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diff --git a/old/44228.txt b/old/44228.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..24ab307 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/44228.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6365 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Boat-Building and Boating, by Daniel Carter +Beard, Illustrated by Daniel Carter Beard + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Boat-Building and Boating + + +Author: Daniel Carter Beard + + + +Release Date: November 18, 2013 [eBook #44228] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING*** + + +E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Emmy, Henry Gardiner, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images +generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 44228-h.htm or 44228-h.zip: + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44228/44228-h/44228-h.htm) + or + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44228/44228-h.zip) + + + Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive. See + https://archive.org/details/boatbuildingboat00bear + + +Transcriber's note: + + Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). + + Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). + + A carat character is used to denote superscription. A + character enclosed by curly brackets following the carat + is superscripted [example: A^{1}]. + + + + + +BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING + + +[Illustration: Bound for a good time] + + +BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING + +by + +D. C. BEARD + +With Many Illustrations by the Author + + + + + + + +New York +Charles Scribner's Sons +1931 + +Copyright, 1911, by +Charles Scribner's Sons + +Printed in the United States of America + +Special Notice + +All the material in this book, both text and cuts, is original with +the author and invented by him; and warning is hereby given that the +unauthorized printing of any portion of the text and the reproduction +of any of the illustrations or diagrams are expressly forbidden. + + +[Illustration: The Scribner Press] + + + + + AFFECTIONATELY + DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF + TOM AND HI + + + + +PREFACE + + +THIS is not a book for yacht-builders, but it is intended for beginners +in the art of boat-building, for boys and men who wish to make +something with which they may navigate the waters of ponds, lakes, or +streams. It begins with the most primitive crafts composed of slabs +or logs and works up to scows, house-boats, skiffs, canoes and simple +forms of sailing craft, a motor-boat, and there it stops. There are so +many books and magazines devoted to the higher arts of ship-building +for the graduates to use, besides the many manufacturing houses which +furnish all the parts of a sail-boat, yacht, or motor-boat for the +ambitious boat-builder to put together himself, that it is unnecessary +for the author to invade that territory. + +Many of the designs in this book have appeared in magazines to which +the author contributed, or in his own books on general subjects, and +all these have been successfully built by hundreds of boys and men. + +Many of them are the author's own inventions, and the others are his +own adaptations of well-known and long-tried models. In writing and +collecting this material for boat-builders from his other works and +placing them in one volume, the author feels that he is fulfilling +the wishes of many of his old readers and offering a useful book to +a large audience of new recruits to the army of those who believe in +the good old American doctrine of: "If you want a thing done, do it +yourself." And by doing it yourself you not only add to your skill and +resourcefulness, but, what is even more important, you develop your own +self-reliance and manhood. + +No one man can think of everything connected with any one subject, +and the author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to several +sportsmen friends, especially to his camp-mate, Mr. F. K. Vreeland, and +his young friend, Mr. Samuel Jackson, for suggestions of great value to +both writer and reader. + + DAN BEARD. + + FLUSHING, L. I., _Sept., 1911._ + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER PAGE + I. HOW TO CROSS A STREAM ON A LOG 3 + II. HOME-MADE BOATS 8 + III. A RAFT THAT WILL SAIL 18 + IV. CANOES 25 + V. CANOES AND BOATING STUNTS 33 + VI. THE BIRCH-BARK 48 + VII. HOW TO BUILD A PADDLING DORY 69 + VIII. THE LANDLUBBER'S CHAPTER 74 + IX. HOW TO RIG AND SAIL SMALL BOATS 96 + X. MORE RIGS OF ALL KINDS FOR SMALL BOATS 111 + XI. KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES 123 + XII. HOW TO BUILD A CHEAP BOAT 139 + XIII. A "ROUGH-AND-READY" BOAT 154 + XIV. HOW TO BUILD CHEAP AND SUBSTANTIAL HOUSE-BOATS 163 + XV. A CHEAP AND SPEEDY MOTOR-BOAT 184 + + + + +Boat-Building and Boating + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.--The logomaran.] + + + + +BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING + + + + +CHAPTER I + +HOW TO CROSS A STREAM ON A LOG + +How to Build a Logomaran + + +THERE is a widespread notion that all wood will float on water, and +this idea often leads to laughable errors. I know a lot of young +backwoods farmers who launched a raft of green oak logs, and were as +much astonished to see their craft settle quietly to the bottom of +the lake as they would have been to see the leaden sinkers of their +fish-lines dance lightly on the surface of the waves. The young fellows +used a day's time to discover what they might have learned in a few +moments by watching the chips sink when they struck the water as they +flew from the skilful blows of their axes. + +The stream which cuts your trail is not always provided with bridges +of fallen trees. It may be a river too deep to ford and too wide to be +bridged by a chance log. Of course it is a simple matter to swim, but +the weather may be cold and the water still colder; besides this, you +will probably be encumbered with a lot of camp equipage--your gun, rod, +and camera--none of which will be improved by a plunge in the water. Or +it may so happen that you are on the shores of a lake unsupplied with +boats, and you have good reasons for supposing that big fish lurk in +some particular spot out of reach from the shore. A thousand and one +emergencies may arise when a craft of some kind will be not only a +great convenience, but almost a necessity. Under these circumstances + + +A Logomaran + +may be constructed in a very short time which can bear you and your +pack safely to the desired goal (Fig. 1). + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.--The notch.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Top view of logomaran.] + +In the Rocky, Cascade, and Selkirk Mountains, the lakes and streams +have their shores plentifully supplied with "whim sticks," logs +of fine dry timber, which the freshets have brought down from the +mountain sides and which the rocks and surging torrents have denuded +of bark. These whim sticks are of all sizes, and as sound and perfect +as kiln-dried logs. Even in the mountains of Pennsylvania, where the +lumberman's axe years ago laid waste the primeval forest, where the +saw-mills have devoured the second growth, the tie-hunter the third +growth, the excelsior-mills and birch-beer factories the saplings, I +still find good sound white pine-log whim sticks strewn along the +shores of the lakes and streams, timber which is suitable for temporary +rafts and logomarans. + +In the North Woods, where in many localities the original forest is +untouched by the devouring pulp-mills, suitable timber is not difficult +to find; so let the green wood stand and select a log of dry wood from +the shore where the floods or ice have deposited it. Cut it into a +convenient length, and with a lever made of a good stout sapling, and a +fulcrum of a stone or chunk of wood, pry the log from its resting-place +and roll it into the shallow water. Notch the log on the upper side, as +shown by Fig. 2, making a notch near each end for the cross-pieces. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Flattened joint.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 5. Fig. 6. + +Matched joints.] + +The two side floats may be made of pieces split, by the aid of wooden +wedges, from a large log, or composed of small whim sticks, as shown by +Fig. 3. + +The floats, as may be seen by reference to Figs. 1 and 3, are shorter +than the middle log. + +It is impracticable to give dimensions, for the reason that they are +relative; the length of the middle log depends, to some extent, upon +its diameter, it being evident that a thick log will support more than +a thin one of the same length; consequently if your log is of small +diameter, it must be longer, in order to support your weight, than will +be necessary for a thicker piece of timber. The point to remember is to +select a log which will support you and your pack, and then attach two +side floats to balance your craft and prevent it from rolling over and +dumping its load in the water. + +An ordinary single shell-boat without a passenger will upset, but +when the oarsman takes his seat and grasps his long spoon oars, the +sweeps, resting on the water, balance the cranky craft, and it cannot +upset as long as the oars are kept there. This is the principle of the +logomaran, as well as that of the common catamaran. The cross-pieces +should be only thick enough to be secure and long enough to prevent the +log from wabbling and wetting your feet more than is necessary. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7.--The saw-buck crib.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 8.--The staked crib.] + + +If You Have an Auger and No Nails + +the craft may be fastened together with wooden pegs cut somewhat larger +than the holes bored to receive them, and driven in with blows from +your axe. + +If you have long nails or spikes the problem is a simple one; but if +you have neither auger, nails, nor spikes you must bind the joints with +rope or hempen twine. + +If you have neither nails, auger, nor rope, a good substitute for the +latter can be made from the long, + + +Fibrous Inner Bark + +of a dead or partly burned tree. For experiment I took some of the +inner bark of a chestnut-tree which had been killed by fire and twisted +it into a rope the size of a clothes-line, then I allowed two strong +men to have a tug-of-war with it, and the improvised rope was stronger +than the men. + + +How to Make a Fibre Rope + +Take one end of a long, loose strand of fibres, give the other end to +another person, and let both twine the ends between the fingers until +the material is well twisted throughout its entire length; then bring +the two ends together, and two sides of the loop thus made will twist +themselves into a cord or rope half the length of the original strand. + +If you nail or peg the parts, use your axe to flatten the joints by +striking off a chip, as in Fig. 4. + +If you must lash the joints together, cut them with log-cabin notches, +as in Figs. 5 and 6. + +If you have baggage to transport, make + + +A Dunnage Crib + +by driving four stakes in cuts made near the end of the centre log and +binding them with rope or fibre (Figs. 7 and 8), or by working green +twigs basket-fashion around them, or make the rack saw-buck fashion, as +shown by Fig. 7, and this will keep your things above water. + +A couple of cleats nailed on each side of the log will be of great +assistance and lessen the danger and insecurity of the footing. + +A skilfully made logomaran will enable you to cross any stream with a +moderate current and any small lake in moderate weather. It is not an +especially dry craft, but it won't sink or upset, and will take one but +a short time to knock it together. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +HOME-MADE BOATS + + Birth of the "Man-Friday" Catamaran--The Crusoe Raft + and Chump Rafts + + +NOT so very many years ago I remember visiting, in company with my +cousin Tom, a small lake at the headwaters of the Miami. High and +precipitous cliffs surround the little body of water. So steep were +the great weather-beaten rocks that it was only where the stream came +tumbling down past an old mill that an accessible path then existed. +Down that path Tom and I scrambled, for we knew that large bass lurked +in the deep, black holes among the rocks. + +We had no jointed split-bamboo rods nor fancy tackle, but the fish +there in those days were not particular and seldom hesitated to bite +at an angle-worm or grasshopper though the hook upon which the bait +squirmed was suspended by a coarse line from a freshly cut hickory +sapling. + +Even now I feel the thrill of excitement and expectancy as, in +imagination, my pole is bent nearly double by the frantic struggles of +those "gamy" black bass. After spending the morning fishing we built +a fire upon a short stretch of sandy beach, and cleaning our fish and +washing them in the spring close at hand, we put them among the embers +to cook. + +While the fire was getting our dinner ready for us we threw off our +clothes and plunged into the cool waters of the lake. Inexpert swimmers +as we were at that time, the opposite shore, though apparently only a +stone's throw distant, was too far off for us to reach by swimming. +Many a longing and curious glance we cast toward it, however, and +strong was the temptation that beset us to try the unknown depths +intervening. A pair of brown ears appeared above the ferns near the +water's edge, and a fox peeped at us; squirrels ran about the fallen +trunks of trees or scampered up the rocks as saucily as though they +understood that we could not swim well enough to reach their side of +the lake; and high up the face of the cliff was a dark spot which we +almost knew to be the entrance to some mysterious cavern. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8-1/2.--The Man-Friday.] + +How we longed for a boat! But not even a raft nor a dugout could be +seen anywhere upon the glassy surface of the water or along its rocky +border. We nevertheless determined to explore the lake next day, even +if we should have to paddle astride of a log. + +The first rays of the morning sun had not reached the dark waters +before my companion and I were hard at work, with axe and hatchet, +chopping in twain a long log we had discovered near the mill. We had +at first intended to build a raft; but gradually we evolved a sort of +catamaran. The two pieces of log we sharpened at the ends for the bow; +then we rolled the logs down upon the beach, and while I went into the +thicket to chop down some saplings my companion borrowed an auger +from the miller. We next placed the logs about three feet apart, and +marking the points where we intended to put the cross-pieces, we cut +notches there; then we placed the saplings across, fitting them into +these notches. To hold them securely we bored holes down through the +sapling cross-pieces into the logs; with the hatchet we hammered wooden +pegs into these holes. For the seat we used the half of a section of +log, the flat side fitting into places cut for that purpose. All that +remained to be done now was to make a seat in the stern and a pair +of rowlocks. At a proper distance from the oarsman's seat we bored +two holes for a couple of forked sticks, which answered admirably for +rowlocks; across the stern we fastened another piece of log similar to +that used for the oarsman's seat (Fig. 8-1/2). With the help of a man +from the mill our craft was launched; and with a pair of oars made of +old pine boards we rowed off, leaving the miller waving his hat. + +Our catamaran was not so light as a row-boat, but it floated, and +we could propel it with the oars, and, best of all, it was our own +invention and made with our own hands. We called it a "Man-Friday," and +by its means we explored every nook in the length and breadth of the +lake; and ever afterward when we wanted a boat we knew a simple and +inexpensive way to make one--and a safe one, too. + + +The Crusoe Raft + +is another rustic craft, but it is of more ambitious dimensions than +the "Man-Friday." Instead of being able to float only one or two +passengers, the "Crusoe," if properly built, ought to accommodate a +considerable party of raftsmen. Of course the purpose for which the +raft is to be used, and the number of the crew that is expected to man +it, must be taken into consideration when deciding upon the dimensions +of the proposed craft. + +All the tools that are necessary for the construction of a good stout +raft are an axe, an auger, and a hatchet, with some strong arms to +wield them. + +The building material can be gathered from any driftwood heap on lake +or stream. + +For a moderate-sized raft collect six or seven logs, the longest not +being over sixteen feet in length nor more than a foot in diameter; the +logs must be tolerably straight. Pick out the longest and biggest for +the centre, sharpen one end, roll the log into the water, and there +secure it. + +Select two logs as nearly alike as possible, to lie one at each side +of the centre log. Measure the centre log, and make the point of each +side log, not at its own centre, but at that side of it which will lie +against the middle log, so that this side point shall terminate where +the pointing of the middle log begins (see Fig. 9). + +[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Plan of Crusoe raft.] + +After all the logs needed have been trimmed and sharpened in the +manner just described, roll them into the water and arrange them in +order (Fig. 9). Fasten them together with "cross-strips," boring holes +through the strips to correspond with holes bored into the logs lying +beneath, and through these holes drive wooden pegs. The pegs should be +a trifle larger than the holes; the water will cause the pegs to swell, +and they will hold much more firmly than iron nails. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Skeleton of Crusoe raft.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Crusoe with cabin covered.] + +The skeleton of the cabin can be made of saplings; such as are used for +hoop-poles are the best. + +These are each bent into an arch, and the ends are thrust into holes +bored for that purpose. Over this hooping a piece of canvas is +stretched, after the manner of old-fashioned country wagons (Figs. 10 +and 11). + +Erect a "jack-staff," to be used as a flag-pole or a mast to rig a +square sail on. + +A stout stick should be erected at the stern, and a similar one upon +each side of the raft near the bow; these sticks, when their ends are +made smaller, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 10), serve as rowlocks. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Sweeps.] + +For oars use "sweeps"--long poles, each with a piece of board for a +blade fastened at one end (Fig. 12). + +Holes must be bored through the poles of the sweeps about three feet +from the handle, to slip over the pegs used as rowlocks, as described +above. These pegs should be high enough to allow the oarsman to stand +while using the sweeps. + +A flat stone or earth box placed at the bow will serve as a fireplace. + +If the cracks between the logs under the cabin are filled up to +prevent the water splashing through, and the cabin is floored with +cross-sticks, a most comfortable bed at night can be made of hay, by +heaping it under the canvas cover in sufficient quantities. + +The Crusoe raft has this great advantage over all boats: you may take a +long trip down the river, allowing the current to bear you along, using +the sweeps only to assist the man at the helm (rear sweep); then, after +your excursion is finished you may abandon your raft and return by +steam-boat or train. A very useful thing to the swimmers, when they are +skylarking in the water, is + + +The Chump's Raft + +Its construction is simple. Four boards, each about six feet long, are +nailed together in the form of a square, with the ends of the boards +protruding, like the figure drawn upon a school-boy's slate for the +game of "Tit, tat, toe" (Fig. 13). + +[Illustration: Fig. 13.--The chump's raft.] + +All nail-points must be knocked off and the heads hammered home, to +prevent serious scratches and wounds on the bather's body when he +clambers over the raft or slips off in an attempt to do so (Fig. 14). + +Beginners get in the middle hole, and there, with a support within +reach all around them, they can venture with comparative safety in deep +water. + +The raft, which I built as a model fifteen years ago, is still in use +at my summer camp, where scores of young people have used it with a +success proved by their present skill as swimmers. But many camps +are located in a section of the country where boards are as scarce +as boarding-houses, but where timber, in its rough state, exists in +abundance. The campers in such locations can make + + +A Chump's Raft of Logs + +[Illustration: Fig. 14.--A beginner in a chump's raft.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Looking down on a chump's raft in motion.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Side view of chump's log raft.] + +Such a float consists of two dried logs fastened together at each end +by cross-slabs, so as to form a rude catamaran. These rafts can be +towed through deep water by a canoe or row-boat, with the tenderfoot +securely swung in a sling between the logs, where he may practice +the hand-and-foot movement with a sense of security which only the +certainty that he is surrounded by a wooden life-preserver will give +him. Fig. 15 shows a top view of the new chump's raft. In Fig. 16 the +two logs are connected fore and aft by cross-slabs; two more upright +slabs are nailed securely to the side of the logs; notches having been +cut in the top ends of these slabs, a stout cross-piece is securely +nailed to them and the towel or rope sling suspended from the middle +of the cross-piece. In regard to the dimensions of the raft it is +only necessary to say that it should be wide and long enough to allow +free movement of the arms and legs of the pupil who is suspended +between the logs. In almost every wilderness stream there can be found +piles of driftwood on the shore where one may select good, dried, +well-seasoned pine or spruce logs from which to make rafts. If such +heaps of driftwood are not within reach, look for some standing dead +timber and select that which is of sufficient dimensions to support a +swimmer, and be careful that it is not hollow or rotten in the core. +Rotten wood will soon become water-logged and heavy. Fig. 17 shows the +position of the swimmer supported by the chump's sling. If your raft +has a tendency to work so that one log pulls ahead of the other, it may +be braced by cross-pieces, such as are shown at J and K in Fig. 18. +This figure also shows supports for a suspension pole made by nailing +two sticks to each side and allowing the ends to cross so as to form a +crotch in which the supporting rod rests and to which it is securely +fastened by nails, or by being bound there by a piece of rope, as in A, +Fig. 19. B, Fig. 19, shows the crotch made by resting L in a fork on +the M stick and then nailing or binding it in place. C, Fig. 19, shows +the two sticks, L and M, joined by notches cut log-cabin fashion before +they are nailed in place. + +[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Learning to swim by aid of a chump sling.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Details of saw-buck supports.] + +Although many summers have rolled around since the author first made +his advent on this beautiful earth, he still feels the call of the +bathing pool, the charm of the spring-board, almost as keenly as he did +when he was wont to swim in Blue Hole at Yellow Springs, Ohio, or dive +from the log rafts into the Ohio River, or slide down the "slippery" +made in the steep muddy banks of the Licking River, Kentucky. + +[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Another way to rig a chump.] + + + + +CHAPTER III + +A RAFT THAT WILL SAIL + + The Raft is Just the Thing for Camp Life--Pleasurable + Occupation for a Camping Party Where Wood is + Plentiful--You Will Need Axes and Hatchets and a Few + Other Civilized Implements + + +FIRST we will select two pine logs of equal length, and, while the +water is heating for our coffee, we will sharpen the butt, or larger +end, of the logs on one side with the axe, making a "chisel edge," as +shown in Fig. 20. This gives us an appetite for breakfast and makes the +big fish in the lake, as they jump above the water, cast anxious looks +toward our camp. + +Breakfast finished, we will cut some cross-pieces to join our two logs +together, and at equal distances apart we will bore holes through the +cross-pieces for peg-holes (Figs. 21, 22, and 23). While one of the +party is fashioning a number of pegs, each with a groove in one side, +like those shown in Fig. 24, the others will roll the logs into the +water and secure them in a shallow spot. + +Shoes and stockings must be removed, for most of the work is now to be +done in the water. Of course, it would be much easier done on land, but +the raft will be very heavy and could never be launched unless under +the most favorable circumstances. It is better to build the craft in +the element which is to be its home. + +Cut two long saplings for braces, and after separating the logs the +proper distance for your cross-pieces to fit, nail your braces in +position, as represented by Fig. 20. + +[Illustration: Fig. 20.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 25.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 26.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 21.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 22.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 23.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 27.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 28.] + +[Illustration: PARTS OF MAN-FRIDAY SAILING-RAFT. + +20.--Logs in place with braces. Figs. 21, 22, and 23.--Struts. Fig. +24.--Pegs. Fig. 25.--Raft with middle and stern strut in place. Fig. +26.--Springs for dry deck. Fig. 27.--Dry deck. Fig. 28.--Dry deck in +place.] + +This holds the logs steady, and we may now lay the two cross-pieces in +position, and mark the points on the logs carefully where the holes +are to be bored to correspond with the ones in the cross-pieces. Bore +the holes in one log first; make the holes deep enough and then fill +them with water, after which drive the pegs through the ends of the +cross-pieces and into the log. The grooves in the pegs (Fig. 24) will +allow the water to escape from the holes and the water will cause the +peg to swell and tighten its hold on the log and cross-pieces. + +Now bore holes in the other log under those in the cross-pieces and +fill them with water before driving the pegs home, as you did in the +first instance. Fig. 25 is a Man-Friday raft. + + +The Deck + +Before placing the bow in position we must go ashore and make a dry +deck. Selecting for the springs two long green ash or hickory poles, +trim the ends off flat on one side, as shown by Fig. 26. This flat side +is the bottom, so roll them over, with the flat side toward the ground, +and if you can find no planks or barrel staves for a deck, split in +half a number of small logs and peg or nail them on the top side of the +springs, as in Fig. 27. + +Now all hands must turn out and carry the deck down to the raft and +place it in position, with the flattened sides of the springs resting +on top of the logs at the bow. Prop it up in this position, and then +bore holes through the springs into the logs and peg the springs down. +Over the flat ends place the heavy bow cross-piece, bore the peg-holes, +and fasten it in position (Fig. 28). + +In the centre of the bow cross-piece bore several holes close together +and chip out the wood between to make a hole, as square a one as +possible, for the mast to fit or "step" in. With the wood from a +packing-box or a slab from a log make the bench for the mast. + +Bore a hole through the bench a trifle astern of the step, or hole, for +the mast below. It will cause the mast to "rake" a little "aft." You +have done a big day's work, but a couple of days ought to be sufficient +time to finish the craft. + + +The Sail + +[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Sail for Man-Friday.] + +Turn over the raw edges of the old sail-cloth and stitch them down, as +in Fig. 29--that is, if you have the needle and thread for the purpose; +if not, trim the cloth to the proper form and two inches from the +luff (the side next to the mast). Cut a number of holes; these should +be stitched like button-holes, if possible, but if the sail-cloth is +tough and we have no needle, we shall have to let them go unstitched. A +small loop of rope must be sewed or fastened in some other manner very +securely to each corner of the sail. + +From spruce pine or an old fishing-pole make a sprit, and of a good, +straight piece of pine manufacture your mast somewhat longer than the +luff of the sail (Fig. 29). + +Through the eyelets lace the luff of the sail to the mast, so that its +lower edge will clear the dry deck by about a foot. + +[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Scudding before the wind.] + +Through the hole made for the purpose in the bench (Fig. 30) thrust the +mast into the step, or socket, that we have cut in the bow cross-piece. +Tie to the loop at the bottom corner of the sail a strong line about +twelve feet long for a sheet with which to control the sail. + +Trim the upper end of the sprit to fit in the loop at the upper outer +corner of the sail, and make a notch in the lower end to fit in the +loop of the line called the "snotter." + +Now, as you can readily see, when the sprit is pushed diagonally upward +the sail is spread; to hold it in place make a loop of line for a +"snotter" and attach the loop to the mast, as in Figs. 29 and 30. Fit +the loop in the notch in the lower end of the sprit, and the sail is +set. + + +The Keelig + +We need anchors, one for the bow and one for the stern. It takes +little time to make them, as you only need a forked stick, a stone, +and a piece of plank, or, better still, a barrel stave. Figs. 35 to +39 show how this is made. Down East the fishermen use the "keelig" in +preference to any other anchor. + +[Illustration: Fig. 31.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 32.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 33.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 34.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 37.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 35.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 36.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 38.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 39.] + +Make fast your lines to the "keelig" thus: Take the end of the rope in +your right hand and the standing part (which is the part leading from +the boat) in your left hand and form the loop (A, Fig. 31). + +Then with the left hand curve the cable from you, bringing the end +through the loop, as in B, Fig. 32; then lead it around and down, as in +C, Fig. 33. + +Draw it tight, as in D, Fig. 34, and you have the good, old-fashioned +knot, called by sailors the "bow-line." + +To make it look neat and shipshape you may take a piece of +string and bind the standing part to the shaft of your anchor or +keelig--keelek--killick--killeck--kelleck--kellock--killock, etc., as +you may choose to spell it. + +A paddle to steer with and two pegs in the stern cross-piece to rest it +in complete the craft; and now the big bass had better use due caution, +because our lines will reach their haunts, and we are after them! + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +CANOES + + The Advantages of a Canoe--How to Make the Slab Canoe + and the Dugout--How to Make a Siwash and a White Man's + Dugout + + +THERE are many small freak crafts invented each year, but none of them +has any probabilities of being popularly used as substitutes for the +old models. + +Folding canoes, as a rule, are cranky, but the writer has found them +most convenient when it was necessary to transport them long distances +overland. They are not, however, the safest of crafts; necessarily they +lack the buoyant wooden frame and lining of the ordinary canvas canoe, +which enables it to float even when filled with water. + +The author owes his life to the floating properties of his canvas +canoe. On one occasion when it upset in a driving easterly storm the +wind was off shore, and any attempt upon the canoeist's part to swim +toward shore would have caused him to have been suffocated by the tops +of the waves which the wind cut off, driving the water with stinging +force into his face so constantly that, in order to breathe at all, +he had to face the other way. He was at length rescued by a steamer, +losing nothing but the sails and his shoes. Nevertheless, the same +storm which capsized his little craft upset several larger boats and +tore the sails from others. + +The advantages of a good canoe are many for the young navigators: they +can launch their own craft, pick it up when occasion demands and carry +it overland. It is safe in experienced hands in any weather which is +fit for out-door amusement. When you are "paddling your own canoe" you +are facing to the front and can see what is ahead of you, which is much +safer and more pleasant than travelling backward, like a crawfish. + +[Illustration: Fig. 40.] + +The advance-guard of modern civilization is the lumberman, and +following close on his heels comes the all-devouring saw-mill. This +fierce creature has an abnormal appetite for logs, and it keeps an +army of men, boys, and horses busy in supplying it with food. While it +supplies us with lumber for the carpenter, builder, and cabinet-maker, +it at the same time, in the most shameful way, fills the trout streams +and rivers with great masses of sawdust, which kills and drives away +the fish. But near the saw-mill there is always to be found material +for a + + +Slab Canoe + +which consists simply of one of those long slabs, the first cut from +some giant log (Fig. 43). + +These slabs are burned or thrown away by the mill-owners, and hence +cost nothing; and as the saw-mill is in advance of population, you are +most likely to run across one on a hunting or fishing trip. + +Near one end, and on the flat side of the slab (Fig. 40), bore four +holes, into which drive the four legs of a stool made of a section of a +smaller slab (Fig. 41), and your boat is ready to launch. From a piece +of board make a double or single paddle (Fig. 42), and you are equipped +for a voyage. An old gentleman, who in his boyhood days on the frontier +frequently used this simple style of canoe, says that the speed it +makes will compare favorably with that of many a more pretentious +vessel. See Fig. 43 for furnished boat. + + +The Dugout + +Although not quite as delicate in model or construction as the graceful +birch-bark canoe, the "dugout" of the Indians is a most wonderful piece +of work, when we consider that it is carved from the solid trunk of +a giant tree with the crudest of tools, and is the product of savage +labor. + +[Illustration: Fig. 41.] + +Few people now living have enjoyed the opportunity of seeing one built +by the Indians, and, as the author is not numbered among that select +few, he considers it a privilege to be able to quote the following +interesting account given by Mr. J. H. Mallett, of Helena. + + +How to Build a Siwash Canoe + +"While visiting one of the small towns along Puget Sound, I was greatly +interested in the way the Indians built their canoes. It is really +wonderful how these aborigines can, with the crudest means and with a +few days' work, convert an unwieldy log into a trim and pretty canoe. + +[Illustration: Fig. 42.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Slab canoe.] + +"One Monday morning I saw a buck building a fire at the base of a +large cedar-tree, and he told me that this was the first step in the +construction of a canoe that he intended to use upon the following +Saturday. He kept the fire burning merrily all that day and far +into the night, when a wind came up and completed the downfall of +the monarch of the forest. The next day the man arose betimes, and, +borrowing a cross-cut saw from a logger, cut the trunk of the tree in +twain at a point some fifteen feet from where it had broken off, and +then with a dull hatchet he hacked away until the log had assumed the +shape of the desired canoe. In this work he was helped by his squaw. +The old fellow then built a fire on the upper part of the log, guiding +the course of the fire with daubs of clay, and in due course of time +the interior of the canoe had been burned out. Half a day's work with +the hatchet rendered the inside smooth and shapely. + +"The canoe was now, I thought, complete, though it appeared to be +dangerously narrow of beam. This the Indian soon remedied. He filled +the shell two-thirds full of water, and into the fluid he dropped half +a dozen stones that had been heating in the fire for nearly a day. The +water at once attained a boiling point, and so softened the wood that +the buck and squaw were enabled to draw out the sides and thus supply +the necessary breadth of beam. Thwarts and slats were then placed in +the canoe and the water and stones thrown out. When the steamed wood +began to cool and contract, the thwarts held it back, and the sides +held the thwarts, and there the canoe was complete, without a nail, +joint, or crevice, for it was made of one piece of wood. The Siwash did +not complete it as soon as he had promised, but it only took him eight +days." + +[Illustration: Fig. 44.--The dugout.] + +In the North-eastern part of our country, before the advent of the +canvas canoe, beautiful and light birch-bark craft were used by the +Indians, the voyagers, trappers, and white woodsmen. But in the South +and in the North-west, the dugout takes the place of the birch-bark. +Among the North-western Indians the dugouts are made from the trunks +of immense cedar-trees and built with high, ornamental bows, which are +brilliantly decorated with paint. On the eastern shore of Maryland and +Virginia the dugout is made into a sail-boat called the buck-eye, or +bug-eye. But all through the Southern States, from the Ohio River to +the Gulf of Mexico and in Mexico, the dugout is made of a hollowed log +after the manner of an ordinary horse trough, and often it is as crude +as the latter, but it can be made almost as beautiful and graceful as a +birch-bark canoe. + + +How to Make a White Man's Dugout Canoe + +To make one of these dugout canoes one must be big and strong enough +to wield an axe, but if the readers are too young for this work, they +are none too young to know how to make one, and their big brothers and +father can do the work. Since the dugout occupies an important position +in the history of our country, every boy scout should know how it is +made. + +[Illustration: Fig. 45.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 48.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 49.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 50.] + +Fig. 44 shows one of these canoes afloat; Fig. 45 shows a tall, +straight tree suitable for our purpose, and it also shows how the +tree is cut and the arrangement of the kerfs, or two notches, so that +it will fall in the direction of the arrow in the diagram. You will +notice along the ground are shown the ends of a number of small logs. +These are the skids, or rollers, upon which the log will rest when the +tree is cut and felled. The tree will fall in the direction in which +the arrow is pointed if there is no wind. If you have never cut down +a tree, be careful to take some lessons of a good woodsman before you +attempt it. + +When the log is trimmed off at both ends like Fig. 46, flatten the +upper side with the axe. This is for the bottom of the canoe; the flat +part should be about a foot and a half wide to extend from end to end +of the log. Now, with some poles for pryers, turn your log over so that +it will rest with the flat bottom on the skids, as in Fig. 46. + +[Illustration: Fig. 46.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 47.] + +Next take a chalk-line and fasten it at the two ends of the log, as +shown by the dotted line in Figs. 46, 47, 48, 49. + +Snap the line so that it will make a straight mark as shown by the +dotted line; then trim off the two ends for the bow and stern, as shown +in Fig. 47. Next cut notches down to the dotted line, as illustrated +in Fig. 48; then cut away from the bow down to the first notch, making +a curved line, as shown in Fig. 49 (which is cut to second notch). Do +the same with the stern, making duplicates of the bow and stern. The +spaces between the notches amidships may now be split off by striking +your axe along the chalk-line and then carefully driving in wooden +wedges. When this is all done you will have Fig. 50. You can now turn +the log over and trim off the edges of the bow and stern so that they +will slope, as shown in Fig. 44, in a rounded curve; after which roll +the canoe back again upon its bottom and with an adze and axe hollow +out the inside, leaving some solid wood at both bow and stern--not +that you need the wood for strength, but to save labor. When you have +decided upon the thickness of the sides of your canoe, take some small, +pointed instrument, like an awl, for instance, and make holes with it +to the required depth at intervals along the sides and bottom of the +canoe. Then take some small sticks (as long as the canoe sides are to +be thick), make them to fit the holes, blacken their ends, and drive +them into the holes. + +As soon as you see one from the inside, you will know that you have +made the shell thin enough. Use a jack-plane to smooth it off inside +and out; then build a big fire and heat some stones. Next fill the +canoe with water and keep dumping the hot stones in the water until the +latter is almost or quite to boiling point. The hot water will soften +the wood so that the sides will become flexible, and you can then fit +in some braces at the bow, stern, and centre of the canoe. Make the +centre brace or seat some inches wider than the log, so that when it is +forced in place it will spread the canoe in the middle. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +CANOES AND BOATING STUNTS + + How to Build a War Canoe--How to Build a Canvas + Canoe--How to Build an Umbrella Canoe--How Old + Shells Can be Turned into Boys' Boats--Cause of + Upsets--Landing from, and Embarking in, a Shell--How to + Mend Checks and Cracks + + +IN making canoes the Indians used birch bark for the cover, rock maple +for the cross-bars, and white cedar for the rest of the frame. We will +substitute canvas for the birch bark and any old wood that we can for +the rock maple and the white cedar. _Real woodcraft is best displayed +in the ability to use the material at hand._ + +David Abercrombie, the outfitter, some time ago presented Andrew J. +Stone, the Arctic explorer and mighty hunter, with a small piece of +light, water-proof cloth to use as a shelter tent in bad weather. But +Stone, like the hunter that he was, slept unprotected on the mountain +side in the sleet and driving storms, and used the water-proof cloth to +protect the rare specimens he had shot. One day a large, rapid torrent +lay in his path; there was no lumber large enough with which to build +a raft, and the only wood for miles around was small willow bushes +growing along the river bank. At his command, his three Indians made +a canoe frame of willow sticks, tied together with bits of cloth and +string. Stone set this frame in the middle of his water-proof cloth, +tied the cloth over the frame with other pieces of string, and using +only small clubs for paddles, he and his men crossed the raging torrent +in this makeshift, which was loaded with their guns, camera, and +specimens that he had shot on the trip. + +After reading the above there is no doubt the reader will be able to +build a war canoe with barrel-hoop ribs and lattice-work slats. In +the writer's studio is a long piece of maple, one and one-half inches +wide and one-quarter inch thick, which was left by the workmen when +they put down a hard-wood floor. If you can get some similar strips, +either of oak, maple, or birch, from the dealers in flooring material, +they will not be expensive and will make splendid gunwales for your +proposed canoe. There should be four such strips. The hard-wood used +for flooring splits easily, and holes should be bored for the nails +or screws to prevent cracking the wood when the nails or screws are +driven home. Fig. 51 shows the framework (side view) of the canoe; +Fig. 52 shows an end view of the same canoe; Fig. 53 shows the middle +section, and Fig. 54 shows the form of the bow and stern sections. This +boat may be built any length you wish, and so that you may get the +proper proportions, the diagrams from one to five are marked off in +equal divisions. To make patterns of the moulds, Figs. 53 and 54, take +a large piece of manila paper, divide it up into the same number of +squares as the diagram, make the squares any size you may decide upon, +and then trace the line, 1-H-10, as it is in the diagrams. This will +give you the patterns of the two moulds (Figs. 53 and 54). While you +are looking at these figures, it may be well to call your attention to +the way bow and stern pieces are made. In Fig. 63 the pieces Y and X +are made from pieces of a packing-box, notched and nailed together with +a top piece, U, and a brace, V. + +[Illustration: Fig. 53. + +Fig. 54. + +Fig. 51. + +Fig. 52. + +Fig. 57. + +Fig. 58. + +Fig. 56. + +Fig. 59. + +Fig. 55.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 62. Fig. 60. Fig. 61. + +Conventional bow, but made of barrel-heads.] + +The other end of the same canoe is, as you may see, strengthened and +protected by having a barrel-hoop tacked over the stem-pieces, Y, X, +U. In Fig. 64 we use different material; here the stem-piece is made +of a broken bicycle rim, U, braced by the pieces of packing-box, Y, V, +and W. The left-hand end of Fig. 64 is made with pieces of head of a +barrel, X and U. The bottom of the stem-piece Y is made of the piece +of a packing-box. The two braces V are parts of the barrel-stave. Fig. +60 shows the common form of the bow of a canoe. The stem-pieces X, +Y are made of the parts of the head of a barrel, as shown in Fig. 62. +To make a stem from a barrel-head, nail the two pieces X and Y, Fig. +56, together as shown in this particular diagram. Now take another +piece of barrel-head, Fig. 57, and saw off a piece, A', D', C', so that +it will fit neatly over A, C, D, on Fig. 56. Nail this securely in +place, and then in the same manner cut another piece to fit over the +part E, C, B, and nail that in place. Use small nails, but let them be +long enough so that you may clinch them by holding an axe or an iron +against the head while you hammer the protruding points down, or drive +the nail a little on the bias and holding the axe or iron on the side +it is to come through and let it strike the nail as it comes out and +it will clinch itself. To fasten the stem-piece to the keel use two +pieces of packing-box or board, cut in the form of Fig. 58, and nail +these securely to the bow-piece as in Z, in Fig. 60. Then from the +bottom side of the keel H, nail the keel-pieces firmly to the keel as +in Fig. 61. Also drive some nails from Z to the top down to the keel, +as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 60. The end view, Fig. 59, shows +how the two Z pieces hug and support the stem-piece on the keel H. Fig. +55 shows a half of the top view of the canoe gunwales; the dimensions, +marked in feet and inches, are taken from an Indian birch-bark canoe. +You see by the diagram that it is eight feet from the centre of the +middle cross-piece to the end of the big opening at the bow. It is +also three feet from the centre of the middle cross-piece to the next +cross-piece, and thirty inches from the centre of that cross-piece to +the bow cross-piece, which is just thirty inches from the eight-foot +mark. The middle cross-piece in a canoe of these dimensions is +seven-eighths of an inch thick, and thirty inches long between the +gunwales; the next cross-piece is three-quarters of an inch thick and +twenty-two and one-half inches long. The next one is half an inch +wide, two inches thick and twelve inches between the gunwales. These +cross-pieces can be made of the staves of a barrel. Of course, this +would be a canoe of sixteen feet inside measurement, not counting the +flattened part of the bow and stern. Now, then, to build the canoe. +First take the keel-piece, H, which is in this case a piece of board +about six inches wide and only thick enough to be moderately stiff. Lay +the keel on any level surface and put the stem-pieces on as already +described, using packing-box for X, U, V, Y, and Z, and bracing them +with a piece of packing-box on each side, marked W in diagram (Fig. +51). Then make three moulds, one for the centre (Fig. 53), and two more +for the bow and stern (Fig. 54). Notch the bottom of these moulds to +fit the keel and with wire nails make them fast to the keel, leaving +the ends of the nails protruding far enough to be easily withdrawn when +you wish to remove the moulds. In nailing the laths to the moulds (Fig. +51) leave the heads of the nails also protruding so that they may be +removed. Place the moulds in position, with the middle one in the exact +centre, and the two ends located like those in Figs. 63 and 64. Place +and nail gunwale, L, on as in Fig. 51, tacking it to the bow and stern +and bending it around to fit the moulds; tack the lattice slats M, N, +O, P on to the bow, stern, and moulds, as shown in Fig. 51. + +If your barrel-hoops are stiff and liable to break while bending and +unbending, let them soak a couple of days in a tub of water, then +before fitting them to the form of the canoe make them more pliable +by pouring hot water on them. The barrel-hoop S, R, at the bow of the +canoe, is nailed to the top-piece U, to the inside of the slats L, M, +N, O, P, and to the outside of H. The next three ribs on each side are +treated in the same manner; repeat this at the other end of the canoe +and nail the intervening ribs to the top of H and to the inside of the +slats, following the model of the boat. Put the ribs about four inches +apart and clinch the nails as already described. + +In the diagrams there is no temporary support for the canoe frame +except the wooden horses, as in Fig. 51. These supports have been +purposely omitted in the drawing, as it is desirable to keep it as +simple as possible. Some temporary support will be necessary to hold +the bow and stern-piece in Fig. 51. These supports can be nailed or +screwed temporarily to the canoe frame so as to hold it rigid while you +are at work on it. + +After the ribs are all in place and the framework completed, turn the +canoe upside down upon the wooden horses--for a canoe as large as the +one in the first diagram you will need three horses, one at each end +and one in the middle. For a canoe of the dimensions marked in Fig. 55, +that is, sixteen feet inside measurement, you would need about seven +yards of ten-ounce cotton canvas, of sufficient width to reach up over +the sides of your canoe. Take a tape-measure or a piece of ordinary +tape or a long strip of manila paper and measure around the bottom of +the boat at its widest part in the middle from one gunwale (top of +side) to the other, and see that your cloth is fully as wide as your +measurement. Fold the canvas lengthwise so as to find its exact centre +and crease it. With two or three tacks fasten the cloth at its centre +line (the crease) to the stem-piece of the canoe. Stretch the canvas +the length of the boat with the crease of centre-line along the centre +of the keel; pull it as taut as may be and again tack the centre line +to the stem at this end of the craft. If this has been done carefully +the cloth will hang an equal length over each side of the canoe. Now +begin amidships and drive tacks about two inches apart along the +gunwale, say an inch below the top surface. After having tacked it for +about two feet, go to the other side of the boat, pull the cloth taut +and in the same manner tack about three feet. Continue this process +first one side and then the other until finished. While stretching the +cloth knead it with the hand and fingers so as to thicken or "full" +it where it would otherwise wrinkle; by doing this carefully it is +possible to stretch the canvas over the frame without the necessity +of cutting it. The cloth that extends beyond the frame may be brought +over the gunwale and tacked along the inside. Use four-ounce tinned or +copper tacks. The canvas is now stretched on every part except on the +high, rolling bow and stern. With a pair of shears slit the canvas from +the outer edge of the bow and stern within a half inch of the ends of +the keel. + +[Illustration: Fig. 63.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 64. + +High bows framework made of packing-box and barrel-heads.] + +Fold the right-hand flap thus made at the left-hand end around the bow +and stern and, drawing tight, tack it down, then fold the left-hand +flap over the right-hand side and tack it in a similar manner, trimming +off the remaining cloth neatly. The five braces, three of which are +shown in Fig. 55, may be nailed to the gunwales of the canoe, as the +temporary moulds are removed. The braces should be so notched that the +top ends of the braces will fit over the top edge of the gunwale and +their lower edges will fit against the sides. Give the boat at least +three good coats of paint and nail the two extra gunwale strips on the +outside of the canvas for guards. + +When it is dry and the boat is launched you may startle the onlookers +and make the echoes ring with: + +"Wo-ach! wo-ach! Ha-ha-ha-hack--wo-ach!" which is said to be the +identical war cry with which the Indians greeted the landing of our +Pilgrim Fathers. + +The reader must not suppose that barrel-hoops are the best material +for ribs; they are but a makeshift, and although good-looking, +servicable canoes have been built of this material from the foregoing +descriptions, better ones may be made by using better material, such, +for instance, as is described in the making of the birch-bark canoe. + + +Old Shells + +Where there are oarsmen and boat-clubs, there you will find beautiful +shell boats of paper or cedar, shaped like darning-needles, so slight +in structure that a child can knock a hole in them, and yet very +seaworthy boats for those who understand how to handle them. The +expensive material and skilled labor necessary to build a racing shell +puts the price of one so high that few boys can afford to buy one; but +where new shells are to be found there are also old ones, and when they +are too old to sell they are thrown away. Many an old shell rots on +the meadows near the boat-houses or rests among the rafters forgotten +and unused, which with a little work would make a boat capable of +furnishing no end of fun to a boy. + + +Checks or Cracks + +can be pasted over with common manila wrapping-paper by first covering +the crack with a coat of paint, or, better still, of varnish, then +fitting the paper smoothly over the spot and varnishing the paper. +Give the paper several coats of varnish, allowing it to dry after each +application, and the paper will become impervious to water. The deck +of a shell is made of thin muslin or paper, treated with a liberal +coat of varnish, and can be patched with similar material. There are +always plenty of slightly damaged oars which have been discarded by the +oarsmen. The use of a saw and jack-knife in the hands of a smart boy +can transform these wrecks into serviceable oars for his patched-up old +shell, and if the work is neatly done, the boy will be the proud owner +of a real shell boat, and the envy of his comrades. + + +The Cause of Upsets + +A single shell that is very cranky with a man in it is comparatively +steady when a small boy occupies the seat. Put on your bathing clothes +when you wish to try a shell, so that you may be ready for the +inevitable upset. Every one knows, when he looks at one of these long, +narrow boats, that as long as the oars are held extended _on the water_ +it cannot upset. But, in spite of that knowledge, every one, when he +first gets into a shell, endeavors to balance himself by _lifting the +oars_, and, of course, goes over in a jiffy. + + +The Delights of a Shell + +It is an error to suppose that the frail-looking, needle-like boat is +only fit for racing purposes. For a day on the water, in calm weather, +there is, perhaps, nothing more enjoyable than a single shell. The +exertion required to send it on its way is so slight, and the speed +so great, that many miles can be covered with small fatigue. Upon +referring to the log-book of the Nereus Club, where the distances are +all taken from the United States chart, the author finds that twenty +and thirty miles are not uncommon records for single-shell rows. + +During the fifteen or sixteen seasons that the author has devoted his +spare time to the sport he has often planned a heavy cruising shell, +but owing to the expense of having such a boat built he has used the +ordinary racing boat, and found it remarkably well adapted for such +purposes. Often he has been caught miles away from home in a blow, and +only once does he remember of being compelled to seek assistance. + +He was on a lee shore and the waves were so high that after once being +swamped he was unable to launch his boat again, for it would fill +before he could embark. So a heavy rowboat and a coachman were borrowed +from a gentleman living on the bay, and while the author rowed, the +coachman towed the little craft back to the creek where the Nereus +club-house is situated. + +In the creek, however, the water was calmer, and rather than stand the +jeers of his comrades, the writer embarked in his shell and rowed up to +the boat-house float. He was very wet and his boat was full of water, +but to the inquiry of "Rough out in the bay?" he confined himself to +the simple answer--"Yes." Then dumping the water from his shell and +placing it upon the rack he put on his dry clothes and walked home, +none the worse for the accident. + +After ordinary skill and confidence are acquired it is really +astonishing what feats can be accomplished in a frail racing boat. + +[Illustration: Fig. 65. A Fig. 66. B Fig. 67. C Fig. 68. D Fig. 69. E +Fig. 70. F Fig. 71. Fig. 72. Fig. 73. Fig. 74. Fig. 75. + +PARTS OF THE UMBRELLA CANOE. + + A = Plank. + B = Rib } + C = Rib } + D = Rib } in process of construction. + E = Rib } + F = Rib } + G, G' = Thimbles. + H = Plank. + J and K = Stretcher unfinished and finished.] + +It is not difficult to + + +Stand Upright In a Shell + +if you first take one of your long stockings and tie the handles of +your oars together where they cross each other in front of you. The +ends will work slightly and the blades will keep their positions on the +water, acting as two long balances. Now slide your seat as far forward +as it will go, slip your feet from the straps and grasp the straps with +your hand, moving the feet back to a comfortable position. When all +ready raise yourself by pulling on the foot strap, and with ordinary +care you can stand upright in the needle-shaped boat, an apparently +impossible thing to do when you look at the narrow craft. + + +How to Land Where There Is No Float + +When for any reason you wish to land where there is no float, row into +shallow water and put one foot overboard until it touches bottom. Then +follow with the other foot, rise, and you are standing astride of your +boat. + + +How to Embark Where There Is No Float + +Wade out and slide the shell between your extended legs until the seat +is underneath you. Sit down, and, with the feet still in the water, +grasp your oars. With these in your hands it is an easy task to balance +the boat until you can lift your feet into it. + + +Ozias Dodge's Umbrella Canoe + +Mr. Dodge is a Yale man, an artist, and an enthusiastic canoeist. The +prow of his little craft has ploughed its way through the waters of +many picturesque streams in this country and Europe, by the river-side, +under the walls of ruined castles, where the iron-clad warriors once +built their camp-fires, and near pretty villages, where people dress as +if they were at a fancy-dress ball. + +When a young man like Mr. Dodge says that he has built a folding canoe +that is not hard to construct, is inexpensive and practical, there +can be little doubt that such a boat is not only what is claimed for +it by its inventor, but that it is a novelty in its line, and such is +undoubtedly the case with the umbrella canoe. + + +How the Canoe Was Built + +The artist first secured a white-ash plank (A, Fig. 65), free from +knots and blemishes of all kinds. The plank was one inch thick and +about twelve feet long. At the mill he had this sawed into eight strips +one inch wide, one inch thick, and twelve feet long (B and C, Figs. 66 +and 67). Then he planed off the square edges of each stick until they +were all octagonal in form, and looked like so many great lead-pencils +(D, Fig. 68). + +[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Frame of umbrella canoe.] + +Mr. Dodge claims that, after you have reduced the ash poles to this +octagonal form, it is an easy matter to whittle them with your +pocket-knife or a draw-knife, and by taking off all the angles of the +sticks make them cylindrical in form (E, Fig. 69); then smooth them off +nicely with sand-paper, so that each pole has a smooth surface and is +three-quarters of an inch in diameter. + +[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Umbrella canoe.] + +After the poles were reduced to this state he whittled all the ends to +the form of a truncated cone--that is, like a sharpened lead-pencil +with the lead broken off (F, Fig. 70)--a blunt point. He next went to +a tinsmith and had two sheet-iron cups made large enough to cover the +eight pole-ends (G and G', Figs. 71 and 72). Each cup was six inches +deep. After trying the cups, or thimbles, on the poles to see that they +would fit, he made two moulds of oak. First he cut two pieces of oak +plank two feet six inches long by one foot six inches (H, Fig. 74), +which he trimmed into the form shown by J, Fig. 75, making a notch +to fit each of the round ribs, and to spread them as the ribs of an +umbrella are spread. He made two other similar moulds for the bow and +stern, each of which, of course, is smaller than the middle one. After +spreading the ribs with the moulds, and bringing the ends together in +the tin cups, he made holes in the bottom of the cups where the ends +of the ribs came, and fastened the ribs to the cups with brass screws, +fitted with leather washers, and run through the holes in the tin and +screwed into the ends of the poles or ribs. + +[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Canoe folded for transportation. Canoe in +water in distance.] + +A square hole was then cut through each mould (K, Fig. 75), and the +poles put in place, gathered together at the ends, and held in place by +the tin thimbles. The square holes in the moulds allow several small, +light floor planks to form a dry floor to the canoe. + +The canvas costs about forty-five cents a yard, and five yards are +all you need. The deck can be made of drilling, which comes about +twenty-eight inches wide and costs about twenty cents a yard. Five +yards of this will be plenty. Fit your canvas over the frame, stretch +it tightly, and tack it securely to the two top ribs only. Fasten the +deck on in the same manner. + +When Mr. Dodge had the canoe covered and decked, with a square hole +amidship to sit in, he put two good coats of paint on the canvas, +allowed it to dry, and his boat was ready for use (Fig. 77). He +quaintly says that "it looked like a starved dog, with all its ribs +showing through the skin," just as the ribs of an umbrella show on top +through the silk covering. But this does not in any way impede the +progress of the boat through the water. + +Where the moulds are the case is different, for the lines of the +moulds cross the line of progress at right angles and must necessarily +somewhat retard the boat. But even this is not perceptible. The worst +feature about the moulds is that the canvas is very apt to be damaged +there by contact with the shore, float, or whatever object it rubs +against. + +With ordinary care the umbrella canoe + + +Will Last for Years + +and is a good boat for paddling on inland streams and small bodies of +water; and when you are through with it for the night, all that is +necessary is to remove the stretchers by springing the poles from the +notches in the spreaders, roll up the canvas around the poles, put it +on your shoulder, and carry it home or to camp, as shown in Fig. 78. + +To put your canoe together again put in the moulds, fit the poles in +their places, and the umbrella is raised, or, rather, the canoe is, if +we can use such an expression in regard to a boat. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE BIRCH-BARK + + How to Build a Real Birch-Bark Canoe or a Canvas Canoe + on a "Birch-Bark" Frame--How to Mend a Birch-Bark + + +ALTHOUGH the Indian was the first to build these simple little boats, +some of his white brothers are quite as expert in the work. But the red +man can outdo his white brother in navigating the craft. The only tools +required in building a canoe are a knife and awl, a draw-shave and a +hammer. An Indian can do all of his work with a knife. + +Several years ago canvas began to be used extensively in +canoe-building, instead of birch bark, and it will eventually +entirely supersede birch, although nothing can be found that bends so +gracefully. There are several canvas-canoe factories in Maine, and the +canoes made of canvas have both the symmetry and the durability of the +birches. They are also a trifle cheaper, but if the real thing and +sentiment are wanted, one should never have anything but a bark craft. + +If properly handled, a good canoe will safely hold four men. Canoes +intended for deep water should have considerable depth. Those intended +for shoal water, such as trout-fishers use, are made as flat as +possible. Up to the time when canoeing was introduced the materials for +building craft of this kind could be found all along the rivers. Big +birch-trees grew in countless numbers, and clear, straight cedar was +quite as plentiful within a few feet of the water's edge. Now one must +go miles back into the dense forests for such materials, and even then +seldom does it happen that two suitable trees are found within sight of +one or the other. Cedar is more difficult of the two to find. + + +The Tree + +The tree is selected, first, for straightness; second, smoothness; +third, freedom from knots or limbs; fourth, toughness of bark; fifth, +small size of eyes; sixth, length (the last is not so important, as two +trees can be put together), and, seventh, size (which is also not so +important, as the sides can be pieced out). + + +Dimensions + +The average length of canoe is about 19 feet over all, running, +generally, from 18 to 22 feet for a boat to be used on inland waters, +the sea-going canoes being larger, with relatively higher bows. The +average width is about 30 inches inside, measured along the middle +cross-bar; the greatest width inside is several inches below the middle +cross-bar, and is several inches greater than the width measured along +said cross-bar. + +The measurements given below are those of a canoe 19 feet over all: 16 +feet long inside, measured along the curve of the gunwale; 30 inches +wide inside. The actual length inside is less than 16 feet, but the +measurement along the gunwales is the most important. + + +Bark + +Bark can be peeled when the sap is flowing or when the tree is not +frozen--at any time in late spring, summer, and early fall (called +summer bark); in winter during a thaw, when the tree is not frozen, and +when the sap may have begun to flow. + + +Difference in the Bark + +Summer bark peels readily, is smooth inside, of a yellow color, which +turns reddish upon exposure to the sun, and is chalky-gray in very old +canoes. Winter bark adheres closely, and forcibly brings up part of +the inner bark, which on exposure turns dark red. This rough surface +may be moistened and scraped away. All winter-bark canoes must be thus +scraped and made smooth. Sometimes the dark red is left in the form of +a decorative pattern extending around the upper edge of the canoe, the +rest of the surface being scraped smooth. + + +Process of Peeling + +The tree should be cut down so that the bark can be removed more easily. + +A log called a skid (Fig. 79) is laid on the ground a few feet from the +base of the tree, which will keep the butt of the tree off the ground +when the tree is felled. The limbs at the top will keep the other end +off the ground. A space is cleared of bushes and obstructions where the +tree is to fall. + +[Illustration: Fig. 79.--Showing how the butt is kept off the ground.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 80.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 81.] + +After the tree has been cut down, a cut is made in a straight line (A, +B, Fig. 79), splitting the bark from top to bottom, and a ring cut at +A and B (Fig. 79). When sap is flowing, the bark is readily removed; +but in winter the edges of the cut are raised with a knife, and a thin, +pliant hard-wood knife or "spud" is pushed around under the bark. + + +Toasting + +After the bark has dropped upon the ground the inside surface is warmed +with a torch, which softens and straightens it out flat. The torch is +made of a bundle of birch bark held in a split stick (Fig. 81). + +It is then rolled up like a carpet, with inside surface out, and +tightly bound, generally with cedar bark when the latter can be +procured (Fig. 80). + +If the tree is long enough, a piece is taken off at least nineteen feet +in length, so that the ends of the canoe may not be pieced out. A few +shorter pieces are wrapped up with the bundle for piecing out the sides. + + +The Roll + +is taken on the back in an upright position, and is carried by a broad +band of cedar bark, passing under the lower end of the roll and around +in front of the breast and shoulders (Fig. 82). + +[Illustration: Fig. 82.--Mode of carrying roll.] + + +Effects of Heat + +It is laid where the sun will not shine on it and harden it. The first +effect of heat is to make it pliant. Long exposure to heat or to dry +atmosphere makes it hard and brittle. + + +The Woodwork + +is as follows: + +Five cross-bars of rock-maple (Figs. 83, 85, and 91). All the rest is +of white cedar, taken from the heart. The sap-wood absorbs water, and +would make the canoe too heavy, so it is rejected. The wood requires to +be straight and clear, and it is best to use perfectly green wood for +the ribs. + +Two strips 16-1/2 feet long, 1-1/2 inch square, tapering toward either +end, the ends being notched (Fig. 83 A) is a section of the 16-1/2 foot +strip. Each strip is mortised for the cross-bars (see Fig. 85). The +lower outside edge is bevelled off to receive the ends of the ribs. + +The dimensions of the cross-bars (Fig. 85) are 12 x 2 x 1/2 inch, 221/2 +x 2 x 3/4 inch, and 30 x 2 x 7/8 inch. The cross-bars are placed in +position, and the ends of the gunwales are tied with spruce roots after +being nailed together to prevent splitting. Each bar is held in place +by a peg of hard wood. + +[Illustration: Figs. 83 and 83-1/2.--Showing section of canoe amidship +and section and shape of gunwale and top view.] + +For stitching and wrapping, long, slender roots of spruce, or sometimes +of elm, are peeled and split in two. Black ash splits are rarely used +except for repairing (Figs. 86, 87, 88). + +Next we need (B, Fig. 83) two strips 1 or 1-1/4 inch by 1/2 inch, a +little over 19 feet long, to go outside of gunwales, and (C, Fig. 83) +two top strips, same length, 2 inches wide in middle, tapering to 1 inch +at either end, 1-1/2 inch thick. + +[Illustration: Fig. 86. + +Fig. 87. + +Fig. 88. + +Fig. 89. + +Fig. 90. + +Fig. 91. + +Fig. 84. + +Fig. 85. + +Details of sticking and framework of canoe.] + + +Ribs + +About fifty in number (Figs. 91, 92) are split with the grain (F, Fig. +92), so that the heart side of the wood will be on the inner side when +the rib is bent. The wood bends better this way. They must be perfectly +straight-grained and free from knots. Ribs for the middle are four +inches wide, ribs for the ends about three inches wide (Fig. 91 and +G, Fig. 92), and are whittled down to a scant half an inch (Fig. 93). +Green wood is generally used, and before it has had any time to season. +The ribs may be softened by pouring hot water on them, and should be +bent in pairs to prevent breaking (Fig. 90). They are held in shape by +a band of cedar bark passed around outside. + +The ribs are of importance in the shaping of the canoe. The sides bulge +out (Figs. 91, 92). The shape of the ribs determines the depth and +stability of the canoe. + + +Lining Strips + +Other strips, an eighth of an inch thick, are carefully whittled out, +with straight edges. They are a little over eight feet long, and are +designed to be laid inside on the bark, edge to edge, between the bark +and the ribs. These strips lap an inch or two where they meet, in the +middle of the canoe, and are wider here than at the ends, owing to the +greater circumference of the canoe in the middle. + + +Seasoning + +All the timber is carefully tied up before building and laid away. The +ribs are allowed to season perfectly, so that they will keep their +shape and not spring back. + +[Illustration: Fig. 92. + +Fig. 93. + +Details of ribs, Indian knives and method of using them.] + + +The Bed + +Next the bed is prepared on a level spot, if possible shaded from the +sun. A space is levelled about three and a half feet wide and a little +longer than the canoe. The surface is made perfectly smooth. The +middle is one or two inches higher than either end. + + +Building + +The frame is laid exactly in the middle of the bed. A small post is +driven in the ground (Fig. 94), on which each end of the frame will +rest. Stakes, two or three feet long and about two inches in diameter, +are whittled flat on one side, and are driven with the flat side toward +the frame at the following points, leaving a space of about a quarter +of an inch between the stake and the frame (Fig. 94): One stake an inch +or two on either side of each cross-bar, and another stake half way +between each cross-bar. This makes eleven stakes on each side of the +frame. Twelve additional stakes are driven as follows: One pair facing +each other, at the end of the frame; another pair, an inch apart, about +six inches from the last pair, measuring toward the ends of the canoe; +and another pair, an inch apart, a foot from these. These last stakes +will be nine and a half feet from the middle of the frame, and nineteen +feet from the corresponding stakes at the other end. Next, these stakes +are all taken up, and the frame laid aside. + +[Illustration: Fig. 94.--Showing stakes supporting bark sides; note +stones on the bottom.] + + +To Soften the Bark + +Next the bark is unrolled. If it has laid until it has become a little +hardened, it is placed in the river or stream for a day or two. It is +spread out flat, and laid upon the bed with the gray or outside surface +up. The inside surface is placed downward, and becomes the outside of +the canoe. + +The frame is replaced upon the bark, so that it will be at the same +distance from each side and end of the bed that it was before. At each +cross-bar boards are laid across the frame, and heavy stones are laid +upon them to keep the frame solid and immovable upon the bark (Fig. 85, +C). The edges of the bark are next bent up in a perpendicular position, +and in order that it may bend smoothly slits are made in the bark in an +outward direction, at right angles to the frame. A cut is made close +to the end of each cross-bar, and one half way between each bar, which +is generally sufficient to allow the bark to be bent up smoothly. As +the bark is bent up, the large stakes are slipped back in the holes +which they occupied before, and the tops of each opposite pair are +connected with a strip of cedar bark which keeps the stakes perfectly +perpendicular. At each end it is necessary to take out a small +triangular piece or gore, so that the edges may come together without +overlapping. + +Next twenty-two pieces of cedar, one to two feet long, and about 1/2 or +3/4 inch thick, are split out, and whittled thin and flat at one end. +This sharpened edge is inserted between the outside edge of the frame +and the bent-up bark, opposite each large stake. The other end of the +chisel-shaped piece is tightly tied to the large stake outside. By +means of the _large outside stake_ and the inside "_stake_," so-called, +the bark is held in a perfectly upright position; and in order to keep +the bent-up part more perfectly flat and smooth, the strips of cedar +are pushed in lengthwise between the stakes and the bark, on each side +of the bark, as shown in sectional views (Fig. 85, C, D). + +Sometimes, in place of having temporary strips to go on outside of the +bark, the long outside strip (B, Fig. 83), is slipped in place instead. + +It may now be seen if the bark is not wide enough. If it is not, the +sides must be pieced out with a narrow piece, cut in such a way that +the eyes in the bark will run in the same direction as those of the +large piece. + +As a general rule, from the middle to the next bar the strip for +piecing is placed on the inside of the large piece, whose upper edge +has previously been trimmed straight, and the two are sewed together +by the stitch shown in Fig. 86, the spruce root being passed over +another root laid along the trimmed-off edge of the large piece of bark +to prevent the stitches from tearing out. From the second bar to the +end of the canoe, or as far as may be necessary, the strip is placed +outside the large piece, and from the second to the end bar is sewed as +in Fig. 87, and from the end bar to the end of the canoe is stitched as +in Fig. 88. + +Next, the weights are taken off the frame, which is raised up as +follows, the bark remaining flat on the bed as before: + +A post eight inches long is set up under each end of middle cross-bar +(Fig. 85, D), one end resting on the bark and the other end supporting +either end of the middle cross-bar. Another post, nine inches long, +is similarly placed under each end of the next cross-bar. Another, +twelve inches long, is placed under each end of the end cross-bar; and +another, sixteen and a half or seventeen inches, supports each end of +the frame. + +As the posts are placed under each cross-bar, the weights are replaced; +and as these posts are higher at the ends than in the middle, the +proper curve is obtained for the gunwales. The temporary strips, that +have been placed outside the bent-up portion of the bark, are removed, +and the long outside strip before mentioned (B, Fig. 83) is slipped +in place between the outside stakes and the bark. This strip is next +nailed to the frame with wrought-iron nails that pass through the bark +and are clinched on the inside. This outside strip has taken exactly +the curve of the frame, but its upper edge, before nailing, was raised +so as to be out an eighth of an inch (or the thickness of the bark) +higher than the top surface of the frame, so that when the edges of the +bark have been bent down, and tacked flat to the frame, a level surface +will be presented, upon which the wide top strip will eventually be +nailed. Formerly the outer strip was bound to the frame with roots +every few inches, but now it is nailed. + +The cross-bars are now lashed to the frame, having previously been +held only by a peg. The roots are passed through holes in the end of +the bars, around the outside strip (see right-hand side of Fig. 85). A +two-inch piece of the bark, which has been tacked down upon the frame, +is removed at the ends by the cross-bars, where the spruce roots are +to pass around, and the outside strip is cut away to a corresponding +extent, so that the roots, when wrapped around, will be flush with the +surface above. + +[Illustration: Fig. 95.--Shows how to describe arc of circle for bow, +also ornamentation of winter bark.] + +All the stakes are now removed, and laid away to be ready for the next +canoe that may be built, and the canoe taken upside down upon two +horses or benches, that will keep the craft clear of the ground. + +The shape of the bow is now marked out, either by the eye or with +mechanical aid, according to the following rule: An arc of a circle, +with a radius of seventeen inches, is described (Fig. 95) having as a +centre a point shown in diagram. The bark is then cut away to this line. + + +Bow-piece + +To stiffen the bow, a bow-piece of cedar, nearly three feet long +(Fig. 96), an inch and a half wide, and half an inch thick on one +edge, bevelled and rounded off toward the other edge, is needed. To +facilitate bending edgeways it is split into four or five sections +(as in Fig. 98) for about thirty inches. The end that remains unsplit +is notched on its thicker edge (Fig. 96) to receive the lower end +of an oval cedar board (Fig. 97) that is placed upright in the bow +underneath the tip of the frame. It is bent to correspond with the +curve of the boat, with the thin edge toward the outside of the circle, +and wrapped with twine, so that it will keep its shape. The bow-piece +is placed between the edges of the bark, which are then sewed together +by an over-and-over stitch, which passes through the bow-piece. + +A pitch is prepared of rosin and grease, in such proportions that it +will neither readily crack in cold water nor melt in the sun. One or +the other ingredient is added until by test it is found just right. + + +Patching and Pitching + +The canoe is now placed on the ground, right side up, and all holes are +covered on the inside with thin birch bark that is pasted down with hot +pitch. A strip of cloth is saturated with hot pitch, and pressed into +the cracks on either side of the bow-piece inside, between the bark and +the bow-piece (Fig. 99). + +[Illustration: Figs. 97-100.--Show details of canoe bow.] + +The thin longitudinal strips are next laid in position, edge to edge, +lapping several inches by the middle; they are whittled thin here so as +to lap evenly. + +The ribs are next tightly driven in place, commencing at the small end +ones and working toward the middle. The end ribs may be two or three +inches apart, being closer toward the middle, where, in many cases, +they touch. Usually, they are about half an inch apart in the middle. +Each rib is driven into place with a square-ended stick and a mallet. + +The ends are stuffed with shavings (Fig. 100 and "Section" Fig. 100-1/2), +and an oval cedar board is put in the place formerly occupied by the +post that supported the end of the frame. The lower end rests in the +notch of the bow-piece, while the upper is cut with two shoulders that +fit underneath each side of the frame; Fig. 97 shows the cedar board. + +[Illustration: Fig. 100-1/2. + +Fig. 101. + +Canoe paddles.] + +The top strip is next nailed on to the frame. Almost always a piece of +bark, a foot or more long, and nine or ten inches wide, is bent and +slipped under, between both top and side strips and the bark. The ends +of this piece hang down about three inches below the side strips. The +loose ends of the strips are bound together, as in diagram, and the +projecting tips of both strips and bow-piece are trimmed off close. + +Next the canoe is turned upside down. If winter bark has been used, +the surface is moistened and the roughness scraped off with a knife. +Generally the red rough surface is left in the form of a decorative +pattern several inches wide around the upper edge (Fig. 95). Sometimes +the maker's name and date are left in this way. + +Finally, a strip of stout canvas, three or four inches wide, is dipped +in the melted pitch and laid on the stitching at the ends, extending up +sufficiently far above the water-line. All cracks and seams are covered +with pitch, laid on with a small wooden paddle. While still soft, a wet +finger or the palm of the hand is rubbed over the pitch to smooth it +down before it hardens. + + +Leaks + +Water is placed inside, and the leaky places marked, to be stopped when +dry. A can of rosin is usually carried in the canoe, and when a leak +occurs, the canoe is taken out of the water, the leak discovered by +sucking, the place dried with a torch of wood or birch bark, and the +pitch applied. + +[Illustration: Fig. 101-1/2.--From photograph of Indian building a +birch-bark canoe.] + +Paddles are made of rock maple, and sometimes of birch and even cedar. +Bow paddles are usually longer and narrower in the blade than stern +paddles (Fig. 101). + + +Bottom Protection + +Sometimes the canoe is shod with "shoes," or strips of cedar, laid +lengthwise and tied to the outside of the bark with ash splits that +pass through holes in the cedar shoes, and are brought up around the +sides of the canoe and tied to each cross-bar. This protects the bottom +of the boat from the sharp rocks that abound in some rapid streams. + +All canoes are of the general shape of the one described, though this +is considerably varied in different localities, some being built with +high rolling bows, some slender, some wider, some nearly straight on +the bottom, others decidedly curved. + +Besides the two paddles the canoe should carry a pole ten feet +long, made of a slender spruce, whittled so as to be about one and +three-fourths inch in diameter in the middle and smaller at either end, +and having at one end either a ring and a spike or else a pointed cap +of iron. The pole is used for propelling the canoe up swift streams. +This, says Tappan Adney, "is absolutely indispensable." The person +using the pole stands in one end, or nearer the middle if alone, and +pushes the canoe along close to the bank, so as to take advantage of +the eddies, guiding the canoe with one motion, only to be learned by +practice, and keeping the pole usually on the side next the bank. Where +the streams have rocky and pebbly bottoms poling is easy, but in muddy +or soft bottoms it is tiresome work; muddy bottoms, however, are not +usually found in rapid waters. + + +A Canvas Canoe + +can be made by substituting canvas in the place of birch bark; and +if it is kept well painted it makes not only a durable but a very +beautiful boat. The writer once owned a canvas canoe that was at least +fifteen years old and still in good condition. + +About six yards of ten-ounce cotton canvas, fifty inches wide, will +be sufficient to cover a canoe, and it will require two papers of +four-ounce copper tacks to secure the canvas on the frame. + +The boat should be placed, deck down, upon two "horses" or wooden +supports, such as you see carpenters and builders use. + +Fold the canvas lengthwise, so as to find the centre, then tack the +centre of one end of the cloth to top of bow-piece, or stem, using two +or three tacks to hold it securely. Stretch the cloth the length of the +boat, pull it taut, with the centre line of the canvas over the keel +line of the canoe, and tack the centre of the other end of the cloth to +the top of the stern-piece. + +If care has been taken thus far, an equal portion of the covering will +lap the gunwale on each side of the boat. + +Begin amidships and drive the tacks, about two inches apart, along the +gunwale and an inch below the deck (on the outside). Tack about two +feet on one side, pull the cloth tightly across, and tack it about +three feet on the other side. Continue to alternate, tacking on one +side and then the other, until finished. + +With the hands and fingers knead the cloth so as to thicken or "full" +it where it would otherwise wrinkle, and it will be possible to stretch +the canvas without cutting it over the frame. + +The cloth that projects beyond the gunwale may be used for the deck, or +it may be cut off after bringing it over and tacking upon the inside of +the gunwale, leaving the canoe open like a birch-bark. + + +To Paddle a Canoe + +No one can expect to learn to paddle a canoe from a book, however +explicit the directions may be. There is only one way to learn to swim +and that is by going into the water and trying it, and the only proper +way to learn to paddle a canoe is to paddle one until you catch the +knack. + +In the ordinary canoe, to be found at the summer watering places, +there are cane seats and they are always too high for safety. A +top load on any sort of a boat is always dangerous, and every real +canoeist seats his passengers on the bottom of the boat and kneels on +the bottom himself while paddling. Of course, one's knees will feel +more comfortable if there is some sort of a cushion under them, and a +passenger will be less liable to get wet if he has a pneumatic cushion +on which to sit. No expert canoeist paddles alternately first on the +one side, and then on the other; on the contrary, he takes pride in his +ability to keep his paddle continuously on either side that suits his +convenience. + +The Indians of the North Woods are probably the best paddlers, and +from them we can take points in the art. It is from them we first +learned the use of the canoe, for our open canvas canoes of to-day are +practically modelled on the lines of the old birch-barks. + +[Illustration: From photographs taken especially for this book by Mr. +F. K. Vreeland, Camp Fire Club of America. + +Fig. 102.--Beginning of stroke. Paddle should not be reached farther +forward than this. It is immersed _edgewise_ (not point first) with a +slicing motion. Note the angle of paddle--rear face of blade turned +_outward_ to avoid tendency of canoe to turn. Staff of paddle is 6 +inches too short. Left hand should be lower. + +Fig. 102_a_.--A moment later. Right hand pushing forward, left hand +swinging down. Left hand should be lower on full-sized paddle. + +Fig. 103.--Putting the power of the body in the stroke by bending +slightly forward. Left hand held stationary from now on, to act as +fulcrum. The power comes from the right arm and shoulders. + +Fig. 103_a_.--The final effort, full weight of the body on the paddle. +The right arm and body are doing the work, the left arm (which is weak +at this point) acting as fulcrum. Note twist of the right wrist to give +blade the proper angle. + +Fig. 104.--End of stroke. Arms relaxed and body straightening. + +Fig. 104_a_.--Beginning of recovery. Paddle slides out of water gently. +Note that blade is perfectly flat on the surface. No steering action is +required. If the canoe tends to swerve it is because the _stroke_ was +not correct. Only a duffer _steers_ with his paddle after the stroke is +over. The left hand now moves forward, the right swinging out and back, +moving paddle forward horizontally. + +Fig. 104_b_.--Turning to right. The latter part of a broad sweep +outward, away from the canoe. The blade is now being swept toward the +canoe, the left hand pulling in, the right pushing out. Position of +right wrist shows that blade has the opposite slant to that shown in +the straightaway stroke--_i. e._, the near face of blade is turned +_inward_. Blade leaves water with _outer_ edge up. Wake of canoe shows +sharpness of turn. + +Fig. 104_c_.--Turning to left. The last motion of a stroke in which the +paddle is swept close to the canoe with the blade turned much farther +outward than in the straightaway stroke. At end of stroke blade is +given an outward sweep and leaves the water with the _inner_ edge up. +_This is not a steering_ or dragging motion. It is a powerful sweep of +the paddle. Note swirl in wake of canoe showing sharp turn.] + +When you are standing upright and your paddle is in front of you with +the blade upon the ground, the handle should reach to your eye-brows. +(See Figs. 101, 102, 103, etc.) + +Kneel with the paddle across the canoe and not farther forward than the +knees. Then dip the blade _edgewise_ (not point first) by raising the +upper hand without bending the elbow. Swing the paddle back, keeping +it close to the canoe, and give a little twist to the upper wrist to +set the paddle at the proper angle shown in the photos. The exact +angle depends upon the trim of the boat, the wind, etc., and must be +such that the canoe does not swerve _at any part_ of the stroke, but +travels straight ahead. The lower arm acts mainly as a fulcrum and +does not move back and forth more than a foot. The power comes from +the upper arm and shoulder, and the body bends forward as the weight +is thrown on the paddle. The stroke continues until the paddle slides +out of the water endwise, flat on the surface. Then for recovery the +blade is brought forward by a swing from the shoulder, _not_ lifting +it vertically, but swinging it horizontally with the blade parallel to +the water and the upper hand low. When it reaches a point opposite the +knee it is slid into the water again, edgewise, for another stroke. The +motion is a more or less rotary one, like stirring cake, not a simple +movement back and forth. + + +To Carry a Canoe + +To pick up a canoe and carry it requires not only the knack but also +muscle, and no undeveloped boy should make the attempt, as he might +strain himself, with serious results. But there are plenty of young +men--good, husky fellows--who can learn to do this without any danger +of injury if they are taught _how_ to lift by a competent physical +instructor. + +To pick up a canoe for a "carry," stoop over and grasp the middle brace +with the right arm extended, and a short hold with the left hand, as +shown in Fig. 105. + +When you have a secure hold, hoist the canoe up on your legs, as shown +in Fig. 106. Without stopping the motion give her another boost, until +you have the canoe with the upper side above your head, as in Fig. 107. +In the diagram the paddles are not spread apart as far as they should +be. If the paddles are too close together a fall may break ones neck. + +[Illustration: Fig. 106.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 105.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 107.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 108.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 109.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 110.--Northern Quebec Indians crossing the "ladder +portage."] + +Now turn the canoe over your head and slide your head between the +paddles (which are lashed to the spreaders, as shown in Fig. 105), +and twist your body around as you let the canoe settle down over your +head (Fig. 108). If you have a sweater or a coat, it will help your +shoulders by making a roll of it to serve as a pad under the paddles, +as in Fig. 109. I have seen an Indian carry a canoe in this manner on +a dog-trot over a five-mile portage without resting. I also have seen +Indians carry canoes over mountains, crossing by the celebrated Ladder +Portage in western Quebec, where the only means of scaling a cliff is +by ascending a ladder made of notched logs. For real canoe work it is +necessary that a man should know how to carry his craft across country +from one body of water to another. All through the Lakelands of Canada, +and also the Lake St. John district, up to Hudson Bay itself, the only +trails are by water, with portage across from one stream or lake to the +other. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +HOW TO BUILD A PADDLING DORY + +A Simple Boat Which Any One Can Build--The Cheapest Sort of a Boat + + +TO construct this craft it is, of course, necessary that we shall have +some lumber, but we will use the smallest amount and the expense will +come within the limits of a small purse. + +First we must have two boards, their lengths depending upon +circumstances and the lumber available. The ones in the diagram are +supposed to be of pine to measure (after being trimmed) 18 feet long +by 18 inches wide and about 1 inch thick. When the boards are trimmed +down so as to be exact duplicates of each other, place one board over +the other so that their edges all fit exactly and then nail each end of +the two boards together for the distance of about six inches. Turn the +boards over and nail them upon the opposite side in the same manner, +clamping the nail ends if they protrude. Do this by holding the head +of a hammer or a stone against the heads of the nails while you hold a +wire nail against the protruding end, and with a hammer bend it over +the nail until it can be mashed flat against the board so that it will +not project beyond its surface. + +After you have proceeded thus far, take some pieces of tin (Fig. 112) +and bend the ragged edges over, so as to make a clean, straight fold, +and hammer it down flat until there are no rough or raw edges exposed. +Now tack a piece of this tin over the end of the boards which composed +the sides of the boat, as in Fig. 114. Make the holes for the tacks +first by driving the pointed end of a wire nail through the tin where +you wish the tacks to go and then tack the tin snugly and neatly on, +after which tack on another piece of tin on both bow and stern, as in +Fig. 116. This will hold the two ends of the boards securely together +so that they may be carefully sprung apart in the middle to receive +the middle mould which is to hold them in shape until the bottom of +the boat is nailed on, and the permanent thwarts, or seats, fastened +inside. When the latter are permanently fixed they will keep the boat +in shape. + +[Illustration: Fig. 111.--Parts of dory.] + +To make the mould, which is only a temporary thing, you may use any +rough board, or boards nailed together with cleats to hold them. The +mould should be 2 feet 6 inches long and 1 foot 4 inches high. Fig. 111 +will show you how to cut off the ends to give the proper slant. The +dotted lines show the board before it is trimmed in shape. By measuring +along the edge of the board from each end 10.8 inches and marking the +points, and then, with a carpenter's pencil ruling the diagonal lines +to the other edge and ends of the board, the triangles may be sawed off +with a hand saw. + +[Illustration: Fig. 113. Fig. 114. Fig. 112. Fig. 115. Fig. 116. + +The simple details of the dory.] + +Fig. 111 shows where the mould is to be placed in the center of the +two side boards. As the boards in this diagram are supposed to be on +the slant, and consequently in the perspective, they do not appear as +wide as they really are. The diagram is made also with the ends of the +side boards free so as to better show the position of the mould. But +when the side boards are sprung apart and the mould placed in position +(Fig. 113), it will appear as in Fig. 116 or Fig. 117. Fig. 115 shows +the shape of the stem-posts to be set in both bow and stern and nailed +securely in place. + +[Illustration: Fig. 118. + +Top views of dory and parts of dory.] + +When you have gone thus far fit in two temporary braces near the bow +and stern, as shown in Fig. 117. These braces are simply narrow pieces +of boards held in position by nails driven through the outside of the +boat, the latter left with their heads protruding, so that they may be +easily drawn when necessary. + +Now turn the boat over bottom up and you will find that the angle at +which the sides are bent will cause the bottom boards to rest upon a +thin edge of the side boards, as shown in Fig. 119. With an ordinary +jack-plane trim this down so that the bottom boards will rest flush and +snug, as in Fig. 120. + +[Illustration: Fig. 118-1/2.] + + +How to Calk a Boat so That It Won't Leak + +If you wish to make a bottom that will never leak, not even when it is +placed in the water for the first time, plane off the boards on their +sides, so that when fitted together they will leave a triangular groove +between each board, as shown in Fig. 118-1/2. These grooves will show +upon the inside of the boat, and not upon the outside, and in this case +the calking is done from the inside and not from the outside. They are +first calked with candlewick, over which putty is used, but for a rough +boat it is not even necessary to use any calking. When the planks swell +they will be forced together, so as to exclude all water. + +To fasten the bottom on the boat put a board lengthwise at the end, +as shown in Fig. 121. One end shows the end board as it is first +nailed on, and the other end shows it after it has been trimmed off +to correspond with the sides of the boat. Now put your short pieces +of boards for the bottom on one at a time, driving each one snug up +against its neighbor before nailing it in place and leaving the rough +or irregular ends of each board protrude on each side, as shown at the +right-hand end of Fig. 121. + +[Illustration: Fig. 117.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 119.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 120.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 121. Top view with sides in place, also reversed +view showing how bottom boards are laid.] + +When all the boards are nailed in place (by beginning at one end and +fitting them against each other until the other end is reached) they +may be trimmed off with a saw (Fig. 121) and your boat is finished with +the exception of the thwarts, or seats. + +If you intend to propel this with paddles like a canoe, you will need +a seat in the centre for your passenger, and this may be placed in the +position occupied by the form (Figs. 111 and 117) after the latter is +removed. To fit a seat in it is only necessary to cut two cleats and +nail them to the sides of the boat for the seat to rest upon and saw +off a board the proper length to fit upon the cleats. It would be well +now to fasten the braces in the bow and stern permanently, adjusting +them to suit your convenience. The seat should be as low as possible +for safety. With this your paddling dory is finished, and may be used +even without being painted. A coat of paint, however, improves not only +the looks but the tightness and durability of any boat. + +We have now advanced so far in our boat-building that it becomes +necessary that the beginner should learn more about boats and boating, +and since this book is written for beginners, we will take it for +granted that they know absolutely nothing about the subject and will +give all the rudimentary knowledge for landlubbers in the next chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE LANDLUBBER'S CHAPTER + + Common Nautical Terms and Expressions Defined--How to + Sail a Boat--Boat Rigs--Rowing-clothes--How to Make a + Bathing-suit--How to Avoid Sunburn + + +THERE are a few common terms with which all who venture on the water +should be familiar, not only for convenience, but for prudential +reasons. + +Accidents are liable to happen to boats of all descriptions, and often +the safety of property and life depend upon the passengers' ability to +understand what is said to them by the officers or sailors in charge of +the craft. + +To those who are familiar with the water and shipping it may seem +absurd to define the bow and stern of a boat, but there are people who +will read this book who cannot tell the bow from the stern, so we will +begin this chapter with the statement that + +=The bow= is the front end of the boat, and + +=The stern= is the rear end of the boat. + +=For'ard= is toward the bow of the boat. + +=Aft= is toward the stern of the boat. Both terms are used by sailors +as forward and backward are used by landsmen. + +=The hull= is the boat itself without masts, spars, or rigging. A skiff +and a birch-bark canoe are hulls. + +=The keel= is the piece of timber running along the centre of the +bottom of the hull, like the runner of a skate, and used to give the +boat a hold on the water, so that she will not slide sideways. + +When you are sitting in the stern of a boat, facing the bow, the side +next to your right hand is the right-hand side of the boat, and the +side next to your left hand is the left-hand side of the boat. But +these terms are not used by seamen; they always say + +=Starboard= for the right-hand side of the boat, and + +=Port= for the left-hand side of the boat. Formerly the left-hand side +was called the larboard, but this occasioned many serious mistakes on +account of the similarity of the sound of larboard and starboard when +used in giving orders. + +[Illustration: Fig. 122.--Top view of small boat.] + + +Red and Green Lights + +After dark a red light is carried on the port side and a green light on +the starboard side of all vessels in motion. If you can remember that +port wine is red, and that the port light is of the same color, you +will always be able to tell in which direction an approaching craft is +pointing by the relative location of the lights. + + "When both lights you see ahead, + Port your helm and show your red! + Green to green and red to red, + You're all right, and go ahead!" + +If you are a real landlubber, the verse quoted will be of little +service, because you will not know how to port your helm. In fact, you +probably will not know where to look for the helm or what it looks +like; but only a few of our readers are out-and-out landlubbers, and +most of them know that the helm is in some way connected with the +steering apparatus. + +=The rudder= is the movable piece of board at the stern of the boat by +means of which the craft is guided. The rudder is moved by a lever, +ropes, or a wheel. + +=The tiller= is the lever for moving the rudder, or the ropes used for +the same purpose (Fig. 123). + +[Illustration: Fig. 123.--Helm--Lever, or stick, for tiller.] + +=The wheel= is the wheel whose spokes end in handles on the outer edge +of the rim, or felly, and it is used for moving the rudder (Fig. 124). + +=The helm= is that particular part of the steering apparatus that you +put your hands on when steering. + +=The deck= is the roof of the hull. + +=The centreboard= is an adjustable keel that can be raised or lowered +at pleasure. It is an American invention. The centreboard, as a rule, +is only used on comparatively small vessels. The inventor of the +centreboard is Mr. Salem Wines, who kept a shop on Water Street, near +Market Slip, and, when alive, was a well-known New York boat-builder. +His body now lies in Greenwood Cemetery, and upon the headstone of his +grave is the inscription, "The Inventor of the Centreboard." + +For sailing, the boat, or hull, is rigged with masts and spars for +spreading the sails to catch the wind. + +=The masts= are the upright poles, or sticks, that hold the sails. + +[Illustration: Fig. 124.--Helm--The wheel.] + +=The yards= are the poles, or sticks, at right angles with the masts +that spread the sails. + +=The boom= is the movable spar at the bottom of the sail. + +=The gaff= is the pole, or spar, for spreading the top, or head, of the +sail (Fig. 125). + +=The sail= is a big canvas kite, of which the boom, gaff, and masts are +the kite-sticks. You must not understand by this that the sail goes +soaring up in the air, for the weight of the hull prevents that; but if +you make fast a large kite to the mast of a boat it would be a sail, +and if you had a line long and strong enough, and should fasten any +spread sail to it, there can be no doubt that the sail would fly. + +=The spars= are the masts, bowsprit, yards, and gaffs. + +=The bowsprit= is the stick, or sprit, projecting from the bow of the +boat (Fig. 161, Sloop). + +=The foremast= is the mast next to the bow--the forward mast (Fig. 159, +Ship). + +=The mainmast= is the second mast--the mast next to the foremast. + +=Mizzen-mast= is the mast next to and back of the mainmast (Fig. 159, +Ship). + +[Illustration: Fig. 125.--A sail.] + +=The rigging= of a boat consists of the ropes, or lines, attached to +its masts and sails, but a boat's rig refers to the number of masts as +well as to the shape of its sails. + +=Stays= are strong ropes supporting the masts, fore and aft. + +=Shrouds= are strong ropes reaching from the mastheads to the sides of +the vessel; supports for the masts, starboard and port. + +=Ratlines= are the little ropes that form the steps, or foot ropes, +that run crosswise between the shrouds. + +=The painter= is the rope at the bow of a small boat, used for the same +purpose as is a hitching-strap on a horse. + +=The standing rigging= consists of the stays and shrouds. + +=The running rigging= consists of all the ropes used in handling yards +and sails. + +=The sheets= are the ropes, or lines, attached to the corners of sails, +by which they are governed (Fig. 126). + +=The main sheet= is the rope that governs the mainsail. + +=The jib-sheet= is the rope that governs the jib-sail. + +=The gaskets= are the ropes used in lashing the sails when furled. + +=The braces= are the ropes used in swinging the yards around. + +=The jib-stay= is the stay that runs from the foremast to the bowsprit. + +=The bob-stay= is practically an extension of the jib-stay and the +chief support of the spars. It connects the bow of the boat with the +bowsprit and prevents the latter from bobbing up and down. + +Besides the port and starboard sides of a boat there are the windward +and leeward sides. Do not understand by this that the boat has four +sides, like a square. Windward may be the port or the starboard side, +according to the direction the wind blows; because + +=Windward= means the side of the boat against which the wind blows--the +side where the wind climbs aboard; or it may mean the direction from +which the wind comes. The opposite side is called + +=Leeward=--that is, the side of the boat opposite to that against which +the wind blows, where the wind tumbles overboard, or the side opposite +to windward. When you are sailing you may be near a + +=Lee Shore=--that is, the shore on your lee side against which the wind +blows; or a + +=Windward Shore=--that is, the land on your windward side from which +the wind blows. + +All seamen dread a lee shore, as it is a most dangerous shore to +approach, from the fact that the wind is doing its best to blow you +on the rocks or beach. But the windward shore can be approached with +safety, because the wind will keep you off the rocks, and if it is +blowing hard, the land will break the force of the wind. + +In a canoe or shell the boatman sits either directly on the bottom, or, +as in the shell, very close to it, and the weight of his body serves to +keep the boat steady, but larger crafts seldom rely upon live weights +to steady them. They use + +=Ballast=--that is, weights of stone, lead, iron, or sand-bags, used to +balance the boat and make her steady. + +As has been said before in this chapter, the sail is a big canvas kite +made fast to the boat and called a sail, but the ordinary kite has its +covering stretched permanently on rigid sticks. + +The sail, however, can be stretched to its full extent or only +partially, or it may be rolled up, exposing nothing but the masts to +the force of the wind. To accomplish all this there are various ropes +and attachments, all of which are named. + +[Illustration: Fig. 126.--Sail and sheet.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 127.--Parts of sail.] + +It is quite important that the beginner should know the names of all the + + +Parts of a Sail + +=Luff.=--That part of the sail adjoining the mast--the front of the +sail (Fig. 127). + +=Leach.=-That part of the sail stretched between the outer or after end +of the boom and the outer end of the gaff--the back part of the sail +(Fig. 127). + +=Head.=--That part of the sail adjoining the gaff--the top of the sail. + +=Foot.=--That part of the sail adjoining the boom--the bottom of the +sail (Fig. 127). + +=Clews.=--A general name for the four corners of the sail. + +=Clew.=--The particular corner at the foot of the sail where the leach +and boom meet (Fig. 127). + +=Tack.=--The corner of the sail where boom and mast meet (Fig. 127). + +=Throat, or Nock.=--The corner of the sail where gaff and mast meet +(Fig. 127). + +=Peak.=--Corner of the sail where the leach and gaff meet (Fig. 127). + +[Illustration: Fig. 128.--Starboard helm.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 129--Port helm.] + + +How to Steer a Boat + +When you wish your boat to turn to the right push your helm to the +left. This will push the rudder to the right and turn the boat in that +direction. When you wish your boat to turn to the left push your helm +to the right. In other words, starboard your helm and you will turn to +the port (Fig. 128). Port your helm and you will turn to the starboard +(Fig. 129). + +From a reference to the diagram you may see that when you =port your +helm= you move the tiller to the port side of the boat, and when you +=starboard your helm= you move your tiller to the starboard side of the +boat (Fig. 128), but to =ease your helm= you move your helm toward the +centre of the boat--that is, amidships. + + +How to Sail a Boat + +If you fasten the bottom of a kite to the ground, you will find that +the wind will do its best to blow the kite over, and if the kite is +fastened to the mast of a toy boat, the wind will try to blow the boat +over. + +In sailing a boat the effort of the wind apparently has but one +object, and that is the upsetting of the boat. The latter, being well +balanced, is constantly endeavoring to sit upright on its keel, and +you, as a sailor, are aiding the boat in the struggle, at the same time +subverting the purpose of the wind to suit your own ideas. It is an +exciting game, in which man usually comes out ahead, but the wind gains +enough victories to keep its courage up. + +Every boat has peculiarities of its own, and good traits as well as bad +ones, which give the craft a personal character that lends much to your +interest, and even affects your sensibilities to the extent of causing +you to have the same affection for a good, trustworthy craft that you +have for an intelligent and kind dog or horse. + +A properly balanced sail-boat, with main sheet trimmed flat and free +helm, should be as sensitive as a weathercock and act like one--that +is, she ought to swing around until her bow pointed right into the "eye +of the wind," the direction from which the wind blows. Such a craft it +is not difficult to sail, but it frequently happens that the boat that +is given to you to sail is not properly balanced, and shows a constant +tendency to "come up in the wind"--face the wind--when you are doing +your best to keep her sails full and keep her on her course. This +may be caused by too much sail aft. The boat is then said to carry a +weather helm. + +=Weather Helm.=--When a boat shows a constant tendency to come up in +the wind. + +=Lee Helm.=--When a boat shows a constant tendency to fall off the +wind--that is, when the wind blows her bow to the leeward. This is +a much worse trait than the former, and a boat with a lee helm is a +dangerous boat. It may be possible to remedy it by adding sail aft or +reducing sail forward, which should immediately be done. + +In spite of the fact, already stated, that the wind's constant effort +is to capsize a boat, there is little or no danger of a properly rigged +boat upsetting unless the sheets are fast or hampered in some way. When +a sail-boat upsets it is, of course, because the wind blows it over. +Now, the wind cannot blow a boat over unless the boat presents some +surface larger than its hull for the wind to blow against, and the sail +is the only object that offers enough surface to the breeze to cause an +upset. + +[Illustration: Fig. 130--Close-hauled.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 131.--Before the wind.] + +[Illustration: Top view of boats, showing position of helm and boom.] + +If the sheet is slackened, the sail will swing around until it flaps +like a flag and only the thin edge is presented to the wind; and a boat +that a flag will upset is no boat for beginners to trust themselves in. +True, the boom may be very long and heavy enough to make it dangerous +to let so much of it overboard, but this is seldom the case. A good +sailor keeps his eyes constantly on the sails and trims them to take +advantage of the slightest favorable breeze. In place of losing +control of his sail by letting go the sheets he will ease the tiller so +as to "spill" part of the wind that is, let the forward part, or luff, +of the sail shake a bit. Or, in case of a sudden puff of wind, he may +deem it necessary to "luff"--that is, let her shake--and slacken the +sheets too. + +=Trimmed Flat.=--Sheets hauled in until the boom is only a little to +the leeward of the helm (Fig. 130). + +=Close-hauled.=--Sheets trimmed flat and the boat pointing as near as +possible to the eye of the wind. Then the sail cannot belly, and is +called flat (Fig. 130). + + +To Sail Close-hauled + +The skipper must watch that his sail does not flap or ripple at the +throat, for that means that he is pointing too close to the wind and +that some of the breeze is blowing on both sides of his sail, which +even a novice can see will retard the boat. + +Upon discovering a rippling motion at the luff of the sail put the helm +up--that is, move the tiller a little to windward until the sail stops +its flapping. + +=Before the Wind.=--When the wind is astern; sailing with the wind; +sailing directly from windward to leeward (Fig. 131). + +In order to reach the desired point it is often expedient to sail +before the wind, but unless the wind is light, beginners had better not +try this. To sail before the wind you let your sheets out until the +boom stands at _almost_ right angles with the boat. Keep your eye on +the sail and see that it does not flap, for if the man at the helm is +careless and allows the boat to point enough away from the direction of +the wind to allow the wind to get on the other side of the sail, the +latter will swing around or jibe with such force as to endanger the +mast, if it does not knock some one overboard. + +The price of liberty is constant vigilance, and the price of a good +sail is the same. I have seen a mast snapped off clean at the deck by +a jibe, and once when out after ducks every one was so intent upon the +game that proper attention was not paid to the sail. The wind got +round and brought the boom with a swing aft, knocking the captain of +our boat club overboard. Had the boom hit him in the head and stunned +him, the result might have been fatal. + +[Illustration: Fig. 132.--Boom hauled in.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 133.--On new course.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 131-1/2.--Before the wind.] + +[Illustration: Figs. 131-1/2, 132, and 133.--Jibing.] + +=Wing and Wing.=--When a schooner goes before the wind with one sail +out at nearly right angles on the port side and the other in the same +position on the starboard side she is said to be wing and wing and +presents a beautiful sight. + +=Tacking.=--Working to the windward by a series of diagonal moves. + +=Legs.=--The moves or diagonal courses made in tacking. It is apparent +to the most unthinking observer that no vessel propelled by sail can +move against the direct course of the wind--that is, nothing but +electricity, naphtha, steam, or some such power can drive a boat into +the eye of the wind. But what cannot be accomplished in a direct manner +can be done by a series of compromises, each of which will bring us +nearer to the desired point. + +First we point the boat to the right or left, as the case may be, as +near or as close to the wind as the boat will sail. Then we come about +and sail in the other direction as close as practicable to the eye of +the wind, and each time we gain something in a direct line. + +When your boat changes its direction on a tack it is done by "jibing," +or "coming about." + +=Jibing.=--With the wind on the quarter, haul the main boom aft or +amidship with all possible speed, by means of the main sheets (Fig. +132), and as the wind strikes the sail on the other side let it out as +deliberately as possible until it reaches the position desired (Fig. +133). + +Beginners should never attempt to jibe, for if there is more than a +capful of wind, the sail will probably get away from them, and, as +described in going before the wind, some disaster is liable to occur. +Experts only jibe in light winds, and frequently lower the peak, so as +to reduce sail, before attempting a jibe. + + +Coming About + +When you wish to come about see that all the tackle, ropes, etc., are +clear and in working order, and that you are making good headway; then +call out: "Helm's a-lee!" or "Ready about!" and push the tiller in the +direction opposite to that from which the wind blows--that is, to the +lee side of the boat. This will bring the bow around until the wind +strikes the sail upon the side opposite to that which it struck before +the helm was a-lee (Figs. 134, 135, 136, 137). + +If you are aboard a sloop or schooner, ease off the jib-sheet, but keep +control of it, so that as the boat comes up to the wind you can make +the jib help the bow around by holding the sheets so as to catch the +wind aback. When the bow of the craft has passed the eye of the wind +and the sail begins to fill give the order to make fast, or trim, the +jib, and off you go upon the opposite tack, or on a new leg. + +[Illustration: Figs. 134, 135, 136, and 137.--Coming about.] + +If the wind is light, or if, for any cause, the boat works slowly, you +can sometimes help her by trimming in the main sheet when you let the +jib-sheet fly. In the diagram of coming about no jib is shown. + +=Wearing= is a term sometimes used in place of jibing. + + +In a Thunder-storm + +A thunder-storm is always an uncertain thing. There may be a veritable +tornado hidden in the black clouds that we see rising on the +horizon, or it may simply "iron out the wind"--that is, go grumbling +overhead--and leave us becalmed, to get home the best way we can; +generally by what the boys call a "white-ash breeze"--that is, by using +the sweeps or oars. + +On Long Island Sound a thunder-storm seems to have certain fixed rules +of conduct. In the first place, it comes up from the leeward, or +_against the wind_. Just before the storm strikes you for an instant +the wind ceases and the sails flap idly. Then look out! for in nine +cases out of ten you are struck the next moment by a sudden squall from +exactly the opposite direction from which the wind blew a moment before. + + +What to Do + +Make for the nearest port with all speed, and keep a man at the +downhaul ready at a moment's notice to lower sail. The moment the wind +stops drop the sail and make everything snug, leaving only bare poles. +When the thunder-squall strikes you, be it ever so hard, you are now in +little danger; and if the wind from the new quarter is not too fresh, +you can hoist sail again and make the best of your way to the nearest +port, where you can "get in out of the wet." + +If the wind is quite fresh keep your peak down, and with a reefed sail +speed on your way. If it is a regular howler, let your boat drive +before the wind under bare poles until you can find shelter or until +it blows over, and the worst mishap you are likely to incur is a good +soaking from the rain. + +=Shortening Sail.=--Just as soon as the boat heels over too far for +safety, or as soon as you are convinced that there is more wind than +you need for comfortable sailing, it is time to take a reef--that +is, to roll up the bottom of the sail to the row of little ropes, or +reefing points, on the sail and make fast there. This, of course, makes +a smaller sail, and that is what you wish. + +While under way it will be found impossible to reef a sail except +when sailing close-hauled. So the boat is brought up into the wind by +pushing the helm down, as if you intended to come about. When possible +it is better to lower the sail entirely before attempting to put in a +reef. + + +To Reef Without Lowering Sail + +It sometimes happens that on account of the proximity of a lee shore, +and the consequent danger of drifting in that direction, or for some +other equally good reason, it is inadvisable to lower sail and lose +headway. Under such circumstances the main sheet must be trimmed flat, +keeping the boat as close as possible to the wind, the helm must be put +up hard a-lee, and jib-sheet trimmed to windward (Fig. 138). + +[Illustration: Fig. 138.--Squirming; jib on port side, boom +close-hauled on starboard side.] + +When this is done the wind will hit the jib, "paying her head off," or +pushing her bow to leeward, and this tendency is counteracted by the +helm and mainsail, bringing the bow up into the wind. This keeps the +boat squirming. Lower the mainsail until the row of reef points is just +on a line with the boom, keeping to the windward of the sail. Tie the +first point--that is, the one on the luff rope--then the one on the +leach, being careful to stretch out the foot of the sail. Then tie the +remaining points, always making a square or reefing knot. Tie them to +the jack-stay on the boom or around the boom. + + +The Reef or Square Knot + +is most frequently used, as its name implies, in reefing sails. First +make a plain overhand knot, as in Fig. 139. Then repeat the operation +by taking the end and passing it over and under the loop, drawing the +parts tight, as shown in Fig. 140. Care should be observed in crossing +the ends so that they will always lay fairly alongside the main parts. +Otherwise the knot will prove a _granny_ and be comparatively worthless. + +[Illustration: Figs. 139 and 140.--Square or reef knot.] + + +To Shake Out a Reef + +untie the knots, keeping to the windward of the sail. Untie the knot +at the leach first, next the one at the luff, and then the remaining +points. In lowering a sail you use a rope called the =downhaul=. + +=Starboard Tack.=--When the main boom is over the port side. + +=Port Tack.=--When the main boom is over the starboard side. + +=Right of Way.=--All boats sailing on the starboard tack have the right +of way over all those on the port tack. In other words, if you are on +the starboard tack, those on the port tack must keep out of your way. +Any boat sailing close-hauled has the right of way over a boat sailing +free. + + +Lights for Canoe + +A canoe under sail at night should have an uncolored lantern hung to +her mizzen-mast to notify other craft that she is out and objects to +being run down. The light is put on the mizzen so that it may be behind +the skipper and not dazzle him. + +What you have read in the foregoing pages will not be found very +difficult to remember, but there is only one way to learn to sail and +that is by _sailing_. If possible, sail with some one who is a good +seaman. If this sort of companion cannot be had, try it alone on smooth +water and with short sail until you accustom yourself to the boat and +its peculiarities. No boy ever learned to skate or swim from books, but +books often have been helpful in giving useful hints to those who were +really learning by practical experience. + + +Some Do Nots + + Do not overload the boat. + Do not carry too much sail. + Do not sail in strange waters without chart or compass. + Do not forget your anchor. + Do not forget your paddles or oars. + Do not attempt to learn to sail before you know how to swim. + Do not sit on the gunwale. + Do not put the helm down too suddenly or too far. + Do not let go the helm. + Do not mistake caution for cowardice. + Do not be afraid to reef. + Do not fear the ridicule of other landlubbers. + Do not fail to keep the halyards and sheets clear. + Do not jibe in a stiff wind. + Do not fail to keep your head in times of emergency. + Do not make a display of bravery until the occasion demands it. + Do not allow mistakes or mishaps to discourage you. + Do not associate with a fool who rocks a boat. + +You will soon become an expert and be able to engage in one of our most +exhilarating, healthy, and manly sports and earn the proud distinction +of being a good small-boat sailor. + + +It is Necessary to Learn to Swim + +From the parents' point of view, nowhere that a boy's restless nature +impels him to go is fraught with so much peril as the water, and +nowhere is a boy happier than when he is on the water, unless it is +when he is in it. Nowhere can be found a better school for his young +mind and body than that furnished by boating. Hence it appears to be +the imperative duty for parents personally to see that their children +are taught to swim as soon as their little limbs have strength enough +to make the proper motions. + + +Boating-Clothes + +In aquatic sports of all kinds, if you expect to have fun, you must +dress appropriately. You should have a suit of old clothes that you +can change for dry ones when the sport is over. When boating, it is +nonsense to pretend you can keep dry under all the varying conditions +of wind and weather. If your purse is small, and you want a good +rowing-suit, it can be made of last winter's woollen underclothes, and +will answer for the double purpose of rowing and bathing. + + +How to Make a Bathing-Suit + +First take an old woollen undershirt and cut the sleeves off above the +elbows. Then coax your mother, aunt, or sister to sew it up in front +like a sweater, and hem the edges of the sleeves where they have just +been cut off. + +Next take a pair of woollen drawers and have them sewed up in front, +leaving an opening at the top about four inches in length; turn the +top edge down all around to cover a piece of tape that should be long +enough to tie in front. Have this hem or flap sewed down to cover the +tape, and allow the two ends of the tape to protrude at the opening +in front. The tape should not be sewed to the cloth, but should move +freely, so that you can tighten or loosen it at will. Cut the drawers +off at the knees and have the edges hemmed, and you will have a +first-class bathing or rowing-suit. + +If woollen clothes are not to be had, cotton will do, but wool is +coolest and warmest, as the occasion may require. + +When rowing wear old socks, woollen ones if you have them, and old +shoes cut down like slippers. The latter can be kicked off at a +moment's notice, and, if lost, they are of no value, and may be easily +replaced. + +When on shore a long pair of woollen stockings to cover your bare +legs and a sweater to pull over your sleeveless shirt are handy and +comfortable, but while sailing, paddling, or rowing in hot weather the +rowing-suit is generally all that comfort requires. Of course, if your +skin is tender, you are liable to be terribly sunburned on your arms, +neck, and legs; but + + +Sunburn + +may be avoided by gradually accustoming your limbs to the exposure. +Dearly will you pay for your negligence if you go out for a day with +bare arms or legs in the hot sun before you have toughened yourself, +and little will you sleep that night. + +I have seen young men going to business the day following a regatta +with no collars on their red necks, and no shirt over their soft +undershirts, the skin being too tender to bear the touch of the stiff, +starched linen, and I have known others who could not sleep a wink on +account of the feverish state of their bodies, caused by the hot sun +and a tender skin. Most boys have had some experience from sunburn, +acquired while bathing. If care is taken to cover your arms and legs +after about an hour's exposure, you will find that in place of being +blistered, your skin will be first pink and then a faint brownish tint, +which each succeeding exposure will deepen until your limbs will assume +that dark, rich mahogany color of which athletes are so proud. This +makes your skin proof against future attacks of the hottest rays of the +sun. + +Besides the pain and discomfort of a sudden and bad sunburn on your +arms, the effect is not desirable, as it is very liable to cover your +arms with freckles. I have often seen men with beautifully bronzed arms +and freckled shoulders, caused by going out in their shells first with +short sleeves and then with shirts from which the sleeves were entirely +cut away, exposing the white, tender shoulders to the fierce heat, to +which they were unaccustomed. + +It is a good plan to cover the exposed parts of your body with +sweet-oil, vaseline, mutton-tallow, beef-tallow, or lard. This is good +as a preventive while in the sun, and excellent as an application after +exposure. Any sort of oil or grease that does not contain salt is good +for your skin. + + +Clothes for Canoeing + +In canoeing I have found it convenient to dress as I would in a shell +boat, but I generally have had a sweater and a pair of long trousers +stowed away, ready to be pulled on over my rowing-clothes when I +landed. Once, when I neglected to put these extra clothes aboard, I +was storm-bound up Long Island Sound, and, leaving my boat, I took the +train home, but I did not enjoy my trip, for the bare legs and arms and +knit cap attracted more attention than is pleasant for a modest man. + +Do not wear laced shoes in a canoe, for experience has taught +boating-men that about the most inconvenient articles of clothing to +wear in the water are laced shoes. While swimming your feet are of +absolutely no use if incased in this style of foot-gear, and all the +work must be done with the arms. But if you have old slippers, they may +be kicked off, and then you are dressed practically in a bathing-suit, +and can swim with comfort and ease. + +Possibly these precautions may suggest the idea that a ducking is not +at all an improbable accident, and it must be confessed that the boy +who thinks he can learn to handle small boats without an occasional +unlooked-for swim is liable to discover his mistake before he has +become master of his craft. + + +Stick to Your Boat + +Always remember that a wet head is a very small object in the water, +and liable to be passed by unnoticed, but that a capsized boat can +scarcely fail to attract attention and insure a speedy rescue from an +awkward position. As for the real danger of boating, it cannot be great +where care is used. Not one fatality has occurred on the water, among +all of my large circle of boating friends, and personally I have never +witnessed a fatal accident in all the years I have spent rowing and +sailing. + + +Life-Preservers + +All canoes should have a good cork life-preserver in them when the +owner ventures away from land. I never but once ventured any distance +without one, and that is the only time I was ever in need of a +life-preserver. The ordinary cork jacket is best. It can be used for +a seat, and when spread on the bottom of your canoe, with an old +coat or some article thrown over it for a cushion, it is not at all +an uncomfortable seat. Most canoes have airtight compartments fore +and aft--that is, at both ends--and the boat itself is then a good +life-preserver. Even without the airtight compartments, unless your +boat is loaded with ballast or freight, there is no danger of its +sinking. A canvas canoe, as a rule, has enough woodwork about it to +support your weight when the boat is full of water. + +An upset canvas canoe supported me for an hour and a half during a blow +on Long Island Sound, and had not a passing steamer rescued me, the +canoe would evidently have buoyed me up as long as I could have held on +to the hull. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +HOW TO RIG AND SAIL SMALL BOATS + + +How to Make a Lee-Board for a Canoe + +NOW that the open canvas canoe has become so popular the demand has +arisen for some arrangement by which it may be used with sails. Of +course it is an easy matter to rig sails on almost any sort of craft, +but unless there is a keel or a centreboard the boat will make lee-way, +_i. e._, it will have no hold on the water, and when you try to tack, +the boat will blow sideways, which may be fraught with serious results. +The only time that the author ever got in a serious scrape with his +canoe, was when he carelessly sailed out in a storm, leaving the key +to his fan centreboard at the boat-house. Being unable to let down the +centreboard, he was eventually driven out to sea, and when he became +too fatigued to move quickly was capsized. + +[Illustration: Fig. 140.--Lee-board. Fig. 140_a_.--Bolt and +thumb-screw.] + +Now to prevent such occurrences and to do away with the inconvenience +of the centreboard in an open canoe, various designs of lee-boards have +been made. A lee-board is, practically speaking, a double centreboard. +The paddle-like form of the blades of the boards given in Fig. 140 give +them a good hold on the water when they are below the surface, and they +can also be allowed to swing clear of the water when temporarily out of +use. Or they may be removed and stowed away in the canoe. As you see by +the diagram the two blades are connected by a spruce rod; the blades +themselves may be made of some hard wood, like cherry, and bevelled at +the edges like a canoe-paddle. They should be a scant foot in width and +a few inches over two feet long, and cut out of three-quarter-inch +material. The spruce cross-bar is about one and a half inch in +diameter, the ends of which are thrust through a hole in the upper end +of each lee-board. A small hole is bored in the top of each lee-board, +down through the ends of the cross-board, and when a galvanized-iron +pin is pushed down through this hole, it will prevent the bar from +turning in its socket. A couple more galvanized-iron pins or bars fit +in holes in the spruce cross-bar, as shown in the diagram (Fig. 140). +At the top end of each of these metal bolts is a thumb-screw which runs +down over the thread of the bolt. The bottom or lower end is bent at +right angles that it may be fitted under the gunwale of the canoe, and +tightened by twisting the thumb-screws. The advantage of this sort of +arrangement is that the lee-boards may be slid backward or forward and +so adjusted that the canoe will sail in the direction in which it is +steered. The place where the lee-board is to be fastened can only be +found by experiment. When it is too far toward the bow, the boat will +show a desire to come up against the wind, thus making work for the +steersman to keep the wind in the sails. If the lee-board is fastened +too far toward the stern the canoe will show a decided determination to +swing around with its stern to the wind, which is a dangerous trick for +a well-trained craft to indulge in. + +I have seen open canvas canoes at the outfitting stores marked as low +as seventeen dollars, but they usually cost twenty-five dollars or +more, and I would advise ambitious canoeists to build their own canoes, +and even to make their own lee-boards, although it would be cheaper to +buy the latter. + + +How to Rig and Sail Small Boats + +To have the tiller in one's own hands and feel competent, under all +ordinary circumstances, to bring a boat safely into port, gives the +same zest and excitement to a sail (only in a far greater degree) that +the handling of the whip and reins over a lively trotter does to a +drive. + +Knowing and feeling this, it was my intention to devote a couple of +chapters to telling how to sail a boat; but through the kind courtesy +of the editor of _The American Canoeist_, I am able to do much better +by giving my readers a talk on this subject by one whose theoretical +knowledge and practical experience renders him pre-eminently fit to +give reliable advice and counsel. The following is what Mr. Charles +Ledyard Norton, editor of the above-mentioned journal, says: + +Very many persons seem to ignore the fact that a boy who knows how +to manage a gun is, upon the whole, less likely to be shot than one +who is a bungler through ignorance, or that a good swimmer is less +likely to be drowned than a poor one. Such, however, is the truth +beyond question. If a skilled sportsman is now and then shot, or an +expert swimmer drowned, the fault is not apt to be his own, and if +the one who is really to blame had received proper training, it is not +likely that the accident would have occurred at all. The same argument +holds good with regard to the management of boats, and the author is +confident that he merits the thanks of mothers, whether he receives +them or not, for giving their boys a few hints as to practical rigging +and sailing. + +In general, there are three ways of learning how to sail boats. First, +from the light of nature, which is a poor way; second, from books, +which is better; and third, from another fellow who knows how, which +is best of all. I will try to make this article as much like the other +fellow and as little bookish as possible. + +Of course, what I shall say in these few paragraphs will be of small +use to those who live within reach of the sea or some big lake and have +always been used to boats; but there are thousands and thousands of +boys and men who never saw the sea, nor even set eyes on a sail, and +who have not the least idea how to make the wind take them where they +want to go. I once knew some young men from the interior who went down +to the sea-side and hired a boat, with the idea that they had nothing +to do but hoist the sail and be blown wherever they liked. The result +was that they performed a remarkable set of manoeuvres within sight +of the boat-house, and at last went helplessly out to sea and had to be +sent after and brought back, when they were well laughed at for their +performances, and had reason to consider themselves lucky for having +gotten off so cheaply. + +The general principles of sailing are as simple as the national game of +"one ole cat." That is to say, if the wind always blew moderately and +steadily, it would be as easy and as safe to sail a boat as it is to +drive a steady old family horse of good and regular habits. The fact, +however, is that winds and currents are variable in their moods, and as +capable of unexpected freaks as the most fiery of unbroken colts; but +when properly watched and humored they are tractable and fascinating +playmates and servants. + +Now, let us come right down to first principles. Take a bit of pine +board, sharpen it at one end, set up a mast about a quarter of the +length of the whole piece from the bow, fit on a square piece of stiff +paper or card for a sail, and you are ready for action. Put this in the +water, with the sail set squarely across (A, Fig. 141), and she will +run off before the wind--which is supposed to be blowing as indicated +by the arrow--at a good rate of speed. If she does not steer herself, +put a small weight near the stern, or square end; or, if you like, +arrange a thin bit of wood for a rudder. + +[Illustration: Fig. 141. + +Lesson in sailing for beginners.] + +Probably the first primeval man who was born with nautical instincts +discovered this fact, and, using a bush for a sail, greatly astonished +his fellow primevals by winning some prehistoric regatta. But that +was all he could do. He was as helpless as a balloonist is in midair. +He could go, but he could not get back, and we may be sure that +ages passed away before the possibility of sailing to windward was +discovered. + +Now, put up or "step" another mast and sail like the first, about as +far from the stern as the first is from the bow. Turn the two sails at +an angle of forty-five degrees across the boat (B or C, Fig. 141) and +set her adrift. She will make considerable progress across the course +of the wind, although she will at the same time drift with it. If she +wholly refuses to go in the right direction, place a light weight on +her bow, so that she will be a little "down by the head," or move the +aftermost mast and sail a little nearer to the stern. + +[Illustration: Fig. 142.--Tacking.] + +The little rude affair thus used for experiment will not actually +make any progress to windward, because she is so light that she moves +sidewise almost as easily as she does forward. With a larger, deeper +boat, and with sails which can be set at any angle, the effect will +be different. So long as the wind presses against the after side of +the sail, the boat will move through the water in the direction of the +least resistance, which is forward. A square sail having the mast in +the middle was easiest to begin with for purposes of explanation; but +now we will change to a "fore-and-aft" rig--that is, one with the mast +at the forward edge or "luff" of the sail, as in Fig. 142. Suppose the +sail to be set at the angle shown, and the wind blowing as the arrow +points. The boat cannot readily move sidewise, because of the broadside +resistance; she does not move backward, because the wind is pressing on +the aftermost side of the sail. So she very naturally moves forward. +When she nears buoy No. 1, the helmsman moves the "tiller," or handle +of the rudder, toward the sail. This causes the boat to turn her head +toward buoy No. 2, the sail swings across to the other side of the +boat and fills on that side, which now in turn becomes the aftermost, +and she moves toward buoy No. 2 nearly at right angles to her former +course. Thus, through a series of zigzags, the wind is made to work +against itself. This operation is called "tacking," or "working to +windward," and the act of turning, as at the buoys No. 1 and No. 2, is +called "going about." + +It will be seen, then, that the science of sailing lies in being able +to manage a boat with her head pointing at any possible angle to or +from the wind. Nothing but experience can teach one all the niceties +of the art, but a little aptitude and address will do to start with, +keeping near shore and carrying little sail. + + +Simplest Rig Possible + +I will suppose that the reader has the use of a broad, flat-bottomed +boat without any rudder. (See Fig. 143.) She cannot be made to work +like a racing yacht under canvas, but lots of fun can be had out of her. + +Do not go to any considerable expense at the outset. Procure an old +sheet, or an old hay cover, six or eight feet square, and experiment +with that before spending your money on new material. If it is a sheet, +and somewhat weakly in its texture, turn all the edges in and sew them, +so that it shall not give way at the hems. At each corner sew on a few +inches of strong twine, forming loops at the angles. Sew on, also, +eyelets or small loops along the edge which is intended for the luff of +the sail, so that it can be laced to the mast. + +You are now ready for your spars, namely, a mast and a "sprit," +the former a couple of feet longer than the luff of the sail, and +the latter to be cut off when you find how long you want it. Let +these spars be of pine, or spruce, or bamboo--as light as possible, +especially the sprit. An inch and a half diameter will do for the mast, +and an inch and a quarter for the sprit, tapering to an inch at the +top. To "step" the mast, bore a hole through one of the thwarts (seats) +near the bow and make a socket or step on the bottom of the boat, just +under the aforesaid hole--or if anything a trifle farther forward--to +receive the foot of the mast. This will hold the mast upright, or with +a slight "rake" aft. + +[Illustration: Fig. 143.--A simple rig.] + +Lace the luff of the sail to the mast so that its lower edge will swing +clear by a foot or so of the boat's sides. Make fast to the loop at D +a stout line, ten or twelve feet long. This is called the "sheet," and +gives control of the sail. The upper end of the sprit, C, E, is trimmed +so that the loop at C will fit over it but not slip down. The lower +end is simply notched to receive a short line called a "snotter," as +shown in the detailed drawing at the right of the cut (Fig. 143). It +will be readily understood that, when the sprit is pushed upward in the +direction of C, the sail will stand spread out. The line is placed in +the notch at E and pulled up until the sail sets properly, when it is +made fast to a cleat or to a cross-piece at F. This device is in common +use and has its advantages, but a simple loop for the foot of the sprit +to rest in is more easily made and will do nearly as well. H is an +oar for steering. Having thus described the simplest rig possible, we +may turn our attention to more elegant and elaborate but not always +preferable outfits. + + +Leg-of-Mutton Rig + +One of the prettiest and most convenient rigs for a small boat is known +as the "leg-of-mutton sharpie rig" (Fig. 144). The sail is triangular, +and the sprit, instead of reaching to its upper corner, stands nearly +at right angles to the mast. It is held in position at the mast by the +devices already described. This rig has the advantage of keeping the +whole sail flatter than any other, for the end of the sprit cannot +"kick up," as the phrase goes, and so the sail holds all the wind it +receives. + +[Illustration: Fig. 144.] + +Fig. 145 shows a device, published for the first time in the _St. +Nicholas Magazine_ for September, 1880, which enables the sailor to +step and unstep his mast, and hoist or lower his sail without leaving +his seat--a matter of great importance when the boat is light and +tottlish, as in the case of that most beautiful of small craft, the +modern canoe, where the navigator sits habitually amidships. The lower +mast (A, B, Fig. 145) stands about two and a half feet above the deck. +It is fitted at the head with a metal ferrule and pin, and just above +the deck with two half-cleats or other similar devices (A). The topmast +(C, D) is fitted at F with a stout ring, and has double halyards (E) +rove through or around its foot. The lower mast being in position (see +lower part of Fig. 145), the canoeist desiring to make sail brings +the boat's head to the wind, takes the topmast with the sail loosely +furled in one hand and the halyards in the other. It is easy for him by +raising this mast, without leaving his seat, to pass the halyards one +on each side of the lower mast and let them fall into place close to +the deck under the half-cleats at A. Then, holding the halyards taut +enough to keep them in position, he will hook the topmast ring over the +pin in the lower mast-heat and haul away (see top part of Fig. 145). +The mast will rise into place, where it is made fast. A collar of +leather, or a knob of some kind, placed on the topmast just below the +ring, will act as a fulcrum when the halyards are hauled taut and keep +the mast from working to and fro. + +[Illustration: Fig. 145.--A new device.] + +The advantages of the rig are obvious. The mast can be raised without +standing up, and in case of necessity the halyards can be let go and +the mast and sail unshipped and stowed below with the greatest ease and +expedition, leaving only the short lower mast standing. A leg-of-mutton +sail with a common boom along the foot is shown in the cut as the most +easily illustrated application of the device, but there is no reason +why it may not be applied to a sail of different shape, with a sprit +instead of a boom, and a square instead of a pointed head. + +[Illustration: Fig. 146.--The latteen rig.] + + +The Latteen Rig + +is recommended only for boats which are "stiff"--not tottlish, that +is. The fact that a considerable portion of the sail projects forward +of the mast renders it awkward in case of a sudden shift of wind. Its +most convenient form is shown in Fig. 146. The arrangement for shipping +and unshipping the yard is precisely like that shown in Fig. 145--a +short lower mast with a pin at the top and a ring fitted to the yard. +It has a boom at the foot which is joined to the yard at C by means of +a hook or a simple lashing, having sufficient play to allow the two +spars to shut up together like a pair of dividers. The boom (C, E) has, +where it meets the short lower mast, a half-cleat, or jaw, shown in +detail at the bottom of the cut (Fig. 146), the circle representing a +cross-section of the mast. This should be lashed to the boom, as screws +or bolts would weaken it. To take in sail, the boatman brings the boat +to the wind, seizes the boom and draws it toward him. This disengages +it from the mast. He then shoves it forward, when the yard (C, D) falls +of its own weight into his hands and can be at once lifted clear of the +lower mast. To keep the sail flat, it is possible to arrange a collar +on the lower mast so that the boom, when once in position, cannot slip +upward and suffer the sail to bag. + + +The Cat-Rig + +so popular on the North Atlantic coast, is indicated in Fig. 148. The +spar at the head of the sail is called a "gaff," and, like the boom, it +fits the mast with semicircular jaws. The sail is hoisted and lowered +by means of halyards rove through a block near the mast-head. The +mast is set in the bows--"Chock up in the eyes of her," as a sailor +would say. A single leg-of-mutton sail will not work in this position, +because the greater part of its area is too far forward of amidships. +No rig is handier or safer than this in working to windward; but off +the wind--running before, or nearly before it, that is--the weight +of mast and sail, and the pressure of the wind at one side and far +forward, make the boat very difficult and dangerous to steer. Prudent +boatmen often avoid doing so by keeping the wind on the quarter and, as +it were, tacking to leeward. + +This suggests the question of "jibing," an operation always to be +avoided if possible. Suppose the wind to be astern, and the boat +running nearly before it, it becomes necessary to change your course +toward the side on which the sail is drawing. The safest way is to +turn at first in the opposite direction, put the helm "down" (toward +the sail), bring the boat up into the wind, turn her entirely around, +and stand off on the new tack. This, however, is not always possible. +Hauling in the sheet until the sail fills on the other side is +"jibing"; but when this happens it goes over with a rush that sometimes +carries mast and sheet or upsets the boat; hence the operation should +be first undertaken in a light wind. It is necessary to know how to do +it, for sometimes a sail insists upon jibing very unexpectedly, and it +is best to be prepared for such emergencies. + + +How to Make a Sail + +For the sails of small boats there is no better material than +unbleached twilled cotton sheeting. It is to be had two and a half or +even three yards wide. In cutting out your sail, let the selvage be at +the "leech," or after-most edge. This, of course, makes it necessary to +cut the luff and foot "bias," and they are very likely to stretch in +the making, so that the sail will assume a different shape from what +was intended. To avoid this, baste the hem carefully before sewing, and +"hold in" a little to prevent fulling. It is a good plan to tack the +material on the floor before cutting, and mark the outline of the sail +with pencil. Stout tape stitched along the bias edges will make a sure +thing of it, and the material can be cut, making due allowance for the +hem. Better take feminine advice on this process. The hems should be +half an inch deep all around, selvage and all, and it will do no harm +to reinforce them with cord if you wish to make a thoroughly good piece +of work. + +For running-rigging, nothing is better than laid or braided cotton +cord, such as is used for awnings and sash-cords. If this is not easily +procured, any stout twine will answer. It can be doubled and twisted +as often as necessary. The smallest manila rope is rather stiff and +unmanageable for such light sails as ours. + +In fitting out a boat of any kind, iron, unless galvanized, is to be +avoided as much as possible, on account of its liability to rust. Use +brass or copper instead. + + +Hints to Beginners + +Nothing has been said about reefing thus far, because small boats under +the management of beginners should not be afloat in a "reefing breeze." +Reefing is the operation of reducing the spread of sail when the wind +becomes too fresh. If you will look at Fig. 146 you will see rows of +short marks on the sail above the boom. These are "reef-points"--bits +of line about a foot long passing through holes in the sail and knotted +so that they will not slip. In reefing, the sail is lowered and +that portion of it between the boom and the reef-points is gathered +together, and the points are tied around both it and the boom. When the +lower row of points is used it is a single reef. Both rows together are +a double reef. + +Make your first practical experiment _with a small sail and with the +wind blowing toward the shore_. Row out a little way, and then sail in +any direction in which you can make the boat go, straight back to shore +if you can, with the sail out nearly at right angles with the boat. +Then try running along shore with the sheet hauled in a little and +the sail on the side nearest the shore. You will soon learn what your +craft can do, and will probably find that she will make very little, if +any, headway to windward. This is partly because she slides sidewise +over the water. To prevent it you may use a "lee-board"--namely, a +broad board hung over the side of the boat (G, Fig. 143). This must be +held by stout lines, as the strain upon it is very heavy. It should be +placed a little forward of the middle of the boat. + +[Illustration: Fig. 147.--Making port.] + +It must be on the side away from the wind--the lee side--and must +be shifted when you go about. Keels and centreboards are permanent +contrivances for the same purpose, but a lee-board answers very well as +a makeshift, and is even used habitually by some canoeists and other +boatmen. + +In small boats it is sometimes desirable to sit amidships, because +sitting in the stern raises the bow too high out of water; steering may +be done with an oar over the lee side, or with "yoke-lines" attached to +a cross-piece on the rudder-head, or even to the tiller. In this last +case the lines must be rove through rings or pulleys at the sides of +the boat opposite the end of the tiller. When the handle of the oar (H, +Fig. 143)--or the tiller (F, Fig. 146) if a rudder is used--is pushed +to the right, the boat will turn to the left, and _vice versa_. The +science of steering consists in knowing when to push and how much to +push--very simple, you see, in the statement, but not always so easy in +practice. + +The sail should be so adjusted in relation to the rest of the boat +that, when the sheet is hauled close in and made fast, the boat, if +left to herself, will point her head to the wind like a weather-cock +and drift slowly astern. If it is found that the sail is so far forward +that she will not do this, the fault may be remedied by stepping the +mast further aft or by rigging a small sail near the stern. This is +called a "dandy" or "steering sail," and is especially convenient in a +boat whose size or arrangement necessitates sitting amidships. It may +be rigged like the mainsail, and when its sheet is once made fast will +ordinarily take care of itself in tacking. + +Remember that, if the wind freshens or a squall strikes you, the +position of safety is with the boat's head to the wind. When in doubt +what to do, push the helm down (toward the sail) and haul in the slack +of the sheet as the boat comes up into the wind. If she is moving +astern, or will not mind her helm--and of course she will not if she is +not moving--pull her head around to the wind with an oar and experiment +cautiously until you find which way you can make her go. + +In making a landing, always calculate to have the boat's head as near +the wind as possible when she ceases to move, this whether you lower +your sail or not. + +Thus, if the wind is off shore, as shown at A, Fig. 147, land at F or +G, with the bow toward the shore. If the wind is from the direction of +B, land at E, with the bow toward B or at F; if at the latter, the boom +will swing away from the wharf and permit you to lie alongside. If the +wind is from D, reverse these positions. If the wind comes from the +direction of C, land either at F or G, with the bow pointing off shore. + +If you have no one to tell you what to do, you will have to feel your +way slowly and learn by experience; but if you have nautical instincts +you will soon make your boat do what you wish her to do as far as she +is able. _But first learn to swim before you try to sail a boat._ + +Volumes have been written on the subject treated in these few pages, +and it is not yet exhausted. The hints here given are safe ones to +follow, and will, it is hoped, be of service to many a young sailor in +many a corner of the world. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +MORE RIGS OF ALL KINDS FOR SMALL BOATS + + How to Distinguish between a Ship, Bark, Brig, and + Schooner--Merits and Defects of Catboats--Advantages of + the Sloop--Rigs for Canoes--Buckeyes and Sharpies + + +THE two principal rigs for vessels are the fore-and-aft and the square +rig. + +=Square rigged= consists in having the principal sails extended by +yards suspended at the middle (Fig. 159). + +=Fore-and-aft rigged= is having the principal sails extended by booms +and gaffs suspended by their ends (Figs. 148, 149, 150, 156, and 161). + +Barks, brigs, and ships are all more or less square rigged, but +schooners, sloops, and catboats are all fore-and-aft rigged. In these +notes the larger forms of boats are mentioned only because of the +well-known interest boys take in all nautical matters, but no detailed +description of the larger craft will be given. All that is aimed at +here is to give the salient points, so that the youngsters will know +the name of the rig when they see it. + + +The Cat + +There is a little snub-nosed American who, in spite of her short body +and broad waist, is deservedly popular among all our amateur sailors. + +The appreciation of her charms is felt and acknowledged by all her +companions without envy, not because of her saucy looks, but on account +of her accommodating manners. + +Possessing a rare ability for quick movement, and a wonderful +power to bore her way almost into the very eye of the wind, or with +double-reefed sail to dash through the storm or gently slide up +alongside of a wharf or dock as easily as a rowboat, the American +catboat, with her single mast "chock up in the eyes of her," has +made a permanent place for herself among our pleasure craft, and is +omnipresent in our crowded bays and harbors. + +[Illustration: Fig. 148.--The snub-nosed American cat.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 149.--Jib and mainsail.] + +Knowing that there is little danger of the catboat losing its +well-earned popularity, and being somewhat familiar with many of her +peculiarities, I am free to say that this rig, notwithstanding its +numerous good points, has many serious defects as a school-ship, and +the beginner had better select some other rig with which to begin his +practice sailing. + +[Illustration: Fig. 150.--Schooner rig for open boat. Boom on mainsail, +none on foresail.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 151.--The balance lug.] + +First, the great sail is very heavy and difficult to hoist and reef. +Second, in going before the wind there is constant danger of jibing, +with serious results. Third, the catboat has a very bad habit of +rolling when sailing before the wind, and each time the boat rolls +from side to side she is liable to dip the end of her heavy boom in +the water and "trip herself up." When a boat trips _up_ she does +not necessarily go _down_, but she is likely to upset, placing the +young sailors in an unenviable, if not a dangerous, position. Fourth, +when the craft begins to swagger before the wind she is liable to +"goose-neck"; that is, throw her boom up against the mast, which is +another accident fraught with the possibilities of serious mischief. + +[Illustration: Fig. 152.--Standing lug.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 153.--Leg-of-mutton sail. Jib and main sail rig.] + +The catboat has no bowsprit, no jib, and no topsail (Fig. 148), but +that most graceful of all single-stickers, + + +The Sloop + +possesses several jibs, a bowsprit, and topsail. Besides these, when +she is in racing trim, a number of additional sails are used. All our +great racers are sloops, and this rig is the most convenient for small +yachts and cutters. + +Racing Sloops + +A racing sloop (Fig. 161) carries a mainsail, A, a fore staysail, B, a +jib, C, a gaff topsail, D, a club topsail, E, a baby jib topsail, F, a +No. 2 jib topsail, G, a No. 1 jib topsail, H, a balloon jib topsail, J +(Fig. 157), and a spinnaker, K (Fig. 157). + +[Illustration: Fig. 160. Fig. 161. + +Figs. 154-161.--Rigs that we meet at sea.] + + +Jib and Mainsail + +A small sloop's sails are a mainsail, jib, and topsail. A sloop rig +without topsail is called a jib and mainsail (Fig. 149). + +While every small-boat sailor should know a catboat and a sloop when +he sees them, and even be able to give the proper name to their sails, +neither of these rigs is very well suited for canoes, sharpies, or +other boats of the mosquito fleet; but the + + +Schooner Rig + +which is the form of boat generally used for the larger yachts, is +also very much used for open boats. As you can see, by referring to +Fig. 150, the schooner rig consists of a bowsprit, fore and main mast, +with their appropriate sails. Lately freight schooners have appeared +with four or more masts. For small boats two adjustable masts and an +adjustable bowsprit, as described in the Rough and Ready, Chapter +XIII, are best. The sails may be sprit sails, Figs. 164-169; balance +lug, Fig. 151; standing lug, Fig. 152; leg-of-mutton, Fig. 153, or the +sliding gunter, Fig. 163. + +[Illustration: Fig. 162.--The buckeye.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 163.--The sliding gunter.] + +In the chapter on how to build the Rough and Ready, the sprit sail is +depicted and fully described. + + +The Balance Lug + +comes as near the square sail of a ship as any canvas used on small +boats, but you can see, by referring to the diagram, Fig. 151, that +the leach and the luff are not parallel and that the gaff hangs at an +angle. To boom out the canvas and make it sit flat there are three +sticks extended across the sail from the front to the back, luff to +leach, called battens. This has caused some people to call this a +batten lug. Like the lateen sail, part of the balance lug hangs before +the mast and serves the purpose of a jib. This rig is said to be easily +managed and to possess good sailing qualities. + +[Illustration: Fig. 164.--Sharpie with sprit and club leg-of-mutton +sails.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 165. + +Fig. 166. + +Showing detail of sprit club sail.] + + +The Standing Lug + +is another sail approaching the square in pattern (Fig. 152), and, as +any novice can see, is a good canvas with which to scud before the +wind. It is very convenient for open boats built to be propelled by +paddles. While the standing lug cannot point up to the eye of the wind +like a schooner or cat, it is very fast on the wind or when running +with the wind astern. Probably the safest form of sail used is the old +reliable + + +Leg-of-Mutton Sail + +This is used by the fishermen on their stanch little dories away up on +the coast of Maine, and by the "tide-water" people in their "buckeyes" +on Chesapeake Bay. The latter boat is very little known outside of the +locality where it makes its home, but, like the New Haven sharpies, it +is very popular in its own waters. + + +The Buckeye + +or "bugeye," as it is sometimes vulgarly called, has a great reputation +for speed and sea-going qualities. When it cannot climb a wave it goes +through it. This makes a wet boat in heavy weather, but when you travel +at a high rate of speed you can endure a wet jacket with no complaint, +especially when you feel that, in spite of the fast-sailing qualities +of this boat, it is considered a particularly safe craft. + +[Illustration: Fig. 167.--Plain sprit leg-of-mutton.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 168. + +Fig. 169. + +Another form of the sprit sail.] + +The construction of a =buckeye= (Fig. 162) has been evolved from the +old dugout canoe of the Indians and the first white settlers. America +was originally covered with vast forests of immense trees. Remnants of +these forests still exist in a few localities. It was once possible to +make a canoe of almost any dimensions desired, but now in the thickly +settled regions big trees are scarce. + +So the Chesapeake Bay boat-builders, while still adhering to the old +dugout, have overcome the disadvantage of small logs by using more than +one and bolting the pieces together. Masts and sails have been added, +and since the increased proportions made it impracticable to drag such +a craft on the beach when in port, anchors and cables are supplied. +Two holes bored, one on each side of the stem, for the cables to run +through, have given the boat the appearance of having eyes, and as the +eyes are large and round, the negroes called them buckeyes, and this is +now the name by which all such craft are known. + +At first only two masts with leg-of-mutton sails were used, but now +they have a jib and two sails. With the greatest width or beam about +one-third the distance from bow to stern, sharp at both ends, its long, +narrow, and heavy hull is easily driven through the water and makes +both a fast and stiff boat. + +The buckeye travels in shallow as well as deep waters, and hence is +a centreboard boat, but there is nothing unnecessary on the real +buckeye--no overhanging bow or stern, for that means additional labor; +no stays to the masts, for the same reason. The lack of stays to +stiffen the masts leaves them with "springiness," which in case of a +sudden squall helps to spill the wind and prevents what might otherwise +be a "knock-down." + +[Illustration: Fig. 170.--Lug rig with jigger.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 171.--Lug rig with jigger and jib.] + +The foremast is longer than the mainmast and does not rake aft so much, +but the mainmast has a decided rake, which the colored sailors say +makes the boat faster on the wind. Sometimes in the smaller boats the +mainmast can be set upright when going before the wind. + +Wealthy gentlemen on the Chesapeake are now building regularly equipped +yachts on the buckeye plan, and some of them are quite large boats. A +correspondent of the _Forest and Stream_, in speaking of the buckeye, +says: + +"Last summer I cruised in company with a buckeye, forty-two feet long, +manned by two gentlemen of Baltimore city. She drew twenty inches +without the board. In sudden and heavy flaws she was rarely luffed. She +would lie over and appear to spill the wind out of her tall, sharp +sails and then right again. Her crew took pleasure in tackling every +sailing craft for a race; nothing under seventy feet in length ever +beat her. She steered under any two of her three sails. On one occasion +this craft, on her way from Cape May to Cape Charles, was driven out to +sea before a heavy north-west blow. Her crew, the aforesaid gentlemen, +worn out by fatigue, hove her to and went to sleep. She broke her +tiller lashing during the night, and when they awoke she was pegging +away on a south-east course under her jib. They put her about, and in +twenty hours were inside Cape Henry, pretty well tired out. Buckeyes +frequently run from Norfolk to New York with fruit. For shallow waters, +I am satisfied there is no better craft afloat. Built deep, with a +loaded keel, they would rival the English cutter in seaworthiness and +speed." + +[Illustration: Fig. 172.--Jib.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 173.--Sprit sail, schooner rig, with dandy.] + +When the hardy, bold fishermen of our Eastern States and the brave +fishermen down South both use the leg-of-mutton sail, beginners cannot +object to using it while practising; knowing that even if it is a safe +sail, it cannot be called a "baby rig." Another safe rig, differing +little from the leg-of-mutton, is the + + +Sliding Gunter + +In this rig the sail is laced to a yard which slides up or down the +mast by means of two iron hooks or travellers (Fig. 163). No sail with +a narrow-pointed top is very serviceable before the wind, and the +sliding gunter is no exception to the rule. But it is useful on the +wind, and can be reefed easily and quickly, qualities which make it +many friends. + +In the smooth, shallow waters along the coast of North Carolina may be +seen the long, flat-bottomed + + +Sharpies + +Without question they are to be ranked among the fastest boats we have. +These boats are rigged with a modification of the leg-of-mutton sail. +The ends of the sprit in the foresail project at the luff and leach. +At the luff it is fastened to the mast by a line like a snotter at the +leach. It is fastened to a stick sewed into the sail, called a club. +The sheet is attached to the end of the sprit (Figs. 164-168). + +[Illustration: Fig. 174.--Sprit sail jib and dandy.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 175.--The lateen rig with dandy.] + + +The Sprit Leg-of-Mutton Sail + +has this advantage, that the clew of the sail is much higher than the +tack, thus avoiding the danger of dipping the clew in the water and +tripping the boat. + + +The Dandy Jigger, or Mizzen Rig + +is named after the small sail aft, near the rudder-head. This jigger, +mizzen, or dandy may have a boom, a sprit, or be rigged as a lug. +(See Figs. 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 178, 180, and 184, which show the +principal mizzen rigs in use.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 176. Yawl Rig. + +Fig. 177. Lug-headed Jib & Mainsail Rigged Punt + +Fig. 180. The Burton when using only two blocks it is the most powerful +Tackle + +Fig. 181. A "Lugeen." + +Fig. 182. FAN SAIL under shortened sail. Fan Partly Folded + +Fig. 179. Two battened Lug + +Fig. 178. Three masted Bat Winged Canoe + +Fig. 184. Two masted Bat Winged Canoe. + +Fig. 183. Two Common Tackles A Gun Tackle Purchase Luff Tackle Purchase + +ADDITIONAL RIGS FOR SMALL BOATS AND CANOES AND THREE USEFUL TACKLES + +Figs. 176-184.--Hybrid rigs for small boats; also two useful tackles.] + +In puffy wind and lumpy water the main and mizzen rig will be found to +work well. The little sail aft should be trimmed as flat as possible. +It will be found of great help in beating to the windward, and will +keep the nose of the boat facing the wind when the mainsail is down. +Different rigs are popular in different localities. For instance: + + +The Lateen Rig + +is very popular in some parts of the Old World, yet it has only few +friends here. It may be because of my art training that I feel so +kindly toward this style of sail, or it may be from association in my +mind of some of the happiest days of my life with a little black canoe +rigged with lateen sails. At any rate, in spite of the undeniable +fact that the lateen is unpopular, I never see a small boat rigged in +this style without a feeling of pleasure. The handy little stumps of +masts end in a spike at the top and are adorned by the beautiful sails +lashed to slender spars, which, by means of metal rings, are lightly, +but securely, fastened to the mast by simply hooking the ring over the +spike. I freely acknowledge that when the sails are lowered and you +want to use your paddle the lateen sails are in your way. It is claimed +that they are awkward to reef, and this may be true. I never tried it. +When the wind was too strong for my sails I made port or took in either +the large or the small sail, as the occasion seemed to demand. + + +The Ship + +When you are out sailing and see a vessel with three masts, all square +rigged, you are looking at a ship proper, though ship is a word often +used loosely for any sort of a boat (Fig. 159). + +=The bark= is a vessel with square-rigged foremast and mainmast and a +fore-and-aft rigged mizzen-mast (Fig. 160). + +=The brig= is a vessel with only two masts, both of which are square +rigged (Fig. 158). + +=The brigantine= has two masts--foremast square rigged and mainmast +fore-and-aft rigged (Fig. 155). + +=The barkentine= has three masts--mainmast and mizzen-mast fore-and-aft +rigged and foremast square rigged. (See Fig. 154.) + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES + + +How to Tie Knots Useful on Both Land and Water + +THE art of tying knots is an almost necessary adjunct to not a few +recreations. Especially is this true of summer sports, many of which +are nautical or in some manner connected with the water. + +Any boy who has been aboard a yacht or a sail-boat must have realized +that the safety of the vessel and all aboard may be imperilled by +ignorance or negligence in the tying of a knot or fastening of a rope. + +With some the knack of tying a good, strong knot in a heavy rope +or light cord seems to be a natural gift; it is certainly a very +convenient accomplishment, and one that with practice and a little +perseverance may be acquired even by those who at first make the most +awkward and bungling attempts. + +A bulky, cumbersome knot is not only ungainly, but is generally +insecure. + +As a rule, the strength of a knot is in direct proportion to its neat +and handsome appearance. + +To my mind it is as necessary that the archer should know how to make +the proper loops at the end of his bow-string as it is that a hunter +should understand how to load his gun. + +Every fisherman should be able to join two lines neatly and securely, +and should know the best and most expeditious method of attaching an +extra hook or fly; and any boy who rigs up a hammock or swing with a +"granny" or other insecure knot deserves the ugly tumble and sore bones +that are more than liable to result from his ignorance. + +A knot, nautically speaking, is a "bend" that is more permanent than a +"hitch." A knot properly tied never slips, nor does it jam so that it +cannot be readily untied. A "hitch" might be termed a temporary bend, +as it is seldom relied upon for permanent service. The "hitch" is so +made that it can be cast off or unfastened more quickly than a knot. + +It is impossible for the brightest boy to learn to make "knots, bends, +and hitches" by simply reading over a description of the methods; for, +although he may understand them at the time, five minutes after reading +the article the process will have escaped his memory. But if he take a +piece of cord or rope and sit down with the diagrams in front of him, +he will find little difficulty in managing the most complicated knots; +and he will not only acquire an accomplishment from which he can derive +infinite amusement for himself and a means of entertainment for others, +but the knowledge gained may, in case of accident by fire or flood, be +the means of saving both life and property. + +The accompanying diagrams show a number of useful and important bends, +splices, etc. To simplify matters, let us commence with Fig. 57, and go +through the diagrams in the order in which they come: + +The "English" or "common single fisherman's knot" (Fig. 185, I) is neat +and strong enough for any ordinary strain. The diagram shows the knots +before being tightened and drawn together. + +When exceptional strength is required it can be obtained by joining the +lines in the ordinary single fisherman's knot (Fig. 185, I) and pulling +each of the half knots as tight as possible, then drawing them within +an eighth of an inch of each other and wrapping between with fine gut +that has been previously softened in water, or with light-colored silk. + +An additional line or a sinker may be attached by tying a knot in the +end of the extra line and inserting it between the parts of the single +fisherman's knot before they are drawn together and tightened. + +[Illustration: Fig. 185.--Some useful knots.] + +The "fisherman's double half knot," Fig. 185 (II and III). After the +gut has been passed around the main line and through itself, it is +passed around the line once more and through the same loop again and +drawn close. + +Fig. 185 (IV, V, and IX). Here are three methods of joining the ends of +two lines together; the diagrams explain them much better than words +can. Take a piece of string, try each one, and test their relative +strength. + +Fig. 185 (VI). It often happens, while fishing, that a hook is caught +in a snag or by some other means lost. The diagram shows the most +expeditious manner of attaching another hook by what is known as the +"sinker hitch," described further on (Fig. 185, D, D, D, and Fig. 186, +XIV, XV, and XVI). + +Fig. 185, VII is another and more secure method of attaching a hook by +knitting the line on with a succession of half-hitches. + + +How to Make a Horse-Hair Watch-Guard + +The same hitches are used in the manufacture of horse-hair +watch-guards, much in vogue with the boys in some sections of the +country. As regularly as "kite-time," "top-time," or "ball-time," comes +"horse-hair watch-guard time." + +About once a year the rage for making watch-guards used to seize the +boys of our school, and by some means or other almost every boy would +have a supply of horse-hair on hand. With the first tap of the bell for +recess, some fifty hands would dive into the mysterious depths of about +fifty pockets, and before the bell had stopped ringing about fifty +watch-guards, in a more or less incomplete state, would be produced. + +Whenever a teamster's unlucky stars caused him to stop near the +school-house, a chorus of voices greeted him with "Mister, please let +us have some hair from your horses' tails." + +The request was at first seldom refused, possibly because its nature +was not at the time properly understood; but lucky was the boy +considered who succeeded in pulling a supply of hair from the horses' +tails without being interrupted by the heels of the animals or by the +teamster, who, when he saw the swarm of boys tugging at his horses' +tails, generally repented his first good-natured assent, and with a +gruff, "Get out, you young rascals!" sent the lads scampering to the +school-yard fence. + +Select a lot of long hair of the color desired; make it into a switch +about an eighth of an inch thick by tying one end in a simple knot. +Pick out a good, long hair and tie it around the switch close to the +knotted end; then take the free end of the single hair in your right +hand and pass it under the switch on one side, thus forming a loop +through which the end of the hair must pass after it is brought up and +over from the other side of the switch. Draw the knot tight by pulling +the free end of the hair as shown by Fig. 185, VII. Every time this +operation is repeated a wrap and a knot is produced. The knots follow +each other in a spiral around the switch, giving it a very pretty, +ornamented appearance. When one hair is used up select another and +commence knitting with it as you did with the first, being careful to +cover and conceal the short end of the first hair, and to make the +knots on the second commence where the former stop. A guard made of +white horse-hair looks as if it might be composed of spun glass, and +produces a very odd and pretty effect. A black one is very genteel in +appearance. These ornaments are much prized by cowboys, and I have seen +bridles for horses made of braided horsehair. + + +Miscellaneous + +Fig. 185, VIII shows a simple and expeditous manner of attaching a +trolling-hook to a fish-line. + +Fig. 185, F is a hitch used on shipboard, or wherever lines and cables +are used. It is called the Blackwall hitch. + +Fig. 185, E is a fire-escape made of a double bow-line knot, useful +as a sling for hoisting persons up or letting them down from any high +place; the window of a burning building, for instance. Fig. 186, XVIII, +XIX, and XX show how this knot is made. It is described on page 77. + +Fig. 185, A is a "bale hitch," made of a loop of rope. To make it, take +a piece of rope that has its two ends joined; lay the rope down and +place the bale on it; bring the loop opposite you up, on that side of +the bale, and the loop in front up, on the side of the bale next to +you; thrust the latter loop under and through the first and attach the +hoisting rope. The heavier the object to be lifted, the tighter the +hitch becomes. An excellent substitute for a shawl-strap can be made of +a cord by using the bale hitch, the loop at the top being a first-rate +handle. + +Fig. 185, B is called a cask sling, and C (Fig. 185) is called a butt +sling. The manner of making these last two and their uses may be seen +by referring to the illustration. It will be noticed that a line is +attached to the bale hitch in a peculiar manner (_a_, Fig. 185). This +is called the "anchor bend." If while aboard a sail-boat you have +occasion to throw a bucket over for water, you will find the anchor +bend a very convenient and safe way to attach a line to the bucket +handle, but unless you are an expert you will need an anchor hitched to +your body or you will follow the bucket. + +Fig. 186, I and II are loops showing the elements of the simplest knots. + +Fig. 186, III is a simple knot commenced. + +Fig. 186, IV shows the simple knot tightened. + +Fig. 186, V and VI show how the Flemish knot looks when commenced and +finished. + +Fig. 186, VII and VIII show a "rope knot" commenced and finished. + +Fig. 186, IX is a double knot commenced. + +Fig. 186, X is the same completed. + +Fig. 186, XI shows a back view of the double knot. + +Fig. 186, XII is the first loop of a "bow-line knot." One end of the +line is supposed to be made fast to some object. After the turn, or +loop (Fig. 186, XII), is made, hold it in position with your left hand +and pass the end of the line up through the loop, or turn, you have +just made, behind and over the line above, then down through the loop +again, as shown in the diagram (Fig. 186, XIII); pull it tight and the +knot is complete. The "sinker hitch" is a very handy one to know, and +the variety of uses it may be put to will be at once suggested by the +diagrams. + +[Illustration: Fig. 186.] + +Lines that have both ends made fast may have weights attached to them +by means of the sinker hitch (Fig. 185, D, D, D). + +To accomplish this, first gather up some slack and make it in the form +of the loop (Fig. 186, XIV); bend the loop back on itself (Fig. 186, +XV) and slip the weight through the double loop thus formed (Fig. 186, +XVI); draw tight by pulling the two top lines, and the sinker hitch is +finished (Fig. 186, XVII). + +The "fire-escape sling" previously mentioned, and illustrated by Fig. +185, E, is made with a double line. + +Proceed at first as you would to make a simple bow-line knot (Fig. 186, +XVIII). + +After you have run the end loop up through the turn (Fig. 186, XIX), +bend it downward and over the bottom loop and turn, then up again until +it is in the position shown in Fig. 186, XX; pull it downward until +the knot is tightened, as in Fig. 185, E, and it makes a safe sling in +which to lower a person from any height. The longer loop serves for a +seat, and the shorter one, coming under the arms, makes a rest for the +back. + +Fig. 186-1/2, XXI is called a "boat knot," and is made with the aid of +a stick. It is an excellent knot for holding weights which may want +instant detachment. To detach it, lift the weight slightly and push out +the stick, and instantly the knot is untied. + +Fig. 186-1/2, XXII. Commencement of a "six-fold knot." + +Fig. 186-1/2, XXIII. Six-fold knot completed by drawing the two ends +with equal force. A knot drawn in this manner is said to be "nipped." + +Fig. 186-1/2, XXIV. A simple hitch or "double" used in making loop +knots. + +Fig. 186-1/2, XXV. "Loop knot." + +Fig. 186-1/2, XXVI shows how the loop knot is commenced. + +Fig. 186-1/2, XXVII is the "Dutch double knot," sometimes called the +"Flemish loop." + +Fig. 186-1/2, XXVIII shows a common "running knot." + +Fig. 186-1/2, XXIX. A running knot with a check knot to hold. + +Fig. 186-1/2, XXX. A running knot checked. + +[Illustration: Fig. 186-1/2.] + +Fig. 186-1/2, XXXI. The right-hand part of the rope shows how to make +the double loop for the "twist knot." The left-hand part of the same +rope shows a finished twist knot. It is made by taking a half turn on +both the right-hand and left-hand lines of the double loop and passing +the end through the "bight" (loop) so made. + + +Whiplashes + +Fig. 186-1/2, XXXII is called the "chain knot," which is often used in +braiding leather whiplashes. To make a "chain knot," fasten one end of +the thong, or line; make a simple loop and pass it over the left hand; +retain hold of the free end with the right hand; with the left hand +seize the line above the right hand and draw a loop through the loop +already formed; finish the knot by drawing it tight with the left hand. +Repeat the operation until the braid is of the required length, then +secure it by passing the free end through the last loop. + +Fig. 186-1/2, XXXIII shows a double chain knot. + +Fig. 186-1/2, XXXIV is a double chain knot pulled out. It shows how the +free end is thrust through the last loop. + +Fig. 186-1/2, XXXV. Knotted loop for end of rope, used to prevent the +end of the rope from slipping, and for various other purposes. + + +Splices, Timber-Hitches, etc. + +Although splices may not be as useful to boys as knots and hitches, +for the benefit of those among my readers who are interested in the +subject, I have introduced a few bands and splices on the cables partly +surrounding Fig. 186-1/2. + +Fig. 186-1/2, _a_ shows the knot and upper side of a "simple band." + +Fig. 186-1/2, _b_ shows under side of the same. + +Fig. 186-1/2, _c_ and _d_ show a tie with cross-ends. To hold the ends +of the cords, a turn is taken under the strands. + +[Illustration: Fig. 187.] + +Fig. 186-1/2, _e_ and _f_: Bend with cross-strands, one end looped over +the other. + +Fig. 186-1/2, _g_ shows the upper side of the "necklace tie." + +Fig. 186-1/2, _h_ shows the under side of the same. The advantage of this +tie is that the greater the strain on the cords, the tighter it draws +the knot. + +Fig. 186-1/2, _i_ and _j_ are slight modifications of _g_ and _h_. + +Fig. 186-1/2, _p_ shows the first position of the end of the ropes for +making the splice _k_. Untwist the strands and put the ends of two +ropes together as close as possible, and place the strands of the one +between the strands of the other alternately, so as to interlace, as in +_k_. This splice should only be used when there is not time to make the +"long splice," as the short one is not very strong. + +From _l_ to _m_ is a long splice, made by underlaying the strands of +each of the ropes joined about half the length of the splice, and +putting each strand of the one between two of the other; _q_ shows the +strands arranged for the long splice. + +Fig. 186-1/2, _n_ is a simple mode of making a hitch on a rope. + +Fig. 186-1/2, _o_ is a "shroud knot." + +Fig. 186-1/2, _r_ shows a very convenient way to make a handle on a rope, +and is used upon large ropes when it is necessary for several persons +to take hold to pull. + +Fig. 187, A. Combination of half-hitch and timber-hitch. + +Fig. 187, B. Ordinary half-hitch. + +Fig. 187, C. Ordinary timber-hitch. + +Fig. 187, D. Another timber-hitch, called the "clove-hitch." + +Fig. 187, E. "Hammock-hitch," used for binding bales of goods or cloth. + +Fig. 187, F. "Lark-head knot," used by sailors and boatmen for mooring +their crafts. + +Fig. 187, P shows a lark-head fastening to a running knot. + +Fig. 187, G is a double-looped lark-head. + +Fig. 187, H shows a double-looped lark-head knot fastened to the ring +of a boat. + +[Illustration: Fig. 187-1/2.--Timber-hitches, etc.] + +Fig. 187, I is a "treble lark-head." To make it you must first tie +a single lark-head, then divide the two heads and use each singly, as +shown in the diagram. + +Fig. 187, J shows a simple boat knot with one turn. + +Fig. 187, K. "Crossed running knot." It is a strong and handy tie, not +as difficult to make as it appears to be. + +Fig. 187, L is the bow-line knot, described by the diagrams XII and +XIII (Fig. 186). The free end of the knot is made fast by binding it to +the "bight," or the loop. It makes a secure sling for a man to sit in +at his work among the rigging. + +Fig. 187, M, N, and O. "Slip clinches," or "sailors' knots." + +Fig. 187-1/2, Q shows a rope fastened by the chain-hitch. The knot at +the left-hand end explains a simple way to prevent a rope from +unravelling. + +Fig. 187-1/2, R. A timber-hitch; when tightened the line binds around +the timber so that it will not slip. + +Fig. 187-1/2, S. Commencement of simple lashing knot. + +Fig. 187-1/2, T. Simple lashing knot finished. + +Fig. 187-1/2, U. "Infallible loop;" not properly a timber-hitch, but +useful in a variety of ways, and well adapted for use in archery. + +Fig. 187-1/2, V. Same as R, reversed. It looks like it might give way +under a heavy strain, but it will not. + +Fig. 187-1/2, W. Running knot with two ends. + +Fig. 187-1/2, X. Running knot with a check knot that can only be opened +with a marline-spike. + +Fig. 187-1/2, Y. A two-ended running knot with a check to the running +loops. This knot can be untied by drawing both ends of the cord. + +Fig. 187-1/2, Z. Running knot with two ends, fixed by a double Flemish +knot. When you wish to encircle a timber with this tie, pass the ends +on which the check knot is to be through the cords before they are +drawn tight. This will require considerable practice. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _a_ shows an ordinary twist knot. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _a_^{1} shows the form of loop for builder's knot. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _b_. Double twist knot. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _c_. Builder's knot finished. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _d_ represents a double builder's knot. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _e_. "Weaver's knot," same as described under the head of +Becket hitch (Fig. 185, V). + +Fig. 187-1/2, _f_. Weaver's knot drawn tight. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _g_ shows how to commence a reef knot. This is useful for +small ropes; with ropes unequal in size the knot is likely to draw out +of shape, as _m_. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _h_ shows a reef knot completed. + +Of all knots, avoid the "granny"; it is next to useless under a strain, +and marks the tier as a "landlubber." + +Fig. 187-1/2, _i_ shows a granny knot; _n_ shows a granny under strain. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _j_ shows the commencement of a common "rough knot." + +Fig. 187-1/2, _k_. The front view of finished knot. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _l_. The back view of finished knot. Although this knot +will not untie nor slip, the rope is likely to part at one side if the +strain is great. Awkward as it looks, this tie is very useful at times +on account of the rapidity with which it can be made. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _o_ and _p_. Knot commenced and finished, used for the +same purposes as the Flemish knot. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _q_ and _q_^{1}. An ordinary knot with ends used +separately. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _s_. Sheep-shank, or dog-shank as it is sometimes called, +is very useful in shortening a line. Suppose, for instance, a swing is +much longer than necessary, and you wish to shorten it without climbing +aloft to do so, it can be done with a sheep-shank. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _r_ shows the first position of the two loops. Take two +half hitches, and you have a bend of the form shown by _s_. Pull tightly +from above and below the shank, and you will find that the rope is +shortened securely enough for ordinary strain. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _t_. Shortening by loop and turns made where the end of +the rope is free. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _u_. A shortened knot that can be used when either end is +free. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _v_, _w_, and _x_. Shortening knots. + +Fig. 187-1/2, _y_ and _z_. A "true lover's knot," and the last one that +you need to practise on, for one of these knots is as much as most +persons can attend to, and ought to last a lifetime. + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +HOW TO BUILD A CHEAP BOAT + + +The Yankee Pine + +FROM the saw-mills away up among the tributaries of the Ohio River +come floating down to the towns along the shore great rafts of pine +lumber. These rafts are always objects of interest to the boys, for +the youngsters know that when moored to the shore the solidly packed +planks make a splendid platform to swim from. Fine springing-boards +can be made of the projecting blades of the gigantic sweeps which are +used to guide the mammoth rafts, and, somewhere aboard, there is always +to be found a "Yankee pine." Just when or why this style of skiff was +dubbed with such a peculiar name I am unable to state; but this I know, +that when a raft is to be broken up and carted away to the lumber yards +there is, or always used to be, a good, light skiff to be had cheap. + +However, all boys do not live on the bank of the river, and if they did +there would hardly be "Yankee pines" enough to go round; so we will at +once proceed to see how to build one for ourselves. Although my readers +may find the "Yankee pine" a little more difficult to build than the +blunt-ended, flat-bottomed scow, it really is a comparatively simple +piece of work for boys familiar with the use of carpenters' tools. + +For the side-pieces select two straight-grained pine boards free from +knots. These boards should be about 13 or 14 feet long, a couple +of inches over a foot in width, and as nearly alike as possible in +texture. Besides these there should be in the neighborhood of a dozen +other 3/4-inch planks, an inch or two over a half foot in width. A small +piece of 2-inch plank for the stern-piece is also necessary. Upon the +bottom edge of the side-board measure off from each end toward the +centre 4 inches, mark the points, and saw off the corners shown by the +dotted line in Fig. 188. Next take a piece of board 4 feet long and a +foot wide, saw off the corners as you did on the side-board, making it +4 feet on the top and 3 feet 4 inches on the bottom. This board is to +be used only as a centre brace while modelling the boat. + +[Illustration: Fig. 188.--Side-board.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 189.--Frame.] + +Out of the 2-inch plank make a stern-piece of the same shape as the +centre brace; let it be 1 foot wide, 14 inches long on the bottom, +and 20 inches long on top. Set the side-boards on their shorter or +bottom edges and place the centre brace in the middle, as shown by +Fig. 189; nail the side-boards to it, using only enough nails to hold +temporarily. Draw the side-boards together at the bow and against the +stern-board at the stern (Fig. 189). Hold the side-pieces in position +by the means of ropes. A stem should be ready to fix in the bow (Fig. +190). This had better be a few inches longer than the sides are broad, +as it is a simple matter to saw off the top after it is fitted. Make +the stem of a triangular piece of timber, by planing off the front +edge until a flat surface about 1/2 inch broad is obtained; 2 inches +from the front, upon each side, cut a groove just the thickness of the +side-boards (3/4 inch). Trim the stem so that the side-pieces at the bow +fit the grooves snugly, and nail the side-boards to the stem and to the +stern-piece (Fig. 189). + +[Illustration: Fig. 190.--Stem-piece.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 191.--Finished skiff.] + +Turn the boat upside down, and it will be discovered that the outlines +of the bottom form an arch from stem to stern. If left in this shape +the boat will sink too deep amidship. Remedy the defect by planing the +bottom edge of both side pieces, reducing the convex form to straight +lines in the middle. This will allow the bow and stern to sheer, but +at the same time will make the central part of the bottom flat, and, +by having less to drag through the water, make it easier to row. Nail +the bottom-boards on crosswise, and as, on account of the form of the +boat, no two boards will be of the same size, they must be first nailed +on and the projecting ends sawed off afterward. The centre brace may +now be taken out and a long bottom-board nailed to the centre of the +bottom upon the inside of the boat (Fig. 191). Cut a small cross-piece +(B, Fig. 191) so that it will fit across the bow 3 inches below the +top of the side-boards. Nail it in place, driving the nails from the +outside of the side-board through and into the end of the stick B. Saw +out a bow seat, and, allowing the broad end to rest on the cross-stick +B, fit the seat in and secure it with nails (Fig. 191); 3 inches below +the top of the stern-piece nail a cleat across. At the same distance +below the side-board put a cross-stick similar to the one in the bow. +This and the cleat on the stern-piece form rests for the stern seat. +Five feet from the stern saw a notch 2 inches deep and 1-1/2 inch long in +each side-board (A, A^{1}, Fig. 191). Saw two more notches of the same +size 3 inches from the first; these will make the rowlock when the side +strips have been fastened on. + +[Illustration: Fig. 192.--Keel board or skeg.] + +These strips should each be made of 1-inch plank, 2 inches wide and +an inch or two longer than the side-boards. Nail the strips on the +outside of the boat flush with the top of the side-boards, making a +neat joint at the stern-piece, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 191). +Cut two short strips to fit upon the inside at the rowlocks and fasten +them firmly on with screws (Fig. 191, A). Next cut two cleats for the +oarsman's seat to rest upon. Nail them to the side-boards amidship a +little nearer the bottom than the top, so that the seat, when resting +upon the cleats, will be about half the distance from the top edge to +the bottom of the side-boards. Let the aft end of the cleats be about 6 +feet 2 inches from the stern. Make thole-pins of some hard wood to fit +in the rowlocks, like those described and illustrated by Figs. 203 and +204. + +[Illustration: Top view of "Man Friday."] + +The Yankee pine now only needs a skeg to complete it. This must be +placed exactly in the centre, and is fastened on by a couple of screws +at the thin end and nails from the inside of the boat. It is also +fastened to the upright stick at the stern by screws (Fig. 192). + +If the joints have been carefully made, your Yankee pine is now ready +for launching. Being made of rough lumber it needs no paint or +varnish, but is a sort of rough-and-ready affair, light to row; and it +ought to float four people with ease. By using planed pine or cedar +lumber, and with hard-wood stem and stern, a very pretty row-boat +can be made upon the same plan as a Yankee pine, or by putting in a +centreboard and "stepping" a mast in the bow, the Yankee pine can be +transformed into a sail-boat. But before experimenting in this line of +boat-building, the beginner had better read carefully the chapter on +how to rig and sail small boats. + +[Illustration: Fig. 193.--The side-boards.] + + +How to Build a Better Finished Boat + +The old-time raftsmen formerly built their "Yankee pines" of the rough, +unplaned boards fresh from the saw-mills on the river banks, and these +raw, wooden skiffs were stanch, light, and tight boats, but to-day +smooth lumber is as cheap as the rough boards, so select enough planed +pine lumber for a 12-1/2-foot boat, and you may calculate the exact +amount by reference to the accompanying diagrams, which are all drawn +as near as may be to a regular scale. + +By reference to Fig. 193 you will see that A, A represent the two + + +Side-Boards + +These should be of sufficient dimensions to produce two side-pieces +each 13 feet long, 17 inches wide, and 7/8 inch thick (A, Fig. 194). +You will also need a piece for a + + +Spreader + +[Illustration: Fig. 194.--A, the side. B, the spreader. C, the +stern-piece.] + +54 inches long, 18 inches wide, and about 1-1/2 inch thick, but as this +is a temporary affair almost any old piece of proper dimensions will +answer (B, Fig. 194), and another piece of good 1-1/2-inch plank (C, +Fig. 194) 36 inches long by 15 inches wide, for a stern-piece. Besides +the above there must be enough 1-inch lumber to make seats and to cover +the bottom. At a point on one end, 6-1/2 inches from the edge of the A +plank, mark the point _c_ (Fig. 194), then measure 37 inches back along +the edge of the plank and mark the point _b_ (Fig. 194). Rule a pencil +line (_b_, _c_) between these two points and starting at _c_ saw off the +triangle _b_, _c_, _d_. Make the second side-board an exact duplicate +of the one just described and prepare the spreader by sawing off the +triangle with 9-inch bases at each end of B (Fig. 194). This will leave +you a board (_h_, _k_, _o_, _n_) that will be 36 inches long on its +lower edge and 54 inches long on its top edge. + +Next saw off the corners of the stern-piece C (Fig. 194) along the +lines _f_, _g_, the _g_ points being each 6-1/2 inches from the corners; +and a board (_ff_, _gg_) 18 inches wide and 30 inches top measurement, +with 23 inches at the bottom. Now fit the edge of the stern-piece +along the line _e_, _d_ (Fig. 194), or at a slant to please your +fancy. In Fig. 195, upper C, the slant makes the base of the triangle +about 4-1/2 inches, which is sufficient. Be careful that both side-boards +are fitted exactly alike, and to do this nail the port side with +nails driven only partly in, as shown at D (Fig. 195); then nail the +starboard side and, if they are both seen to be even and of the right +slant, drive the nails home; if not correct, the nails may be pulled +out by using a small block under the hammer (D, Fig. 195), without +bending the nails or injuring the wood. Leave the stern-ends of the +side-boards protruding, as in the upper C, until you have the spreader +and stem in place. + +[Illustration: Fig. 195.--Details of the boat.] + +We are now ready for the spreader (_h_, _k_, _o_, _n_) (B, Fig. 194) +amidship, or, more accurately speaking, 6 feet 9 inches from the bow +(B, Fig. 195). Nail this as shown by D (Fig. 195), so that the nails +may be removed at pleasure. Bring the bow ends of the A boards together +and secure them by a strip nailed temporarily across, as shown in the +diagram E (Fig. 195). + + +The Stem-piece + +may be made of two pieces, as is shown at G and F (Fig. 195) or if you +are more skilful than the ordinary non-professional, the stem may be +made of one piece, as shown by the lower diagram at F (Fig. 195). It +is desirable to have oak for the stem, but any hard wood will answer +the purpose, and even pine may be used when no better is to be had. +Take a piece of cardboard or an old shingle on which to draw a pattern +for the end of the stem and make the outline with a lead-pencil by +placing the shingle over the apex _c_ of diagram E (Fig. 195); from the +inside trace the line of the sides thus, =V=. Trim your stem down to +correspond to these lines and let the stick be somewhat longer than the +width of the sides A, A. + +[Illustration: Fig. 196.--Put on a bottom of 1-inch boards.] + +When this is done to your satisfaction, fit the stem in place and nail +the side boards to the stem. + +Turn the boat over and nail on a bottom of 1-inch boards as shown by +Fig. 196. + + +Don't + +use tongue and grooved or any sort of fancy cabinet or floor joining +when wet--such matched lumber warps up in waves--but use boards with +smooth, flat edges; if these are true and fitted snugly together in +workmanlike manner the first wetting will swell them in a very short +time, until not a drop of water will leak through the cracks, for the +reason that there will be none. Fit the bottom-boards on regardless of +their protruding ends, as these may be sawed off after the boards are +nailed in place. + +[Illustration: Fig. 197.--Details of bow, stern, seats, and finished +boat.] + + +The Seats + +consist of a triangular one at the bow (J), the oarsman's seat (L), and +the stern seat (K, Fig. 197). The bow seat is made of 1-inch boards +nailed to two cleats shown at M (Fig. 197). N shows the bench for the +stern seat and O explains the arrangement of the oarsman's seat a +little forward amidship. As may be seen, it rests upon the cleats _x_ +(diagram O, Fig. 197), which are fitted between two upright cleats on +each side of the boat; this makes a seat which will not slip out of +place, and the cleats serve to strengthen the sides of the otherwise +ribless boat. Make the cleats of 1 by 2 inch lumber and let the seat +be about 12 inches wide. The stern seat may be wider, 1-1/2 feet at K +and 4 or 5 inches more at the long sides of the two boards each side of +K (Fig. 197). Of course, it is not necessary to fit a board in against +the stern-piece, for a cleat will answer the purpose, but a good, heavy +stern-piece is often desirable and the board shown in diagram N (Fig. +197) will serve to add strength to the stern as well as to furnish a +firm rest for the stern seat, but it will also add weight. + +[Illustration: Fig. 198. + +Fig. 199.--Fitting the skeg.] + + +The Keel-Board + +is an advisable addition to the boat, but may also be omitted without +serious results (H, Fig. 197). + +The keel-board should be 4-1/2 inches wide, 1 inch thick, and should be +cut pointed, to fit snugly in the bow, and nailed in place along the +centre of the floor, before the seats are put in the boat. A similar +board along the bottom, joining the two cleats each side of the skeg +at _y_ (Fig. 199) and extending to the bow will prevent the danger of +loosening the bottom-planks when bumping over rifts, shallow places, or +when the boat needs to be hauled on a stony shore; this bottom-board +may also be omitted to save time and lumber and is not shown in the +diagram. + + +The Skeg + +is a triangular board (Figs. 198 and 199), roughly speaking, of the +same dimensions as the pieces sawed from the side-board _b_, _c_, _d_ +(Fig. 196). The stern-end will be about 7 inches wide and it will taper +off to nothing at _y_ (Fig. 198). The skeg is held in place by cleats +of 1-inch lumber, 2 inches wide, nailed to the bottom on each side +of the skeg. To get the proper dimensions experiment with the pieces +sawed from the A boards and cut your skeg board so that its bottom edge +will be level with the bottom at _y_ (Fig. 198); the diagonal line, to +correspond with the slant of the stern, can be accurately drawn if the +skeg is left untrimmed until it is fastened in place. + +[Illustration: Fig. 200. + +Fig. 201 + +Fig. 202 + +Rowlocks.] + + +To Fasten on the Skeg + +rule a line from the centre of the stern to the centre of the bow and +toe-nail the skeg on along this line. This must be accurately done +or you will make a boat which will have an uncomfortable tendency to +move in circles. After toe-nailing the skeg to the bottom, nail the +two cleats, one on each side of the skeg, and let them fit as closely +as may be to the keel. Now saw off the stern-ends of the cleats and +lay a rule along the stern, as the stick is placed in Fig. 198, where +the boy has his finger; rule a pencil line across the protruding end +of the keel and saw off the end along the diagonal line, so that the +stern-cleat _z_ (Fig. 198) may be nailed in place to finish the work. + +You can buy rowlocks of galvanized iron for about a quarter of a dollar +a pair; the brass ones are not expensive, but even when the store +furnishes the hardware there must be a firm support of some sort to +hold the rowlock. + +If you use the manufactured article, to be found at any hardware store, +the merchant will supply you with the screws, plates, and rowlocks, +but he will not furnish you with the blocks for the holes in which the +spindles of the rowlocks fit. Fig. 202 shows a rude, but serviceable, +support for the lock made of short oaken posts much in vogue in +Pennsylvania, but Fig. 201 is much better, and if it is made of oak and +bolted to the sides of the boat it will last as long as the boat. Fig. +201 may be put upon either the outside or inside of the boat, according +to the width amidship. + + +A Guard Rail + +or fender, of 1 by 2 inch lumber, alongside of and even with the top of +the side-boards, from bow to stern, gives finish and strength to the +craft; but in a cheap boat, or a hastily constructed one, this may be +omitted, as it is in these diagrams. + +If you are building your boat out of the convenient reach of the +hardware shop, you must make your own rowlocks. Fig. 200 shows the +crude ones formerly used by the raftsmen for the Yankee pines, and +Figs. 203 and 204 show rowlocks made with the oaken or hard-wood +thole-pins fitting in holes cut for that purpose in the form of notches +(U, Fig. 204) in the side of the boat, or as spaces left between the +blocks, as shown by R (Fig. 203). When the side-boards A, A of the boat +are notched a cleat of hard wood 5 or 6 inches wide, and extending some +distance each side of the side-boards, must be used, as is shown by +diagram V (Fig. 204) and Fig. 203. The diagram R (Fig. 203) explains +itself; there is a centre block nailed to the side-board and two more +each side, leaving spaces for the thole-pins T (Fig. 203) to fit and +guarded by another piece (R) bolted through to the sides. + +If bolts are out of your reach, nails and screws may act as +substitutes, and Fig. 204 will then be the best form of rowlock to +adopt. + +To fix the place for rowlocks, seat yourself in the oarsman's seat, +grasp the oars as in rowing, and mark the place which best fits the +reach of your arms and oars as in rowing. It will probably be about 13 +inches aft from the centre of the seat. + + +To Transform an Ordinary Skiff or Scow Into a Sailing-Boat + +[Illustration: Fig. 203. Thole-pins.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 204. Thole-pins.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 205.] + +It is necessary to build the centreboard box and cut a hole through the +bottom of the boat. For the average row-boat or skiff, you can make +the centreboard box about 48 inches long and not higher, of course, +than the gunwales of the boat. Make the box of 2-inch plank, and before +nailing the sides together coat the seams thoroughly with white lead so +as to prevent it from leaking. The centreboard should be made of 2-inch +plank, which when planed down and smoothed will be about 1-7/8 of an +inch thick, and the space in the box should be wide enough to allow +it to move freely up and down, with no danger of its jamming. A hole +should be cut in the bottom of the boat to correspond with the opening +in the centreboard box, which, with a 48-inch box, will probably be an +opening of 40 inches long and 1 inch wide. The centreboard is hinged +to the box by a bolt run through at the point marked A on Fig. 205. +The centreboard should move freely on the bolt, but the bolt itself +should fit tightly in the sides of the box, otherwise the water will +leak through. There will be no danger of the bolt's turning in its +socket if the hole through the centreboard through which the bolt is +thrust is made large enough. The centreboard box should be generously +painted with white lead on the bottom edges where it fits on the floor +of the boat around the centreboard hole. The bottom of the boat floor +should also be coated with white lead and over this a strip of muslin +spread before the box is securely nailed to the floor of the boat from +the bottom or under side of the boat. When this is done the muslin +covering the hole can be cut away with a sharp knife. A rope may then +be fastened to the loose end of the centreboard with a cross-stick +attached to the end of the rope to prevent it from slipping down the +hole in the box. With this rope the centreboard may be raised or +lowered to suit the pleasure of the sailor. (Fig. 205.) + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +A "ROUGH-AND-READY" BOAT + +Just What One Must Do to Build It--Detailed Instructions as to How to +Make the Boat and How to Rig It + + +GOOD straight-grained pine wood is, without doubt, the best +"all-around" wood for general use. It is easily whittled with a +pocket-knife; it works smoothly under a plane; can be sawed without +fatiguing the amateur carpenter; it is elastic and pliable; therefore +use pine lumber to build your boat. + +Examine the lumber pile carefully and select four boards nearly alike. +Do not allow the dealer or his men to talk you into taking lumber with +blemishes. The side pieces should be of straight-grained wood, with no +large knots and no "checks" (cracks) in them, and must not be "wind +shaken." + +Measure the wood and see that it is over twenty-two feet long by one +foot four or five inches wide and one inch thick. Trim two of the +side-pieces until they are exact duplicates (Fig. 206). The stem-piece +(or bow-piece) should be made from a triangular piece of oak (Fig. +212), and it is wise to make it a few inches longer than will be +necessary, so that there may be no danger of finding, after all your +labor, that the stick is too short; much better too long, for it is a +simple matter to saw it off. Make a second stem-piece (Fig. 213) of oak +about one inch thick and the same length as the first, and two or three +inches wide, or twice as wide as the thickness of the side-boards. + + +The Stern-piece + +The stern-piece can be fashioned out of two-inch pine boards, and +may be made as wide or narrow as you choose. A narrow stern makes a +trim-looking craft. With your saw cut off the corner of the tail-piece, +so that it will be in the form of a blunted triangle (Fig. 214), +measuring three feet ten and one-half inches across the base, three +feet four inches on each side, and nine and one-half inches at the +apex. The base of the triangle will be the top and the apex will be the +bottom of the stern-board of your boat. + +[Illustration: Fig. 206. + +Fig. 207. + +Fig. 208. + +Fig. 209. + +Fig. 210. + +Diagrams showing the construction of the rough-and-ready.] + +Now make a brace on which to model your boat. Let it be of two-inch +pine wood, two and one-half feet wide and seven and one-half feet long +(Fig. 207). Measure twelve inches on one edge of this board from each +end toward the centre and mark the points; then rule lines from these +points diagonally across the width of the board (A, B and C, D--Fig. +207), and saw off the corners, as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 207. + +Lay the boards selected for the lower side-boards on a level floor +and measure off one and one-half foot on the bottom edge, then in a +line with the end of the board mark a point on the floor that would +be the top edge of the board if the board were two and one-half feet +wide; rule a line from the point on the floor to the point marked on +the board and saw off the corner as marked; make the other side-piece +correspond exactly with the first (Fig. 206). + + +Use Rope for Binding + +Set the side-pieces upon their bottoms or shorter edges and place the +brace between the sides. Now bind the stern ends with a rope and bring +the bow-pieces together until they touch; rope them in this position, +and when all is fast push the brace up until it rests at a point nine +feet from the bow; fasten it here with a couple of nails driven in, +but leaving their heads far enough from the wood to render it easy to +draw them out. Now adjust the bow-piece, and use the greatest of care +in making the sides exactly alike, otherwise you will wonder how you +happened to have such an unaccountable twist in your craft. When the +stem is properly adjusted fasten on the side-boards with screws. Do +not try to hammer the screws in place, but bore holes first and use a +screwdriver. + +Take your stern-piece and measure the exact width of the stern end +of the bottom-boards and mark it at the bottom of the stern-piece; +or, better still, since the stern-board will set at an angle, put it +temporarily in place, bind it fast with the ropes, and mark with a +pencil just where the side-boards cross the ends of the stern-board. +Remove the stern-board and saw out a piece one inch wide, the thickness +of the bottom-board, from the place marked to the bottom of the +stern-board. Because the top side-board overlaps the bottom one at the +stern, there must be either a large crack left there or the stern-board +notched to fit the side-boards (Fig. 214). Replace the stern-board and +nail side-boards fast to it; now loosen the ropes which have held your +boat in shape, and fit on the upper side-boards so that at the stern +they will overlap the lower side-boards an inch. Hold in place with +your rope, then bring the bow end up against the stern-piece over the +top of the lower side-board and fasten it in place with a rope. With +your carpenter's pencil mark the overlap, and with a plane made for +that purpose, called a rabbet, trim down your board so that it will +have a shoulder and an overlap to rest on the bottom-board, running out +to nothing at the bow. When the boards fit all right over the lower +ones bind them in place and then nail them there (Fig. 208). If you can +obtain two good boards of the requisite size, you need have but one +board for each side of your boat; this will obviate the necessity of +using the rabbet, and be very much easier; but with single boards of +the required dimensions there is great danger of splitting or cracking +while bending the boards. + +[Illustration: Fig. 215. + +Fig. 211. + +Figs. 212, 213, and 214. + +The rough-and-ready.] + + +Planing the Bottom + +Turn the boat upside down and you will see that there is a decided arch +extending from stem to stern. This would cause the boat to sink too +deep amidship, and must be remedied to some extent by cutting away the +middle of the arch, so that the sides in the exact centre will measure +at least four inches less in width than at the bow and stern, and +reducing the convex or curved form to a straight line in the middle, +which will give a sheer to the bow and stern. A good plane is the best +tool to use for this purpose, as with it there is no danger of cutting +too deep or of splitting the side-boards. Saw off the projecting ends +of the side-boards at the stern. + +Make the bottom of three-quarter-inch boards, they may be bevelled like +Fig. 231. Lay the boards crosswise, nail them in place, leaving the +irregular ends projecting on each side. The reason for this is obvious. +When you look at the bottom of the boat you will at once see that +on account of the form no two boards can be the same shape, and the +easiest way is to treat the boat bottom as if it were a square-sided +scow. Fit the planks closely together, nail them on securely, and then +neatly saw off the projecting ends (Fig. 210). + + +The Deck + +The brace may now be removed by carefully drawing the nails, so that +a bottom plank trimmed to fit the bow and the stern can be securely +nailed in place (Fig. 216). Cut a notch in your brace to fit tightly +over the bottom plank just laid. Plane off the top of the brace so that +when in the boat the top of the brace will be four inches below the top +of the side-boards. Replace the brace and securely nail it. Next cut +two small cross-pieces (F, G, Fig. 209) and place them near the bow, +four inches below the top of the sides of the boat. Drive the nails +from the outside through the side-boards into the end of F and G, the +cross-brace. Cut out a bow-piece to fit from the middle of G to the bow +and nail it in place, driving the nails from the outside into the edge +of the bow-piece. Fasten a small cleat along the boat from the solid +board brace to F on each side and deck the space over with light lumber. + +Of the same material make a trap door to fit in between the braces F +and G. This door should be big enough for a boy to reach through, for +this compartment is intended as a safe place to store cooking utensils, +foods, etc., as well as a water-tight compartment. At a point five feet +from the stern put another cross-brace, similar to the ones in the bow, +four inches below the top of the sides. At the same level nail a cleat +on the stern-piece and make a stern seat by boarding over between the +cross-piece and the cleat. When your boat is resting securely on the +floor or level ground rig a temporary seat, then take an oar and by +experiment find just where the rowlock will be most convenient and mark +the spot. Also mark the spot best suited for the seat. On each side of +the spot marked for the rowlock cut two notches in the side-boards two +inches deep, one and a half inch wide, and three inches apart. Saw two +more notches exactly like these upon the opposite side of your boat. +These will make the rowlocks when the side-strips are nailed on (Fig. +216). + +[Illustration: Fig. 216.--Top view of rough-and-ready, with tiller +stick.] + +The side-strips should each be made of one-inch plank three inches wide +and a few inches longer than the side-boards. Nail the strips on the +outside of the boat flush with the top of the side-boards. Make your +thole-pins of some hard wood, and make two sets of them while you are +about it, "one set to use and one set to lose." Screw a hard-wood cleat +on the inside of your boat over each pair of rowlocks, as shown in Fig. +216. + + +Ready for the Water + +Fasten the remaining bow-piece securely over the ends of your +side-boards, and the nose of your craft is finished. + +Put a good, heavy keel on your boat by screwing it tightly in the stern +to the hard-wood rudder-post that is fastened to the centre of the +stern; bolt your keel with four iron bolts (Fig. 211) to the bottom +of the boat, and the ship is ready to launch, after which she can be +equipped with sails and oars. + +Of course, you understand that all nail-holes and crevices should be +puttied up, and if paint is used, it must be applied before wetting the +boat. But if you have done your work well, there will be little need +of paint or putty to make it tight after the wood has swelled in the +water. Fasten your rudder on with hooks and screw-eyes, and make it as +shown in the diagram (Fig. 211). Step your mainmast in the bow through +a round hole in the deck and a square hole in the step, which must, of +course, be screwed tightly to the bottom before the bow is decked over. + +Step your jigger or dandy mast in the stern after the same manner. +These masts should neither of them be very large, and are intended to +be removed at pleasure by unstepping them, that is, simply pulling them +out of their sockets. An outrigger will be found necessary for your +dandy-sail, and since the deck aft is below the sides of the boat, a +block of wood will have to be nailed to the deck to the starboard, or +right-hand, side of the rudder-post. If the builder chooses, he can +make the decks flush with the sides of the boat and thus avoid blocks. +A couple of staples for the out-rigger to slip through are next in +order. They must be fastened firmly in the block or stick of wood just +nailed to the deck. A similar arrangement can be made for the bowsprit, +but as it is a movable bowsprit, and the stem of the boat is in the +way, put it to the port, or left-hand, side of the stem of the craft +(Fig. 216). + + +How to Make the Sail + +Secure for a sail material as strong as you can find, but it need not +be heavy. Unbleached muslin is cheap and will make good sails. Turn +over the edges and sew or hem them, as in the diagram. Make eyelets +like button-holes in the luff of the sail--that is, the edge of the +sail nearest the mast. Sew a small loop of rope in each corner of the +sail. Through the eyelets lace the luff of the sail to the mast. + +From spruce or pine make a sprit two inches in diameter. For a +"sheet"--that is, the rope or line that you manage the sail with--tie a +good stout line about a dozen feet long to the loop in the loose corner +of the sail. Trim the upper end of the sprit to fit the loop in the top +of the sail and make a simple notch in the other end to hold the line +called the "snotter." + +[Illustration: Fig. 217, with tiller.--Rudder lines.] + +Now, as you can readily see by referring to Fig. 211, when the sprit +is pushed into the loop at the top of the sail the sail is spread. To +hold it in place make a cleat like the one in the diagram and bind it +firmly with a cord to the sprit; pass the snotter, or line, fastened to +the mast through the notch in the sprit up to the cleat and make fast, +and the sail is set. The jigger, or dandy, is exactly like the mainsail +except in size, and the sheet rope is run through a block or pulley at +the end of the outrigger and then made fast to a cleat near the man at +the rudder or helm. The jib is a simple affair hooked on a screw-eye +in the end of the bowsprit. The jib halyard, or line for hoisting the +jib, runs from the top of the jib through a screw-eye in the top of the +mast, down the port side of the mast to a cleat, where it is made fast. +When the jib is set the jib-sheets are fastened to a loop sewed in the +jib at the lower or loose end. There are two jib-sheets, one for each +side of the boat, so that one may be made fast and the other loosened, +according to the wind. The remaining details you must study out from +the diagrams or learn by experiment. + + +How to Reef Her + +When the wind is high reef your sails by letting go the snotter and +pulling out the sprit. This will drop your peak and leave you with a +simple leg-of-mutton sail. Only use the jib in light weather. + +In this boat, with a little knowledge of sailing, you may cruise for +weeks, lowering your sails at night and making a tent over the cock-pit +for a sleeping-room. Sails with boom and gaffs may be used if desired. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +HOW TO BUILD CHEAP AND SUBSTANTIAL HOUSE-BOATS + +Plans for a House-Boat that May Be a Camp or Built as Large as a Hotel + + +WHEN the great West of the United States began to attract immigrants +from the Eastern coast settlements, the Ohio River rolled between banks +literally teeming with all sorts of wild game and wilder men: then it +was that the American house-boat had its birth. + +The Mississippi, Ohio, and their tributaries furnished highways for +easy travel, of which the daring pioneers soon availed themselves. + +Lumber was to be had for the labor of felling the trees. From the +borders of the Eastern plantations to the prairies, and below the Ohio +to the Mississippi, and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, was +one vast forest of trees; trees whose trunks were unscarred by the axe, +and whose tall tops reached an altitude which would hardly be believed +by those of this generation, who have only seen second, third, or +fourth growth timber. + +When the settlement of this new part of the country began it was not +long before each stream poured out, with its own flood of water, + + +A Unique Navy + +There were keel-boats, built something like a modern canal-boat, only +of much greater dimensions; there were broad-horns, looking like Noak's +arks from some giant's toy-shop, and there were flat-boats and rafts, +the latter with houses built on them, all recklessly drifting, or +being propelled by long sweeps down the current into the great solemn, +unknown wilderness. + +Every island, had it a tongue, could tell of wrecks; every point or +headland, of adventure. + +The perils were great and the forest solemn, but the immigrants were +merry, and the squeaking fiddle made the red man rise up from his +hiding-place and look with wonder upon the "long knives" and their +squaws dancing on the decks of their rude crafts, as they swept by into +the unknown. + +The advent of the steam-boat gradually drove the flat-boat, broad-horn, +keel-boat, and all the primitive sweep-propelled craft from the rivers, +but many of the old boatmen were loath to give up so pleasant a mode of +existence, and they built themselves house-boats, and, still clinging +to their nomadic habits, took their wives, and went to house-keeping on +the bosom of the waters they loved so well. + +Their descendants now form what might well be called a race of +river-dwellers, and to this day their quaint little arks line the +shores of the Mississippi and its tributaries. + + +Some of These House-Boats + +are as crudely made as the Italian huts we see built along the +railroads, but others are neatly painted, and the interiors are like +the proverbial New England homes, where everything is spick-and-span. + +Like the driftwood, these boats come down the stream with every +freshet, and whenever it happens that the waters are particularly high +they land at some promising spot and earn a livelihood on the adjacent +water, by fishing and working aboard the other river-craft, or they +land at some farming district, and as the waters recede they prop up +and level their boats, on the bank, with stones or blocks of wood +placed under the lower corners of their homes. + +The muddy waters, as they retire, leave a long stretch of fertile land +between the stranded house and the river, and this space is utilized +as a farm, where ducks, chickens, goats and pigs are raised and where +garden-truck grows luxuriantly. + +From a boat their home has been transformed to a farm-house; but sooner +or later there will be another big freshet, and when the waters reach +the late farm-house, lo! it is a boat again, and goes drifting in its +happy-go-lucky way down the current. If it escapes the perils of snags +and the monster battering-rams, which the rapid current makes of the +drifting trees in the flood, it will land again, somewhere, down-stream. + +Lately, while on a sketching trip through Kentucky, I was greatly +interested in these boats, and on the Ohio River I saw several making +good headway against the four-mile-an-hour current. This they did by +the aid of + + +Big Square Sails + +spread on a mast planted near their bows, thus demonstrating the +practicability of the use of sails for house-boats. + +The house-boats to be described in this article are much better adapted +for sailing than any of the craft used by the water-gypsies of the +Western rivers. + +For open and exposed waters, like the large lakes which dot many of our +inland States, or the Long Island Sound on our coast, the following +plans of the American boy's house-boat will have to be altered, but the +alterations will be all in the hull. If you make the hull three feet +deep it will have the effect of lowering the cabin, while the head-room +inside will remain the same. Such a craft can carry a good-sized sail, +and weather any gale you are liable to encounter, even on the Sound, +during the summer months. + +Since the passing away of the glorious old flat-boat days, idle people +in England have introduced the + + +House-Boat as a Fashionable Fad + +which has spread to this country, and the boys now have a new source of +fun, as a result of this English fad. + +There are still some nooks and corners left in every State in the +Union which the greedy pot-hunter and the devouring saw-mill have as +yet left undisturbed, and at such places the boy boatmen may "wind +their horns," as their ancestors did of old, and have almost as good +a time. But first of all they must have a boat, and for convenience +the American boy's house-boat will probably be found to excel either a +broad-horn or a flat-boat model, it being a link between the two. + +The simplest possible house-boat is a Crusoe raft,[A] with a cabin near +the stern and a sand-box for a camp-fire at the bow. A good time can +be had aboard even this primitive craft. The next step in evolution is +the long open scow, with a cabin formed by stretching canvas over hoops +that reach from side to side of the boat (see Fig. 218). + +[Illustration: Fig. 218.--A primitive house-boat.] + +Every boy knows how to build + + +A Flat-Bottomed Scow + +or at least every boy should know how to make as simple a craft as the +scow, but for fear some lad among my readers has neglected this part of +his education, I will give a few hints which he may follow. + + +Building Material + +Select lumber that is free from large knots and other blemishes. Keep +the two best boards for the sides of your boat. With your saw cut +the side boards into the form of Fig. 219; see that they are exact +duplicates. Set the two pieces parallel to each other upon their +straight or top edges, as the first two pieces shown in Fig. 220. Nail +on an end-piece at the bow and stern, as the bumper is nailed in Figs. +221 and 222; put the bottom on as shown in Figs. 196 and 210, and you +have a simple scow. + + +Centrepiece + +In Fig. 219 you will notice that there are two sides and a centrepiece, +but this centrepiece is not necessary for the ordinary open boat, shown +by Fig. 218. Here you have one of the simple forms of house-boat, and +you can make it of dimensions to suit your convenience. I will not +occupy space with the details of this boat, because they may be seen by +a glance at the diagrams, and my purpose is to tell you how to build +the American boy's house-boat, which is a more elegant craft than the +rude open scow, with a canvas-covered cabin, shown by Fig. 218. + +[Illustration: Fig. 219.--Unfinished.] + + +The Sides of the House-Boat + +are 16 feet long, and to make them you need some sound two-inch planks. +After selecting the lumber plane it off and make the edges true and +straight. Each side and the centrepiece should now measure exactly 16 +feet in length by 14 inches in width, and about 2 inches thick. Cut off +from each end of each piece a triangle, as shown by the dotted lines +at G, H, I (Fig. 220); from H to G is 1 foot, and from H to I is 7 +inches. Measure from H to I 7 inches, and mark the point. Then measure +from H to G, 12 inches, and mark the point. Then, with a carpenter's +pencil, draw a line from G to I, and saw along this line. Keep the two +best planks for the sides of your boat, and use the one that is left +for the centrepiece. Measure 2 feet on the top or straight edge of your +centrepiece, and mark the point A (Fig. 220). From A measure 8 feet 10 +inches, and mark the point C (Fig. 220). + +With a carpenter's square rule the lines A, B and C, D, and make them +each 10 inches long, then rule the line B, D (Fig. 220). The piece A, +B, C, D must now be carefully cut out: this can be done by using the +saw to cut A, B and D, C. Then, about 6 inches from A, saw another line +of the same length, and with a chisel cut the block out. You then have +room to insert a rip-saw, at B, and can saw along the line B, D until +you reach D, when the piece may be removed, leaving the space A, B, D, +C for the cabin of the boat (see Figs. 221 and 222.) + +At a point 9 inches from the bow of the boat make a mark on the +centrepiece, and another mark 5 inches farther away, at F (Fig. 220). +With the saw cut a slit at each mark, 1 inch deep, and with a chisel +cut out, as shown by the dotted lines; do the same at E, leaving a +space of 1-1/2 feet between the two notches, which are made to allow +the two planks shown in the plan (Fig. 221) to rest on. These planks +support the deck and the hatch, at the locker in the bow. The notches +at E and F are not on the side-boards, the planks being supported at +the sides by uprights, Figs. 221 and 222. + +All that now remains to be done with the centrepiece is to saw some +three-cornered notches on bottom edge, one at bow, one at stern, and +one or two amidship; this is to allow the water which may leak in to +flow freely over the whole bottom, and to prevent it from gathering at +one side and causing your craft to rest upon an uneven keel. + +[Illustration: Fig. 220.--Center board of house boat.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 221.--Plan of house boat.] + +Next select a level piece of ground near by and arrange the three +pieces upon some supports, as shown in Fig. 219, so that from outside +to outside of side-pieces it will measure just 8 feet across the bow +and stern. Of 1-inch board + + +Make Four End-Pieces + +for the bow and stern (see A, A', Fig. 219), to fit between the sides +and centrepiece. Make them each a trifle wider than H, I, Fig. 220, +so that after they have been fitted they can be trimmed down with a +plane, and bevelled on the same slant as the bottom at G, I, Fig. 220. +It being 8 feet between the outside of each centrepiece, and the sides +and the centrepiece being each 2 inches thick, that gives us 8 feet 6 +inches, or 7-1/2 feet as the combined length of A and A' (Fig. 219). In +other words, each end-piece will be half of 7-1/2 feet long--that is, 3 +feet 9 inches long. After making the four end-pieces, each 3 feet 9, +by 9 inches, fit the ends in place so that there is an inch protruding +above and below. See that your bow and stern are perfectly square, and +nail with wire nails through the sides into A and A'; toe-nail at the +centrepiece--that is, drive the nails from the broad side of A and A' +slantingly, into the centrepiece, after which trim down with your plane +the projecting inch on bottom, to agree with the slant of the bottom of +the boat. + + +Now for the Bottom + +This is simple work. All that is necessary is to have straight, true +edges to your one-inch planks, fit them together, and nail them in +place. Of course, when you come to the slant at bow and stern the +bottom-boards at each end will have to have a bevelled edge, to fit +snugly against the boards on the flat part of the bottom of the boat; +but any boy who is accustomed to shake the gray matter in his brain can +do this. Remember, scientists say that thought is the agitation of the +gray matter of the brain, and if you are going to build a boat or play +a good game of football you must shake up that gray stuff, or the other +boys will put you down as a "stuff." No boy can expect to be successful +in building a boat, of even the crudest type, unless he keeps his wits +about him, so I shall take it for granted that there are no "stuffs" +among my readers. + +After the boards are all snugly nailed on the bottom, and fitted +together so that there are no cracks to calk up; the hull is ready to +have + + +The Bumpers + +nailed in place, at bow and stern. See the plan, Fig. 221, and the +elevation, Fig. 222. The bumpers must be made of 2-inch plank, 8 feet +long by about 9 inches wide; wide enough to cover A and A' of Fig. 219, +and to leave room for a bevel at the bottom edge to meet the slant of +the bow and stern, and still have room at the top to cover the edge of +the deck to the hull (see Fig. 222). + +[Illustration: Fig. 222.--Cross-section of boat] + + +The Hull May Now Be Painted + +with two coats of good paint, and after it is dry may be turned over +and allowed to rest on a number of round sticks, called rollers. + +If you will examine Fig. 221 you will see there + + +Twenty-Odd Ribs + +These are what are called two-by-fours-that is, 2 inches thick by 4 +inches wide. They support the floor of the cabin and forward locker, at +the same time adding strength to the hull. + +The ribs are each the same length as the end-board. A and A' of Fig. +219, are nailed in place in the same manner. Each bottom-rib must +have a notch 2 inches deep cut in the bottom edge to allow the free +passage of water, so as to enable you to pump dry. Commencing at the +stern, the distance between the inside of the bumper and the first rib +is 1 foot 6 inches. This is a deck-rib, as may be seen by reference to +Figs. 221 and 222. After measuring 1-1/2 foot from the bumper, on inside +of side-board, mark the point with a carpenter's pencil. Measure the +same distance on the centrepiece, and mark the point as before; then +carefully fit your rib in flush or even with the top of the side-piece, +and fasten it in place by nails driven through the side-board into the +end of the rib, and toe-nailed to centrepiece. Do the same with its +mate on the other side of centrepiece. + + +The Cabin of this House-Boat + +is to fit in the space, A, B, D, C of the centrepiece, Fig. 220. There +is to be a one-inch plank at each end (see Fig. 222), next to which the +side-supports at each end of cabin fit. The supports are two-by-twos; +so, allowing 1 inch for the plank and 2 inches for the upright support, +the next pair of ribs will be just 3 inches from A B, Fig. 220, of the +centrepiece (see Figs. 221 and 222). The twin ribs at the forward end +of the cabin will be the same distance from D C, Fig. 220, as shown in +the plan and elevation, Figs. 221 and 222. This leaves five pairs of +ribs to be distributed between the front and back end of the cabin. +From the outside of each end-support to the inside of the nearest +middle-support is 2 feet 6 inches. Allowing 2 inches for the supports, +this will place the adjoining ribs 2 feet 8 inches from the outside of +the end-supports. The other ribs are placed midway between, as may be +seen by the elevation, Fig. 222. + +There is another pair of + + +Deck-Ribs + +at the forward end of the cabin, which are placed flush with the line +D, C, Fig. 220 (see Figs. 221 and 222). The two pairs of ribs in the +bow are spaced, as shown in the diagram. This description may appear +as if it was a complicated affair; but you will find it a simple thing +to work out if you will remember to allow space for your pump in the +stern, space for the end-planks at after and forward end of cabin, and +space for your uprights. The planks at after and forward end of cabin +are to box in the cabin floor. + + +The Boat May Now Be Launched + +by sliding it over the rollers, which will not be found a difficult +operation. + + +The Plans Show Three Lockers + +--two in the bow under the hatch and one under the rear bunk--but if it +is deemed necessary the space between-decks, at each side of the cabin, +may be utilized as lockers. In this space you can store enough truck +to last for months. A couple of doors in the plank at the front of the +cabin opening, under the deck, will be found very convenient to reach +the forward locker in wet weather. + + +The Keel + +is a triangular piece of 2-inch board, made to fit exactly in the +middle of the stern, and had best be nailed in place before the boat +is launched (see Fig. 222). The keel must have its bottom edge flush +with the bottom of the boat, and a strip of hard-wood nailed on the +stern-end of the keel and bumper, as shown in the diagram. A couple of +strong screw-eyes will support the rudder. + +After the boat is launched the + + +Side-Supports for the Cabin May Be Erected + +These are "two-by-twos" and eight in number, and each 5 feet 9 inches +long. Nail them securely at their lower ends to the adjoining ribs. See +that they are plumb, and fasten them temporarily with diagonal pieces, +to hold the top ends in place, while you nail down the lower deck or +flooring. + +Now fit and nail the two 1-inch planks in place, at the bow and +stern-end of the cabin, each of which has its top one inch above the +sides, even with the proposed deck (see dotted lines in Fig. 222). + + +Use Ordinary Flooring + +or if that is not obtainable use 3/4-inch pine boards, and run them +lengthwise from the bow to the front end of the cabin and along the +sides of the cabin. Then floor the cabin lengthwise from bow to stern. +This gives you a dry cabin floor, for there are 4 inches of space +underneath for bilge-water, which unless your boat is badly made and +very leaky, is plenty of room for what little water may leak in from +above or below. The two side-boards of the cabin floor must, of course, +have square places neatly cut out to fit the uprights of the cabin. +This may be done by slipping the floor-board up against the uprights +and carefully marking the places with a pencil where they will come +through the board, and then at each mark sawing two inches in the floor +plank, and cutting out the blocks with a chisel. + + +The Hatch + +Now take a "four-by-four" and saw off eight short supports for the two +1-inch planks which support the hatch, Figs. 221 and 222. Toe-nail +the middle four-by-four to the floor in such a position that the two +cross-planks (which are made to fit in the notches E and F, Fig. +220) will rest on the supports. Nail the four other supports to the +side-boards of your boat, and on top of these nail the cross-planks, as +shown in the diagrams. + +The boat is now ready for its + + +Upper Deck + +of 1-inch pine boards. These are to be nailed on lengthwise, bow and +stern and at sides of cabin, leaving, of course, the cabin open, as +shown by the position of the boys in Fig. 222, and an opening, 3 feet +by 2, for the hatch (Fig. 221). The two floors will act as benches for +the uprights of the cabin, and hold them stiff and plumb. + +To further stiffen the frame, make two diagonals for the stern-end, as +shown in Fig. 223, and nail them in place. + + +The Rafters + +or roof-rods, should extend a foot each way beyond the cabin, hence cut +them two feet longer than the cabin, and after testing your uprights, +to see that they are exactly plumb, nail the two side roof-rods in +place (see dotted lines in Fig. 222). The cross-pieces at the ends, as +they support no great weight, may be fitted between the two side-rods, +and nailed there. + +[Illustration: Fig. 223.--End view.] + +The roof is to be made of 1/2-inch boards bent into a curve, and the +ridge-pole, or centre roof-rod, must needs have some support. This is +obtained by two short pieces of 2 by 4, each 6 inches long, which are +toe-nailed to the centre of each cross-rod, and the ridge-pole nailed +to their tops. At 3 feet from the upper deck the side frame-pieces +are toe-nailed to the uprights. As may be seen, there are three +two-by-fours on each side (Fig. 222). + +The space between the side frame-pieces, the two middle uprights, and +side roof-rods, is where the windows are to be placed. + +Use 1/2-inch (tongue and groove preferred) pine boards for sidings, +and + + +Box In Your Cabin + +neatly, allowing space for windows on each side, as indicated. Leave +the front open. Of the same kind of boards make your roof; the boards +being light you can bend them down upon each side and nail them to +the side roof-rods, forming a pretty curve, as may be seen in the +illustration of the American boy's house-boat. + + +This Roof + +to be finished neatly and made entirely water-proof, should be covered +with tent-cloth or light canvas, smoothly stretched over and tacked +upon the under side of the projecting edges. Three good coats of paint +will make it water-proof and pleasant to look upon. + +The description, so far, has been for a neatly finished craft, but I +have seen very serviceable and comfortable house-boats built of rough +lumber, in which case the curved roof, when they had one, had narrow +strips nailed over the boards where they joined each other or was +covered with tar-paper. + +[Illustration: Fig. 224.--End view.] + + +To Contrive a Movable Front + +to your cabin, make two doors to fit and close the front opening, +but in place of hanging the doors on hinges, set them in place. Each +door should have a good strong strap nailed securely on the inside, +for a handle, and a batten or cross-piece at top and bottom of inside +surface. A 1-1/2 by 4, run parallel to the front top cross-frame and +nailed there, just a sufficient distance from it to allow the top +of the door to be inserted between, will hold the top of the door +securely. A two-by-four, with bolt-holes near either end to correspond +with bolt-holes in the floor, will hold the bottom when the door is +pushed in place, the movable bottom-piece shoved against it and the +bolts thrust in (see Fig. 225, view from inside of cabin. Fig. 226, +side view). It will be far less work to break in the side of the cabin +than to burst in such doors, if they are well made. These doors possess +this advantage: they can be removed and used as table-tops, leaving +the whole front open to the summer breeze, or one may be removed, and +still allow plenty of ventilation. A moulding on deck around the cabin +is not necessary, but it will add finish and prevent the rain-water +from leaking in. + +To lock up the boat you must set the doors from the inside, and if you +wish to leave the craft locked you must crawl out of the window and +fasten the latter with a lock. + +[Illustration: Fig. 225.--Inside view of door.] + +[Illustration: Fig 226--Side view of door.] + +Fig. 227 shows the construction of + + +The Rudder + +and also an arrangement by which it may be worked from the front of the +boat, which, when the boat is towed, will be found most convenient. + +The hatch should be made of 1-inch boards, to fit snugly flush with the +deck, as in the illustration, or made of 2-inch plank, and a moulding +fitted around the opening, as shown in Fig. 222. + + +A Pair of Rowlocks + +made of two round oak sticks with an iron rod in their upper ends, +may be placed in holes in the deck near the bow, and the boat can be +propelled by two oarsmen using long "sweeps," which have holes at the +proper places to fit over the iron rods projecting from the oaken +rowlocks. These rowlocks may be removed when not in use, and the holes +closed by wooden plugs, while the sweeps can be hung at the side of the +cabin, under its eaves, or lashed fast to the roof. + +[Illustration: Fig. 227.--Side elevation.] + + +Two or More Ash Poles + +for pushing or poling the boat over shallow water or other difficult +places for navigation are handy, and should not be left out of the +equipment. The window-sashes may be hung on hinges and supplied with +hooks and screw-eyes to fasten them open by hooking them to the eaves +when it is desired to let in the fresh air. All window openings should +be protected by wire netting to keep out insects. + +Two bunks can be fitted at the rear end of the cabin, one above the +other, the bottom bunk being the lid to a locker (see Fig. 222). + + +The Locker + +is simply a box, the top of which is just below the deck-line and +extending the full width of the cabin. It has hinges at the back, and +may be opened for the storage of luggage. + +Over the lid blankets are folded, making a divan during the day and a +bed at night. + +The top bunk is made like the frame of a cheap cot, but in place of +being upholstered it has a strong piece of canvas stretched across it. +This bunk is also hinged to the back of the cabin, so that when not in +use it can be swung up against the roof and fastened there as the top +berth in a sleeping-car is fastened. Four 4 by 4 posts can be bolted +to the side-support at each corner of the bottom bunk; they will amply +support the top bunk, as the legs do a table-top when the frame is +allowed to rest upon their upper ends. This makes accommodation for +two boys, and there is still room for upper and lower side bunks, the +cabin being but six feet wide. If you put bunks on both sides you will +be rather crowded, it is true, but by allowing a 1-foot passage in the +middle, you can have two side bunks and plenty of head room. This will +accommodate four boys, and that is a full crew for a boat of this size. + +On board a yacht I have often seen four full-grown men crowded into a +smaller space in the cabin, while the sailormen in the fo'-castle had +not near that amount of room. + + +A More Simple Set of Plans + +Here the cabin is built on top of the upper deck, and there are no +bottom-ribs, the uprights being held in place by blocks nailed to the +bottom of the boat, and by the deck of the boat. This is secure enough +for well-protected waters, small lakes, and small streams. Upon the +inland streams of New York State I have seen two-story house-boats, the +cabin, or house, being only a framework covered with canvas. One such +craft I saw in central New York, drifting downstream over a shallow +riff, and as it bumped along over the stones it presented a strange +sight. The night was intensely dark, and the boat brightly lighted. The +lights shone through the canvas covering, and this big, luminous house +went bobbing over the shallow water, while shouts of laughter and the +"plinky-plunk" of a banjo told in an unmistakable manner of the jolly +time the crew were having. + + +Canvas-Cabined House-Boat + +If you take an ordinary open scow and erect a frame of uprights and +cross-pieces, and cover it with canvas, you will have just such a boat +as the one seen in central New York. This boat may be propelled by +oars, the rowers sitting under cover, and the canvas being lifted at +the sides to allow the sweeps to work; but of course it will not be as +snug as the well-made American boy's house-boat, neither can it stand +the same amount of rough usage, wind, and rain as the latter boat. + +In the frontispiece the reader will notice a stove-pipe at the stern; +there is room for a small stove back of the cabin, and in fair weather +it is much better to cook outside than inside the cabin. When you tie +up to the shore for any length of time, a rude shelter of boughs and +bark will make a good kitchen on the land, in which the stove may be +placed, and you will enjoy all the fun of a camp, with the advantage of +a snug house to sleep in. + +For the benefit of boys who doubt their ability to build a boat of +this description, it may be well to state that other lads have used +these directions and plans with successful results, and their boats now +gracefully float on many waters, a source of satisfaction and pride to +their owners. + + +Information for Old Boys + +On all the Western rivers small flat-boats or scows are to be had at +prices which vary in accordance with the mercantile instincts of the +purchaser, and with the desire of the seller to dispose of his craft. +Such boats are propelled by "sweeps," a name used to designate the long +poles with boards on their outer edges that serve as blades and form +the oars. These boats are often supplied with a deck-house, extending +almost from end to end, and if such a house is lacking one may be +built with little expense. The cabin may be divided into rooms and the +sleeping apartments supplied with cheaply made bunks. It is not the +material of the bunk which makes it comfortable--it is the mattress +in the bunk upon which your comfort will depend. The kitchen and +dining-room may be all in one. An awning spread over the roof will make +a delightful place in which to lounge and catch the river breezes. + + +The Cost of House-Boats + +The cost of a ready-made flat-bottomed house-boat is anywhere from +thirty dollars to one or more thousands. In Florida such a boat, 40 +by 20 feet, built for the quiet waters of the St. John's River or its +tributaries, or the placid lagoons, will cost eight hundred dollars. +This boat is well painted outside and rubbed down to a fine oil finish +inside; it has one deck, and the hull is used for toilet apartments +and state-rooms; the hull is well calked and all is in good trim. Such +expense is, however, altogether unnecessary--there need be no paint or +polish. All you need is a well-calked hull and a water-tight roof of +boards or canvas overhead; cots or bunks to sleep in; chairs, stools, +boxes or benches to sit on; hammocks to loll in, and a good supply of +provisions in the larder. + +House-boats for the open waters are necessarily more expensive. As a +rule they need round bottoms that stand well out of the water, and +are built like the hull of a ship. These boats cost as much to build +as a small yacht. From twelve to fifteen hundred dollars will build a +good house-boat, with comfortable sleeping-berths, toilet-rooms and +store-rooms below; a kitchen, dining-room, and living-rooms on the +cabin deck, with wide, breezy passageways separating them. + +If a bargain can be found in an old schooner with a good hull, for two +or three hundred dollars, a first-class house-boat can be made by the +expenditure of as much more for a cabin. The roofs of all house-boats +should extend a foot or more beyond the sides of the cabin. + + +For People of Limited Means + +For people with little money to spend, these expensive boats are as +much out of reach as a yacht, but they may often be rented for prices +within the means of people in moderate circumstances. At New York I +have known a good schooner-yacht, 84 feet over all, to be chartered for +two weeks, with crew of skipper and two men, the larder plentifully +supplied with provisions and luxuries for six people and the crew, +making nine in all, at a cost of thirty-six dollars apiece for each of +the six passengers. An equally good house-boat should not cost over +twelve dollars a week per passenger for a party of ten. In inland +waters, if a boat could be rented, the cost should not exceed seven or +eight dollars a week per passenger. + +A canal-boat is a most excellent house-boat for a pleasure party, +either on inland streams or along our coast. + + +Street-Car Cabins + +Since the introduction of cable and trolley-cars the street-car +companies have been selling their old horse-cars, in some instances at +figures below the cost of the window-glass in them; so cheap, in fact, +that poor people buy them to use as woodsheds and chicken-coops. + +One of these cars will make an ideal cabin for a house-boat, and can be +adapted for that purpose with little or no alterations. All it needs is +a good flat-boat to rest in, and you have a palatial house-boat. + +FOOTNOTE: + +[A] See p. 10. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +A CHEAP AND SPEEDY MOTOR-BOAT + + How To Build the Jackson Glider--A Very Simple Form of + Motor-Boat, Which Will Hold Its Own in Speed With Even + Expensive Boats of Double Horse-Power + + +THIS boat is intended to slide over the top of the water and not +through it, consequently it is built in the form of a flat-bottom scow. +Order your wood dressed on both sides, otherwise it will come with one +side rough. For the side-boards we need two pine, or cedar boards, to +measure, when trimmed, 14 feet (Fig. 228), and to be 16 or 18 inches +wide. + + +The Stern-Board + +when trimmed, will be 2-1/2 feet long by 1 foot, 8-1/2 inches wide. It +may even be a little wider, because the protruding part can be planed +down after the boat is built (Fig. 229). + +To make the bow measure from the point E (Fig. 228) 1 foot 8-1/2 inches +and mark the point C. Measure along the same line 13-1/2 inches and mark +the point D. Next measure from B down along the edge of the boat one +inch and mark the point F. Again measure down from B, 5-3/4 inches and +mark the point G. With a carpenter's pencil draw the lines F D and G C +and saw these pieces off along the dotted line (Fig. 232). The bow can +then be rounded at the points A and B with a sharp knife or jackplane. + +To get the proper slant on the stern, measure from H 4-1/2 inches to L +and saw off the triangle LHK. Make the other side board an exact +duplicate of the first one, as in Fig. 228. Next set these two boards on +edge, like sledge runners (Fig. 230), and let them be 2 feet, 6 inches +apart (the boat will be safer if made six inches wider, and its speed +will be almost as great), which can be tested by fitting the stern-boards +between them before nailing the temporary boards on, which are to hold +them in place (Fig. 230). Do not drive the nails home, but leave the +heads protruding on all temporary braces, so that they may be easily +removed when necessary. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: Fig. 228.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 229.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 230.--Parts of motor-boat.] + +Now turn the boat bottom side up and nail the bottom on, as already +described in previous chapters (Fig. 232). The bottom-boards are to +be so planed upon their edges that they leave V-shaped grooves on the +inside of the boat to be calked with candlewick and putty (Fig. 231). +Next make a shaft-log by cutting a board in a triangular piece, as +shown in Fig. 233, and nailing two other pieces of board on it, and +leaving a space for the shaft-rod, over which is nailed a duplicate +of the bottom-board, as shown in Fig. 234. Make the shaft-log of three +thicknesses of 1-inch plank. To make it more secure there should be a +board nailed on the inside bottom of the boat, as shown in Fig. 235 by +the dotted lines. + +This board is put there to strengthen the bottom and allow us to cut a +slot through for the admission of a shaft (Fig. 236) which is drawn on +a scale shown below it. With the engine comes a stuffing box, through +which the shaft passes and which prevents the water from coming up +through the shaft-hole. The stuffing boxes, which are furnished to fit +upon the inside of the boat, are expensive, but one to fit upon the +stern of the shaft-log costs but little, and will answer all purposes. + +[Illustration: Fig. 231.] + +Of course, when attaching the shaft-log to the bottom, it must be in +the exact centre of the boat. Find the centre of the boat at the bow +and stern, mark the points and snap a chalk-line between them. Now +place the shaft-log in position on this line and while holding that +there firmly, mark around it with a carpenter's pencil. Next lay the +shaft-log flat on its side with its edge along this line and with +your pencil mark on the bottom of the boat the exact place where the +shaft-hole must be cut to correspond with the one in the shaft-log. +As may be seen by Fig. 236, the shaft runs through at an acute angle; +hence the hole must be bored on a slant, or better still a slot cut +through the floor long enough to allow for the slant. + +[Illustration: Fig. 232. + +Fig. 233. + +Fig. 234. + +Fig. 239. + +Fig. 235. + +Fig. 236. + +Fig. 237. + +Fig. 238. + +Details of motor-boat.] + +The leak, which would naturally occur here is prevented by the stuffing +box which is fastened on to the stern-end of the shaft-log where the +latter protrudes for the propeller. To set the engine in the boat it is +necessary to have an engine-bed. This is made of two pieces of board +cut diagonally, upon which the engine rests. + +Fig. 237 shows a piece of 2-inch board and a method of sawing it to +make the duplicate pieces to form the engine-bed. The dimension of +these pieces must be obtained by measuring the width of the engine +rest, which is to be installed. The angle, of course, must correspond +to the angle of the shaft. + +Make your own rudder of any shape that suits your fancy, square or +paddle-shaped, of a piece of galvanized iron or of wood, as shown in +the diagram; or you can simply fasten the rudder-stem to the transom +(stern-board), as is often done on row-boats and sail-boats. If you +desire to make your rudder like the one shown here, use two pieces +of galvanized pipes for your rudder-posts, one of which fits loosely +inside of the other. Make the rudder-posts of what is known as 3/8-inch +(which means literally a 3/8-inch opening) and for its jacket use a +3/4-inch pipe, or any two kinds of pipe, which will allow one to turn +loosely inside the other. The smaller pipe can be bent easily by hand +to suit your convenience, after it has been thrust through the larger +pipe. + +First bend the lower end of the small pipe to fit your proposed rudder, +then remove the larger pipe and flatten the lower end of the small one +by beating it with the hammer. To bore the screw-holes in the flattened +end you will use a small tool for drilling metal. One of these drills, +which will fit any carpenter's brace, can be procured for the cost of a +few cents. + +Drill holes through the flattened end of your pipe for the reception of +your screws, which are to secure it to the rudder. It is now necessary +to fasten a block of 2-inch plank securely to the bottom of the boat +upon the inside where the rudder-post is to be set. This block might +best be secured on with four bolts. A hole is then bored through the +block and the bottom of the boat a trifle smaller than the largest +piece of pipe; the latter is supposed to have screw threads upon its +lower end (Fig. 238) so that it may be screwed into the wood, but +before doing so coat the threads with white lead and also the inside of +the hole in the block with the same substance. + +When the larger pipe is now screwed into the block until its lower end +is flushed with the outside bottom of the boat, the white lead will not +only make the process easier, but will tend to keep out the moisture +and water from the joint. + +From the outside thrust the upper end of the small pipe through the +hole in the bottom until it protrudes the proper distance above the +larger pipe, and with the point of a nail scratch a mark on the surface +of the small pipe where it issues from the big one. At this point drill +a hole through the small pipe to admit a nail which is to act as a peg +to keep the helm from sliding down and jamming in its bearings. + +If you choose, a small seat or deck may be inserted in the stern, +through which the helm extends and which will help to steady it. The +top of the helm, or protruding ends of the small pipe may now be bent +over toward the bow, as shown in the diagram, and by holding some hard +substance under it, the end may be flattened with a hammer and two +holes drilled through the flattened end for the rudder-line, as in Fig. +239. These lines work the rudder and extend on each side of the boat +through some clothes-lines pulleys, as shown in Fig. 239. + +If you slice off the ring from a common rubber hose and slip it +over the inside pipe before you fasten it in place, it will prevent +the water from spurting up through the rudder pipe when the boat is +speeding. + +Any boat will leak if not carefully built and the simplest kind of a +craft carefully put together is as water-tight as the most finished and +expensive boat. + +For a gasoline tank any good galvanized iron vessel will answer if +it holds five gallons or more of gasoline. It can be placed in the +bow on a rest made for it. Of course the bottom of the tank must be +on a level or higher than the carburetor of the engine; the tank is +connected by a small copper, or block-tin pipe, which you procure with +the engine. + +This boat, if built according to plans, should cost ten dollars or +less, not counting the cost of the engine. The cost of the latter will +vary according to the style of one you use, and whether you get it +first or second hand. + +A ten-horse power engine drove a boat of this kind at the rate of +eighteen miles an hour. + +For beginners, this is as far as it is safe to go in boat-building, but +thus far any one with a rudimentary knowledge of the use of tools can +go, and, if one has followed the book through from chapter to chapter +he should be a good boat-builder at + + The End + + + + +THE BEARD BOOKS FOR BOYS + +_By_ DAN C. BEARD + +[Illustration] + + +THE AMERICAN BOY'S HANDY BOOK. Or, What to Do and How to Do It + + _Illustrated by the author_ + + Gives sports adapted to all seasons of the year, tells + boys how to make all kinds of things--boats, traps, + toys, puzzles, aquariums, fishing-tackle; how to + tie knots, splice ropes, to make bird calls, sleds, + blow-guns, balloons; how to rear wild birds, to train + dogs, and do the thousand and one things that boys take + delight in. + + +THE OUTDOOR HANDY BOOK. For Playground, Field, and Forest + + _Illustrated by the author_ + + "How to play all sorts of games with marbles, how to + make and spin more kinds of tops than most boys ever + heard of, how to make the latest things in plain and + fancy kites, where to dig bait and how to fish, all + about boats and sailing, and a host of other things . . . + an unmixed delight to any boy."--_New York Tribune._ + + +THE FIELD AND FOREST HANDY BOOK. Or, New Ideas for Out of Doors + + _Illustrated by the author_ + + "Instructions as to ways to build boats and + fire-engines, make aquariums, rafts, and sleds, to + camp in a back-yard, etc. No better book of the kind + exists."--_Chicago Record-Herald._ + + +SHELTERS, SHACKS, AND SHANTIES + + _Illustrated by the author_ + + Easily workable directions, accompanied by very full + illustration, for over fifty shelters, shacks, and + shanties. + + +BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING. A Handy Book for Beginners + + _Illustrated by the author_ + + All that Dan Beard knows and has written about the + building of every simple kind of boat, from a raft to a + cheap motor-boat, is brought together in this book. + + +THE JACK OF ALL TRADES. Or, New Ideas for American Boys + + _Illustrated by the author_ + + "This book is a capital one to give any boy for a + present at Christmas, on a birthday, or indeed at any + time."--_The Outlook._ + + +THE BOY PIONEERS. Sons of Daniel Boone + + _Illustrated by the author_ + + "How to become a member of the 'Sons of Daniel + Boone' and take part in all the old pioneer + games, and many other things in which boys are + interested."--_Philadelphia Press._ + + +THE BLACK WOLF-PACK + + "A genuine thriller of mystery and red-blooded + conflicts, well calculated to hold the mind and the + heart of its boy and, for that matter, its adult + reader."--_Philadelphia North American._ + + + + +THE BEARD BOOKS FOR GIRLS + +_By_ LINA BEARD _and_ ADELIA B. BEARD + +[Illustration] + + +THE AMERICAN GIRL'S HANDY BOOK. How to Amuse Yourself and Others + + _With nearly 500 illustrations_ + + "It is a treasure which, once possessed, no practical + girl would willingly part with."--GRACE GREENWOOD. + + +THINGS WORTH DOING AND HOW TO DO THEM + + _With some 600 drawings by the authors that show exactly how they + should be done_ + + "The book will tell you how to do nearly anything that + any live girl really wants to do."--_The World To-day._ + + +HANDICRAFT AND RECREATION FOR GIRLS + + _With over 700 illustrations by the authors_ + + "It teaches how to make serviceable and useful things + of all kinds out of every kind of material. It also + tells how to play and how to make things to play + with."--_Chicago Evening Post._ + + +WHAT A GIRL CAN MAKE AND DO. New Ideas for Work and Play + + _With more than 300 illustrations by the authors_ + + "It would be a dull girl who could not make herself + busy and happy following its precepts. . . . A most + inspiring book for an active-minded girl."--_Chicago + Record-Herald._ + +ON THE TRAIL + + _Illustrated by the authors_ + + This volume tells how a girl can live outdoors, camping + in the woods, and learning to know its wild inhabitants. + + +MOTHER NATURE'S TOY SHOP + + _Profusely illustrated by the authors_ + + How children can make toys easily and economically from + wild flowers, grasses, green leaves, seed-vessels, + fruits, etc. + + +LITTLE FOLKS' HANDY BOOK + + _With many illustrations_ + + Contains a wealth of devices for entertaining children + by means of paper building-cards, wooden berry-baskets, + straw and paper furniture, paper jewelry, etc. + + CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, NEW YORK + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +Transcriber's note: + +Punctuation errors were corrected. + +Inconsistent hyphenation was retained. + +Page 42, "staps" changed to "straps" (straps with your hand) + +Page 58, "mechancial" changed to "mechanical" (with mechanical aid) + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOAT-BUILDING AND BOATING*** + + +******* This file should be named 44228.txt or 44228.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/4/2/2/44228 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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