initial commit of ebook 44603HEAD main

author: Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> 2025-10-14 18:47:25 -0700
committer: Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> 2025-10-14 18:47:25 -0700
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+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44603 ***</div>
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<p>Transcriber's note:<br />
+    Spelling and punctuation inconsistencies have been harmonized.
+    The original hyphenation and use of accented words has been
+    retained. Obvious printer errors have been repaired. Please see the
+    end of this book for further notes.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_i"></a></p>
+
+<div class="bbox3">
+
+<p class="center">COMPANION VOLUME BY THE SAME AUTHOR</p>
+
+<p class="title2">CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Illustrated by 72 Full-page Plates.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">CONTENTS</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="3" summary="ad">
+<tr>
+  <td class="small" colspan="2">CHAPTER</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">I.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">The Renaissance on the Continent</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">II.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">The English Renaissance</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr3"> III.</td>
+  <td><span class="smcap">Stuart or Jacobean</span> (Early Seventeenth Century)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr3">IV.</td>
+  <td><span class="smcap">Stuart or Jacobean</span> (Late Seventeenth Century)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">V.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">Queen Anne and Early Georgian Styles</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">VI.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">French Furniture: the Period of Louis XV.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr3">VII.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">French Furniture: the Period of Louis XVI.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr3">VIII.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">French Furniture: the Period of Louis XVI.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">IX.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">French Furniture: the First Empire Style</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">X.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">Chippendale and his Style</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XI.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">Adam, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton Styles</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XII.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">Hints to Collectors</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><a id="Page_1"></a></p>
+
+<p id="half-title">CHATS ON<br />
+COTTAGE AND<br />
+FARMHOUSE FURNITURE</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_2"></a></p>
+
+<div class="bbox2">
+
+<p class="title2"><b>BOOKS FOR COLLECTORS</b></p>
+
+<p class="center small"><i>With Coloured Frontispieces and many Illustrations.</i><br />
+<i>Large Crown 8vo, cloth.</i></p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON ENGLISH CHINA.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">Arthur Hayden</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">Arthur Hayden</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON OLD PRINTS.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">Arthur Hayden</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON COSTUME.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">G. Woolliscroft Rhead</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON OLD LACE AND<br />
+<span class="i0h">NEEDLEWORK.</span><br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">E. L. Lowes</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON ORIENTAL CHINA.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">J. F. Blacker</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON MINIATURES.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">J. J. Foster</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON ENGLISH EARTHENWARE.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">Arthur Hayden</span>.<br />
+(Companion Volume to "Chats on English China.")</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON AUTOGRAPHS.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">A. M. Broadley</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON OLD PEWTER.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">H. J. L. J. Massé</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON POSTAGE STAMPS.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">Fred J. Melville</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON OLD JEWELLERY AND<br />
+<span class="i0h">TRINKETS.</span><br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">MacIver Percival</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON COTTAGE AND FARMHOUSE<br />
+<span class="i0h">FURNITURE.</span><br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">Arthur Hayden</span>.<br />
+(Companion Volume to "Chats on Old Furniture.")</p>
+
+<p class="center">LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN.<br />
+NEW YORK: F. A. STOKES COMPANY.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="c30" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_3"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_4"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="sideboard_of_carved_oak_english_seventeenth_century" id="sideboard_of_carved_oak_english_seventeenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_005.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SIDEBOARD OF CARVED OAK. ENGLISH, SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+(<cite>In the Victoria and Albert Museum.</cite>)</p>
+<p class="right"><i>Frontispiece.</i></p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c30" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_5"></a></p>
+
+<h1><span class="smcap">Chats on Cottage</span><br />
+<span class="small">AND</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Farmhouse Furniture</span></h1>
+
+<p class="p4 center small">BY</p>
+
+<p class="center large"><b>ARTHUR HAYDEN</b><br />
+<span class="small">AUTHOR OF "CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE," ETC.</span></p>
+
+<p class="p4 center"><span class="small">WITH A CHAPTER ON</span><br />
+<span class="x-large"><b>OLD ENGLISH CHINTZES</b></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">By HUGH PHILLIPS</span></p>
+
+<p class="p4 center small">AND SEVENTY-THREE FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS</p>
+
+<p class="p4 center">NEW YORK<br />
+<span class="large"><b>FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY</b></span><br />
+PUBLISHERS</p>
+
+<hr class="c30" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_6"></a></p>
+
+<p class="p4 center small">(<i>All rights reserved.</i>)</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_7"></a></p>
+
+<p class="p6 center">TO<br />
+MY OLD FRIEND<br />
+<span class="x-large">FREDERIC ARUP</span><br />
+I DEDICATE THIS VOLUME<br />
+IN MEMORY OF A HAPPY LABOUR<br />
+OF LOVE COMPLETED</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_8"></a></p>
+
+<hr class="c15" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>The number of works dealing with old English
+furniture has grown rapidly during the last ten
+years. Not only has the subject been broadly
+treated from the historic or from the collector's
+point of view, but latterly everything has been
+scientifically reduced into departments of knowledge,
+and individual periods have received detailed
+treatment at the hands of specialists.</p>
+
+<p>Museums and well-known collections, noblemen's
+seats and country houses have furnished photographs
+of the finest examples, and these, now well-known,
+pieces have appeared again and again as illustrations
+to volumes by various hands.</p>
+
+<p>It is obviously essential in the study of the history
+and evolution of furniture-making in this country
+that superlative specimens be selected as ideal types
+for the student of design or for the collector, but
+such pieces must always be beyond the means of the
+average collector.</p>
+
+<p>The present volume has been written for that large
+class of collectors, who, while appreciating the beauty
+and the subtlety of great masterpieces of English
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span>
+furniture, have not long enough purses to pay the
+prices such examples bring after fierce competition
+in the auction-room.</p>
+
+<p>The field of minor work affords peculiar pleasure
+and demands especial study. The character of the
+cottage and farmhouse furniture is as sturdy and independent
+as that of the persons for whom it was made.
+For three centuries unknown cabinet-makers in towns
+and in villages produced work unaffected by any
+foreign influences. Linen-chests, bacon-cupboards,
+Bible-boxes, gate tables, and other tables, dressers,
+and chairs possess particular styles of treatment in
+different districts. The eighteenth-century cabinet-makers
+scattered up and down the three kingdoms
+and in America found in Chippendale's "Director"
+a design-book which stimulated them to produce
+furniture of compelling interest to the collector.</p>
+
+<p>The examples of such work illustrated in this
+volume have been taken from a wide area and are
+such as may come under the hand of the diligent
+collector in various parts of the country.</p>
+
+<p>In view of the increased love of collecting homely
+furniture suitable for modern use, it is my hope
+that this book may find a ready welcome,
+especially nowadays, when so many of the picturesque
+architectural details of old homesteads
+are being reproduced in the garden suburbs of
+great cities.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible that the authorities of local museums
+may find in this class of furniture a field for special
+research, as undoubtedly specimens of local work
+should be secured for permanent exhibition before
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span>
+they are dispersed far and wide and their identity
+with particular districts lost for ever.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the scientific study of farmhouse and
+cottage furniture, the ideal arrangement is that
+followed at Skansen, Stockholm, and at Lyngby,
+near Copenhagen. In the former a series of buildings
+have been erected in the open air, in connection
+with the Northern Museum, gathered from every
+part of Sweden, retaining their exterior character
+and fitted with the furniture of their former
+occupants. It was the desire of the founder, Dr.
+Hazelius, to present an epitome of the national life.
+Similarly at Lyngby, an adjunct of the <i>Dansk
+Folkemuseum</i> at Copenhagen, the life-work of Hr.
+Olsen has been given to gathering together and
+re-erecting a large number of old cottages and
+farmhouses from various districts in Denmark, from
+Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and from Norway and
+Sweden. These have their obsolete agricultural
+implements, and old methods of fencing and quaint
+styles of storage. The furniture stands in these
+specimen homes exactly as if they were occupied.
+It is a remarkable open-air museum, and the idea is
+worthy of serious consideration in this country. Old
+cottages and farmhouses are fast disappearing, and
+the preservation of these beauties of village and
+country life should appeal to all lovers of national
+monuments.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span>
+In connexion with farmhouse furniture, old chintzes
+is a subject never before written upon. A chapter
+in this volume is contributed by Mr. Hugh Phillips,
+whose special studies concerning this little known
+field enable him to present much valuable information
+which has never before been in print, together
+with illustrations of chintzes actually taken from
+authentic examples of old furniture.</p>
+
+<p>A brief survey is made of miscellaneous articles
+associated with cottage and farmhouse furniture.
+Some specimens of Sussex firebacks are illustrated,
+together with fenders, firedogs, pot-hooks, candle-holders,
+and brass and copper candlesticks.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations have been selected in order to
+convey a broad outline of the subject. My especial
+thanks are due to Messrs. Phillips, of the Manor
+House, Hitchin, for placing at my disposal the
+practical experience of many years' collecting in
+various parts of the country, and by enriching the
+volume with illustrations of many fine examples of
+great importance and rarity never before photographed.</p>
+
+<p>To Messrs. A. B. Daniell &amp; Sons I am indebted
+for photographs of specimens in their galleries.</p>
+
+<p>In presenting this volume it is my intention that
+it should be a companion volume to my "Chats on
+Old Furniture," which records the history and</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span>
+evolution of the finer styles of English furniture,
+showing the various foreign influences on English
+craftsmen who made furniture for the wealthy
+classes.</p>
+
+<p class="left40">ARTHUR HAYDEN.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_14"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="2" summary="contents">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER I</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">INTRODUCTORY NOTE</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>The minor collector&mdash;The originality of the village cabinet-maker&mdash;His
+freedom from foreign influences&mdash;The traditional
+character of his work&mdash;Difficult to establish dates to cottage
+and farmhouse furniture&mdash;Oak the chief wood employed&mdash;Beech,
+elm, and ash used in lieu of mahogany and satinwood&mdash;Village
+craftsmanship not debased by early-Victorian art&mdash;Its
+obliteration in the age of factory-made furniture&mdash;The
+conservation of old farmhouses with their furniture in
+Sweden and in Denmark&mdash;The need for the preservation
+and exhibition of old cottages and farmhouses in Great
+Britain.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER II</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>Typical Jacobean furniture&mdash;Solidity of English joiners'
+work&mdash;Oak general in its use&mdash;The oak forests of England&mdash;Sturdy
+independence of country furniture&mdash;Chests of
+drawers&mdash;The slow assimilation of foreign styles&mdash;The
+changing habits of the people.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER III</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">THE GATE-LEG TABLE</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>Its early form&mdash;Transitional and experimental stages&mdash;Its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span>
+establishment as a permanent popular type&mdash;The gate-leg
+table in the Jacobean period&mdash;Walnut and mahogany varieties&mdash;Its
+utility and beauty contribute to its long survival&mdash;Its
+adoption in modern days.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER IV</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">THE FARMHOUSE DRESSER</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+<td>The days of the late Stuarts&mdash;Its early table form with
+drawers&mdash;The decorated type with shelves&mdash;William and
+Mary style with double cupboards&mdash;The Queen Anne
+cabriole leg&mdash;Mid-eighteenth-century types.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER V</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">THE BIBLE-BOX, THE CRADLE, THE SPINNING-WHEEL,<br /><span class="i3">AND THE BACON-CUPBOARD</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr2"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>The Puritan days of the seventeenth century&mdash;The Protestant
+Bible in every home&mdash;The variety of carving found in Bible-boxes&mdash;The
+Jacobean cradle and its forms&mdash;The spinning-wheel&mdash;The
+bacon-cupboard.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VI</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>The advent of the cabriole leg&mdash;The so-called Queen Anne
+style&mdash;The survival of oak in the provinces&mdash;The influence
+of walnut on cabinet-making&mdash;The early-Georgian types&mdash;Chippendale
+and his contemporaries.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VII</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">THE EVOLUTION OF THE CHAIR</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>Early days&mdash;The typical Jacobean oak chair&mdash;The evolution
+of the stretcher&mdash;The chair-back and its development&mdash;Transition
+between Jacobean and William and Mary forms&mdash;Farmhouse
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span>
+styles contemporary with the cane-back chair&mdash;The
+Queen Anne splat&mdash;Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite,
+and Sheraton&mdash;The grandfather chair&mdash;Ladder-back types&mdash;The
+spindle-back chair&mdash;Corner chairs.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VIII</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">THE WINDSOR CHAIR</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>Early types&mdash;The stick legs without stretcher&mdash;The tavern
+chair&mdash;Eighteenth-century pleasure gardens&mdash;The rail-back
+variety&mdash;Chippendale style Windsor chairs&mdash;The survival of
+the Windsor chair.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER IX</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">LOCAL TYPES</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>Welsh carving&mdash;Scottish types&mdash;Lancashire dressers, wardrobes,
+and chairs&mdash;Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire, Cambridge,
+and Essex tables&mdash;Isle of Man tables.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER X</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">MISCELLANEOUS IRONWORK, ETC.</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>The rushlight-holder&mdash;The dipper&mdash;The chimney crane&mdash;The
+Scottish crusie&mdash;Firedogs&mdash;The warming-pan&mdash;Sussex
+firebacks&mdash;Grandfather clocks.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER XI</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">OLD ENGLISH CHINTZES. (By Hugh Phillips)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+<td>The charm of old English chintz&mdash;Huguenot cloth-printers
+settle in England&mdash;Jacob Stampe at the sign of the Calico
+Printer&mdash;The Queen Anne period&mdash;The Chippendale period&mdash;The
+age of machinery.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">INDEX</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_343">343</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a id="Page_18"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="table">
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#sideboard_of_carved_oak_english_seventeenth_century">SIDEBOARD OF CARVED OAK (ENGLISH,<br /><span class="i2">SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY)</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2"><i>Frontispiece</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER I&mdash;<a href="#introductory_note"><span class="smcap">Introductory Note</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr small">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chests_sixteenth_century">CHESTS (SIXTEENTH CENTURY)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#elizabethan_chair">ELIZABETHAN CHAIR</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chest_seventeenth_century">CHEST (SEVENTEENTH CENTURY)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#interior_of_farmhouse_parlour">INTERIOR OF FARMHOUSE PARLOUR</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">39</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#interior_of_cottage">INTERIOR OF COTTAGE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">39</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER II</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#monks_bench">MONK'S BENCH</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">53</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_chest_with_drawers_underneath">OAK CHEST WITH DRAWERS UNDERNEATH</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">53</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#joint_stools">JOINT STOOLS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">57</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_table">OAK TABLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">57</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chest_restoration_period">CHEST (RESTORATION PERIOD)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">63</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#early_oak_table_middle_seventeenth_century">EARLY OAK TABLE (MIDDLE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">63</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#small_oak_table_c_1680">SMALL OAK TABLE (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1680)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span>
+  <a href="#jacobean_chest_of_drawers_c_1660">JACOBEAN CHEST OF DRAWERS (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1660)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chests_of_drawers">CHESTS OF DRAWERS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">69</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chest_of_drawers_cabriole_feet">CHEST OF DRAWERS (CABRIOLE FEET)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">73</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#william_and_mary_table_c_1670">WILLIAM AND MARY TABLE (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1670)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">73</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#childrens_stools">CHILDREN'S STOOLS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">77</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#rare_bedstead_c_1700">RARE BEDSTEAD (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1700)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">77</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER III</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#triangular_gate_table">TRIANGULAR GATE TABLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">87</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_side_table">OAK SIDE-TABLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">87</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#small_gate_table_very_early_type">SMALL GATE TABLE (VERY EARLY TYPE)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">91</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#gate_table_middle_seventeenth_century">GATE TABLE (MIDDLE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">91</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#rare_table_with_double_gates">RARE TABLE WITH DOUBLE GATES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">93</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#rare_table_with_double_gates_and_only_one_flap">RARE TABLE WITH DOUBLE GATES AND ONLY ONE FLAP</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">93</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#gate-_leg_table_restoration_period">GATE-LEG TABLE (RESTORATION PERIOD)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">97</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#gate_leg_table_yorkshire_type">GATE-LEG TABLE (YORKSHIRE TYPE)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">97</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#gate_leg_table_with_six_legs_barley_sugar_turning">GATE-LEG TABLE WITH SIX LEGS ("BARLEY-SUGAR"<br /><span class="i2">TURNING)</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">99</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#gate_leg_table_ball_turning">GATE-LEG TABLE (BALL TURNING)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">99</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#collapsible_table_with_rare_x_stretcher">COLLAPSIBLE TABLE WITH RARE <b>X</b> STRETCHER</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">101</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#primitive_gate_leg_table">PRIMITIVE GATE-LEG TABLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">101</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#william_and_mary_gate_leg_table">WILLIAM AND MARY GATE-LEG TABLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">105</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#square_top_gate_leg_tables">SQUARE-TOP GATE-LEG TABLES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">105</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#mahogany_gate_leg_tables">MAHOGANY GATE-LEG TABLES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">109</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span>
+CHAPTER IV</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_dresser_about_1680">OAK DRESSER (ABOUT 1680)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">117</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_dresser_period_of_james_ii">OAK DRESSER (PERIOD OF JAMES II.)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">117</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_dresser_early_eighteenth_century">OAK DRESSER (EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">119</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_dresser_urn_shaped_legs_restoration_period">OAK DRESSER, URN-SHAPED LEGS (RESTORATION PERIOD)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">119</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#middle_jacobean_dresser">MIDDLE-JACOBEAN DRESSER</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">123</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#william_and_mary_oak_dresser">WILLIAM AND MARY OAK DRESSER</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">127</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_dresser_square_leg_type">OAK DRESSER. SQUARE-LEG TYPE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">127</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#unique_dresser_and_clock_combined">UNIQUE DRESSER AND CLOCK COMBINED</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">131</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_dresser_queen_anne_cabriole_legs">OAK DRESSER. QUEEN ANNE CABRIOLE LEGS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">135</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#lancashire_oak_dresser">LANCASHIRE OAK DRESSER</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">135</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER V</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#bible_boxes_early_examples">BIBLE-BOXES. EARLY EXAMPLES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">143</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#bible_boxes_middle_seventeenth_century_and_ordinary_type">BIBLE-BOXES (MIDDLE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY AND<br /><span class="i2">ORDINARY TYPE)</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">145</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_cradles">OAK CRADLES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">149</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#yarn_winder_and_spinning_wheel">YARN-WINDER AND SPINNING-WHEEL</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">151</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#buckinghamshire_bobbins">BUCKINGHAMSHIRE BOBBINS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">151</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER VI</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#lancashire_oak_settles">LANCASHIRE OAK SETTLES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">159</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#cupboard_with_drawers">CUPBOARD WITH DRAWERS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">163</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#queen_anne_bureau_bookcase">QUEEN ANNE BUREAU BOOKCASE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">163</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_tables_early_eighteenth_century">OAK TABLES (EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">165</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span>
+  <a href="#queen_anne_glass_or_china_cupboard">QUEEN ANNE GLASS- OR CHINA-CUPBOARD</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">171</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#geogian_corner_cupboard">GEORGIAN CORNER-CUPBOARD</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">171</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_tables">OAK TABLES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">173</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_tables_with_typical_country_cabriole_legs">OAK TABLES, WITH TYPICAL COUNTRY CABRIOLE LEGS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">177</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#queen_anne_tea_table">QUEEN ANNE TEA-TABLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">181</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_revolving_book_stand">OAK REVOLVING BOOK-STAND</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">181</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#country_chippendale_table">COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE TABLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">181</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#square_mahogany_flap_table">SQUARE MAHOGANY FLAP-TABLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">183</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#tripod_table_c_1760">TRIPOD TABLE (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1760)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">183</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#country_chippendale_and_country_adam_tables">COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE AND COUNTRY ADAM TABLES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">187</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER VII</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_arm_chairs_one_dated_1650">OAK ARM-CHAIRS (ONE DATED 1650)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">191</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chestnut_arm_chair_and_oak_arm_chair_c_1690">CHESTNUT ARM-CHAIR AND OAK ARM-CHAIR (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1690)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">191</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#yorkshire_chair_restoration_period">YORKSHIRE CHAIR (RESTORATION PERIOD)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">197</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#cromwellian_chairs">CROMWELLIAN CHAIRS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">197</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_settle_c_1675">OAK SETTLE (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1675)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">201</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_arm_chairs_one_dated_1777">OAK ARM-CHAIRS (ONE DATED 1777)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">201</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_chairs_c_1680_in_walnut_styles">OAK CHAIRS (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1680) IN WALNUT STYLES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">205</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_chairs_showing_various_transitional_stages">OAK CHAIRS, SHOWING VARIOUS TRANSITIONAL STAGES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">209</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chairs_in_queen_anne_style">CHAIRS IN QUEEN ANNE STYLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">213</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#country_chippendale_and_hepplewhite_chairs">COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE AND HEPPLEWHITE CHAIRS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">215</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_settees_in_chippendale_style">OAK SETTEES IN CHIPPENDALE STYLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">219</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span>
+  <a href="#country_chairs_in_chippendale_and_sheraton_styles">COUNTRY CHAIRS IN CHIPPENDALE AND SHERATON<br /><span class="i2">STYLES</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">225</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#grandfather_chair">GRANDFATHER CHAIR</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">231</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#arm_chair_and_bacon_cupboard">ARM-CHAIR AND BACON-CUPBOARD</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">231</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#spindle_back_and_ladder_back_chairs">SPINDLE-BACK AND LADDER-BACK CHAIRS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">235</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#corner_chairs">CORNER CHAIRS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">237</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chairs_of_earliest_form_with_stick_legs">CHAIRS OF EARLIEST FORM WITH STICK LEGS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">247</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oliver_goldsmiths_chair">OLIVER GOLDSMITH'S CHAIR</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">251</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chairs_with_fiddle_splat_and_cabriole_legs">CHAIRS WITH FIDDLE-SPLAT AND CABRIOLE LEGS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">255</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chippendale_and_hepplewhite_windsor_chairs">CHIPPENDALE AND HEPPLEWHITE WINDSOR CHAIRS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">257</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#sheraton_style_windsor_chairs">SHERATON STYLE WINDSOR CHAIRS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">261</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER IX</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chest_dated_1636_welsh">CHEST, DATED 1636 (WELSH)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">269</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#cupboard_dated_1710_welsh">CUPBOARD, DATED 1710 (WELSH)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">269</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#elm_wardrobe_welsh_oak_dresser_lancashire">ELM WARDROBE (WELSH). OAK DRESSER (LANCASHIRE)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">273</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#flap_top_table_hertfordshire_type">FLAP-TOP TABLE (HERTFORDSHIRE TYPE)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">275</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#spindle_back_chairs_lancashire">SPINDLE-BACK CHAIRS (LANCASHIRE)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">275</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_chest_of_drawers_yorkshire_type">OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS (YORKSHIRE TYPE)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">279</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#lancashire_oak_settle_c_1660">LANCASHIRE OAK SETTLE (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1660)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">279</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#three_legged_table_isle_of_man">THREE-LEGGED TABLE (ISLE OF MAN)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">281</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#cricket_tables_hertfordshire_south_beds_cambridge_and_essex">CRICKET TABLES (HERTFORDSHIRE,<br /><span class="i2">SOUTH BEDS, CAMBRIDGE, AND ESSEX)</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">281</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span>
+CHAPTER X</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#rushlight_holders_scotch_crusie_candle_dipper_pipe_cleaner_etc">RUSHLIGHT-HOLDERS, SCOTCH CRUSIE, CANDLE-DIPPER,<br /><span class="i2">PIPE CLEANER, ETC.</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">289</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#queen_anne_pot_hanger_with_original_grate">QUEEN ANNE POT-HANGER, WITH ORIGINAL GRATE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">291</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#kettle_trivet">KETTLE TRIVET</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">291</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#country_firedogs_and_fire_grate_eighteenth_century">COUNTRY FIREDOGS AND FIRE-GRATE (EIGHTEENTH<br /><span class="i2">CENTURY)</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">297</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#sussex_iron_firebacks">SUSSEX IRON FIREBACKS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">301</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#sussex_iron_firebacks_and_original_wood_pattern">SUSSEX IRON FIREBACKS AND ORIGINAL WOOD PATTERN</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">303</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#grandfather_clock_and_warming_pans">GRANDFATHER CLOCK AND WARMING-PANS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">307</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#brass_dial_of_thirty_hour_clock">BRASS DIAL OF THIRTY-HOUR CLOCK</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">309</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER XI&mdash;<a href="#old_english_chintzes"><span class="smcap">Old English Chintzes</span></a></td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#old_trade_card_showing_calico_printers_at_work">OLD TRADE CARD SHOWING CALICO PRINTERS AT<br />
+<span class="i2">WORK</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">319</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#huguenot_printed_chintz_with_portraits">HUGUENOT PRINTED CHINTZ WITH PORTRAITS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">319</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#hand_printed_chintzes_queen_anne_period_and_chinese_style">HAND-PRINTED CHINTZES. QUEEN ANNE PERIOD AND<br />
+<span class="i2">CHINESE STYLE</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">323</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#exotic_bird_and_gothic_styles_eighteenth_century">EXOTIC BIRD AND GOTHIC STYLES (EIGHTEENTH<br />
+<span class="i2">CENTURY)</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">327</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#hand_printed_chintz_by_r_jones_old_ford">HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ BY R. JONES (OLD FORD)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">331</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#hepplewhite_period_and_victorian_period_designs">HEPPLEWHITE PERIOD AND VICTORIAN PERIOD DESIGNS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">335</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#victorian_chintz_in_the_collection_of_mrs_cobden_unwin">VICTORIAN CHINTZ (IN THE COLLECTION OF MRS.<br />
+<span class="i2">COBDEN UNWIN)</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">339</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="c30" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_25"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I<br />
+<a name="introductory_note" id="introductory_note"></a>
+INTRODUCTORY<br />
+NOTE</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_26"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER I<br />
+<span class="medium">INTRODUCTORY NOTE</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">The minor collector&mdash;The originality of the village
+cabinet-maker&mdash;His freedom from foreign influences&mdash;The
+traditional character of his work&mdash;Difficulty
+to establish dates to cottage and farmhouse furniture&mdash;Oak
+the chief wood employed&mdash;Beech, elm, and
+ash used in lieu of mahogany and satinwood&mdash;Village
+craftsmanship not debased by early Victorian
+art&mdash;Its obliteration in the age of factory-made
+furniture&mdash;The conservation of old farmhouses with
+their furniture in Sweden and in Denmark&mdash;The
+need for the preservation and exhibition of old cottages
+and farmhouses in Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to launching another volume on the market
+dealing with old furniture, a word of explanation is
+desirable, for nowadays of making books there is no
+end, and much study is a weariness to the collector.</p>
+
+<p>In the present volume attention has been especially
+given to that class of furniture known as Cottage
+or Farmhouse. There is no volume dealing with this
+phase of collecting. Prices for old furniture of the
+finest quality have gone up by leaps and bounds,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span>
+and for those not possessed of ample means the
+collection of superlative styles is at an end. Singularly
+enough, the most native furniture and that
+most typically racy of the soil has not hitherto
+attracted the attention of wealthy collectors. The
+plutocrats who buy only the finest creations of
+Chippendale, who have immediate private information
+when an exquisitely designed Sheraton piece
+is found, who amass a mighty hoard of gilt Stuart
+furniture, or who boast of an unrivalled collection
+of Elizabethan oak, do not touch the minor furniture
+made during a period of three hundred years for the
+common people.</p>
+
+<p>The finest classes of English furniture made by
+skilful craftsmen for wealthy patrons must always
+be beyond the range of the minor collector. Every
+year brings keener zest among those interested in
+furniture of a bygone day, and it is therefore increasingly
+difficult for persons of taste and judgment
+who cannot afford high prices to satisfy their longings.
+It is obvious that specimens of massive
+appearance finely carved in oak of the Tudor age,
+or of elegantly turned work in walnut of Jacobean
+days, must be readily recognised as valuable. Sumptuous
+furniture tells its own story. It is unlikely
+nowadays that such wonderful "finds," concerning
+which imaginative writers are always telling us, will
+occur again&mdash;except on paper. Popular enthusiasm
+has been awakened, and more often than not the
+possessor of some mediocre piece of furniture or
+china attaches a value to it which is absurd. The
+publication of prices realised at auction has whetted
+<a id="Page_29"></a>
+<a id="Page_30"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span>
+the cupidity of would-be sellers who convert early
+nineteenth-century chairs by a nod of the head into
+"Queen Anne," and who aver with equal veracity
+that ordinary blue transfer printed ware has "been
+in the family a hundred years."</p>
+
+<div><a name="chests_sixteenth_century" id="chests_sixteenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_030a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CHEST. MIDDLE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+<p>Gothic carving. Solid wood ends, forming feet. Made from six boards; with hand-forged
+nails and large lock, characteristic of Gothic chests.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_030b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CHEST. SIXTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+<p>Lozenge panels, disc turning, and Gothic brackets (rare).</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Mr. F. W. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Cottage and farmhouse furniture may be said to
+be in somewhat parallel case to English earthenware.
+A quarter of a century ago, or even ten years ago,
+collectors in general confined their attention mainly
+to porcelain. The rage was for Worcester, Chelsea,
+Derby, or Bow. With the exception of Wedgwood
+and Turner, the Staffordshire potters had not found
+favour with the fashionable collector. Nowadays
+Toft dishes, Staffordshire figures by Enoch Wood,
+vases by Neale and Palmer, and the entire school
+of lustre ware, have received attention from the
+specialist, and scientific classification has brought
+prices within measurable distance of those paid for
+porcelain.</p>
+
+<p>What earthenware is to porcelain, so cottage and
+farmhouse furniture are to the elaborate styles
+made for the use of the richer classes. The French
+insipidities and rococo ornament of Chelsea and
+Derby and the oriental echoes of Worcester and of
+Bow are as little typical of national eighteenth-century
+sentiment as the ribbon-back chair and the
+Chinese fretwork of Chippendale or the satinwood
+elegances of Sheraton.</p>
+
+<p>To Staffordshire and to local potteries scattered
+all over the country from Sunderland to Bristol,
+from Lambeth to Nottingham, from Liverpool to
+Rye, one instinctively turns for real individuality
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span>
+and native tradition. Similarly farmhouse furniture
+exhibits the work of the local cabinet-maker in
+various districts, strongly marked by an adherence
+to traditional forms and intensely insular in its
+disregard of prevailing fashions. It is as English
+as the leather black-jack and the home-brewed ale.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporaneous with the great cabinet-makers
+who drew their inspiration from foreign sources&mdash;from
+Italy, from France, from Holland, and from
+Spain&mdash;small jobbing cabinet-makers in every village
+and town had their patrons, and when not making
+wagons or farm implements, produced furniture for
+everyday use. As may readily be supposed, there
+is in these results a blind naïveté which characterises
+a design handed down from generation to generation.
+This is one of the surprising features of the village
+cabinet-maker's work&mdash;its curious anachronism. The
+sublime indifference to passing fashions is astonishingly
+delightful to the student and to the collector.</p>
+
+<p>There is nothing more uncertain than to attempt
+with exactitude to place a date upon cottage or
+farmhouse furniture. The bacon-cupboard, the linen-chest,
+the gate-table, the ladder-back chair and the
+windsor chair, were made through successive generations
+down to fifty years ago without departing from
+the original pattern of the Charles I. or the Queen
+Anne period. Oak chests are found carved with the
+Gothic linen-fold pattern. They might be of the
+sixteenth century except for the fact that dates of
+the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century are
+carved upon them. Whole districts have retained
+similar styles for centuries, and the fondness for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">33</a></span>
+clearly defined types is almost as pronounced as that
+of the Asiatic rug-weaver, who makes the same
+patterns as his remote ancestors sold to the ancient
+Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>The village cabinet-maker's work knows no sequence
+of ages of oak, walnut, mahogany, and satinwood.
+His wood is from his native trees. His
+chairs come straight from the hedgerows. His history
+can be spanned in one long age of oak, intermingled
+here and there with elm and yew-tree and beech.
+The early days of primitive work go back to the
+marked class distinction between gentles and simples,
+and the end came only in the last decades of the
+nineteenth century, when the village craftsman was
+obliterated by the rapid advance of factory and
+machine made furniture.</p>
+
+<p>It may at first be assumed by the beginner that
+cottage and farmhouse furniture is throughout a weak
+and feeble imitation of finer pieces. But this is not
+so. The craftsmen who made this class of furniture
+formed for themselves special types which were never
+made by the London cabinet-makers. For instance,
+the Jacobean gate-table, the Lancashire wardrobe,
+the dresser, and the windsor chair, have styles
+peculiarly their own. In many of the specimens
+found it will be seen that the village cabinet-maker
+displayed very fine workmanship, and there are
+clever touches and delightful mannerisms which
+make such pieces of interest to the collector.</p>
+
+<p>In early days of the villeins, furniture was limited
+to a stool, a table, and perhaps a chest. Nor was
+the use of much furniture at the farm or in the cottage
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span>
+a feature in Tudor and early Stuart days. Gorgeously
+carved oak and richly turned walnut filled the
+mansions of the wealthy, but one does not find its
+simpler counterpart made for cottages till nearly 1660.
+The few pieces essential to every dwelling-house may
+be placed not earlier than the late sixteenth or early
+seventeenth century&mdash;the chest, the table, the form,
+and the Protestant Bible-box.</p>
+
+<p>Chests with scratched Gothic mouldings, tables of
+the trestle type as used to-day, forms of the most
+simple construction, exist, and may be said to belong
+to the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Bible-boxes became common during the early
+seventeenth century, and without change in their
+style were made till the late eighteenth century. In
+mid-seventeenth-century days the well-known gate-table
+was introduced.</p>
+
+<p>Of early pieces we illustrate a few examples,
+though in connection with farmhouse and cottage,
+the early days afford a poor field, as the furniture of
+those days now remaining was mostly made for great
+families. The two sixteenth-century chests illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_31">29</a>) are interesting as showing the early
+styles. The upper photograph is of a middle sixteenth-century
+chest, with Gothic carving and solid
+wood ends forming feet. This type of chest is made
+from six boards. The hand-forged nails show the
+rough joinery, and the large lock is characteristic of
+such Gothic chests. The lower chest is also of the sixteenth
+century. It has lozenge panels, and is further
+ornamented by disc turning. The Gothic brackets
+at the base are rare, and it is an interesting example.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span></p>
+
+<div><a name="elizabethan_chair" id="elizabethan_chair"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_036a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>ELIZABETHAN CHAIR</p>
+<p>This is of Scandinavian origin, and was known in England before
+the Roman Conquest, being shown in mediæval MSS. Such designs
+survived the Gothic styles.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)]</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="chest_seventeenth_century" id="chest_seventeenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_036b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CHEST. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+<p>Panels with early scratched mouldings (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</i>, not mitred). Mitreing came into general
+use about 1600.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><a id="Page_36"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span>
+That the chest remained in somewhat primitive
+form is shown by the illustration of a seventeenth-century
+specimen (p. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>). It will be observed that
+the panels have early scratched mouldings, that is to
+say they are not mitred. The fashion of mitreing in
+cabinet-work came into general use about the year
+1600, but minor examples of country furniture often
+possess scratched moulding at a much later date.</p>
+
+<p>On the same page is an Elizabethan chair. This
+type is of exceptional interest. It has a long and
+proud history. They are, according to Mr. Percy
+Macquoid, "of Byzantine origin; their pattern was
+introduced by the Varangian Guard into Scandinavia,
+and from there doubtless brought to England by the
+Normans. They continued to be made until the end of
+the sixteenth century." These turned chairs are interesting
+as having spindles, which came into use at a
+much later period in the spindle-back chair.</p>
+
+<p>With the growth of prosperity and the increased
+use of domestic comforts, cottage furniture becomes
+a wider subject. Carved oak bedsteads, simple four-posters,
+bacon-cupboards, linen-chests became more
+common. In eighteenth-century days there was
+quite an outburst of enthusiasm, and the small
+cabinet-maker gained knowledge of his craft and
+became ambitious. On the promulgation of Chippendale's
+designs he made copies in elm and oak and
+beech for village patrons and essayed to follow
+Hepplewhite and even Sheraton.</p>
+
+<p>But this wave of success was followed by the competitive
+inroad made by factory-made cabinet-work,
+and during these last days the local cabinet-maker
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span>
+adhered closer than ever to the early oak examples
+of his forefathers. The village craft practically came
+to an end in the fifties, but it was a glorious end, and
+it is happy that it did not survive to produce bad
+work of atrocious design.</p>
+
+<p>The passing of cottage and farmhouse furniture
+may be said to be like the disappearance of dialect.
+The modern spirit has entered into village life, the
+town newspaper has permeated the country-side and
+disturbed the old-world repose. The lover of English
+folk-ways and the simplicity of rural life may echo
+the line of Wordsworth, "The things that I have
+seen I now can see no more."</p>
+
+<p>In the illustrations of two interiors shown on
+p. <a href="#Page_41">39</a> it will be seen how happily placed the furniture
+becomes when in its old home. The atmosphere
+of these rural homesteads is at once soothing and
+restful, and the pieces of furniture had an added
+dignity. It seems almost sacrilege to tear such
+relics of bygone days from their ancient resting-place.
+But the collector is abroad, and few sanctuaries
+have escaped his assiduous attention. The
+lower illustration shows the interior of a cottage with
+its original panelled walls. This cottage actually has
+Tudor frescoes.</p>
+
+<p>The study of old farmhouse and cottage furniture
+has not been pursued in this country in so scientific
+a manner as in Sweden and in Denmark. The conservation
+of national heirlooms is a matter which
+must be speedily dealt with before they become
+scattered. It is a point which cannot be repeated too
+often. At Skansen, Stockholm, old buildings have,
+<a id="Page_39"></a>
+<a id="Page_40"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span>
+under State supervision, been re-erected, and with
+their furniture they afford a practical illustration of
+the particular type of life of the district of their
+origin. At Lyngby, near Copenhagen, a series of
+farmhouses similarly illustrate old types of homesteads
+from various localities in Denmark, and from
+Iceland and the Faroe Islands.</p>
+
+<div><a name="interior_of_farmhouse_parlour" id="interior_of_farmhouse_parlour"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_040a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>INTERIOR OF FARMHOUSE PARLOUR.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="interior_of_cottage" id="interior_of_cottage"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_040b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>INTERIOR OF COTTAGE.</p>
+<p>With original panelled walls. This cottage has Tudor frescoes.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>By such a systematic and permanent record of
+farm and cottage life and the everyday art of the
+people it is possible to impart vitality to the study of
+the subject.</p>
+
+<p>The English method of museum arrangement in
+dry-as-dust manner, with rows of furniture and cases
+of china, is a valley of dry bones compared with such
+a fresh and vigorous handling and method of exposition
+as is followed in Scandinavia.</p>
+
+<p>If old English furniture is worth the preservation
+for the benefit of students of craftsmanship or as a
+relic of bygone customs, there is undoubted room
+for due consideration of the best means of exhibiting
+it. A series of representative farmhouses could be
+re-erected at some convenient spot. There are many
+parks around London and other great cities which
+would be benefited by such picturesque buildings.</p>
+
+<p>Before it is too late, and many of these beautiful
+structures have been destroyed to make room for
+modern improvements, and village life has become
+absorbed by the growing towns, it should be possible
+to step in and preserve some of the most typical
+examples for the enjoyment of the nation. The
+real interest shown by the public in out-of-door
+object-lessons of this nature is indicated by the great
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span>
+crowds at Exhibitions at Earl's Court and the like,
+which flocked to Tudor houses replete with old
+furniture, and villages transplanted in lath and
+plaster to simulate the real thing, which seemingly
+has been neglected from an educational point of
+view.</p>
+
+<p>The mountain farms and the homesteads of the
+men of the dales, fen farms, and stone cottages from
+the Cotswolds, half-timbered farms from Surrey,
+from Cheshire, and from Hampshire, dating back
+to early Stuart days&mdash;are not these worthy of preservation?
+In the Welsh hills, and nestling in the
+dips of the Grampians and the Cheviots, from Wessex
+to Northumbria, from the Border country to
+the extremity of Cornwall, from East Anglia to the
+Lakes, are treasures upon which the ruthless hand
+of destruction must shortly fall. Or far afield in
+Harris and in Skye, or remote Connemara, there
+are types which should find a permanent abiding
+place as national records of the homes of the men
+of the island kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>This should not be an impossible nor unthinkable
+problem to solve before such are allowed to pass
+away. The intense value of such a faithful record is
+worthy of careful consideration by the authorities,
+either as a national undertaking or under the auspices
+of one of the learned societies, such as the Society of
+Antiquaries, or the Society for the Protection of
+Ancient Buildings and Monuments, interested in the
+safeguarding of the national heritage bequeathed us
+by our forefathers.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_43"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II<br />
+SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY<br />
+STYLES</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_44"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHRONOLOGY</h3>
+
+<p class="center"><b>JAMES I. (1603-25)</b></p>
+
+<div class="hanging">
+
+<p><b>1606</b>&ensp; Second colonisation of Virginia begun; Raleigh's
+first colony in Virginia was founded
+in 1585.</p>
+
+<p><b>1611</b>&ensp; The colonisation of Ulster begun.</p>
+<p class="i3">Publication of the <i>Authorised version</i> of the
+<cite>Bible</cite>.</p>
+
+<p><b>1620</b>&ensp; The sailing of the <i>Mayflower</i> and the foundation
+of New England by the Puritans.
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><b>CHARLES I. (1625-49)</b></p>
+
+<div class="hanging">
+
+<p><b>1630</b>&ensp; John Winthrop and a number of Puritans settle
+in Massachusetts.</p>
+
+<p><b>1633</b>&ensp; Reclamation of forest lands.</p>
+
+<p><b>1634</b>&ensp; Wentworth introduces flax cultivation into Ireland.</p>
+
+<p><b>1635</b>&ensp; Taxes for Ship Money levied on inland
+counties.</p>
+
+<p><b>1637</b>&ensp; John Hampden, a country gentleman, refuses
+to pay Ship Money.
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>CIVIL WAR (1642-49)</b></p>
+
+<div class="hanging">
+
+<p><b>1642</b>&ensp; Battle of Edgehill. Formation of Eastern
+Association. Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex,
+Cambridge, and Hertford unite for purpose
+of defence against the Royalists.</p>
+
+<p><b>1643</b>&ensp; Battles of Reading, Grantham, Stratton,
+Chalgrove Field, Adwalton Moor (near
+Bradford), Lansdown, Roundway Down,
+Bristol, Gloucester, Newbury, Winceby,
+Hull.</p>
+
+<p><b>1644</b>&ensp; Battles of Nantwich, Copredy Bridge, Marston
+Moor, Tippermuir, Lostwithiel, Newbury.</p>
+
+<p><b>1645</b>&ensp; Battles of Inverlochy, Naseby, Langport,
+Kilsyth, Bristol, Philiphaugh, Rowton
+Heath.</p>
+
+<p><b>1648</b>&ensp; Battles of Maidstone, Pembroke, Preston, Colchester.
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><b>THE COMMONWEALTH (1642-58)</b></p>
+
+<div class="hanging">
+
+<p>
+<b>1649</b>&ensp; Battle of Rathmines. Storming of Drogheda
+and Wexford by Cromwell.</p>
+
+<p><b>1650</b>&ensp; Montrose defeated at Corbiesdale and executed.
+Battle of Dunbar.</p>
+
+<p><b>1651</b>&ensp; Battle of Worcester.</p>
+
+<p><b>1652</b>&ensp; War with Holland.</p>
+
+<p><b>1656</b>&ensp; War with Spain.</p>
+
+<p><b>1657</b>&ensp; Destruction of Spanish fleet by Blake.</p>
+
+<p><b>1658</b>&ensp; Battle of the Dunes. Victory of English and
+French fleet over Spain.
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">47</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>INTERREGNUM (1658-60)</b></p>
+
+<p class="hanging">
+<b>1659</b>&ensp; Rising in Cheshire for Charles.
+</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>CHARLES II. (1660-85)</b></p>
+
+<p class="hanging">
+<b>1672</b>&ensp; <i>The stop of the Exchequer.</i> Charles refuses to
+repay the principal of the sums he had
+borrowed and reduces interest from 12 per
+cent. to 6 per cent. This resulted in
+great distress, felt in various parts of the
+country.
+</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>JAMES II. (1685-88)</b></p>
+
+<p class="hanging">
+<b>1685</b>&ensp; Insurrection of Argyll in Scotland.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="i2h">Monmouth rising in West of England.</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="i2h">Revocation of Edict of Nantes. The expulsion
+of a large</span><br /> number of French Protestant
+artisans. Settlement of skilled silk-weavers
+and others in England.
+</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>WILLIAM III. AND MARY (1689-94)</b></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>WILLIAM III. (1689-1702)</b></p>
+
+<div class="hanging">
+
+<p><b>1689</b>&ensp; Siege of Londonderry.</p>
+
+<p><b>1690</b>&ensp; Battle of the Boyne. William defeats James,
+who flees to France.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">48</a></span>
+<b>1691</b>&ensp; Capitulation of Limerick; 10,000 Irish soldiers
+and officers joined the service of the
+French King.</p>
+
+<p><b>1692</b>&ensp; Battle of La Hogue, French fleet destroyed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">49</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER II<br />
+<span class="medium">SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">Typical Jacobean furniture&mdash;Solidity of English joiners'
+work&mdash;Oak general in its use&mdash;The oak forests of
+England&mdash;Sturdy independence of country furniture&mdash;Chests
+of drawers&mdash;The slow assimilation of
+foreign styles&mdash;The changing habits of the people.</p>
+
+<p>To the lover of old oak, varied in character and
+essentially English in its practical realisation of the
+exact needs of its users, the seventeenth century
+provides an exceptionally fine field. The chairs,
+the tables, the dower-chests and the four-post bedsteads
+of the farmhouse were sturdy reflections of
+sumptuous furniture made for the nobility and
+gentry in Jacobean and Elizabethan times. The
+designs may have been suggested by finer and early
+models, but the balance, the sense of proportion, and
+the carving, were the result of the village carpenter's
+own individual ideas as to the requirements of the
+furniture for use in the farmhouse. Obviously
+strength and stability were important factors, and
+ornament, as such, took a subsidiary place in his
+scheme. But, although coarse and possessing a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span>
+leaning towards the unwieldy, and often massive
+without the accompanying grandeur of the highly-trained
+craftsman's work, there is a breadth of
+treatment in such pieces which is at once recognisable.
+They were made for use and no little thought was
+bestowed on their lines, and, rightly appreciated,
+they possess a considerable beauty. There is nothing
+finicking about this seventeenth-century farmhouse
+furniture. There is no meaningless ornament. Produced
+in conditions suitable for quiet and restrained
+craftsmanship, contemplative cabinet-makers began
+to evolve styles that are far removed from the
+average design of furniture made to-day under more
+pretentious surroundings.</p>
+
+<p>The gate table, with its long history and its
+amplification of structure and ornament, to which a
+separate chapter is devoted (Chapter III), is a case
+in point. It was extensively used in inns and in
+farmhouses and found itself in set definite types
+spread over a wide area from one end of the country
+to the other. Its practicability caught the taste
+of lovers of utility. Its added gracefulness of form,
+in combination with its adaptability to modern needs,
+has recaptured the fancy of housewives to-day. It
+is the happy survival of a beautiful and useful piece
+of ingenious cabinet-work.</p>
+
+<p>To-day one finds unexpectedly a London fashion
+lingering in the provinces years afterwards. A stray
+air from a light opera or some catch-phrase of town
+slang is gaily bandied about as current coin in
+bucolic jest long after its circulation in the metropolis
+has ceased. The fashions in provincial furniture
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span>
+moved as slowly. Half a century after certain styles
+were the vogue they crept imperceptibly into country
+use. In speech and song the transplantation is
+more rapid, but in craftsmanship, the studied work
+of men's hands, the use of novelty is against the
+grain of the conservative mind of the country
+cabinet-maker. Therefore throughout the entire
+field of this minor furniture it must be borne in
+mind that it is quite usual to find examples of one
+century reflecting the glories of the period long
+since gone.</p>
+
+<p><b>Solidity of English Joiners' Work.</b>&mdash;The love of old
+country furniture of the seventeenth century is
+hardly an acquired taste. Old oak is at once a
+jarring note in a Sheraton drawing-room with
+delicate colour scheme of dainty wallpaper and
+satin coverings. But as a general rule, when it is
+first seen in its proper environment, in an old-world
+farmhouse with panelled walls, and mullioned
+windows, set squarely on an oak floor and beneath
+blackened oak beams ripe with age, it wins immediate
+recognition as representative of a fine period of
+furniture. It is admitted by experts, and it is the
+proud boast of possessors of old oak, that the joiner's
+work of this style&mdash;the seventeenth century at its
+best&mdash;stands unequalled for its solidity and sound
+practical adhesion to fixed principles governing
+sturdy furniture fashioned for hard and continued
+usage. Of course, there were no screws used in
+those days, and little glue. The joints dovetailed
+into each other with great exactness and were
+fastened by the wooden pins so often visible in old
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">52</a></span>
+examples. The modern copyist has a fine regard
+for these wooden pegs. He knows that his clients
+set store by them, and he accordingly sees to it that
+they are well in evidence in his replicas. But there
+is yet a distinction which may be noticed between
+his pegs and the originals. His are accurately round,
+turned by machinery to fit an equally circular
+machine-turned hole. They tell their own story
+instantly to a trained eye, to say nothing of the
+piece of furniture as a whole, which always has little
+conflicting touches to denote its modernity.</p>
+
+<p>As an instance of the form of the sixteenth century
+continuing in use until mid-seventeenth-century days
+the illustration of an oak table (p. <a href="#Page_59">63</a>) brings out
+this point. The heavy baluster-like legs, only just
+removed from the earlier bulbous types, and the
+massive treatment belong to the days of James I.,
+and yet such pieces really were made in Cromwellian
+days.</p>
+
+<p>The rude simplicity of much of the farmhouse
+furniture is indicated by the Monk's Bench illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_55">53</a>). The back is convertible into a table top.
+The early plainness of style for so late a piece as
+1650 is particularly noteworthy. This specimen is
+interesting by reason of its exceptionally large back.</p>
+
+<p>On the same page is illustrated a chest with two
+drawers underneath. This form is termed a "Mule
+Chest," and is the earliest form of the chest of
+drawers. These Cromwellian chests with drawers
+continued to be made in the country for a hundred
+years, but in more fashionable circles they soon
+developed into the well-known Jacobean chest of
+<a id="Page_53"></a>
+<a id="Page_54"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span>
+drawers, the prototype of the form in use to-day.
+As an instance of this lingering of fashion the chest
+illustrated is dated 1701, quite fifty years after its
+first appearance as a new style.</p>
+
+<div><a name="monks_bench" id="monks_bench"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_054a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>MONK'S BENCH. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1650.</p>
+<p>With back convertible into table top. Exceptionally large back.<br />
+(Note early plainness of style.)</p>
+<p>(<i>By courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell &amp; Sons.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="oak_chest_with_drawers_underneath" id="oak_chest_with_drawers_underneath"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_054b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CHEST WITH DRAWERS UNDERNEATH.</p>
+<p>Termed a "Mule Chest." The earliest form of chest of drawers. This piece in style
+is Middle Seventeenth Century, but is dated 1701.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Oak General in its Use.</b>&mdash;The oak as a wood was in
+general use both in the furniture of the richer classes
+and in the farmhouse furniture of seventeenth-century
+days and earlier. Inlaid work is unknown in furniture
+of this type. It was sparingly used in pieces of
+more important origin. The room shown at the
+Victoria and Albert Museum from Sizergh Castle
+has inlays of holly and bog oak. And the suite of
+furniture at Hardwicke Hall made for Bess of Hardwicke
+was made by English workmen who had been
+in Italy, the same persons who produced similar
+work at Longleat. Small panels with rough inlaid
+work are not uncommon in the seventeenth century
+in chests, bedsteads, and drawers. But the prevailing
+types of oak without the added inlays of other
+woods were rigidly adhered to in cabinet-makers'
+work for the farmhouse.</p>
+
+<p>The great oak forests, such as Sherwood, furnished
+an abundance of timber for all domestic purposes,
+and up to the seventeenth century little other wood
+was used for any structural or artistic purpose.
+Practically oak may be considered as the national
+wood. From the <i>Harry Grâce à Dieu</i> of Henry VIII.
+and the <i>Golden Hind</i> of Drake to the <i>Victory</i> of
+Nelson, the great ships were of English oak. The
+magnificent hammer-beam roof of Westminster Hall
+is of the same wonderful wood. All over the country
+are scattered buildings timbered with oak beams,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span>
+from cathedrals and ancient churches to farmhouses
+and mills. The oak piles of old London Bridge were
+taken up after six centuries and a half and found to
+be still sound at the heart. The mass of furniture of
+nearly three centuries ago has survived owing to the
+durability of its wood. To this day English oak
+commands great esteem, although foreign oak has
+taken its place in the general timber trade, yet there
+is none which possesses such strong and lasting
+qualities. It will stand a strain of 1,900 lbs. per
+square inch transversely to its fibres.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sturdy Independence of Country Furniture.</b>&mdash;The
+hardness of the oak as a wood is one of the factors
+which determined the styles of decoration of the
+furniture into which it was fashioned. It was not
+easily capable of intricate carved work, even in
+the hands of accomplished craftsmen. The fantastic
+flower and fruit pieces of Grinling Gibbons and other
+carvers were in lime or chestnut, and the age of
+walnut, a more pliant and softer wood to work in
+than oak, was yet to come. The country maker,
+little versed in the subtleties of cabinet-work, contented
+himself with a narrow range of types, which
+lasted over a considerable period. This is especially
+noticeable in his chairs, and specimens are found of
+the same form as the middle seventeenth century
+belonging to the last decade of the eighteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The typical sideboard of the seventeenth century
+only varies slightly in form according to the part
+of the country from which it comes. The general
+design is always permanent. A large cupboard
+<a id="Page_57"></a>
+<a id="Page_58"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span>
+below, two smaller ones above, set somewhat back
+from the front of the lower one, the sides of the
+upper ones sometimes canted off, leaving two triangular
+spaces of flat top at the ends of the bottom
+one. The whole is surmounted by a top shelf, supported
+by the upper cupboards and two boldly turned
+pillars. This is usually the design. The decoration
+is of the simplest, and presents nothing beyond the
+powers of the village carpenter. The mouldings are
+simple; there is slight conventional carving, frequently
+consisting of hollow flutings, and the pillars, boldly
+turned, are very rarely enriched by any ornament. A
+careful examination of such pieces is always interesting
+from a technical point of view. The framing of
+the panels is seen to be worked out by the plane, but
+the panels themselves more often than not have been
+reduced to approximate flatness with an adze. If
+viewed in a side light the surface is thus slightly
+varied, showing the differences in the planes of the
+various facets produced by the adze and giving an
+effect entirely different from the mechanical smoothing
+of a surface by the use of a plane.</p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_table" id="oak_table"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_058a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>EARLY OAK TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1640.</p>
+<p>Retaining Elizabethan bulbous form of leg and having Cromwellian style feet.
+Brass handles added later.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="joint_stools" id="joint_stools"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_058b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>JOINT STOOLS.</p>
+<p>Height, 1 ft. 10-1/2 ins.</p>
+<p>(About 1640.)</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>Height, 1 ft. 8-1/2 ins.</p>
+<p>Height, 1 ft. 5 ins.</p>
+<p>(About 1660.)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The framing of the front and ends of these sideboards
+is in detail exactly like the ordinary Jacobean
+wall panelling or wainscot. The mouldings are all
+worked on the rails or styles, not mitred and glued
+on, no mitred mouldings being used except occasionally
+in the centre panel between the doors. The
+framing is mortised together and pinned with oak
+pins. The doors are usually hung on iron strap
+hinges, and the handles of the doors are of wrought
+iron. Frequently the doors of the upper cupboards
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span>
+are hung on pivots, not hinges. Such a sideboard
+belongs to the middle period of the seventeenth
+century, and is representative of a wide class used
+in farmhouses.</p>
+
+<p>It is easier to follow the various movements in
+the design of the seventeenth-century table than a
+century later, when more complex circumstances
+governed its use. The illustrations on p. <a href="#Page_59">57</a> give
+early forms, with some suggestion as to the progression
+in design.</p>
+
+<p>The early oak Table is a curious compound of
+design. It has retained the Elizabethan bulbous form
+of leg and has the Cromwellian foot. In date the piece
+is about 1640. The brass handle has been added later.</p>
+
+<p>The Joint Stools on the lower half of the page
+afford a picture of slowly advancing invention in
+turned work. The one on the left of the group is
+the earliest, and is about 1640 in date. Its legs are
+seen to be of coarser work, roughly turned, but
+typically early Jacobean in breadth of treatment.
+The two on the right are about 1660 in date. The
+left-hand one shows the urn-shaped leg of the strong,
+broad treatment (as in the Table illustrated p. <a href="#Page_59">63</a>),
+brought into subjection and exhibiting a gracefulness
+of form and balance that make furniture of this type
+so lovable. The smaller stool shows the ball-carving
+associated with the Restoration period, and found in
+gate tables. A combination of these styles of turning
+is shown in the graceful oak Table illustrated
+p. <a href="#Page_67">65</a>, in date about 1680.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chests of Drawers.</b>&mdash;The conservative spirit of the
+minor craftsmen is especially noticeable in the articles
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">61</a></span>
+of everyday use. The merchant's account ledger
+with its green back and cross-stitched pattern in
+vellum strips, still in use, is to be found in the same
+style in Holbein pictures of the days of the Hanseatic
+League. Brass and copper candlesticks have a long
+lineage, and their form is only a slight variant from
+very early examples. The evolution of ornament is
+especially interesting; the old stoneware Bellarmine
+form still remains in the bearded mask at the lip
+of china jugs at the beginning of the nineteenth
+century. The two buttons at the back of the coattails
+continue long after their primary use to loop up
+the sword-belt has vanished.</p>
+
+<p>In America the early carved chests of the Puritan
+colonists were followed by similar designs contemporary
+with our own Jacobean style for a period
+well towards the end of the seventeenth century.
+The panels on chairs and chests have the same
+arcaded designs as found in Elizabethan bedsteads
+and fireplaces. These become gradually crystallised
+in conventional form, and Lockwood, the American
+writer on old colonial furniture, has reduced the types
+coincident with our own Jacobean styles into ten
+distinct patterns, until the advent of the well-known
+chests of drawers with geometric raised ornament
+laid on, which pieces of furniture in Restoration days
+were set upon a stand.</p>
+
+<p>We have shown in the illustration (p. <a href="#Page_55">53</a>) the
+earliest form of the chest with drawers underneath.
+The stage transitional between this and the multifarious
+designs with bevelled panels in geometric
+design is exemplified by the chest, in date about
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span>
+1660, illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_67">63</a>), having two drawers and a
+centre bevelled panel, and with two arcaded panels
+on each side of this and also arcaded panels at the
+ends of the chest. This form was rapidly succeeded
+by the well-known chests of drawers on ball feet or
+on stand so much appreciated by collectors.</p>
+
+<p>We illustrate a sufficient number of pieces to
+cover the usual styles and to assist the beginner to
+identify examples coming under his observation.
+Although it should be noted that as these chests of
+drawers are so much sought after they are manufactured
+nowadays by the hundred and out of old
+wood, so that great care should be exercised in
+paying big prices for them unless under expert
+guidance.</p>
+
+<p>The specimen appearing on p. <a href="#Page_67">65</a> is a fine
+example, in date 1660, and when the ball feet are
+original, as in this example, the genuineness of the
+chest of drawers is undoubted. Too often stands or
+feet are added, and it is exceedingly rare to find that
+the brass handles are original. Quite an industry is
+carried on in reproducing old brass escutcheons and
+handles from rare designs and carefully imparting to
+them signs of age, so that they may be used in
+made-up chests of drawers and tables.</p>
+
+<p>Of types of stands, the two chests of drawers
+illustrated p. <a href="#Page_71">69</a> are fair examples. The upper
+chest is a curious Jacobean type with sunk panels and
+having an unusually high stand. There is a suggestion
+that this has been added later, as the foot is
+eighteenth-century in character.</p>
+
+<p>The lower chest is of the Charles II. type with
+<a id="Page_63"></a>
+<a id="Page_64"></a>
+<a id="Page_65"></a>
+<a id="Page_66"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span>
+sunk panels and having the arcaded foot of that
+period. It will be observed that in addition to the
+four drawers it has a drawer at the bottom.</p>
+
+<div><a name="early_oak_table_middle_seventeenth_century" id="early_oak_table_middle_seventeenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_064a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1650.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="chest_restoration_period" id="chest_restoration_period"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_064b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CHEST. ABOUT 1660.</p>
+<p>With bevelled panels and drawers and arcaded panels and ends.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="small_oak_table_c_1680" id="small_oak_table_c_1680"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_066a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SMALL OAK TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1680.</p>
+<p>Showing two forms of mouldings in legs and stretcher.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="jacobean_chest_of_drawers_c_1660" id="jacobean_chest_of_drawers_c_1660"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_066b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>JACOBEAN CHEST OF DRAWERS. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1660.</p>
+<p>Height, 2 ft. 11-3/4 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 11 ins.; width, 3 ft. 3-1/2 ins.
+The ball foot, not always present, indicates genuine example.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The treatment of the stand or legs of these chests
+exercised the ingenuity of various generations of
+cabinet-makers. In the specimen illustrated p. <a href="#Page_71">69</a>,
+the eighteenth century is reached. The transition
+from passing Jacobean styles into those of Queen
+Anne is clearly seen. The bevelled panels still
+remain, with added geometric intricacies of design,
+and a new feature appears in the fluted sides. But
+the most interesting feature is the cabriole leg, so
+definitely indicative of the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Slow Assimilation of Foreign Styles in Furniture.</b>&mdash;Farmhouse
+furniture almost eschewed fashion. In
+seventeenth-century days it pursued the even tenor
+of its way untrammelled by town influences. England
+in those days was not traversed by roads that
+lent themselves to neighbourly communication. A
+hundred years later Wedgwood found the wretched
+roads in Staffordshire, where waggons sunk axle-deep
+in ruts and pits, a hindrance to his business,
+and William Cobbett in his <i>Rural Rides</i> leaves a
+record of Surrey woefully primitive at Hindhead,
+with dangerous hills and bogs, where the "horses
+took the lead and crept down, partly upon their feet
+and partly upon their hocks."</p>
+
+<p>From the days of James I. to those of James II.,
+from the first Stuart Sovereign to the last of that ill-starred
+house, the country passed through rapid
+stages of volcanic history. The opening years of the
+century saw the colonisation of Ulster by the Scots
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">68</a></span>
+and the English settlers, and the sailing of the <i>Mayflower</i>
+and the foundation of New England by the
+Puritans, nine years after the publication of the
+Authorised version of the Bible. Under Charles I.
+came the struggle between the despotic power of the
+Crown and the newly awakened will of the people.
+Parliamentary right came into conflict with royal prerogative.
+The smouldering fire burst into flame when
+John Hampden, a country gentleman, refused to pay
+Ship Money, which was levied on the inland counties
+in 1637, and the arrest of five members of Parliament
+in 1642&mdash;Hampden, Pym, Holles, Haselrig, and
+Strode&mdash;precipitated the country into civil war.</p>
+
+<p>For seven years a continual series of battles were
+waged by the contending forces. The Eastern
+Counties formed themselves into a martial association,
+and the King set up his standard at Nottingham.
+From Bristol to Hull and from Nantwich to Newbury
+fierce engagements tore the country asunder.
+An Irish army was raised for the King, and the Scots
+under Leslie crossed the border in the Parliamentarian
+cause. With the execution of Charles I.
+came other dangers; the sword was not sheathed,
+nor had revolution left a contented country-side.
+Cromwell divided the kingdom into eleven military
+districts, and under his rule England took her place
+at the head of the Protestant States in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>With the death of the Protector and the restoration
+of the Stuarts, when Charles II. returned home,
+came an influx of foreign customs and foreign arts
+learned by expelled royalists in their enforced
+sojourn on the Continent. London and the Court
+<a id="Page_69"></a>
+<a id="Page_70"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span>
+instantly became the centre of voluptuous fashion.
+The pages of Pepys's <i>Diary</i> afford instructive pictures
+of the last quarter of the century at Whitehall with
+the Merry Monarch exhibited in vivid colours, and
+more intimate still are the word-portraits cleverly
+etched by the Count de Grammont in his <i>Memoirs</i>
+of the gay circle at Court. And after Charles came
+his brother James, nor were civil strife and Court
+intrigue memories of the past. Restlessness still
+characterises the closing years of the century. The
+insurrection of Monmouth in the West of England
+was followed by the Bloody Assize of Judge Jeffreys.
+The air is filled with trouble, and blundering statecraft
+brings fresh disaster, culminating in the ignominious
+flight of the King. Nor does this complete
+the changing scenes of the seventeenth century. A
+new era under William the Dutchman brought new
+and permanent influences, and religious toleration
+and constitutional government became firmly rooted
+as the heritage of the people of this country.</p>
+
+<div><a name="chests_of_drawers" id="chests_of_drawers"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_070a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS.</p>
+<p>Curious Jacobean type, with sunk panels and unusually high
+stand. This stand is the well-known eighteenth-century foot.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_070b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS.</p>
+<p>Charles II. type, with sunk panels and arcaded stand and
+feet typical of the period.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>It is essential that a rough idea of the period
+be gained in order to appreciate the kaleidoscopic
+character of the events that rapidly succeeded each
+other. The paralysis of the arts during the civil
+war had not a little influence on the furniture of the
+period belonging to the class of which we treat in
+this volume. The wealth of noble and patrician
+families had been scattered, estates had been confiscated,
+and sumptuous furniture and appointments
+pillaged and destroyed, especially when it offended
+the narrow tastes of the Puritan soldiery. Some of
+the minor pieces no doubt found their way into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">72</a></span>
+humbler homes and served as models for simpler
+folk. With a dearth of aristocratic patrons there
+were no new art impulses to stir craftsmen to their
+highest moods, but in spite of war and disturbances
+affecting all classes, furniture for common use had
+to be made, and the ready-found types exercised a
+continued influence on all the earlier work.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to farmhouse furniture the following
+types represent in the main the seventeenth-century
+styles: the bedstead, the sideboard or dresser,
+the table and the chair in its various forms, the
+Bible-box and the cradle. The Jacobean chest of
+drawers, a development of the dower-chest, came in
+mid-seventeenth-century days, and prior to the
+William and Mary styles. The sideboard, a development
+of the bacon-cupboard, came into fashion in
+the middle of the century. It was a reflex of the
+grander furniture of the manor house and the
+nobleman's mansion. It is difficult to fix exact
+dates to Jacobean furniture of this character. As
+a general rule it is safer to place it at a later date
+than is the usual custom.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Changing Habits of the People.</b>&mdash;The shifting
+phases of the restless seventeenth century make it
+exceedingly difficult, in spite of experts, to decide
+definitely as to the exact date of furniture. The
+country being in such an unsettled state obviously
+influenced the manufacture of domestic furniture.
+Its natural evolution was broken and the restraint of
+the Jacobean forms was in the main due to the
+conditions prevailing in regard to their manufacture.
+The long list of battles given in the chronological
+<a id="Page_73"></a>
+<a id="Page_74"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span>
+table at the commencement of this chapter is
+advisedly recorded to show the intense upheaval
+which was caused by the civil wars which raged
+from north to south, from east to west, and convulsed
+any artistic impulses which may have been in process
+of materialisation.</p>
+
+<div><a name="chest_of_drawers_cabriole_feet" id="chest_of_drawers_cabriole_feet"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_074a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS.</p>
+<p>Showing transition to Queen Anne type. Cabriole feet, bevelled panels, and
+fluted sides.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="william_and_mary_table_c_1670" id="william_and_mary_table_c_1670"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_074b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>WILLIAM AND MARY TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1670.</p>
+<p>With finely turned legs and stretcher and scalloped underwork.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>It is obvious the class of Table of the William
+and Mary period, in date about 1670, illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_75">73</a>),
+with finely turned legs and stretcher and scalloped
+underwork, belongs to a period far more advanced
+in comfort than the days when such a table as that
+illustrated p. <a href="#Page_67">63</a> was the ordinary type.</p>
+
+<p>By the end of the century the growth of sea power
+and the astonishing development of trade brought
+corresponding domestic luxuries. The two children's
+stools illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_79">77</a>) must have come from a
+country squire's or wealthy provincial merchant's
+house. Their upholstered seats emulate the grandeur
+of finer types. The rare form of oak bedstead
+illustrated on the same page is a survival of the
+early type. In date this is about 1700; not too
+often are such examples found, for enterprising
+restorers and makers have seized these old Jacobean
+bedsteads and converted them into so-called Jacobean
+"sideboards," wherein nothing is old except the
+wood.</p>
+
+<p>It requires some little imagination to conjure up
+what the daily meals were in the days of the early
+Stuarts. There was the leather jack, the horn mug,
+and the long table in the hall where the farmer and
+his servants ate together. An old black-letter song,
+entitled "When this old cap was new," in date 1666,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span>
+in the Roxburgh "Songs and Ballads," has two verses
+which paint a lively picture:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
+<div class="line">"Black-jacks to every man</div>
+<div class="line i1h">  Were fill'd with wine and beer;</div>
+<div class="line i0h">No pewter pot nor can</div>
+<div class="line i1h">  In those days did appear;</div>
+<div class="line i0h">Good cheer in a nobleman's house</div>
+<div class="line i1h">  Was counted a seemly show;</div>
+<div class="line i0h">We wanted not brawn nor souse</div>
+<div class="line i1h">  When this old cap was new.</div>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<div class="line i0h">We took not such delight</div>
+<div class="line i1h">  In cups of silver fine;</div>
+<div class="line i0h">None under the degree of knight</div>
+<div class="line i1h">  In plate drank beer or wine;</div>
+<div class="line i0h">Now each mechanical man</div>
+<div class="line i1h">  Hath a cupboard of plate for show,</div>
+<div class="line i0h">Which was a rare thing then</div>
+<div class="line i1h">  When this old cap was new."</div>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>The "mechanical man" is a delightful touch of
+the old song-writer. We fear he would have been
+shocked at the degeneracy of a later day, when in
+place of the mug that was handed round came the
+effeminate teacups. The change from ale, at breakfast
+and dinner and supper, to tea the beverage of
+the poor, would be a sad awakening from the ideals
+set up by the rollicking song-writer of Restoration
+days. But such innovations must needs be closely
+regarded by the student of furniture.</p>
+
+<p>We wish sometimes that historians had spared a
+few pages from military evolutions and Court
+intrigues to let us know what the parlours and
+bedrooms of our ancestors looked like. A rough
+résumé from Macaulay's "State of England in 1685,"
+<a id="Page_77"></a>
+<a id="Page_78"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span>
+wherein he quotes authority by authority, holds a
+mirror to seventeenth-century life.</p>
+
+<div><a name="childrens_stools" id="childrens_stools"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_078a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CHILDREN'S STOOLS, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1690.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="rare_bedstead_c_1700" id="rare_bedstead_c_1700"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_078b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>RARE BEDSTEAD. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1700.</p>
+<p>Survival of early type.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>At Enfield, hardly out of sight of the smoke of the
+capital, was a region of five-and-twenty miles in
+circumference, which contained only three houses
+and scarcely any enclosed fields, where deer wandered
+free in thousands. Red deer were as common in
+Gloucestershire and Hampshire as they are now in
+the Grampians. Queen Anne, travelling to Portsmouth,
+on one occasion, saw a herd of no less than
+five hundred.</p>
+
+<p>Agriculture was not a greatly known science.
+The rotation of crops was imperfectly understood.
+The turnip had just been introduced to this country,
+but it was not the practice to feed sheep and oxen
+with this in the winter. They were killed and salted
+at the beginning of the cold weather, and during
+several months even the gentry tasted little fresh
+animal food except game and river fish. In the
+days of Charles II. it was at the beginning of
+November that families laid in their stock of salt
+provisions, then called Martinmas beef.</p>
+
+<p>The state of the roads in those days was somewhat
+barbarous. Ruts were deep, descents precipitous,
+and the way often difficult to distinguish in
+the dusk from the unenclosed fen and heath on each
+side. Pepys and his wife, travelling in their own
+coach, lost their way between Newbury and Reading.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+In some parts of Kent and Sussex none but the
+strongest horses could, in winter, get through the
+bog in which they sank deep at every step. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span>
+coaches were often pulled by oxen.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> When Prince
+George of Denmark visited the mansion of Petworth
+he was six hours travelling nine miles. Throughout
+the country north of York and west of Exeter goods
+were carried by long trains of packhorses.</p>
+
+<p>The capital was a place far removed from the
+country. It was seldom that the country squire paid
+a visit thither. "Towards London and Londoners
+he felt an aversion that more than once produced
+important political effects" (Macaulay). Apart from
+the country gentlemen were the petty proprietors who
+cultivated their own fields with their own hands and
+enjoyed a modest competence without affecting to
+have scutcheons and crests. This great class of yeomanry
+formed a much more important part of the
+nation than now. According to the most reliable
+statistics of the seventeenth century, there were no
+less than a hundred and sixty thousand proprietors,
+who with their families made a seventh of the population
+of those days, and these derived their livelihood
+from small freehold estates.</p>
+
+<p>Such, then, were the chief differences dividing the
+life of the country from the life of the town. The
+London merchants had town mansions hardly less
+inferior to the nobility. Chelsea was a quiet village
+with a thousand inhabitants, and sportsmen with dog
+and gun wandered over Marylebone. General Oglethorpe,
+who died in 1785, used to boast that he had
+shot a woodcock in what is now Regent Street, in
+Queen Anne's reign.</p>
+
+<p>The days of the Stuarts were not so rosy as writers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span>
+of romance have chosen to have us believe. At
+Norwich, the centre of the cloth industry, children of
+the tender age of six were engaged in labour. At
+Bristol a labyrinth of narrow lanes, too narrow for
+cart traffic, was built over vaults. Goods were conveyed
+across the city in trucks drawn by dogs. Meat
+was so dear that King, in his "Natural and Political
+Conclusions," estimates that half the population of
+the country only ate animal food twice a week, and
+the other half only once a week or not at all. "Bread
+such as is now given to the inmates of a workhouse
+was then seldom seen even on the trencher of a
+yeoman or a shopkeeper. The majority of the nation
+lived almost entirely on rye, barley, and oats."</p>
+
+<p>The change from these conditions to those we
+associate with the eighteenth century was not a
+sudden but a slow one. With the increase of average
+prosperity came the additional requirements in household
+furniture. It is impossible now to state accurately
+what the exact furniture was of the various classes of
+the community. Many of the seventeenth-century
+pieces now remaining have been treasured in great
+houses and belong to a variety which in those days
+was regarded as sumptuous. Now and again we
+catch glimpses of the former life of the men and
+women of those days. Little pieces of conclusive
+evidence are brought to light which enable safe conclusions
+to be drawn. But the everyday normal
+character has too often gone unrecorded. We are
+left with Court memoirs, diaries of the great, literary
+proofs of the more scholarly, but the simple annals of
+the poor are, in the main, unrecorded.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span>
+In view of this series of queer and remarkable
+facts strung together to afford the reader a rough
+and ready picture of those dim days, one comes to
+believe that much of the ordinary seventeenth-century
+furniture must be regarded as having belonged to the
+great yeoman class of the community. With this
+belief the collector very rightly regards it of sterling
+worth, as reminiscent of the men from whose sturdy
+stock has sprung a great race.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_83"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III<br />
+THE GATE-LEG<br />
+TABLE</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_84"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER III<br />
+<span class="medium">THE GATE-LEG TABLE</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">Its early form&mdash;Transitional and experimental stages&mdash;Its
+establishment as a permanent popular type&mdash;The
+gate-leg table in the Jacobean period&mdash;Walnut and
+mahogany varieties&mdash;Its utility and beauty contribute
+to its long survival&mdash;Its adoption in modern
+days.</p>
+
+<p>The gate-leg table is always regarded with veneration
+by collectors. It has a charm of style and beauty of
+construction which afford never-ending delight to possessors
+of old examples. It is an inspired piece of
+cabinet-work which belongs to the middle of the
+seventeenth century, and exhibits the supreme effort
+of the early Jacobean craftsmen to break away from
+the square massive tables, the lineal descendants of
+the great bulbous-legged table of the Elizabethan
+hall. Dining-tables with the device of slides to
+draw out when occasion required, even in early
+days became a necessity. It is a note indicating the
+changing habits of the people. A table was no
+longer used for one purpose. The large table required
+a permanent place in a large room. But smaller
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">86</a></span>
+houses fitted with minor furniture had their limitations
+of space, and so the ingenuity of a table that would
+close together and stand against a wall, or could be
+used as a round table for dining, was a welcome
+innovation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Its Early Form.</b>&mdash;The series of illustrations in this
+chapter afford a fairly comprehensive survey of the
+progress and differing character of the gate-leg table
+during the hundred years that it held a place in
+domestic furniture. It is difficult to say with exactitude
+which are the earliest forms, or whether the
+round table without the moving gates was a sort of
+transitional form prior to the use of the movable legs.
+It is quite possible that in his attempt to invent
+something more convenient than the heavy square
+dining-table the progressive cabinet-maker of the
+middle seventeenth century did strike the half-way
+form. But on the other hand it must be admitted
+that there is the possibility that the gate-leg
+table came first, and that the types with three legs and
+half circular tops stand by themselves as later types.
+On the whole, one is inclined to the belief, especially
+as it prettily illustrates forms of natural evolution,
+that the three-legged table with fixed legs and half
+round top came first.</p>
+
+<p>The two tables illustrated on p. <a href="#Page_89">87</a> belong to
+this three-legged type. The upper one is half circular
+at the top and the three legs are stationary. This
+particular table is in date about 1660, and although
+in this instance it is obviously later than other forms
+we illustrate having gate-legs, yet by the theory we
+have advanced above, it belongs to a type prior to the
+<a id="Page_87"></a>
+<a id="Page_88"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">89</a></span>
+use of a gate. The lower one is a fine example, in date
+about 1640, of a triangular gate-leg table. The top
+is round, and the illustration shows the gate open at
+right angles to the stretcher. The arcaded spandrils
+are an interesting and rare feature.</p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_side_table" id="oak_side_table"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_088a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK SIDE TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1660.</p>
+<p>Plain style. The precursor of the gate-leg table.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="triangular_gate_table" id="triangular_gate_table"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_088b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>TRIANGULAR GATE-LEG TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1640.</p>
+<p>Fine example. With arcaded spandrils and gate. This is the next stage of
+development to above table.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Transitional Types.</b>&mdash;Not only is the feeling towards
+the gradual establishment of this new form of table
+shown in its construction, first with four legs until it
+developed into a table with twelve legs and double
+gates, but the styles of ornament used in the turning
+differ greatly in character. The leg is capable of
+wide and differing treatment. There is the urn leg, a
+rare and early type, the ball turned leg, egg-and-reel
+turned leg, and the straight leg. In regard to the
+stretcher similar varieties occur. Sometimes it is
+entirely plain, and when it is decoratively turned it
+varies from the early survival of the Gothic trestle to
+the rare cross stretcher of the late collapsible table.
+In some types of Yorkshire tables the stretchers are
+splat-form, like a ladder-back chair. The feet differ
+in no less degree from the usual Jacobean type to
+the scroll or Spanish foot at a later date. In the early
+eighteenth century there is the interesting series of
+Queen Anne flap tables which have gate-legs. Some
+have the bottom stretcher to the gate-leg. These
+belong to the walnut period, when a greater vivacity
+became noticeable in English cabinet work.</p>
+
+<p>It is this picturesque and endless stream of designs
+which appeals to the collector. It is quite worthy of
+study to follow the difference in the cabinet-work of
+these gate tables. The long line of craftsmen who
+fashioned them added here and there not only
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span>
+touches of ornament that were personal, but invented
+details of construction as improvements to existing
+forms.</p>
+
+<p>A very early type with urn legs and having plain
+gates is that illustrated p. <a href="#Page_95">91</a>. It is small in size
+and belongs to the first half of the seventeenth
+century. The survival of the Gothic trestle feet of an
+earlier type is noteworthy. The table on the same
+page has the trestle ends still retained. There is still
+the single leg at each end, as in the example above.
+The gates are square and plain and the legs are ball
+turned, a combination representing an early type.
+The size of this piece is small and its date is about
+1650 or somewhat later.</p>
+
+<p><b>Its Establishment as a Popular Type.</b>&mdash;The varied
+improvements and the slightly differing characteristics
+make it perfectly clear, when examined in detail,
+that the gate table in various parts of the country
+had firmly established itself and had won popular
+approval as a permanent type. In the search for
+tables of this form, however wide the net is spread by
+those indefatigable seekers in out-of-the-way places,
+and by the small army of trade collectors who scour
+the country for the purpose of unearthing something
+rare and unique, the story is always the same. In
+the most remote districts such tables are still found:
+the growth of the use of this gate-leg form permeated
+every part of the country. It was copied and recopied,
+native touches were added, and the old
+leading lines followed by generation after generation
+of craftsmen. It had as great a vogue during the
+long period of its history as the styles of Chippendale
+<a id="Page_91"></a>
+<a id="Page_92"></a>
+<a id="Page_93"></a>
+<a id="Page_94"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span>
+chairs had at a later date, when every country
+cabinet-maker was seized with the desire to produce
+minor Chippendale in oak or beech or elm.</p>
+
+<div><a name="small_gate_table_very_early_type" id="small_gate_table_very_early_type"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_092a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SMALL GATE TABLE. VERY EARLY TYPE.</p>
+<p>Length, 3 ft.; breadth, 2 ft. 4 ins.; height, 2 ft. 3 ins. Urn legs with plain gates
+with survival of Gothic trestle feet.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="gate_table_middle_seventeenth_century" id="gate_table_middle_seventeenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_092b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>GATE TABLE. MIDDLE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+<p>Early example. Height, 2 ft.; top, 2 ft. 9 ins. × 2 ft. 3 ins. Square gates and
+turned leg indicate early type. Trestle ends still retained.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="rare_table_with_double_gates" id="rare_table_with_double_gates"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_094a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>RARE TABLE.</p>
+<p>With double gates. Egg and reel turning. Turned stretchers.</p>
+<p>(Examples such as this are worth £18 to £35 owing to rare form.)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="rare_table_with_double_gates_and_only_one_flap" id="rare_table_with_double_gates_and_only_one_flap"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_094b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>RARE GATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>With double gates with only one flap and having turned stretchers. Tables with one
+flap are rare and usually have two gates.</p>
+<p>{<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)]</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Jacobean Period.</b>&mdash;Essentially the flower of the
+popular creations of the Jacobean furniture-designer,
+the gate table must always stand as reminiscent of
+the days of Charles I. and Charles II. No picture
+of this period is considered artistically complete
+unless there be a gate-leg table with its picturesque
+lines adding a technical touch of correctness to
+interiors. The portrait of Herrick, the parson-poet of
+Devon, imaginative though it be, whenever it appears
+on canvas or illustrating his lyrics, shows the poet
+beside a fine gate-leg table. Stage tradition is
+equally sure on the same point. A company of
+swaggering cavaliers at an inn is not complete without
+a group arranged at one of these tables quaffing
+wine from flagons.</p>
+
+<p>Without doubt the finest examples are to be
+found from the year 1660 to the end of the reign
+of Charles II. A new impetus had been given to
+furniture-making in Restoration days. The country
+had settled down in tranquillity and the domestic
+arts began again to thrive in natural manner following
+the earlier motives of the days of Charles I. The
+recent civil wars had arrested their development, and
+now they burst forth again with renewed youth.</p>
+
+<p>Ripe examples of the best period may be assigned
+to the last three or four decades of the seventeenth
+century. These, it should be explained, are in
+oak. We illustrate (p. <a href="#Page_95">93</a>) a particularly pleasing
+specimen with double gates which belongs to this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">96</a></span>
+finest period. There are, it will be observed, twelve
+legs, and the stretchers are finely turned with what is
+known as the egg-and-reel pattern. As a matter of
+fact pieces such as this, on account of the rare form,
+bring from £15 to £35, and they are rapidly being
+gathered into the folds of collectors.</p>
+
+<p>Another rare form is shown on the same page.
+This, too, has double gates, and the stretchers are
+similarly turned. There is only one flap to this table,
+and it will be observed that it makes another variation
+from accepted styles in having a rectangular
+instead of a circular top. Tables with one flap are
+always rare, and when found they usually have two
+gates.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that there are pleasant surprises in
+following changing forms all through the period.
+On p. <a href="#Page_103">97</a> a table is illustrated with two gates on one
+stretcher. This in date is about 1660.</p>
+
+<p>The table below, on the same page, exhibits florid
+turning in the legs. The stretchers across the two
+legs are half way up and are the Yorkshire form of
+splat stretcher. This type is found as early as 1660
+and as late as 1750.</p>
+
+<p>The difference in structure is noticeable in two
+tables shown on p. <a href="#Page_103">99</a>. The one has six legs and the
+other eight legs. The first has finely turned legs
+and stretchers in what is familiarly known as the
+"barley-sugar" pattern. Among its exceptional
+features are the legs being only six in number, the
+gates being hinged to stretcher, two legs thus being
+dispensed with, and the additional bar across the two
+central stretchers. This is a rare piece and in date is
+<a id="Page_97"></a>
+<a id="Page_98"></a>
+<a id="Page_99"></a>
+<a id="Page_100"></a>
+<a id="Page_101"></a>
+<a id="Page_102"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span>
+about 1670. The Gate Table on the same page with
+eight legs is a good example of ball turning. This
+is a type which survived well into the eighteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<div><a name="gate-_leg_table_restoration_period" id="gate-_leg_table_restoration_period"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_098a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>GATE TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1660.</p>
+<p>Rare form. Two gates on one stretcher. Length, 3 ft. 10 ins.; width, 3 ft.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="gate_leg_table_yorkshire_type" id="gate_leg_table_yorkshire_type"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_098b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>GATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>Exhibiting florid turning and Yorkshire type of splat stretchers. Examples are found
+as early as 1660 and as late as 1750. Length, 4 ft. 7-1/2 ins.; width, 3 ft. 3-1/2 ins.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="gate_leg_table_with_six_legs_barley_sugar_turning" id="gate_leg_table_with_six_legs_barley_sugar_turning"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_100a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>GATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>Fine "barley sugar" turned legs and stretchers.</p>
+<p>Exceptional features: Only six legs (gates hinged to stretcher, two legs thus dispensed
+with). Additional bar across two central stretchers.</p>
+<p>Rare example. Date 1670.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="gate_leg_table_ball_turning" id="gate_leg_table_ball_turning"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_100b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>GATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>Good example of ball turning. A type which survived well into the eighteenth century.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="collapsible_table_with_rare_x_stretcher" id="collapsible_table_with_rare_x_stretcher"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_102a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>COLLAPSIBLE TABLE WITH RARE X STRETCHER. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1660.</p>
+<p>The top folds over. Fine example.</p>
+<p>(<i>In the collection of Lady Mary Holland.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="primitive_gate_leg_table" id="primitive_gate_leg_table"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_102b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>PRIMITIVE GATE-LEG TABLE. SEVENTEENTH OR EARLY
+EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+<p>Gates at one end. Made by a local carpenter or wheelwright not conversant
+with turning.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>As exhibiting two types as wide asunder as the
+poles, and yet not far removed in point of time,
+the two tables illustrated, p. <a href="#Page_103">101</a>, make a curious
+contrast. The upper one, in date about 1660, is a
+slender, graceful example, with the unusual <b>X</b>-shaped
+stretcher. It will be seen from the illustration
+that the two stretchers when closed fit flat with the
+legs and the top flaps over, thus making the table
+practically collapsible.</p>
+
+<p>The lower Table, of late seventeenth or early
+eighteenth century, is a somewhat primitive form,
+with the gates at one end. This has obviously been
+made by a local carpenter or wheelwright not conversant
+with turning, as the shaping of the legs is
+strongly suggestive of the rude fashioning of the
+shafts of a farm wagon.</p>
+
+<p><b>Walnut and Mahogany Varieties.</b>&mdash;As the mid-Jacobean
+period is left behind, and walnut is the
+chief wood used in ornamental turned work, so
+the character of the gate table begins to incline
+towards the technique more suitable to walnut than
+to oak. The turning, more easily done in the former
+wood, becomes more intricate. Hence some examples
+appear which are practically types of the walnut age.
+But, in general, the old gate-leg table is a survival
+throughout the William and Mary and Queen Anne
+periods, wherein country makers clung to the oak
+form and employed oak still in its manufacture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span>
+The William and Mary Gate Table illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_107">105</a>) is constructed with one gate. It is small
+in size, practically being an ornamental or occasional
+table. It has a fine character, and the "barley sugar"
+pattern is deeply turned. Side by side with this is a
+small square-topped Gate Table with the pillar-leg,
+denoting a reversion to early type. The stretcher is
+of the old trestle form. Both these pieces, on account
+of their small size and well-balanced construction,
+show that considerable attention was being paid to
+symmetry. Such specimens can readily be transplanted
+to more modern surroundings, and yet in
+some subtle manner harmonise with later furniture.</p>
+
+<p>They share this peculiarity with objects of Oriental
+art of the highest type. Old blue Nankin and old
+lac cabinets, although anachronisms amid furniture
+of a later date, possess the property of being in
+sympathy with their new environment, much in the
+same manner as an old Persian rug becomes a restful
+acquisition in a luxurious Western home.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the forms are so rare as to be almost
+unique. It is seldom that so interesting a piece is
+found as the Table illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_107">105</a>) with the
+scroll feet in Spanish style. It has only one gate,
+and the top of the table lifts up, forming a box. The
+lock is shown at the front in the photograph. The
+adjacent table has a corrupted form of the Spanish
+foot, doubled under in cramped fashion like the flapper
+of a seal. This also has one gate; in date this piece
+is about 1680.</p>
+
+<p>The days of mahogany, with Chippendale in his
+prime and Hepplewhite, Ince and Mayhew, Robert
+<a id="Page_105"></a>
+<a id="Page_106"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span>
+Manwaring, Matthias Lock, William Shearer, and a
+crowd of others, brought intricate carving in mahogany
+into intense prominence. This was the golden age
+of furniture design. An outburst of enthusiasm,
+following the architectural triumphs of the Brothers
+Adam, wherein they raised interior decoration to a
+level as high as that in France, had swept over the
+country. In spite of the rich profusion of new design
+being poured out in illustrated volumes and in
+executed furniture, the old gate-leg table still survived.
+In form it was the same, but the richness of
+the new wood was too enticing for the cabinet-maker
+not to employ. Accordingly we find examples in
+mahogany.</p>
+
+<div><a name="william_and_mary_gate_leg_table" id="william_and_mary_gate_leg_table"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_106a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>EARLY GATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>With square top and pillar leg.<br />
+Stretcher: Old trestle form.<br />
+Top, 2 ft. 4 ins. × 1 ft. 10 ins.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>WILLIAM AND MARY GATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>Fine character deep-turning "barley sugar"<br />
+pattern with only one gate.<br />
+Top, 2 ft. 6 ins. × 2 ft.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell &amp; Sons.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="square_top_gate_leg_tables" id="square_top_gate_leg_tables"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_106b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>GATE TABLE WITH<br /> SQUARE TOP. <i>C.</i> 1680</p>
+<p>Having one gate and corrupted form<br />
+of carved Spanish foot.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>GATE-LEG TABLE. <i>C.</i> 1660.</p>
+<p>With one gate. Top lifts up to form box.<br />
+The feet are in Spanish style.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>In the Chippendale period <b>X</b>-shaped, cluster-leg,
+gate tables are found, and turning was used in this
+cluster-leg form. The ripe inventiveness of such a
+design as the gate-leg table was too evident to escape
+the adoption by famous makers. When ingenuity of
+construction was at its zenith the gate-leg was not
+likely to be discarded in fashionable furniture.</p>
+
+<p>On p. <a href="#Page_111">109</a> two specimens of this period are
+shown. The upper one is of somewhat unusual type,
+having a Cupid's bow underframing. It is seen that
+the Spanish foot has still survived into the eighteenth
+century. The lower table is again a rare form. It is
+probably early in date for mahogany, being about
+1740. The Spanish foot is employed, but in a
+coarsened form, unusually inelegant, and suggestive
+of a golf club.</p>
+
+<p><b>Its Utility and Beauty.</b>&mdash;It is a natural question that
+one may ask as to the reason that the gate table had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span>
+such a prolonged life. It passed through several
+strong periods of fashionable styles that were overthrown
+in turn by newer designs. The reason is not
+far to seek. It survived because the public could
+not do without it. There must have been a continuous
+demand, unchecked by the excitements of
+contemporary substitutes. But apparently there was
+nothing to take its place, or which could permanently
+supplant it. Its utility is undoubtedly one of its
+most marked features. This alone affected its stability
+as a possession with which the farmer's wife and
+the cottager would not part. Customs long established
+in the country were not easily discontinued.
+Mother, daughter, and granddaughter clung to the
+old and practical form of table. Nowadays there are
+families in the shires whom nothing would induce to
+sell their old gate tables. Partly this is for love of
+the old home, but mainly is it the common-sense
+attitude which rebels against the sale of any piece of
+furniture which is in constant use. Many objects
+long gone into disuse, but really valuable from an
+artistic point of view, are readily dispensed with.
+The cottager imagines that if he disposes of a mere
+ornament for a sum of money with which he can buy
+something useful he has effected a good "deal."</p>
+
+<p>So much for its utility. Its beauty is a quality
+which has appealed to persons of higher artistic
+instincts. It is not the quaintness, because there are
+scores of other objects equally quaint, nor is it altogether
+the antiquity, though, of course, nowadays that
+is a determining factor, but it is the actual symmetry
+of form and ingenious form of construction, enhanced
+<a id="Page_109"></a>
+<a id="Page_110"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span>
+by the wide range of decorative treatment, which
+irresistibly appeal to the lover of the beautiful. These
+manifold reasons, therefore, endowed the gate-leg
+table with great vitality. Its hold of the people was
+not relaxed till the age of the factory-made furniture.
+The banalities of the early-Victorian period, which
+destroyed taste in persons of finer susceptibilities than
+the common folk, supplanted the old historic form,
+and it was made no more.</p>
+
+<div><a name="mahogany_gate_leg_tables" id="mahogany_gate_leg_tables"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_110a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>MAHOGANY GATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>Unusual type. With "Cupid's bow" underframing. Spanish foot surviving into
+eighteenth century. Height, 2 ft. 5 ins.: diameter of top, 3 ft. 6 ins.; width, 4 ft.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_110b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>MAHOGANY GATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>Rare form. Probably made of the new fashionable wood about 1740. Use of Spanish
+foot dying out. Diameter of top, 4 ft. 5-1/2 ins. × 4 ft. 4 ins.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)]</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Its Adoption in Modern Days.</b>&mdash;After William Morris
+and his school had preached the revival of taste and
+the return to the simple and the beautiful, and Ruskin
+with flowing rhetoric had instilled a love for homespun
+into men's minds, there came newer ideals
+which, with gradual dissemination, have grown into
+a great modern movement which has become so
+overwhelmingly popular that the pendulum has
+almost swung the other way. It has now become
+almost a truism that the person of taste to-day sees
+nothing good in anything that is not old. With
+this in view, artists and persons of advanced notions,
+if they could not procure the old, had copies made
+for them of some of the most beautiful styles suitable
+for modern requirements. In this there was always
+the great Morrisian principle in view that the highest
+art must show a full utilitarian purpose; so it came
+about that the gate table was revived and came
+gloriously into its own again. To-day, as in the
+seventeenth century, there is no more popular form
+of table, and the modern cabinet-maker is manufacturing
+hundreds of these tables.</p>
+
+<p>The life-history of the gate-leg table is, therefore,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span>
+shown to be an interesting one. It is one of our
+oldest forms, and its construction nowadays, save
+that it is now produced in a factory, is singularly
+similar to that in the days when Oliver Cromwell
+was establishing our power as a voice in Europe,
+when James II. had an eye towards the supremacy
+of our navy, and when later our troops fought in
+Flanders.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_113"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV<br />
+THE FARMHOUSE<br />
+DRESSER</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_114"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_115"></a></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER IV<br />
+<span class="medium">THE FARMHOUSE DRESSER</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">The days of the late Stuarts&mdash;Its early table form with
+drawers&mdash;The decorated type with shelves&mdash;William
+and Mary style with double cupboards&mdash;The Queen
+Anne cabriole leg&mdash;Mid-eighteenth-century types.</p>
+
+<p>The various types of dresser associated with farmhouse
+use are interesting as being apart from the
+sideboard, a later fashion belonging to furniture of a
+higher type. It was not until the late days of Chippendale,
+and after, that the Side Table began to
+be designated a Sideboard, which later became a
+receptacle for wine, with a cellaret, and had a
+drawer for table-linen.</p>
+
+<p>The sideboard is not a modern term, for the word
+is found in Dryden and in Milton. In the late
+eighteenth-century days the sideboard had a brass
+rail at the back, and was ornamented by two
+mahogany urns of massive proportions. Usually
+these were used for iced water and for hot water,
+the latter for washing the knives and forks.</p>
+
+<p>The Adam sideboard with its severe classical
+lines, and Sheraton's elegant bow fronts and satinwood
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span>
+panels decorated with painting, belong to the
+later developments of the sideboard as now known.</p>
+
+<p>The dresser is something more homely. It is
+indissolubly connected with homeliness and with the
+farmhouse and the country-side. In its various forms
+it has appealed to lovers of simple furniture, and
+farmhouse examples have found their way into surroundings
+more or less incongruous. The dresser
+in its more primitive form requires the necessary
+environment. It loses its charm when placed in
+proximity to pieces of more pretentious character.
+The cupboard dresser, or the type with open shelves,
+is less decorative than some of the forms without
+the back. That is to say, it requires the exactly
+suitable accompaniment to prevent its simple lines
+from being eclipsed by furniture of a higher grade.
+The dresser is, therefore, especially desirable to the
+collector furnishing a country cottage in harmonious
+character; but its inclusion in the modern drawing-room
+is an incongruity and its presence in the dining-room
+is more often than not an unwarrantable
+intrusion.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Days of the Late Stuarts.</b>&mdash;It will be seen that
+the early types have fronts finely decorated with
+geometric designs panelled in the same fashion as
+the Jacobean chests of drawers, such as that illustrated
+p. <a href="#Page_71">69</a>. The split baluster ornament is a
+noticeable feature in this style, and the fine graceful
+balance of the panels with the drawers with drop
+brass handles is an attractive feature beloved by
+connoisseurs of the late Stuart period. The decoration
+in the fronts of these early dressers is as diverse
+<a id="Page_117"></a>
+<a id="Page_118"></a>
+<a id="Page_119"></a>
+<a id="Page_120"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span>
+in character as the fronts of the contemporary chests
+of drawers. This variety is indicative of the personal
+character imparted to the work of the old designers.
+It is rare to find two examples exactly alike. They
+differ in details, much in the same manner as the
+brass candlesticks of the same period, which possess
+the same charm of individuality.</p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_dresser_about_1680" id="oak_dresser_about_1680"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_118a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK DRESSER. ABOUT 1680.</p>
+<p>With finely decorated front.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell &amp; Sons.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="oak_dresser_period_of_james_ii" id="oak_dresser_period_of_james_ii"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_118b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK DRESSER.</p>
+<p>Fine example of the period of James II.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="oak_dresser_early_eighteenth_century" id="oak_dresser_early_eighteenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_120a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK DRESSER OF UNUSUAL TYPE. EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+<p>With arched formation below and serpentine outline at sides.
+Height, 6 ft. 8-1/2 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 6 ins.; width, 6 ft. 2 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="oak_dresser_urn_shaped_legs_restoration_period" id="oak_dresser_urn_shaped_legs_restoration_period"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_120b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>EARLY OAK DRESSER. ABOUT 1660.</p>
+<p>With urn-shaped legs.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)]</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Of this particular type of oak Dresser the two
+examples illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_121">117</a>) have characteristics
+which are common to the class. The geometric front
+panels, the laid-on moulding, and the Jacobean leg&mdash;in
+most cases the back legs of these side dressers are
+square&mdash;should be intently noticed. In regard to the
+number of the legs, this is governed by the length of
+the dresser. In the lower example it will be seen
+that there are six legs and that the stretcher is
+continued round three sides. In this example the
+legs begin to show indications of the late-Jacobean
+style of more delicate turning. In the upper
+example the legs are bolder.</p>
+
+<p>These are oak specimens; the walnut varieties of
+similar design offer more sumptuous decoration and
+belong to furniture more suitable for the manor
+house than for the farm or cottage.</p>
+
+<p>An earlier type, in date about 1660, illustrated
+p. <a href="#Page_121">119</a>, exhibits a less ornate appearance and has the
+split urn-shaped legs in front and flat legs at the
+back. The split legs are found sometimes in gate
+tables, but when such is the case it may safely be
+conjectured that these tables are not of English
+origin, as the split leg did not find great favour with
+the English cabinet-makers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span>
+Before passing to later examples it should be
+observed that this particular form of dresser is most
+frequently found without a top with shelves.
+Examples there are which, as we shall show, have
+the original top, but as a rule it is advisable to note
+this feature in examining these Jacobean dressers, for
+there are a great number in the market to which
+later tops have been added, as suitable to more
+modern requirements, or as likely to prove more
+attractive to those collectors not familiar with the
+dresser in its earlier form. Originally in early
+dressers with shelves there is no back, that is to say,
+the shelves showed the wall behind them. This
+deficiency has been obligingly supplied by later
+hands.</p>
+
+<p>The dresser, as it found itself after certain transitional
+stages had been passed through, is shown in
+the early eighteenth-century piece illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_121">119</a>).
+This is of the early days of the eighteenth century,
+that is to say, in the reign of Queen Anne. It is
+here seen that the dresser is a set piece of furniture
+possessing attributes instantly marking it as having
+been carefully designed with a due observance as to
+the purpose to which it was to be put. The shelf at
+the bottom was evidently intended for use; the
+arched formation below the drawers has been
+planned in that manner to admit of utensils placed
+there being taken out and replaced with ease. One
+can only conjecture what may have stood there,
+maybe a barrel of cider, or perhaps only a breadpan.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Decorated Type with Shelves.</b>&mdash;The back with
+shelves was a useful addition, which, as will be seen
+<a id="Page_123"></a>
+<a id="Page_124"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span>
+in the earlier examples leading up to this later
+development, had borne several experiments in the
+way of cupboards. In this particular specimen the
+broken or serpentine outline at sides of shelves is a
+noticeable feature, and always adds a grace and
+charm to the dresser when employed by the cabinet-maker.
+Another example in which this is effectively
+used is illustrated on p. <a href="#Page_125">123</a>.</p>
+
+<div><a name="middle_jacobean_dresser" id="middle_jacobean_dresser"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_124a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>DRESSER. EARLY JACOBEAN.</p>
+<p>Length, 6 ft. 5 ins.; height, 7 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 8-1/2 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_124b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>DRESSER. EARLIEST DECORATED TYPE.</p>
+<p>Date about 1670.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>To return to the early-Jacobean types: two interesting
+pieces are illustrated together (p. <a href="#Page_125">123</a>). That
+on the left, with four legs and stretcher, has three
+drawers, and the upper portion or back is ornamented
+by a primitive scalloped design suggestive of the
+country hand. The other, on the right, has six legs
+and four drawers, and the upper portion is beginning
+to receive detailed treatment in regard to spacing of
+the shelves, and a small cupboard on each side
+fills the growing need of cupboards and drawers, a
+rapidly growing taste in English furniture for
+domestic use as the home-life began to be more complex.
+About this time nests of boxes and drawers in
+lac work from the East began to be imported into
+this country in the better houses, first as articles of
+great luxury and beauty, on account of their colour
+and fine gold work, and later as being something new
+and essentially utilitarian in regard to the accommodation
+they afforded for the treasures the housewife
+wished to put away from the prying eyes of her
+curious neighbours. As time went on, the art of the
+cabinet-maker became more intricate. It is not the
+place here to enter into the minutiæ of the development
+of drawers and bureaus and cabinets, but the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span>
+late eighteenth century brought such furniture, apart
+from points in relation to beauty of design, to great
+constructive skill. The age was one of hidden contrivances
+and intricately cunning mechanism concealing
+secret drawers or receptacles. Such pieces were
+never made for farmhouse use; but the germ of the
+idea is ever present in all furniture with indications of
+locked drawers and cupboards. This is the note
+of intense civilisation as against the simpler modes
+of primitive folk who have no bolt to their door and
+no lock to guard their possessions.</p>
+
+<p><b>William and Mary Style with Double Cupboards.</b>&mdash;The
+variety with double cupboards are interesting as
+giving a date to the dressers in which they are found.
+It is usually accurate to place such pieces in the
+William and Mary period, that is to say from the
+year 1689 to the end of the seventeenth century.
+The tendency in this class of furniture is to cling
+tenaciously to older forms, especially in certain
+portions of the cabinet-work which presented difficulties
+to the local cabinet-maker. The legs retained
+their early-Jacobean character even when associated
+with much later styles. This is noticeable in the
+William and Mary example illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_129">127</a>). The
+arcaded doors are inlaid, the canopy is decorated, the
+underwork beneath the drawers belongs essentially
+to the "Orange" period of design in its feeling.</p>
+
+<p>That the dresser could be made an ornamental
+piece of furniture and found its place as an important
+possession in the farmhouse, bright with an array of
+china, or pewter, or even silver, is amply shown by
+the two examples illustrated together of which the
+<a id="Page_127"></a>
+<a id="Page_128"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span>
+foregoing is one. The other oak dresser has at the
+top, where the mugs are hanging, the original mug-hooks.
+It is of the square-leg type and the arcaded
+work below the drawers gives distinction to its lines;
+it possesses also the broken or serpentine ends to
+the shelves. These curves and simple touches of
+ornament all contribute to make such dressers
+pleasing in character and representative of native
+work attempting with strong endeavour to produce
+artistic results suitable to their environment.</p>
+
+<div><a name="william_and_mary_oak_dresser" id="william_and_mary_oak_dresser"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_128a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>WILLIAM AND MARY OAK DRESSER. DATE <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1689.</p>
+<p>Decorated canopy, arcaded doors, inlaid and turned legs.<br />
+Height, 6 ft. 8-1/2 ins.; length, 6 ft. 4 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 8 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="oak_dresser_square_leg_type" id="oak_dresser_square_leg_type"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_128b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK DRESSER.</p>
+<p>Square leg type; with original mug hooks.<br />
+Height, 6 ft.; length, 4 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 5 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Queen Anne Cabriole Leg.</b>&mdash;It is not to be
+expected that the long-continued triumph of the
+cabriole leg of the eighteenth century would leave
+the dresser without making its mark thereon. The
+exact curve of the cabriole leg is dangerous in the
+hands of a novice, who rarely if ever gets the correct
+balance in conjunction with the rest of the construction.
+Accordingly, in farmhouse pieces this tells its
+own story. It is as though the cabriole leg were a
+sudden afterthought. This touch of representative
+want of repose is shown in the specimen illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_137">135</a>). In date this is about 1740, and is a somewhat
+rare form, having double cupboards.</p>
+
+<p>A unique Dresser and Clock combined is illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_133">131</a>). The form of the dresser, it will be seen,
+is quite different from other specimens. The back
+is only sufficiently high to carry a row of small
+drawers. The legs are circular and tapered, terminating
+in circular feet. In the centre of the dresser
+is a clock of the familiar grandfather form in
+miniature. This clock is not an addition to the
+dresser, but is a portion of the dresser and was made
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span>
+with it. The illustration shows the size of the door
+of the clock-case, with its hinges not cut down or in
+any way interfered with, and the lock on the other
+side is in the centre of the panel. It is obvious that
+no later hand has tampered with this fine example,
+and it stands as a remarkable dresser and unique in
+form in its construction with this clock.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mid-eighteenth-century Types.</b>&mdash;In the Lancashire
+Dresser illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_137">135</a>) the top is reminiscent of
+early types. The cupboard has removed its position
+to the middle, a departure from all earlier forms.
+This is a very characteristic example, and the ample
+drawer accommodation shows the speedy transition
+from the old form of dresser through its varied stages
+to the later modern variety of the kitchen dresser,
+devoid of poetry and lacking interest to the collector,
+and yet to the student having traces of its ancient
+lineage.</p>
+
+<p>The eighteenth-century farmhouse varieties offer
+no great departure. They aim at being capacious
+and massive. They make no pretensions to approach
+the niceties of the sideboard in use in the better
+houses. They supply an undoubted want in the
+farmhouse for storage. There were cordials and
+home-made wines and much prized linen and a
+bright array of silver and Sheffield plate and pewter,
+and no doubt tea services or porcelain from the new
+English factories of Worcester, Derby, Bow, or
+maybe Plymouth or Bristol, to be shielded from
+breakage. The farmer's wife and the farmer's
+daughters were less than human if they did not
+follow the new fashions in some degree, more or
+<a id="Page_131"></a>
+<a id="Page_132"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span>
+less, in tea-drinking and in becoming the proud
+possessors of tea services and dinner services somewhat
+more delicate than the old delft and coarse
+Staffordshire ware. The cupboards had ample
+accommodation for these more valuable accessories
+of the farmhouse parlour. The cabinet-maker therefore
+developed on lines exactly suitable for the
+country clients whom he served.</p>
+
+<div><a name="unique_dresser_and_clock_combined" id="unique_dresser_and_clock_combined"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_132.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>UNIQUE DRESSER AND CLOCK COMBINED.</p>
+<p>The clock is not an addition, but is a portion of the dresser, and was made for it.</p>
+<p>(<i>In the collection of D. A. Bevan, Esq.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The late forms show this marked tendency to
+provide innumerable drawers and cupboards, in the
+farmhouse dressers contemporary with Chippendale.
+Many examples are found which are practically
+elongated chests of drawers; the old characteristics
+of the dresser are absent, the back has disappeared
+altogether. There is no top with shelves. Eight large
+drawers and two capacious cupboards give great
+storage room in a piece often 9 feet in length. There
+is nothing finicking in this type of furniture. It stands
+for homely comfort and love of domestic order. We
+may be sure that the good dame who used this lower
+piece, with its eight solid drawers with sound locks,
+was a person of frugal habits and love of the old
+farmstead. We may safely assume that she had a
+well-filled stocking hidden away somewhere in this
+old-fashioned repository, put by for the rainy day.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion it may be said that a good deal has
+been talked about Welsh dressers, as though they
+were a type absolutely apart from any other. The
+differences are not great, as the carving, in which the
+Welsh craftsman offers characteristics of his own, is
+absent in pieces of furniture such as the dresser.
+Then there is the Normandy dresser, a much-abused
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span>
+term: a considerable number of these, and others,
+too, from Brittany, have been imported and the
+terms have become trade descriptions. But in the
+main the English dresser has passed through the
+phases we have described, and the outlines herein
+suggested may be filled in by the painstaking
+collector. In the chapter dealing with local types
+there is an illustration of a Lancashire dresser (p. <a href="#Page_273">273</a>)
+which adds one more example to the gallery of
+dressers we give as types in this chapter.
+<a id="Page_135"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_136"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_137"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_dresser_queen_anne_cabriole_legs" id="oak_dresser_queen_anne_cabriole_legs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_136a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK DRESSER. DATE ABOUT 1740.</p>
+<p>With early double cupboards. Legs in Queen Anne style. Height, 6 ft. 7 ins.;
+width, 9 ft. 5-1/2 ins.; depth, 2 ft. 2-1/2 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="lancashire_oak_dresser" id="lancashire_oak_dresser"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_136b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>LANCASHIRE DRESSER. MIDDLE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+<p>Top reminiscent of early types. Ample drawer accommodation. Transition
+to modern dresser. Deeply cut panels. Cupboard in middle as distinct
+from earlier forms at sides. Height, 7 ft. 2 ins.; width, 6 ft. 7 ins.;
+depth, 2 ft.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER V<br />
+THE BIBLE-BOX,<br />
+THE CRADLE,<br />
+THE SPINNING-WHEEL,<br />
+AND THE BACON-CUPBOARD</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_138"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER V</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">THE BIBLE-BOX, THE CRADLE, THE SPINNING-WHEEL,<br />
+AND THE BACON-CUPBOARD</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">The Puritan days of the seventeenth century&mdash;The
+Protestant Bible in every home&mdash;The variety of
+carving found in Bible-boxes&mdash;The Jacobean cradle
+and its forms&mdash;The spinning-wheel&mdash;The bacon-cupboard.</p>
+
+<p>The Authorised version of the Holy Bible, "translated
+out of the original tongues and with the former
+translations diligently compared and revised," by
+His Majesty's command, found a place in every
+household in Stuart days. The letter of the learned
+translators "To the most High and Mighty Prince
+James, by the Grace of God, King of Great Britain,
+France, and Ireland, Defender of the Faith," &amp;c.,
+retains its place in modern editions. It is an historic
+document worthy of preservation, and perhaps those
+who have forgotten its terms may be glad to have
+their memory refreshed. It is of surpassing moment
+to all who recognise the Protestant derivation of the
+Bible as we now know it, and the sectarian feelings
+which inspired the translators under King James in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span>
+their fulsome dedication to the Modern Solomon.
+"Great and manifold were the blessings, most dread
+Sovereign, which Almighty God the Father of all
+mercies bestowed upon us the people of England,
+when first he sent your Majesty's Royal Person to
+rule and reign over us. For whereas it was the
+expectation of many, who wished not well unto
+our <i>Sion</i>, that upon the setting of that bright
+Occidental Star, Queen Elizabeth, of most happy
+memory, some thick and palpable clouds of darkness
+would so have overshadowed this land, that men
+should have been in doubt which way they were to
+walk; and that it should hardly be known who was
+to direct the unsettled State; the appearance of your
+Majesty, as the Sun in its strength, instantly dispelled
+those supposed and surmised mists, and gave unto all
+that were well affected exceeding cause of comfort;
+especially when we beheld the Government established
+in Your Highness and your hopeful seed, by
+an undoubted title, and this also accompanied by
+peace and tranquillity at home and abroad."</p>
+
+<p>It is, as we affirm, an interesting document as
+showing the Puritan tendencies at a time when much
+was in the melting-pot and the first of the Stuarts,
+with his broad Scots accent and his ungainly ways,
+came down to St. James's from the North. Compare
+the above literary dedication to James the First with
+the word-portrait painted by Green the historian, and
+one may draw one's own inferences. "His big head,
+his slobbering tongue, his quilted clothes, his rickety
+legs, stood out in as grotesque a contrast with all that
+men recalled of Henry or of Elizabeth as his gabble
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span>
+and rodomontade, his want of personal dignity, his
+buffoonery, his coarseness of speech, his pedantry,
+his contemptible cowardice. Under this ridiculous
+exterior, however, lay a man of much natural ability,
+a ripe scholar with a considerable fund of shrewdness,
+of mother-wit, and ready repartee."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Protestant Bible in every Home.</b>&mdash;Himself a
+theologian, James influenced his contemporaries.
+"Theology rules there," said Grotius of England
+only two years after Elizabeth's death. There was
+an indifference to pure letters and persons were
+counted fine scholars who were diligent in the study
+of the Bible. The language of the people became
+enriched with this study, which extended to all
+classes. John Bunyan, the son of a tinker at Elstow,
+learned his intense prose from the Bible. The peasant
+absorbed the Bible till its words became his own.
+With the Puritan movement came the production
+of men of serious type, and with it too came the
+disappearance of the richer and brighter life and
+humour of Elizabethan days. It was a literary
+movement and a religious movement which penetrated
+to the lower classes and often left the upper
+classes and gentry unmoved. In dealing with this
+and its reflex upon the domestic habits of the people,
+the visible effects in regard to furniture are strikingly
+evident in the plethora of Bible-boxes belonging to
+those in this period of Biblical study, to whom
+Shakespeare and Ben Jonson were unknown and
+Spenser's <em>Faerie Queene</em> and Milton's <em>Comus</em> were
+sealed books.</p>
+
+<p>It would almost seem that in many cases the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span>
+Bible was the only book which was read and
+treasured. It was incorporated in the home life. It
+served as a register to record the names and dates
+of birth and death or marriage of members of
+the family. Some of these family registers have
+been most valuable in tracing details in biography
+where parish registers have failed to supply the
+necessary information.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Variety of Carving found in Bible-boxes.</b>&mdash;We
+give a series of illustrations indicating some of the
+interesting details of carving to be found on such
+boxes, where, as in work intended for a treasure-chest
+to preserve a sacred book, considerable zeal
+has gone to the elaboration of ornament. These
+seventeenth-century relics of a wave of religious
+enthusiasm are the crude Puritan likenesses, belonging
+to a less innately artistic race, of the tabernacles
+and ivory carved Madonnas and saints of the Italian
+renaissance. They both, though poles asunder in
+realisation, represent the instinctive love of man for
+ornament in connection with his religious emotions.
+Savage races with another ritual produce religious
+and ceremonial woodcarving representative of their
+best. Here, then, is the Puritan craftsmanship, mainly
+of provincial origin and found scattered over various
+parts of the country, following <i>motifs</i> executed by
+the same hands as Jacobean chairs and dressers, but
+bearing rich touches of ornament, betraying much
+originality, within the limited scope of Jacobean design.</p>
+
+<p>The carving has nothing of the humour or strong
+bold relief of the miserere seats of the palmy days of
+the woodcarver in the fifteenth and early sixteenth
+<a id="Page_143"></a>
+<a id="Page_144"></a>
+<a id="Page_145"></a>
+<a id="Page_146"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span>
+century in details that might well have been applied
+to the Bible-box. The ambition of the Puritan woodcarver
+never reached figure-work, or he might have
+represented Biblical scenes if his abhorrence of graven
+images had not demoralised his fancy. Some of the
+early boxes have bold carving. We illustrate a fine
+example (p. <a href="#Page_147">143</a>) of the time of James I., about 1600.
+The design is floral, which embodies the well-known
+conventional rose. Illustrated on the same page is
+another carved box of unusual pattern with floriated
+design. It was a frequent practice to treat the front
+of the box as though it were continuous and the
+pattern leaves off at the ends much in the same
+manner as modern wallpaper. In the box above it
+will be seen that the front is panelled and the design
+is confined to the circumscribed area.</p>
+
+<div><a name="bible_boxes_early_examples" id="bible_boxes_early_examples"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_144a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CARVED OAK BIBLE-BOX. FINE EXAMPLE. TIME OF JAMES I.
+ABOUT 1600.</p>
+<p>Length, 2 ft. 4 ins.; width, 1 ft. 4 ins.; height, 11-1/2 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_144b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CARVED BIBLE-BOX OF UNUSUAL PATTERN.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="bible_boxes_middle_seventeenth_century_and_ordinary_type" id="bible_boxes_middle_seventeenth_century_and_ordinary_type"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_146a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>BIBLE-BOX OF VERY RARE PATTERN. ABOUT 1650.</p>
+<p>This type always had the same kind of clasp.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_146b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>BIBLE-BOX OF USUAL PATTERN COMMONLY FOUND.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Another piece with very rare pattern, in date
+about 1650, has a bold type of carving in the two
+semicircles stretched across the front. This use of
+semicircles occurs in types usually found. The
+example illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_147">145</a>) has incised carving or
+"scratch." It will be seen that there is never an
+attempt at inlay or any of the delicacies of the
+refined craftsman. Among the various types of
+"scratch" boxes the use of circles and heart-shaped
+ornament is constant. The locks found on this
+type of box are always of the class as shown in the
+illustration, and the clasp is well known.</p>
+
+<p>In the collection of Bible-boxes the novice must
+carefully learn the exact limitations of the school of
+woodworkers in this minor field. The touch of the
+foreign craftsman should be easily recognisable, with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span>
+its piquancy and real artistic feeling. These Puritan
+Bible-boxes have flat lids, and in order to give some
+touch of romance to them or whet the appetite of
+the collector they are frequently described as "lace-boxes,"
+though it is very doubtful if such boxes were
+ever used for storing lace. Sometimes similar boxes
+with sloping lids were used as early forms of writing-desks.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Jacobean Cradle.</b>&mdash;The specimens of this type
+of furniture always exhibit, in the oak variety
+associated with farmhouse use, a plainness as a noticeable
+factor. They are usually panelled, but the
+panel has received no carved ornament and is
+especially simple. Of course they always have
+rockers. In the examples illustrated the slight
+variation in these rockers will be observed. Sometimes
+they are plain and sometimes they have slight
+ornamental curves. The only other ornament may
+be found in the turned knobs at the foot and sometimes
+at the head. Sometimes there are fine knobs
+on the hood.</p>
+
+<p>The hood is sometimes shaped and exhibits a
+naïve attempt at symmetrical design. These cradles
+have long been familiar objects in cottagers' homes,
+but are now being displaced by modern wicker
+cradles. The picture <i>A Flood</i> (1870), by Sir John
+E. Millais, shows one of these cradles floating in a
+flooded meadow. The baby is crowing with delight,
+and a black cat sits at the foot of the cradle.</p>
+
+<p>The holes in the example illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_153">149</a>) are
+intended to receive a cord stretched across the cradle
+to protect the occupant.<a id="Page_149"></a><a id="Page_150"></a>
+<a id="Page_151"></a><a id="Page_152"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span></p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_cradles" id="oak_cradles"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_150a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CRADLE.</p>
+<p>With shaped hood and turned knobs at head and foot.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_150b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CRADLE.</p>
+<p>With shaped hood with turned ball ornaments. Holes on each side to fasten rope to
+protect occupant.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="yarn_winder_and_spinning_wheel" id="yarn_winder_and_spinning_wheel"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_152a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>YARN-WINDER AND SPINNING-WHEEL.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="buckinghamshire_bobbins" id="buckinghamshire_bobbins"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_152b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>BUCKINGHAMSHIRE BOBBIN'S.</p>
+<p>Turned wood bobbins with coloured beads to identify the bobbins from
+each other.</p>
+<p>(<i>In the collection of the author.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Spinning-wheel.</b>&mdash;To this day the spinning-wheel
+is used in Scotland, in the Highlands. The
+wool or yarn winders are usually in windlass form
+with six spokes. The turning upon these winders
+and spinning wheels resembles the spindles on the
+spindle-back chairs. There is in Buckinghamshire
+bobbins a similar turning, individual in character and
+exhibiting considerable artistic beauty. In spinning-wheels
+there is considerable scope for the use of fine
+touches of ornament, in such practical objects dear
+to the housewife. Bone sometimes was used in
+the turned knobs. The making of these spinning-wheels
+was undertaken by persons desirous of
+winning the esteem of those who used them. Many
+of them have come down as heirlooms in families
+and have not been held as objects of art, to be
+regarded as curiosities, but as articles of everyday
+use.</p>
+
+<p>The use of the spinning-wheel was not confined
+exclusively to the farmer's wife. In early days great
+ladies were adepts at spinning. By the time of
+George III. it was employed by the ladies of titled
+families. Mrs. Delany, when staying with the
+Duchess of Portland at Bulstrode, writes: "The
+Queen came about twelve o'clock, and caught me at
+my spinning-wheel, and made me spin on and give
+her a lesson afterwards; and I must say she did it
+tolerably for a queen." This letter, dated 1781, goes
+to prove two things, that spinning was a real task
+still undertaken by great ladies, and not a fashionable
+amusement. Had it been the latter Mrs.
+Delany would not have used the expression "caught
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span>
+me at my spinning-wheel," wherein she indicates that
+the occupation was somewhat of a menial one.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the Buckinghamshire bobbins, sometimes
+finely carved in bone, those illustrated (p 151.)
+indicate the character of the cottagers' treasures in
+the pillow-lace-making districts. The patterns of
+these bobbins are not repeated. Individual touches
+are given to these bobbins by the village turners
+which are not duplicated. In use, the bobbin has to
+be identified by some mark, and beads of different
+colours are employed, which are affixed by means of
+a wire to the bobbin, as is shown in the illustration.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Bacon-cupboard.</b>&mdash;Another class which it is
+convenient to place among miscellaneous objects is
+the bacon-cupboard. The illustration (p. <a href="#Page_230">231</a>) shows
+the type of bacon-cupboard with seat and arms and
+drawers beneath. The position held by the bacon-cupboard
+in the farmhouse is shown by the growing
+dignity in the character of these cupboards. The
+gradual growth and development are shown in many
+specimens of the Queen Anne period, frequently of
+Lancashire origin. Such pieces, with classic pilasters,
+broken cornice, and bevelled panels and drawers
+beneath, are typified in wardrobes and dressers belonging
+to eighteenth-century farmhouse furniture.
+The development of capacious cupboards for various
+domestic uses is noticeable in this class of furniture
+up to early nineteenth-century days.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_155"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VI<br />
+EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY<br />
+STYLES</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_156"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER VI<br />
+<span class="medium">EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">The advent of the cabriole leg&mdash;The so-called Queen
+Anne style&mdash;The survival of oak in the provinces&mdash;The
+influence of walnut on cabinet-making&mdash;The
+early-Georgian types&mdash;Chippendale and his
+contemporaries.</p>
+
+<p>The dawn of the eighteenth century practically
+commenced with the reign of Queen Anne. The
+times were troublous. As princess, in the days of
+William the Dutchman and her sister Mary, she
+was forbidden the Court as John Churchill, then
+Earl of Marlborough, designed to overthrow William
+and place Anne on the throne. "Were I and my
+Lord Marlborough private persons," William exclaimed,
+"the sword would have to settle between us."</p>
+
+<p>At the death of Mary the Princess Anne, together
+with the Marlboroughs, was recalled to St. James's.
+At the death of William, in 1702, Anne came to the
+throne. Only just in her thirty-seventh year, she
+was so corpulent and gouty that she could not walk
+from Westminster Hall to the Abbey, and was
+carried in an open chair. During the Coronation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span>
+ceremony she was too infirm to support herself in a
+standing position without assistance.</p>
+
+<p>The age of Anne is remarkable for its restless
+intrigues. Court plots were rife when Queen Anne
+"Mrs. Morley" in her private letters to the Duchess
+of Marlborough, who was "Mrs. Freeman," finally
+broke with the overbearing Duchess and made
+Abigail Hill, one of the Marlborough creatures, her
+chief confidant. The Protestant Whig party favoured
+the long war in the Low Countries and in Spain,
+although conducted by a Tory general, Marlborough,
+who, by the way, did not take the field in Flanders
+till he was fifty-two, a remarkable achievement for so
+great a military career, wherein he never fought a
+battle in which he was not victorious.</p>
+
+<p>The greatness of Marlborough is indisputable.
+His fond love for his wife runs like a gold thread
+through the dark web of his life. His wife had,
+during a large part of Anne's reign, despotic empire
+over Anne's feeble mind. "History exhibits to us
+few spectacles more remarkable," says Lord
+Macaulay, "than that of a great and wise man who,
+when he had contrived vast and profound schemes of
+policy, could carry them into effect only by inducing
+one foolish woman, who was often unmanageable, to
+manage another woman who was more foolish still."</p>
+
+<p>To us now, with the secret springs of history laid
+bare, there is much to marvel at, much to deplore as
+trivial. In regard to matters of high state and the
+suppleness of time-servers, memoirs and private
+journals have exposed many a skeleton carefully
+hidden from public gaze. But of the life of the
+<a id="Page_159"></a>
+<a id="Page_160"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span>
+people, especially the life in the country districts,
+the picture is somewhat blurred. Men of letters
+flocked to the town&mdash;the town was London. Provincial
+life lies behind a curtain. There were Spanish
+doubloons coming up from Bristol and prize-money
+from the wars was scattered inland from the ports.
+Scotland was united to England by the Act of
+Union. "I desire," said the Queen, "and expect
+from my subjects of both nations that from henceforth
+they act with all possible respect and kindness
+to one another, and so that it may appear to all the
+world they have hearts disposed to become one
+people." This wish has been amply fulfilled and the
+union has become something more than a name.
+Never have two peoples different in thought, in
+tradition, and in established law become so completely
+welded together.</p>
+
+<div><a name="lancashire_oak_settles" id="lancashire_oak_settles"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_160a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>LANCASHIRE OAK SETTLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1760.</p>
+<p>Length, 6 ft.; depth, 2 ft. 1 in.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_160b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>LANCASHIRE QUEEN ANNE SETTLE.</p>
+<p>Showing transition into later type of modern settee.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>But the war of the Spanish Succession must have
+drained English blood as it taxed English pockets.
+"Six millions of supplies and almost fifty millions
+of debt," wrote Swift bitterly. The tide of Marlborough's
+success was undoubtedly secured by the
+outpouring of English lives. Stalwart levies of men
+from the shires went to join the strange medley of
+the forces of the Allies commanded by Marlborough.
+Dutchmen, Danes, Hanoverians, Würtembergers, and
+Austrians jostled shoulders with each other in his
+troops. He launched them with calm imperturbability
+against his opponents at Malplaquet, for example,
+where with a Pyrrhic triumph he lost twenty-four
+thousand men against half that number of the French
+behind their entrenchments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span>
+It is little wonder that the war was unpopular in
+the country, where the Spanish Succession and the
+"balance of power" were only symbols for so much
+pressure on the needs of the labouring classes. Bonfires
+might be lit for Blenheim, but many a village
+mourned those who would never return.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of this intermingling of England with
+European politics, the general life of the people
+remained untouched from outside influence in regard
+to arts and manufacture. Cut off from intercourse
+with France, the grandeur of the art of Louis
+Quatorze was as far removed from early eighteenth-century
+England as though Boulle and Jean Bérain
+and Lepaute were in another continent and the
+château of Versailles in the fastnesses of the Urals.
+It is true that Louis XIV. presented two wonderful
+cabinets to the Duke of Monmouth, exquisite
+examples of metal inlay and coloured marquetry,
+but such pieces were beyond the capabilities of any
+English craftsman to emulate.</p>
+
+<p>The chief innovations of the early eighteenth
+century followed the Dutch lines familiarised in the
+preceding days of William and Mary. Oak remained
+in farmhouse and country furniture, but in the fashionable
+world walnut was extensively used, and occasionally
+mahogany. Corner cupboards were introduced
+early in the reign of Anne, and hooped chairs,
+familiar in engravings of Flemish interiors, came
+into general use. Fiddle-splat chairs were also
+common in the first half of the eighteenth century.
+In regard to feet, the ball-and-claw, and club foot
+were introduced. Caning of chairs went out of
+<a id="Page_163"></a>
+<a id="Page_164"></a>
+<a id="Page_165"></a>
+<a id="Page_166"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span>
+fashion till the end of the century. Shell and
+pendant ornament on knees of chair-legs became
+marked features, and, above all, the cabriole leg to
+chairs and tables is associated with the early years
+of the reign, and the term "Queen Anne" is always
+applied to such pieces.</p>
+
+<div><a name="cupboard_with_drawers" id="cupboard_with_drawers"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_164a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CUPBOARD WITH DRAWERS. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1700.</p>
+<p>With "swan head" pediment. Pedestal at top for
+delft or china. Round beadings to drawers.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="queen_anne_bureau_bookcase" id="queen_anne_bureau_bookcase"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_164b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>QUEEN ANNE BUREAU BOOKCASE.</p>
+<p>Farmhouse oak variety. Emulating a finer
+walnut or mahogany piece.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="oak_tables_early_eighteenth_century" id="oak_tables_early_eighteenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_166a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>FINE EXAMPLE OAK TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1720.</p>
+<p>Well-proportioned legs, club feet, original undercutting. Exemplary of
+professional country cabinet-maker's highest work.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_166b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1720.</p>
+<p>With hoof feet and knee, possibly copied from a fine Queen Anne piece,
+exemplifying the best work of country cabinet-maker. Height,
+2 ft. 7 ins.; top, 1 ft. 7-1/2 ins. × 2 ft. 3 ins.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Cabriole Leg.</b>&mdash;This form of leg, swelling into
+massive proportions where it joins the seat, and curving
+outwards and tapering to a ball-and-claw foot
+or a club foot, lasted till end of Chippendale period,
+roughly, for nearly half a century. It assumed
+various forms until it was supplanted by the straight
+leg, and the stretcher, which had disappeared with
+the use of the cabriole leg, again came into use.</p>
+
+<p>Examples of the cabriole leg appear as illustrations
+to various types of furniture in this chapter.
+At first its use did not interfere with the employment
+of the stretcher, but about 1710 the stretcher disappeared.
+The Lancashire Queen Anne settle illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_161">159</a>) shows the stretcher joining the front
+leg to the back. In the settle illustrated above,
+in date 1760, it will be seen the stretchers have
+vanished.</p>
+
+<p><b>The So-called Queen Anne Style.</b>&mdash;Fashions slowly
+adopted in cabinet design do not readily arrange
+themselves in exact periods coinciding with the
+reigns of individual sovereigns. But it is convenient
+to affix a label to certain marked changes and attribute
+their general use to a particular reign. The
+innovation of the square panel with broken corners
+and ornamental curves at top is found in Queen
+Anne settles. The departure from the square
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span>
+panel and line of the curved and broken top is
+exhibited in the second Great Seal of Anne,
+commemorating the Union with Scotland. It is
+reminiscent of the Dutch influence, and is found
+in Sussex firebacks of an earlier period. The
+straight lines of early-Jacobean cabinet-work were
+rapidly undergoing a change; the square wooden
+back of the chair was shortly to be replaced by
+fiddle splats, which in their turn, in late-Georgian
+days, became pierced and fretted and carved under
+the genius of Chippendale's hand.</p>
+
+<p>The two settles illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_161">159</a>) show several
+interesting points. The panels are typical of the
+love of the curved line, which Hogarth defined as the
+line of beauty. In the upper one the arms still
+retain the old Jacobean form in this farmhouse
+example. The ball foot still clings to the earlier
+form. The seat is sunk to receive a long cushion.
+In the adjacent specimen the seat with its cushion
+and the curved <b>S</b> arms upholstered show the transition
+into the later type of modern settee.</p>
+
+<p>The curved outline finds similar expression in the
+hood of grandfather clock-cases and in the shape
+of metal dials. A cupboard with drawers illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_167">163</a>) has what is known as a "swan head." The
+panels to the doors have similarly novel features in
+their structure. It will be observed that there is a
+square pedestal at the top of this piece, which was
+intended as a stand for a delft or Chinese jar. The
+drawers of this cupboard have round beadings.</p>
+
+<p>The typical instance of curved design with not
+a single straight line, not even the back legs, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span>
+are bowed, is the grandfather chair with the high
+back, upholstered all over. The cabriole legs with
+ball-and claw-feet, the <b>C</b>-shaped arms, the scroll
+upholstered wings, and the oval back, depart from
+the rectilinear; even the underframing of the seat
+is bow-shaped. Similarly, the walnut arm-chairs of
+the period from 1690 to 1715 had bold curves. The
+arms always possessed a curious scroll, the backs had
+broad splats with curling shoulders, and often a
+broad bold ribbon pattern making two loops to fill
+up the top of the hoop at the back, with a carved
+shell at the point of intersection. Big pieces of
+furniture, such as bureaus, had the broken arch pediment,
+and smaller objects, such as mirrors, had the
+arched or broken top; and when these dressing
+mirrors had small drawers, these disdained the
+straight front and became convex.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Dutch influence, in the first period of
+English veneer work, from about 1675 to 1715, very
+fine cabinets and bureaus and chests of drawers were
+made. Walnut was the wood employed, with the
+panels inlaid with pollard elm, boxwood, ebony,
+mahogany, sycamore, and other coloured woods.
+Figured walnut was beloved by the cabinet-maker
+beginning to feel his way in colour schemes of
+decoration. Bandings of herring-bone inlay and
+rounded mouldings to drawers are very characteristic.
+Bureaus and important pieces had birds and
+flowers and trees or feather marquetry after fine
+Dutch models. Picked walnut, especially exhibiting
+a fine feathered figure, was used as veneer, and with
+these and other glorious creations of the walnut
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span>
+school of cabinet-workers the age of walnut may be
+said to have been in full swing.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Survival of Oak in the Provinces.</b>&mdash;The foregoing
+descriptions apply to fashionable folks' furniture.
+Such fashions did not come into usage in the farmhouses
+and in the cottages. Oak was still employed
+without being displaced by the walnut of the town
+maker. Oak was in the main more suitable for the
+particular class of furniture which was likely to
+receive less delicate care than the writing-cabinets
+and bureaus and the china-cupboards of more fastidious
+people. Tea-drinking had become the luxury
+of the great world of society, and had hardly come
+into general use in the country till late in the reign
+of Anne, though by 1690 it had gained considerable
+favour in London. Coffee was introduced
+slightly earlier, and many invectives in broadsides
+and in poetical satires appear in the late seventeenth
+century against coffee and coffee-houses. In 1674
+the "Women's Petition against Coffee" complained
+that "it made men as unfruitful as the deserts
+whence that unhappy berry is said to be brought;
+that the offspring of our mighty ancestors would
+dwindle into a succession of apes and pigmies, and
+on a domestic message a husband would stop by the
+way to drink a couple of cups of coffee." The
+prejudice against coffee, and especially against coffee-houses,
+was lasting, and coffee failed to establish
+itself as a national beverage. The labouring classes
+declined to be weaned from their ale and other
+stronger drinks. The Spaniards brought chocolate
+from Mexico; Roger North, Attorney-General to
+<a id="Page_171"></a>
+<a id="Page_172"></a>
+<a id="Page_173"></a>
+<a id="Page_174"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span>
+James II., uttered a violent polemic against chocolate
+houses, perhaps more on account of the political
+clubs gathered there than against the beverage itself.
+"The use of coffee-houses," says he, "seems much
+improved by a new invention called chocolate-houses,
+for the benefit of rooks and cullies of quality, where
+gaming is added to the rest, as if the Devil had
+erected a new university, and those were the colleges
+of its professors."</p>
+
+<div><a name="queen_anne_glass_or_china_cupboard" id="queen_anne_glass_or_china_cupboard"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_172a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>QUEEN ANNE GLASS- OR CHINA-CUPBOARD.</p>
+<p>Spun glass doors. Heavy bars mark early type prior to tracery.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="geogian_corner_cupboard" id="geogian_corner_cupboard"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_172b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>GEORGIAN CORNER CUPBOARD. LATE EIGHTEENTH
+CENTURY.</p>
+<p>Broken architraves and cushion top. Having original hinges.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="oak_tables" id="oak_tables"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_174a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SMALL OAK TABLE. 1700-1720.</p>
+<p>Height, 2 ft. 4-3/4 ins.; width, 2 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 9-3/4 ins.
+Graceful proportion with cabriole leg.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_174b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK TABLE.</p>
+<p>Showing at a later period the last traces of the cabriole leg.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The varying phases of town life, of which the
+above quotations give a passing glimpse, found little
+reflex in the sturdy unchanging life of the provinces.
+Generation after generation, men farmed the same
+lands and their dependents lived in cottages adjacent;
+tillers of the ground, herdsmen, toilers in the fields,
+living by the sweat of their brow. They were content
+with simpler pleasures, which centred round the alehouse
+and the village green, or maybe the village
+church, if the hunting rector and the studious vicar
+were not too heedless of the fate of their flock. But
+other influences were soon to be at work to break
+the lethargy of those of the clergy who slumbered.
+Wesley founded the Methodist movement. Whitefield
+began his sermons in the fields and looked down
+from a green slope on several thousand colliers grimy
+from the coalpits near Bristol to see, as he preached,
+tears "making white channels down their blackened
+cheeks." Later again, Hannah More drew sympathy
+to the poverty and crime of the agricultural classes.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Influence of Walnut on Cabinet-making.</b>&mdash;If oak
+was the wood which the country joiner loved best, he
+was not without some sympathetic leaning towards
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span>
+the effects which could be produced in the softer
+walnut. Such styles accordingly began slowly to
+have a marked influence upon the farmhouse furniture
+in early-Georgian days. It was not easy to produce
+curved lines in the refractory oak, tough and brittle,
+but the village craftsman essayed his best to please
+his patrons whose taste had been caught by the
+newer fashions observed in the squire's parlour when
+paying rare visits.</p>
+
+<p>In the two examples illustrated of farmhouse
+cupboard and bureau bookcase (p. <a href="#Page_167">163</a>) it will be
+seen that here is the country maker definitely trying
+his skill in his native wood to emulate the finer
+walnut examples of town cabinet-makers. This is
+even more noticeable in regard to some of the tables
+actually found in farmhouses belonging to as early as
+the first quarter of the eighteenth century. The two
+specimens illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_167">165</a>) exemplify this tendency
+to imitate the designs of trained workers.
+The country touch always betrays itself in the
+cabriole leg, whether in chair or in table. The upper
+table has less <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">naïveté</i> than most examples found.
+There is a balance in its construction rarely found in
+provincial work. The legs, always the stumbling-block
+to the less experienced artificer, are here of
+exceptionally fine proportions, terminating in club
+feet. The lower table shows a less capable treatment
+of the cabriole leg. The hoof foot and the carved
+knee have obviously been copied from a fine Queen
+Anne model. In the underframing of both tables
+there is an experiment in ornament and form rarely
+attempted except in the highest flights of the country
+<a id="Page_177"></a>
+<a id="Page_178"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span>
+maker, and as such these two fine examples must be
+regarded.</p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_tables_with_typical_country_cabriole_legs" id="oak_tables_with_typical_country_cabriole_legs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_178a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK TABLE.</p>
+<p>Showing clumsy corners and indicating the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">naïveté</i> of the country
+cabinet-maker.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_178b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK TABLE.</p>
+<p>Showing transition from cabriole leg to straight leg of 1760.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Early Georgian Types.</b>&mdash;Treating of the early-Hanoverian
+period from the death of Queen Anne
+in 1714, and including the reigns of George I. from
+1714 to 1727 and George II. from 1727 to 1760,
+furniture of all types begins to assume a complexity of
+construction. At the final outburst the fine masterpieces
+of creation of the great schools of design
+during the last half of the eighteenth century, embodied
+the life-work of Chippendale, the brothers
+Adam, Hepplewhite, Sheraton, and many others.
+This period from 1750 to 1800 was the golden age
+of design in England. It has had a far-reaching
+effect, and still casts its glory upon the present-day
+schools of designers, whose adaptations and lines of
+progress are based upon the finest flower of the
+eighteenth-century styles.</p>
+
+<p>The massive walnut chairs with deep underframing
+and broad hoop backs departed from the solid splats
+of the Anne style and endeavoured to become less
+squat by the employment of banded ribbon-work,
+coarse, heavy, and ponderous in style. Settees, arm-chairs
+and single chairs in this style came as the final
+efforts of the walnut school. The graceful ribbon
+designs interlacing each other in knots, and the
+flowing carving in mahogany of Chippendale, put a
+period to all dullness and heavy design. With the
+new style and the new wood a splendid field was
+opened to cabinet-makers, and the quick appreciation
+of these opportunities signalised their work as of
+permanent artistic value.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span>
+Among more important pieces, though still falling
+under the category of farmhouse styles, may be
+mentioned the Queen Anne glass or china cupboard,
+and the Georgian corner cupboard, illustrated p. <a href="#Page_175">171</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The former has heavy bars, which mark the early
+type prior to tracery, and it has spun-glass doors.
+Porcelain factories at Bow, Worcester, and Derby
+brought such cupboards into more general use after
+the middle of the century. Staffordshire earthenware
+tea and coffee services were found in great
+numbers in farmhouses and cottages. After the
+days of delft and stoneware came the prized china
+services of the housewife. Pewter was largely used,
+but the number of ale-jugs of Toby form, or cider-mugs
+with rural subjects to suit the tastes of the
+users, indicate that more modern ideas and taste, once
+exclusive to the world of fashion, had penetrated the
+country districts.</p>
+
+<p>The Georgian corner cupboard shows the broken
+architraves and cushion top. The hinges should be
+noticed as being original.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chippendale and his Contemporaries.</b>&mdash;At first using
+the cabriole leg with ball-and-claw foot, not quite
+as he found it, but reduced to slightly more slender
+proportions to be in symmetry with his less massive
+backs to chairs, Chippendale came to the straight
+line. He employed it in the legs of tables and in
+the seats of chairs, in the bracket supports, and in
+the top rail of his chairs. Chippendale in his day, made
+the first straight top rail to the chair. It is interesting
+to note the phases of changing design in country-made
+furniture prior to his time, and the sudden
+<a id="Page_181"></a>
+<a id="Page_182"></a>
+<a id="Page_183"></a>
+<a id="Page_184"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span>
+mastery of form which became the common inheritance
+of all after his and other contemporary design-books
+were promulgated broadcast.</p>
+
+<div><a name="queen_anne_tea_table" id="queen_anne_tea_table"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_182a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>QUEEN ANNE TEA TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1710.</p>
+<p>With scalloped edge for cups. Height, 2 ft. 4 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 9 ins.; length, 2 ft. 8 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="oak_revolving_book_stand" id="oak_revolving_book_stand"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_182b1.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK REVOLVING BOOK-STAND. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1720.</p>
+<p>Rare form. Diameter of top, 2 ft.;
+height, 2 ft. 8 ins.</p>
+<p>(<i>In the collection of Miss Holland.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="country_chippendale_table" id="country_chippendale_table"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_182b2.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE TABLE.</p>
+<p>Leg with exaggerated knee, claw, and
+ball foot. Accuracy in straight joinery.
+Failure in curved work.</p>
+<p>Top, 2 ft. 7 ins. × 1 ft. 3 ins.; height, 2 ft. 4 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="square_mahogany_flap_table" id="square_mahogany_flap_table"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_184a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SQUARE MAHOGANY FLAP TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1730.</p>
+<p>Height, 2 ft. 4 ins.; length, 3 ft. 10-1/2 ins.; width, 2 ft. 1 in. Round cross stretcher.
+Rare form.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="tripod_table_c_1760" id="tripod_table_c_1760"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_184b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>TRIPOD TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1760.</p>
+<p>Chippendale style, probably unique. Elaborate rococo work.</p>
+<p>(<i>In the collection of Harold Bendixon, Esq.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>In the table the cabriole leg showed early signs of
+passing away. The two examples illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_175">173</a>)
+clearly indicate this. The upper one, of the time of
+Queen Anne, shows the cabriole leg in fine proportion
+under due subjection, and is a delicate example of
+fine cabinet-work. The lower one sees the leg losing
+its cabriole curve, but still rounded and still possessing
+the club foot.</p>
+
+<p>Even more interesting are the two tables illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_179">177</a>). The country maker was slow to adopt the
+cabriole leg when it was fashionable, but when it
+became unfashionable he was equally loth to depart
+from his accustomed style. These clearly point to the
+transition between the cabriole leg and the straight
+leg of Chippendale, and are about 1760 in date.</p>
+
+<p>The forms of design of tables of eighteenth-century
+date are extremely varied in character, denoting the
+rapidly changing habits of the people. The Queen
+Anne tea-table, with scalloped edges for cups, marks
+the note of preciosity creeping into country life. A
+revolving bookstand in table form, of about 1720 in
+date, is another rare piece. The adjacent table
+(p. <a href="#Page_185">181</a>) is country Chippendale. The exaggerated
+knee and the feeble ball-and-claw foot mark the
+failure of the provincial hand at curved work, accurate
+though he might be in straight joinery. The "Cupid's
+bow" underframing is interesting in combination with
+the rest of the design.</p>
+
+<p>The tripod table offered difficulties of construction
+and is not often found. The example illustrated is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span>
+probably unique in form. In date it is about 1760,
+and is remarkable for the attempt at elaborate rococo
+work. Sometimes, though not often, mahogany was
+used in farmhouse examples. The table illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_185">183</a>) is an instance of the use of this wood instead
+of oak. It is about 1730 in date, and exhibits an
+unusual form in the round cross stretcher, a touch of
+originality by the maker. It is, as will be seen, a
+square-topped table with flaps.</p>
+
+<p>Elaboration of a high order was happily not often
+attempted by the country workman, or the results
+with his limited experience would have been disastrous.
+Instead of a fine series of really good, solid,
+and well-constructed furniture made for practical use
+we should have had a wilderness of failures at
+attempting the impossible. A copy of a fine
+Chippendale side-table illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>) is a case
+in point. There is the usual want of balance in
+the poise of the leg, but the carving is of exceptional
+character. The table beneath, with its long
+and tapering legs, has all the characteristics of the
+Adam style. The beaded decoration on the legs,
+the classic fluting and the carved rosette claim
+distant relationship with the classic inventions of
+Robert Adam. The wood is pinewood, and as an
+example it is of singular interest.</p>
+
+<p>The rapid survey of eighteenth-century influences
+bearing on the class of furniture of which this volume
+treats will perhaps induce the collector to scrutinise
+more carefully all pieces coming under his notice,
+with a view to arriving at their salient features in
+connection with the native design of more or less
+untutored craftsmen.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_187"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="country_chippendale_and_country_adam_tables" id="country_chippendale_and_country_adam_tables"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_188a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>ELABORATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>Country attempt to imitate fine Chippendale side table. Note the want of
+balance in leg.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_188b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>PINEWOOD COUNTRY-MADE ADAM TABLE.</p>
+<p>Note the unusually long leg.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><a id="Page_188"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_189"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VII<br />
+THE EVOLUTION<br />
+OF THE CHAIR</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_190"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_191"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_192"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span></p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_arm_chairs_one_dated_1650" id="oak_arm_chairs_one_dated_1650"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_192a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK ARM-CHAIR. DATE <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1675.</p>
+<p>With elaborate scroll back.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>OAK ARM-CHAIR. DATE 1650.</p>
+<p>With scratched lozenge.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="chestnut_arm_chair_and_oak_arm_chair_c_1690" id="chestnut_arm_chair_and_oak_arm_chair_c_1690"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_192b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CHESTNUT ARM-CHAIR. DATE 1690.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>OAK ARM-CHAIR. DATE 1690.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER VII<br />
+<span class="medium">THE EVOLUTION OF THE CHAIR</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">Early days&mdash;The typical Jacobean oak chair&mdash;The
+evolution of the stretcher&mdash;The chair-back and its
+development&mdash;Transition between Jacobean and
+William and Mary forms&mdash;Farmhouse styles contemporary
+with the cane-back chair&mdash;The Queen
+Anne splat&mdash;Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite,
+and Sheraton&mdash;The grandfather chair&mdash;Ladder-back
+types&mdash;The spindle-back chair&mdash;Corner chairs.</p>
+
+<p>In order to deal exhaustively with the evolution of
+the chair from its earliest forms to the latest developments
+in sumptuous upholstery, it would be necessary
+to make an extended survey of furniture, dating back
+to early classic days. To enumerate the manifold
+varieties belonging to various countries and to trace
+the gradual progress in form, which kept pace with
+the advance in civilisation, would be of sufficient
+interest to occupy a whole volume. Man, as a sitting
+or lounging animal, has grown to require more
+elaborate forms of chair, or settee, or sofa, and the
+modern tendency has been towards comfort and
+luxury.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span>
+In regard to English furniture the intense contrast
+between the days of Elizabeth and those of Victoria
+is at once noticeable. According to Lord Macaulay
+in his comparison between the manners of his day
+and those of the past, the furniture of a middle-class
+dwelling-house of the nineteenth century was equal
+to that of a rich merchant in the time of Elizabeth.
+In general this may be true, though not as regards
+the spacious structure and the massive grandeur of
+the Tudor house. In many details the differences
+are most noteworthy. The wide gulf dividing the
+modern world from the days of the Armada may be
+realised by reflecting on such an astounding fact that
+Queen Elizabeth possessed at one time the only pair
+of silk stockings in her realm, which were presented
+to her by Mistress Montague, "which pleased her so
+well that she would never wear any cloth hose
+afterwards."</p>
+
+<p>The sturdy character of the yeomen of the days
+of the Tudors is exhibited in their furniture. The
+illustrations of this chapter in regard to the chair
+and its structural development indicate the slowly
+acquired tastes, running some decades behind the
+fashionable furniture, strong with foreign influences,
+which had come into more or less general use.
+"England no longer sent her fleeces to be woven in
+Flanders and to be dyed in Florence. The spinning
+of yarn, the weaving, fulling, and dyeing of cloth, was
+spreading rapidly from the towns to the country-side.
+The worsted trade, of which Norwich was the centre,
+extended over the whole of the Eastern Counties.
+Farmers' wives everywhere began to spin their wool
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span>
+from their own sheep's backs into a coarse homespun."</p>
+
+<p>The rough and wattled farmhouses were being
+replaced by dwellings of brick and stone. The disuse
+of salt fish and the greater consumption of meat
+marked the improvement which was taking place
+among the countryfolk. The wooden trenchers in
+the farmhouses were supplanted by pewter, and there
+were yeomen who could boast of their silver. Carpets
+in richer dwelling-houses superseded the wretched
+flooring of rushes. Even pillows, now in common
+usage, were articles of luxury in the sixteenth
+century. The farmer and the trader deemed them
+as only fit "for women in child-bed." The chimney-corner
+came into usage in Elizabethan days with the
+general use of chimneys. The mediæval fortress had
+given place to the grandeur of the Elizabethan hall
+in the houses of the wealthy merchants. The rise of
+the middle classes brought with it in its wake the
+corresponding advance of the yeomen and their
+dependents. Visions of the New World "threw a
+haze of prodigality and profusion over the imagination
+of the meanest seaman."</p>
+
+<p><b>Early Days.</b>&mdash;Of farmhouse types that can authoritatively
+be attributed to Tudor days there are few,
+but the succeeding age of the Stuarts is rich with
+examples of undoubted authenticity. Many of them
+are dated, and they all bear a strong family resemblance
+to each other, owing to the narrow range of
+<i>motifs</i> in the carved panels. There is a fixed
+insularity in these early examples, and the same
+traditional patterns in scrollwork or in conventional
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span>
+lozenge design retained their hold for many generations.
+The oak arm-chair of a farmhouse kitchen
+made in the days of Charles I. was still followed in
+close detail in the days of George III., as dated
+examples testify, and it would puzzle an expert,
+without the date to guide him, to say whether the
+piece was eighteenth or seventeenth century work.
+It may be added that as a general rule there is a
+marked leaning towards generosity in imparting age
+to old furniture. It is now very generally recognised
+that, like wine, it gains prestige with length of years.
+It therefore grows in antiquity according to the fancy
+of the owner or the imagination of the collector.</p>
+
+<p>Among the early forms of chairs falling under
+the category of farmhouse furniture may be noticed
+examples of rough and massive build, eminently fit
+to serve the purpose for which they were designed.
+Ornament is reduced to a minimum, and they stand
+as rude monuments to the cabinet-maker's craft in
+fashioning them and following tradition to suit his
+client's tastes.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the sixteenth century there cannot be
+said to be any type falling under the heading of
+cottage or farmhouse chairs. We have already illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>) an early form of Elizabethan days,
+but such examples are rare. Practically cottagers
+had only stools in common use. It was not until
+about 1650 that a simplified form of the well-known
+variety of the chairs of the Jacobean oak period
+came into general use.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Typical Jacobean Oak Chair.</b>&mdash;The seventeenth
+century offers a wide field of selection, and many
+<a id="Page_197"></a>
+<a id="Page_198"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span>
+examples exist which undoubtedly were in use in
+farmhouses at that period. The arm-chair illustrated
+p. <a href="#Page_193">191</a>, with the initials "W.I A.", is evidently made
+for the farmhouse. It is noticeable for its complete
+absence of ornamental carving except a thinly
+scratched lozenge. In date this is from 1650 to 1700,
+and if made for a wealthier person at that date it
+would be richly carved. The adjacent chair shows
+the next advance in type. It is a superior farmhouse
+chair of the period. It has a carved top with scroll
+cresting. The holes in the seat, it should be observed,
+originally held ropes, upon which a cushion was
+supported. The wooden seat is an addition made in
+the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<div><a name="yorkshire_chair_restoration_period" id="yorkshire_chair_restoration_period"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_198a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>YORKSHIRE CHAIR. DATE 1660.</p>
+<p>Late example, with ball turning in stretcher.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="cromwellian_chairs" id="cromwellian_chairs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_198b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CROMWELLIAN CHAIRS. DATE 1660.</p>
+<p>With indication of transition to Charles II. period.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The two other chairs illustrated on the same page
+are later examples, in date about 1690. One of
+these is fashioned of chestnut. The form of these
+backs is related to the contemporary high-back cane
+chairs of the time of Charles II. and James II. But
+these fashions influenced the proportions only of
+farmhouse chairs. In arriving at the date of such
+specimens as these the bevelled panel is an important
+factor in determining the late period.</p>
+
+<p>Cushions had no place in the effects of the farmhouse
+in early days, although ropes were sometimes
+used to support cushions, as we have shown. But as
+a general rule the wooden seats show tangible signs
+of rough usage of centuries, and the stretcher has its
+worn surface marked by generations of owners who
+found it protective against the cold flagged or rush-strewn
+floor and the draughts in days prior to carpets
+and rugs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span>
+<b>The Evolution of the Stretcher.</b>&mdash;In making a study
+of the evolution of the chair the stretcher is an
+important factor. For obvious reasons, as explained
+above, no early chairs were made without the stretcher
+across the front, a good sound serviceable piece of
+British oak to stand rough wear and tear. Gradually,
+keeping time with the march of comfort, the front
+stretcher begins to leave its old position near the
+floor, and in later examples it is half-way up the front
+legs. It still had a use, and a very important one: it
+added considerable strength and solidity to the chair,
+and is nearly always found in chairs intended for use.
+In the series illustrated herein there are only few
+examples without the front stretcher. Later it took
+another form, as the illustrated specimens in this
+chapter show: it united the two side stretchers, and
+crossed the chair underneath in the centre at right
+angles to the side stretchers. Its purpose in adding
+stability to this class of furniture was evidently never
+lost sight of.</p>
+
+<p>At first strictly utilitarian, the stretcher was a solid
+foot-rest; later, when partly utilitarian in adding to
+the strength, it became suitable for ornamentation,
+Although in the class of furniture here under review
+such ornament never took an elaborate form, there
+are examples slightly differing in character from
+chairs intended for the use of the wealthier classes,
+and these are evidently a local effort to keep in touch
+with prevailing taste.</p>
+
+<p>Finely turned stretchers, such as are found in gate
+tables, are a feature of a certain class of local chairs,
+such as those illustrated on p. <a href="#Page_199">197</a>. This kind of
+<a id="Page_201"></a>
+<a id="Page_202"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span>
+chair without arms is rather more decorated and
+conforms more to the styles of furniture made for
+higher spheres than the farmhouse. The upper chair
+with its light open back and ornate decoration is a
+Yorkshire type, and the ball turning in the stretcher
+shows the transition period to Charles II. The other
+two are Cromwellian chairs, but showing indications
+of the next period. In date they are all three
+about 1660.</p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_settle_c_1675" id="oak_settle_c_1675"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_202a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK SETTLE.</p>
+<p>With back panel under seat made from older Oak Chest. Date 1675.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="oak_arm_chairs_one_dated_1777" id="oak_arm_chairs_one_dated_1777"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_202b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK ARM CHAIR. DATE 1675.</p>
+<p>With Bevelled Panels.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>OAK ARM CHAIR. DATE 1777.</p>
+<p>With initials A.S. C.B.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Chair-back and its Development.</b>&mdash;Another point
+in connection with the ordered progress of the chair-maker
+is the gradual development of the back of
+the chair. At first it was straight upright, and no
+attempt was made to impart an angle to rest the back
+of the sitter. Types such as the arm-chair with
+square panel (p. <a href="#Page_191">191</a>) and the upright settle with the
+five panels illustrated on p. <a href="#Page_203">201</a> indicate this feature
+of discomfort. The next stage is a slight inclination
+in the back, still possessing a flat panel. This angle,
+while not conforming to modern notions of ease, was
+an attempt to offer greater comfort than before. This
+style, in a hundred forms, with the minimum of inclination
+in the back, continued for a very considerable
+period. It is found in the nearly straight-backed
+chairs of Derbyshire and Yorkshire origin, with the
+turned stretchers, and it actually in later days became
+almost upright in the series of chairs following the
+later Stuart types with cane back and cane seat,
+noticeable for their tall narrow backs with a resemblance
+to the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">prie-dieu</i> chair of continental usage.</p>
+
+<p>The settle illustrated is a plainer variety of the
+settle made for use by fashionable folk with delicately
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span>
+panelled back. Very often, in cottage furniture, chests
+and other pieces are broken up to make into smaller
+furniture or to be incorporated into furniture of a
+later design. Often it is found that the underframing
+of an old gate table made in the seventeenth or
+eighteenth century is from an earlier chest. In the
+present instance it will be seen that the back panels
+of the settle have been made from an older chest,
+which bears the inscribed initials, still visible, "I.E." In
+date this settle is about 1675, and is contemporary
+with the square-backed chair illustrated on the same
+page. Here the panel in back projects, that is, it is
+slightly bevelled forward. The bevelling of the panel
+is always a sign that a chair is later in date than the
+year 1670.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrated on the same page is a remarkable chair
+having the initials "A.S.C.B." and the date 1777 carved
+on it. It is a striking instance of the adherence to
+old time-honoured form by the local cabinet-maker,
+with touches that, even although the date were not
+present, would tell their own story. This dull wood
+proclaims a message in accents no less sure than the
+sturdy yeoman's to Lady Clara Vere de Vere, and as
+a chair in date <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anno Domini</i> 1777 may afford to "smile
+at the claims of long descent" of more pretentious and
+fashionable furniture. It is like a rich vein of dialect
+running in some old country song ripe with phrase of
+Saxon days. It seems incredible that this survival of
+early-Jacobean days should have been put together
+by a village craftsman true to convention and exact
+in seat and arms and stretcher. But it was not done
+unthinkingly. Here is a chair, astounding to note, made
+<a id="Page_205"></a>
+<a id="Page_206"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span>
+when Sheraton was creating his new styles to supplant
+Chippendale, and when Hepplewhite stood between
+the two masters as a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">via media</i>. And the back of
+this village chair has two distinct features translated
+from Hepplewhite's school&mdash;the wheatear crest and
+the panel with its broken corner!</p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_chairs_c_1680_in_walnut_styles" id="oak_chairs_c_1680_in_walnut_styles"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_206.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CHAIRS. DATE ABOUT 1680.</p>
+<p>Showing the inclination of the craftsmen to assimilate designs then being fashioned in walnut.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Transition between Jacobean and William and Mary
+Forms.</b>&mdash;The rapid growth of the finer specimens of
+furniture made in walnut brought a new note into the
+farmhouse variety. The elegance and grace of the
+newer styles were at once evident. In the same
+manner as the grandiose splendour of Elizabethan
+woodcarving was succeeded by a less massive style in
+oak, degenerating into a rude simplicity in farmhouse
+examples, so in turn Jacobean lost favour. Walnut
+lent itself to more intricate turning, and lightness and
+greater delicacy claimed the popular favour of fashionable
+folk. The cane seat and the cane back at once
+indicate this new taste. The use of cushions became
+general and the sunk seat for the squab cushion is a
+feature in the later years of the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Oak still remained the favourite wood of the
+country craftsman, in spite of its more refractory
+qualities. But when the walnut styles became so
+firmly established that clients demanded furniture in
+this fashion, elm and beech and yew were found
+pliable enough to conform to the more slender touches
+and the finer turning considered desirable.</p>
+
+<p>Walnut was in its turn supplanted by mahogany,
+and it will be shown later how farmhouse furniture
+followed the dictates of fashion in days when the
+outburst of splendid design by Chippendale, Hepplewhite,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span>
+and Sheraton, together with a crowd of lesser
+known men, spread far and wide new principles in the
+art of furniture-making and brought country furniture
+another stage in its evolution.</p>
+
+<p>Farmhouse furniture slowly assimilated the technique
+and design of the walnut age. The love for the
+native oak was so pronounced that country makers
+did not desert this wood and essayed to produce
+effects by its employment that were exceedingly
+difficult and oftentimes unsuccessful. The three
+chairs illustrated p. <a href="#Page_207">205</a> show this transition style,
+about the year 1680, struggling with technical difficulties
+and affording a fine series of points in the
+evolution of design.</p>
+
+<p><b>Farmhouse Styles contemporary with the Cane-back
+Chair.</b>&mdash;Farmhouse furniture rarely, if ever, had cane-work
+in the back or in the seat. But the craftsman,
+while appreciating the delicacy of the cane back in
+adding lightness to the chair, circumvented his
+inability to work in cane by substituting thin vertical
+splats to give the necessary effect of transparency.
+The three chairs illustrated show each in varying
+degree the quaint compromise made between the
+technique of oak and the technique of walnut, and
+the attempt to reproduce the walnut designs.</p>
+
+<p>The arm-chair exhibits strong relationship with the
+older Jacobean chair in its turned legs and uprights,
+but these have assumed a more slender proportion.
+The front stretcher is in the newer manner. The
+sunk seat is intended to receive a cushion. There
+should be no difficulty for the amateur correctly
+to assign a date to such a piece. The process of
+<a id="Page_209"></a>
+<a id="Page_210"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">211</a></span>
+reasoning would be somewhat as follows:&mdash;The
+lower half of the chair is Jacobean, but the front
+stretcher suggests the Charles II. period, borne out
+by the open back, which removes it from the Cromwellian
+period, and the details of the top rail with its
+curved top indicate that the country maker had seen
+the tall straight-back chairs of the William and Mary
+period with the cane-work panel.</p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_chairs_showing_various_transitional_stages" id="oak_chairs_showing_various_transitional_stages"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_210.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CHAIRS.</p>
+<p>With cresting rail, of Charles II. period, retained
+and perforated arch centre peculiar
+to walnut designs.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>With elaboration in turned legs, and uprights,
+of William and Mary period retained,
+and having Queen Anne splat of 1710.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>With sunk seat for squab cushion, turned
+uprights and legs and curious back, showing
+transition from lath back to splat back.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The middle chair more closely approaches the
+upright chair of the Charles II. period. There is a
+straight top-rail, supplemented by a lunette, giving
+the top a character of its own. This specimen is
+exceptionally interesting. The right-hand chair in
+its seat and legs is pronouncedly Jacobean. But the
+back with the three splats and the coarsely carved
+top-rail betray the hand of the country craftsman
+following in oak the more graceful curves of the
+worker in walnut of the days of Charles II.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that these three chairs, each in
+varying manner, evade the difficulties of the light
+cane-back by the substitution of thin rails, and, as
+will be seen from the illustration of three other
+chairs (p. <a href="#Page_211">209</a>), the next stage of walnut design with
+fiddle-shaped splat offered equal problems to the
+makers of cottage furniture. Sometimes they eliminated
+the splat altogether, while adopting other points
+of design found in chairs with the Queen Anne splat
+of 1710. In every case the fondness for old established
+styles is exhibited in the fact that the country
+cabinet-maker clings doggedly to these and appears
+too conservative or too timid to break wholly away
+from tradition. In consequence, his work, with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span>
+patches of newer design welded on to the old, is
+quaintly incongruous. There is thus an absence of
+"thinking out" the design as a whole. The minor
+maker thought out the parts as he went along. Some
+of his results are extraordinary in their characteristics:
+they resemble that freak of fashion termed
+"harlequin" tea services, where the cups are of one
+pattern and the saucers of another. Bearing in mind
+these unfailing proclivities of the maker of cottage
+and farmhouse furniture, the collector should not find
+it difficult to recognise the country hand at once.
+Now and again one is struck with the extraordinary
+ingenuity of some of the work, or one is charmed
+with the faithfulness with which designs have been
+translated from the golden bowl to the silver, or, to
+be literal, from walnut and mahogany to oak and elm
+and beech. But one is never amazed at the delicacy
+of proportion, the balanced symmetry, or the fertility
+of invention&mdash;these attributes belong to cabinet-makers
+on a higher plane.</p>
+
+<p>Of three chairs illustrated on p. <a href="#Page_211">209</a>, that on the
+left in the legs and seat shows the moribund
+Jacobean style. The stretcher indicates the oncoming
+of the newer styles, and the back with its cresting
+rail is of the Charles II. period. Its retention is
+curious, and the perforated arched centre is peculiar
+to designs found in walnut; its use in oak by the
+maker of this chair was a blunder, as oak is too hard
+a wood to employ for such a design.</p>
+
+<p>The middle chair shows an equal admixture of
+styles. The elaboration in the turned legs and
+uprights belongs to the William and Mary period
+<a id="Page_213"></a>
+<a id="Page_214"></a>
+<a id="Page_215"></a>
+<a id="Page_216"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span>
+and the splat is the Queen Anne fiddle pattern of
+1710. The seat begins to show another form in
+having the middle sunk for the use of a squab
+cushion.</p>
+
+<div><a name="chairs_in_queen_anne_style" id="chairs_in_queen_anne_style"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_214a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>QUEEN ANNE CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Entirely oak form except back and splat.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>QUEEN ANNE CHAIR.</p>
+<p>In oak, with strong inclinations towards
+walnut styles.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_214b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>QUEEN ANNE CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Walnut design made in oak for farmhouse use.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>QUEEN ANE ARM-CHAIR.</p>
+<p>With shaped front, walnut design executed in oak.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="country_chippendale_and_hepplewhite_chairs" id="country_chippendale_and_hepplewhite_chairs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_216a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE
+CHAIR, STYLE MERGING INTO
+HEPPLEWHITE.</p>
+<p>Less pronounced Cupid's bow top.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>TWO CHAIRS COUNTRY HEPPLEWHITE STYLE
+MADE ENTIRELY IN OAK.</p>
+<p>Left-hand chair with Prince of Wales's feathers.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_216b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>TYPES OF COTTAGE CHAIRS IN OAK.</p>
+<p>Having features of the three styles&mdash;Queen Anne, Chippendale, and Sheraton.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>Two chairs Queen Anne style.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>Chair Country Chippendale style.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The right-hand chair parts with the underframing
+below the seat, which gives a touch of lightness to the
+construction. The turned legs and uprights have
+departed from the coarse early-Jacobean style and
+perceptibly depend on walnut prototypes for their
+character. The back shows the transition from the
+lath back (such as in the chairs simulating the cane-work)
+to the splat back. It is an interesting and
+rare example, marking the slow assimilation of new
+forms by isolated makers. This specimen came from
+Ireland and evidently possesses native touches of
+originality which defy the connoisseur to determine
+its exact date.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Queen Anne Splat.</b>&mdash;The fiddle-shaped splat of
+1710 marks a turning-point in the construction of
+the chair.</p>
+
+<p>The walnut chairs with caned backs of the time
+of James II. and the early days of William III.
+were carved richly, and sometimes there was a splat
+dividing the caning at the back, which later, also in
+caned-back examples, is curved and plain. The
+general tendency in the reigns of William and Mary,
+especially towards the close of the period, was one of
+economy, and elaborate carving began to disappear.</p>
+
+<p>The Queen Anne smooth splat of fiddle form
+rapidly became popular. This Anglo-Dutch style
+became acclimatised here, and is characteristic of the
+homely examples of the Queen Anne period. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">218</a></span>
+walnut it was comparatively easy to carry out
+carving. In oak such elaboration was well-nigh
+impossible. It was therefore natural that in the
+farmhouse examples the plain Dutch splat would
+readily find favour as more easily executed. By the
+time that the fiddle splat had become popular the
+stretcher joining the cabriole legs commenced to
+disappear.</p>
+
+<p>The splat plays an important part as indicating
+sharp variations in design&mdash;walnut with open carving,
+intricate and floriated; walnut with the plain
+fiddle splat, with its corresponding minor form in
+oak; mahogany, with the advent of Chippendale,
+with the splat again open, carved with graceful
+ribbon-work.</p>
+
+<p>The arm-chair illustrated p. <a href="#Page_217">213</a> is a remarkable
+instance of intermingling of styles. The front legs
+are in Jacobean style, and are continued in the same
+manner as the usual type of oak chair as supports for
+the arms, but an original touch and naïve departure
+is in the curve given to this upright from the seat
+upwards. The seat is shaped like that of the
+Windsor chair. The arms are somewhat stiff for the
+back with its Cupid's-bow design, which has a
+sprightliness and grace making it a thing apart. The
+whole is not unpleasing. It is a remarkable instance
+of the attempted assimilation of several diverse styles
+by an undeveloped cabinet-maker with strong ideas
+of his own. The oak form is rigidly retained in all
+except the back and splat of Queen Anne days.</p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_settees_in_chippendale_style" id="oak_settees_in_chippendale_style"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_220a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>COUNTRY-MADE OAK SETTEE WITH DOUBLE BACK IN
+CHIPPENDALE STYLE.</p>
+<p>The shaped underframing is a feature only found in farmhouse varieties.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_220b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>COUNTRY-MADE OAK SETTEE IN CHINESE CHIPPENDALE STYLE.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The adjacent chair, with its tall back with curved
+splat and its cabriole legs, marks the transition
+<a id="Page_219"></a>
+<a id="Page_220"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span>
+between William and Mary and Queen Anne. The
+top rail indicates by its clumsy joinery the touch of
+the immature country cabinet-maker. It is an
+attempt to approach a fine model with insufficiency
+of skill by the maker. The use of the cabriole leg
+either in chairs or in dressers in homely furniture has
+always proved a stumbling-block to the minor craftsman.
+The delicacy of balance required in order to
+preserve the harmony of the whole has proved too
+subtle a problem for him to handle, and to the
+practised eye these farmhouse pieces at once proclaim
+their origin.</p>
+
+<p>The broad splat and the straight square front and
+the bold cabriole leg of the Queen Anne type in
+walnut were often copied in oak. The example of
+the chair with the later tapestry covering, illustrated
+p. <a href="#Page_217">213</a>, is a case where the local cabinet-maker has
+faithfully copied detail for detail from some fine
+original in walnut. His is in oak for more strenuous
+usage. The adjacent arm-chair is of the Queen Anne
+style, with a shaped front that is very rarely found
+in such pieces. The maker here has not been so
+successful in catching the bold lines of his original.
+There is a sense of something lacking in the curves
+of the back. The touches of his own that he has
+added in the arms, reverting to an earlier Jacobean
+type, reveal the unpractised hand.</p>
+
+<p><b>Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton.</b>&mdash;A
+word in passing may be said in regard to the unique
+character of furniture of these types. It is obvious
+that factory-made furniture turned out by the hundred
+pieces can offer nothing personal, whatever its merits
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span>
+or demerits of design or workmanship. It is this
+personal note, the love of a craftsman in his creation,
+that appeals to the collector, whether it be of Persian
+rugs or of old brass candlesticks. It is absent in
+art produced in a wholesale manner. Blunderingly
+as the village craftsmen went to work, they often
+stumbled into great things, and they always produced
+original results.</p>
+
+<p>Prior to the publication of the design-books of the
+great eighteenth-century masters of cabinet-making,
+the furniture of certain localities began to assume
+a character of its own, the result of long tradition,
+and designs such as the dragon found in Welsh
+carving became established. The term "unique" is
+peculiarly appropriate to furniture of this calibre, for
+rarely are two pieces found to be exactly alike. Not
+only did different makers add novel features, but
+the same craftsman apparently did not repeat
+himself.</p>
+
+<p>The permutations of form governing furniture are
+illimitable, associated as they are with so many
+details of construction. To take the chair&mdash;the leg,
+its shape, and the design of its turning; the style
+and character of the work on the stretcher; the form
+of the seat; the decoration and formation of the
+front; the back, its length, and the variety of splats
+and panels; and the top rail with its variations&mdash;these
+are only the salient features in which differences
+appear. Such modifications of design and piquant
+touches of personal character appeal to the collector,
+who loves the foibles and fanciful moods of the native
+craftsman, be he ever so humble.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span>
+Chippendale published his "Director" in 1754, and
+it became a working guide to all ambitious craftsmen.
+Ince and Mayhew, cabinet-makers of Broad
+Street, Golden Square, had issued "Household
+Furniture" in 1748, and Hepplewhite &amp; Co.
+followed later with the "Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's
+Guide" in 1788, where the delicacies of
+ornament were related to the chaster classic models,
+and in 1794 came Sheraton with his "Drawing
+Book," rich with subtle suggestiveness. A rough
+generalisation shows the Chippendale school holding
+sway from 1730 to 1780, the Hepplewhite school
+from 1775 to 1795, and the Sheraton school from
+1790 to 1805: and behind all, the strong influence of
+the Brothers Adam in their classic revival. What
+had previously been tradition came very speedily
+into line with current modes. Fashion, as we have
+shown, had a slow and impermanent effect upon
+village ideals. But the output of these great
+illustrated volumes, with working drawings, undoubtedly
+had a wide-reaching influence. The last
+quarter of the eighteenth century saw an intense
+outburst of interest in the arts of interior decoration.
+A great amount of finely designed and beautifully
+executed furniture belongs to those days, and the
+echo of the splendid achievements in mahogany and
+in satinwood is seen in the farmhouse and cottage
+furniture, which came singularly close upon the heels
+of fashion.</p>
+
+<p>Chippendale furniture in oak, elm, or beech is
+being largely collected. We illustrate a sufficient
+number of types to show that this class of design
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span>
+known as "Cottage Chippendale," has peculiar charms
+of its own. The arm-chair illustrated p. <a href="#Page_227">225</a> is in
+elm, and is in the style Chippendale employed in
+his rich mahogany creations in 1760. The fine
+interlaced carving of the back is graceful and well
+proportioned. The adjacent chair, in elm, still
+follows the Chippendale style. The seat is rush,
+and the maker has confined himself to his own
+limitations and avoided in the splat the too intricate
+work of more sumptuous models. He has arrived
+at a very finely balanced result. The heart cut out
+of the splat is frequently found in cottage examples,
+suggesting that some of the more ornate examples
+may have been made as wedding presents for young
+couples just setting up housekeeping, or possibly the
+village cabinet-maker himself had thoughts in that
+direction, and such work was destined to equip his
+own home.</p>
+
+<p>The illustration of a chair, in beech, with a plain
+wooden seat, has a somewhat intricate ribbon-like
+pattern terminating in the Prince of Wales's feathers.
+The heart is present in the design at the base of
+the splat, cut out in fretwork. The arm-chair on
+the right, with its dipped seat, is in oak, and is an
+instance representing the adaptations of Sheraton
+styles in the provinces.</p>
+
+<p>Another page of chairs in oak (p. <a href="#Page_217">215</a>) shows the
+influences at work in moulding the character of the
+styles of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
+century farmhouse furniture. Of the three chairs at
+top of p. <a href="#Page_217">215</a>, the left-hand one is in Chippendale
+style merging into Hepplewhite. The Cupid's bow
+<a id="Page_225"></a>
+<a id="Page_226"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span>
+at the top rail has become less pronounced. The
+other two chairs on right are typically Hepplewhite
+in character. The Prince of Wales's feathers, so
+often associated with Hepplewhite's own work, are
+embodied in the splat of one.</p>
+
+<div><a name="country_chairs_in_chippendale_and_sheraton_styles" id="country_chairs_in_chippendale_and_sheraton_styles"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_226a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>ELM CHAIR, COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE
+STYLE. 1760.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+ELM CHAIR, COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE STYLE.
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_226b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>BEECH CHAIR. COUNTRY
+CHIPPENDALE STYLE.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>OAK CHAIR, COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE
+STYLE. WITH DROPPED SEAT.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>In the lower group, the right-hand chair is of the
+Chippendale type. The other two chairs have
+features of three styles&mdash;the Queen Anne, the
+Chippendale, and the Sheraton. It is this piquancy
+and incongruous combination of styles adjacent to
+each other in point of time, but having little other
+relationship, which make the provincialisms of the
+cabinet-maker of exceptional interest.</p>
+
+<p>At times more ambitious attempts were made in
+oak, following the lines of the Chippendale style in
+mahogany. These have pronounced features always
+recognisable as belonging to the farmhouse variety
+of furniture. Two examples are illustrated, p. <a href="#Page_218">219</a>.
+The upper example of country-made oak settee,
+with double back, at once indicates that it is
+provincial by the shaped underframing, which is
+never found in other classes of furniture. The lower
+example of farmhouse oak settee is clearly in
+Chippendale's Chinese style. A reference to the
+"Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Directory," published
+by Thomas Chippendale in 1754, shows that
+this Chinese style adopted by the local maker is very
+far removed from the series of delicate fretwork
+designs illustrated by Chippendale in his volume.
+It is true that the old designer of St. Martin's Lane
+sent forth his work with the sub-title stating that
+it was "calculated to improve and refine the present
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span>
+Taste, and suited to the Fancy and Circumstances
+of Persons in all Degrees of Life." The great
+master cabinet-maker, in scattering his designs far
+and wide, evidently had in mind the formation of a
+new style. He builded better than he knew. The
+importance of his book of designs cannot be overrated.
+It was subscribed for in Yorkshire, in Devon,
+in Westmorland, and in Ireland, and straightway
+minor men looked upon these delightful inventions
+and began to follow to the best of their ability the
+ideals set forth by Chippendale the dreamer.</p>
+
+<p>That he was an idealist in this book of designs is
+naïvely explained in his Preface: "I frankly confess
+that in the executing many of the drawings my
+pencil has but faintly copied out those images that
+my fancy suggested, and had they not been published
+till I could have pronounced them perfect, perhaps
+they had never seen the light." But Chippendale
+was also a practical cabinet-maker as well as a
+designer. He has a lingering doubt that after all,
+perhaps, the country cabinet-maker and those who
+bought the book for use might not be able to carry
+out his designs. Evidently this had struck others
+too. Perhaps he was accused of fobbing-off in a
+design-book mere fanciful work that was too far
+above the plane of ordinary cabinet-work. He meets
+this objection with a declaration, so to speak, upon
+honour, with which he winds up his Preface, which
+is a pretty piece of eighteenth-century advertising:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Upon the whole, I have given no design but what
+may be executed with advantage by the hands of a
+skilful workman, though some of the profession have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span>
+been diligent enough to represent them (especially
+those after the Gothic and Chinese manner) as so
+many specious drawings, impossible to be worked off
+by any mechanic whatsoever. I will not scruple to
+attribute this to malice, ignorance, and inability, and
+I am confident I can convince all noblemen, gentlemen,
+or others, who will honour me with their
+commands, that every design in the book can be
+improved, both as to beauty and enrichment, in the
+execution of it, by&mdash;Their Most Obedient Servant,
+Thomas Chippendale."</p>
+
+<p>Enough has been said to prove that "country
+Chippendale" is not a misnomer. It is equally true
+that the Hepplewhite style was disseminated in like
+fashion in the provinces. It must be remembered
+that these trade catalogues, as they really were,
+brought out somewhat in rivalry with each other by
+the great London designers and cabinet-makers, were
+the only literature the country makers had to indicate
+town fashions. These volumes therefore served a
+double purpose in procuring clients for the firm and
+in stimulating the art of the country designer. That
+they were in part intended to be educational is shown
+by the Preface to the "Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's
+Guide," published by A. Hepplewhite &amp; Co.,
+Cabinet-makers. We quote from the Preface of
+the third edition, "improved," 1794.</p>
+
+<p>The Preface opens with a lament that owing to
+"the mutability of all things, but more especially of
+fashions," foreigners who seek a knowledge of English
+taste and workmanship may be misled by the "labours
+of our predecessors in this line of little use."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span>
+"The same reason in favour of this work will
+apply also to many of our own countrymen and
+artisans, whose distance from the metropolis makes
+even an imperfect knowledge of its improvements
+acquired with much trouble and expense."</p>
+
+<p>"In this instance we hope for reward; and though
+we lay no claim to extraordinary merit in our designs,
+we flatter ourselves they will be found serviceable to
+young workmen in general, and occasionally to more
+experienced ones."</p>
+
+<p>In view, therefore, of the books of design we have
+enumerated, it is obvious that the country designer
+had a new field open to him, and now and again he
+made ample use of his opportunities. During the
+last quarter of the eighteenth century there was quite
+an outburst of literature on furniture, much of it
+forgotten and much of it waiting to be disinterred
+by patient research; and with the dissemination of
+these fine designs some of the most perfect examples
+of country-made furniture began to exhibit touches
+of skill of the practised hand.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Grandfather Chair.</b>&mdash;From the illustration given
+on p. <a href="#Page_230">231</a> it will be seen that the type known as
+the "grandfather" has a humble lineage. It will be
+found with the same wings and curved arms and
+plain wooden seat in the alehouse or in the ingle nook
+of the farmhouse. The specimen we illustrate does
+duty as a bacon-cupboard as well as a chair. Usually
+such pieces have the cupboard opening at the back,
+but in this instance the cupboard opens in front.</p>
+
+<div><a name="grandfather_chair" id="grandfather_chair"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_232a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>COUNTRY GRANDFATHER CHAIR.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="arm_chair_and_bacon_cupboard" id="arm_chair_and_bacon_cupboard"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_232b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>ARM-CHAIR AND BACON-CUPBOARD.</p>
+<p>Opens at foot. This type usually opens at back.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>As early as the opening years of the eighteenth
+century there were upholstered chairs of a somewhat
+<a id="Page_231"></a>
+<a id="Page_232"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span>
+similar type to the so-called "grandfather" with
+scrolled arms or wings. The example we illustrate
+is representative of those which may be met with in
+the country farmhouse.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ladder-back Types.</b>&mdash;The ladder-back chair belongs
+to the northern half of England, and similarly the
+spindle-back chair is found in the same locality.
+The Windsor chair, on the other hand, is mainly
+confined to the southern half of the country. These
+are points which become noticeable after years of
+systematised research, and although nowadays these
+three varieties of chair may still be found, somewhat
+scattered, their real home and place of origin is as
+indicated. Another feature of interest is that both
+ladder-back and spindle-back varieties, with but
+slight differences, are found on the Continent.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that this class of chair has a
+rush seat. This feature it has in common with the
+spindle-back chair.</p>
+
+<p>The rush-bottom chair covers a wide area. It
+comes with an air of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">naïveté</i> and rustic simplicity.
+One recalls the long lines of green rushes by the
+river-bank and the rush-gatherers in idyllic placidity
+slowly trimming the banks, disturbing coot and
+moorhen with their punt, and adding another human
+touch to the lonely angler. They are pursuing a
+calling as old as the river itself, and the use of rush
+for floor, for lighting, or for seating furniture, found
+occupation for generations of men plying curious
+trades, of which the plaiting of osiers into baskets
+and the thatching of cottage roofs may be numbered
+among the decaying industries. Indeed, this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span>
+latter art and the making of birch and heath brooms
+may be almost said to be extinct. A good artisan
+who can thatch in the old artistic style is much
+sought after. Of course ricks have still to be thatched,
+but the picturesque skill of masters of this old-world
+craft is absent, and corrugated iron sheets have found
+favour in lieu of the old style.</p>
+
+<p>The ladder-back chair is, as its name denotes,
+decorated with horizontal supports, ladder fashion.
+These are capable of the most pleasing variation.
+The perfection of form of this type is seen in the
+arm-chair illustrated p. <a href="#Page_234">237</a>. The well-balanced
+proportion of the ladder rails is a test as to the
+excellence of the design. They are not meaningless
+ornaments put in place, unthinkingly, to create a new
+style. The two examples illustrated on page 235
+show other types of the ladder-back chair. The
+left-hand one shows the later stages in the development
+of the design, and its top rail is of the Sheraton
+period. The right-hand one, with arms, is composite
+in its character, and is in date about 1820, and
+exhibits a touch of the Sheraton slenderness of style
+in the splats and the round turning of arms. Both
+examples show the quaint survival of the Queen
+Anne foot. The ladder-back form survived the
+eighteenth century and lasted down to within fifty
+years ago, when it became merged into that of the
+Windsor chair.</p>
+
+<div><a name="spindle_back_and_ladder_back_chairs" id="spindle_back_and_ladder_back_chairs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_236a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>LADDER-BACK TYPE
+OF CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Showing Empire influence
+in curved back.</p>
+<p>Dated 1820-1830.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>SPINDLE-BACK NURSING CHAIR WITH ROCKER.</p>
+<p>Three rows of spindles.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>SPINDLE-BACK CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Two rows of spindles.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_236b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>LADDER-BACK CHAIRS WITH RUSH SEAT.</p>
+<p>Both chairs showing quaint survival of the Queen Anne feet.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>Late Eighteenth Century, with top
+rail in Sheraton style.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>Later form of splat with turned
+ends. Dated 1820.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="corner_chairs" id="corner_chairs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_238a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>COUNTRY BARBER'S CHAIR.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>LADDER-BACK CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Perfect specimen in regard to style.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_238b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CORNER CHAIR.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>LADDER-BACK FORM OF CORNER CHAIR
+WITH RUSH SEAT.</p>
+<p>Probably Lancashire.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Spindle-back Chair.</b>&mdash;The spindle-back chair is
+of long lineage. As early as the reign of Charles I.
+this type was known. There is still treasured in
+America the chair of Governor Carver, with simple
+<a id="Page_235"></a>
+<a id="Page_236"></a>
+<a id="Page_237"></a>
+<a id="Page_238"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span>
+turning in legs and back, which practically consisted
+of upright posts rounded and having slight ornament.
+The back was set with "spindles." The older types
+of these chairs had thick upright posts, the back and
+back legs being two posts and the front legs, continued
+upward beyond the seat, forming supports for
+the arms. These posts are often six or seven inches
+in circumference, and belong to early-Jacobean days.
+The type found its way to America in Puritan days
+and has continued to be a favourite. Hickory wood
+was used for American specimens, and considerable
+attention has been paid to this form of chair and its
+varieties, the differing heights of the posts and the
+number of the spindles and their character, by
+American collectors. In England examples are not
+easily found of early date. The examples illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_234">235</a>), a Nursing Chair on rockers and an ordinary
+Spindle-Back Chair, are of eighteenth-century days,
+and are sufficient to indicate the type of chair, but
+these two represent the style when it had become
+of more general use. Practically it was not until the
+eighteenth century that such types were commonly
+used in cottages and farmhouses.</p>
+
+<p>These turned chairs, turned in every portion but
+the rush seat, lend themselves to the above-mentioned
+two styles of treatment. Their upright posts forming
+the open back can be treated with vertical splats
+divided by horizontal divisions, or they can, as in the
+ladder form, receive horizontal splats. The complete
+simplicity of this attitude towards the back absolved
+the homely cabinet-maker from dangerous experiments.
+Avoiding curved backs, he had not to face
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">240</a></span>
+the intricacies of the nicety of balance in the splat.
+Altogether it was a very satisfactory solution, and in
+practice resulted in the production of a wide range
+of chairs, differing in slight details but well within
+the range of the local workman's art.</p>
+
+<p>The unassuming simplicity of this class of chair
+made its appeal to Madox-Brown, who held that
+simplicity and utility were the two desiderata, united
+with soundness of construction, for domestic furniture.
+Veneer was as abhorrent to him as to all genuine
+lovers of the artistic. "Let us be honest, let us be
+genuine in furniture as in aught else," were his words.
+"If we must needs make our chairs and tables of
+cheap wood, do not let them masquerade as mahogany
+or rosewood; let the thing appear that which it is;
+it will not lack dignity if it be good of its kind and
+well made." Accordingly he put his theories into
+practice and designed some furniture. In a chair in
+the possession of Mr. Harold Rathbone he has
+employed the rush seat and used spindles to decorate
+the back, and in another chair in the same collection
+he has adhered to the horizontal ladder-back style,
+coupled with the rush seat, with pleasing effect.</p>
+
+<p><b>Corner Chairs.</b>&mdash;Among interesting types of chairs
+often with lingering traces of the Jacobean style
+and additional features of splats that may be
+regarded as standing on the threshold of the
+Chippendale period, corner chairs stand in a class
+alone. The illustrations on p. <a href="#Page_234">237</a> show some typical
+examples. The chair with the double tier is the oak
+adaptation of Chippendale with the retention of the
+old Jacobean form of support for the arm. These
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span>
+chairs with this added tier are often used as country
+barber's chairs. The rush-seated corner chair on the
+same page, probably made in Lancashire, is suggestive
+of the ladder-back form, and there are indications in
+its construction that it is subsequent to the Hepplewhite
+period.</p>
+
+<p>With these notes relative to the evolution of the
+chair, and with carefully selected illustrations of
+types likely to be of use to the collector, enough has
+been said to whet the curiosity of the reader to study
+the matter for himself. It requires keen and discriminating
+judgment to allocate specimens with
+passing exactitude as to time and place. The taste
+for the subject must be natural and not acquired.
+Training alone will give the eye the readiness to
+detect false touches and modern additions. The
+search for bargains goes on apace, and those who
+enjoy stalking their quarry in out-of-the-way places
+have an exciting quest nowadays for fine pieces.
+To those with endless patience, forbearing under
+disappointment, and having plenty of leisure, the
+search will offer abundant delight, if, to quote Mrs.
+Battle, they enjoy "the rigour of the game."</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_242"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_243"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII<br />
+THE WINDSOR<br />
+CHAIR</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_244"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER VIII<br />
+<span class="medium">THE WINDSOR CHAIR</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">Early types&mdash;The stick legs without stretcher&mdash;The
+tavern chair&mdash;Eighteenth-century pleasure gardens&mdash;The
+rail-back variety&mdash;Chippendale style
+Windsor chairs&mdash;The survival of the Windsor
+chair.</p>
+
+<p>The Windsor chair in its early form is coincident
+with the early years of the eighteenth century. Its
+history and development therefore exhibit traces of
+the various styles in furniture which ran their courses
+throughout the century. It is essentially a chair
+which belongs to minor furniture, and in its use it
+is bound up with the country farmhouse, the country
+inn, or in the metropolis with the chocolate-houses
+and taverns, and later with the innumerable pleasure
+gardens which sprang up around the metropolis in
+the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>There is more than a strong suggestion that the
+type originated in the country. The first forms have
+a similarity to the easily made three-legged stools.
+The seat is one piece of wood into which holes are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span>
+bored to admit the legs. The origin of the term
+"Windsor chair," according to a story largely current
+in America, is that George III., the Farmer King, saw
+a chair of this design in a humble cottage near
+Windsor, and was so enamoured of it that he ordered
+some to be made for the royal use. The chair had
+a singular vogue in America, and it is stated that
+George Washington had a row of Windsor chairs at
+his house at Mount Vernon, and Jefferson sat in a
+Windsor chair when he signed the Declaration of
+Independence in 1776.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Stick Legs without Stretcher.</b>&mdash;Obviously this
+is the earliest type, and the illustrations of these
+primitive forms (p. <a href="#Page_249">247</a>) show the simplicity of the
+joinery. The chair on the left with its almost
+straight top rail suggests a probable date. It was
+not till 1768 that Chippendale made the first straight
+top rail in English furniture. The seat is of the
+saddle-form. The spindles at the back in the lower
+row taper at each end. It will be observed in all
+the types we illustrate in this chapter that the arms
+extend in one piece around the chair. Nor has
+every example the saddle seat. On the same page
+is illustrated one with a plain seat, but still having
+the stick legs set at an angle towards the centre of
+the chair.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever interest attaches to this early type, from
+a collecting point of view, they cannot compare in
+beauty with the finer varieties of a later period, with
+cabriole leg and with pierced splat, displaying a
+pleasing diversity of patterns in pierced work, no
+two of which are always quite alike.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_247"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_248"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">249</a></span></p>
+
+<div><a name="chairs_of_earliest_form_with_stick_legs" id="chairs_of_earliest_form_with_stick_legs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_248.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>WINDSOR CHAIRS.</p>
+<p>Earliest form; stick legs with no stretcher.</p>
+<p>(By the courtesy of Messers. Phillips, Hitchin.)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Tavern Chair.</b>&mdash;It was Dr. Johnson who declared
+that a tavern chair was the throne of human felicity.
+Undoubtedly the eighteenth century found the need
+of a comfortable chair for club meetings at taverns
+and alehouses. The country inn to-day has its
+Windsor chairs, many of them of great age. Nor
+were chairs of this type always with arms. There
+are many plainer chairs without arms and having
+what is termed "fiddle-string" backs; more often
+than not across this back there is a rail put transversely
+to strengthen it. Many of these chairs were
+made by local carpenters and wheelwrights. They
+employed any wood that happened to be in their
+workshop at the time; in consequence the variety
+of woods in which these chairs are found is great.
+Sometimes the seat is made from beech or elm and
+the arms are fashioned from the wood of the pear-tree.
+The curved horseshoe rails and back are more
+often than not constructed from the ash.</p>
+
+<p><b>Eighteenth Century Pleasure Gardens.</b>&mdash;There is no
+doubt that we owe the considerable output of
+Windsor chairs in the middle of the eighteenth
+century to the growth of coffee-houses, and especially
+the numerous tea and pleasure gardens on the outskirts
+of London and other great towns. These
+semi-rural resorts began to be in great demand as
+a recreation for jaded eighteenth-century town-dwellers.
+The nobility and persons of fashion had
+Bath and Tunbridge Wells to fly to for country air
+and open-air recreation. The citizen and mechanic,
+the society beau, and the politician, crowded to
+Ranelagh Gardens, to Vauxhall, to Sadler's Wells,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span>
+and to Hampstead, to enjoy sunny afternoons and
+summer evenings in the open air, or to spend
+Sundays. It was the eighteenth-century diversion
+similar to the nineteenth-century Crystal Palace
+and the twentieth-century Earl's Court. To quote
+Mr. Percy Macquoid in his lordly work on English
+furniture, "So great were the numbers of visitors to
+these places that attention was called to their increase
+in one of the contemporary weekly journals, where a
+calculation was made that on Sundays alone two
+hundred thousand people visited the tea-gardens
+situated on the northern side of London; and as
+half-a-crown per head was probably the least sum
+expended by them, it can be no exaggeration to
+state that £20,000 on a fine Sunday was taken at
+these places of amusement. Many cheap chairs must
+have been required at such places of entertainment."</p>
+
+<p>Between the year 1760 and the end of the century
+the Windsor chair was being made for general
+country use. "The backs and arms of these," continues
+Mr. Macquoid, "are made of hoops of yew,
+held together by a number of slender uprights and a
+perforated splat of the same tough and pliant wood;
+the seats were generally invariably of elm, as yew cut
+into a superficies of any size is liable to split; the
+legs and stretchers were generally of yew."</p>
+
+<div><a name="oliver_goldsmiths_chair" id="oliver_goldsmiths_chair"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_252.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OLIVER GOLDSMITH'S CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Wood, painted green, with circular seat, curved arms, and
+high back. Bequeathed by Oliver Goldsmith in 1774 to his
+friend, Dr. Hawes.</p>
+<p>(<i>Bethnal Green Museum.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Rail-back Variety.</b>&mdash;We have alluded to the use
+of the rail placed across the back from the top rail to
+the seat, crossing the uprights. It is not an elegant
+device, but it was used as a means of strengthening
+the back. It seems almost unnecessary, although
+possibly these chairs received a good deal of rough
+<a id="Page_251"></a>
+<a id="Page_252"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span>
+usage. Later, when the fiddle splat began to be
+employed, this transverse rail&mdash;sometimes there were
+two used&mdash;was discontinued. An historic example of
+the chair with transverse rails is that which was once
+in the possession of Oliver Goldsmith. There is no
+doubt about the authenticity of this, as it was
+bequeathed by the poet to his medical attendant,
+Dr. Hawes, who, by the way, was the founder of the
+Royal Humane Society. Goldsmith told his farmer
+friends at his cottage at Edgware that he should never
+in future spend more than two months a year in
+London, and at the time of his death in 1774 he was
+negotiating the sale of the lease of his Temple chambers.
+This chair (illustrated p. <a href="#Page_250">251</a>) has a rather small
+shaped seat, curved arms, a top rail that is of exceptional
+interest considering the date, which is, say, from
+1770 to 1774, perhaps a little earlier. This was at the
+commencement of the Hepplewhite period, which
+lasted till 1790. The year 1768 was, as we have
+already said, the date at which chairs with straight
+top rails, designed by Adam and executed by
+Chippendale, were first made. The turned legs are
+interesting, showing the hoofed foot, and the turned
+stretcher retains an earlier form. The chair is of
+soft wood, probably beech, and is painted green. It
+is preserved at the Bethnal Green Museum, with the
+distinctive label on the stand: "Oliver Goldsmith's
+Chair."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Splat Back and the Cabriole Leg.</b>&mdash;It is here that
+the Windsor chair assumes a character essentially
+charming and attracts the admiration of connoisseurs
+of styles that are peculiarly English. The splat back
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span>
+is a feature only found in English varieties of the
+Windsor chair. In America a great deal of attention
+has been paid to old types, and there the pliant
+hickory wood is used in the making of chairs of this
+form; but the splat back is never used in America,
+and when found by collectors there the piece is
+attributed to English manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>The splat, with its varying forms, denotes the date
+of the chair. From 1740 to 1770 the form with
+cabriole legs and with finely ornamented fiddle splat
+was at its best. We illustrate a sufficient number of
+specimens to show how graceful and perfectly well
+balanced these chairs had become. In contemplating
+pieces remarkable for the highest style, it must be
+admitted that their artistry and their simple unaffected
+sense of comfort do make a direct appeal
+to those who are willing to recognise fine qualities
+in minor furniture.</p>
+
+<p>The two chairs illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_254">255</a>) differ slightly
+in details of construction. That on the left has the
+plain urn splat, a survival of the Queen Anne type.
+The seat is finely shaped and the legs are cabriole
+form. The top rail is almost straight, and is
+ornamented at the two ends with turned discs.
+The three stretchers are turned, and in the adjacent
+chair the stretchers are similar, save in a slight variation
+in the pattern of the turning. But here the
+splat is perforated with an intricate design suggestive
+of the lines of Chippendale; the top rail is a departure
+in form, imparting a distinctiveness which
+lifts the chair from the ordinary type.</p>
+
+<div><a name="chairs_with_fiddle_splat_and_cabriole_legs" id="chairs_with_fiddle_splat_and_cabriole_legs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_256.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>WINDSOR CHAIR.</p>
+<p>With plain fiddle splat of Queen Anne type, Chippendale top rail
+and cabriole legs, and three turned stretchers.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>WINDSOR CHAIR.</p>
+<p>With pierced fiddle splat, shaped arms, cabriole legs, and
+three turned stretchers.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="chippendale_and_hepplewhite_windsor_chairs" id="chippendale_and_hepplewhite_windsor_chairs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_258a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CHIPPENDALE WINDSOR CHAIRS.</p>
+<p>Chippendale splats. The type of splat indicates the date of Windsor chairs.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_258b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>HEPPLEWHITE WINDSOR CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Exceptionally fine legs back and front. Urn
+back. Probably Welsh carving.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>HEPPLEWHITE PERIOD WINDSOR CHAIR.</p>
+<p>With wheel back, in yew.</p>
+<p>(<i>By courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell &amp; Sons.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Chippendale Style Windsor Chairs.</b>&mdash;The page of
+<a id="Page_255"></a>
+<a id="Page_256"></a>
+<a id="Page_257"></a>
+<a id="Page_258"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span>
+chairs (p. <a href="#Page_254">257</a>) tells its own story. The beautiful
+sweep of the curved back is always a sign of the
+old and true form. Later imitations or replicas
+seem somehow to lose this effect. It has been suggested
+that the back of this style was produced by
+the village wheelwright in horseshoe form, but possibly
+that is a conjecture which is more fanciful than
+real. It has also&mdash;collectors are often fond of inventing
+theories to fit little-known facts&mdash;been asserted
+that the wheel-back variety, which is of somewhat
+more modern growth, is due to the same origin.
+This wheel is fretted with six triangular openings.
+One chair on this page has the wheel unperforated.
+In the examination of the details of the four
+examples there is nothing of great importance to
+differentiate them from each other in construction.
+The two at the top are suggestive of Chippendale in
+the ornament employed in the splat. The lower two
+incline more to the slightly later Hepplewhite period.
+Of these the one on the left has only fourteen upright
+rails at the lower portion and six in the upper portion
+of the back, in comparison with sixteen and eight in
+the other chairs. The legs of this chair are exceptionally
+fine both back and front. The work in the
+splat is slightly suggestive of Welsh carving, especially
+that style associated with Welsh love-spoons.</p>
+
+<p>Following the influence of Chippendale and
+Hepplewhite came the style of Sheraton, which
+after 1790 began to affect the character of some
+forms of minor furniture. That this was a very real
+factor is often shown most unexpectedly in cottage
+and farmhouse pieces. The satinwood and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span>
+painted panel, and the intricacies and subtleties of
+his employment of colour, were of course too far
+removed from the simple cabinet-work of the country
+maker to have the least effect upon him, even if he
+ever saw them. But the slenderness and elegance of
+the Sheraton styles did in a small degree have weight
+with cabinet-makers as a whole in the provinces.
+So that it is quite within reasonable surmise to
+attribute certain forms to the Sheraton school, or
+rather to the oncoming of the early nineteenth-century
+mannerisms. On p. <a href="#Page_260">261</a> two examples are
+illustrated showing this influence. The one with the
+horseshoe back is devoid of the splat, which had
+now disappeared. The turned legs begin to show
+signs of modernity. The other has the top-rail
+familiar in later forms of cottage chair. The turned
+rails for the arms and the type of turning in the legs
+show signs of decadence. The fine days of the old
+Windsor chair were coming to an end.</p>
+
+<div><a name="sheraton_style_windsor_chairs" id="sheraton_style_windsor_chairs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_262.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>WINDSOR CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Horseshoe back, saddle seat, turned legs, with stretcher.
+Sheraton style.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>WINDSOR CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Curved top rail, turned arms, legs, and stretcher. Sheraton
+style, pierced fiddle splat.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Survival of the Windsor Chair Type.</b>&mdash;Apart
+from the love of the simple form and especially well-conceived
+design of the Windsor chair, which have
+made it at once the especial favourite of artists and
+lovers of simplicity and utility, it has won the practical
+approval of generations of innkeepers, who to
+this day store hundreds of chairs for use at village
+festivals. What we have said in regard to the popularity
+of the gate-leg table applies in greater degree
+to the Windsor chair. The industry of turning the
+legs and rails of this type of chair is still carried on
+in Buckinghamshire. Until recent years much of
+this turning was done by hand by villagers in the
+<a id="Page_261"></a>
+<a id="Page_262"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">263</a></span>
+district surrounding High Wycombe, where the parts
+are sent to be finished and made up. To this day
+some of the old chair-makers use the antiquated pole
+lathe. But the chairs have departed from their old
+stateliness. It is true that they have survived, almost
+in spite of themselves. They are not now the objects
+of beauty they once were. But they have, by reason
+of modern requirements, found a fresh field of usefulness.
+Will it be supposed that the modern office
+chair is in reality a Windsor? An examination will
+at once show this, even in the latest American types.
+The saddle-shaped seat is there, the straight turned
+legs, and the back is the same except that the upper
+extension has disappeared and the old centre rail has
+become broader as a properly-formed rest for the
+tired clerk's back. A perusal of a few catalogues of
+up-to-date office furniture will establish this. Here,
+then, is the last stage of the country Windsor chair.
+The twentieth-century Windsor has come to town
+and graces the head cashier's private office in a
+bank or the senior partner's room of a firm of
+stockbrokers.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_264"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_265"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IX<br />
+LOCAL TYPES</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_266"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER IX<br />
+<span class="medium">LOCAL TYPES</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">Welsh carving&mdash;Scottish types&mdash;Lancashire dressers,
+wardrobes, and chairs&mdash;Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire,
+Cambridge, and Essex tables&mdash;Isle of Man tables.</p>
+
+<p>The charm of collecting cottage and farmhouse
+furniture lies in the wide area over which it is found.
+Those who have given especial attention to collecting
+it have learned instinctively to differentiate between
+the work of various localities. Some well-defined
+types of cottage furniture are only to be found in
+certain counties, and nowhere else. Take for example
+the ladder-back and the spindle chairs. The latter
+are usually found in the northern half and the former
+in the southern half of England. It is obvious that
+craftsmen developing on original lines, or on lines
+more or less apart from outside influence, must
+establish designs peculiarly identified with their
+field of labours.</p>
+
+<p>The sturdy insularity of the British peasant, and
+his uneasy reception of foreign suggestion, have had
+a very pronounced influence upon his methods of
+work. He has the defects of his qualities, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span>
+stern, almost uncompromising conservatism in habit
+of mind and in his daily pursuits. A close study of
+the thoughts, and as far as is recorded the written
+ideals, of the rural labouring population exhibit
+an extraordinary fixity of purpose in clinging
+tenaciously to old customs. The country songs
+more often than not express disapproval of innovations
+and call up the memories of slowly vanishing
+customs. The farm hands recall wistfully the old
+style of Shearers' feasts and Harvest homes, when
+great festivities with song and dance and old country
+sports enlivened the company. In Yorkshire this
+was termed the Mel Supper, in Kent the Kern
+Supper, and in parts of the North of England it
+was called the Churn Supper. Annual feasts were
+given to labourers such as the Wayzgoose or Bean
+feast, which later name remains to this day. The
+good old days is a refrain not confined to the cottager
+in his relation with the farmer. The farmer, imbued
+with the same wistful regard for the vanished past,
+bewails the May Day tenants' feast of the eighteenth-century
+English squire.</p>
+
+<p>We get touches of disdain for the oncoming fashion
+of seclusion which invaded the farmhouse in "A
+Farmer's Boy," by Robert Bloomfield. He laments
+that the annual feast of the harvest home had lost
+its former joviality. This was written in 1798.</p>
+
+<p>"The aspect only with the substance gone."
+Evidently the mug that passed around was becoming
+a thing of the past.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
+<div class="line">"The self-same Horn is still at our command,</div>
+<div class="line i0h">But serves none now but the plebeian hand."</div>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p><a id="Page_269"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_270"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span>
+The picture he draws of the farmer who, in face of
+prevailing fashion, "yields up the custom that he
+dearly loves" is pathetic. The long table and
+dining in common together had seemingly vanished.
+"The <i>separate</i> table and the costly bowl" touch
+the rustic poet's pride. He italicises the word
+"separate."</p>
+
+<div><a name="chest_dated_1636_welsh" id="chest_dated_1636_welsh"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_270a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CHEST. DATED 1636.</p>
+<p>With Welsh inscription on lid. (Standing on table of later date.)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="cupboard_dated_1710_welsh" id="cupboard_dated_1710_welsh"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_270b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>WELSH CUPBOARD.</p>
+<p>With typical coarse style of carving. Should be 1650 at latest.
+Inscribed I.S. 1710.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>This loving regard for the past is natural at a
+time when the rural population jealously feared the
+oncoming of the age of machinery, which threatened
+to supersede many of their local industries and finally
+succeeded in so doing. The obstinate adherence to
+old forms was possibly part of a nervous fear of the
+unknown future. The love for existing forms of
+furniture was therefore part of this apprehensive
+retention of tradition. Not only was the resistance
+of town fashions a strong feature, but local prejudices
+prevailed against the adoption of designs belonging
+to rival counties. To this day the Staffordshire
+clothes-horse, carried on pulleys to the ceiling when
+not in use, differs from the clothes-horse of the
+cottager in the South with no such mechanical
+device. In Edinburgh, in the narrow closes, there
+is a kind of gallows projecting from the windows.</p>
+
+<p>These apparently minor details which find their
+embodiment in articles of everyday use, fascinate
+and hold the attention of the acute collector of
+cottage furniture.</p>
+
+<p>The same local types apply to the art of the potter
+and are well known to collectors. There are Sussex
+"tygs" and Nottingham "bears" and Sunderland
+and Newcastle jugs and mugs. Bristol had its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span>
+characteristic earthenware, and the Lowestoft china
+factory was strongly Suffolk in its homely inscriptions
+with a touch of dialect.</p>
+
+<p><b>Welsh Carving.</b>&mdash;Wales is famous for the abundance
+of the oak farmhouse furniture proudly kept to this
+day in families who have held the same homestead
+sometimes for centuries. One of the most noticeable
+features is the elaboration of the carving and its
+native representation, coarsely carved, without
+foreign influence, of birds and beasts and heraldic
+monsters which largely figure in the decorative
+panels of chests, and especially dressers. So popular
+was oak that it might almost be advanced that
+there never was any mahogany in Wales. But it
+is indisputable that the great outburst in carved
+mahogany chairbacks coincident with the advent of
+Chippendale and the publication of his <i>Director</i>,
+never penetrated Wales, although it led to the
+foundation of a remarkable school of woodcarving
+on the new lines in Ireland, known as Irish Chippendale,
+a study of which can be made in Mr. Owen
+Wheeler's volume on old furniture.</p>
+
+<p>The intense love of the Welsh woodcarver for
+intricacy is hardly less than that of the sturdy Swiss
+craftsmen environed by mountains. Perhaps the long
+winters and the solitary life influence the development
+of individual character in the applied arts.
+The Welsh love-spoons of wood, linked together
+and exhibiting delicate pierced work and minute
+carving of no mean order, are among other attractive
+specimens of native art. Ironwork of fine quality
+is also to be found in Wales.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_273"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="elm_wardrobe_welsh_oak_dresser_lancashire" id="elm_wardrobe_welsh_oak_dresser_lancashire"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_274a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>LANCASHIRE DRESSER. ABOUT 1730-1750.</p>
+<p>Oak inlaid with mahogany.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_274b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>ELM WARDROBE (WELSH). ABOUT 1670.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_274"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_275"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="flap_top_table_hertfordshire_type" id="flap_top_table_hertfordshire_type"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_276a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>FLAP-TOP TABLE.</p>
+<p>Rare Hertfordshire Example. Diameter of top, 2 ft. 6 ins.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell &amp; Sons.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="spindle_back_chairs_lancashire" id="spindle_back_chairs_lancashire"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_276b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>LANCASHIRE SPINDLE-BACK CHAIRS.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><a id="Page_276"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span>
+A carved oak chest of Welsh origin, dated 1636,
+with Welsh inscription on lid, is illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_271">269</a>).
+The table on which it stands is of a later date. The
+carving in this piece is delicate and the middle panel
+is typical of the representation of birds and foliage.
+The Welsh cupboard on the same page typifies the
+coarse woodcarving associated with Welsh farmhouse
+art. In style this really belongs to a date
+not later than 1650. But it is dated 1710 and bears
+the initials "I.S." This is an interesting example,
+showing how middle-Jacobean styles lingered in
+country districts remote from outside influence until
+the early eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>An elm wardrobe, probably about 1670 in date,
+shows another type, but still retaining the coarse
+character of its carving and its well-filled panels
+and uprights (illustrated p. <a href="#Page_273">273</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Scottish Types.</b>&mdash;Scotland has antiquities of her own
+which are closely allied to those of all the Gaelic
+races. As with Welsh carved farmhouse furniture,
+there is a marked leaning towards coarse style. As
+a rule it is too utilitarian in appearance to display
+much carving. The spinning-wheel is still found
+in farmhouses, and is still used in Harris and the
+outlying islands. Sometimes these old Highland
+spinning-wheels come into the market with the
+smooth surface worn by generations of workers, a
+surface impossible to reproduce. The Scottish ironwork
+is especially interesting. Perhaps the most
+curious of the Scottish antiquities is the crusie. This
+is undoubtedly a survival of the classic oil lamp. It
+consists of a shallow trough with a spout in which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span>
+the wick stands, the oil being contained in the trough
+(see illustration, p. <a href="#Page_288">289</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Lancashire Furniture.</b>&mdash;The especial characteristics
+of Lancashire-made furniture are a strong leaning to
+solid structure and a very noticeable reticence in
+carving. Well-balanced as a rule, and possessing
+good joinery, they have been favourites with collectors
+of furniture designed for modern use. A
+Queen Anne oak dresser illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_137">135</a>) shows
+this Lancashire sturdiness at its best. This style
+of large dresser with cabriole legs is associated with
+Lancashire cabinet work.</p>
+
+<p>A Lancashire dresser, the date of which is from
+about 1730 to 1750, shows the oak dresser inlaid with
+mahogany. The carved pediment and the carved
+underwork beneath the drawers mark this as an
+unusual specimen (p. <a href="#Page_273">273</a>).</p>
+
+<p>A typical Lancashire oak settle is illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>),
+showing the Jacobean style in the carved work and
+in the arms. In date this is about 1660. It will be
+noticed that the front of the seat has a row of holes,
+which, prior to the upholstered cushion, a later
+addition, were intended for ropes to support a
+cushion, much in the same manner as the iron laths
+of a modern bedstead.</p>
+
+<p>On the same page is illustrated an oak chest of
+drawers of Yorkshire origin, in date about 1770. Its
+plain lines suggest the Hepplewhite types of subdued
+character.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to spindle-back chairs, Lancashire offers
+distinctive varieties. Two examples are illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_275">275</a>) as indicating this local type.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_279"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_chest_of_drawers_yorkshire_type" id="oak_chest_of_drawers_yorkshire_type"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_280a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1770.</p>
+<p>Yorkshire type.</p>
+<p>Height, 3 ft. 3 ins.; width, 3 ft. 1 in.; depth, 1 ft. 5-1/2 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="lancashire_oak_settle_c_1660" id="lancashire_oak_settle_c_1660"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_280b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>LANCASHIRE OAK SETTLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1660.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="three_legged_table_isle_of_man" id="three_legged_table_isle_of_man"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_282a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>ISLE OF MAN TABLE.</p>
+<p>Showing three legs with knee breeches and buckle
+shoes.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="cricket_tables_hertfordshire_south_beds_cambridge_and_essex" id="cricket_tables_hertfordshire_south_beds_cambridge_and_essex"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_282b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>"CRICKET" TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1700.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>"CRICKET." <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1750.</p>
+<p>(These types are found in Hertfordshire, South Bedfordshire, South Cambridge, and Essex.)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><a id="Page_280"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_281"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_282"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">283</a></span>
+<b>Three Legged Tables.</b>&mdash;Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire,
+Cambridge, and Essex have produced a type of
+tables termed colloquially "cricket tables," possibly
+because the three legs are suggestive of three stumps.
+The term is a foolish one and not very appropriate.
+A very interesting flap-top table with the three flaps
+to turn down, illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_275">275</a>), is a very rare Hertfordshire
+example. This is small in size, having only
+a diameter of two and a half feet.</p>
+
+<p>Two other tables, one in date about 1700 and the
+other, of slender form, in date about 1750, are typical
+of this class of table. A very interesting table is a
+specimen from the Isle of Man having three carved
+legs with knee-breeches and buckle shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Sussex is also well-known for her ironwork (see
+Chapter X.).</p>
+
+<p>Norfolk and Suffolk used to have a class of oak
+furniture of quaint type, less cumbersome than the
+Welsh. A type of Sheraton Windsor chair, often
+inlaid with brass, used also to be found there.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, those localities which are removed
+from important towns are the richest in cottage
+furniture, for example, Wales, Devonshire, Cumberland,
+Northumberland, and parts of Yorkshire. In
+places, where the prosperity of the peasants is of long
+standing, the cottage furniture has been maintained
+whole almost until the present day.</p>
+
+<p>Altogether the study of local types affords considerable
+scope for critical study. It is essential that
+such pieces should be identified and classified before
+it is too late. Rapidly all cottage and farmhouse
+furniture is being scattered over all parts of England.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span>
+Collectors transfer furniture from the North to the
+South, and the rural treasures of the peasant have
+been brought to towns and dispersed to alien districts.
+The Education Act of 1870 and the halfpenny
+newspaper have brought town fashions to the door of
+the cottager, and the motor has laid a heavy tribute
+on rustic seclusion.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_285"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER X<br />
+MISCELLANEOUS<br />
+IRONWORK, Etc.</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_286"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER X<br />
+<span class="medium">MISCELLANEOUS IRONWORK, ETC.</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">The rushlight-holder&mdash;The dipper&mdash;The chimney crane&mdash;The
+Scottish crusie&mdash;Firedogs&mdash;The Warming-pan&mdash;Sussex
+firebacks&mdash;Grandfather clocks.</p>
+
+<p>The everyday iron utensils and implements of the
+cottages were simple. It is one of the curious
+features of the English peasantry that just as they
+clung to their oak of generations back when mahogany
+was in vogue, so they adhered tenaciously
+to ironwork of almost mediæval character when
+other metals were in fashionable everyday use.
+Thus the cottager did not feel the oncoming desire
+for the brass, or later silver and plated candlesticks,
+but remained firm in his affection for the rushlight-holders
+in iron, the same types which his ancestors
+had used, and the firedogs and firebacks of earlier
+type remained to decorate his hearth. Thus ironwork
+and rarely brasswork form the sum total of
+the metal portion of cottage furniture. We will
+deal with these various utilitarian objects one by one.</p>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that the country farmer
+was not familiar with ready-made candles, and it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">288</a></span>
+probably no more entered his head to purchase
+candles in a town than it occurred to him to do
+other than bake his own bread. The cottager therefore
+made his candles for himself. If he were
+well-to-do and could afford to entertain his friends
+in modest fashion, he would doubtless like to illuminate
+his table with candles of symmetrical form.
+In which case he would use a candle-mould, and
+the wax bought in towns would serve for this
+purpose. But he was not always so rich, and
+perhaps he was happiest of all with the faintly
+glimmering rush dips which his forbears used.
+These afforded a rough-and-ready form of lighting.
+They burned and spluttered like a torch or flickered
+faintly as the tallow grew thin. Their form closely
+resembled an amateur's first attempt at making a
+cigarette. They were made in the following manner:
+the thin wirelike rushes which grew by the water's
+edge were gathered and stripped of their green
+surface till only the soft white pith remained. This
+served as a wick. The wax was then melted over
+a fire in a trough or candle-dipper, of which an
+illustration appears (p. <a href="#Page_288">289</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Across this long receptacle the pith wicks were
+laid till the wax soaked into them. They were
+then taken out for the wax to cool and were dipped
+once or twice afterwards in order to form their
+outer coating. By such a primitive process a kind
+of thin taper was formed. It was not parallel along
+its sides, but bulged and narrowed throughout its
+length in primitive manner.</p>
+
+<div><a name="rushlight_holders_scotch_crusie_candle_dipper_pipe_cleaner_etc" id="rushlight_holders_scotch_crusie_candle_dipper_pipe_cleaner_etc"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_290a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>RUSHLIGHT HOLDERS.</p>
+<p>Showing rush fixed ready for lighting.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>SCOTCH CRUSIE.</p>
+<p>With holder.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>RUSHLIGHT HOLDERS.</p>
+<p>Showing forceps for holding
+rushlight.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_290b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SUFFOLK PIPE CLEANER.</p>
+<p>The long clay "churchwarden" pipes were placed in this iron rack and
+put into the fire, after which they came out perfectly cleaned.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>CANDLE-DIPPER.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>(<i>In the collection of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="queen_anne_pot_hanger_with_original_grate" id="queen_anne_pot_hanger_with_original_grate"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_292a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>QUEEN ANNE POT-HANGER.</p>
+<p>With original grate. Same date.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="kettle_trivet" id="kettle_trivet"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_292b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>KETTLE TRIVET.</p>
+<p>Brass and Iron. Dated about 1770.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Such a taper, from its uneven thickness, would
+<a id="Page_289"></a>
+<a id="Page_290"></a>
+<a id="Page_291"></a>
+<a id="Page_292"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">293</a></span>
+naturally not fit the socket of a candlestick, and the
+only receptacle would be a scissor-like mechanism
+with jaws capable of clasping it at any point.
+Thus we find the rushlight-holder of common use,
+as illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_288">289</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations show two rush-holders with the
+rushlights affixed in position ready for lighting,
+and one showing how the jaws or forceps clip
+the rushlight. In practice about an inch or an
+inch and a half was above the clip and the rest
+below. A rushlight some twelve to fifteen inches
+long would burn half an hour, and it had to
+receive constant attention, being pushed upwards
+every five minutes. But it must be remembered
+that the persons who used this primitive form of
+light did not use it for reading nor for a long
+period at a time. They usually went to bed early
+after sunset.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to rushlight-holders the earliest form
+was without the accompanying candle-socket, but
+when the use of tallow dip candles became prevalent,
+later forms are found, as illustrated, with the
+candle-socket in addition to the holder for the
+rushlight.</p>
+
+<p>The Scottish crusie is an iron trough of dimensions
+like a small sauceboat, which was used for lighting
+purposes, and was often suspended, as in the one
+illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_288">289</a>), from a crane or hanger. This
+crusie was filled with oil and the illumination given
+by a floating wick, much in the same manner as
+classic examples, to which the shape bears a distant
+resemblance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span>
+The firedogs were always simple, doubtless the
+product of the local blacksmith. Where they had
+hooks along the backs they held crossbars to
+prevent the logs falling into the room. The dates
+of these, as of all cottage ironwork, are almost impossible
+to fix, owing to the survival of the earlier
+types even so late as the middle of the nineteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Chimney Crane.</b>&mdash;A most important part of the
+cottager's fireplace was his chimney crane. These
+were of two kinds, the pot-hook and the swing-arm
+variety. The pot-hook hung in the chimney from
+a chain, and from its teeth was fixed a catch which
+might be lowered or raised to keep the cauldron at
+a level with the flames.</p>
+
+<p>The swing-arm type is more elaborate, and was
+made to fit very large fireplaces, where the fire might
+not invariably be in the same spot on the hearth.
+This type was used in the kitchens of the better
+farmhouses. Its end was fixed to the wall of the
+hearth, and the pot could be swung backwards and
+forwards and sideways, besides being raised or
+lowered to the fire.</p>
+
+<p>The pot-hook is of great antiquity, and belongs
+to days when man first learned to cook his food.
+Frequently in this country early examples are dug
+up. There are fine specimens to be seen of the
+late Celtic period at the Owens College Museum,
+at the Northampton Museum, at the Liverpool
+Museum, at the Pitt Rivers Museum at Farnham,
+at the Victoria and Albert Museum, and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>"Pot-hooks and hangers" is an English phrase
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span>
+denoting the beginning of things academic, and
+the French phrase <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pendre la crémaillère</i> (literally
+to hang the pot-hook) is used to-day in reference
+to what we term a "house-warming" party on
+settling in a new abode.</p>
+
+<p>Another interesting cottage treasure is the cake-baker.
+This was a kind of thick frying-pan having
+a lid, which protected the dough from the heat when
+it was held over the smouldering ashes. The tops
+of these are often incised with quaint patterns, the
+impress of which appears on the cake.</p>
+
+<p>Kettle-trivets are sometimes found in cottages,
+possibly relics from better houses or having belonged
+to the more prosperous farmer. They are not
+wholly of iron, being partly of brass. The specimen
+illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_288">291</a>) is of late eighteenth-century
+days.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Warming-pan.</b>&mdash;There is an especial charm
+in the old brass warming-pan of the farmhouse and
+the treasured highly-polished ornament of many
+a proud cottager to-day. Many modern-made
+warming-pans from Holland and elsewhere have
+found their way into the possession of unsuspecting
+collectors. But fine old English warming-pans
+are interesting, and summon up memories of careful
+housewives and well-aired lavender-smelling sheets in
+ancient old-world inns. On fine examples inscriptions
+may be found, and the incised work of the pattern
+on the brass covers is often individual in character.</p>
+
+<p>Of the examples illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_311">307</a>) one has an
+incised inscription around the edge, "The Lord only
+is my portion." The other has a dotted geometrical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span>
+pattern with a star-like design of conventional floral
+incised work.</p>
+
+<p>It is unfortunate that the diligence of the housewife
+has often obliterated much of the fine work of
+some of these designs. The warming-pan offers in
+itself a complete field for the collector. He can
+compare the work of seventeenth-century Dutch
+examples, with their quaint religious inscriptions
+and their finely embossed and engraved ornamentation,
+with English specimens of the same date.
+That the warming-pan was in use in Elizabethan
+days is proved by references in Shakespeare. It
+has a long history, from Sir John Falstaff, when
+Bardolph was bidden to put his face between the
+sheets and do the office of a warming-pan, to
+Mr. Pickwick&mdash;to quote Sergeant Buzfuz, "Don't
+trouble yourself about the warming-pan&mdash;the
+warming-pan! Why, gentlemen, who does trouble
+himself about a warming-pan?"</p>
+
+<p><b>Sussex Firebacks.</b>&mdash;The fireback was usually part
+of the cottager's belongings, though perhaps only one
+would figure in his house, where possibly his only
+hearth was in his living-room.</p>
+
+<p>These were cast and forged in various parts of the
+country, and large numbers appear to have been
+made in Sussex, which is, or rather was, the greatest
+hunting-ground for good specimens of cottagers'
+ironwork. Some highly interesting specimens of
+these are to be herein illustrated.</p>
+
+<p>The records of the Sussex iron industry go back to
+a very early date, and the town of Lewes, in the
+thirteenth century, raised taxes by charging a toll on
+<a id="Page_297"></a>
+<a id="Page_298"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">299</a></span>
+every cartload of iron admitted. Under Edward III.
+the Sussex ironworks provided three thousand horseshoes
+and twenty-nine thousand nails for the English
+army in its campaign in Scotland. The local
+rhyme&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
+<div class="line">"Master Hogge and his man John</div>
+<div class="line i0h">They did cast the first cannon"&mdash;</div>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>is not without reason, as in Bodiam Castle and elsewhere
+are mortars of Sussex work of fifteenth-century
+style. In the sixteenth century a considerable
+number of firebacks was made, some with the
+royal arms and with the royal cipher, "E.R.," and
+bearing dates and sometimes makers' names.</p>
+
+<div><a name="country_firedogs_and_fire_grate_eighteenth_century" id="country_firedogs_and_fire_grate_eighteenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_298a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>COUNTRY FIREDOGS. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_298b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>FIRE GRATE. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The earliest form was stamped with the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fleur-de-lys</i>
+or with portions of twisted cable to form some sort
+of symmetrical design. We are enabled, by the
+kindness of Mr. C. Dawson, F.S.A., of Lewes, to
+reproduce some Sussex firebacks from his collection.
+An example of the first half of the sixteenth century,
+illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_305">301</a>), shows the rope-like border impressed
+on the sand mould, and the field impressed
+with repetitions of a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fleur-de-lys</i> from a single stamp.
+Another interesting fireback is the "Royal Oak"
+design, with the initials "C.R." This is commemorative
+of the escape of Charles II. from pursuit by
+Cromwell's Ironsides and his refuge in the oak-tree.
+It will be observed that this specimen has a moulded
+edge, which is from a single wood pattern carved
+in one piece. Amidst the oak foliage will be seen
+three crowns, and this exuberance of loyalty bears
+a resemblance to certain chairs of the period (copied
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span>
+by the score nowadays), in which the crown finds a
+place in the stretcher.</p>
+
+<p>One fireback illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_305">303</a>) shows an ironmaster
+with his hammer at his forge. The adjacent
+piece has the Tudor rose surmounted by the royal
+crown, and bears the date 1650, slightly earlier than
+the "Royal Oak" example.</p>
+
+<p>All the foregoing specimens are native in their
+conception of design. They approximate closely to
+the Jacobean carved panel with its narrow range
+of subjects, and have a relationship to Stuart needlework
+with its royal symbolism. Later came the
+Dutch influence, most marked in its effect upon the
+shape, height, and character of these firebacks. This
+became especially noticeable in the eighteenth century,
+and in the illustrations (p. <a href="#Page_305">303</a>) of two wooden
+patterns from which the firebacks were made at
+Ashburnham, Sussex, this is clearly shown. The
+designs are ornate and represent either some
+scriptural or mythological subject. The woodcarving
+is of a style strongly under Dutch influence,
+and the tall proportions suggest gravestones (indeed,
+in Sussex there are headstones made of iron, with
+pictures and inscriptions).</p>
+
+<p>The mode of casting these iron firebacks in sand
+and the employment of wooden patterns to form the
+mould into which the molten metal was to run is
+familiar to any foundry in casting iron. In regard
+to the early examples with the twisted cable rim,
+it is conjectured that pieces of twisted rope were
+actually laid on the wet sand to produce this pattern&mdash;that
+is, before the use of carved wooden patterns such
+<a id="Page_301"></a>
+<a id="Page_302"></a>
+<a id="Page_303"></a>
+<a id="Page_304"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">305</a></span>
+as are illustrated. In regard to the bolder "cable
+twist" pattern, it is believed this was produced by
+impression of pieces of rope stiffened with glue, and
+twisted around iron rods.</p>
+
+<div><a name="sussex_iron_firebacks" id="sussex_iron_firebacks"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_302a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SUSSEX IRON FIREBACK. FIRST HALF OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+<p>Rope-like border impressed on sand mould. The field impressed with
+repetitions from a single <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fleur-de-lys</i> stamp.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_302b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SUSSEX IRON FIREBACK.</p>
+<p>The Royal Oak Design, commemorative of the Restoration. Late Seventeenth Century.
+Moulded edge and carved in one piece from a single pattern.</p>
+<p>(<i>In the collection of Charles Dawson, Esq., F.S.A., Lewes.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="sussex_iron_firebacks_and_original_wood_pattern" id="sussex_iron_firebacks_and_original_wood_pattern"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_304a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SUSSEX FIREBACKS.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>Tudor Rose surmounted by Royal
+Crown. Dated 1650.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>Depicting Ironmaster at his Forge.<br />
+(Very rusty and worn.)]
+</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_304b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>ORIGINAL WOODEN PATTERNS.</p>
+<p>Dutch influence. Eighteenth Century.
+From which firebacks were made at Ashburnham, Sussex.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Charles Dawson, Esq., F.S.A., Lewes.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The size of the wooden pattern is slightly larger
+than the resultant fireback, owing to the shrinkage
+of the metal on cooling. This diminution in design
+is a factor in the potter's art, when figures in some
+cases lose nearly a third of their original proportions
+when moulded in the clay prior to firing.</p>
+
+<p>Firebacks have attracted a considerable amount
+of interest. There are many collectors, and a great
+deal of close study has been applied to the subject.
+Country museums in the vicinity of the Weald of
+Sussex and Kent contain many notable examples,
+especially those of Lewes, Hastings, Brighton,
+Rochester, Maidstone, and Guildford. In the first
+mentioned there are some very rare and beautiful
+examples of Sussex firebacks.</p>
+
+<p>Especially interesting in connection with the
+Sussex ironworks is the illustration (p. <a href="#Page_311">309</a>) of a clock
+face made by a local maker, Beeching of Ashburnham,
+in the late seventeenth century. This
+brass dial of a thirty-hour clock, with single hand
+and alarum, is ornamented with designs showing
+various phases of the iron industry as carried on in
+Sussex. There is a cannon with diminutive figures
+holding the match. There are cannon-balls, and a
+liliputian fireback with a crown on it. Men with
+pickaxes, men felling trees, and others tending the
+furnaces, symbolise the business of a foundry.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until 1690 that the minute numerals
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">306</a></span>
+were placed outside the minute divisions in clock
+faces, so that this face, having the minute numerals
+absent and the minute divisions in the inner circle,
+presumably belongs to the late seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p><b>Grandfather Clocks.</b>&mdash;A volume on cottage and
+farmhouse furniture would be incomplete without
+some reference to grandfather clocks. At the beginning
+of the eighteenth century this type of clock
+had become popular. The early brass-bracket clock
+known as "Cromwellian," varying from six to ten
+inches in height, had a spring. With the use of the
+long pendulum and revolving drums, around which
+catgut is wound to support the heavy weights, these
+unprotected parts required a wooden case.</p>
+
+<p>The "lantern" or "bird-cage" clocks (wallclocks
+from which the pendulum and weights hung unprotected)
+lasted till about 1680, when the first
+grandfather type with wood case came into use.</p>
+
+<p>The early examples with cases exhibiting fine
+marquetry are outside the scope of the class of
+furniture now under consideration. In such specimens
+there is frequently a round or oval opening covered
+with glass in the centre of the panel.</p>
+
+<p>In earlier types the metal dial is square, and later
+it became lunetted at top, and the wood case had a
+corresponding curve. In clocks made for great
+houses there were chimes, and their works were by
+well-known town makers. But in cottage examples,
+instead of the eight-day movement, more often than
+not the clock only ran for twenty-four hours. There
+is little attempt at ornament in these plain oak
+varieties. The case is soundly constructed, and
+<a id="Page_307"></a>
+<a id="Page_308"></a>
+<a id="Page_309"></a>
+<a id="Page_310"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">311</a></span>
+sometimes, in exceptional examples, the head is surmounted
+by brass ball finials, as in the finer examples.
+As a rule the country cabinet-maker confined himself
+to an ornamental scrolled head. In later examples
+the metal dial&mdash;and these come at the beginning of
+the nineteenth century&mdash;is painted with some rustic
+scene with figures, and frequently there is a revolving
+dial showing the days of the month.</p>
+
+<div><a name="grandfather_clock_and_warming_pans" id="grandfather_clock_and_warming_pans"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_308.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>WARMING-PANS.</p>
+<p>Finely decorated with incised work.
+One with inscription, "The Lord only is my portion."</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Mr. S. G. Fenton.</i>)</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>GRANDFATHER CLOCK.</p>
+<p>With Oak Case.</p>
+<p>Made by J. Paxton, St. Neots. Height, 6 ft. 10 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="brass_dial_of_thirty_hour_clock" id="brass_dial_of_thirty_hour_clock"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_310.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>BRASS DIAL OF THIRTY-HOUR CLOCK.</p>
+<p>Single Hand and Alarum. Late Seventeenth Century.</p>
+<p>Ornamented with designs showing various phases of the iron industry, as carried on
+at Ashburnham, Sussex.</p>
+<p>(<i>In the collection of Charles Dawson, Esq., F.S.A., Lewes.</i>)]</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The entire head covering the dial is often removable
+in old clocks to which there is no hinged door, as in
+later made examples.</p>
+
+<p>These country grandfather clocks are much
+treasured by their owners, and have been handed
+down in families for generations. Owing to the
+indefatigability of collectors and their persistent and
+tempting offers, many have left their old homes.
+The demand has been great, and thousands of
+"grandfather" clocks have been made during the
+last twenty years and sold as "antique," or old cases
+with plain panels have received the unwelcome
+attention of the modern restorer and have been
+carved to please a popular whim for carved oak
+panels.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to dates of grandfather clocks the
+records of the Clockmakers' Company give a list
+of makers of the eighteenth century, enabling the
+period to be fairly accurately fixed. The walnut
+cases inlaid with floral marquetry, often attributed
+to the period 1690-1725, that is William and Mary
+and Queen Anne, frequently belong to a quarter of
+a century later. The case-makers clung more closely
+to old designs than did the clockmakers. Hence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">312</a></span>
+the case very often is of apparently older style
+than the works, though both were made contemporaneously.
+In addition to this, new clocks
+were put in older cases, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vice versa</i>, which, like
+putting new pictures in old frames, adds to the gaiety
+of collecting.</p>
+
+<p>In general the London clock-cases are only
+roughly indicative, in comparison with the Company
+records, of contemporary styles of furniture. In
+country-made pieces the wood cases are anything
+from twenty to forty years behind London fashions.
+For example, the arched top occurs after 1720 in
+London, and after 1735 in the provinces. In the
+<i>Director</i> of Chippendale and in Sheraton's and
+Hepplewhite's books of designs there are illustrations
+of clock cases. The progression of styles of eighteenth-century
+grandfather clock cases is from plain oak
+to figured walnut, black and red lacquer, floral,
+"seaweed," or mosaic marquetry, and in the latter
+decades of the eighteenth century inlaid mahogany
+cases, and many of these have finely veneered panels.
+In many country clocks oak cases are veneered in
+mahogany, but as a rule country made grandfather
+cases are plain oak. The example illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_311">307</a>)
+indicates the plain type of solidly made provincial
+piece. The clock was made by J. Paxton at St.
+Neots.</p>
+
+<p>The mahogany-cased grandfather clock is never
+found in cottages. There are no Chippendale styles
+in this field for the collector to search for. The
+plainness of the country style has happily in many
+instances preserved them from alien hands. An
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">313</a></span>
+interesting revival, chiefly on account of expense, is
+found in the Dutch clock, with china face painted
+with flowers, which the cottager bought in early and
+middle nineteenth-century days. This form of clock
+reverted to the unprotected pendulum and weights,
+and is an object-lesson in what the style of English
+clock was before the use of a long wooden case.
+But these Dutch clocks are interesting rather than
+valuable, and have not yet claimed the attention of
+collectors.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_314"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_315"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XI<br />
+<a name="old_english_chintzes" id="old_english_chintzes"></a>
+OLD ENGLISH<br />
+CHINTZES</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_316"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">317</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER XI<br />
+<span class="medium">OLD ENGLISH CHINTZES</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">By Hugh Phillips</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">The charm of old English chintz&mdash;Huguenot cloth-printers
+settle in England&mdash;Jacob Stampe at the sign
+of the Calico Printer&mdash;The Queen Anne period&mdash;The
+Chippendale period&mdash;The age of machinery.</p>
+
+<p>The present chapter has been added with perhaps
+some justification, since it seemed to the writer that
+such a subject as old English chintzes might appropriately
+take its place beside the equally homely
+craft of the rural cabinet-maker.</p>
+
+<p>For the chintz is the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tapisserie d'aubusson</i> of the
+peasant&mdash;it covers his chairs and drapes his windows,
+giving warmth and wealth of colour to the otherwise
+barren appearance of his cottage. Further, it reflects
+his simple horticultural tastes, for the brilliantly
+coloured roses, pansies, and convolvuluses which
+shine prominently on the glazed surface of the cloth
+are those flowers which are always to be found in his
+garden.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">318</a></span>
+Chintz or printed cotton is the only decorative
+fabric known to the village upholsterer. When
+persons of wealth hung their windows with silk
+brocades and covered their chairs with costly needlework
+and damasks, the rural cabinet-maker was
+supplying his modest <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">clientèle</i> with these homely
+patterns printed upon common cloth.</p>
+
+<p>These unassuming fabrics were as much cherished
+by the cottagers as anything which they possessed.
+The classical ornament of expensive silks they did
+not understand, and the freely treated birds and
+flowers which figured on chintz represented the
+Alpha and Omega of beauty in textile design.</p>
+
+<p>So great, indeed, is the fascination of these for the
+cottagers that to-day, in districts less penetrated
+by modern advance, the rural populace will not
+extend their affections to the up-to-date designs of
+upholsterers, but insist upon the old spot and sprig
+patterns of their ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>There is much wisdom in the conservative taste of
+the peasant, for the old chintz of the eighteenth and
+early nineteenth centuries was of the highest artistic
+merit. In the heyday of its fame the fabric was
+exceedingly fashionable amongst the richest persons,
+and there are abundant records of the popularity of
+old English chintzes upon the Continent. For, at
+its best periods, the chintz was not a base imitation
+of more expensive fabrics; it did not, for instance,
+occupy the relationship of pewter to silver or
+moulded composition to genuine woodcarving. On
+the contrary, the designing of chintzes is an art of
+distinction, governed by canons which bear little
+<a id="Page_319"></a>
+<a id="Page_320"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">321</a></span>
+relationship to other decorative textile crafts. For
+where the silk-weaver is confined to solid patterns
+which will appear in his transverse threads, the printer
+of cloths can wander unrestrained into designs of
+wonderful intricacy and beauty: every colour in
+nature he can imitate, and no object is too delicate
+or too rich to stamp upon his cotton. Indeed, his art
+stops little short of that of the painter of pictures.</p>
+
+<div><a name="old_trade_card_showing_calico_printers_at_work" id="old_trade_card_showing_calico_printers_at_work"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_320a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OLD TRADE CARD SHOWING CALICO PRINTERS AT WORK.</p>
+<p>"Jacob Stampe living at ye Sighn of the Callico Printer in Hounsditch Prints
+all sorts of Callicoes Lineings Silkes Stuffs New or Ould at Reasonable Rates."</p>
+<p>(<i>From old print at British Museum.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="huguenot_printed_chintz_with_portraits" id="huguenot_printed_chintz_with_portraits"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_320b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>ENGLISH PRINTED CALICO. ABOUT 1690.</p>
+<p>With contemporary portraits.</p>
+<p>(<i>By courtesy of Mr. T. D. Phillips.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>A glance at the illustrations will more closely
+confirm this, for such designs could not be imitated
+by any other textile process, the multitudinous
+twists and curves and the delicate shades and patches
+of colour being only possible to the printer.</p>
+
+<p>Interesting as is the study of old chintzes, the
+history of the art in England is even more fascinating.
+From the obscurity of a small local craft it became
+one of our great national industries.</p>
+
+<p>Of its earliest history in England we know nothing,
+and a search among old documents fails to reveal
+any traces of chintz-printing before the Renaissance.
+There are several vague references to the subject in
+the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but none
+of them disclose any solid information. Thus the
+question of who was the first chintz-printer remains
+an unsolved riddle. It appears, however, that in the
+seventeenth century there was a gradual immigration
+of foreign workmen of Dutch and French nationalities
+who were well versed in the art of cotton-printing&mdash;then
+well established upon the Continent. These
+people came over in gradually increasing numbers,
+their arrival culminating in the huge influx of
+foreigners about 1650 to 1700.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">322</a></span>
+The majority of them were by trade silk-weavers
+and printers. Their departure was a serious blow
+to France, for they transferred to England what had
+been great national industries in France. Settling
+in and about London, the refugees peaceably recommenced
+their work, and soon the weaving of
+silks in Spitalfields and the printing of chintzes in
+Richmond, Bow, and Old Ford became a source of
+great prosperity to this country.</p>
+
+<p>On p. <a href="#Page_321">319</a> is an illustration of a seventeenth-century
+trade card of one of the chintz-printers, or,
+as they were then called, calico-printers. Here we
+see in a most lucid manner the process by which
+chintzes were produced in the time of James II.
+The inscription runs: "Jacob Stampe living at Ye
+Sighn of the Callico Printer in Hounsditch Prints all
+sorts of Callicoes Lineings Silkes Stuffs, New or
+Ould, at Reasonable Rates."</p>
+
+<p>A printer is standing at a table upon which is
+stretched a length of cloth, which falls in folds on
+the floor. He holds in his hand a wooden block,
+which he is applying at intervals to the cloth. The
+other hand contains a mallet, which is about to strike
+the wooden block and stamp the colour firmly into
+the threads of the material. Behind him is an
+apprentice boy, standing over a tub of colour, preparing
+the blocks for his master to use.</p>
+
+<div><a name="hand_printed_chintzes_queen_anne_period_and_chinese_style" id="hand_printed_chintzes_queen_anne_period_and_chinese_style"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_324.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ.</p>
+<p>Queen Anne Period.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ.</p>
+<p>Chinese style. Middle Eighteenth Century.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>By so clumsy a process very delicate work could
+not be produced, and, indeed, the few examples of
+this period which remain are very heavy in character.
+One of these, which has been lent by Mr. J. D. Phillips,
+the owner, is illustrated on p. <a href="#Page_321">319</a>. It belongs to the
+<a id="Page_323"></a>
+<a id="Page_324"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">325</a></span>
+end of the seventeenth century and corresponds to
+the William and Mary period of English furniture,
+being contemporary with the pieces illustrated on
+pp. <a href="#Page_79">77</a>, <a href="#Page_121">117</a> in the earlier chapters. It will be seen
+that this example contains two portraits in costume
+of the late Stuart period, possibly intended for
+portraits of William and Mary. Their portraits are
+of frequent occurrence on Lambeth delft of this
+period.</p>
+
+<p>The printer has only produced the outline, the
+colour being added by hand with a brush, for at
+this date the printing of colour by the successive
+application of blocks had not been mastered. The
+black ink to-day lies thick upon the cloth, as
+coarsely as though it had been dabbed on with a
+stencil. The material is a rough hand-woven canvas.
+Printed cloths of the period of Charles II. and
+James II. and William and Mary are exceedingly
+rare and seldom met with, as, owing to their
+roughness, they have been destroyed by subsequent
+owners. A few, however, are to be found on walnut
+chairs under the coverings of later date. Often,
+indeed, one meets a chair covered in Victorian
+horsehair which will reveal underneath the successive
+coverings of many generations of owners, including
+perhaps the material in which it was first
+upholstered.</p>
+
+<p>As the seventeenth century wore on and we enter
+upon the early years of the eighteenth century&mdash;the
+days of Queen Anne&mdash;the chintz-printers became
+more prosperous. Their work, owing to its increasing
+delicacy, met with great public approval,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">326</a></span>
+and it began to supplant woven silks for the purposes
+of curtains, coverings, and dresses. Thus the silk-weavers
+of Spitalfields found a declining market for
+their goods and soon came into friction with the
+printers. Much bad feeling ensued, and eventually
+their quarrels resulted in the distribution of defamatory
+literature which is to-day most amusing. The
+weavers circulated the curious "Spittlefields Ballad"
+against "Calico Madams," or the ladies who wore
+chintz dresses.</p>
+
+<p>THE SPITTLEFIELDS BALLADS</p>
+
+<p>OR THE</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Weaver's Complaint Against the Callico
+Madams</span></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
+<div class="line">Our trade is so bad</div>
+<div class="line">That the weavers run mad</div>
+<div class="line">Through the want of both work and provisions,</div>
+<div class="line">That some hungry poor rogues</div>
+<div class="line">Feed on grains like our hogs,</div>
+<div class="line">They're reduced to such wretched conditions,</div>
+<div class="line">Then well may they tayre</div>
+<div class="line">What our ladies now wear</div>
+<div class="line">And as foes to our country upbraid 'em,</div>
+<div class="line">Till none shall be thought</div>
+<div class="line">A more scandalous slut</div>
+<div class="line">Than a tawdry Callico Madam.</div>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<div class="line">When our trade was in wealth</div>
+<div class="line">Our women had health,</div>
+<div class="line">We silks, rich embroideries and satins,</div>
+<div class="line">Fine stuffs and good crapes</div>
+<div class="line">For each ord'nary trapes</div>
+<div class="line">That is destin'd to hobble in pattins;
+<a id="Page_327"></a>
+<a id="Page_328"></a></div>
+<div class="line"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">329</a></span>
+But now we've a Chince</div>
+<div class="line">For the wife of a prince,</div>
+<div class="line">And a butterfly gown for a gay dame,</div>
+<div class="line">Thin painted old sheets</div>
+<div class="line">For each trull in the streets</div>
+<div class="line">To appear like a Callico Madam.</div>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<div><a name="exotic_bird_and_gothic_styles_eighteenth_century" id="exotic_bird_and_gothic_styles_eighteenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_328.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ.</p>
+<p>Exotic-Bird style. Middle Eighteenth Century.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ.</p>
+<p>Gothic style. Late Eighteenth Century.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The poet in several long stanzas warms in his
+indignation, and finally directs his verse against the
+male friends of all fair wearers of chintzes, suggesting
+that&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
+<div class="line i1">  "It's no matter at all</div>
+<div class="line">If the Prince of Iniquity had 'em,</div>
+<div class="line i1">  Or that each for a bride</div>
+<div class="line i1">  Should be cursedly tied</div>
+<div class="line">To some damn'd Callico Madam."</div>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>It is not surprising that the weavers should find it
+difficult to set their productions against those of the
+cloth-printers, for the chintzes of this period are
+surpassingly beautiful. One of them is illustrated on
+p. <a href="#Page_322">323</a>. Here the material is no longer a rough
+canvas, but is now a light dress cambric, similar to
+the thin smooth chintz cloth which has survived till
+to-day. A delicate pattern of intertwining stems
+winds upwards, the stalks having blossoms of finely
+cut outline and brilliant colours. Old chintzes of
+this period may be recognised by their lightness and
+by the long thin designs of intermingling flowers of
+Indian type. These were all more or less borrowed
+from the Marsupalitan printed cloths brought over
+by the India trading companies, and the flowers and
+colourings of this date are nearly always very closely
+copied from Eastern originals, the cornflower and carnation
+being among those most frequently met with.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">330</a></span>
+The ill-feeling between the printers and weavers
+was of long duration, and eventually took the form of
+open riots and street demonstrations similar to those
+of to-day. On one occasion, in 1719, they went from
+Spitalfields to Westminster and protested against the
+popularity of chintzes and suggested that their use be
+forbidden. On the return journey they manifested
+their feelings by tearing off the chintz gowns of
+various ladies whom they met upon the route.
+Evidently Parliament pandered to these labour riots,
+for in 1736 printed cloths were forbidden by Act of
+Parliament, but this legislation was of short duration;
+the Act was soon repealed and the fascinating
+material became the rage once more.</p>
+
+<p>The next stage at which we look upon chintz-printing
+is about 1760, in the middle of the period
+of Chippendale furniture. This is the golden period
+of its printing. Technically and artistically the
+hand-printed chintz now reached its climax. Colour-work
+by superimposed blocks was in full swing, and
+the designer had, in the works of contemporary
+artists, a wider field for the selection of subjects
+suitable for his fabric. Among the many varieties
+of chintzes which we find at this date the most
+prominent are the Gothic and Chinese designs
+to suit the current taste in furniture, and the exotic
+bird patterns, which are perhaps the finest of all.</p>
+
+<div><a name="hand_printed_chintz_by_r_jones_old_ford" id="hand_printed_chintz_by_r_jones_old_ford"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_332.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ. ABOUT 1760.</p>
+<p>By R. Jones, of Old Ford, London.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The formation of the designs has changed considerably
+by this time and we no longer find the
+intertwining or serpentine form as in the Queen
+Anne chintzes. The flowers and objects to be
+printed are now massed together and represented as
+<a id="Page_331"></a>
+<a id="Page_332"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">333</a></span>
+little disjointed islands floating in mid-air. By this
+distinctive feature they may easily be recognised.
+One of these charming exotic bird chintzes is illustrated
+on p. <a href="#Page_329">327</a>. Here a pheasant is resting under
+a palm-tree upon a small island of densely packed
+foliage. The whole idea of the design is taken from
+the Chinese porcelain of the period. The bird, the
+flowers, and every object portrayed come from the
+East and are drawn in the manner constantly seen
+upon the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Famille Rose</i> dishes and vases of the period.
+These exotic bird patterns are not exclusively found
+upon chintzes, for the collector of English porcelain
+will be familiar with them in the early productions of
+the Bow and Worcester factories.</p>
+
+<p>Another feature which one notices in printed fabrics
+at this date is the buff ground. The cloth is white,
+and the pattern is printed upon it in this state so
+that the pinks, blues, and greens of the flowers
+may have every advantage of transparency. The
+buff background is then printed in afterwards, leaving
+a thin margin around the design. In this manner
+great richness and depth is given to the colours without
+undue harshness, which would be the result if
+they were exhibited upon a white background. The
+illustration on p. <a href="#Page_329">323</a> shows a chintz in the Chinese
+manner, designed to conform with the oriental
+furniture of Chippendale. Here again we see the
+detached islets of vegetation, but instead of exotic
+birds we have Chinese vases containing flowers,
+and in the foreground a rococo shell, one of the
+then little-known species from the East greatly
+treasured in England. The carnations and foliage
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">334</a></span>
+will be readily recognised as copies from Chinese
+paintings. One might illustrate a very large number
+of these Chinese chintzes, but space will only permit
+one example. This particular specimen is probably
+unique; it is taken from an old roll of chintz printed
+about 1760 and left over after the owner had curtained
+his house. The roll (about twenty yards
+long) has been carefully preserved and handed down
+from generation to generation, so that its original
+colours and soft glaze remain intact.</p>
+
+<p>A chintz in the Gothic manner is illustrated on
+p. <a href="#Page_329">327</a>. It differs slightly from the others in that the
+island formation is combined with serpentine foliage.
+In the centre is a patch of ground upon which are
+the ruins of a Gothic church. The artist, however,
+has not forgotten to please those patrons who might
+prefer the Chinese style, and therefore he has quietly
+added the incongruous elements of prunus flowers in
+the foreground and palm-trees in the background.
+At first this quaint admixture may appear a bad art,
+but it must be remembered that at this quaint period
+the whole principle of decorative design was upset by
+the rococo school, and quaintness and delicacy of
+detail outweighed the greater considerations of line
+and proportion. We find a similar treatment of
+design later on in many Spode plates, especially in
+blue transfer-printed subjects.</p>
+
+<div><a name="hepplewhite_period_and_victorian_period_designs" id="hepplewhite_period_and_victorian_period_designs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_336.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>PRINTED CHINTZ.</p>
+<p>Hepplewhite Period.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>PRINTED CHINTZ.</p>
+<p>Victorian Period.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>In the third quarter of the eighteenth century
+we enter upon a new era in the history of chintzes.
+We may appropriately call it the age of machinery,
+for from this date the mechanical processes came
+in whereby chintz-printing was raised from the
+<a id="Page_335"></a>
+<a id="Page_336"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">337</a></span>
+position of a comparatively small craft to that of a
+huge national industry. The great manufacturing
+towns in the North, such as Manchester, were
+rising in importance, and Lancashire was forming
+the basis of its gigantic cotton trade. Following
+these trade movements, the old industry of cloth-printing
+gradually left its centre in London and
+was developed on a larger scale in the North of
+England.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of this great commercial spirit which
+seized the printing of textiles, hand-block printing
+did not pass away, for it has survived till to-day as
+the best method for fine artistic work; cretonnes and
+chintzes produced in this manner, even during the
+nineteenth century, are always good. Mechanical
+roller work, however, was responsible for a large output
+of work which is little worthy of preservation, and
+in the nineteenth century we find much machine-printed
+chintz which, to say the least, is not reminiscent
+of the fine handwork which preceded it in the
+mid-eighteenth century. The earliest machine-work
+was carried out by means of engraved copper plates
+applied to the cloth in a printer's press. One of
+these is illustrated on p. <a href="#Page_330">331</a>. It is exceedingly fine
+in its details, and very few old specimens of this
+pattern are in existence. In several places are
+inserted the printer's name and date, "R. Jones, Old
+Ford, 1761." The design is doubtless borrowed from
+the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Toiles de Jouy</i>, printed by a Bavarian at Jouay,
+near Versailles, about this time. The drawing, however,
+is finer than any specimens of his work which
+have come to the author's notice. A shepherdess is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">338</a></span>
+tending to her flock amid a classical ruin while she is
+listening to the music of a flute. In another portion
+of the design, a cock and hen are mourning for
+the loss of one of their brood which has been carried
+off by an eagle. This design is worthy of interest
+for its superior quality, as it must have been produced
+for some very fine house. There is another
+specimen printed in red in the Victoria and Albert
+Museum. The one which is illustrated here was
+found upon an exceedingly fine Chippendale bedstead.</p>
+
+<p>During the Hepplewhite and Sheraton periods of
+furniture the chintz ceases to have its pattern
+detached and grouped. Architectural details with
+figures disappear, and once more the designer returns
+to flowers as his subject for illustration. The foliage,
+however, now takes the form of vertical stripes, being
+contained within lace-like ribands placed at even
+distances. On p. <a href="#Page_334">335</a> is an illustration of a chintz
+about 1790 in which these features will be noticed.</p>
+
+<p>In the nineteenth century we find the chintz
+covered with disjointed sprigs, as though the flowers
+had been plucked and cast upon the cloth. Their
+outline is softened by a margin of dots. An illustration
+of this style is shown on p. <a href="#Page_334">335</a>.</p>
+
+<div><a name="victorian_chintz_in_the_collection_of_mrs_cobden_unwin" id="victorian_chintz_in_the_collection_of_mrs_cobden_unwin"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_340.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>PRINTED CHINTZ.</p>
+<p>From the Calico Printing Factory at Sobden, in Lancashire.
+Printed in 1831 under the direction of Richard Cobden.</p>
+<p>(<i>In the collection of Mrs. Cobden Unwin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>One need not pursue the history of chintzes
+further, for to do so would entail a discussion of
+modern methods. Suffice it to say that in the
+nineteenth century we come across the hideous black
+grounds, the base imitation of woven designs, leopard
+skins, and other inartistic perversions. We must
+rather bid adieu to this beautiful art ere it has begun
+<a id="Page_339"></a>
+<a id="Page_340"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">341</a></span>
+to decline. It will afford the reader much pleasure
+if he should form a collection of old specimens and
+frame them around his walls, for then he will fully
+appreciate their charm. In examining his own
+collection the author has spent many a pleasant hour,
+for these gaily coloured chintzes are among the most
+articulate relics which have come down to us. They
+breathe the spirit, the feelings, and the ideals of the
+periods wherein they were made. They show lucidly
+the various changes in fashion and the rise and wane
+in the popularity of certain forms of decoration. So
+delectable are their soft, faded colours, so fascinating
+are the designs, and above all, so enchanting is the
+old-world musty scent which always clings to them,
+that it would be hard indeed to withhold one's
+affection from them.</p>
+
+<hr class="c30" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_342"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_343"></a></p>
+
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+<div class="left20">
+
+<ul>
+
+<li>Adam style table, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li>America, the Windsor chair acclimatised in, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li>America, spindle-back chairs, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li>America, carved chests of Puritan colonists, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li>America, types coincident with Jacobean, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li>Anachronism in country makers' work, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>Anne, Queen, chintz printing in time of, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li>
+
+<li>Anne, Queen, style&mdash;cabriole leg, advent of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Anne, Queen, chests of drawers, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Anne, Queen, scandal at Court of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li>Anne, Queen, so-called style, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Back&mdash;the chair, and its development, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>Bacon cupboards, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>Ball and claw foot, introduction of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>"Barley sugar" turning, illustrated, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+<li>Bedfordshire tables, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Bedstead, Jacobean, illustrated, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li>Bevel of panel indicating date, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>Bible-boxes, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>-<a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>Bloomfield, Robert, quoted, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li>Bobbins, Buckinghamshire, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>Brittany dressers, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li>Broken corners, Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Buckinghamshire bobbins, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>Bureau bookcase and cupboard, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li>Bureaus, marquetry in coloured woods, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Byzantine types of furniture existent in Elizabethan days, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Cabriole leg, advent of the, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Cabriole leg (Queen Anne period), <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>Cambridge tables, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Candle dipper, the, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li>Cane-back chairs, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Cane-back chairs, late Stuart, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>Cane-back chair, its influence on farmhouse styles, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Caning in chairs out of fashion, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Chairs&mdash;
+  America, Windsor chair, types of, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>
+  Back, the, its development, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>
+  Caned-back chair, its influence on farmhouse styles, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">344</a></span>
+  Caned chairs, late Stuart, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>
+  Caning out of fashion, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>
+  Charles II. period styles, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>
+  Chippendale styles, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>
+  Chippendale, Windsor styles, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>
+  Corner chairs, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>
+  Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>
+  Cupid's bow top rail, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>
+  Cushions, their use with, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>
+  Derbyshire chairs, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>
+  Elizabethan turned chairs, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>
+  Evolution of the chair, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-<a href="#Page_241">241</a>
+  Fiddle splat chairs, introduction of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>
+  Fiddle splat, Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>
+  Fiddle splat, Windsor, at its best, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>
+  "Fiddle-string" backs, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>
+  Goldsmith, Oliver, his chair, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>
+  Grandfather variety, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>
+  Hepplewhite country styles, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>
+  Hepplewhite Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>
+  Horseshoe back, Windsor, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>
+  Jacobean, typical form, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>
+  Ladder-back chairs, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>
+  Lancashire rush-bottom chairs, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>
+  Lancashire spindle back chairs, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>
+  Modern office-chair, derivation of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>
+  Prince of Wales's feathers in back, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>
+  Ribbon-back, introduction of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>
+  Rush-bottomed chairs, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>
+  Shell ornament employed, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>
+  Sheraton country styles, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>
+  Sheraton Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>
+  Spindle-back chairs, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>
+  Splat, Queen Anne, the, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>
+  Straight-backed chairs, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>
+  Stretcher, evolution of the, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>
+  Tavern chairs, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>
+  Wheel-back Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>
+  Woods used, Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li>Charles II. chests of drawers, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li>Charles II. period, impetus given to furniture design, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li>Charles II. period, styles of chairs, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>Chests, Gothic, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Chests, sixteenth century, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Chests, Welsh carving, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Chests of drawers, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li>Chests of drawers, Charles II. period, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li>Chests of drawers, Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Children's stools, Jacobean, illustrated, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li>Chimney crane, the, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li>China and glass cupboards, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li>Chinese designs in chintzes, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+
+<li>Chinese style of Chippendale, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li>Chintz printing becomes a national industry, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li>Chintzes, old English, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>-<a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li>Chippendale and his contemporaries, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li>Chippendale clock cases, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li>Chippendale quoted, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li>Chippendale, ribbon designs of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li>Chippendale style, provincial, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Chippendale style Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li>Chocolate houses, polemic against, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">345</a></span>
+Chronology, seventeenth-century, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li>Claw-and-ball foot, introduction of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Clock and dresser combined, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>Clocks, grandfather, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li>Club foot, introduction of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Cobbett, William, quoted, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Coffee-drinking and coffee-houses, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>Coffee, women's petition against, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>Corner chairs, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li>Cottage furniture and earthenware compared, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+<li>Country cabinet-maker, his mixture of styles, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Country furniture, its sturdy independence, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li>Country makers little influenced by contemporary fashion, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li>Cradles, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>Cromwellian chests with drawers, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li>Crusie, the Scottish, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Cupboard, the bacon, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>Cupboard, Welsh carving, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Cupboards, corner, introduction of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Cupboards and drawers, taste for, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+
+<li>"Cupid's bow" underframing, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li>"Cupid's bow" top rail of chair, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li>Cushions, their use with chairs, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Delany, Mrs., quoted, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>Denmark, the conservation of old farmhouse furniture in, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li>Derbyshire chairs, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>Design books, eighteenth-century, publication of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Director</i>, by Chippendale, a working guide, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>Drawer accommodation a feature in late dressers, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>Drawers, chests of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li>Drawers, chests of, Charles II. period, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li>Drawers, chests of, Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Dresser and clock combined, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>Dressers, farmhouse, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li>Dressers&mdash;
+  Brittany, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>
+  Lancashire, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>
+  Normandy, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>
+  Welsh, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li>Dutch artisans print early English chintzes, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li>Dutch influence early eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Earthenware and cottage furniture compared, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+<li>Eighteenth-century dressers, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>Eighteenth-century pleasure gardens, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Eighteenth-century styles, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-<a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li>Elizabethan turned chairs, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>English chintzes, old, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>-<a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li>English farmhouse furniture, desirability of its preservation, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li>English joiners' work, its solidity, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li>Essex tables, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Exotic bird patterns in chintzes, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>"Farmer's Boy" (Robert Bloomfield) quoted, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">346</a></span>
+Farmhouse furniture (English), desirability of its preservation, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li>Farmhouse furniture influenced by walnut styles, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Farmhouse styles contemporary with the cane-back chair, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Feet&mdash;
+  Arcaded foot, Charles II. period, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>
+  Ball, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;
+    illustrated, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>
+  Claw-and-ball foot, introduction of the, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>
+  Club foot, its introduction, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>
+  Hoof foot, the, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>
+  Scroll or Spanish foot, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>
+  Spanish foot, the, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>
+  Spanish foot, in corrupted form, illustrated, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>
+  Trestle, in Gothic style, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li>Fiddle splat chairs, introduction of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Fiddle splat, Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li>Fiddle splat Windsor chair at its best, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li>"Fiddle-string" backs, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Firebacks, Sussex, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li>Firebacks, Sussex, fine examples exhibited, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li>Firedogs, cottage and farmhouse, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li>Food of country population, seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li>Foreign styles, slow assimilation of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>French artisans print early English chintzes, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Gate-leg tables, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li>Gate-leg table, double gates, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;
+  illustrated, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li>Gate-leg table, established as a popular type, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li>Gate-leg table, square top, illustrated, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+<li>Geometric panels, chests of drawers, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;
+  dressers, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li>Georgian styles, early types, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li>Gibbons, Grinling, the style of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li>Goldsmith, Oliver, his chair, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li>Gothic brackets to chests, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Gothic chests, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Gothic trestle, gate-leg table, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li>Grandfather chair, the, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li>Grandfather chair, curved lines of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li>Grandfather clocks, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li>Grandfather clock combined with dresser, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>Great Seal of Queen Anne, showing style of ornament, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Hardwick Hall, suite at, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li>Hepplewhite clock cases, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li>Hepplewhite influence on village work, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Hepplewhite quoted, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li>Hepplewhite style, provincial, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Hertfordshire tables, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Hogarth, the line of beauty the curve, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li>Hoof foot, the, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li>Horseshoe-back Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Incongruity of provincial cabinet-maker, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>Inlaid work rarely employed, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li>Inlaid work with walnut, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Inlaid work, woods used, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Irish Chippendale, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li>Ironwork, miscellaneous, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-<a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">347</a></span>
+Ironwork, Scottish, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Isle of Man tables, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Jacobean cradles, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>Jacobean dressers with geometric panels, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li>Jacobean furniture, typical styles, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li>Jacobean oak chair, typical form, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li>Jacobean period, its characteristics, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li>Jacobean period, late styles of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li>Jacobean style, its transition to William and Mary, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Jacobean Sussex firebacks, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li>Joinery, the solidity of English, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li>Jones, R., of Old Ford, chintz printer, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Kettle trivet, the cottager's, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Lacquer employed in clock-cases, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li>Ladder-back chair, the, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+
+<li>Lancashire chintzes, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+
+<li>Lancashire dressers, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li>Lancashire furniture, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Lancashire Queen Anne settle, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Lancashire rush-bottom chair, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li>Legs&mdash;
+  "Barley sugar" turning illustrated, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>
+  Cabriole leg, introduction of the, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>
+  Egg and reel turning, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;
+    illustrated, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>
+  Eight legs (gate table), <a href="#Page_99">99</a>
+  Elizabethan bulbous leg, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>
+  Jacobean straight-turned leg, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>
+  Jacobean, various forms of turning, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>
+  Queen Anne cabriole leg, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>
+  Six legs, gate table, illustrated, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>
+  Split urn leg, illustrated, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>
+  Straight leg again in vogue, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>
+  Urn-shaped leg, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>
+  Urn-shaped splat, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;
+    illustrated, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+<li>Linen-fold pattern on chests, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li>Local types, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li>Local types of furniture, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>-<a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li>London and the vicinity, chintz printed in, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+
+<li>Longleat, oak furniture at, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li>Lyngby (near Copenhagen), collection of old farmhouse furniture at, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Macaulay quoted, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li>Macaulay, "State of England in 1685" quoted, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+
+<li>Mahogany gate-leg tables, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li>Mahogany styles, their gracefulness, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li>Mahogany, the chief designers of, of the golden age, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li>Marlborough, Duchess of, and her intrigues, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li>Marquetry bureaus in coloured woods, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Marquetry, woods used in, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Minor cabinet-makers' work lacking harmony, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li>Modern office-chair, derivation from Windsor type, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li>More, Hannah, and the agricultural classes, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">348</a></span>
+Morris, William, his influence on furniture, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li>"Mule" chests, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Norfolk, oak furniture, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Normandy dressers, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li>Normans, furniture, styles of, introduced by, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>North, Roger, quoted, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Oak, erroneously used to carry out walnut designs, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li>Oak, general in its use, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li>Oak supplanted by walnut in fashionable furniture, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Oak the chief wood employed, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li>Office-chair, derivation from Windsor type, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li>Oriental patterns in chintzes, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Panelling, bevel of, indicating date of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>Panels, sunk, Jacobean style, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li>Patterns, wood, used for firebacks, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li>People, changing habits of the, in seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li>Pepys's <i>Diary</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+<li>Pleasure gardens, eighteenth-century, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Pot-hook, the, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li>Pot-hooks, fine examples, where exhibited, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li>Prince of Wales's feathers, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li>Provincial furniture many decades behind fashion, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Queen Anne, cabriole leg, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>Queen Anne dressers, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li>Queen Anne flap tables, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li>Queen Anne period, the splat of the, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Restoration period, chests of drawers, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li>Ribbon designs, introduction of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li>Roads in provinces, bad state of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+<li>Rush-bottom chair, the, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+
+<li>Rushlight holder, the, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Scandinavian origin of Elizabethan chair, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Scotland, Union with, proclamation by Queen Anne, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>Scottish types of ironwork, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>"Seaweed" marquetry in clock-cases, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li>Settle, Lancashire form, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Settle, Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Seventeenth-century, chronology of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li>Seventeenth-century settle (Lancashire), <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Seventeenth-century sideboard, typical style, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li>Seventeenth-century styles, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-<a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li>Seventeenth-century styles, types of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li>Shell ornament, early eighteenth-century, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Sheraton clock-cases, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li>Sheraton influence on country makers, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li>Sheraton influence in Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li>Sheraton style, provincial, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Sideboard, typical seventeenth-century style, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li>Sixteenth-century chests, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Sizergh Castle, oak room at, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li>Spanish foot, its use, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li>Spanish Succession, War of the, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>Spindle-back chair, the, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li>Spindle-back chairs (Lancashire), <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">349</a></span>
+Spinning-wheels, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>Spitalfields weavers, complaint as to chintz fashions, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+
+<li>Splat, the Queen Anne, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li>Staffordshire pottery and cottage furniture compared, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+<li>Stands for chests of drawers, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Stockholm, collection of farmhouse furniture at, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li>Stools, children's Jacobean, illustrated, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li>Straight-backed chairs, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>Stretcher, evolution of the, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li>Stretcher, Yorkshire splat form, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li>Suffolk oak furniture, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Sussex firebacks, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li>Sussex ironworks, the, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li>"Swan head" to cupboard, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li>Sweden, the conservation of old farmhouse furniture in, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li>Swift quoted, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Tables&mdash;
+  Adam style, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>
+  Arcaded spandrils, illustrated, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>
+  Bedfordshire types, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>
+  Cambridge types, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>
+  Collapsible form (Charles II.), <a href="#Page_103">103</a>
+  Cross stretcher, <b>X</b> form, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>
+  Cupid's bow underframing, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;
+    illustrated, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>
+  Elizabethan bulbous-leg form, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>
+  Essex types, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>
+  Flap tables (Queen Anne), <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;
+    (Georgian), illustrated, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>
+  Gate-leg, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_112">112</a>
+  Gothic trestle, gate-leg table, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>
+  Hertfordshire types, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>
+  Isle of Man table, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>
+  Scalloped-edge tea-table, illustrated, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>
+  Scalloped underframing, illustrated, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>
+  Sixteenth-century style, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>
+  Spandrils, arcaded, illustrated, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>
+  Stretchers, splat form, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;
+    illustrated, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>
+  Tea-table, Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>
+  Three-legged, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>
+  Underframing, Cupid's bow, illustrated, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>
+  Various local types, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>
+  Yorkshire type, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li>Tapers, how made by cottagers, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li>Tavern chair, the, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Tea-drinking becomes national, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>Tea-gardens, eighteenth-century, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Tea-table, Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li>Three-legged tables, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Transition from Jacobean to William and Mary styles, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Trestle in gate-leg table, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li>Triangular gate form, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;
+  illustrated, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li>Tripod tables, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li>Turning, various patterns in Jacobean leg, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Union with Scotland, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Varangian Guard introduce Byzantine furniture into Scandinavia, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Veneer, in walnut, early eighteenth-century, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">350</a></span>
+Village cabinet-maker, originality of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Wales, Prince of, feathers in chair back, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li>Walnut gate-leg tables, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li>Walnut in general use, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Walnut styles, early eighteenth-century, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Walnut supplanted by mahogany, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Warming-pan, the, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li>Wardrobe, Lancashire type, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Welsh carving, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li>Welsh dressers, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li>Wesley and the Methodist movement, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li>Whitefield and the colliers, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li>Wheel-back Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li>William and Mary dressers, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li>William and Mary gate-leg tables, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li>William and Mary period, finely turned work, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li>William and Mary style, its development from Jacobean, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Windsor chair, the, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>-<a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li>Windsor chair, the, Sheraton influence, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li>Windsor chair, its survival, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li>Windsor chairs, Chippendale style, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li>Wood patterns used for firebacks, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li>Woods employed in farmhouse furniture, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li>Woods used in Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li>Woods used in walnut marquetry, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Women's petition against coffee, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Yorkshire chairs, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>Yorkshire splat stretcher to tables, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4">UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED, THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON.</p>
+
+<hr class="c30" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_351"></a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2>
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Those interested in the method pursued in Sweden and Denmark
+and the grave necessity for speedy measures to preserve our national
+cottages and farmhouses from effacement will find illuminating articles
+on the subject from the pen of "Home Counties" in the <cite>World's
+Work</cite>, August, October, and November, 1910, and in the American
+<cite>Educational Review</cite>, February, 1911, in an article by Lucy M.
+Salmon. "Old West Surrey," by Gertrude Jekyll (Longmans &amp; Co.),
+1904, contains a wealth of suggestive material relating to cottage
+furniture and articles of daily use of old-style country life now
+passing away.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> <cite>Pepys's Diary</cite>, June 12, 16 8.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Postlethwaite's "Dictionary of Roads."</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c30" />
+
+<div class="bbox">
+
+<p class="center">VOLUMES FOR COLLECTORS<br />
+&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;BY THE SAME AUTHOR&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE</p>
+
+<p class="center">Companion volume to "Chats on Cottage and Farmhouse Furniture"<br />
+<i>Press Notices, First Edition</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Mr.</span> Hayden knows his subject intimately."&mdash;<cite>Pall Mall Gazette.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"The</span> hints to collectors are the best and clearest we have seen;
+so that altogether this is a model book of its kind."&mdash;<cite>Athenæum.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"A</span> useful and instructive volume."&mdash;<cite>Spectator.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"An</span> abundance of illustrations completes a well-written and well-constructed
+history."&mdash;<cite>Daily News.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Mr.</span> Hayden's taste is sound and his knowledge thorough."&mdash;<cite>Scotsman.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"A</span> book of more than usual comprehensiveness and more than
+usual merit."&mdash;<cite>Vanity Fair.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Mr.</span> Hayden has worked at his subject on systematic lines, and
+has made his book what it purports to be&mdash;a practical guide for the
+collector."&mdash;<cite>Saturday Review.</cite></p>
+
+<hr class="c65" />
+
+<p class="title1">CHATS ON ENGLISH CHINA</p>
+
+<p class="center"><cite>Press Notices, First Edition</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"A</span> handsome handbook that the amateur in doubt will find useful,
+and the china-lover will enjoy for its illustrations, and for the author's
+obvious love and understanding of his subject."&mdash;<cite>St. James's Gazette.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"All</span> lovers of china will find much entertainment in this volume."&mdash;<cite>Daily
+News.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"It</span> gives in a few pithy chapters just what the beginner wants to
+know about the principal varieties of English ware. We can warmly
+commend the book to the china collector."&mdash;<cite>Pall Mall Gazette.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"One</span> of the best points about the book is the clear way in which
+the characteristics of each factory are noted down separately, so that
+the veriest tyro ought to be able to judge for himself if he has a piece
+or pieces which would come under this heading, and the marks are
+very accurately given."&mdash;<cite>Queen.</cite></p>
+
+<hr class="c65" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_352"></a></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHATS ON<br />
+ENGLISH EARTHENWARE</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Companion volume to "Chats on English China")</p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Complementary</span> to the useful companion volume, in this 'Chats'
+Series, on English China which Mr. Hayden issued five years ago."&mdash;<cite>Times.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Is</span> a compendious account of our native English faïence, abundantly
+illustrated and accurately written."&mdash;<cite>Guardian.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"A</span> thoroughly trustworthy working handbook."&mdash;<cite>Truth.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"It</span> is a mine of knowledge, gathered from all quarters, and the
+outcome of personal experience and research, and it is written with
+no little charm of style."&mdash;<cite>Lady's Pictorial.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Mr.</span> Hayden knows and writes exactly what is needed to help the
+amateur to become an intelligent collector, while his painstaking care
+in verifying facts renders his work a stable book of reference."&mdash;<cite>Connoisseur.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"The</span> volume has been written as a companion to Mr. Hayden's
+'Chats on English China' in the same series, and those who recall
+the admirable character of that book will find this to be in no way
+inferior."&mdash;<cite>Nation.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"The</span> illustrations are profuse and excellent, and the author and
+the publishers must be commended for offering us so many reproductions
+of typical specimens that have not appeared in any previous
+handbook. The illustrations alone are worth the cost of the book."&mdash;<cite>Manchester
+Guardian.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Mr.</span> Hayden's book is filled to overflowing with beautiful and most
+instructive and helpful illustrations, and altogether it is one that will
+give immense pleasure to collectors, and much information to the
+admiring but ignorant."&mdash;<cite>Liverpool Courier.</cite></p>
+
+<hr class="c65" />
+
+<p class="title1">CHATS ON OLD PRINTS</p>
+
+<p class="center">A Practical Guide to Collecting and Identifying
+Old Engravings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Mr.</span> Hayden writes at once with enthusiasm and discrimination on
+his theme."&mdash;<cite>Daily Telegraph.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Any</span> one who, having an initial interest in matters of art, wants to
+form sound and intelligent opinions about engravings, will find this
+book the very thing for him."&mdash;<cite>Literary World.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"These</span> 'Chats' comprise a full and admirably lucid description of
+every branch of the engraver's art, with copious and suggestive illustrations."&mdash;<cite>Morning
+Leader.</cite></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<p>Transcriber's note:<br />
+The original page numbers that refer to illustrations have been retained, however, if you click
+on a link, it will take you to the page where the illustration now resides.</p></div>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44603 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 18:47:25 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 18:47:25 -0700
commit	8946de624be7a57b26405305f1a1e58254a528c7 (patch)
tree	437785873ef8c7e9af7c141b571b3cc423818625 /44603-h