedar, shaped like darning-needles, so slight
+in structure that a child can knock a hole in them, and yet very
+seaworthy boats for those who understand how to handle them. The
+expensive material and skilled labor necessary to build a racing shell
+puts the price of one so high that few boys can afford to buy one; but
+where new shells are to be found there are also old ones, and when they
+are too old to sell they are thrown away. Many an old shell rots on
+the meadows near the boat-houses or rests among the rafters forgotten
+and unused, which with a little work would make a boat capable of
+furnishing no end of fun to a boy.
+
+
+Checks or Cracks
+
+can be pasted over with common manila wrapping-paper by first covering
+the crack with a coat of paint, or, better still, of varnish, then
+fitting the paper smoothly over the spot and varnishing the paper.
+Give the paper several coats of varnish, allowing it to dry after each
+application, and the paper will become impervious to water. The deck
+of a shell is made of thin muslin or paper, treated with a liberal
+coat of varnish, and can be patched with similar material. There are
+always plenty of slightly damaged oars which have been discarded by the
+oarsmen. The use of a saw and jack-knife in the hands of a smart boy
+can transform these wrecks into serviceable oars for his patched-up old
+shell, and if the work is neatly done, the boy will be the proud owner
+of a real shell boat, and the envy of his comrades.
+
+
+The Cause of Upsets
+
+A single shell that is very cranky with a man in it is comparatively
+steady when a small boy occupies the seat. Put on your bathing clothes
+when you wish to try a shell, so that you may be ready for the
+inevitable upset. Every one knows, when he looks at one of these long,
+narrow boats, that as long as the oars are held extended _on the water_
+it cannot upset. But, in spite of that knowledge, every one, when he
+first gets into a shell, endeavors to balance himself by _lifting the
+oars_, and, of course, goes over in a jiffy.
+
+
+The Delights of a Shell
+
+It is an error to suppose that the frail-looking, needle-like boat is
+only fit for racing purposes. For a day on the water, in calm weather,
+there is, perhaps, nothing more enjoyable than a single shell. The
+exertion required to send it on its way is so slight, and the speed
+so great, that many miles can be covered with small fatigue. Upon
+referring to the log-book of the Nereus Club, where the distances are
+all taken from the United States chart, the author finds that twenty
+and thirty miles are not uncommon records for single-shell rows.
+
+During the fifteen or sixteen seasons that the author has devoted his
+spare time to the sport he has often planned a heavy cruising shell,
+but owing to the expense of having such a boat built he has used the
+ordinary racing boat, and found it remarkably well adapted for such
+purposes. Often he has been caught miles away from home in a blow, and
+only once does he remember of being compelled to seek assistance.
+
+He was on a lee shore and the waves were so high that after once being
+swamped he was unable to launch his boat again, for it would fill
+before he could embark. So a heavy rowboat and a coachman were borrowed
+from a gentleman living on the bay, and while the author rowed, the
+coachman towed the little craft back to the creek where the Nereus
+club-house is situated.
+
+In the creek, however, the water was calmer, and rather than stand the
+jeers of his comrades, the writer embarked in his shell and rowed up to
+the boat-house float. He was very wet and his boat was full of water,
+but to the inquiry of "Rough out in the bay?" he confined himself to
+the simple answer--"Yes." Then dumping the water from his shell and
+placing it upon the rack he put on his dry clothes and walked home,
+none the worse for the accident.
+
+After ordinary skill and confidence are acquired it is really
+astonishing what feats can be accomplished in a frail racing boat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65. A Fig. 66. B Fig. 67. C Fig. 68. D Fig. 69. E
+Fig. 70. F Fig. 71. Fig. 72. Fig. 73. Fig. 74. Fig. 75.
+
+PARTS OF THE UMBRELLA CANOE.
+
+    A = Plank.
+    B = Rib }
+    C = Rib }
+    D = Rib } in process of construction.
+    E = Rib }
+    F = Rib }
+    G, G' = Thimbles.
+    H = Plank.
+    J and K = Stretcher unfinished and finished.]
+
+It is not difficult to
+
+
+Stand Upright In a Shell
+
+if you first take one of your long stockings and tie the handles of
+your oars together where they cross each other in front of you. The
+ends will work slightly and the blades will keep their positions on the
+water, acting as two long balances. Now slide your seat as far forward
+as it will go, slip your feet from the straps and grasp the straps with
+your hand, moving the feet back to a comfortable position. When all
+ready raise yourself by pulling on the foot strap, and with ordinary
+care you can stand upright in the needle-shaped boat, an apparently
+impossible thing to do when you look at the narrow craft.
+
+
+How to Land Where There Is No Float
+
+When for any reason you wish to land where there is no float, row into
+shallow water and put one foot overboard until it touches bottom. Then
+follow with the other foot, rise, and you are standing astride of your
+boat.
+
+
+How to Embark Where There Is No Float
+
+Wade out and slide the shell between your extended legs until the seat
+is underneath you. Sit down, and, with the feet still in the water,
+grasp your oars. With these in your hands it is an easy task to balance
+the boat until you can lift your feet into it.
+
+
+Ozias Dodge's Umbrella Canoe
+
+Mr. Dodge is a Yale man, an artist, and an enthusiastic canoeist. The
+prow of his little craft has ploughed its way through the waters of
+many picturesque streams in this country and Europe, by the river-side,
+under the walls of ruined castles, where the iron-clad warriors once
+built their camp-fires, and near pretty villages, where people dress as
+if they were at a fancy-dress ball.
+
+When a young man like Mr. Dodge says that he has built a folding canoe
+that is not hard to construct, is inexpensive and practical, there
+can be little doubt that such a boat is not only what is claimed for
+it by its inventor, but that it is a novelty in its line, and such is
+undoubtedly the case with the umbrella canoe.
+
+
+How the Canoe Was Built
+
+The artist first secured a white-ash plank (A, Fig. 65), free from
+knots and blemishes of all kinds. The plank was one inch thick and
+about twelve feet long. At the mill he had this sawed into eight strips
+one inch wide, one inch thick, and twelve feet long (B and C, Figs. 66
+and 67). Then he planed off the square edges of each stick until they
+were all octagonal in form, and looked like so many great lead-pencils
+(D, Fig. 68).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Frame of umbrella canoe.]
+
+Mr. Dodge claims that, after you have reduced the ash poles to this
+octagonal form, it is an easy matter to whittle them with your
+pocket-knife or a draw-knife, and by taking off all the angles of the
+sticks make them cylindrical in form (E, Fig. 69); then smooth them off
+nicely with sand-paper, so that each pole has a smooth surface and is
+three-quarters of an inch in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Umbrella canoe.]
+
+After the poles were reduced to this state he whittled all the ends to
+the form of a truncated cone--that is, like a sharpened lead-pencil
+with the lead broken off (F, Fig. 70)--a blunt point. He next went to
+a tinsmith and had two sheet-iron cups made large enough to cover the
+eight pole-ends (G and G', Figs. 71 and 72). Each cup was six inches
+deep. After trying the cups, or thimbles, on the poles to see that they
+would fit, he made two moulds of oak. First he cut two pieces of oak
+plank two feet six inches long by one foot six inches (H, Fig. 74),
+which he trimmed into the form shown by J, Fig. 75, making a notch
+to fit each of the round ribs, and to spread them as the ribs of an
+umbrella are spread. He made two other similar moulds for the bow and
+stern, each of which, of course, is smaller than the middle one. After
+spreading the ribs with the moulds, and bringing the ends together in
+the tin cups, he made holes in the bottom of the cups where the ends
+of the ribs came, and fastened the ribs to the cups with brass screws,
+fitted with leather washers, and run through the holes in the tin and
+screwed into the ends of the poles or ribs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Canoe folded for transportation. Canoe in
+water in distance.]
+
+A square hole was then cut through each mould (K, Fig. 75), and the
+poles put in place, gathered together at the ends, and held in place by
+the tin thimbles. The square holes in the moulds allow several small,
+light floor planks to form a dry floor to the canoe.
+
+The canvas costs about forty-five cents a yard, and five yards are
+all you need. The deck can be made of drilling, which comes about
+twenty-eight inches wide and costs about twenty cents a yard. Five
+yards of this will be plenty. Fit your canvas over the frame, stretch
+it tightly, and tack it securely to the two top ribs only. Fasten the
+deck on in the same manner.
+
+When Mr. Dodge had the canoe covered and decked, with a square hole
+amidship to sit in, he put two good coats of paint on the canvas,
+allowed it to dry, and his boat was ready for use (Fig. 77). He
+quaintly says that "it looked like a starved dog, with all its ribs
+showing through the skin," just as the ribs of an umbrella show on top
+through the silk covering. But this does not in any way impede the
+progress of the boat through the water.
+
+Where the moulds are the case is different, for the lines of the
+moulds cross the line of progress at right angles and must necessarily
+somewhat retard the boat. But even this is not perceptible. The worst
+feature about the moulds is that the canvas is very apt to be damaged
+there by contact with the shore, float, or whatever object it rubs
+against.
+
+With ordinary care the umbrella canoe
+
+
+Will Last for Years
+
+and is a good boat for paddling on inland streams and small bodies of
+water; and when you are through with it for the night, all that is
+necessary is to remove the stretchers by springing the poles from the
+notches in the spreaders, roll up the canvas around the poles, put it
+on your shoulder, and carry it home or to camp, as shown in Fig. 78.
+
+To put your canoe together again put in the moulds, fit the poles in
+their places, and the umbrella is raised, or, rather, the canoe is, if
+we can use such an expression in regard to a boat.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE BIRCH-BARK
+
+    How to Build a Real Birch-Bark Canoe or a Canvas Canoe
+    on a "Birch-Bark" Frame--How to Mend a Birch-Bark
+
+
+ALTHOUGH the Indian was the first to build these simple little boats,
+some of his white brothers are quite as expert in the work. But the red
+man can outdo his white brother in navigating the craft. The only tools
+required in building a canoe are a knife and awl, a draw-shave and a
+hammer. An Indian can do all of his work with a knife.
+
+Several years ago canvas began to be used extensively in
+canoe-building, instead of birch bark, and it will eventually
+entirely supersede birch, although nothing can be found that bends so
+gracefully. There are several canvas-canoe factories in Maine, and the
+canoes made of canvas have both the symmetry and the durability of the
+birches. They are also a trifle cheaper, but if the real thing and
+sentiment are wanted, one should never have anything but a bark craft.
+
+If properly handled, a good canoe will safely hold four men. Canoes
+intended for deep water should have considerable depth. Those intended
+for shoal water, such as trout-fishers use, are made as flat as
+possible. Up to the time when canoeing was introduced the materials for
+building craft of this kind could be found all along the rivers. Big
+birch-trees grew in countless numbers, and clear, straight cedar was
+quite as plentiful within a few feet of the water's edge. Now one must
+go miles back into the dense forests for such materials, and even then
+seldom does it happen that two suitable trees are found within sight of
+one or the other. Cedar is more difficult of the two to find.
+
+
+The Tree
+
+The tree is selected, first, for straightness; second, smoothness;
+third, freedom from knots or limbs; fourth, toughness of bark; fifth,
+small size of eyes; sixth, length (the last is not so important, as two
+trees can be put together), and, seventh, size (which is also not so
+important, as the sides can be pieced out).
+
+
+Dimensions
+
+The average length of canoe is about 19 feet over all, running,
+generally, from 18 to 22 feet for a boat to be used on inland waters,
+the sea-going canoes being larger, with relatively higher bows. The
+average width is about 30 inches inside, measured along the middle
+cross-bar; the greatest width inside is several inches below the middle
+cross-bar, and is several inches greater than the width measured along
+said cross-bar.
+
+The measurements given below are those of a canoe 19 feet over all: 16
+feet long inside, measured along the curve of the gunwale; 30 inches
+wide inside. The actual length inside is less than 16 feet, but the
+measurement along the gunwales is the most important.
+
+
+Bark
+
+Bark can be peeled when the sap is flowing or when the tree is not
+frozen--at any time in late spring, summer, and early fall (called
+summer bark); in winter during a thaw, when the tree is not frozen, and
+when the sap may have begun to flow.
+
+
+Difference in the Bark
+
+Summer bark peels readily, is smooth inside, of a yellow color, which
+turns reddish upon exposure to the sun, and is chalky-gray in very old
+canoes. Winter bark adheres closely, and forcibly brings up part of
+the inner bark, which on exposure turns dark red. This rough surface
+may be moistened and scraped away. All winter-bark canoes must be thus
+scraped and made smooth. Sometimes the dark red is left in the form of
+a decorative pattern extending around the upper edge of the canoe, the
+rest of the surface being scraped smooth.
+
+
+Process of Peeling
+
+The tree should be cut down so that the bark can be removed more easily.
+
+A log called a skid (Fig. 79) is laid on the ground a few feet from the
+base of the tree, which will keep the butt of the tree off the ground
+when the tree is felled. The limbs at the top will keep the other end
+off the ground. A space is cleared of bushes and obstructions where the
+tree is to fall.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79.--Showing how the butt is kept off the ground.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81.]
+
+After the tree has been cut down, a cut is made in a straight line (A,
+B, Fig. 79), splitting the bark from top to bottom, and a ring cut at
+A and B (Fig. 79). When sap is flowing, the bark is readily removed;
+but in winter the edges of the cut are raised with a knife, and a thin,
+pliant hard-wood knife or "spud" is pushed around under the bark.
+
+
+Toasting
+
+After the bark has dropped upon the ground the inside surface is warmed
+with a torch, which softens and straightens it out flat. The torch is
+made of a bundle of birch bark held in a split stick (Fig. 81).
+
+It is then rolled up like a carpet, with inside surface out, and
+tightly bound, generally with cedar bark when the latter can be
+procured (Fig. 80).
+
+If the tree is long enough, a piece is taken off at least nineteen feet
+in length, so that the ends of the canoe may not be pieced out. A few
+shorter pieces are wrapped up with the bundle for piecing out the sides.
+
+
+The Roll
+
+is taken on the back in an upright position, and is carried by a broad
+band of cedar bark, passing under the lower end of the roll and around
+in front of the breast and shoulders (Fig. 82).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82.--Mode of carrying roll.]
+
+
+Effects of Heat
+
+It is laid where the sun will not shine on it and harden it. The first
+effect of heat is to make it pliant. Long exposure to heat or to dry
+atmosphere makes it hard and brittle.
+
+
+The Woodwork
+
+is as follows:
+
+Five cross-bars of rock-maple (Figs. 83, 85, and 91). All the rest is
+of white cedar, taken from the heart. The sap-wood absorbs water, and
+would make the canoe too heavy, so it is rejected. The wood requires to
+be straight and clear, and it is best to use perfectly green wood for
+the ribs.
+
+Two strips 16-1/2 feet long, 1-1/2 inch square, tapering toward either
+end, the ends being notched (Fig. 83 A) is a section of the 16-1/2 foot
+strip. Each strip is mortised for the cross-bars (see Fig. 85). The
+lower outside edge is bevelled off to receive the ends of the ribs.
+
+The dimensions of the cross-bars (Fig. 85) are 12 x 2 x 1/2 inch, 221/2
+x 2 x 3/4 inch, and 30 x 2 x 7/8 inch. The cross-bars are placed in
+position, and the ends of the gunwales are tied with spruce roots after
+being nailed together to prevent splitting. Each bar is held in place
+by a peg of hard wood.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 83 and 83-1/2.--Showing section of canoe amidship
+and section and shape of gunwale and top view.]
+
+For stitching and wrapping, long, slender roots of spruce, or sometimes
+of elm, are peeled and split in two. Black ash splits are rarely used
+except for repairing (Figs. 86, 87, 88).
+
+Next we need (B, Fig. 83) two strips 1 or 1-1/4 inch by 1/2 inch, a
+little over 19 feet long, to go outside of gunwales, and (C, Fig. 83)
+two top strips, same length, 2 inches wide in middle, tapering to 1 inch
+at either end, 1-1/2 inch thick.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86.
+
+Fig. 87.
+
+Fig. 88.
+
+Fig. 89.
+
+Fig. 90.
+
+Fig. 91.
+
+Fig. 84.
+
+Fig. 85.
+
+Details of sticking and framework of canoe.]
+
+
+Ribs
+
+About fifty in number (Figs. 91, 92) are split with the grain (F, Fig.
+92), so that the heart side of the wood will be on the inner side when
+the rib is bent. The wood bends better this way. They must be perfectly
+straight-grained and free from knots. Ribs for the middle are four
+inches wide, ribs for the ends about three inches wide (Fig. 91 and
+G, Fig. 92), and are whittled down to a scant half an inch (Fig. 93).
+Green wood is generally used, and before it has had any time to season.
+The ribs may be softened by pouring hot water on them, and should be
+bent in pairs to prevent breaking (Fig. 90). They are held in shape by
+a band of cedar bark passed around outside.
+
+The ribs are of importance in the shaping of the canoe. The sides bulge
+out (Figs. 91, 92). The shape of the ribs determines the depth and
+stability of the canoe.
+
+
+Lining Strips
+
+Other strips, an eighth of an inch thick, are carefully whittled out,
+with straight edges. They are a little over eight feet long, and are
+designed to be laid inside on the bark, edge to edge, between the bark
+and the ribs. These strips lap an inch or two where they meet, in the
+middle of the canoe, and are wider here than at the ends, owing to the
+greater circumference of the canoe in the middle.
+
+
+Seasoning
+
+All the timber is carefully tied up before building and laid away. The
+ribs are allowed to season perfectly, so that they will keep their
+shape and not spring back.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92.
+
+Fig. 93.
+
+Details of ribs, Indian knives and method of using them.]
+
+
+The Bed
+
+Next the bed is prepared on a level spot, if possible shaded from the
+sun. A space is levelled about three and a half feet wide and a little
+longer than the canoe. The surface is made perfectly smooth. The
+middle is one or two inches higher than either end.
+
+
+Building
+
+The frame is laid exactly in the middle of the bed. A small post is
+driven in the ground (Fig. 94), on which each end of the frame will
+rest. Stakes, two or three feet long and about two inches in diameter,
+are whittled flat on one side, and are driven with the flat side toward
+the frame at the following points, leaving a space of about a quarter
+of an inch between the stake and the frame (Fig. 94): One stake an inch
+or two on either side of each cross-bar, and another stake half way
+between each cross-bar. This makes eleven stakes on each side of the
+frame. Twelve additional stakes are driven as follows: One pair facing
+each other, at the end of the frame; another pair, an inch apart, about
+six inches from the last pair, measuring toward the ends of the canoe;
+and another pair, an inch apart, a foot from these. These last stakes
+will be nine and a half feet from the middle of the frame, and nineteen
+feet from the corresponding stakes at the other end. Next, these stakes
+are all taken up, and the frame laid aside.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94.--Showing stakes supporting bark sides; note
+stones on the bottom.]
+
+
+To Soften the Bark
+
+Next the bark is unrolled. If it has laid until it has become a little
+hardened, it is placed in the river or stream for a day or two. It is
+spread out flat, and laid upon the bed with the gray or outside surface
+up. The inside surface is placed downward, and becomes the outside of
+the canoe.
+
+The frame is replaced upon the bark, so that it will be at the same
+distance from each side and end of the bed that it was before. At each
+cross-bar boards are laid across the frame, and heavy stones are laid
+upon them to keep the frame solid and immovable upon the bark (Fig. 85,
+C). The edges of the bark are next bent up in a perpendicular position,
+and in order that it may bend smoothly slits are made in the bark in an
+outward direction, at right angles to the frame. A cut is made close
+to the end of each cross-bar, and one half way between each bar, which
+is generally sufficient to allow the bark to be bent up smoothly. As
+the bark is bent up, the large stakes are slipped back in the holes
+which they occupied before, and the tops of each opposite pair are
+connected with a strip of cedar bark which keeps the stakes perfectly
+perpendicular. At each end it is necessary to take out a small
+triangular piece or gore, so that the edges may come together without
+overlapping.
+
+Next twenty-two pieces of cedar, one to two feet long, and about 1/2 or
+3/4 inch thick, are split out, and whittled thin and flat at one end.
+This sharpened edge is inserted between the outside edge of the frame
+and the bent-up bark, opposite each large stake. The other end of the
+chisel-shaped piece is tightly tied to the large stake outside. By
+means of the _large outside stake_ and the inside "_stake_," so-called,
+the bark is held in a perfectly upright position; and in order to keep
+the bent-up part more perfectly flat and smooth, the strips of cedar
+are pushed in lengthwise between the stakes and the bark, on each side
+of the bark, as shown in sectional views (Fig. 85, C, D).
+
+Sometimes, in place of having temporary strips to go on outside of the
+bark, the long outside strip (B, Fig. 83), is slipped in place instead.
+
+It may now be seen if the bark is not wide enough. If it is not, the
+sides must be pieced out with a narrow piece, cut in such a way that
+the eyes in the bark will run in the same direction as those of the
+large piece.
+
+As a general rule, from the middle to the next bar the strip for
+piecing is placed on the inside of the large piece, whose upper edge
+has previously been trimmed straight, and the two are sewed together
+by the stitch shown in Fig. 86, the spruce root being passed over
+another root laid along the trimmed-off edge of the large piece of bark
+to prevent the stitches from tearing out. From the second bar to the
+end of the canoe, or as far as may be necessary, the strip is placed
+outside the large piece, and from the second to the end bar is sewed as
+in Fig. 87, and from the end bar to the end of the canoe is stitched as
+in Fig. 88.
+
+Next, the weights are taken off the frame, which is raised up as
+follows, the bark remaining flat on the bed as before:
+
+A post eight inches long is set up under each end of middle cross-bar
+(Fig. 85, D), one end resting on the bark and the other end supporting
+either end of the middle cross-bar. Another post, nine inches long,
+is similarly placed under each end of the next cross-bar. Another,
+twelve inches long, is placed under each end of the end cross-bar; and
+another, sixteen and a half or seventeen inches, supports each end of
+the frame.
+
+As the posts are placed under each cross-bar, the weights are replaced;
+and as these posts are higher at the ends than in the middle, the
+proper curve is obtained for the gunwales. The temporary strips, that
+have been placed outside the bent-up portion of the bark, are removed,
+and the long outside strip before mentioned (B, Fig. 83) is slipped
+in place between the outside stakes and the bark. This strip is next
+nailed to the frame with wrought-iron nails that pass through the bark
+and are clinched on the inside. This outside strip has taken exactly
+the curve of the frame, but its upper edge, before nailing, was raised
+so as to be out an eighth of an inch (or the thickness of the bark)
+higher than the top surface of the frame, so that when the edges of the
+bark have been bent down, and tacked flat to the frame, a level surface
+will be presented, upon which the wide top strip will eventually be
+nailed. Formerly the outer strip was bound to the frame with roots
+every few inches, but now it is nailed.
+
+The cross-bars are now lashed to the frame, having previously been
+held only by a peg. The roots are passed through holes in the end of
+the bars, around the outside strip (see right-hand side of Fig. 85). A
+two-inch piece of the bark, which has been tacked down upon the frame,
+is removed at the ends by the cross-bars, where the spruce roots are
+to pass around, and the outside strip is cut away to a corresponding
+extent, so that the roots, when wrapped around, will be flush with the
+surface above.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95.--Shows how to describe arc of circle for bow,
+also ornamentation of winter bark.]
+
+All the stakes are now removed, and laid away to be ready for the next
+canoe that may be built, and the canoe taken upside down upon two
+horses or benches, that will keep the craft clear of the ground.
+
+The shape of the bow is now marked out, either by the eye or with
+mechanical aid, according to the following rule: An arc of a circle,
+with a radius of seventeen inches, is described (Fig. 95) having as a
+centre a point shown in diagram. The bark is then cut away to this line.
+
+
+Bow-piece
+
+To stiffen the bow, a bow-piece of cedar, nearly three feet long
+(Fig. 96), an inch and a half wide, and half an inch thick on one
+edge, bevelled and rounded off toward the other edge, is needed. To
+facilitate bending edgeways it is split into four or five sections
+(as in Fig. 98) for about thirty inches. The end that remains unsplit
+is notched on its thicker edge (Fig. 96) to receive the lower end
+of an oval cedar board (Fig. 97) that is placed upright in the bow
+underneath the tip of the frame. It is bent to correspond with the
+curve of the boat, with the thin edge toward the outside of the circle,
+and wrapped with twine, so that it will keep its shape. The bow-piece
+is placed between the edges of the bark, which are then sewed together
+by an over-and-over stitch, which passes through the bow-piece.
+
+A pitch is prepared of rosin and grease, in such proportions that it
+will neither readily crack in cold water nor melt in the sun. One or
+the other ingredient is added until by test it is found just right.
+
+
+Patching and Pitching
+
+The canoe is now placed on the ground, right side up, and all holes are
+covered on the inside with thin birch bark that is pasted down with hot
+pitch. A strip of cloth is saturated with hot pitch, and pressed into
+the cracks on either side of the bow-piece inside, between the bark and
+the bow-piece (Fig. 99).
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 97-100.--Show details of canoe bow.]
+
+The thin longitudinal strips are next laid in position, edge to edge,
+lapping several inches by the middle; they are whittled thin here so as
+to lap evenly.
+
+The ribs are next tightly driven in place, commencing at the small end
+ones and working toward the middle. The end ribs may be two or three
+inches apart, being closer toward the middle, where, in many cases,
+they touch. Usually, they are about half an inch apart in the middle.
+Each rib is driven into place with a square-ended stick and a mallet.
+
+The ends are stuffed with shavings (Fig. 100 and "Section" Fig. 100-1/2),
+and an oval cedar board is put in the place formerly occupied by the
+post that supported the end of the frame. The lower end rests in the
+notch of the bow-piece, while the upper is cut with two shoulders that
+fit underneath each side of the frame; Fig. 97 shows the cedar board.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100-1/2.
+
+Fig. 101.
+
+Canoe paddles.]
+
+The top strip is next nailed on to the frame. Almost always a piece of
+bark, a foot or more long, and nine or ten inches wide, is bent and
+slipped under, between both top and side strips and the bark. The ends
+of this piece hang down about three inches below the side strips. The
+loose ends of the strips are bound together, as in diagram, and the
+projecting tips of both strips and bow-piece are trimmed off close.
+
+Next the canoe is turned upside down. If winter bark has been used,
+the surface is moistened and the roughness scraped off with a knife.
+Generally the red rough surface is left in the form of a decorative
+pattern several inches wide around the upper edge (Fig. 95). Sometimes
+the maker's name and date are left in this way.
+
+Finally, a strip of stout canvas, three or four inches wide, is dipped
+in the melted pitch and laid on the stitching at the ends, extending up
+sufficiently far above the water-line. All cracks and seams are covered
+with pitch, laid on with a small wooden paddle. While still soft, a wet
+finger or the palm of the hand is rubbed over the pitch to smooth it
+down before it hardens.
+
+
+Leaks
+
+Water is placed inside, and the leaky places marked, to be stopped when
+dry. A can of rosin is usually carried in the canoe, and when a leak
+occurs, the canoe is taken out of the water, the leak discovered by
+sucking, the place dried with a torch of wood or birch bark, and the
+pitch applied.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101-1/2.--From photograph of Indian building a
+birch-bark canoe.]
+
+Paddles are made of rock maple, and sometimes of birch and even cedar.
+Bow paddles are usually longer and narrower in the blade than stern
+paddles (Fig. 101).
+
+
+Bottom Protection
+
+Sometimes the canoe is shod with "shoes," or strips of cedar, laid
+lengthwise and tied to the outside of the bark with ash splits that
+pass through holes in the cedar shoes, and are brought up around the
+sides of the canoe and tied to each cross-bar. This protects the bottom
+of the boat from the sharp rocks that abound in some rapid streams.
+
+All canoes are of the general shape of the one described, though this
+is considerably varied in different localities, some being built with
+high rolling bows, some slender, some wider, some nearly straight on
+the bottom, others decidedly curved.
+
+Besides the two paddles the canoe should carry a pole ten feet
+long, made of a slender spruce, whittled so as to be about one and
+three-fourths inch in diameter in the middle and smaller at either end,
+and having at one end either a ring and a spike or else a pointed cap
+of iron. The pole is used for propelling the canoe up swift streams.
+This, says Tappan Adney, "is absolutely indispensable." The person
+using the pole stands in one end, or nearer the middle if alone, and
+pushes the canoe along close to the bank, so as to take advantage of
+the eddies, guiding the canoe with one motion, only to be learned by
+practice, and keeping the pole usually on the side next the bank. Where
+the streams have rocky and pebbly bottoms poling is easy, but in muddy
+or soft bottoms it is tiresome work; muddy bottoms, however, are not
+usually found in rapid waters.
+
+
+A Canvas Canoe
+
+can be made by substituting canvas in the place of birch bark; and
+if it is kept well painted it makes not only a durable but a very
+beautiful boat. The writer once owned a canvas canoe that was at least
+fifteen years old and still in good condition.
+
+About six yards of ten-ounce cotton canvas, fifty inches wide, will
+be sufficient to cover a canoe, and it will require two papers of
+four-ounce copper tacks to secure the canvas on the frame.
+
+The boat should be placed, deck down, upon two "horses" or wooden
+supports, such as you see carpenters and builders use.
+
+Fold the canvas lengthwise, so as to find the centre, then tack the
+centre of one end of the cloth to top of bow-piece, or stem, using two
+or three tacks to hold it securely. Stretch the cloth the length of the
+boat, pull it taut, with the centre line of the canvas over the keel
+line of the canoe, and tack the centre of the other end of the cloth to
+the top of the stern-piece.
+
+If care has been taken thus far, an equal portion of the covering will
+lap the gunwale on each side of the boat.
+
+Begin amidships and drive the tacks, about two inches apart, along the
+gunwale and an inch below the deck (on the outside). Tack about two
+feet on one side, pull the cloth tightly across, and tack it about
+three feet on the other side. Continue to alternate, tacking on one
+side and then the other, until finished.
+
+With the hands and fingers knead the cloth so as to thicken or "full"
+it where it would otherwise wrinkle, and it will be possible to stretch
+the canvas without cutting it over the frame.
+
+The cloth that projects beyond the gunwale may be used for the deck, or
+it may be cut off after bringing it over and tacking upon the inside of
+the gunwale, leaving the canoe open like a birch-bark.
+
+
+To Paddle a Canoe
+
+No one can expect to learn to paddle a canoe from a book, however
+explicit the directions may be. There is only one way to learn to swim
+and that is by going into the water and trying it, and the only proper
+way to learn to paddle a canoe is to paddle one until you catch the
+knack.
+
+In the ordinary canoe, to be found at the summer watering places,
+there are cane seats and they are always too high for safety. A
+top load on any sort of a boat is always dangerous, and every real
+canoeist seats his passengers on the bottom of the boat and kneels on
+the bottom himself while paddling. Of course, one's knees will feel
+more comfortable if there is some sort of a cushion under them, and a
+passenger will be less liable to get wet if he has a pneumatic cushion
+on which to sit. No expert canoeist paddles alternately first on the
+one side, and then on the other; on the contrary, he takes pride in his
+ability to keep his paddle continuously on either side that suits his
+convenience.
+
+The Indians of the North Woods are probably the best paddlers, and
+from them we can take points in the art. It is from them we first
+learned the use of the canoe, for our open canvas canoes of to-day are
+practically modelled on the lines of the old birch-barks.
+
+[Illustration: From photographs taken especially for this book by Mr.
+F. K. Vreeland, Camp Fire Club of America.
+
+Fig. 102.--Beginning of stroke. Paddle should not be reached farther
+forward than this. It is immersed _edgewise_ (not point first) with a
+slicing motion. Note the angle of paddle--rear face of blade turned
+_outward_ to avoid tendency of canoe to turn. Staff of paddle is 6
+inches too short. Left hand should be lower.
+
+Fig. 102_a_.--A moment later. Right hand pushing forward, left hand
+swinging down. Left hand should be lower on full-sized paddle.
+
+Fig. 103.--Putting the power of the body in the stroke by bending
+slightly forward. Left hand held stationary from now on, to act as
+fulcrum. The power comes from the right arm and shoulders.
+
+Fig. 103_a_.--The final effort, full weight of the body on the paddle.
+The right arm and body are doing the work, the left arm (which is weak
+at this point) acting as fulcrum. Note twist of the right wrist to give
+blade the proper angle.
+
+Fig. 104.--End of stroke. Arms relaxed and body straightening.
+
+Fig. 104_a_.--Beginning of recovery. Paddle slides out of water gently.
+Note that blade is perfectly flat on the surface. No steering action is
+required. If the canoe tends to swerve it is because the _stroke_ was
+not correct. Only a duffer _steers_ with his paddle after the stroke is
+over. The left hand now moves forward, the right swinging out and back,
+moving paddle forward horizontally.
+
+Fig. 104_b_.--Turning to right. The latter part of a broad sweep
+outward, away from the canoe. The blade is now being swept toward the
+canoe, the left hand pulling in, the right pushing out. Position of
+right wrist shows that blade has the opposite slant to that shown in
+the straightaway stroke--_i. e._, the near face of blade is turned
+_inward_. Blade leaves water with _outer_ edge up. Wake of canoe shows
+sharpness of turn.
+
+Fig. 104_c_.--Turning to left. The last motion of a stroke in which the
+paddle is swept close to the canoe with the blade turned much farther
+outward than in the straightaway stroke. At end of stroke blade is
+given an outward sweep and leaves the water with the _inner_ edge up.
+_This is not a steering_ or dragging motion. It is a powerful sweep of
+the paddle. Note swirl in wake of canoe showing sharp turn.]
+
+When you are standing upright and your paddle is in front of you with
+the blade upon the ground, the handle should reach to your eye-brows.
+(See Figs. 101, 102, 103, etc.)
+
+Kneel with the paddle across the canoe and not farther forward than the
+knees. Then dip the blade _edgewise_ (not point first) by raising the
+upper hand without bending the elbow. Swing the paddle back, keeping
+it close to the canoe, and give a little twist to the upper wrist to
+set the paddle at the proper angle shown in the photos. The exact
+angle depends upon the trim of the boat, the wind, etc., and must be
+such that the canoe does not swerve _at any part_ of the stroke, but
+travels straight ahead. The lower arm acts mainly as a fulcrum and
+does not move back and forth more than a foot. The power comes from
+the upper arm and shoulder, and the body bends forward as the weight
+is thrown on the paddle. The stroke continues until the paddle slides
+out of the water endwise, flat on the surface. Then for recovery the
+blade is brought forward by a swing from the shoulder, _not_ lifting
+it vertically, but swinging it horizontally with the blade parallel to
+the water and the upper hand low. When it reaches a point opposite the
+knee it is slid into the water again, edgewise, for another stroke. The
+motion is a more or less rotary one, like stirring cake, not a simple
+movement back and forth.
+
+
+To Carry a Canoe
+
+To pick up a canoe and carry it requires not only the knack but also
+muscle, and no undeveloped boy should make the attempt, as he might
+strain himself, with serious results. But there are plenty of young
+men--good, husky fellows--who can learn to do this without any danger
+of injury if they are taught _how_ to lift by a competent physical
+instructor.
+
+To pick up a canoe for a "carry," stoop over and grasp the middle brace
+with the right arm extended, and a short hold with the left hand, as
+shown in Fig. 105.
+
+When you have a secure hold, hoist the canoe up on your legs, as shown
+in Fig. 106. Without stopping the motion give her another boost, until
+you have the canoe with the upper side above your head, as in Fig. 107.
+In the diagram the paddles are not spread apart as far as they should
+be. If the paddles are too close together a fall may break ones neck.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110.--Northern Quebec Indians crossing the "ladder
+portage."]
+
+Now turn the canoe over your head and slide your head between the
+paddles (which are lashed to the spreaders, as shown in Fig. 105),
+and twist your body around as you let the canoe settle down over your
+head (Fig. 108). If you have a sweater or a coat, it will help your
+shoulders by making a roll of it to serve as a pad under the paddles,
+as in Fig. 109. I have seen an Indian carry a canoe in this manner on
+a dog-trot over a five-mile portage without resting. I also have seen
+Indians carry canoes over mountains, crossing by the celebrated Ladder
+Portage in western Quebec, where the only means of scaling a cliff is
+by ascending a ladder made of notched logs. For real canoe work it is
+necessary that a man should know how to carry his craft across country
+from one body of water to another. All through the Lakelands of Canada,
+and also the Lake St. John district, up to Hudson Bay itself, the only
+trails are by water, with portage across from one stream or lake to the
+other.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+HOW TO BUILD A PADDLING DORY
+
+A Simple Boat Which Any One Can Build--The Cheapest Sort of a Boat
+
+
+TO construct this craft it is, of course, necessary that we shall have
+some lumber, but we will use the smallest amount and the expense will
+come within the limits of a small purse.
+
+First we must have two boards, their lengths depending upon
+circumstances and the lumber available. The ones in the diagram are
+supposed to be of pine to measure (after being trimmed) 18 feet long
+by 18 inches wide and about 1 inch thick. When the boards are trimmed
+down so as to be exact duplicates of each other, place one board over
+the other so that their edges all fit exactly and then nail each end of
+the two boards together for the distance of about six inches. Turn the
+boards over and nail them upon the opposite side in the same manner,
+clamping the nail ends if they protrude. Do this by holding the head
+of a hammer or a stone against the heads of the nails while you hold a
+wire nail against the protruding end, and with a hammer bend it over
+the nail until it can be mashed flat against the board so that it will
+not project beyond its surface.
+
+After you have proceeded thus far, take some pieces of tin (Fig. 112)
+and bend the ragged edges over, so as to make a clean, straight fold,
+and hammer it down flat until there are no rough or raw edges exposed.
+Now tack a piece of this tin over the end of the boards which composed
+the sides of the boat, as in Fig. 114. Make the holes for the tacks
+first by driving the pointed end of a wire nail through the tin where
+you wish the tacks to go and then tack the tin snugly and neatly on,
+after which tack on another piece of tin on both bow and stern, as in
+Fig. 116. This will hold the two ends of the boards securely together
+so that they may be carefully sprung apart in the middle to receive
+the middle mould which is to hold them in shape until the bottom of
+the boat is nailed on, and the permanent thwarts, or seats, fastened
+inside. When the latter are permanently fixed they will keep the boat
+in shape.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.--Parts of dory.]
+
+To make the mould, which is only a temporary thing, you may use any
+rough board, or boards nailed together with cleats to hold them. The
+mould should be 2 feet 6 inches long and 1 foot 4 inches high. Fig. 111
+will show you how to cut off the ends to give the proper slant. The
+dotted lines show the board before it is trimmed in shape. By measuring
+along the edge of the board from each end 10.8 inches and marking the
+points, and then, with a carpenter's pencil ruling the diagonal lines
+to the other edge and ends of the board, the triangles may be sawed off
+with a hand saw.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113. Fig. 114. Fig. 112. Fig. 115. Fig. 116.
+
+The simple details of the dory.]
+
+Fig. 111 shows where the mould is to be placed in the center of the
+two side boards. As the boards in this diagram are supposed to be on
+the slant, and consequently in the perspective, they do not appear as
+wide as they really are. The diagram is made also with the ends of the
+side boards free so as to better show the position of the mould. But
+when the side boards are sprung apart and the mould placed in position
+(Fig. 113), it will appear as in Fig. 116 or Fig. 117. Fig. 115 shows
+the shape of the stem-posts to be set in both bow and stern and nailed
+securely in place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118.
+
+Top views of dory and parts of dory.]
+
+When you have gone thus far fit in two temporary braces near the bow
+and stern, as shown in Fig. 117. These braces are simply narrow pieces
+of boards held in position by nails driven through the outside of the
+boat, the latter left with their heads protruding, so that they may be
+easily drawn when necessary.
+
+Now turn the boat over bottom up and you will find that the angle at
+which the sides are bent will cause the bottom boards to rest upon a
+thin edge of the side boards, as shown in Fig. 119. With an ordinary
+jack-plane trim this down so that the bottom boards will rest flush and
+snug, as in Fig. 120.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118-1/2.]
+
+
+How to Calk a Boat so That It Won't Leak
+
+If you wish to make a bottom that will never leak, not even when it is
+placed in the water for the first time, plane off the boards on their
+sides, so that when fitted together they will leave a triangular groove
+between each board, as shown in Fig. 118-1/2. These grooves will show
+upon the inside of the boat, and not upon the outside, and in this case
+the calking is done from the inside and not from the outside. They are
+first calked with candlewick, over which putty is used, but for a rough
+boat it is not even necessary to use any calking. When the planks swell
+they will be forced together, so as to exclude all water.
+
+To fasten the bottom on the boat put a board lengthwise at the end,
+as shown in Fig. 121. One end shows the end board as it is first
+nailed on, and the other end shows it after it has been trimmed off
+to correspond with the sides of the boat. Now put your short pieces
+of boards for the bottom on one at a time, driving each one snug up
+against its neighbor before nailing it in place and leaving the rough
+or irregular ends of each board protrude on each side, as shown at the
+right-hand end of Fig. 121.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121. Top view with sides in place, also reversed
+view showing how bottom boards are laid.]
+
+When all the boards are nailed in place (by beginning at one end and
+fitting them against each other until the other end is reached) they
+may be trimmed off with a saw (Fig. 121) and your boat is finished with
+the exception of the thwarts, or seats.
+
+If you intend to propel this with paddles like a canoe, you will need
+a seat in the centre for your passenger, and this may be placed in the
+position occupied by the form (Figs. 111 and 117) after the latter is
+removed. To fit a seat in it is only necessary to cut two cleats and
+nail them to the sides of the boat for the seat to rest upon and saw
+off a board the proper length to fit upon the cleats. It would be well
+now to fasten the braces in the bow and stern permanently, adjusting
+them to suit your convenience. The seat should be as low as possible
+for safety. With this your paddling dory is finished, and may be used
+even without being painted. A coat of paint, however, improves not only
+the looks but the tightness and durability of any boat.
+
+We have now advanced so far in our boat-building that it becomes
+necessary that the beginner should learn more about boats and boating,
+and since this book is written for beginners, we will take it for
+granted that they know absolutely nothing about the subject and will
+give all the rudimentary knowledge for landlubbers in the next chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE LANDLUBBER'S CHAPTER
+
+    Common Nautical Terms and Expressions Defined--How to
+    Sail a Boat--Boat Rigs--Rowing-clothes--How to Make a
+    Bathing-suit--How to Avoid Sunburn
+
+
+THERE are a few common terms with which all who venture on the water
+should be familiar, not only for convenience, but for prudential
+reasons.
+
+Accidents are liable to happen to boats of all descriptions, and often
+the safety of property and life depend upon the passengers' ability to
+understand what is said to them by the officers or sailors in charge of
+the craft.
+
+To those who are familiar with the water and shipping it may seem
+absurd to define the bow and stern of a boat, but there are people who
+will read this book who cannot tell the bow from the stern, so we will
+begin this chapter with the statement that
+
+=The bow= is the front end of the boat, and
+
+=The stern= is the rear end of the boat.
+
+=For'ard= is toward the bow of the boat.
+
+=Aft= is toward the stern of the boat. Both terms are used by sailors
+as forward and backward are used by landsmen.
+
+=The hull= is the boat itself without masts, spars, or rigging. A skiff
+and a birch-bark canoe are hulls.
+
+=The keel= is the piece of timber running along the centre of the
+bottom of the hull, like the runner of a skate, and used to give the
+boat a hold on the water, so that she will not slide sideways.
+
+When you are sitting in the stern of a boat, facing the bow, the side
+next to your right hand is the right-hand side of the boat, and the
+side next to your left hand is the left-hand side of the boat. But
+these terms are not used by seamen; they always say
+
+=Starboard= for the right-hand side of the boat, and
+
+=Port= for the left-hand side of the boat. Formerly the left-hand side
+was called the larboard, but this occasioned many serious mistakes on
+account of the similarity of the sound of larboard and starboard when
+used in giving orders.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.--Top view of small boat.]
+
+
+Red and Green Lights
+
+After dark a red light is carried on the port side and a green light on
+the starboard side of all vessels in motion. If you can remember that
+port wine is red, and that the port light is of the same color, you
+will always be able to tell in which direction an approaching craft is
+pointing by the relative location of the lights.
+
+    "When both lights you see ahead,
+     Port your helm and show your red!
+     Green to green and red to red,
+     You're all right, and go ahead!"
+
+If you are a real landlubber, the verse quoted will be of little
+service, because you will not know how to port your helm. In fact, you
+probably will not know where to look for the helm or what it looks
+like; but only a few of our readers are out-and-out landlubbers, and
+most of them know that the helm is in some way connected with the
+steering apparatus.
+
+=The rudder= is the movable piece of board at the stern of the boat by
+means of which the craft is guided. The rudder is moved by a lever,
+ropes, or a wheel.
+
+=The tiller= is the lever for moving the rudder, or the ropes used for
+the same purpose (Fig. 123).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123.--Helm--Lever, or stick, for tiller.]
+
+=The wheel= is the wheel whose spokes end in handles on the outer edge
+of the rim, or felly, and it is used for moving the rudder (Fig. 124).
+
+=The helm= is that particular part of the steering apparatus that you
+put your hands on when steering.
+
+=The deck= is the roof of the hull.
+
+=The centreboard= is an adjustable keel that can be raised or lowered
+at pleasure. It is an American invention. The centreboard, as a rule,
+is only used on comparatively small vessels. The inventor of the
+centreboard is Mr. Salem Wines, who kept a shop on Water Street, near
+Market Slip, and, when alive, was a well-known New York boat-builder.
+His body now lies in Greenwood Cemetery, and upon the headstone of his
+grave is the inscription, "The Inventor of the Centreboard."
+
+For sailing, the boat, or hull, is rigged with masts and spars for
+spreading the sails to catch the wind.
+
+=The masts= are the upright poles, or sticks, that hold the sails.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124.--Helm--The wheel.]
+
+=The yards= are the poles, or sticks, at right angles with the masts
+that spread the sails.
+
+=The boom= is the movable spar at the bottom of the sail.
+
+=The gaff= is the pole, or spar, for spreading the top, or head, of the
+sail (Fig. 125).
+
+=The sail= is a big canvas kite, of which the boom, gaff, and masts are
+the kite-sticks. You must not understand by this that the sail goes
+soaring up in the air, for the weight of the hull prevents that; but if
+you make fast a large kite to the mast of a boat it would be a sail,
+and if you had a line long and strong enough, and should fasten any
+spread sail to it, there can be no doubt that the sail would fly.
+
+=The spars= are the masts, bowsprit, yards, and gaffs.
+
+=The bowsprit= is the stick, or sprit, projecting from the bow of the
+boat (Fig. 161, Sloop).
+
+=The foremast= is the mast next to the bow--the forward mast (Fig. 159,
+Ship).
+
+=The mainmast= is the second mast--the mast next to the foremast.
+
+=Mizzen-mast= is the mast next to and back of the mainmast (Fig. 159,
+Ship).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125.--A sail.]
+
+=The rigging= of a boat consists of the ropes, or lines, attached to
+its masts and sails, but a boat's rig refers to the number of masts as
+well as to the shape of its sails.
+
+=Stays= are strong ropes supporting the masts, fore and aft.
+
+=Shrouds= are strong ropes reaching from the mastheads to the sides of
+the vessel; supports for the masts, starboard and port.
+
+=Ratlines= are the little ropes that form the steps, or foot ropes,
+that run crosswise between the shrouds.
+
+=The painter= is the rope at the bow of a small boat, used for the same
+purpose as is a hitching-strap on a horse.
+
+=The standing rigging= consists of the stays and shrouds.
+
+=The running rigging= consists of all the ropes used in handling yards
+and sails.
+
+=The sheets= are the ropes, or lines, attached to the corners of sails,
+by which they are governed (Fig. 126).
+
+=The main sheet= is the rope that governs the mainsail.
+
+=The jib-sheet= is the rope that governs the jib-sail.
+
+=The gaskets= are the ropes used in lashing the sails when furled.
+
+=The braces= are the ropes used in swinging the yards around.
+
+=The jib-stay= is the stay that runs from the foremast to the bowsprit.
+
+=The bob-stay= is practically an extension of the jib-stay and the
+chief support of the spars. It connects the bow of the boat with the
+bowsprit and prevents the latter from bobbing up and down.
+
+Besides the port and starboard sides of a boat there are the windward
+and leeward sides. Do not understand by this that the boat has four
+sides, like a square. Windward may be the port or the starboard side,
+according to the direction the wind blows; because
+
+=Windward= means the side of the boat against which the wind blows--the
+side where the wind climbs aboard; or it may mean the direction from
+which the wind comes. The opposite side is called
+
+=Leeward=--that is, the side of the boat opposite to that against which
+the wind blows, where the wind tumbles overboard, or the side opposite
+to windward. When you are sailing you may be near a
+
+=Lee Shore=--that is, the shore on your lee side against which the wind
+blows; or a
+
+=Windward Shore=--that is, the land on your windward side from which
+the wind blows.
+
+All seamen dread a lee shore, as it is a most dangerous shore to
+approach, from the fact that the wind is doing its best to blow you
+on the rocks or beach. But the windward shore can be approached with
+safety, because the wind will keep you off the rocks, and if it is
+blowing hard, the land will break the force of the wind.
+
+In a canoe or shell the boatman sits either directly on the bottom, or,
+as in the shell, very close to it, and the weight of his body serves to
+keep the boat steady, but larger crafts seldom rely upon live weights
+to steady them. They use
+
+=Ballast=--that is, weights of stone, lead, iron, or sand-bags, used to
+balance the boat and make her steady.
+
+As has been said before in this chapter, the sail is a big canvas kite
+made fast to the boat and called a sail, but the ordinary kite has its
+covering stretched permanently on rigid sticks.
+
+The sail, however, can be stretched to its full extent or only
+partially, or it may be rolled up, exposing nothing but the masts to
+the force of the wind. To accomplish all this there are various ropes
+and attachments, all of which are named.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126.--Sail and sheet.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127.--Parts of sail.]
+
+It is quite important that the beginner should know the names of all the
+
+
+Parts of a Sail
+
+=Luff.=--That part of the sail adjoining the mast--the front of the
+sail (Fig. 127).
+
+=Leach.=-That part of the sail stretched between the outer or after end
+of the boom and the outer end of the gaff--the back part of the sail
+(Fig. 127).
+
+=Head.=--That part of the sail adjoining the gaff--the top of the sail.
+
+=Foot.=--That part of the sail adjoining the boom--the bottom of the
+sail (Fig. 127).
+
+=Clews.=--A general name for the four corners of the sail.
+
+=Clew.=--The particular corner at the foot of the sail where the leach
+and boom meet (Fig. 127).
+
+=Tack.=--The corner of the sail where boom and mast meet (Fig. 127).
+
+=Throat, or Nock.=--The corner of the sail where gaff and mast meet
+(Fig. 127).
+
+=Peak.=--Corner of the sail where the leach and gaff meet (Fig. 127).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128.--Starboard helm.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129--Port helm.]
+
+
+How to Steer a Boat
+
+When you wish your boat to turn to the right push your helm to the
+left. This will push the rudder to the right and turn the boat in that
+direction. When you wish your boat to turn to the left push your helm
+to the right. In other words, starboard your helm and you will turn to
+the port (Fig. 128). Port your helm and you will turn to the starboard
+(Fig. 129).
+
+From a reference to the diagram you may see that when you =port your
+helm= you move the tiller to the port side of the boat, and when you
+=starboard your helm= you move your tiller to the starboard side of the
+boat (Fig. 128), but to =ease your helm= you move your helm toward the
+centre of the boat--that is, amidships.
+
+
+How to Sail a Boat
+
+If you fasten the bottom of a kite to the ground, you will find that
+the wind will do its best to blow the kite over, and if the kite is
+fastened to the mast of a toy boat, the wind will try to blow the boat
+over.
+
+In sailing a boat the effort of the wind apparently has but one
+object, and that is the upsetting of the boat. The latter, being well
+balanced, is constantly endeavoring to sit upright on its keel, and
+you, as a sailor, are aiding the boat in the struggle, at the same time
+subverting the purpose of the wind to suit your own ideas. It is an
+exciting game, in which man usually comes out ahead, but the wind gains
+enough victories to keep its courage up.
+
+Every boat has peculiarities of its own, and good traits as well as bad
+ones, which give the craft a personal character that lends much to your
+interest, and even affects your sensibilities to the extent of causing
+you to have the same affection for a good, trustworthy craft that you
+have for an intelligent and kind dog or horse.
+
+A properly balanced sail-boat, with main sheet trimmed flat and free
+helm, should be as sensitive as a weathercock and act like one--that
+is, she ought to swing around until her bow pointed right into the "eye
+of the wind," the direction from which the wind blows. Such a craft it
+is not difficult to sail, but it frequently happens that the boat that
+is given to you to sail is not properly balanced, and shows a constant
+tendency to "come up in the wind"--face the wind--when you are doing
+your best to keep her sails full and keep her on her course. This
+may be caused by too much sail aft. The boat is then said to carry a
+weather helm.
+
+=Weather Helm.=--When a boat shows a constant tendency to come up in
+the wind.
+
+=Lee Helm.=--When a boat shows a constant tendency to fall off the
+wind--that is, when the wind blows her bow to the leeward. This is
+a much worse trait than the former, and a boat with a lee helm is a
+dangerous boat. It may be possible to remedy it by adding sail aft or
+reducing sail forward, which should immediately be done.
+
+In spite of the fact, already stated, that the wind's constant effort
+is to capsize a boat, there is little or no danger of a properly rigged
+boat upsetting unless the sheets are fast or hampered in some way. When
+a sail-boat upsets it is, of course, because the wind blows it over.
+Now, the wind cannot blow a boat over unless the boat presents some
+surface larger than its hull for the wind to blow against, and the sail
+is the only object that offers enough surface to the breeze to cause an
+upset.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130--Close-hauled.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131.--Before the wind.]
+
+[Illustration: Top view of boats, showing position of helm and boom.]
+
+If the sheet is slackened, the sail will swing around until it flaps
+like a flag and only the thin edge is presented to the wind; and a boat
+that a flag will upset is no boat for beginners to trust themselves in.
+True, the boom may be very long and heavy enough to make it dangerous
+to let so much of it overboard, but this is seldom the case. A good
+sailor keeps his eyes constantly on the sails and trims them to take
+advantage of the slightest favorable breeze. In place of losing
+control of his sail by letting go the sheets he will ease the tiller so
+as to "spill" part of the wind that is, let the forward part, or luff,
+of the sail shake a bit. Or, in case of a sudden puff of wind, he may
+deem it necessary to "luff"--that is, let her shake--and slacken the
+sheets too.
+
+=Trimmed Flat.=--Sheets hauled in until the boom is only a little to
+the leeward of the helm (Fig. 130).
+
+=Close-hauled.=--Sheets trimmed flat and the boat pointing as near as
+possible to the eye of the wind. Then the sail cannot belly, and is
+called flat (Fig. 130).
+
+
+To Sail Close-hauled
+
+The skipper must watch that his sail does not flap or ripple at the
+throat, for that means that he is pointing too close to the wind and
+that some of the breeze is blowing on both sides of his sail, which
+even a novice can see will retard the boat.
+
+Upon discovering a rippling motion at the luff of the sail put the helm
+up--that is, move the tiller a little to windward until the sail stops
+its flapping.
+
+=Before the Wind.=--When the wind is astern; sailing with the wind;
+sailing directly from windward to leeward (Fig. 131).
+
+In order to reach the desired point it is often expedient to sail
+before the wind, but unless the wind is light, beginners had better not
+try this. To sail before the wind you let your sheets out until the
+boom stands at _almost_ right angles with the boat. Keep your eye on
+the sail and see that it does not flap, for if the man at the helm is
+careless and allows the boat to point enough away from the direction of
+the wind to allow the wind to get on the other side of the sail, the
+latter will swing around or jibe with such force as to endanger the
+mast, if it does not knock some one overboard.
+
+The price of liberty is constant vigilance, and the price of a good
+sail is the same. I have seen a mast snapped off clean at the deck by
+a jibe, and once when out after ducks every one was so intent upon the
+game that proper attention was not paid to the sail. The wind got
+round and brought the boom with a swing aft, knocking the captain of
+our boat club overboard. Had the boom hit him in the head and stunned
+him, the result might have been fatal.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132.--Boom hauled in.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133.--On new course.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131-1/2.--Before the wind.]
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 131-1/2, 132, and 133.--Jibing.]
+
+=Wing and Wing.=--When a schooner goes before the wind with one sail
+out at nearly right angles on the port side and the other in the same
+position on the starboard side she is said to be wing and wing and
+presents a beautiful sight.
+
+=Tacking.=--Working to the windward by a series of diagonal moves.
+
+=Legs.=--The moves or diagonal courses made in tacking. It is apparent
+to the most unthinking observer that no vessel propelled by sail can
+move against the direct course of the wind--that is, nothing but
+electricity, naphtha, steam, or some such power can drive a boat into
+the eye of the wind. But what cannot be accomplished in a direct manner
+can be done by a series of compromises, each of which will bring us
+nearer to the desired point.
+
+First we point the boat to the right or left, as the case may be, as
+near or as close to the wind as the boat will sail. Then we come about
+and sail in the other direction as close as practicable to the eye of
+the wind, and each time we gain something in a direct line.
+
+When your boat changes its direction on a tack it is done by "jibing,"
+or "coming about."
+
+=Jibing.=--With the wind on the quarter, haul the main boom aft or
+amidship with all possible speed, by means of the main sheets (Fig.
+132), and as the wind strikes the sail on the other side let it out as
+deliberately as possible until it reaches the position desired (Fig.
+133).
+
+Beginners should never attempt to jibe, for if there is more than a
+capful of wind, the sail will probably get away from them, and, as
+described in going before the wind, some disaster is liable to occur.
+Experts only jibe in light winds, and frequently lower the peak, so as
+to reduce sail, before attempting a jibe.
+
+
+Coming About
+
+When you wish to come about see that all the tackle, ropes, etc., are
+clear and in working order, and that you are making good headway; then
+call out: "Helm's a-lee!" or "Ready about!" and push the tiller in the
+direction opposite to that from which the wind blows--that is, to the
+lee side of the boat. This will bring the bow around until the wind
+strikes the sail upon the side opposite to that which it struck before
+the helm was a-lee (Figs. 134, 135, 136, 137).
+
+If you are aboard a sloop or schooner, ease off the jib-sheet, but keep
+control of it, so that as the boat comes up to the wind you can make
+the jib help the bow around by holding the sheets so as to catch the
+wind aback. When the bow of the craft has passed the eye of the wind
+and the sail begins to fill give the order to make fast, or trim, the
+jib, and off you go upon the opposite tack, or on a new leg.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 134, 135, 136, and 137.--Coming about.]
+
+If the wind is light, or if, for any cause, the boat works slowly, you
+can sometimes help her by trimming in the main sheet when you let the
+jib-sheet fly. In the diagram of coming about no jib is shown.
+
+=Wearing= is a term sometimes used in place of jibing.
+
+
+In a Thunder-storm
+
+A thunder-storm is always an uncertain thing. There may be a veritable
+tornado hidden in the black clouds that we see rising on the
+horizon, or it may simply "iron out the wind"--that is, go grumbling
+overhead--and leave us becalmed, to get home the best way we can;
+generally by what the boys call a "white-ash breeze"--that is, by using
+the sweeps or oars.
+
+On Long Island Sound a thunder-storm seems to have certain fixed rules
+of conduct. In the first place, it comes up from the leeward, or
+_against the wind_. Just before the storm strikes you for an instant
+the wind ceases and the sails flap idly. Then look out! for in nine
+cases out of ten you are struck the next moment by a sudden squall from
+exactly the opposite direction from which the wind blew a moment before.
+
+
+What to Do
+
+Make for the nearest port with all speed, and keep a man at the
+downhaul ready at a moment's notice to lower sail. The moment the wind
+stops drop the sail and make everything snug, leaving only bare poles.
+When the thunder-squall strikes you, be it ever so hard, you are now in
+little danger; and if the wind from the new quarter is not too fresh,
+you can hoist sail again and make the best of your way to the nearest
+port, where you can "get in out of the wet."
+
+If the wind is quite fresh keep your peak down, and with a reefed sail
+speed on your way. If it is a regular howler, let your boat drive
+before the wind under bare poles until you can find shelter or until
+it blows over, and the worst mishap you are likely to incur is a good
+soaking from the rain.
+
+=Shortening Sail.=--Just as soon as the boat heels over too far for
+safety, or as soon as you are convinced that there is more wind than
+you need for comfortable sailing, it is time to take a reef--that
+is, to roll up the bottom of the sail to the row of little ropes, or
+reefing points, on the sail and make fast there. This, of course, makes
+a smaller sail, and that is what you wish.
+
+While under way it will be found impossible to reef a sail except
+when sailing close-hauled. So the boat is brought up into the wind by
+pushing the helm down, as if you intended to come about. When possible
+it is better to lower the sail entirely before attempting to put in a
+reef.
+
+
+To Reef Without Lowering Sail
+
+It sometimes happens that on account of the proximity of a lee shore,
+and the consequent danger of drifting in that direction, or for some
+other equally good reason, it is inadvisable to lower sail and lose
+headway. Under such circumstances the main sheet must be trimmed flat,
+keeping the boat as close as possible to the wind, the helm must be put
+up hard a-lee, and jib-sheet trimmed to windward (Fig. 138).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138.--Squirming; jib on port side, boom
+close-hauled on starboard side.]
+
+When this is done the wind will hit the jib, "paying her head off," or
+pushing her bow to leeward, and this tendency is counteracted by the
+helm and mainsail, bringing the bow up into the wind. This keeps the
+boat squirming. Lower the mainsail until the row of reef points is just
+on a line with the boom, keeping to the windward of the sail. Tie the
+first point--that is, the one on the luff rope--then the one on the
+leach, being careful to stretch out the foot of the sail. Then tie the
+remaining points, always making a square or reefing knot. Tie them to
+the jack-stay on the boom or around the boom.
+
+
+The Reef or Square Knot
+
+is most frequently used, as its name implies, in reefing sails. First
+make a plain overhand knot, as in Fig. 139. Then repeat the operation
+by taking the end and passing it over and under the loop, drawing the
+parts tight, as shown in Fig. 140. Care should be observed in crossing
+the ends so that they will always lay fairly alongside the main parts.
+Otherwise the knot will prove a _granny_ and be comparatively worthless.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 139 and 140.--Square or reef knot.]
+
+
+To Shake Out a Reef
+
+untie the knots, keeping to the windward of the sail. Untie the knot
+at the leach first, next the one at the luff, and then the remaining
+points. In lowering a sail you use a rope called the =downhaul=.
+
+=Starboard Tack.=--When the main boom is over the port side.
+
+=Port Tack.=--When the main boom is over the starboard side.
+
+=Right of Way.=--All boats sailing on the starboard tack have the right
+of way over all those on the port tack. In other words, if you are on
+the starboard tack, those on the port tack must keep out of your way.
+Any boat sailing close-hauled has the right of way over a boat sailing
+free.
+
+
+Lights for Canoe
+
+A canoe under sail at night should have an uncolored lantern hung to
+her mizzen-mast to notify other craft that she is out and objects to
+being run down. The light is put on the mizzen so that it may be behind
+the skipper and not dazzle him.
+
+What you have read in the foregoing pages will not be found very
+difficult to remember, but there is only one way to learn to sail and
+that is by _sailing_. If possible, sail with some one who is a good
+seaman. If this sort of companion cannot be had, try it alone on smooth
+water and with short sail until you accustom yourself to the boat and
+its peculiarities. No boy ever learned to skate or swim from books, but
+books often have been helpful in giving useful hints to those who were
+really learning by practical experience.
+
+
+Some Do Nots
+
+  Do not overload the boat.
+  Do not carry too much sail.
+  Do not sail in strange waters without chart or compass.
+  Do not forget your anchor.
+  Do not forget your paddles or oars.
+  Do not attempt to learn to sail before you know how to swim.
+  Do not sit on the gunwale.
+  Do not put the helm down too suddenly or too far.
+  Do not let go the helm.
+  Do not mistake caution for cowardice.
+  Do not be afraid to reef.
+  Do not fear the ridicule of other landlubbers.
+  Do not fail to keep the halyards and sheets clear.
+  Do not jibe in a stiff wind.
+  Do not fail to keep your head in times of emergency.
+  Do not make a display of bravery until the occasion demands it.
+  Do not allow mistakes or mishaps to discourage you.
+  Do not associate with a fool who rocks a boat.
+
+You will soon become an expert and be able to engage in one of our most
+exhilarating, healthy, and manly sports and earn the proud distinction
+of being a good small-boat sailor.
+
+
+It is Necessary to Learn to Swim
+
+From the parents' point of view, nowhere that a boy's restless nature
+impels him to go is fraught with so much peril as the water, and
+nowhere is a boy happier than when he is on the water, unless it is
+when he is in it. Nowhere can be found a better school for his young
+mind and body than that furnished by boating. Hence it appears to be
+the imperative duty for parents personally to see that their children
+are taught to swim as soon as their little limbs have strength enough
+to make the proper motions.
+
+
+Boating-Clothes
+
+In aquatic sports of all kinds, if you expect to have fun, you must
+dress appropriately. You should have a suit of old clothes that you
+can change for dry ones when the sport is over. When boating, it is
+nonsense to pretend you can keep dry under all the varying conditions
+of wind and weather. If your purse is small, and you want a good
+rowing-suit, it can be made of last winter's woollen underclothes, and
+will answer for the double purpose of rowing and bathing.
+
+
+How to Make a Bathing-Suit
+
+First take an old woollen undershirt and cut the sleeves off above the
+elbows. Then coax your mother, aunt, or sister to sew it up in front
+like a sweater, and hem the edges of the sleeves where they have just
+been cut off.
+
+Next take a pair of woollen drawers and have them sewed up in front,
+leaving an opening at the top about four inches in length; turn the
+top edge down all around to cover a piece of tape that should be long
+enough to tie in front. Have this hem or flap sewed down to cover the
+tape, and allow the two ends of the tape to protrude at the opening
+in front. The tape should not be sewed to the cloth, but should move
+freely, so that you can tighten or loosen it at will. Cut the drawers
+off at the knees and have the edges hemmed, and you will have a
+first-class bathing or rowing-suit.
+
+If woollen clothes are not to be had, cotton will do, but wool is
+coolest and warmest, as the occasion may require.
+
+When rowing wear old socks, woollen ones if you have them, and old
+shoes cut down like slippers. The latter can be kicked off at a
+moment's notice, and, if lost, they are of no value, and may be easily
+replaced.
+
+When on shore a long pair of woollen stockings to cover your bare
+legs and a sweater to pull over your sleeveless shirt are handy and
+comfortable, but while sailing, paddling, or rowing in hot weather the
+rowing-suit is generally all that comfort requires. Of course, if your
+skin is tender, you are liable to be terribly sunburned on your arms,
+neck, and legs; but
+
+
+Sunburn
+
+may be avoided by gradually accustoming your limbs to the exposure.
+Dearly will you pay for your negligence if you go out for a day with
+bare arms or legs in the hot sun before you have toughened yourself,
+and little will you sleep that night.
+
+I have seen young men going to business the day following a regatta
+with no collars on their red necks, and no shirt over their soft
+undershirts, the skin being too tender to bear the touch of the stiff,
+starched linen, and I have known others who could not sleep a wink on
+account of the feverish state of their bodies, caused by the hot sun
+and a tender skin. Most boys have had some experience from sunburn,
+acquired while bathing. If care is taken to cover your arms and legs
+after about an hour's exposure, you will find that in place of being
+blistered, your skin will be first pink and then a faint brownish tint,
+which each succeeding exposure will deepen until your limbs will assume
+that dark, rich mahogany color of which athletes are so proud. This
+makes your skin proof against future attacks of the hottest rays of the
+sun.
+
+Besides the pain and discomfort of a sudden and bad sunburn on your
+arms, the effect is not desirable, as it is very liable to cover your
+arms with freckles. I have often seen men with beautifully bronzed arms
+and freckled shoulders, caused by going out in their shells first with
+short sleeves and then with shirts from which the sleeves were entirely
+cut away, exposing the white, tender shoulders to the fierce heat, to
+which they were unaccustomed.
+
+It is a good plan to cover the exposed parts of your body with
+sweet-oil, vaseline, mutton-tallow, beef-tallow, or lard. This is good
+as a preventive while in the sun, and excellent as an application after
+exposure. Any sort of oil or grease that does not contain salt is good
+for your skin.
+
+
+Clothes for Canoeing
+
+In canoeing I have found it convenient to dress as I would in a shell
+boat, but I generally have had a sweater and a pair of long trousers
+stowed away, ready to be pulled on over my rowing-clothes when I
+landed. Once, when I neglected to put these extra clothes aboard, I
+was storm-bound up Long Island Sound, and, leaving my boat, I took the
+train home, but I did not enjoy my trip, for the bare legs and arms and
+knit cap attracted more attention than is pleasant for a modest man.
+
+Do not wear laced shoes in a canoe, for experience has taught
+boating-men that about the most inconvenient articles of clothing to
+wear in the water are laced shoes. While swimming your feet are of
+absolutely no use if incased in this style of foot-gear, and all the
+work must be done with the arms. But if you have old slippers, they may
+be kicked off, and then you are dressed practically in a bathing-suit,
+and can swim with comfort and ease.
+
+Possibly these precautions may suggest the idea that a ducking is not
+at all an improbable accident, and it must be confessed that the boy
+who thinks he can learn to handle small boats without an occasional
+unlooked-for swim is liable to discover his mistake before he has
+become master of his craft.
+
+
+Stick to Your Boat
+
+Always remember that a wet head is a very small object in the water,
+and liable to be passed by unnoticed, but that a capsized boat can
+scarcely fail to attract attention and insure a speedy rescue from an
+awkward position. As for the real danger of boating, it cannot be great
+where care is used. Not one fatality has occurred on the water, among
+all of my large circle of boating friends, and personally I have never
+witnessed a fatal accident in all the years I have spent rowing and
+sailing.
+
+
+Life-Preservers
+
+All canoes should have a good cork life-preserver in them when the
+owner ventures away from land. I never but once ventured any distance
+without one, and that is the only time I was ever in need of a
+life-preserver. The ordinary cork jacket is best. It can be used for
+a seat, and when spread on the bottom of your canoe, with an old
+coat or some article thrown over it for a cushion, it is not at all
+an uncomfortable seat. Most canoes have airtight compartments fore
+and aft--that is, at both ends--and the boat itself is then a good
+life-preserver. Even without the airtight compartments, unless your
+boat is loaded with ballast or freight, there is no danger of its
+sinking. A canvas canoe, as a rule, has enough woodwork about it to
+support your weight when the boat is full of water.
+
+An upset canvas canoe supported me for an hour and a half during a blow
+on Long Island Sound, and had not a passing steamer rescued me, the
+canoe would evidently have buoyed me up as long as I could have held on
+to the hull.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+HOW TO RIG AND SAIL SMALL BOATS
+
+
+How to Make a Lee-Board for a Canoe
+
+NOW that the open canvas canoe has become so popular the demand has
+arisen for some arrangement by which it may be used with sails. Of
+course it is an easy matter to rig sails on almost any sort of craft,
+but unless there is a keel or a centreboard the boat will make lee-way,
+_i. e._, it will have no hold on the water, and when you try to tack,
+the boat will blow sideways, which may be fraught with serious results.
+The only time that the author ever got in a serious scrape with his
+canoe, was when he carelessly sailed out in a storm, leaving the key
+to his fan centreboard at the boat-house. Being unable to let down the
+centreboard, he was eventually driven out to sea, and when he became
+too fatigued to move quickly was capsized.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140.--Lee-board. Fig. 140_a_.--Bolt and
+thumb-screw.]
+
+Now to prevent such occurrences and to do away with the inconvenience
+of the centreboard in an open canoe, various designs of lee-boards have
+been made. A lee-board is, practically speaking, a double centreboard.
+The paddle-like form of the blades of the boards given in Fig. 140 give
+them a good hold on the water when they are below the surface, and they
+can also be allowed to swing clear of the water when temporarily out of
+use. Or they may be removed and stowed away in the canoe. As you see by
+the diagram the two blades are connected by a spruce rod; the blades
+themselves may be made of some hard wood, like cherry, and bevelled at
+the edges like a canoe-paddle. They should be a scant foot in width and
+a few inches over two feet long, and cut out of three-quarter-inch
+material. The spruce cross-bar is about one and a half inch in
+diameter, the ends of which are thrust through a hole in the upper end
+of each lee-board. A small hole is bored in the top of each lee-board,
+down through the ends of the cross-board, and when a galvanized-iron
+pin is pushed down through this hole, it will prevent the bar from
+turning in its socket. A couple more galvanized-iron pins or bars fit
+in holes in the spruce cross-bar, as shown in the diagram (Fig. 140).
+At the top end of each of these metal bolts is a thumb-screw which runs
+down over the thread of the bolt. The bottom or lower end is bent at
+right angles that it may be fitted under the gunwale of the canoe, and
+tightened by twisting the thumb-screws. The advantage of this sort of
+arrangement is that the lee-boards may be slid backward or forward and
+so adjusted that the canoe will sail in the direction in which it is
+steered. The place where the lee-board is to be fastened can only be
+found by experiment. When it is too far toward the bow, the boat will
+show a desire to come up against the wind, thus making work for the
+steersman to keep the wind in the sails. If the lee-board is fastened
+too far toward the stern the canoe will show a decided determination to
+swing around with its stern to the wind, which is a dangerous trick for
+a well-trained craft to indulge in.
+
+I have seen open canvas canoes at the outfitting stores marked as low
+as seventeen dollars, but they usually cost twenty-five dollars or
+more, and I would advise ambitious canoeists to build their own canoes,
+and even to make their own lee-boards, although it would be cheaper to
+buy the latter.
+
+
+How to Rig and Sail Small Boats
+
+To have the tiller in one's own hands and feel competent, under all
+ordinary circumstances, to bring a boat safely into port, gives the
+same zest and excitement to a sail (only in a far greater degree) that
+the handling of the whip and reins over a lively trotter does to a
+drive.
+
+Knowing and feeling this, it was my intention to devote a couple of
+chapters to telling how to sail a boat; but through the kind courtesy
+of the editor of _The American Canoeist_, I am able to do much better
+by giving my readers a talk on this subject by one whose theoretical
+knowledge and practical experience renders him pre-eminently fit to
+give reliable advice and counsel. The following is what Mr. Charles
+Ledyard Norton, editor of the above-mentioned journal, says:
+
+Very many persons seem to ignore the fact that a boy who knows how
+to manage a gun is, upon the whole, less likely to be shot than one
+who is a bungler through ignorance, or that a good swimmer is less
+likely to be drowned than a poor one. Such, however, is the truth
+beyond question. If a skilled sportsman is now and then shot, or an
+expert swimmer drowned, the fault is not apt to be his own, and if
+the one who is really to blame had received proper training, it is not
+likely that the accident would have occurred at all. The same argument
+holds good with regard to the management of boats, and the author is
+confident that he merits the thanks of mothers, whether he receives
+them or not, for giving their boys a few hints as to practical rigging
+and sailing.
+
+In general, there are three ways of learning how to sail boats. First,
+from the light of nature, which is a poor way; second, from books,
+which is better; and third, from another fellow who knows how, which
+is best of all. I will try to make this article as much like the other
+fellow and as little bookish as possible.
+
+Of course, what I shall say in these few paragraphs will be of small
+use to those who live within reach of the sea or some big lake and have
+always been used to boats; but there are thousands and thousands of
+boys and men who never saw the sea, nor even set eyes on a sail, and
+who have not the least idea how to make the wind take them where they
+want to go. I once knew some young men from the interior who went down
+to the sea-side and hired a boat, with the idea that they had nothing
+to do but hoist the sail and be blown wherever they liked. The result
+was that they performed a remarkable set of manoeuvres within sight
+of the boat-house, and at last went helplessly out to sea and had to be
+sent after and brought back, when they were well laughed at for their
+performances, and had reason to consider themselves lucky for having
+gotten off so cheaply.
+
+The general principles of sailing are as simple as the national game of
+"one ole cat." That is to say, if the wind always blew moderately and
+steadily, it would be as easy and as safe to sail a boat as it is to
+drive a steady old family horse of good and regular habits. The fact,
+however, is that winds and currents are variable in their moods, and as
+capable of unexpected freaks as the most fiery of unbroken colts; but
+when properly watched and humored they are tractable and fascinating
+playmates and servants.
+
+Now, let us come right down to first principles. Take a bit of pine
+board, sharpen it at one end, set up a mast about a quarter of the
+length of the whole piece from the bow, fit on a square piece of stiff
+paper or card for a sail, and you are ready for action. Put this in the
+water, with the sail set squarely across (A, Fig. 141), and she will
+run off before the wind--which is supposed to be blowing as indicated
+by the arrow--at a good rate of speed. If she does not steer herself,
+put a small weight near the stern, or square end; or, if you like,
+arrange a thin bit of wood for a rudder.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141.
+
+Lesson in sailing for beginners.]
+
+Probably the first primeval man who was born with nautical instincts
+discovered this fact, and, using a bush for a sail, greatly astonished
+his fellow primevals by winning some prehistoric regatta. But that
+was all he could do. He was as helpless as a balloonist is in midair.
+He could go, but he could not get back, and we may be sure that
+ages passed away before the possibility of sailing to windward was
+discovered.
+
+Now, put up or "step" another mast and sail like the first, about as
+far from the stern as the first is from the bow. Turn the two sails at
+an angle of forty-five degrees across the boat (B or C, Fig. 141) and
+set her adrift. She will make considerable progress across the course
+of the wind, although she will at the same time drift with it. If she
+wholly refuses to go in the right direction, place a light weight on
+her bow, so that she will be a little "down by the head," or move the
+aftermost mast and sail a little nearer to the stern.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142.--Tacking.]
+
+The little rude affair thus used for experiment will not actually
+make any progress to windward, because she is so light that she moves
+sidewise almost as easily as she does forward. With a larger, deeper
+boat, and with sails which can be set at any angle, the effect will
+be different. So long as the wind presses against the after side of
+the sail, the boat will move through the water in the direction of the
+least resistance, which is forward. A square sail having the mast in
+the middle was easiest to begin with for purposes of explanation; but
+now we will change to a "fore-and-aft" rig--that is, one with the mast
+at the forward edge or "luff" of the sail, as in Fig. 142. Suppose the
+sail to be set at the angle shown, and the wind blowing as the arrow
+points. The boat cannot readily move sidewise, because of the broadside
+resistance; she does not move backward, because the wind is pressing on
+the aftermost side of the sail. So she very naturally moves forward.
+When she nears buoy No. 1, the helmsman moves the "tiller," or handle
+of the rudder, toward the sail. This causes the boat to turn her head
+toward buoy No. 2, the sail swings across to the other side of the
+boat and fills on that side, which now in turn becomes the aftermost,
+and she moves toward buoy No. 2 nearly at right angles to her former
+course. Thus, through a series of zigzags, the wind is made to work
+against itself. This operation is called "tacking," or "working to
+windward," and the act of turning, as at the buoys No. 1 and No. 2, is
+called "going about."
+
+It will be seen, then, that the science of sailing lies in being able
+to manage a boat with her head pointing at any possible angle to or
+from the wind. Nothing but experience can teach one all the niceties
+of the art, but a little aptitude and address will do to start with,
+keeping near shore and carrying little sail.
+
+
+Simplest Rig Possible
+
+I will suppose that the reader has the use of a broad, flat-bottomed
+boat without any rudder. (See Fig. 143.) She cannot be made to work
+like a racing yacht under canvas, but lots of fun can be had out of her.
+
+Do not go to any considerable expense at the outset. Procure an old
+sheet, or an old hay cover, six or eight feet square, and experiment
+with that before spending your money on new material. If it is a sheet,
+and somewhat weakly in its texture, turn all the edges in and sew them,
+so that it shall not give way at the hems. At each corner sew on a few
+inches of strong twine, forming loops at the angles. Sew on, also,
+eyelets or small loops along the edge which is intended for the luff of
+the sail, so that it can be laced to the mast.
+
+You are now ready for your spars, namely, a mast and a "sprit,"
+the former a couple of feet longer than the luff of the sail, and
+the latter to be cut off when you find how long you want it. Let
+these spars be of pine, or spruce, or bamboo--as light as possible,
+especially the sprit. An inch and a half diameter will do for the mast,
+and an inch and a quarter for the sprit, tapering to an inch at the
+top. To "step" the mast, bore a hole through one of the thwarts (seats)
+near the bow and make a socket or step on the bottom of the boat, just
+under the aforesaid hole--or if anything a trifle farther forward--to
+receive the foot of the mast. This will hold the mast upright, or with
+a slight "rake" aft.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143.--A simple rig.]
+
+Lace the luff of the sail to the mast so that its lower edge will swing
+clear by a foot or so of the boat's sides. Make fast to the loop at D
+a stout line, ten or twelve feet long. This is called the "sheet," and
+gives control of the sail. The upper end of the sprit, C, E, is trimmed
+so that the loop at C will fit over it but not slip down. The lower
+end is simply notched to receive a short line called a "snotter," as
+shown in the detailed drawing at the right of the cut (Fig. 143). It
+will be readily understood that, when the sprit is pushed upward in the
+direction of C, the sail will stand spread out. The line is placed in
+the notch at E and pulled up until the sail sets properly, when it is
+made fast to a cleat or to a cross-piece at F. This device is in common
+use and has its advantages, but a simple loop for the foot of the sprit
+to rest in is more easily made and will do nearly as well. H is an
+oar for steering. Having thus described the simplest rig possible, we
+may turn our attention to more elegant and elaborate but not always
+preferable outfits.
+
+
+Leg-of-Mutton Rig
+
+One of the prettiest and most convenient rigs for a small boat is known
+as the "leg-of-mutton sharpie rig" (Fig. 144). The sail is triangular,
+and the sprit, instead of reaching to its upper corner, stands nearly
+at right angles to the mast. It is held in position at the mast by the
+devices already described. This rig has the advantage of keeping the
+whole sail flatter than any other, for the end of the sprit cannot
+"kick up," as the phrase goes, and so the sail holds all the wind it
+receives.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144.]
+
+Fig. 145 shows a device, published for the first time in the _St.
+Nicholas Magazine_ for September, 1880, which enables the sailor to
+step and unstep his mast, and hoist or lower his sail without leaving
+his seat--a matter of great importance when the boat is light and
+tottlish, as in the case of that most beautiful of small craft, the
+modern canoe, where the navigator sits habitually amidships. The lower
+mast (A, B, Fig. 145) stands about two and a half feet above the deck.
+It is fitted at the head with a metal ferrule and pin, and just above
+the deck with two half-cleats or other similar devices (A). The topmast
+(C, D) is fitted at F with a stout ring, and has double halyards (E)
+rove through or around its foot. The lower mast being in position (see
+lower part of Fig. 145), the canoeist desiring to make sail brings
+the boat's head to the wind, takes the topmast with the sail loosely
+furled in one hand and the halyards in the other. It is easy for him by
+raising this mast, without leaving his seat, to pass the halyards one
+on each side of the lower mast and let them fall into place close to
+the deck under the half-cleats at A. Then, holding the halyards taut
+enough to keep them in position, he will hook the topmast ring over the
+pin in the lower mast-heat and haul away (see top part of Fig. 145).
+The mast will rise into place, where it is made fast. A collar of
+leather, or a knob of some kind, placed on the topmast just below the
+ring, will act as a fulcrum when the halyards are hauled taut and keep
+the mast from working to and fro.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145.--A new device.]
+
+The advantages of the rig are obvious. The mast can be raised without
+standing up, and in case of necessity the halyards can be let go and
+the mast and sail unshipped and stowed below with the greatest ease and
+expedition, leaving only the short lower mast standing. A leg-of-mutton
+sail with a common boom along the foot is shown in the cut as the most
+easily illustrated application of the device, but there is no reason
+why it may not be applied to a sail of different shape, with a sprit
+instead of a boom, and a square instead of a pointed head.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146.--The latteen rig.]
+
+
+The Latteen Rig
+
+is recommended only for boats which are "stiff"--not tottlish, that
+is. The fact that a considerable portion of the sail projects forward
+of the mast renders it awkward in case of a sudden shift of wind. Its
+most convenient form is shown in Fig. 146. The arrangement for shipping
+and unshipping the yard is precisely like that shown in Fig. 145--a
+short lower mast with a pin at the top and a ring fitted to the yard.
+It has a boom at the foot which is joined to the yard at C by means of
+a hook or a simple lashing, having sufficient play to allow the two
+spars to shut up together like a pair of dividers. The boom (C, E) has,
+where it meets the short lower mast, a half-cleat, or jaw, shown in
+detail at the bottom of the cut (Fig. 146), the circle representing a
+cross-section of the mast. This should be lashed to the boom, as screws
+or bolts would weaken it. To take in sail, the boatman brings the boat
+to the wind, seizes the boom and draws it toward him. This disengages
+it from the mast. He then shoves it forward, when the yard (C, D) falls
+of its own weight into his hands and can be at once lifted clear of the
+lower mast. To keep the sail flat, it is possible to arrange a collar
+on the lower mast so that the boom, when once in position, cannot slip
+upward and suffer the sail to bag.
+
+
+The Cat-Rig
+
+so popular on the North Atlantic coast, is indicated in Fig. 148. The
+spar at the head of the sail is called a "gaff," and, like the boom, it
+fits the mast with semicircular jaws. The sail is hoisted and lowered
+by means of halyards rove through a block near the mast-head. The
+mast is set in the bows--"Chock up in the eyes of her," as a sailor
+would say. A single leg-of-mutton sail will not work in this position,
+because the greater part of its area is too far forward of amidships.
+No rig is handier or safer than this in working to windward; but off
+the wind--running before, or nearly before it, that is--the weight
+of mast and sail, and the pressure of the wind at one side and far
+forward, make the boat very difficult and dangerous to steer. Prudent
+boatmen often avoid doing so by keeping the wind on the quarter and, as
+it were, tacking to leeward.
+
+This suggests the question of "jibing," an operation always to be
+avoided if possible. Suppose the wind to be astern, and the boat
+running nearly before it, it becomes necessary to change your course
+toward the side on which the sail is drawing. The safest way is to
+turn at first in the opposite direction, put the helm "down" (toward
+the sail), bring the boat up into the wind, turn her entirely around,
+and stand off on the new tack. This, however, is not always possible.
+Hauling in the sheet until the sail fills on the other side is
+"jibing"; but when this happens it goes over with a rush that sometimes
+carries mast and sheet or upsets the boat; hence the operation should
+be first undertaken in a light wind. It is necessary to know how to do
+it, for sometimes a sail insists upon jibing very unexpectedly, and it
+is best to be prepared for such emergencies.
+
+
+How to Make a Sail
+
+For the sails of small boats there is no better material than
+unbleached twilled cotton sheeting. It is to be had two and a half or
+even three yards wide. In cutting out your sail, let the selvage be at
+the "leech," or after-most edge. This, of course, makes it necessary to
+cut the luff and foot "bias," and they are very likely to stretch in
+the making, so that the sail will assume a different shape from what
+was intended. To avoid this, baste the hem carefully before sewing, and
+"hold in" a little to prevent fulling. It is a good plan to tack the
+material on the floor before cutting, and mark the outline of the sail
+with pencil. Stout tape stitched along the bias edges will make a sure
+thing of it, and the material can be cut, making due allowance for the
+hem. Better take feminine advice on this process. The hems should be
+half an inch deep all around, selvage and all, and it will do no harm
+to reinforce them with cord if you wish to make a thoroughly good piece
+of work.
+
+For running-rigging, nothing is better than laid or braided cotton
+cord, such as is used for awnings and sash-cords. If this is not easily
+procured, any stout twine will answer. It can be doubled and twisted
+as often as necessary. The smallest manila rope is rather stiff and
+unmanageable for such light sails as ours.
+
+In fitting out a boat of any kind, iron, unless galvanized, is to be
+avoided as much as possible, on account of its liability to rust. Use
+brass or copper instead.
+
+
+Hints to Beginners
+
+Nothing has been said about reefing thus far, because small boats under
+the management of beginners should not be afloat in a "reefing breeze."
+Reefing is the operation of reducing the spread of sail when the wind
+becomes too fresh. If you will look at Fig. 146 you will see rows of
+short marks on the sail above the boom. These are "reef-points"--bits
+of line about a foot long passing through holes in the sail and knotted
+so that they will not slip. In reefing, the sail is lowered and
+that portion of it between the boom and the reef-points is gathered
+together, and the points are tied around both it and the boom. When the
+lower row of points is used it is a single reef. Both rows together are
+a double reef.
+
+Make your first practical experiment _with a small sail and with the
+wind blowing toward the shore_. Row out a little way, and then sail in
+any direction in which you can make the boat go, straight back to shore
+if you can, with the sail out nearly at right angles with the boat.
+Then try running along shore with the sheet hauled in a little and
+the sail on the side nearest the shore. You will soon learn what your
+craft can do, and will probably find that she will make very little, if
+any, headway to windward. This is partly because she slides sidewise
+over the water. To prevent it you may use a "lee-board"--namely, a
+broad board hung over the side of the boat (G, Fig. 143). This must be
+held by stout lines, as the strain upon it is very heavy. It should be
+placed a little forward of the middle of the boat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147.--Making port.]
+
+It must be on the side away from the wind--the lee side--and must
+be shifted when you go about. Keels and centreboards are permanent
+contrivances for the same purpose, but a lee-board answers very well as
+a makeshift, and is even used habitually by some canoeists and other
+boatmen.
+
+In small boats it is sometimes desirable to sit amidships, because
+sitting in the stern raises the bow too high out of water; steering may
+be done with an oar over the lee side, or with "yoke-lines" attached to
+a cross-piece on the rudder-head, or even to the tiller. In this last
+case the lines must be rove through rings or pulleys at the sides of
+the boat opposite the end of the tiller. When the handle of the oar (H,
+Fig. 143)--or the tiller (F, Fig. 146) if a rudder is used--is pushed
+to the right, the boat will turn to the left, and _vice versa_. The
+science of steering consists in knowing when to push and how much to
+push--very simple, you see, in the statement, but not always so easy in
+practice.
+
+The sail should be so adjusted in relation to the rest of the boat
+that, when the sheet is hauled close in and made fast, the boat, if
+left to herself, will point her head to the wind like a weather-cock
+and drift slowly astern. If it is found that the sail is so far forward
+that she will not do this, the fault may be remedied by stepping the
+mast further aft or by rigging a small sail near the stern. This is
+called a "dandy" or "steering sail," and is especially convenient in a
+boat whose size or arrangement necessitates sitting amidships. It may
+be rigged like the mainsail, and when its sheet is once made fast will
+ordinarily take care of itself in tacking.
+
+Remember that, if the wind freshens or a squall strikes you, the
+position of safety is with the boat's head to the wind. When in doubt
+what to do, push the helm down (toward the sail) and haul in the slack
+of the sheet as the boat comes up into the wind. If she is moving
+astern, or will not mind her helm--and of course she will not if she is
+not moving--pull her head around to the wind with an oar and experiment
+cautiously until you find which way you can make her go.
+
+In making a landing, always calculate to have the boat's head as near
+the wind as possible when she ceases to move, this whether you lower
+your sail or not.
+
+Thus, if the wind is off shore, as shown at A, Fig. 147, land at F or
+G, with the bow toward the shore. If the wind is from the direction of
+B, land at E, with the bow toward B or at F; if at the latter, the boom
+will swing away from the wharf and permit you to lie alongside. If the
+wind is from D, reverse these positions. If the wind comes from the
+direction of C, land either at F or G, with the bow pointing off shore.
+
+If you have no one to tell you what to do, you will have to feel your
+way slowly and learn by experience; but if you have nautical instincts
+you will soon make your boat do what you wish her to do as far as she
+is able. _But first learn to swim before you try to sail a boat._
+
+Volumes have been written on the subject treated in these few pages,
+and it is not yet exhausted. The hints here given are safe ones to
+follow, and will, it is hoped, be of service to many a young sailor in
+many a corner of the world.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MORE RIGS OF ALL KINDS FOR SMALL BOATS
+
+    How to Distinguish between a Ship, Bark, Brig, and
+    Schooner--Merits and Defects of Catboats--Advantages of
+    the Sloop--Rigs for Canoes--Buckeyes and Sharpies
+
+
+THE two principal rigs for vessels are the fore-and-aft and the square
+rig.
+
+=Square rigged= consists in having the principal sails extended by
+yards suspended at the middle (Fig. 159).
+
+=Fore-and-aft rigged= is having the principal sails extended by booms
+and gaffs suspended by their ends (Figs. 148, 149, 150, 156, and 161).
+
+Barks, brigs, and ships are all more or less square rigged, but
+schooners, sloops, and catboats are all fore-and-aft rigged. In these
+notes the larger forms of boats are mentioned only because of the
+well-known interest boys take in all nautical matters, but no detailed
+description of the larger craft will be given. All that is aimed at
+here is to give the salient points, so that the youngsters will know
+the name of the rig when they see it.
+
+
+The Cat
+
+There is a little snub-nosed American who, in spite of her short body
+and broad waist, is deservedly popular among all our amateur sailors.
+
+The appreciation of her charms is felt and acknowledged by all her
+companions without envy, not because of her saucy looks, but on account
+of her accommodating manners.
+
+Possessing a rare ability for quick movement, and a wonderful
+power to bore her way almost into the very eye of the wind, or with
+double-reefed sail to dash through the storm or gently slide up
+alongside of a wharf or dock as easily as a rowboat, the American
+catboat, with her single mast "chock up in the eyes of her," has
+made a permanent place for herself among our pleasure craft, and is
+omnipresent in our crowded bays and harbors.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148.--The snub-nosed American cat.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149.--Jib and mainsail.]
+
+Knowing that there is little danger of the catboat losing its
+well-earned popularity, and being somewhat familiar with many of her
+peculiarities, I am free to say that this rig, notwithstanding its
+numerous good points, has many serious defects as a school-ship, and
+the beginner had better select some other rig with which to begin his
+practice sailing.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150.--Schooner rig for open boat. Boom on mainsail,
+none on foresail.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 151.--The balance lug.]
+
+First, the great sail is very heavy and difficult to hoist and reef.
+Second, in going before the wind there is constant danger of jibing,
+with serious results. Third, the catboat has a very bad habit of
+rolling when sailing before the wind, and each time the boat rolls
+from side to side she is liable to dip the end of her heavy boom in
+the water and "trip herself up." When a boat trips _up_ she does
+not necessarily go _down_, but she is likely to upset, placing the
+young sailors in an unenviable, if not a dangerous, position. Fourth,
+when the craft begins to swagger before the wind she is liable to
+"goose-neck"; that is, throw her boom up against the mast, which is
+another accident fraught with the possibilities of serious mischief.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 152.--Standing lug.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 153.--Leg-of-mutton sail. Jib and main sail rig.]
+
+The catboat has no bowsprit, no jib, and no topsail (Fig. 148), but
+that most graceful of all single-stickers,
+
+
+The Sloop
+
+possesses several jibs, a bowsprit, and topsail. Besides these, when
+she is in racing trim, a number of additional sails are used. All our
+great racers are sloops, and this rig is the most convenient for small
+yachts and cutters.
+
+Racing Sloops
+
+A racing sloop (Fig. 161) carries a mainsail, A, a fore staysail, B, a
+jib, C, a gaff topsail, D, a club topsail, E, a baby jib topsail, F, a
+No. 2 jib topsail, G, a No. 1 jib topsail, H, a balloon jib topsail, J
+(Fig. 157), and a spinnaker, K (Fig. 157).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 160. Fig. 161.
+
+Figs. 154-161.--Rigs that we meet at sea.]
+
+
+Jib and Mainsail
+
+A small sloop's sails are a mainsail, jib, and topsail. A sloop rig
+without topsail is called a jib and mainsail (Fig. 149).
+
+While every small-boat sailor should know a catboat and a sloop when
+he sees them, and even be able to give the proper name to their sails,
+neither of these rigs is very well suited for canoes, sharpies, or
+other boats of the mosquito fleet; but the
+
+
+Schooner Rig
+
+which is the form of boat generally used for the larger yachts, is
+also very much used for open boats. As you can see, by referring to
+Fig. 150, the schooner rig consists of a bowsprit, fore and main mast,
+with their appropriate sails. Lately freight schooners have appeared
+with four or more masts. For small boats two adjustable masts and an
+adjustable bowsprit, as described in the Rough and Ready, Chapter
+XIII, are best. The sails may be sprit sails, Figs. 164-169; balance
+lug, Fig. 151; standing lug, Fig. 152; leg-of-mutton, Fig. 153, or the
+sliding gunter, Fig. 163.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 162.--The buckeye.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 163.--The sliding gunter.]
+
+In the chapter on how to build the Rough and Ready, the sprit sail is
+depicted and fully described.
+
+
+The Balance Lug
+
+comes as near the square sail of a ship as any canvas used on small
+boats, but you can see, by referring to the diagram, Fig. 151, that
+the leach and the luff are not parallel and that the gaff hangs at an
+angle. To boom out the canvas and make it sit flat there are three
+sticks extended across the sail from the front to the back, luff to
+leach, called battens. This has caused some people to call this a
+batten lug. Like the lateen sail, part of the balance lug hangs before
+the mast and serves the purpose of a jib. This rig is said to be easily
+managed and to possess good sailing qualities.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 164.--Sharpie with sprit and club leg-of-mutton
+sails.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 165.
+
+Fig. 166.
+
+Showing detail of sprit club sail.]
+
+
+The Standing Lug
+
+is another sail approaching the square in pattern (Fig. 152), and, as
+any novice can see, is a good canvas with which to scud before the
+wind. It is very convenient for open boats built to be propelled by
+paddles. While the standing lug cannot point up to the eye of the wind
+like a schooner or cat, it is very fast on the wind or when running
+with the wind astern. Probably the safest form of sail used is the old
+reliable
+
+
+Leg-of-Mutton Sail
+
+This is used by the fishermen on their stanch little dories away up on
+the coast of Maine, and by the "tide-water" people in their "buckeyes"
+on Chesapeake Bay. The latter boat is very little known outside of the
+locality where it makes its home, but, like the New Haven sharpies, it
+is very popular in its own waters.
+
+
+The Buckeye
+
+or "bugeye," as it is sometimes vulgarly called, has a great reputation
+for speed and sea-going qualities. When it cannot climb a wave it goes
+through it. This makes a wet boat in heavy weather, but when you travel
+at a high rate of speed you can endure a wet jacket with no complaint,
+especially when you feel that, in spite of the fast-sailing qualities
+of this boat, it is considered a particularly safe craft.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 167.--Plain sprit leg-of-mutton.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 168.
+
+Fig. 169.
+
+Another form of the sprit sail.]
+
+The construction of a =buckeye= (Fig. 162) has been evolved from the
+old dugout canoe of the Indians and the first white settlers. America
+was originally covered with vast forests of immense trees. Remnants of
+these forests still exist in a few localities. It was once possible to
+make a canoe of almost any dimensions desired, but now in the thickly
+settled regions big trees are scarce.
+
+So the Chesapeake Bay boat-builders, while still adhering to the old
+dugout, have overcome the disadvantage of small logs by using more than
+one and bolting the pieces together. Masts and sails have been added,
+and since the increased proportions made it impracticable to drag such
+a craft on the beach when in port, anchors and cables are supplied.
+Two holes bored, one on each side of the stem, for the cables to run
+through, have given the boat the appearance of having eyes, and as the
+eyes are large and round, the negroes called them buckeyes, and this is
+now the name by which all such craft are known.
+
+At first only two masts with leg-of-mutton sails were used, but now
+they have a jib and two sails. With the greatest width or beam about
+one-third the distance from bow to stern, sharp at both ends, its long,
+narrow, and heavy hull is easily driven through the water and makes
+both a fast and stiff boat.
+
+The buckeye travels in shallow as well as deep waters, and hence is
+a centreboard boat, but there is nothing unnecessary on the real
+buckeye--no overhanging bow or stern, for that means additional labor;
+no stays to the masts, for the same reason. The lack of stays to
+stiffen the masts leaves them with "springiness," which in case of a
+sudden squall helps to spill the wind and prevents what might otherwise
+be a "knock-down."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 170.--Lug rig with jigger.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 171.--Lug rig with jigger and jib.]
+
+The foremast is longer than the mainmast and does not rake aft so much,
+but the mainmast has a decided rake, which the colored sailors say
+makes the boat faster on the wind. Sometimes in the smaller boats the
+mainmast can be set upright when going before the wind.
+
+Wealthy gentlemen on the Chesapeake are now building regularly equipped
+yachts on the buckeye plan, and some of them are quite large boats. A
+correspondent of the _Forest and Stream_, in speaking of the buckeye,
+says:
+
+"Last summer I cruised in company with a buckeye, forty-two feet long,
+manned by two gentlemen of Baltimore city. She drew twenty inches
+without the board. In sudden and heavy flaws she was rarely luffed. She
+would lie over and appear to spill the wind out of her tall, sharp
+sails and then right again. Her crew took pleasure in tackling every
+sailing craft for a race; nothing under seventy feet in length ever
+beat her. She steered under any two of her three sails. On one occasion
+this craft, on her way from Cape May to Cape Charles, was driven out to
+sea before a heavy north-west blow. Her crew, the aforesaid gentlemen,
+worn out by fatigue, hove her to and went to sleep. She broke her
+tiller lashing during the night, and when they awoke she was pegging
+away on a south-east course under her jib. They put her about, and in
+twenty hours were inside Cape Henry, pretty well tired out. Buckeyes
+frequently run from Norfolk to New York with fruit. For shallow waters,
+I am satisfied there is no better craft afloat. Built deep, with a
+loaded keel, they would rival the English cutter in seaworthiness and
+speed."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 172.--Jib.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 173.--Sprit sail, schooner rig, with dandy.]
+
+When the hardy, bold fishermen of our Eastern States and the brave
+fishermen down South both use the leg-of-mutton sail, beginners cannot
+object to using it while practising; knowing that even if it is a safe
+sail, it cannot be called a "baby rig." Another safe rig, differing
+little from the leg-of-mutton, is the
+
+
+Sliding Gunter
+
+In this rig the sail is laced to a yard which slides up or down the
+mast by means of two iron hooks or travellers (Fig. 163). No sail with
+a narrow-pointed top is very serviceable before the wind, and the
+sliding gunter is no exception to the rule. But it is useful on the
+wind, and can be reefed easily and quickly, qualities which make it
+many friends.
+
+In the smooth, shallow waters along the coast of North Carolina may be
+seen the long, flat-bottomed
+
+
+Sharpies
+
+Without question they are to be ranked among the fastest boats we have.
+These boats are rigged with a modification of the leg-of-mutton sail.
+The ends of the sprit in the foresail project at the luff and leach.
+At the luff it is fastened to the mast by a line like a snotter at the
+leach. It is fastened to a stick sewed into the sail, called a club.
+The sheet is attached to the end of the sprit (Figs. 164-168).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 174.--Sprit sail jib and dandy.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 175.--The lateen rig with dandy.]
+
+
+The Sprit Leg-of-Mutton Sail
+
+has this advantage, that the clew of the sail is much higher than the
+tack, thus avoiding the danger of dipping the clew in the water and
+tripping the boat.
+
+
+The Dandy Jigger, or Mizzen Rig
+
+is named after the small sail aft, near the rudder-head. This jigger,
+mizzen, or dandy may have a boom, a sprit, or be rigged as a lug.
+(See Figs. 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 178, 180, and 184, which show the
+principal mizzen rigs in use.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 176. Yawl Rig.
+
+Fig. 177. Lug-headed Jib & Mainsail Rigged Punt
+
+Fig. 180. The Burton when using only two blocks it is the most powerful
+Tackle
+
+Fig. 181. A "Lugeen."
+
+Fig. 182. FAN SAIL under shortened sail. Fan Partly Folded
+
+Fig. 179. Two battened Lug
+
+Fig. 178. Three masted Bat Winged Canoe
+
+Fig. 184. Two masted Bat Winged Canoe.
+
+Fig. 183. Two Common Tackles A Gun Tackle Purchase Luff Tackle Purchase
+
+ADDITIONAL RIGS FOR SMALL BOATS AND CANOES AND THREE USEFUL TACKLES
+
+Figs. 176-184.--Hybrid rigs for small boats; also two useful tackles.]
+
+In puffy wind and lumpy water the main and mizzen rig will be found to
+work well. The little sail aft should be trimmed as flat as possible.
+It will be found of great help in beating to the windward, and will
+keep the nose of the boat facing the wind when the mainsail is down.
+Different rigs are popular in different localities. For instance:
+
+
+The Lateen Rig
+
+is very popular in some parts of the Old World, yet it has only few
+friends here. It may be because of my art training that I feel so
+kindly toward this style of sail, or it may be from association in my
+mind of some of the happiest days of my life with a little black canoe
+rigged with lateen sails. At any rate, in spite of the undeniable
+fact that the lateen is unpopular, I never see a small boat rigged in
+this style without a feeling of pleasure. The handy little stumps of
+masts end in a spike at the top and are adorned by the beautiful sails
+lashed to slender spars, which, by means of metal rings, are lightly,
+but securely, fastened to the mast by simply hooking the ring over the
+spike. I freely acknowledge that when the sails are lowered and you
+want to use your paddle the lateen sails are in your way. It is claimed
+that they are awkward to reef, and this may be true. I never tried it.
+When the wind was too strong for my sails I made port or took in either
+the large or the small sail, as the occasion seemed to demand.
+
+
+The Ship
+
+When you are out sailing and see a vessel with three masts, all square
+rigged, you are looking at a ship proper, though ship is a word often
+used loosely for any sort of a boat (Fig. 159).
+
+=The bark= is a vessel with square-rigged foremast and mainmast and a
+fore-and-aft rigged mizzen-mast (Fig. 160).
+
+=The brig= is a vessel with only two masts, both of which are square
+rigged (Fig. 158).
+
+=The brigantine= has two masts--foremast square rigged and mainmast
+fore-and-aft rigged (Fig. 155).
+
+=The barkentine= has three masts--mainmast and mizzen-mast fore-and-aft
+rigged and foremast square rigged. (See Fig. 154.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES
+
+
+How to Tie Knots Useful on Both Land and Water
+
+THE art of tying knots is an almost necessary adjunct to not a few
+recreations. Especially is this true of summer sports, many of which
+are nautical or in some manner connected with the water.
+
+Any boy who has been aboard a yacht or a sail-boat must have realized
+that the safety of the vessel and all aboard may be imperilled by
+ignorance or negligence in the tying of a knot or fastening of a rope.
+
+With some the knack of tying a good, strong knot in a heavy rope
+or light cord seems to be a natural gift; it is certainly a very
+convenient accomplishment, and one that with practice and a little
+perseverance may be acquired even by those who at first make the most
+awkward and bungling attempts.
+
+A bulky, cumbersome knot is not only ungainly, but is generally
+insecure.
+
+As a rule, the strength of a knot is in direct proportion to its neat
+and handsome appearance.
+
+To my mind it is as necessary that the archer should know how to make
+the proper loops at the end of his bow-string as it is that a hunter
+should understand how to load his gun.
+
+Every fisherman should be able to join two lines neatly and securely,
+and should know the best and most expeditious method of attaching an
+extra hook or fly; and any boy who rigs up a hammock or swing with a
+"granny" or other insecure knot deserves the ugly tumble and sore bones
+that are more than liable to result from his ignorance.
+
+A knot, nautically speaking, is a "bend" that is more permanent than a
+"hitch." A knot properly tied never slips, nor does it jam so that it
+cannot be readily untied. A "hitch" might be termed a temporary bend,
+as it is seldom relied upon for permanent service. The "hitch" is so
+made that it can be cast off or unfastened more quickly than a knot.
+
+It is impossible for the brightest boy to learn to make "knots, bends,
+and hitches" by simply reading over a description of the methods; for,
+although he may understand them at the time, five minutes after reading
+the article the process will have escaped his memory. But if he take a
+piece of cord or rope and sit down with the diagrams in front of him,
+he will find little difficulty in managing the most complicated knots;
+and he will not only acquire an accomplishment from which he can derive
+infinite amusement for himself and a means of entertainment for others,
+but the knowledge gained may, in case of accident by fire or flood, be
+the means of saving both life and property.
+
+The accompanying diagrams show a number of useful and important bends,
+splices, etc. To simplify matters, let us commence with Fig. 57, and go
+through the diagrams in the order in which they come:
+
+The "English" or "common single fisherman's knot" (Fig. 185, I) is neat
+and strong enough for any ordinary strain. The diagram shows the knots
+before being tightened and drawn together.
+
+When exceptional strength is required it can be obtained by joining the
+lines in the ordinary single fisherman's knot (Fig. 185, I) and pulling
+each of the half knots as tight as possible, then drawing them within
+an eighth of an inch of each other and wrapping between with fine gut
+that has been previously softened in water, or with light-colored silk.
+
+An additional line or a sinker may be attached by tying a knot in the
+end of the extra line and inserting it between the parts of the single
+fisherman's knot before they are drawn together and tightened.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 185.--Some useful knots.]
+
+The "fisherman's double half knot," Fig. 185 (II and III). After the
+gut has been passed around the main line and through itself, it is
+passed around the line once more and through the same loop again and
+drawn close.
+
+Fig. 185 (IV, V, and IX). Here are three methods of joining the ends of
+two lines together; the diagrams explain them much better than words
+can. Take a piece of string, try each one, and test their relative
+strength.
+
+Fig. 185 (VI). It often happens, while fishing, that a hook is caught
+in a snag or by some other means lost. The diagram shows the most
+expeditious manner of attaching another hook by what is known as the
+"sinker hitch," described further on (Fig. 185, D, D, D, and Fig. 186,
+XIV, XV, and XVI).
+
+Fig. 185, VII is another and more secure method of attaching a hook by
+knitting the line on with a succession of half-hitches.
+
+
+How to Make a Horse-Hair Watch-Guard
+
+The same hitches are used in the manufacture of horse-hair
+watch-guards, much in vogue with the boys in some sections of the
+country. As regularly as "kite-time," "top-time," or "ball-time," comes
+"horse-hair watch-guard time."
+
+About once a year the rage for making watch-guards used to seize the
+boys of our school, and by some means or other almost every boy would
+have a supply of horse-hair on hand. With the first tap of the bell for
+recess, some fifty hands would dive into the mysterious depths of about
+fifty pockets, and before the bell had stopped ringing about fifty
+watch-guards, in a more or less incomplete state, would be produced.
+
+Whenever a teamster's unlucky stars caused him to stop near the
+school-house, a chorus of voices greeted him with "Mister, please let
+us have some hair from your horses' tails."
+
+The request was at first seldom refused, possibly because its nature
+was not at the time properly understood; but lucky was the boy
+considered who succeeded in pulling a supply of hair from the horses'
+tails without being interrupted by the heels of the animals or by the
+teamster, who, when he saw the swarm of boys tugging at his horses'
+tails, generally repented his first good-natured assent, and with a
+gruff, "Get out, you young rascals!" sent the lads scampering to the
+school-yard fence.
+
+Select a lot of long hair of the color desired; make it into a switch
+about an eighth of an inch thick by tying one end in a simple knot.
+Pick out a good, long hair and tie it around the switch close to the
+knotted end; then take the free end of the single hair in your right
+hand and pass it under the switch on one side, thus forming a loop
+through which the end of the hair must pass after it is brought up and
+over from the other side of the switch. Draw the knot tight by pulling
+the free end of the hair as shown by Fig. 185, VII. Every time this
+operation is repeated a wrap and a knot is produced. The knots follow
+each other in a spiral around the switch, giving it a very pretty,
+ornamented appearance. When one hair is used up select another and
+commence knitting with it as you did with the first, being careful to
+cover and conceal the short end of the first hair, and to make the
+knots on the second commence where the former stop. A guard made of
+white horse-hair looks as if it might be composed of spun glass, and
+produces a very odd and pretty effect. A black one is very genteel in
+appearance. These ornaments are much prized by cowboys, and I have seen
+bridles for horses made of braided horsehair.
+
+
+Miscellaneous
+
+Fig. 185, VIII shows a simple and expeditous manner of attaching a
+trolling-hook to a fish-line.
+
+Fig. 185, F is a hitch used on shipboard, or wherever lines and cables
+are used. It is called the Blackwall hitch.
+
+Fig. 185, E is a fire-escape made of a double bow-line knot, useful
+as a sling for hoisting persons up or letting them down from any high
+place; the window of a burning building, for instance. Fig. 186, XVIII,
+XIX, and XX show how this knot is made. It is described on page 77.
+
+Fig. 185, A is a "bale hitch," made of a loop of rope. To make it, take
+a piece of rope that has its two ends joined; lay the rope down and
+place the bale on it; bring the loop opposite you up, on that side of
+the bale, and the loop in front up, on the side of the bale next to
+you; thrust the latter loop under and through the first and attach the
+hoisting rope. The heavier the object to be lifted, the tighter the
+hitch becomes. An excellent substitute for a shawl-strap can be made of
+a cord by using the bale hitch, the loop at the top being a first-rate
+handle.
+
+Fig. 185, B is called a cask sling, and C (Fig. 185) is called a butt
+sling. The manner of making these last two and their uses may be seen
+by referring to the illustration. It will be noticed that a line is
+attached to the bale hitch in a peculiar manner (_a_, Fig. 185). This
+is called the "anchor bend." If while aboard a sail-boat you have
+occasion to throw a bucket over for water, you will find the anchor
+bend a very convenient and safe way to attach a line to the bucket
+handle, but unless you are an expert you will need an anchor hitched to
+your body or you will follow the bucket.
+
+Fig. 186, I and II are loops showing the elements of the simplest knots.
+
+Fig. 186, III is a simple knot commenced.
+
+Fig. 186, IV shows the simple knot tightened.
+
+Fig. 186, V and VI show how the Flemish knot looks when commenced and
+finished.
+
+Fig. 186, VII and VIII show a "rope knot" commenced and finished.
+
+Fig. 186, IX is a double knot commenced.
+
+Fig. 186, X is the same completed.
+
+Fig. 186, XI shows a back view of the double knot.
+
+Fig. 186, XII is the first loop of a "bow-line knot." One end of the
+line is supposed to be made fast to some object. After the turn, or
+loop (Fig. 186, XII), is made, hold it in position with your left hand
+and pass the end of the line up through the loop, or turn, you have
+just made, behind and over the line above, then down through the loop
+again, as shown in the diagram (Fig. 186, XIII); pull it tight and the
+knot is complete. The "sinker hitch" is a very handy one to know, and
+the variety of uses it may be put to will be at once suggested by the
+diagrams.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 186.]
+
+Lines that have both ends made fast may have weights attached to them
+by means of the sinker hitch (Fig. 185, D, D, D).
+
+To accomplish this, first gather up some slack and make it in the form
+of the loop (Fig. 186, XIV); bend the loop back on itself (Fig. 186,
+XV) and slip the weight through the double loop thus formed (Fig. 186,
+XVI); draw tight by pulling the two top lines, and the sinker hitch is
+finished (Fig. 186, XVII).
+
+The "fire-escape sling" previously mentioned, and illustrated by Fig.
+185, E, is made with a double line.
+
+Proceed at first as you would to make a simple bow-line knot (Fig. 186,
+XVIII).
+
+After you have run the end loop up through the turn (Fig. 186, XIX),
+bend it downward and over the bottom loop and turn, then up again until
+it is in the position shown in Fig. 186, XX; pull it downward until
+the knot is tightened, as in Fig. 185, E, and it makes a safe sling in
+which to lower a person from any height. The longer loop serves for a
+seat, and the shorter one, coming under the arms, makes a rest for the
+back.
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, XXI is called a "boat knot," and is made with the aid of
+a stick. It is an excellent knot for holding weights which may want
+instant detachment. To detach it, lift the weight slightly and push out
+the stick, and instantly the knot is untied.
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, XXII. Commencement of a "six-fold knot."
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, XXIII. Six-fold knot completed by drawing the two ends
+with equal force. A knot drawn in this manner is said to be "nipped."
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, XXIV. A simple hitch or "double" used in making loop
+knots.
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, XXV. "Loop knot."
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, XXVI shows how the loop knot is commenced.
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, XXVII is the "Dutch double knot," sometimes called the
+"Flemish loop."
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, XXVIII shows a common "running knot."
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, XXIX. A running knot with a check knot to hold.
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, XXX. A running knot checked.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 186-1/2.]
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, XXXI. The right-hand part of the rope shows how to make
+the double loop for the "twist knot." The left-hand part of the same
+rope shows a finished twist knot. It is made by taking a half turn on
+both the right-hand and left-hand lines of the double loop and passing
+the end through the "bight" (loop) so made.
+
+
+Whiplashes
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, XXXII is called the "chain knot," which is often used in
+braiding leather whiplashes. To make a "chain knot," fasten one end of
+the thong, or line; make a simple loop and pass it over the left hand;
+retain hold of the free end with the right hand; with the left hand
+seize the line above the right hand and draw a loop through the loop
+already formed; finish the knot by drawing it tight with the left hand.
+Repeat the operation until the braid is of the required length, then
+secure it by passing the free end through the last loop.
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, XXXIII shows a double chain knot.
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, XXXIV is a double chain knot pulled out. It shows how the
+free end is thrust through the last loop.
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, XXXV. Knotted loop for end of rope, used to prevent the
+end of the rope from slipping, and for various other purposes.
+
+
+Splices, Timber-Hitches, etc.
+
+Although splices may not be as useful to boys as knots and hitches,
+for the benefit of those among my readers who are interested in the
+subject, I have introduced a few bands and splices on the cables partly
+surrounding Fig. 186-1/2.
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, _a_ shows the knot and upper side of a "simple band."
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, _b_ shows under side of the same.
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, _c_ and _d_ show a tie with cross-ends. To hold the ends
+of the cords, a turn is taken under the strands.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 187.]
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, _e_ and _f_: Bend with cross-strands, one end looped over
+the other.
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, _g_ shows the upper side of the "necklace tie."
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, _h_ shows the under side of the same. The advantage of this
+tie is that the greater the strain on the cords, the tighter it draws
+the knot.
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, _i_ and _j_ are slight modifications of _g_ and _h_.
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, _p_ shows the first position of the end of the ropes for
+making the splice _k_. Untwist the strands and put the ends of two
+ropes together as close as possible, and place the strands of the one
+between the strands of the other alternately, so as to interlace, as in
+_k_. This splice should only be used when there is not time to make the
+"long splice," as the short one is not very strong.
+
+From _l_ to _m_ is a long splice, made by underlaying the strands of
+each of the ropes joined about half the length of the splice, and
+putting each strand of the one between two of the other; _q_ shows the
+strands arranged for the long splice.
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, _n_ is a simple mode of making a hitch on a rope.
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, _o_ is a "shroud knot."
+
+Fig. 186-1/2, _r_ shows a very convenient way to make a handle on a rope,
+and is used upon large ropes when it is necessary for several persons
+to take hold to pull.
+
+Fig. 187, A. Combination of half-hitch and timber-hitch.
+
+Fig. 187, B. Ordinary half-hitch.
+
+Fig. 187, C. Ordinary timber-hitch.
+
+Fig. 187, D. Another timber-hitch, called the "clove-hitch."
+
+Fig. 187, E. "Hammock-hitch," used for binding bales of goods or cloth.
+
+Fig. 187, F. "Lark-head knot," used by sailors and boatmen for mooring
+their crafts.
+
+Fig. 187, P shows a lark-head fastening to a running knot.
+
+Fig. 187, G is a double-looped lark-head.
+
+Fig. 187, H shows a double-looped lark-head knot fastened to the ring
+of a boat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 187-1/2.--Timber-hitches, etc.]
+
+Fig. 187, I is a "treble lark-head." To make it you must first tie
+a single lark-head, then divide the two heads and use each singly, as
+shown in the diagram.
+
+Fig. 187, J shows a simple boat knot with one turn.
+
+Fig. 187, K. "Crossed running knot." It is a strong and handy tie, not
+as difficult to make as it appears to be.
+
+Fig. 187, L is the bow-line knot, described by the diagrams XII and
+XIII (Fig. 186). The free end of the knot is made fast by binding it to
+the "bight," or the loop. It makes a secure sling for a man to sit in
+at his work among the rigging.
+
+Fig. 187, M, N, and O. "Slip clinches," or "sailors' knots."
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, Q shows a rope fastened by the chain-hitch. The knot at
+the left-hand end explains a simple way to prevent a rope from
+unravelling.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, R. A timber-hitch; when tightened the line binds around
+the timber so that it will not slip.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, S. Commencement of simple lashing knot.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, T. Simple lashing knot finished.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, U. "Infallible loop;" not properly a timber-hitch, but
+useful in a variety of ways, and well adapted for use in archery.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, V. Same as R, reversed. It looks like it might give way
+under a heavy strain, but it will not.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, W. Running knot with two ends.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, X. Running knot with a check knot that can only be opened
+with a marline-spike.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, Y. A two-ended running knot with a check to the running
+loops. This knot can be untied by drawing both ends of the cord.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, Z. Running knot with two ends, fixed by a double Flemish
+knot. When you wish to encircle a timber with this tie, pass the ends
+on which the check knot is to be through the cords before they are
+drawn tight. This will require considerable practice.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _a_ shows an ordinary twist knot.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _a_^{1} shows the form of loop for builder's knot.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _b_. Double twist knot.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _c_. Builder's knot finished.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _d_ represents a double builder's knot.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _e_. "Weaver's knot," same as described under the head of
+Becket hitch (Fig. 185, V).
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _f_. Weaver's knot drawn tight.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _g_ shows how to commence a reef knot. This is useful for
+small ropes; with ropes unequal in size the knot is likely to draw out
+of shape, as _m_.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _h_ shows a reef knot completed.
+
+Of all knots, avoid the "granny"; it is next to useless under a strain,
+and marks the tier as a "landlubber."
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _i_ shows a granny knot; _n_ shows a granny under strain.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _j_ shows the commencement of a common "rough knot."
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _k_. The front view of finished knot.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _l_. The back view of finished knot. Although this knot
+will not untie nor slip, the rope is likely to part at one side if the
+strain is great. Awkward as it looks, this tie is very useful at times
+on account of the rapidity with which it can be made.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _o_ and _p_. Knot commenced and finished, used for the
+same purposes as the Flemish knot.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _q_ and _q_^{1}. An ordinary knot with ends used
+separately.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _s_. Sheep-shank, or dog-shank as it is sometimes called,
+is very useful in shortening a line. Suppose, for instance, a swing is
+much longer than necessary, and you wish to shorten it without climbing
+aloft to do so, it can be done with a sheep-shank.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _r_ shows the first position of the two loops. Take two
+half hitches, and you have a bend of the form shown by _s_. Pull tightly
+from above and below the shank, and you will find that the rope is
+shortened securely enough for ordinary strain.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _t_. Shortening by loop and turns made where the end of
+the rope is free.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _u_. A shortened knot that can be used when either end is
+free.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _v_, _w_, and _x_. Shortening knots.
+
+Fig. 187-1/2, _y_ and _z_. A "true lover's knot," and the last one that
+you need to practise on, for one of these knots is as much as most
+persons can attend to, and ought to last a lifetime.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+HOW TO BUILD A CHEAP BOAT
+
+
+The Yankee Pine
+
+FROM the saw-mills away up among the tributaries of the Ohio River
+come floating down to the towns along the shore great rafts of pine
+lumber. These rafts are always objects of interest to the boys, for
+the youngsters know that when moored to the shore the solidly packed
+planks make a splendid platform to swim from. Fine springing-boards
+can be made of the projecting blades of the gigantic sweeps which are
+used to guide the mammoth rafts, and, somewhere aboard, there is always
+to be found a "Yankee pine." Just when or why this style of skiff was
+dubbed with such a peculiar name I am unable to state; but this I know,
+that when a raft is to be broken up and carted away to the lumber yards
+there is, or always used to be, a good, light skiff to be had cheap.
+
+However, all boys do not live on the bank of the river, and if they did
+there would hardly be "Yankee pines" enough to go round; so we will at
+once proceed to see how to build one for ourselves. Although my readers
+may find the "Yankee pine" a little more difficult to build than the
+blunt-ended, flat-bottomed scow, it really is a comparatively simple
+piece of work for boys familiar with the use of carpenters' tools.
+
+For the side-pieces select two straight-grained pine boards free from
+knots. These boards should be about 13 or 14 feet long, a couple
+of inches over a foot in width, and as nearly alike as possible in
+texture. Besides these there should be in the neighborhood of a dozen
+other 3/4-inch planks, an inch or two over a half foot in width. A small
+piece of 2-inch plank for the stern-piece is also necessary. Upon the
+bottom edge of the side-board measure off from each end toward the
+centre 4 inches, mark the points, and saw off the corners shown by the
+dotted line in Fig. 188. Next take a piece of board 4 feet long and a
+foot wide, saw off the corners as you did on the side-board, making it
+4 feet on the top and 3 feet 4 inches on the bottom. This board is to
+be used only as a centre brace while modelling the boat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 188.--Side-board.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 189.--Frame.]
+
+Out of the 2-inch plank make a stern-piece of the same shape as the
+centre brace; let it be 1 foot wide, 14 inches long on the bottom,
+and 20 inches long on top. Set the side-boards on their shorter or
+bottom edges and place the centre brace in the middle, as shown by
+Fig. 189; nail the side-boards to it, using only enough nails to hold
+temporarily. Draw the side-boards together at the bow and against the
+stern-board at the stern (Fig. 189). Hold the side-pieces in position
+by the means of ropes. A stem should be ready to fix in the bow (Fig.
+190). This had better be a few inches longer than the sides are broad,
+as it is a simple matter to saw off the top after it is fitted. Make
+the stem of a triangular piece of timber, by planing off the front
+edge until a flat surface about 1/2 inch broad is obtained; 2 inches
+from the front, upon each side, cut a groove just the thickness of the
+side-boards (3/4 inch). Trim the stem so that the side-pieces at the bow
+fit the grooves snugly, and nail the side-boards to the stem and to the
+stern-piece (Fig. 189).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 190.--Stem-piece.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 191.--Finished skiff.]
+
+Turn the boat upside down, and it will be discovered that the outlines
+of the bottom form an arch from stem to stern. If left in this shape
+the boat will sink too deep amidship. Remedy the defect by planing the
+bottom edge of both side pieces, reducing the convex form to straight
+lines in the middle. This will allow the bow and stern to sheer, but
+at the same time will make the central part of the bottom flat, and,
+by having less to drag through the water, make it easier to row. Nail
+the bottom-boards on crosswise, and as, on account of the form of the
+boat, no two boards will be of the same size, they must be first nailed
+on and the projecting ends sawed off afterward. The centre brace may
+now be taken out and a long bottom-board nailed to the centre of the
+bottom upon the inside of the boat (Fig. 191). Cut a small cross-piece
+(B, Fig. 191) so that it will fit across the bow 3 inches below the
+top of the side-boards. Nail it in place, driving the nails from the
+outside of the side-board through and into the end of the stick B. Saw
+out a bow seat, and, allowing the broad end to rest on the cross-stick
+B, fit the seat in and secure it with nails (Fig. 191); 3 inches below
+the top of the stern-piece nail a cleat across. At the same distance
+below the side-board put a cross-stick similar to the one in the bow.
+This and the cleat on the stern-piece form rests for the stern seat.
+Five feet from the stern saw a notch 2 inches deep and 1-1/2 inch long in
+each side-board (A, A^{1}, Fig. 191). Saw two more notches of the same
+size 3 inches from the first; these will make the rowlock when the side
+strips have been fastened on.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 192.--Keel board or skeg.]
+
+These strips should each be made of 1-inch plank, 2 inches wide and
+an inch or two longer than the side-boards. Nail the strips on the
+outside of the boat flush with the top of the side-boards, making a
+neat joint at the stern-piece, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 191).
+Cut two short strips to fit upon the inside at the rowlocks and fasten
+them firmly on with screws (Fig. 191, A). Next cut two cleats for the
+oarsman's seat to rest upon. Nail them to the side-boards amidship a
+little nearer the bottom than the top, so that the seat, when resting
+upon the cleats, will be about half the distance from the top edge to
+the bottom of the side-boards. Let the aft end of the cleats be about 6
+feet 2 inches from the stern. Make thole-pins of some hard wood to fit
+in the rowlocks, like those described and illustrated by Figs. 203 and
+204.
+
+[Illustration: Top view of "Man Friday."]
+
+The Yankee pine now only needs a skeg to complete it. This must be
+placed exactly in the centre, and is fastened on by a couple of screws
+at the thin end and nails from the inside of the boat. It is also
+fastened to the upright stick at the stern by screws (Fig. 192).
+
+If the joints have been carefully made, your Yankee pine is now ready
+for launching. Being made of rough lumber it needs no paint or
+varnish, but is a sort of rough-and-ready affair, light to row; and it
+ought to float four people with ease. By using planed pine or cedar
+lumber, and with hard-wood stem and stern, a very pretty row-boat
+can be made upon the same plan as a Yankee pine, or by putting in a
+centreboard and "stepping" a mast in the bow, the Yankee pine can be
+transformed into a sail-boat. But before experimenting in this line of
+boat-building, the beginner had better read carefully the chapter on
+how to rig and sail small boats.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 193.--The side-boards.]
+
+
+How to Build a Better Finished Boat
+
+The old-time raftsmen formerly built their "Yankee pines" of the rough,
+unplaned boards fresh from the saw-mills on the river banks, and these
+raw, wooden skiffs were stanch, light, and tight boats, but to-day
+smooth lumber is as cheap as the rough boards, so select enough planed
+pine lumber for a 12-1/2-foot boat, and you may calculate the exact
+amount by reference to the accompanying diagrams, which are all drawn
+as near as may be to a regular scale.
+
+By reference to Fig. 193 you will see that A, A represent the two
+
+
+Side-Boards
+
+These should be of sufficient dimensions to produce two side-pieces
+each 13 feet long, 17 inches wide, and 7/8 inch thick (A, Fig. 194).
+You will also need a piece for a
+
+
+Spreader
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 194.--A, the side. B, the spreader. C, the
+stern-piece.]
+
+54 inches long, 18 inches wide, and about 1-1/2 inch thick, but as this
+is a temporary affair almost any old piece of proper dimensions will
+answer (B, Fig. 194), and another piece of good 1-1/2-inch plank (C,
+Fig. 194) 36 inches long by 15 inches wide, for a stern-piece. Besides
+the above there must be enough 1-inch lumber to make seats and to cover
+the bottom. At a point on one end, 6-1/2 inches from the edge of the A
+plank, mark the point _c_ (Fig. 194), then measure 37 inches back along
+the edge of the plank and mark the point _b_ (Fig. 194). Rule a pencil
+line (_b_, _c_) between these two points and starting at _c_ saw off the
+triangle _b_, _c_, _d_. Make the second side-board an exact duplicate
+of the one just described and prepare the spreader by sawing off the
+triangle with 9-inch bases at each end of B (Fig. 194). This will leave
+you a board (_h_, _k_, _o_, _n_) that will be 36 inches long on its
+lower edge and 54 inches long on its top edge.
+
+Next saw off the corners of the stern-piece C (Fig. 194) along the
+lines _f_, _g_, the _g_ points being each 6-1/2 inches from the corners;
+and a board (_ff_, _gg_) 18 inches wide and 30 inches top measurement,
+with 23 inches at the bottom. Now fit the edge of the stern-piece
+along the line _e_, _d_ (Fig. 194), or at a slant to please your
+fancy. In Fig. 195, upper C, the slant makes the base of the triangle
+about 4-1/2 inches, which is sufficient. Be careful that both side-boards
+are fitted exactly alike, and to do this nail the port side with
+nails driven only partly in, as shown at D (Fig. 195); then nail the
+starboard side and, if they are both seen to be even and of the right
+slant, drive the nails home; if not correct, the nails may be pulled
+out by using a small block under the hammer (D, Fig. 195), without
+bending the nails or injuring the wood. Leave the stern-ends of the
+side-boards protruding, as in the upper C, until you have the spreader
+and stem in place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 195.--Details of the boat.]
+
+We are now ready for the spreader (_h_, _k_, _o_, _n_) (B, Fig. 194)
+amidship, or, more accurately speaking, 6 feet 9 inches from the bow
+(B, Fig. 195). Nail this as shown by D (Fig. 195), so that the nails
+may be removed at pleasure. Bring the bow ends of the A boards together
+and secure them by a strip nailed temporarily across, as shown in the
+diagram E (Fig. 195).
+
+
+The Stem-piece
+
+may be made of two pieces, as is shown at G and F (Fig. 195) or if you
+are more skilful than the ordinary non-professional, the stem may be
+made of one piece, as shown by the lower diagram at F (Fig. 195). It
+is desirable to have oak for the stem, but any hard wood will answer
+the purpose, and even pine may be used when no better is to be had.
+Take a piece of cardboard or an old shingle on which to draw a pattern
+for the end of the stem and make the outline with a lead-pencil by
+placing the shingle over the apex _c_ of diagram E (Fig. 195); from the
+inside trace the line of the sides thus, =V=. Trim your stem down to
+correspond to these lines and let the stick be somewhat longer than the
+width of the sides A, A.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 196.--Put on a bottom of 1-inch boards.]
+
+When this is done to your satisfaction, fit the stem in place and nail
+the side boards to the stem.
+
+Turn the boat over and nail on a bottom of 1-inch boards as shown by
+Fig. 196.
+
+
+Don't
+
+use tongue and grooved or any sort of fancy cabinet or floor joining
+when wet--such matched lumber warps up in waves--but use boards with
+smooth, flat edges; if these are true and fitted snugly together in
+workmanlike manner the first wetting will swell them in a very short
+time, until not a drop of water will leak through the cracks, for the
+reason that there will be none. Fit the bottom-boards on regardless of
+their protruding ends, as these may be sawed off after the boards are
+nailed in place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 197.--Details of bow, stern, seats, and finished
+boat.]
+
+
+The Seats
+
+consist of a triangular one at the bow (J), the oarsman's seat (L), and
+the stern seat (K, Fig. 197). The bow seat is made of 1-inch boards
+nailed to two cleats shown at M (Fig. 197). N shows the bench for the
+stern seat and O explains the arrangement of the oarsman's seat a
+little forward amidship. As may be seen, it rests upon the cleats _x_
+(diagram O, Fig. 197), which are fitted between two upright cleats on
+each side of the boat; this makes a seat which will not slip out of
+place, and the cleats serve to strengthen the sides of the otherwise
+ribless boat. Make the cleats of 1 by 2 inch lumber and let the seat
+be about 12 inches wide. The stern seat may be wider, 1-1/2 feet at K
+and 4 or 5 inches more at the long sides of the two boards each side of
+K (Fig. 197). Of course, it is not necessary to fit a board in against
+the stern-piece, for a cleat will answer the purpose, but a good, heavy
+stern-piece is often desirable and the board shown in diagram N (Fig.
+197) will serve to add strength to the stern as well as to furnish a
+firm rest for the stern seat, but it will also add weight.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 198.
+
+Fig. 199.--Fitting the skeg.]
+
+
+The Keel-Board
+
+is an advisable addition to the boat, but may also be omitted without
+serious results (H, Fig. 197).
+
+The keel-board should be 4-1/2 inches wide, 1 inch thick, and should be
+cut pointed, to fit snugly in the bow, and nailed in place along the
+centre of the floor, before the seats are put in the boat. A similar
+board along the bottom, joining the two cleats each side of the skeg
+at _y_ (Fig. 199) and extending to the bow will prevent the danger of
+loosening the bottom-planks when bumping over rifts, shallow places, or
+when the boat needs to be hauled on a stony shore; this bottom-board
+may also be omitted to save time and lumber and is not shown in the
+diagram.
+
+
+The Skeg
+
+is a triangular board (Figs. 198 and 199), roughly speaking, of the
+same dimensions as the pieces sawed from the side-board _b_, _c_, _d_
+(Fig. 196). The stern-end will be about 7 inches wide and it will taper
+off to nothing at _y_ (Fig. 198). The skeg is held in place by cleats
+of 1-inch lumber, 2 inches wide, nailed to the bottom on each side
+of the skeg. To get the proper dimensions experiment with the pieces
+sawed from the A boards and cut your skeg board so that its bottom edge
+will be level with the bottom at _y_ (Fig. 198); the diagonal line, to
+correspond with the slant of the stern, can be accurately drawn if the
+skeg is left untrimmed until it is fastened in place.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 200.
+
+Fig. 201
+
+Fig. 202
+
+Rowlocks.]
+
+
+To Fasten on the Skeg
+
+rule a line from the centre of the stern to the centre of the bow and
+toe-nail the skeg on along this line. This must be accurately done
+or you will make a boat which will have an uncomfortable tendency to
+move in circles. After toe-nailing the skeg to the bottom, nail the
+two cleats, one on each side of the skeg, and let them fit as closely
+as may be to the keel. Now saw off the stern-ends of the cleats and
+lay a rule along the stern, as the stick is placed in Fig. 198, where
+the boy has his finger; rule a pencil line across the protruding end
+of the keel and saw off the end along the diagonal line, so that the
+stern-cleat _z_ (Fig. 198) may be nailed in place to finish the work.
+
+You can buy rowlocks of galvanized iron for about a quarter of a dollar
+a pair; the brass ones are not expensive, but even when the store
+furnishes the hardware there must be a firm support of some sort to
+hold the rowlock.
+
+If you use the manufactured article, to be found at any hardware store,
+the merchant will supply you with the screws, plates, and rowlocks,
+but he will not furnish you with the blocks for the holes in which the
+spindles of the rowlocks fit. Fig. 202 shows a rude, but serviceable,
+support for the lock made of short oaken posts much in vogue in
+Pennsylvania, but Fig. 201 is much better, and if it is made of oak and
+bolted to the sides of the boat it will last as long as the boat. Fig.
+201 may be put upon either the outside or inside of the boat, according
+to the width amidship.
+
+
+A Guard Rail
+
+or fender, of 1 by 2 inch lumber, alongside of and even with the top of
+the side-boards, from bow to stern, gives finish and strength to the
+craft; but in a cheap boat, or a hastily constructed one, this may be
+omitted, as it is in these diagrams.
+
+If you are building your boat out of the convenient reach of the
+hardware shop, you must make your own rowlocks. Fig. 200 shows the
+crude ones formerly used by the raftsmen for the Yankee pines, and
+Figs. 203 and 204 show rowlocks made with the oaken or hard-wood
+thole-pins fitting in holes cut for that purpose in the form of notches
+(U, Fig. 204) in the side of the boat, or as spaces left between the
+blocks, as shown by R (Fig. 203). When the side-boards A, A of the boat
+are notched a cleat of hard wood 5 or 6 inches wide, and extending some
+distance each side of the side-boards, must be used, as is shown by
+diagram V (Fig. 204) and Fig. 203. The diagram R (Fig. 203) explains
+itself; there is a centre block nailed to the side-board and two more
+each side, leaving spaces for the thole-pins T (Fig. 203) to fit and
+guarded by another piece (R) bolted through to the sides.
+
+If bolts are out of your reach, nails and screws may act as
+substitutes, and Fig. 204 will then be the best form of rowlock to
+adopt.
+
+To fix the place for rowlocks, seat yourself in the oarsman's seat,
+grasp the oars as in rowing, and mark the place which best fits the
+reach of your arms and oars as in rowing. It will probably be about 13
+inches aft from the centre of the seat.
+
+
+To Transform an Ordinary Skiff or Scow Into a Sailing-Boat
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 203. Thole-pins.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 204. Thole-pins.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 205.]
+
+It is necessary to build the centreboard box and cut a hole through the
+bottom of the boat. For the average row-boat or skiff, you can make
+the centreboard box about 48 inches long and not higher, of course,
+than the gunwales of the boat. Make the box of 2-inch plank, and before
+nailing the sides together coat the seams thoroughly with white lead so
+as to prevent it from leaking. The centreboard should be made of 2-inch
+plank, which when planed down and smoothed will be about 1-7/8 of an
+inch thick, and the space in the box should be wide enough to allow
+it to move freely up and down, with no danger of its jamming. A hole
+should be cut in the bottom of the boat to correspond with the opening
+in the centreboard box, which, with a 48-inch box, will probably be an
+opening of 40 inches long and 1 inch wide. The centreboard is hinged
+to the box by a bolt run through at the point marked A on Fig. 205.
+The centreboard should move freely on the bolt, but the bolt itself
+should fit tightly in the sides of the box, otherwise the water will
+leak through. There will be no danger of the bolt's turning in its
+socket if the hole through the centreboard through which the bolt is
+thrust is made large enough. The centreboard box should be generously
+painted with white lead on the bottom edges where it fits on the floor
+of the boat around the centreboard hole. The bottom of the boat floor
+should also be coated with white lead and over this a strip of muslin
+spread before the box is securely nailed to the floor of the boat from
+the bottom or under side of the boat. When this is done the muslin
+covering the hole can be cut away with a sharp knife. A rope may then
+be fastened to the loose end of the centreboard with a cross-stick
+attached to the end of the rope to prevent it from slipping down the
+hole in the box. With this rope the centreboard may be raised or
+lowered to suit the pleasure of the sailor. (Fig. 205.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+A "ROUGH-AND-READY" BOAT
+
+Just What One Must Do to Build It--Detailed Instructions as to How to
+Make the Boat and How to Rig It
+
+
+GOOD straight-grained pine wood is, without doubt, the best
+"all-around" wood for general use. It is easily whittled with a
+pocket-knife; it works smoothly under a plane; can be sawed without
+fatiguing the amateur carpenter; it is elastic and pliable; therefore
+use pine lumber to build your boat.
+
+Examine the lumber pile carefully and select four boards nearly alike.
+Do not allow the dealer or his men to talk you into taking lumber with
+blemishes. The side pieces should be of straight-grained wood, with no
+large knots and no "checks" (cracks) in them, and must not be "wind
+shaken."
+
+Measure the wood and see that it is over twenty-two feet long by one
+foot four or five inches wide and one inch thick. Trim two of the
+side-pieces until they are exact duplicates (Fig. 206). The stem-piece
+(or bow-piece) should be made from a triangular piece of oak (Fig.
+212), and it is wise to make it a few inches longer than will be
+necessary, so that there may be no danger of finding, after all your
+labor, that the stick is too short; much better too long, for it is a
+simple matter to saw it off. Make a second stem-piece (Fig. 213) of oak
+about one inch thick and the same length as the first, and two or three
+inches wide, or twice as wide as the thickness of the side-boards.
+
+
+The Stern-piece
+
+The stern-piece can be fashioned out of two-inch pine boards, and
+may be made as wide or narrow as you choose. A narrow stern makes a
+trim-looking craft. With your saw cut off the corner of the tail-piece,
+so that it will be in the form of a blunted triangle (Fig. 214),
+measuring three feet ten and one-half inches across the base, three
+feet four inches on each side, and nine and one-half inches at the
+apex. The base of the triangle will be the top and the apex will be the
+bottom of the stern-board of your boat.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 206.
+
+Fig. 207.
+
+Fig. 208.
+
+Fig. 209.
+
+Fig. 210.
+
+Diagrams showing the construction of the rough-and-ready.]
+
+Now make a brace on which to model your boat. Let it be of two-inch
+pine wood, two and one-half feet wide and seven and one-half feet long
+(Fig. 207). Measure twelve inches on one edge of this board from each
+end toward the centre and mark the points; then rule lines from these
+points diagonally across the width of the board (A, B and C, D--Fig.
+207), and saw off the corners, as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 207.
+
+Lay the boards selected for the lower side-boards on a level floor
+and measure off one and one-half foot on the bottom edge, then in a
+line with the end of the board mark a point on the floor that would
+be the top edge of the board if the board were two and one-half feet
+wide; rule a line from the point on the floor to the point marked on
+the board and saw off the corner as marked; make the other side-piece
+correspond exactly with the first (Fig. 206).
+
+
+Use Rope for Binding
+
+Set the side-pieces upon their bottoms or shorter edges and place the
+brace between the sides. Now bind the stern ends with a rope and bring
+the bow-pieces together until they touch; rope them in this position,
+and when all is fast push the brace up until it rests at a point nine
+feet from the bow; fasten it here with a couple of nails driven in,
+but leaving their heads far enough from the wood to render it easy to
+draw them out. Now adjust the bow-piece, and use the greatest of care
+in making the sides exactly alike, otherwise you will wonder how you
+happened to have such an unaccountable twist in your craft. When the
+stem is properly adjusted fasten on the side-boards with screws. Do
+not try to hammer the screws in place, but bore holes first and use a
+screwdriver.
+
+Take your stern-piece and measure the exact width of the stern end
+of the bottom-boards and mark it at the bottom of the stern-piece;
+or, better still, since the stern-board will set at an angle, put it
+temporarily in place, bind it fast with the ropes, and mark with a
+pencil just where the side-boards cross the ends of the stern-board.
+Remove the stern-board and saw out a piece one inch wide, the thickness
+of the bottom-board, from the place marked to the bottom of the
+stern-board. Because the top side-board overlaps the bottom one at the
+stern, there must be either a large crack left there or the stern-board
+notched to fit the side-boards (Fig. 214). Replace the stern-board and
+nail side-boards fast to it; now loosen the ropes which have held your
+boat in shape, and fit on the upper side-boards so that at the stern
+they will overlap the lower side-boards an inch. Hold in place with
+your rope, then bring the bow end up against the stern-piece over the
+top of the lower side-board and fasten it in place with a rope. With
+your carpenter's pencil mark the overlap, and with a plane made for
+that purpose, called a rabbet, trim down your board so that it will
+have a shoulder and an overlap to rest on the bottom-board, running out
+to nothing at the bow. When the boards fit all right over the lower
+ones bind them in place and then nail them there (Fig. 208). If you can
+obtain two good boards of the requisite size, you need have but one
+board for each side of your boat; this will obviate the necessity of
+using the rabbet, and be very much easier; but with single boards of
+the required dimensions there is great danger of splitting or cracking
+while bending the boards.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 215.
+
+Fig. 211.
+
+Figs. 212, 213, and 214.
+
+The rough-and-ready.]
+
+
+Planing the Bottom
+
+Turn the boat upside down and you will see that there is a decided arch
+extending from stem to stern. This would cause the boat to sink too
+deep amidship, and must be remedied to some extent by cutting away the
+middle of the arch, so that the sides in the exact centre will measure
+at least four inches less in width than at the bow and stern, and
+reducing the convex or curved form to a straight line in the middle,
+which will give a sheer to the bow and stern. A good plane is the best
+tool to use for this purpose, as with it there is no danger of cutting
+too deep or of splitting the side-boards. Saw off the projecting ends
+of the side-boards at the stern.
+
+Make the bottom of three-quarter-inch boards, they may be bevelled like
+Fig. 231. Lay the boards crosswise, nail them in place, leaving the
+irregular ends projecting on each side. The reason for this is obvious.
+When you look at the bottom of the boat you will at once see that
+on account of the form no two boards can be the same shape, and the
+easiest way is to treat the boat bottom as if it were a square-sided
+scow. Fit the planks closely together, nail them on securely, and then
+neatly saw off the projecting ends (Fig. 210).
+
+
+The Deck
+
+The brace may now be removed by carefully drawing the nails, so that
+a bottom plank trimmed to fit the bow and the stern can be securely
+nailed in place (Fig. 216). Cut a notch in your brace to fit tightly
+over the bottom plank just laid. Plane off the top of the brace so that
+when in the boat the top of the brace will be four inches below the top
+of the side-boards. Replace the brace and securely nail it. Next cut
+two small cross-pieces (F, G, Fig. 209) and place them near the bow,
+four inches below the top of the sides of the boat. Drive the nails
+from the outside through the side-boards into the end of F and G, the
+cross-brace. Cut out a bow-piece to fit from the middle of G to the bow
+and nail it in place, driving the nails from the outside into the edge
+of the bow-piece. Fasten a small cleat along the boat from the solid
+board brace to F on each side and deck the space over with light lumber.
+
+Of the same material make a trap door to fit in between the braces F
+and G. This door should be big enough for a boy to reach through, for
+this compartment is intended as a safe place to store cooking utensils,
+foods, etc., as well as a water-tight compartment. At a point five feet
+from the stern put another cross-brace, similar to the ones in the bow,
+four inches below the top of the sides. At the same level nail a cleat
+on the stern-piece and make a stern seat by boarding over between the
+cross-piece and the cleat. When your boat is resting securely on the
+floor or level ground rig a temporary seat, then take an oar and by
+experiment find just where the rowlock will be most convenient and mark
+the spot. Also mark the spot best suited for the seat. On each side of
+the spot marked for the rowlock cut two notches in the side-boards two
+inches deep, one and a half inch wide, and three inches apart. Saw two
+more notches exactly like these upon the opposite side of your boat.
+These will make the rowlocks when the side-strips are nailed on (Fig.
+216).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 216.--Top view of rough-and-ready, with tiller
+stick.]
+
+The side-strips should each be made of one-inch plank three inches wide
+and a few inches longer than the side-boards. Nail the strips on the
+outside of the boat flush with the top of the side-boards. Make your
+thole-pins of some hard wood, and make two sets of them while you are
+about it, "one set to use and one set to lose." Screw a hard-wood cleat
+on the inside of your boat over each pair of rowlocks, as shown in Fig.
+216.
+
+
+Ready for the Water
+
+Fasten the remaining bow-piece securely over the ends of your
+side-boards, and the nose of your craft is finished.
+
+Put a good, heavy keel on your boat by screwing it tightly in the stern
+to the hard-wood rudder-post that is fastened to the centre of the
+stern; bolt your keel with four iron bolts (Fig. 211) to the bottom
+of the boat, and the ship is ready to launch, after which she can be
+equipped with sails and oars.
+
+Of course, you understand that all nail-holes and crevices should be
+puttied up, and if paint is used, it must be applied before wetting the
+boat. But if you have done your work well, there will be little need
+of paint or putty to make it tight after the wood has swelled in the
+water. Fasten your rudder on with hooks and screw-eyes, and make it as
+shown in the diagram (Fig. 211). Step your mainmast in the bow through
+a round hole in the deck and a square hole in the step, which must, of
+course, be screwed tightly to the bottom before the bow is decked over.
+
+Step your jigger or dandy mast in the stern after the same manner.
+These masts should neither of them be very large, and are intended to
+be removed at pleasure by unstepping them, that is, simply pulling them
+out of their sockets. An outrigger will be found necessary for your
+dandy-sail, and since the deck aft is below the sides of the boat, a
+block of wood will have to be nailed to the deck to the starboard, or
+right-hand, side of the rudder-post. If the builder chooses, he can
+make the decks flush with the sides of the boat and thus avoid blocks.
+A couple of staples for the out-rigger to slip through are next in
+order. They must be fastened firmly in the block or stick of wood just
+nailed to the deck. A similar arrangement can be made for the bowsprit,
+but as it is a movable bowsprit, and the stem of the boat is in the
+way, put it to the port, or left-hand, side of the stem of the craft
+(Fig. 216).
+
+
+How to Make the Sail
+
+Secure for a sail material as strong as you can find, but it need not
+be heavy. Unbleached muslin is cheap and will make good sails. Turn
+over the edges and sew or hem them, as in the diagram. Make eyelets
+like button-holes in the luff of the sail--that is, the edge of the
+sail nearest the mast. Sew a small loop of rope in each corner of the
+sail. Through the eyelets lace the luff of the sail to the mast.
+
+From spruce or pine make a sprit two inches in diameter. For a
+"sheet"--that is, the rope or line that you manage the sail with--tie a
+good stout line about a dozen feet long to the loop in the loose corner
+of the sail. Trim the upper end of the sprit to fit the loop in the top
+of the sail and make a simple notch in the other end to hold the line
+called the "snotter."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 217, with tiller.--Rudder lines.]
+
+Now, as you can readily see by referring to Fig. 211, when the sprit
+is pushed into the loop at the top of the sail the sail is spread. To
+hold it in place make a cleat like the one in the diagram and bind it
+firmly with a cord to the sprit; pass the snotter, or line, fastened to
+the mast through the notch in the sprit up to the cleat and make fast,
+and the sail is set. The jigger, or dandy, is exactly like the mainsail
+except in size, and the sheet rope is run through a block or pulley at
+the end of the outrigger and then made fast to a cleat near the man at
+the rudder or helm. The jib is a simple affair hooked on a screw-eye
+in the end of the bowsprit. The jib halyard, or line for hoisting the
+jib, runs from the top of the jib through a screw-eye in the top of the
+mast, down the port side of the mast to a cleat, where it is made fast.
+When the jib is set the jib-sheets are fastened to a loop sewed in the
+jib at the lower or loose end. There are two jib-sheets, one for each
+side of the boat, so that one may be made fast and the other loosened,
+according to the wind. The remaining details you must study out from
+the diagrams or learn by experiment.
+
+
+How to Reef Her
+
+When the wind is high reef your sails by letting go the snotter and
+pulling out the sprit. This will drop your peak and leave you with a
+simple leg-of-mutton sail. Only use the jib in light weather.
+
+In this boat, with a little knowledge of sailing, you may cruise for
+weeks, lowering your sails at night and making a tent over the cock-pit
+for a sleeping-room. Sails with boom and gaffs may be used if desired.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+HOW TO BUILD CHEAP AND SUBSTANTIAL HOUSE-BOATS
+
+Plans for a House-Boat that May Be a Camp or Built as Large as a Hotel
+
+
+WHEN the great West of the United States began to attract immigrants
+from the Eastern coast settlements, the Ohio River rolled between banks
+literally teeming with all sorts of wild game and wilder men: then it
+was that the American house-boat had its birth.
+
+The Mississippi, Ohio, and their tributaries furnished highways for
+easy travel, of which the daring pioneers soon availed themselves.
+
+Lumber was to be had for the labor of felling the trees. From the
+borders of the Eastern plantations to the prairies, and below the Ohio
+to the Mississippi, and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, was
+one vast forest of trees; trees whose trunks were unscarred by the axe,
+and whose tall tops reached an altitude which would hardly be believed
+by those of this generation, who have only seen second, third, or
+fourth growth timber.
+
+When the settlement of this new part of the country began it was not
+long before each stream poured out, with its own flood of water,
+
+
+A Unique Navy
+
+There were keel-boats, built something like a modern canal-boat, only
+of much greater dimensions; there were broad-horns, looking like Noak's
+arks from some giant's toy-shop, and there were flat-boats and rafts,
+the latter with houses built on them, all recklessly drifting, or
+being propelled by long sweeps down the current into the great solemn,
+unknown wilderness.
+
+Every island, had it a tongue, could tell of wrecks; every point or
+headland, of adventure.
+
+The perils were great and the forest solemn, but the immigrants were
+merry, and the squeaking fiddle made the red man rise up from his
+hiding-place and look with wonder upon the "long knives" and their
+squaws dancing on the decks of their rude crafts, as they swept by into
+the unknown.
+
+The advent of the steam-boat gradually drove the flat-boat, broad-horn,
+keel-boat, and all the primitive sweep-propelled craft from the rivers,
+but many of the old boatmen were loath to give up so pleasant a mode of
+existence, and they built themselves house-boats, and, still clinging
+to their nomadic habits, took their wives, and went to house-keeping on
+the bosom of the waters they loved so well.
+
+Their descendants now form what might well be called a race of
+river-dwellers, and to this day their quaint little arks line the
+shores of the Mississippi and its tributaries.
+
+
+Some of These House-Boats
+
+are as crudely made as the Italian huts we see built along the
+railroads, but others are neatly painted, and the interiors are like
+the proverbial New England homes, where everything is spick-and-span.
+
+Like the driftwood, these boats come down the stream with every
+freshet, and whenever it happens that the waters are particularly high
+they land at some promising spot and earn a livelihood on the adjacent
+water, by fishing and working aboard the other river-craft, or they
+land at some farming district, and as the waters recede they prop up
+and level their boats, on the bank, with stones or blocks of wood
+placed under the lower corners of their homes.
+
+The muddy waters, as they retire, leave a long stretch of fertile land
+between the stranded house and the river, and this space is utilized
+as a farm, where ducks, chickens, goats and pigs are raised and where
+garden-truck grows luxuriantly.
+
+From a boat their home has been transformed to a farm-house; but sooner
+or later there will be another big freshet, and when the waters reach
+the late farm-house, lo! it is a boat again, and goes drifting in its
+happy-go-lucky way down the current. If it escapes the perils of snags
+and the monster battering-rams, which the rapid current makes of the
+drifting trees in the flood, it will land again, somewhere, down-stream.
+
+Lately, while on a sketching trip through Kentucky, I was greatly
+interested in these boats, and on the Ohio River I saw several making
+good headway against the four-mile-an-hour current. This they did by
+the aid of
+
+
+Big Square Sails
+
+spread on a mast planted near their bows, thus demonstrating the
+practicability of the use of sails for house-boats.
+
+The house-boats to be described in this article are much better adapted
+for sailing than any of the craft used by the water-gypsies of the
+Western rivers.
+
+For open and exposed waters, like the large lakes which dot many of our
+inland States, or the Long Island Sound on our coast, the following
+plans of the American boy's house-boat will have to be altered, but the
+alterations will be all in the hull. If you make the hull three feet
+deep it will have the effect of lowering the cabin, while the head-room
+inside will remain the same. Such a craft can carry a good-sized sail,
+and weather any gale you are liable to encounter, even on the Sound,
+during the summer months.
+
+Since the passing away of the glorious old flat-boat days, idle people
+in England have introduced the
+
+
+House-Boat as a Fashionable Fad
+
+which has spread to this country, and the boys now have a new source of
+fun, as a result of this English fad.
+
+There are still some nooks and corners left in every State in the
+Union which the greedy pot-hunter and the devouring saw-mill have as
+yet left undisturbed, and at such places the boy boatmen may "wind
+their horns," as their ancestors did of old, and have almost as good
+a time. But first of all they must have a boat, and for convenience
+the American boy's house-boat will probably be found to excel either a
+broad-horn or a flat-boat model, it being a link between the two.
+
+The simplest possible house-boat is a Crusoe raft,[A] with a cabin near
+the stern and a sand-box for a camp-fire at the bow. A good time can
+be had aboard even this primitive craft. The next step in evolution is
+the long open scow, with a cabin formed by stretching canvas over hoops
+that reach from side to side of the boat (see Fig. 218).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 218.--A primitive house-boat.]
+
+Every boy knows how to build
+
+
+A Flat-Bottomed Scow
+
+or at least every boy should know how to make as simple a craft as the
+scow, but for fear some lad among my readers has neglected this part of
+his education, I will give a few hints which he may follow.
+
+
+Building Material
+
+Select lumber that is free from large knots and other blemishes. Keep
+the two best boards for the sides of your boat. With your saw cut
+the side boards into the form of Fig. 219; see that they are exact
+duplicates. Set the two pieces parallel to each other upon their
+straight or top edges, as the first two pieces shown in Fig. 220. Nail
+on an end-piece at the bow and stern, as the bumper is nailed in Figs.
+221 and 222; put the bottom on as shown in Figs. 196 and 210, and you
+have a simple scow.
+
+
+Centrepiece
+
+In Fig. 219 you will notice that there are two sides and a centrepiece,
+but this centrepiece is not necessary for the ordinary open boat, shown
+by Fig. 218. Here you have one of the simple forms of house-boat, and
+you can make it of dimensions to suit your convenience. I will not
+occupy space with the details of this boat, because they may be seen by
+a glance at the diagrams, and my purpose is to tell you how to build
+the American boy's house-boat, which is a more elegant craft than the
+rude open scow, with a canvas-covered cabin, shown by Fig. 218.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 219.--Unfinished.]
+
+
+The Sides of the House-Boat
+
+are 16 feet long, and to make them you need some sound two-inch planks.
+After selecting the lumber plane it off and make the edges true and
+straight. Each side and the centrepiece should now measure exactly 16
+feet in length by 14 inches in width, and about 2 inches thick. Cut off
+from each end of each piece a triangle, as shown by the dotted lines
+at G, H, I (Fig. 220); from H to G is 1 foot, and from H to I is 7
+inches. Measure from H to I 7 inches, and mark the point. Then measure
+from H to G, 12 inches, and mark the point. Then, with a carpenter's
+pencil, draw a line from G to I, and saw along this line. Keep the two
+best planks for the sides of your boat, and use the one that is left
+for the centrepiece. Measure 2 feet on the top or straight edge of your
+centrepiece, and mark the point A (Fig. 220). From A measure 8 feet 10
+inches, and mark the point C (Fig. 220).
+
+With a carpenter's square rule the lines A, B and C, D, and make them
+each 10 inches long, then rule the line B, D (Fig. 220). The piece A,
+B, C, D must now be carefully cut out: this can be done by using the
+saw to cut A, B and D, C. Then, about 6 inches from A, saw another line
+of the same length, and with a chisel cut the block out. You then have
+room to insert a rip-saw, at B, and can saw along the line B, D until
+you reach D, when the piece may be removed, leaving the space A, B, D,
+C for the cabin of the boat (see Figs. 221 and 222.)
+
+At a point 9 inches from the bow of the boat make a mark on the
+centrepiece, and another mark 5 inches farther away, at F (Fig. 220).
+With the saw cut a slit at each mark, 1 inch deep, and with a chisel
+cut out, as shown by the dotted lines; do the same at E, leaving a
+space of 1-1/2 feet between the two notches, which are made to allow
+the two planks shown in the plan (Fig. 221) to rest on. These planks
+support the deck and the hatch, at the locker in the bow. The notches
+at E and F are not on the side-boards, the planks being supported at
+the sides by uprights, Figs. 221 and 222.
+
+All that now remains to be done with the centrepiece is to saw some
+three-cornered notches on bottom edge, one at bow, one at stern, and
+one or two amidship; this is to allow the water which may leak in to
+flow freely over the whole bottom, and to prevent it from gathering at
+one side and causing your craft to rest upon an uneven keel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 220.--Center board of house boat.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 221.--Plan of house boat.]
+
+Next select a level piece of ground near by and arrange the three
+pieces upon some supports, as shown in Fig. 219, so that from outside
+to outside of side-pieces it will measure just 8 feet across the bow
+and stern. Of 1-inch board
+
+
+Make Four End-Pieces
+
+for the bow and stern (see A, A', Fig. 219), to fit between the sides
+and centrepiece. Make them each a trifle wider than H, I, Fig. 220,
+so that after they have been fitted they can be trimmed down with a
+plane, and bevelled on the same slant as the bottom at G, I, Fig. 220.
+It being 8 feet between the outside of each centrepiece, and the sides
+and the centrepiece being each 2 inches thick, that gives us 8 feet 6
+inches, or 7-1/2 feet as the combined length of A and A' (Fig. 219). In
+other words, each end-piece will be half of 7-1/2 feet long--that is, 3
+feet 9 inches long. After making the four end-pieces, each 3 feet 9,
+by 9 inches, fit the ends in place so that there is an inch protruding
+above and below. See that your bow and stern are perfectly square, and
+nail with wire nails through the sides into A and A'; toe-nail at the
+centrepiece--that is, drive the nails from the broad side of A and A'
+slantingly, into the centrepiece, after which trim down with your plane
+the projecting inch on bottom, to agree with the slant of the bottom of
+the boat.
+
+
+Now for the Bottom
+
+This is simple work. All that is necessary is to have straight, true
+edges to your one-inch planks, fit them together, and nail them in
+place. Of course, when you come to the slant at bow and stern the
+bottom-boards at each end will have to have a bevelled edge, to fit
+snugly against the boards on the flat part of the bottom of the boat;
+but any boy who is accustomed to shake the gray matter in his brain can
+do this. Remember, scientists say that thought is the agitation of the
+gray matter of the brain, and if you are going to build a boat or play
+a good game of football you must shake up that gray stuff, or the other
+boys will put you down as a "stuff." No boy can expect to be successful
+in building a boat, of even the crudest type, unless he keeps his wits
+about him, so I shall take it for granted that there are no "stuffs"
+among my readers.
+
+After the boards are all snugly nailed on the bottom, and fitted
+together so that there are no cracks to calk up; the hull is ready to
+have
+
+
+The Bumpers
+
+nailed in place, at bow and stern. See the plan, Fig. 221, and the
+elevation, Fig. 222. The bumpers must be made of 2-inch plank, 8 feet
+long by about 9 inches wide; wide enough to cover A and A' of Fig. 219,
+and to leave room for a bevel at the bottom edge to meet the slant of
+the bow and stern, and still have room at the top to cover the edge of
+the deck to the hull (see Fig. 222).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 222.--Cross-section of boat]
+
+
+The Hull May Now Be Painted
+
+with two coats of good paint, and after it is dry may be turned over
+and allowed to rest on a number of round sticks, called rollers.
+
+If you will examine Fig. 221 you will see there
+
+
+Twenty-Odd Ribs
+
+These are what are called two-by-fours-that is, 2 inches thick by 4
+inches wide. They support the floor of the cabin and forward locker, at
+the same time adding strength to the hull.
+
+The ribs are each the same length as the end-board. A and A' of Fig.
+219, are nailed in place in the same manner. Each bottom-rib must
+have a notch 2 inches deep cut in the bottom edge to allow the free
+passage of water, so as to enable you to pump dry. Commencing at the
+stern, the distance between the inside of the bumper and the first rib
+is 1 foot 6 inches. This is a deck-rib, as may be seen by reference to
+Figs. 221 and 222. After measuring 1-1/2 foot from the bumper, on inside
+of side-board, mark the point with a carpenter's pencil. Measure the
+same distance on the centrepiece, and mark the point as before; then
+carefully fit your rib in flush or even with the top of the side-piece,
+and fasten it in place by nails driven through the side-board into the
+end of the rib, and toe-nailed to centrepiece. Do the same with its
+mate on the other side of centrepiece.
+
+
+The Cabin of this House-Boat
+
+is to fit in the space, A, B, D, C of the centrepiece, Fig. 220. There
+is to be a one-inch plank at each end (see Fig. 222), next to which the
+side-supports at each end of cabin fit. The supports are two-by-twos;
+so, allowing 1 inch for the plank and 2 inches for the upright support,
+the next pair of ribs will be just 3 inches from A B, Fig. 220, of the
+centrepiece (see Figs. 221 and 222). The twin ribs at the forward end
+of the cabin will be the same distance from D C, Fig. 220, as shown in
+the plan and elevation, Figs. 221 and 222. This leaves five pairs of
+ribs to be distributed between the front and back end of the cabin.
+From the outside of each end-support to the inside of the nearest
+middle-support is 2 feet 6 inches. Allowing 2 inches for the supports,
+this will place the adjoining ribs 2 feet 8 inches from the outside of
+the end-supports. The other ribs are placed midway between, as may be
+seen by the elevation, Fig. 222.
+
+There is another pair of
+
+
+Deck-Ribs
+
+at the forward end of the cabin, which are placed flush with the line
+D, C, Fig. 220 (see Figs. 221 and 222). The two pairs of ribs in the
+bow are spaced, as shown in the diagram. This description may appear
+as if it was a complicated affair; but you will find it a simple thing
+to work out if you will remember to allow space for your pump in the
+stern, space for the end-planks at after and forward end of cabin, and
+space for your uprights. The planks at after and forward end of cabin
+are to box in the cabin floor.
+
+
+The Boat May Now Be Launched
+
+by sliding it over the rollers, which will not be found a difficult
+operation.
+
+
+The Plans Show Three Lockers
+
+--two in the bow under the hatch and one under the rear bunk--but if it
+is deemed necessary the space between-decks, at each side of the cabin,
+may be utilized as lockers. In this space you can store enough truck
+to last for months. A couple of doors in the plank at the front of the
+cabin opening, under the deck, will be found very convenient to reach
+the forward locker in wet weather.
+
+
+The Keel
+
+is a triangular piece of 2-inch board, made to fit exactly in the
+middle of the stern, and had best be nailed in place before the boat
+is launched (see Fig. 222). The keel must have its bottom edge flush
+with the bottom of the boat, and a strip of hard-wood nailed on the
+stern-end of the keel and bumper, as shown in the diagram. A couple of
+strong screw-eyes will support the rudder.
+
+After the boat is launched the
+
+
+Side-Supports for the Cabin May Be Erected
+
+These are "two-by-twos" and eight in number, and each 5 feet 9 inches
+long. Nail them securely at their lower ends to the adjoining ribs. See
+that they are plumb, and fasten them temporarily with diagonal pieces,
+to hold the top ends in place, while you nail down the lower deck or
+flooring.
+
+Now fit and nail the two 1-inch planks in place, at the bow and
+stern-end of the cabin, each of which has its top one inch above the
+sides, even with the proposed deck (see dotted lines in Fig. 222).
+
+
+Use Ordinary Flooring
+
+or if that is not obtainable use 3/4-inch pine boards, and run them
+lengthwise from the bow to the front end of the cabin and along the
+sides of the cabin. Then floor the cabin lengthwise from bow to stern.
+This gives you a dry cabin floor, for there are 4 inches of space
+underneath for bilge-water, which unless your boat is badly made and
+very leaky, is plenty of room for what little water may leak in from
+above or below. The two side-boards of the cabin floor must, of course,
+have square places neatly cut out to fit the uprights of the cabin.
+This may be done by slipping the floor-board up against the uprights
+and carefully marking the places with a pencil where they will come
+through the board, and then at each mark sawing two inches in the floor
+plank, and cutting out the blocks with a chisel.
+
+
+The Hatch
+
+Now take a "four-by-four" and saw off eight short supports for the two
+1-inch planks which support the hatch, Figs. 221 and 222. Toe-nail
+the middle four-by-four to the floor in such a position that the two
+cross-planks (which are made to fit in the notches E and F, Fig.
+220) will rest on the supports. Nail the four other supports to the
+side-boards of your boat, and on top of these nail the cross-planks, as
+shown in the diagrams.
+
+The boat is now ready for its
+
+
+Upper Deck
+
+of 1-inch pine boards. These are to be nailed on lengthwise, bow and
+stern and at sides of cabin, leaving, of course, the cabin open, as
+shown by the position of the boys in Fig. 222, and an opening, 3 feet
+by 2, for the hatch (Fig. 221). The two floors will act as benches for
+the uprights of the cabin, and hold them stiff and plumb.
+
+To further stiffen the frame, make two diagonals for the stern-end, as
+shown in Fig. 223, and nail them in place.
+
+
+The Rafters
+
+or roof-rods, should extend a foot each way beyond the cabin, hence cut
+them two feet longer than the cabin, and after testing your uprights,
+to see that they are exactly plumb, nail the two side roof-rods in
+place (see dotted lines in Fig. 222). The cross-pieces at the ends, as
+they support no great weight, may be fitted between the two side-rods,
+and nailed there.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 223.--End view.]
+
+The roof is to be made of 1/2-inch boards bent into a curve, and the
+ridge-pole, or centre roof-rod, must needs have some support. This is
+obtained by two short pieces of 2 by 4, each 6 inches long, which are
+toe-nailed to the centre of each cross-rod, and the ridge-pole nailed
+to their tops. At 3 feet from the upper deck the side frame-pieces
+are toe-nailed to the uprights. As may be seen, there are three
+two-by-fours on each side (Fig. 222).
+
+The space between the side frame-pieces, the two middle uprights, and
+side roof-rods, is where the windows are to be placed.
+
+Use 1/2-inch (tongue and groove preferred) pine boards for sidings,
+and
+
+
+Box In Your Cabin
+
+neatly, allowing space for windows on each side, as indicated. Leave
+the front open. Of the same kind of boards make your roof; the boards
+being light you can bend them down upon each side and nail them to
+the side roof-rods, forming a pretty curve, as may be seen in the
+illustration of the American boy's house-boat.
+
+
+This Roof
+
+to be finished neatly and made entirely water-proof, should be covered
+with tent-cloth or light canvas, smoothly stretched over and tacked
+upon the under side of the projecting edges. Three good coats of paint
+will make it water-proof and pleasant to look upon.
+
+The description, so far, has been for a neatly finished craft, but I
+have seen very serviceable and comfortable house-boats built of rough
+lumber, in which case the curved roof, when they had one, had narrow
+strips nailed over the boards where they joined each other or was
+covered with tar-paper.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 224.--End view.]
+
+
+To Contrive a Movable Front
+
+to your cabin, make two doors to fit and close the front opening,
+but in place of hanging the doors on hinges, set them in place. Each
+door should have a good strong strap nailed securely on the inside,
+for a handle, and a batten or cross-piece at top and bottom of inside
+surface. A 1-1/2 by 4, run parallel to the front top cross-frame and
+nailed there, just a sufficient distance from it to allow the top
+of the door to be inserted between, will hold the top of the door
+securely. A two-by-four, with bolt-holes near either end to correspond
+with bolt-holes in the floor, will hold the bottom when the door is
+pushed in place, the movable bottom-piece shoved against it and the
+bolts thrust in (see Fig. 225, view from inside of cabin. Fig. 226,
+side view). It will be far less work to break in the side of the cabin
+than to burst in such doors, if they are well made. These doors possess
+this advantage: they can be removed and used as table-tops, leaving
+the whole front open to the summer breeze, or one may be removed, and
+still allow plenty of ventilation. A moulding on deck around the cabin
+is not necessary, but it will add finish and prevent the rain-water
+from leaking in.
+
+To lock up the boat you must set the doors from the inside, and if you
+wish to leave the craft locked you must crawl out of the window and
+fasten the latter with a lock.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 225.--Inside view of door.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig 226--Side view of door.]
+
+Fig. 227 shows the construction of
+
+
+The Rudder
+
+and also an arrangement by which it may be worked from the front of the
+boat, which, when the boat is towed, will be found most convenient.
+
+The hatch should be made of 1-inch boards, to fit snugly flush with the
+deck, as in the illustration, or made of 2-inch plank, and a moulding
+fitted around the opening, as shown in Fig. 222.
+
+
+A Pair of Rowlocks
+
+made of two round oak sticks with an iron rod in their upper ends,
+may be placed in holes in the deck near the bow, and the boat can be
+propelled by two oarsmen using long "sweeps," which have holes at the
+proper places to fit over the iron rods projecting from the oaken
+rowlocks. These rowlocks may be removed when not in use, and the holes
+closed by wooden plugs, while the sweeps can be hung at the side of the
+cabin, under its eaves, or lashed fast to the roof.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 227.--Side elevation.]
+
+
+Two or More Ash Poles
+
+for pushing or poling the boat over shallow water or other difficult
+places for navigation are handy, and should not be left out of the
+equipment. The window-sashes may be hung on hinges and supplied with
+hooks and screw-eyes to fasten them open by hooking them to the eaves
+when it is desired to let in the fresh air. All window openings should
+be protected by wire netting to keep out insects.
+
+Two bunks can be fitted at the rear end of the cabin, one above the
+other, the bottom bunk being the lid to a locker (see Fig. 222).
+
+
+The Locker
+
+is simply a box, the top of which is just below the deck-line and
+extending the full width of the cabin. It has hinges at the back, and
+may be opened for the storage of luggage.
+
+Over the lid blankets are folded, making a divan during the day and a
+bed at night.
+
+The top bunk is made like the frame of a cheap cot, but in place of
+being upholstered it has a strong piece of canvas stretched across it.
+This bunk is also hinged to the back of the cabin, so that when not in
+use it can be swung up against the roof and fastened there as the top
+berth in a sleeping-car is fastened. Four 4 by 4 posts can be bolted
+to the side-support at each corner of the bottom bunk; they will amply
+support the top bunk, as the legs do a table-top when the frame is
+allowed to rest upon their upper ends. This makes accommodation for
+two boys, and there is still room for upper and lower side bunks, the
+cabin being but six feet wide. If you put bunks on both sides you will
+be rather crowded, it is true, but by allowing a 1-foot passage in the
+middle, you can have two side bunks and plenty of head room. This will
+accommodate four boys, and that is a full crew for a boat of this size.
+
+On board a yacht I have often seen four full-grown men crowded into a
+smaller space in the cabin, while the sailormen in the fo'-castle had
+not near that amount of room.
+
+
+A More Simple Set of Plans
+
+Here the cabin is built on top of the upper deck, and there are no
+bottom-ribs, the uprights being held in place by blocks nailed to the
+bottom of the boat, and by the deck of the boat. This is secure enough
+for well-protected waters, small lakes, and small streams. Upon the
+inland streams of New York State I have seen two-story house-boats, the
+cabin, or house, being only a framework covered with canvas. One such
+craft I saw in central New York, drifting downstream over a shallow
+riff, and as it bumped along over the stones it presented a strange
+sight. The night was intensely dark, and the boat brightly lighted. The
+lights shone through the canvas covering, and this big, luminous house
+went bobbing over the shallow water, while shouts of laughter and the
+"plinky-plunk" of a banjo told in an unmistakable manner of the jolly
+time the crew were having.
+
+
+Canvas-Cabined House-Boat
+
+If you take an ordinary open scow and erect a frame of uprights and
+cross-pieces, and cover it with canvas, you will have just such a boat
+as the one seen in central New York. This boat may be propelled by
+oars, the rowers sitting under cover, and the canvas being lifted at
+the sides to allow the sweeps to work; but of course it will not be as
+snug as the well-made American boy's house-boat, neither can it stand
+the same amount of rough usage, wind, and rain as the latter boat.
+
+In the frontispiece the reader will notice a stove-pipe at the stern;
+there is room for a small stove back of the cabin, and in fair weather
+it is much better to cook outside than inside the cabin. When you tie
+up to the shore for any length of time, a rude shelter of boughs and
+bark will make a good kitchen on the land, in which the stove may be
+placed, and you will enjoy all the fun of a camp, with the advantage of
+a snug house to sleep in.
+
+For the benefit of boys who doubt their ability to build a boat of
+this description, it may be well to state that other lads have used
+these directions and plans with successful results, and their boats now
+gracefully float on many waters, a source of satisfaction and pride to
+their owners.
+
+
+Information for Old Boys
+
+On all the Western rivers small flat-boats or scows are to be had at
+prices which vary in accordance with the mercantile instincts of the
+purchaser, and with the desire of the seller to dispose of his craft.
+Such boats are propelled by "sweeps," a name used to designate the long
+poles with boards on their outer edges that serve as blades and form
+the oars. These boats are often supplied with a deck-house, extending
+almost from end to end, and if such a house is lacking one may be
+built with little expense. The cabin may be divided into rooms and the
+sleeping apartments supplied with cheaply made bunks. It is not the
+material of the bunk which makes it comfortable--it is the mattress
+in the bunk upon which your comfort will depend. The kitchen and
+dining-room may be all in one. An awning spread over the roof will make
+a delightful place in which to lounge and catch the river breezes.
+
+
+The Cost of House-Boats
+
+The cost of a ready-made flat-bottomed house-boat is anywhere from
+thirty dollars to one or more thousands. In Florida such a boat, 40
+by 20 feet, built for the quiet waters of the St. John's River or its
+tributaries, or the placid lagoons, will cost eight hundred dollars.
+This boat is well painted outside and rubbed down to a fine oil finish
+inside; it has one deck, and the hull is used for toilet apartments
+and state-rooms; the hull is well calked and all is in good trim. Such
+expense is, however, altogether unnecessary--there need be no paint or
+polish. All you need is a well-calked hull and a water-tight roof of
+boards or canvas overhead; cots or bunks to sleep in; chairs, stools,
+boxes or benches to sit on; hammocks to loll in, and a good supply of
+provisions in the larder.
+
+House-boats for the open waters are necessarily more expensive. As a
+rule they need round bottoms that stand well out of the water, and
+are built like the hull of a ship. These boats cost as much to build
+as a small yacht. From twelve to fifteen hundred dollars will build a
+good house-boat, with comfortable sleeping-berths, toilet-rooms and
+store-rooms below; a kitchen, dining-room, and living-rooms on the
+cabin deck, with wide, breezy passageways separating them.
+
+If a bargain can be found in an old schooner with a good hull, for two
+or three hundred dollars, a first-class house-boat can be made by the
+expenditure of as much more for a cabin. The roofs of all house-boats
+should extend a foot or more beyond the sides of the cabin.
+
+
+For People of Limited Means
+
+For people with little money to spend, these expensive boats are as
+much out of reach as a yacht, but they may often be rented for prices
+within the means of people in moderate circumstances. At New York I
+have known a good schooner-yacht, 84 feet over all, to be chartered for
+two weeks, with crew of skipper and two men, the larder plentifully
+supplied with provisions and luxuries for six people and the crew,
+making nine in all, at a cost of thirty-six dollars apiece for each of
+the six passengers. An equally good house-boat should not cost over
+twelve dollars a week per passenger for a party of ten. In inland
+waters, if a boat could be rented, the cost should not exceed seven or
+eight dollars a week per passenger.
+
+A canal-boat is a most excellent house-boat for a pleasure party,
+either on inland streams or along our coast.
+
+
+Street-Car Cabins
+
+Since the introduction of cable and trolley-cars the street-car
+companies have been selling their old horse-cars, in some instances at
+figures below the cost of the window-glass in them; so cheap, in fact,
+that poor people buy them to use as woodsheds and chicken-coops.
+
+One of these cars will make an ideal cabin for a house-boat, and can be
+adapted for that purpose with little or no alterations. All it needs is
+a good flat-boat to rest in, and you have a palatial house-boat.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[A] See p. 10.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+A CHEAP AND SPEEDY MOTOR-BOAT
+
+    How To Build the Jackson Glider--A Very Simple Form of
+    Motor-Boat, Which Will Hold Its Own in Speed With Even
+    Expensive Boats of Double Horse-Power
+
+
+THIS boat is intended to slide over the top of the water and not
+through it, consequently it is built in the form of a flat-bottom scow.
+Order your wood dressed on both sides, otherwise it will come with one
+side rough. For the side-boards we need two pine, or cedar boards, to
+measure, when trimmed, 14 feet (Fig. 228), and to be 16 or 18 inches
+wide.
+
+
+The Stern-Board
+
+when trimmed, will be 2-1/2 feet long by 1 foot, 8-1/2 inches wide. It
+may even be a little wider, because the protruding part can be planed
+down after the boat is built (Fig. 229).
+
+To make the bow measure from the point E (Fig. 228) 1 foot 8-1/2 inches
+and mark the point C. Measure along the same line 13-1/2 inches and mark
+the point D. Next measure from B down along the edge of the boat one
+inch and mark the point F. Again measure down from B, 5-3/4 inches and
+mark the point G. With a carpenter's pencil draw the lines F D and G C
+and saw these pieces off along the dotted line (Fig. 232). The bow can
+then be rounded at the points A and B with a sharp knife or jackplane.
+
+To get the proper slant on the stern, measure from H 4-1/2 inches to L
+and saw off the triangle LHK. Make the other side board an exact
+duplicate of the first one, as in Fig. 228. Next set these two boards on
+edge, like sledge runners (Fig. 230), and let them be 2 feet, 6 inches
+apart (the boat will be safer if made six inches wider, and its speed
+will be almost as great), which can be tested by fitting the stern-boards
+between them before nailing the temporary boards on, which are to hold
+them in place (Fig. 230). Do not drive the nails home, but leave the
+heads protruding on all temporary braces, so that they may be easily
+removed when necessary.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 228.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 229.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 230.--Parts of motor-boat.]
+
+Now turn the boat bottom side up and nail the bottom on, as already
+described in previous chapters (Fig. 232). The bottom-boards are to
+be so planed upon their edges that they leave V-shaped grooves on the
+inside of the boat to be calked with candlewick and putty (Fig. 231).
+Next make a shaft-log by cutting a board in a triangular piece, as
+shown in Fig. 233, and nailing two other pieces of board on it, and
+leaving a space for the shaft-rod, over which is nailed a duplicate
+of the bottom-board, as shown in Fig. 234. Make the shaft-log of three
+thicknesses of 1-inch plank. To make it more secure there should be a
+board nailed on the inside bottom of the boat, as shown in Fig. 235 by
+the dotted lines.
+
+This board is put there to strengthen the bottom and allow us to cut a
+slot through for the admission of a shaft (Fig. 236) which is drawn on
+a scale shown below it. With the engine comes a stuffing box, through
+which the shaft passes and which prevents the water from coming up
+through the shaft-hole. The stuffing boxes, which are furnished to fit
+upon the inside of the boat, are expensive, but one to fit upon the
+stern of the shaft-log costs but little, and will answer all purposes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 231.]
+
+Of course, when attaching the shaft-log to the bottom, it must be in
+the exact centre of the boat. Find the centre of the boat at the bow
+and stern, mark the points and snap a chalk-line between them. Now
+place the shaft-log in position on this line and while holding that
+there firmly, mark around it with a carpenter's pencil. Next lay the
+shaft-log flat on its side with its edge along this line and with
+your pencil mark on the bottom of the boat the exact place where the
+shaft-hole must be cut to correspond with the one in the shaft-log.
+As may be seen by Fig. 236, the shaft runs through at an acute angle;
+hence the hole must be bored on a slant, or better still a slot cut
+through the floor long enough to allow for the slant.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 232.
+
+Fig. 233.
+
+Fig. 234.
+
+Fig. 239.
+
+Fig. 235.
+
+Fig. 236.
+
+Fig. 237.
+
+Fig. 238.
+
+Details of motor-boat.]
+
+The leak, which would naturally occur here is prevented by the stuffing
+box which is fastened on to the stern-end of the shaft-log where the
+latter protrudes for the propeller. To set the engine in the boat it is
+necessary to have an engine-bed. This is made of two pieces of board
+cut diagonally, upon which the engine rests.
+
+Fig. 237 shows a piece of 2-inch board and a method of sawing it to
+make the duplicate pieces to form the engine-bed. The dimension of
+these pieces must be obtained by measuring the width of the engine
+rest, which is to be installed. The angle, of course, must correspond
+to the angle of the shaft.
+
+Make your own rudder of any shape that suits your fancy, square or
+paddle-shaped, of a piece of galvanized iron or of wood, as shown in
+the diagram; or you can simply fasten the rudder-stem to the transom
+(stern-board), as is often done on row-boats and sail-boats. If you
+desire to make your rudder like the one shown here, use two pieces
+of galvanized pipes for your rudder-posts, one of which fits loosely
+inside of the other. Make the rudder-posts of what is known as 3/8-inch
+(which means literally a 3/8-inch opening) and for its jacket use a
+3/4-inch pipe, or any two kinds of pipe, which will allow one to turn
+loosely inside the other. The smaller pipe can be bent easily by hand
+to suit your convenience, after it has been thrust through the larger
+pipe.
+
+First bend the lower end of the small pipe to fit your proposed rudder,
+then remove the larger pipe and flatten the lower end of the small one
+by beating it with the hammer. To bore the screw-holes in the flattened
+end you will use a small tool for drilling metal. One of these drills,
+which will fit any carpenter's brace, can be procured for the cost of a
+few cents.
+
+Drill holes through the flattened end of your pipe for the reception of
+your screws, which are to secure it to the rudder. It is now necessary
+to fasten a block of 2-inch plank securely to the bottom of the boat
+upon the inside where the rudder-post is to be set. This block might
+best be secured on with four bolts. A hole is then bored through the
+block and the bottom of the boat a trifle smaller than the largest
+piece of pipe; the latter is supposed to have screw threads upon its
+lower end (Fig. 238) so that it may be screwed into the wood, but
+before doing so coat the threads with white lead and also the inside of
+the hole in the block with the same substance.
+
+When the larger pipe is now screwed into the block until its lower end
+is flushed with the outside bottom of the boat, the white lead will not
+only make the process easier, but will tend to keep out the moisture
+and water from the joint.
+
+From the outside thrust the upper end of the small pipe through the
+hole in the bottom until it protrudes the proper distance above the
+larger pipe, and with the point of a nail scratch a mark on the surface
+of the small pipe where it issues from the big one. At this point drill
+a hole through the small pipe to admit a nail which is to act as a peg
+to keep the helm from sliding down and jamming in its bearings.
+
+If you choose, a small seat or deck may be inserted in the stern,
+through which the helm extends and which will help to steady it. The
+top of the helm, or protruding ends of the small pipe may now be bent
+over toward the bow, as shown in the diagram, and by holding some hard
+substance under it, the end may be flattened with a hammer and two
+holes drilled through the flattened end for the rudder-line, as in Fig.
+239. These lines work the rudder and extend on each side of the boat
+through some clothes-lines pulleys, as shown in Fig. 239.
+
+If you slice off the ring from a common rubber hose and slip it
+over the inside pipe before you fasten it in place, it will prevent
+the water from spurting up through the rudder pipe when the boat is
+speeding.
+
+Any boat will leak if not carefully built and the simplest kind of a
+craft carefully put together is as water-tight as the most finished and
+expensive boat.
+
+For a gasoline tank any good galvanized iron vessel will answer if
+it holds five gallons or more of gasoline. It can be placed in the
+bow on a rest made for it. Of course the bottom of the tank must be
+on a level or higher than the carburetor of the engine; the tank is
+connected by a small copper, or block-tin pipe, which you procure with
+the engine.
+
+This boat, if built according to plans, should cost ten dollars or
+less, not counting the cost of the engine. The cost of the latter will
+vary according to the style of one you use, and whether you get it
+first or second hand.
+
+A ten-horse power engine drove a boat of this kind at the rate of
+eighteen miles an hour.
+
+For beginners, this is as far as it is safe to go in boat-building, but
+thus far any one with a rudimentary knowledge of the use of tools can
+go, and, if one has followed the book through from chapter to chapter
+he should be a good boat-builder at
+
+    The End
+
+
+
+
+THE BEARD BOOKS FOR BOYS
+
+_By_ DAN C. BEARD
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+THE AMERICAN BOY'S HANDY BOOK. Or, What to Do and How to Do It
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    Gives sports adapted to all seasons of the year, tells
+    boys how to make all kinds of things--boats, traps,
+    toys, puzzles, aquariums, fishing-tackle; how to
+    tie knots, splice ropes, to make bird calls, sleds,
+    blow-guns, balloons; how to rear wild birds, to train
+    dogs, and do the thousand and one things that boys take
+    delight in.
+
+
+THE OUTDOOR HANDY BOOK. For Playground, Field, and Forest
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    "How to play all sorts of games with marbles, how to
+    make and spin more kinds of tops than most boys ever
+    heard of, how to make the latest things in plain and
+    fancy kites, where to dig bait and how to fish, all
+    about boats and sailing, and a host of other things . . .
+    an unmixed delight to any boy."--_New York Tribune._
+
+
+THE FIELD AND FOREST HANDY BOOK. Or, New Ideas for Out of Doors
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    "Instructions as to ways to build boats and
+    fire-engines, make aquariums, rafts, and sleds, to
+    camp in a back-yard, etc. No better book of the kind
+    exists."--_Chicago Record-Herald._
+
+
+SHELTERS, SHACKS, AND SHANTIES
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    Easily workable directions, accompanied by very full
+    illustration, for over fifty shelters, shacks, and
+    shanties.
+
+
+BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING. A Handy Book for Beginners
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    All that Dan Beard knows and has written about the
+    building of every simple kind of boat, from a raft to a
+    cheap motor-boat, is brought together in this book.
+
+
+THE JACK OF ALL TRADES. Or, New Ideas for American Boys
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    "This book is a capital one to give any boy for a
+    present at Christmas, on a birthday, or indeed at any
+    time."--_The Outlook._
+
+
+THE BOY PIONEERS. Sons of Daniel Boone
+
+    _Illustrated by the author_
+
+    "How to become a member of the 'Sons of Daniel
+    Boone' and take part in all the old pioneer
+    games, and many other things in which boys are
+    interested."--_Philadelphia Press._
+
+
+THE BLACK WOLF-PACK
+
+    "A genuine thriller of mystery and red-blooded
+    conflicts, well calculated to hold the mind and the
+    heart of its boy and, for that matter, its adult
+    reader."--_Philadelphia North American._
+
+
+
+
+THE BEARD BOOKS FOR GIRLS
+
+_By_ LINA BEARD _and_ ADELIA B. BEARD
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+THE AMERICAN GIRL'S HANDY BOOK. How to Amuse Yourself and Others
+
+    _With nearly 500 illustrations_
+
+    "It is a treasure which, once possessed, no practical
+    girl would willingly part with."--GRACE GREENWOOD.
+
+
+THINGS WORTH DOING AND HOW TO DO THEM
+
+    _With some 600 drawings by the authors that show exactly how they
+    should be done_
+
+    "The book will tell you how to do nearly anything that
+    any live girl really wants to do."--_The World To-day._
+
+
+HANDICRAFT AND RECREATION FOR GIRLS
+
+    _With over 700 illustrations by the authors_
+
+    "It teaches how to make serviceable and useful things
+    of all kinds out of every kind of material. It also
+    tells how to play and how to make things to play
+    with."--_Chicago Evening Post._
+
+
+WHAT A GIRL CAN MAKE AND DO. New Ideas for Work and Play
+
+    _With more than 300 illustrations by the authors_
+
+    "It would be a dull girl who could not make herself
+    busy and happy following its precepts. . . . A most
+    inspiring book for an active-minded girl."--_Chicago
+    Record-Herald._
+
+ON THE TRAIL
+
+    _Illustrated by the authors_
+
+    This volume tells how a girl can live outdoors, camping
+    in the woods, and learning to know its wild inhabitants.
+
+
+MOTHER NATURE'S TOY SHOP
+
+    _Profusely illustrated by the authors_
+
+    How children can make toys easily and economically from
+    wild flowers, grasses, green leaves, seed-vessels,
+    fruits, etc.
+
+
+LITTLE FOLKS' HANDY BOOK
+
+    _With many illustrations_
+
+    Contains a wealth of devices for entertaining children
+    by means of paper building-cards, wooden berry-baskets,
+    straw and paper furniture, paper jewelry, etc.
+
+    CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Punctuation errors were corrected.
+
+Inconsistent hyphenation was retained.
+
+Page 42, "staps" changed to "straps" (straps with your hand)
+
+Page 58, "mechancial" changed to "mechanical" (with mechanical aid)
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING***
+
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