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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chats on Cottage and Farmhouse Furniture, by 
+Arthur Hayden
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Chats on Cottage and Farmhouse Furniture
+
+Author: Arthur Hayden
+
+Release Date: January 6, 2014 [EBook #44603]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHATS ON FURNITURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Mary Akers and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+    Minor spelling and punctuation inconsistencies have been
+    harmonized. Italic text has been marked with _underscores_.
+    Obvious typos have been corrected.
+
+
+
+
+COMPANION VOLUME BY THE SAME AUTHOR
+
+CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE
+
+_Illustrated by 72 Full-page Plates._
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+    CHAPTER
+       I. THE RENAISSANCE ON THE CONTINENT
+      II. THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE
+     III. STUART OR JACOBEAN (Early Seventeenth Century)
+      IV. STUART OR JACOBEAN (Late Seventeenth Century)
+       V. QUEEN ANNE AND EARLY GEORGIAN STYLES
+      VI. FRENCH FURNITURE: THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV.
+     VII. FRENCH FURNITURE: THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XV.
+    VIII. FRENCH FURNITURE: THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XVI.
+      IX. FRENCH FURNITURE: THE FIRST EMPIRE STYLE
+       X. CHIPPENDALE AND HIS STYLE
+      XI. ADAM, HEPPLEWHITE, AND SHERATON STYLES
+     XII. HINTS TO COLLECTORS
+
+
+
+
+    CHATS ON
+    COTTAGE AND
+    FARMHOUSE FURNITURE
+
+
+
+
+BOOKS FOR COLLECTORS
+
+_With Coloured Frontispieces and many Illustrations._
+
+_Large Crown 8vo, cloth._
+
+
+   CHATS ON ENGLISH CHINA.
+
+    By ARTHUR HAYDEN.
+
+   CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE.
+
+    By ARTHUR HAYDEN.
+
+   CHATS ON OLD PRINTS.
+
+    By ARTHUR HAYDEN.
+
+   CHATS ON COSTUME.
+
+    By G. WOOLLISCROFT RHEAD.
+
+   CHATS ON OLD LACE AND NEEDLEWORK.
+
+    By E. L. LOWES.
+
+   CHATS ON ORIENTAL CHINA.
+
+    By J. F. BLACKER.
+
+   CHATS ON MINIATURES.
+
+    By J. J. FOSTER.
+
+   CHATS ON ENGLISH EARTHENWARE.
+
+    By ARTHUR HAYDEN.
+
+    (Companion Volume to "Chats on English China.")
+
+   CHATS ON AUTOGRAPHS.
+
+    By A. M. BROADLEY.
+
+   CHATS ON OLD PEWTER.
+
+    By H. J. L. J. MASSÉ, M.A.
+
+   CHATS ON POSTAGE STAMPS.
+
+    By FRED J. MELVILLE.
+
+   CHATS ON OLD JEWELLERY AND TRINKETS.
+
+    By MACIVER PERCIVAL.
+
+   CHATS ON COTTAGE AND FARMHOUSE FURNITURE.
+
+    By ARTHUR HAYDEN.
+
+    (Companion Volume to "Chats on Old Furniture.")
+
+
+    LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN.
+    NEW YORK: F. A. STOKES COMPANY.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: SIDEBOARD OF CARVED OAK. ENGLISH, SEVENTEENTH
+  CENTURY.
+
+  (_In the Victoria and Albert Museum._)
+
+    _Frontispiece._]
+
+
+
+
+    CHATS ON COTTAGE
+
+    AND
+
+    FARMHOUSE FURNITURE
+
+    BY
+
+    ARTHUR HAYDEN
+
+    AUTHOR OF "CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE," ETC.
+
+    WITH A CHAPTER ON
+
+    OLD ENGLISH CHINTZES
+
+    BY HUGH PHILLIPS
+
+    AND SEVENTY-THREE FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+    NEW YORK
+
+    FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY
+
+    PUBLISHERS
+
+
+
+
+(_All rights reserved._)
+
+
+
+
+    TO
+    MY OLD FRIEND
+    FREDERIC ARUP
+    I DEDICATE THIS VOLUME
+    IN MEMORY OF A HAPPY LABOUR
+    OF LOVE COMPLETED
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The number of works dealing with old English furniture has grown
+rapidly during the last ten years. Not only has the subject been
+broadly treated from the historic or from the collector's point
+of view, but latterly everything has been scientifically reduced
+into departments of knowledge, and individual periods have received
+detailed treatment at the hands of specialists.
+
+Museums and well-known collections, noblemen's seats and country
+houses have furnished photographs of the finest examples, and these,
+now well-known, pieces have appeared again and again as illustrations
+to volumes by various hands.
+
+It is obviously essential in the study of the history and evolution
+of furniture-making in this country that superlative specimens
+be selected as ideal types for the student of design or for the
+collector, but such pieces must always be beyond the means of the
+average collector.
+
+The present volume has been written for that large class of
+collectors, who, while appreciating the beauty and the subtlety of
+great masterpieces of English furniture, have not long enough purses
+to pay the prices such examples bring after fierce competition in the
+auction-room.
+
+The field of minor work affords peculiar pleasure and demands
+especial study. The character of the cottage and farmhouse furniture
+is as sturdy and independent as that of the persons for whom it
+was made. For three centuries unknown cabinet-makers in towns and
+in villages produced work unaffected by any foreign influences.
+Linen-chests, bacon-cupboards, Bible-boxes, gate tables, and other
+tables, dressers, and chairs possess particular styles of treatment
+in different districts. The eighteenth-century cabinet-makers
+scattered up and down the three kingdoms and in America found in
+Chippendale's "Director" a design-book which stimulated them to
+produce furniture of compelling interest to the collector.
+
+The examples of such work illustrated in this volume have been taken
+from a wide area and are such as may come under the hand of the
+diligent collector in various parts of the country.
+
+In view of the increased love of collecting homely furniture
+suitable for modern use, it is my hope that this book may find a
+ready welcome, especially nowadays, when so many of the picturesque
+architectural details of old homesteads are being reproduced in the
+garden suburbs of great cities.
+
+It is possible that the authorities of local museums may find in
+this class of furniture a field for special research, as undoubtedly
+specimens of local work should be secured for permanent exhibition
+before they are dispersed far and wide and their identity with
+particular districts lost for ever.
+
+In regard to the scientific study of farmhouse and cottage furniture,
+the ideal arrangement is that followed at Skansen, Stockholm, and
+at Lyngby, near Copenhagen. In the former a series of buildings
+have been erected in the open air, in connection with the Northern
+Museum, gathered from every part of Sweden, retaining their exterior
+character and fitted with the furniture of their former occupants. It
+was the desire of the founder, Dr. Hazelius, to present an epitome
+of the national life. Similarly at Lyngby, an adjunct of the _Dansk
+Folkemuseum_ at Copenhagen, the life-work of Hr. Olsen has been given
+to gathering together and re-erecting a large number of old cottages
+and farmhouses from various districts in Denmark, from Iceland, the
+Faroe Islands, and from Norway and Sweden. These have their obsolete
+agricultural implements, and old methods of fencing and quaint styles
+of storage. The furniture stands in these specimen homes exactly as
+if they were occupied. It is a remarkable open-air museum, and the
+idea is worthy of serious consideration in this country. Old cottages
+and farmhouses are fast disappearing, and the preservation of these
+beauties of village and country life should appeal to all lovers of
+national monuments.[1]
+
+  [1] Those interested in the method pursued in Sweden and Denmark
+  and the grave necessity for speedy measures to preserve our
+  national cottages and farmhouses from effacement will find
+  illuminating articles on the subject from the pen of "Home
+  Counties" in the _World's Work_, August, October, and November,
+  1910, and in the American _Educational Review_, February, 1911,
+  in an article by Lucy M. Salmon. "Old West Surrey," by Gertrude
+  Jekyll (Longmans & Co.), 1904, contains a wealth of suggestive
+  material relating to cottage furniture and articles of daily use
+  of old-style country life now passing away.
+In connexion with farmhouse furniture, old chintzes is a subject
+never before written upon. A chapter in this volume is contributed
+by Mr. Hugh Phillips, whose special studies concerning this little
+known field enable him to present much valuable information which has
+never before been in print, together with illustrations of chintzes
+actually taken from authentic examples of old furniture.
+
+A brief survey is made of miscellaneous articles associated with
+cottage and farmhouse furniture. Some specimens of Sussex firebacks
+are illustrated, together with fenders, firedogs, pot-hooks,
+candle-holders, and brass and copper candlesticks.
+
+The illustrations have been selected in order to convey a broad
+outline of the subject. My especial thanks are due to Messrs.
+Phillips, of the Manor House, Hitchin, for placing at my disposal
+the practical experience of many years' collecting in various parts
+of the country, and by enriching the volume with illustrations of
+many fine examples of great importance and rarity never before
+photographed.
+
+To Messrs. A. B. Daniell & Sons I am indebted for photographs of
+specimens in their galleries.
+
+In presenting this volume it is my intention that it should be a
+companion volume to my "Chats on Old Furniture," which records the
+history and evolution of the finer styles of English furniture,
+showing the various foreign influences on English craftsmen who made
+furniture for the wealthy classes.
+
+    ARTHUR HAYDEN.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+    CHAPTER I
+                                                                    PAGE
+    INTRODUCTORY NOTE                                                 25
+
+    The minor collector--The originality of the village
+    cabinet-maker--His freedom from foreign influences--The
+    traditional character of his work--Difficult to establish dates
+    to cottage and farmhouse furniture--Oak the chief wood
+    employed--Beech, elm, and ash used in lieu of mahogany and
+    satinwood--Village craftsmanship not debased by early-Victorian
+    art--Its obliteration in the age of factory-made furniture--The
+    conservation of old farmhouses with their furniture in
+    Sweden and in Denmark--The need for the preservation
+    and exhibition of old cottages and farmhouses in Great
+    Britain.
+
+    CHAPTER II
+
+    SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES                                        43
+
+    Typical Jacobean furniture--Solidity of English joiners'
+    work--Oak general in its use--The oak forests of England--Sturdy
+    independence of country furniture--Chests of
+    drawers--The slow assimilation of foreign styles--The
+    changing habits of the people.
+
+    CHAPTER III
+
+    THE GATE-LEG TABLE                                                83
+
+    Its early form--Transitional and experimental stages--Its
+    establishment as a permanent popular type--The gate-leg
+    table in the Jacobean period--Walnut and mahogany varieties--Its
+    utility and beauty contribute to its long survival--Its
+    adoption in modern days.
+
+    CHAPTER IV
+
+    THE FARMHOUSE DRESSER                                            113
+
+    The days of the late Stuarts--Its early table form with
+    drawers--The decorated type with shelves--William and
+    Mary style with double cupboards--The Queen Anne
+    cabriole leg--Mid-eighteenth-century types.
+
+    CHAPTER V
+
+    THE BIBLE-BOX, THE CRADLE, THE SPINNING-WHEEL,
+    AND THE BACON-CUPBOARD                                           137
+
+    The Puritan days of the seventeenth century--The Protestant
+    Bible in every home--The variety of carving found in
+    Bible-boxes--The Jacobean cradle and its forms--The
+    spinning-wheel--The bacon-cupboard.
+
+    CHAPTER VI
+
+    EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES                                        155
+
+    The advent of the cabriole leg--The so-called Queen Anne
+    style--The survival of oak in the provinces--The influence
+    of walnut on cabinet-making--The early-Georgian types--Chippendale
+    and his contemporaries.
+
+    CHAPTER VII
+
+    THE EVOLUTION OF THE CHAIR                                       189
+
+    Early days--The typical Jacobean oak chair--The evolution
+    of the stretcher--The chair-back and its development--Transition
+    between Jacobean and William and Mary forms--Farmhouse
+    styles contemporary with the cane-back chair--The
+    Queen Anne splat--Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite,
+    and Sheraton--The grandfather chair--Ladder-back types--The
+    spindle-back chair--Corner chairs.
+
+    CHAPTER VIII
+
+    THE WINDSOR CHAIR                                                243
+
+    Early types--The stick legs without stretcher--The tavern
+    chair--Eighteenth-century pleasure gardens--The rail-back
+    variety--Chippendale style Windsor chairs--The survival of
+    the Windsor chair.
+
+    CHAPTER IX
+
+    LOCAL TYPES                                                      265
+
+    Welsh carving--Scottish types--Lancashire dressers, wardrobes,
+    and chairs--Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire, Cambridge,
+    and Essex tables--Isle of Man tables.
+
+    CHAPTER X
+
+    MISCELLANEOUS IRONWORK, ETC.                                     285
+
+    The rushlight-holder--The dipper--The chimney crane--The
+    Scottish crusie--Firedogs--The warming-pan--Sussex
+    firebacks--Grandfather clocks.
+
+    CHAPTER XI
+
+    OLD ENGLISH CHINTZES. (By Hugh Phillips)                         315
+
+    The charm of old English chintz--Huguenot cloth-printers
+    settle in England--Jacob Stampe at the sign of the Calico
+    Printer--The Queen Anne period--The Chippendale period--The
+    age of machinery.
+
+    INDEX                                                            343
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    SIDEBOARD OF CARVED OAK (ENGLISH,
+      SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY)                      _Frontispiece_
+
+
+  CHAPTER I--INTRODUCTORY NOTE
+                                                         PAGE
+    CHESTS (SIXTEENTH CENTURY)                             29
+
+    ELIZABETHAN CHAIR                                      35
+
+    CHEST (SEVENTEENTH CENTURY)                            35
+
+    INTERIOR OF FARMHOUSE PARLOUR                          39
+
+    INTERIOR OF COTTAGE                                    39
+
+
+  CHAPTER II
+
+    MONK'S BENCH                                           53
+
+    OAK CHEST WITH DRAWERS UNDERNEATH                      53
+
+    JOINT STOOLS                                           57
+
+    OAK TABLE                                              57
+
+    CHEST (RESTORATION PERIOD)                             63
+
+    EARLY OAK TABLE (MIDDLE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY)           63
+
+    SMALL OAK TABLE (_c._ 1680)                            65
+
+    JACOBEAN CHEST OF DRAWERS (_c._ 1660)                  65
+
+    CHESTS OF DRAWERS                                      69
+
+    CHEST OF DRAWERS (CABRIOLE FEET)                       73
+
+    WILLIAM AND MARY TABLE (_c._ 1670)                     73
+
+    CHILDREN'S STOOLS                                      77
+
+    RARE BEDSTEAD (_c._ 1700)                              77
+
+
+  CHAPTER III
+
+    TRIANGULAR GATE TABLE                                  87
+
+    OAK SIDE-TABLE                                         87
+
+    SMALL GATE TABLE (VERY EARLY TYPE)                     91
+
+    GATE TABLE (MIDDLE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY)                91
+
+    RARE TABLE WITH DOUBLE GATES                           93
+
+    RARE TABLE WITH DOUBLE GATES AND ONLY ONE FLAP         93
+
+    GATE-LEG TABLE (RESTORATION PERIOD)                    97
+
+    GATE-LEG TABLE (YORKSHIRE TYPE)                        97
+
+    GATE-LEG TABLE WITH SIX LEGS ("BARLEY-SUGAR"
+      TURNING)                                             99
+
+    GATE-LEG TABLE (BALL TURNING)                          99
+
+    COLLAPSIBLE TABLE WITH RARE =X= STRETCHER             101
+
+    PRIMITIVE GATE-LEG TABLE                              101
+
+    WILLIAM AND MARY GATE-LEG TABLE                       105
+
+    SQUARE-TOP GATE-LEG TABLES                            105
+
+    MAHOGANY GATE-LEG TABLES                              109
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV
+
+    OAK DRESSER (ABOUT 1680)                              117
+
+    OAK DRESSER (PERIOD OF JAMES II.)                     117
+
+    OAK DRESSER (EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY)                119
+
+    OAK DRESSER, URN-SHAPED LEGS (RESTORATION PERIOD)     119
+
+    MIDDLE-JACOBEAN DRESSER                               123
+
+    WILLIAM AND MARY OAK DRESSER                          127
+
+    OAK DRESSER. SQUARE-LEG TYPE                          127
+
+    UNIQUE DRESSER AND CLOCK COMBINED                     131
+
+    OAK DRESSER. QUEEN ANNE CABRIOLE LEGS                 135
+
+    LANCASHIRE OAK DRESSER                                135
+
+
+  CHAPTER V
+
+    BIBLE-BOXES. EARLY EXAMPLES                           143
+
+    BIBLE-BOXES (MIDDLE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY AND
+    ORDINARY TYPE)                                        145
+
+    OAK CRADLES                                           149
+
+    YARN-WINDER AND SPINNING-WHEEL                        151
+
+    BUCKINGHAMSHIRE BOBBINS                               151
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI
+
+    LANCASHIRE OAK SETTLES                                159
+
+    CUPBOARD WITH DRAWERS                                 163
+
+    QUEEN ANNE BUREAU BOOKCASE                            163
+
+    OAK TABLES (EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY)                 165
+
+    QUEEN ANNE GLASS- OR CHINA-CUPBOARD                   171
+
+    GEORGIAN CORNER-CUPBOARD                              171
+
+    OAK TABLES                                            173
+
+    OAK TABLES, WITH TYPICAL COUNTRY CABRIOLE LEGS        177
+
+    QUEEN ANNE TEA-TABLE                                  181
+
+    OAK REVOLVING BOOK-STAND                              181
+
+    COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE TABLE                             181
+
+    SQUARE MAHOGANY FLAP-TABLE                            183
+
+    TRIPOD TABLE (_c._ 1760)                              183
+
+    COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE AND COUNTRY ADAM TABLES           187
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII
+
+    OAK ARM-CHAIRS (ONE DATED 1650)                       191
+
+    CHESTNUT ARM-CHAIR AND OAK ARM-CHAIR (_c._ 1690)      191
+
+    YORKSHIRE CHAIR (RESTORATION PERIOD)                  197
+
+    CROMWELLIAN CHAIRS                                    197
+
+    OAK SETTLE (_c._ 1675)                                201
+
+    OAK ARM-CHAIRS (ONE DATED 1777)                       201
+
+    OAK CHAIRS (_c._ 1680) IN WALNUT STYLES               205
+
+    OAK CHAIRS, SHOWING VARIOUS TRANSITIONAL STAGES       209
+
+    CHAIRS IN QUEEN ANNE STYLE                            213
+
+    COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE AND HEPPLEWHITE CHAIRS            215
+
+    OAK SETTEES IN CHIPPENDALE STYLE                      219
+
+    COUNTRY CHAIRS IN CHIPPENDALE AND SHERATON
+    STYLES                                                225
+
+    GRANDFATHER CHAIR                                     231
+
+    ARM-CHAIR AND BACON-CUPBOARD                          231
+
+    SPINDLE-BACK AND LADDER-BACK CHAIRS                   235
+
+    CORNER CHAIRS                                         237
+
+
+  CHAPTER VIII
+
+    CHAIRS OF EARLIEST FORM WITH STICK LEGS               247
+
+    OLIVER GOLDSMITH'S CHAIR                              251
+
+    CHAIRS WITH FIDDLE-SPLAT AND CABRIOLE LEGS            255
+
+    CHIPPENDALE AND HEPPLEWHITE WINDSOR CHAIRS            257
+
+    SHERATON STYLE WINDSOR CHAIRS                         261
+
+
+  CHAPTER IX
+
+    CHEST, DATED 1636 (WELSH)                             269
+
+    CUPBOARD, DATED 1710 (WELSH)                          269
+
+    ELM WARDROBE (WELSH). OAK DRESSER (LANCASHIRE)        273
+
+    FLAP-TOP TABLE (HERTFORDSHIRE TYPE)                   275
+
+    SPINDLE-BACK CHAIRS (LANCASHIRE)                      275
+
+    OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS (YORKSHIRE TYPE)                 279
+
+    LANCASHIRE OAK SETTLE (_c._ 1660)                     279
+
+    THREE-LEGGED TABLE (ISLE OF MAN)                      281
+
+    CRICKET TABLES (HERTFORDSHIRE, SOUTH BEDS,
+      CAMBRIDGE, AND ESSEX)                               281
+
+
+  CHAPTER X
+
+    RUSHLIGHT-HOLDERS, SCOTCH CRUSIE, CANDLE-DIPPER,
+    PIPE CLEANER, ETC.                                    289
+
+    QUEEN ANNE POT-HANGER, WITH ORIGINAL GRATE            291
+
+    KETTLE TRIVET                                         291
+
+    COUNTRY FIREDOGS AND FIRE-GRATE (EIGHTEENTH
+    CENTURY)                                              297
+
+    SUSSEX IRON FIREBACKS                                 301
+
+    SUSSEX IRON FIREBACKS AND ORIGINAL WOOD PATTERN       303
+
+    GRANDFATHER CLOCK AND WARMING-PANS                    307
+
+    BRASS DIAL OF THIRTY-HOUR CLOCK                       309
+
+
+  CHAPTER XI--OLD ENGLISH CHINTZES
+
+    OLD TRADE CARD SHOWING CALICO PRINTERS AT
+    WORK                                                  319
+
+    HUGUENOT PRINTED CHINTZ WITH PORTRAITS                319
+
+    HAND-PRINTED CHINTZES. QUEEN ANNE PERIOD AND
+    CHINESE STYLE                                         323
+
+    EXOTIC BIRD AND GOTHIC STYLES (EIGHTEENTH
+    CENTURY)                                              327
+
+    HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ BY R. JONES (OLD FORD)            331
+
+    HEPPLEWHITE PERIOD AND VICTORIAN PERIOD DESIGNS       335
+
+    VICTORIAN CHINTZ (IN THE COLLECTION OF MRS.
+    COBDEN UNWIN)                                         339
+
+
+
+
+    CHAPTER I
+
+    INTRODUCTORY
+    NOTE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTORY NOTE
+
+   The minor collector--The originality of the village
+   cabinet-maker--His freedom from foreign influences--The
+   traditional character of his work--Difficulty to establish
+   dates to cottage and farmhouse furniture--Oak the chief wood
+   employed--Beech, elm, and ash used in lieu of mahogany and
+   satinwood--Village craftsmanship not debased by early Victorian
+   art--Its obliteration in the age of factory-made furniture--The
+   conservation of old farmhouses with their furniture in Sweden
+   and in Denmark--The need for the preservation and exhibition of
+   old cottages and farmhouses in Great Britain.
+
+
+In regard to launching another volume on the market dealing with old
+furniture, a word of explanation is desirable, for nowadays of making
+books there is no end, and much study is a weariness to the collector.
+
+In the present volume attention has been especially given to that
+class of furniture known as Cottage or Farmhouse. There is no volume
+dealing with this phase of collecting. Prices for old furniture of
+the finest quality have gone up by leaps and bounds, and for those
+not possessed of ample means the collection of superlative styles is
+at an end. Singularly enough, the most native furniture and that most
+typically racy of the soil has not hitherto attracted the attention
+of wealthy collectors. The plutocrats who buy only the finest
+creations of Chippendale, who have immediate private information
+when an exquisitely designed Sheraton piece is found, who amass a
+mighty hoard of gilt Stuart furniture, or who boast of an unrivalled
+collection of Elizabethan oak, do not touch the minor furniture made
+during a period of three hundred years for the common people.
+
+The finest classes of English furniture made by skilful craftsmen
+for wealthy patrons must always be beyond the range of the minor
+collector. Every year brings keener zest among those interested in
+furniture of a bygone day, and it is therefore increasingly difficult
+for persons of taste and judgment who cannot afford high prices to
+satisfy their longings. It is obvious that specimens of massive
+appearance finely carved in oak of the Tudor age, or of elegantly
+turned work in walnut of Jacobean days, must be readily recognised
+as valuable. Sumptuous furniture tells its own story. It is unlikely
+nowadays that such wonderful "finds," concerning which imaginative
+writers are always telling us, will occur again--except on paper.
+Popular enthusiasm has been awakened, and more often than not the
+possessor of some mediocre piece of furniture or china attaches a
+value to it which is absurd. The publication of prices realised at
+auction has whetted the cupidity of would-be sellers who convert
+early nineteenth-century chairs by a nod of the head into "Queen
+Anne," and who aver with equal veracity that ordinary blue transfer
+printed ware has "been in the family a hundred years."
+
+  [Illustration: CHEST. MIDDLE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+  Gothic carving. Solid wood ends, forming feet. Made from six
+  boards; with hand-forged nails and large lock, characteristic of
+  Gothic chests.]
+
+  [Illustration: CHEST. SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+  Lozenge panels, disc turning, and Gothic brackets (rare).
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Mr. F. W. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+Cottage and farmhouse furniture may be said to be in somewhat
+parallel case to English earthenware. A quarter of a century ago, or
+even ten years ago, collectors in general confined their attention
+mainly to porcelain. The rage was for Worcester, Chelsea, Derby, or
+Bow. With the exception of Wedgwood and Turner, the Staffordshire
+potters had not found favour with the fashionable collector. Nowadays
+Toft dishes, Staffordshire figures by Enoch Wood, vases by Neale and
+Palmer, and the entire school of lustre ware, have received attention
+from the specialist, and scientific classification has brought prices
+within measurable distance of those paid for porcelain.
+
+What earthenware is to porcelain, so cottage and farmhouse furniture
+are to the elaborate styles made for the use of the richer classes.
+The French insipidities and rococo ornament of Chelsea and Derby and
+the oriental echoes of Worcester and of Bow are as little typical of
+national eighteenth-century sentiment as the ribbon-back chair and
+the Chinese fretwork of Chippendale or the satinwood elegances of
+Sheraton.
+
+To Staffordshire and to local potteries scattered all over the
+country from Sunderland to Bristol, from Lambeth to Nottingham, from
+Liverpool to Rye, one instinctively turns for real individuality and
+native tradition. Similarly farmhouse furniture exhibits the work of
+the local cabinet-maker in various districts, strongly marked by an
+adherence to traditional forms and intensely insular in its disregard
+of prevailing fashions. It is as English as the leather black-jack
+and the home-brewed ale.
+
+Contemporaneous with the great cabinet-makers who drew their
+inspiration from foreign sources--from Italy, from France, from
+Holland, and from Spain--small jobbing cabinet-makers in every
+village and town had their patrons, and when not making wagons
+or farm implements, produced furniture for everyday use. As may
+readily be supposed, there is in these results a blind naďveté which
+characterises a design handed down from generation to generation.
+This is one of the surprising features of the village cabinet-maker's
+work--its curious anachronism. The sublime indifference to passing
+fashions is astonishingly delightful to the student and to the
+collector.
+
+There is nothing more uncertain than to attempt with exactitude to
+place a date upon cottage or farmhouse furniture. The bacon-cupboard,
+the linen-chest, the gate-table, the ladder-back chair and the
+windsor chair, were made through successive generations down to
+fifty years ago without departing from the original pattern of the
+Charles I. or the Queen Anne period. Oak chests are found carved
+with the Gothic linen-fold pattern. They might be of the sixteenth
+century except for the fact that dates of the late eighteenth and
+early nineteenth century are carved upon them. Whole districts
+have retained similar styles for centuries, and the fondness for
+clearly defined types is almost as pronounced as that of the Asiatic
+rug-weaver, who makes the same patterns as his remote ancestors sold
+to the ancient Greeks.
+
+The village cabinet-maker's work knows no sequence of ages of oak,
+walnut, mahogany, and satinwood. His wood is from his native trees.
+His chairs come straight from the hedgerows. His history can be
+spanned in one long age of oak, intermingled here and there with elm
+and yew-tree and beech. The early days of primitive work go back to
+the marked class distinction between gentles and simples, and the end
+came only in the last decades of the nineteenth century, when the
+village craftsman was obliterated by the rapid advance of factory and
+machine made furniture.
+
+It may at first be assumed by the beginner that cottage and farmhouse
+furniture is throughout a weak and feeble imitation of finer pieces.
+But this is not so. The craftsmen who made this class of furniture
+formed for themselves special types which were never made by the
+London cabinet-makers. For instance, the Jacobean gate-table, the
+Lancashire wardrobe, the dresser, and the windsor chair, have styles
+peculiarly their own. In many of the specimens found it will be seen
+that the village cabinet-maker displayed very fine workmanship, and
+there are clever touches and delightful mannerisms which make such
+pieces of interest to the collector.
+
+In early days of the villeins, furniture was limited to a stool, a
+table, and perhaps a chest. Nor was the use of much furniture at the
+farm or in the cottage a feature in Tudor and early Stuart days.
+Gorgeously carved oak and richly turned walnut filled the mansions
+of the wealthy, but one does not find its simpler counterpart made
+for cottages till nearly 1660. The few pieces essential to every
+dwelling-house may be placed not earlier than the late sixteenth or
+early seventeenth century--the chest, the table, the form, and the
+Protestant Bible-box.
+
+Chests with scratched Gothic mouldings, tables of the trestle type as
+used to-day, forms of the most simple construction, exist, and may be
+said to belong to the sixteenth century.
+
+Bible-boxes became common during the early seventeenth century, and
+without change in their style were made till the late eighteenth
+century. In mid-seventeenth-century days the well-known gate-table
+was introduced.
+
+Of early pieces we illustrate a few examples, though in connection
+with farmhouse and cottage, the early days afford a poor field, as
+the furniture of those days now remaining was mostly made for great
+families. The two sixteenth-century chests illustrated (p. 29) are
+interesting as showing the early styles. The upper photograph is
+of a middle sixteenth-century chest, with Gothic carving and solid
+wood ends forming feet. This type of chest is made from six boards.
+The hand-forged nails show the rough joinery, and the large lock is
+characteristic of such Gothic chests. The lower chest is also of the
+sixteenth century. It has lozenge panels, and is further ornamented
+by disc turning. The Gothic brackets at the base are rare, and it is
+an interesting example.
+
+  [Illustration: ELIZABETHAN CHAIR.
+
+  This is of Scandinavian origin, and was known in England before
+  the Roman Conquest, being shown in medićval MSS. Such designs
+  survived the Gothic styles.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: CHEST. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+  Panels with early scratched mouldings (_i.e._, not mitred).
+  Mitreing came into general use about 1600.]
+
+That the chest remained in somewhat primitive form is shown by the
+illustration of a seventeenth-century specimen (p. 35). It will be
+observed that the panels have early scratched mouldings, that is to
+say they are not mitred. The fashion of mitreing in cabinet-work came
+into general use about the year 1600, but minor examples of country
+furniture often possess scratched moulding at a much later date.
+
+On the same page is an Elizabethan chair. This type is of exceptional
+interest. It has a long and proud history. They are, according
+to Mr. Percy Macquoid, "of Byzantine origin; their pattern was
+introduced by the Varangian Guard into Scandinavia, and from there
+doubtless brought to England by the Normans. They continued to be
+made until the end of the sixteenth century." These turned chairs are
+interesting as having spindles, which came into use at a much later
+period in the spindle-back chair.
+
+With the growth of prosperity and the increased use of domestic
+comforts, cottage furniture becomes a wider subject. Carved oak
+bedsteads, simple four-posters, bacon-cupboards, linen-chests became
+more common. In eighteenth-century days there was quite an outburst
+of enthusiasm, and the small cabinet-maker gained knowledge of his
+craft and became ambitious. On the promulgation of Chippendale's
+designs he made copies in elm and oak and beech for village patrons
+and essayed to follow Hepplewhite and even Sheraton.
+
+But this wave of success was followed by the competitive inroad made
+by factory-made cabinet-work, and during these last days the local
+cabinet-maker adhered closer than ever to the early oak examples of
+his forefathers. The village craft practically came to an end in the
+fifties, but it was a glorious end, and it is happy that it did not
+survive to produce bad work of atrocious design.
+
+The passing of cottage and farmhouse furniture may be said to be like
+the disappearance of dialect. The modern spirit has entered into
+village life, the town newspaper has permeated the country-side and
+disturbed the old-world repose. The lover of English folk-ways and
+the simplicity of rural life may echo the line of Wordsworth, "The
+things that I have seen I now can see no more."
+
+In the illustrations of two interiors shown on p. 39 it will be seen
+how happily placed the furniture becomes when in its old home. The
+atmosphere of these rural homesteads is at once soothing and restful,
+and the pieces of furniture had an added dignity. It seems almost
+sacrilege to tear such relics of bygone days from their ancient
+resting-place. But the collector is abroad, and few sanctuaries have
+escaped his assiduous attention. The lower illustration shows the
+interior of a cottage with its original panelled walls. This cottage
+actually has Tudor frescoes.
+
+  [Illustration: INTERIOR OF FARMHOUSE PARLOUR.]
+
+  [Illustration: INTERIOR OF COTTAGE.
+
+  With original panelled walls. This cottage has Tudor frescoes.]
+
+The study of old farmhouse and cottage furniture has not been
+pursued in this country in so scientific a manner as in Sweden and
+in Denmark. The conservation of national heirlooms is a matter which
+must be speedily dealt with before they become scattered. It is a
+point which cannot be repeated too often. At Skansen, Stockholm, old
+buildings have, under State supervision, been re-erected, and
+with their furniture they afford a practical illustration of the
+particular type of life of the district of their origin. At Lyngby,
+near Copenhagen, a series of farmhouses similarly illustrate old
+types of homesteads from various localities in Denmark, and from
+Iceland and the Faroe Islands.
+
+By such a systematic and permanent record of farm and cottage life
+and the everyday art of the people it is possible to impart vitality
+to the study of the subject.
+
+The English method of museum arrangement in dry-as-dust manner,
+with rows of furniture and cases of china, is a valley of dry bones
+compared with such a fresh and vigorous handling and method of
+exposition as is followed in Scandinavia.
+
+If old English furniture is worth the preservation for the benefit of
+students of craftsmanship or as a relic of bygone customs, there is
+undoubted room for due consideration of the best means of exhibiting
+it. A series of representative farmhouses could be re-erected at some
+convenient spot. There are many parks around London and other great
+cities which would be benefited by such picturesque buildings.
+
+Before it is too late, and many of these beautiful structures have
+been destroyed to make room for modern improvements, and village
+life has become absorbed by the growing towns, it should be possible
+to step in and preserve some of the most typical examples for the
+enjoyment of the nation. The real interest shown by the public in
+out-of-door object-lessons of this nature is indicated by the great
+crowds at Exhibitions at Earl's Court and the like, which flocked to
+Tudor houses replete with old furniture, and villages transplanted in
+lath and plaster to simulate the real thing, which seemingly has been
+neglected from an educational point of view.
+
+The mountain farms and the homesteads of the men of the dales, fen
+farms, and stone cottages from the Cotswolds, half-timbered farms
+from Surrey, from Cheshire, and from Hampshire, dating back to early
+Stuart days--are not these worthy of preservation? In the Welsh
+hills, and nestling in the dips of the Grampians and the Cheviots,
+from Wessex to Northumbria, from the Border country to the extremity
+of Cornwall, from East Anglia to the Lakes, are treasures upon which
+the ruthless hand of destruction must shortly fall. Or far afield in
+Harris and in Skye, or remote Connemara, there are types which should
+find a permanent abiding place as national records of the homes of
+the men of the island kingdom.
+
+This should not be an impossible nor unthinkable problem to
+solve before such are allowed to pass away. The intense value of
+such a faithful record is worthy of careful consideration by the
+authorities, either as a national undertaking or under the auspices
+of one of the learned societies, such as the Society of Antiquaries,
+or the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings and Monuments,
+interested in the safeguarding of the national heritage bequeathed us
+by our forefathers.
+
+
+
+
+    CHAPTER II
+
+    SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY
+    STYLES
+
+
+
+
+CHRONOLOGY
+
+
+JAMES I. (1603-25)
+
+   =1606= Second colonisation of Virginia begun; Raleigh's first
+   colony in Virginia was founded in 1585.
+
+   =1611= The colonisation of Ulster begun.
+
+   Publication of the _Authorised version_ of the _Bible_.
+
+   =1620= The sailing of the _Mayflower_ and the foundation of New
+   England by the Puritans.
+
+
+CHARLES I. (1625-49)
+
+   =1630= John Winthrop and a number of Puritans settle in
+   Massachusetts.
+
+   =1633= Reclamation of forest lands.
+
+   =1634= Wentworth introduces flax cultivation into Ireland.
+
+   =1635= Taxes for Ship Money levied on inland counties.
+
+   =1637= John Hampden, a country gentleman, refuses to pay Ship
+   Money.
+
+
+CIVIL WAR (1642-49)
+
+   =1642= Battle of Edgehill. Formation of Eastern Association.
+   Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridge, and Hertford unite for
+   purpose of defence against the Royalists.
+
+   =1643= Battles of Reading, Grantham, Stratton, Chalgrove
+   Field, Adwalton Moor (near Bradford), Lansdown, Roundway Down,
+   Bristol, Gloucester, Newbury, Winceby, Hull.
+
+   =1644= Battles of Nantwich, Copredy Bridge, Marston Moor,
+   Tippermuir, Lostwithiel, Newbury.
+
+   =1645= Battles of Inverlochy, Naseby, Langport, Kilsyth,
+   Bristol, Philiphaugh, Rowton Heath.
+
+   =1648= Battles of Maidstone, Pembroke, Preston, Colchester.
+
+
+THE COMMONWEALTH (1642-58)
+
+   =1649= Battle of Rathmines. Storming of Drogheda and Wexford by
+   Cromwell.
+
+   =1650= Montrose defeated at Corbiesdale and executed. Battle of
+   Dunbar.
+
+   =1651= Battle of Worcester.
+
+   =1652= War with Holland.
+
+   =1656= War with Spain.
+
+   =1657= Destruction of Spanish fleet by Blake.
+
+   =1658= Battle of the Dunes. Victory of English and French fleet
+   over Spain.
+
+
+INTERREGNUM (1658-60)
+
+   =1659= Rising in Cheshire for Charles.
+
+
+CHARLES II. (1660-85)
+
+   =1672= _The stop of the Exchequer._ Charles refuses to repay
+   the principal of the sums he had borrowed and reduces interest
+   from 12 per cent. to 6 per cent. This resulted in great
+   distress, felt in various parts of the country.
+
+
+JAMES II. (1685-88)
+
+   =1685= Insurrection of Argyll in Scotland.
+
+   Monmouth rising in West of England.
+
+   Revocation of Edict of Nantes. The expulsion of a large
+   number of French Protestant artisans. Settlement of skilled
+   silk-weavers and others in England.
+
+
+WILLIAM III. AND MARY (1689-94)
+
+
+WILLIAM III. (1689-1702)
+
+   =1689= Siege of Londonderry.
+
+   =1690= Battle of the Boyne. William defeats James, who flees to
+   France.
+
+   =1691= Capitulation of Limerick; 10,000 Irish soldiers and
+   officers joined the service of the French King.
+
+   =1692= Battle of La Hogue, French fleet destroyed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES
+
+   Typical Jacobean furniture--Solidity of English joiners'
+   work--Oak general in its use--The oak forests of
+   England--Sturdy independence of country furniture--Chests of
+   drawers--The slow assimilation of foreign styles--The changing
+   habits of the people.
+
+
+To the lover of old oak, varied in character and essentially English
+in its practical realisation of the exact needs of its users, the
+seventeenth century provides an exceptionally fine field. The
+chairs, the tables, the dower-chests and the four-post bedsteads
+of the farmhouse were sturdy reflections of sumptuous furniture
+made for the nobility and gentry in Jacobean and Elizabethan times.
+The designs may have been suggested by finer and early models, but
+the balance, the sense of proportion, and the carving, were the
+result of the village carpenter's own individual ideas as to the
+requirements of the furniture for use in the farmhouse. Obviously
+strength and stability were important factors, and ornament, as
+such, took a subsidiary place in his scheme. But, although coarse
+and possessing a leaning towards the unwieldy, and often massive
+without the accompanying grandeur of the highly-trained craftsman's
+work, there is a breadth of treatment in such pieces which is at
+once recognisable. They were made for use and no little thought was
+bestowed on their lines, and, rightly appreciated, they possess
+a considerable beauty. There is nothing finicking about this
+seventeenth-century farmhouse furniture. There is no meaningless
+ornament. Produced in conditions suitable for quiet and restrained
+craftsmanship, contemplative cabinet-makers began to evolve styles
+that are far removed from the average design of furniture made to-day
+under more pretentious surroundings.
+
+The gate table, with its long history and its amplification of
+structure and ornament, to which a separate chapter is devoted
+(Chapter III), is a case in point. It was extensively used in inns
+and in farmhouses and found itself in set definite types spread
+over a wide area from one end of the country to the other. Its
+practicability caught the taste of lovers of utility. Its added
+gracefulness of form, in combination with its adaptability to modern
+needs, has recaptured the fancy of housewives to-day. It is the happy
+survival of a beautiful and useful piece of ingenious cabinet-work.
+
+To-day one finds unexpectedly a London fashion lingering in the
+provinces years afterwards. A stray air from a light opera or some
+catch-phrase of town slang is gaily bandied about as current coin in
+bucolic jest long after its circulation in the metropolis has ceased.
+The fashions in provincial furniture moved as slowly. Half a century
+after certain styles were the vogue they crept imperceptibly into
+country use. In speech and song the transplantation is more rapid,
+but in craftsmanship, the studied work of men's hands, the use of
+novelty is against the grain of the conservative mind of the country
+cabinet-maker. Therefore throughout the entire field of this minor
+furniture it must be borne in mind that it is quite usual to find
+examples of one century reflecting the glories of the period long
+since gone.
+
+=Solidity of English Joiners' Work.=--The love of old country
+furniture of the seventeenth century is hardly an acquired taste.
+Old oak is at once a jarring note in a Sheraton drawing-room with
+delicate colour scheme of dainty wallpaper and satin coverings. But
+as a general rule, when it is first seen in its proper environment,
+in an old-world farmhouse with panelled walls, and mullioned windows,
+set squarely on an oak floor and beneath blackened oak beams ripe
+with age, it wins immediate recognition as representative of a fine
+period of furniture. It is admitted by experts, and it is the proud
+boast of possessors of old oak, that the joiner's work of this
+style--the seventeenth century at its best--stands unequalled for its
+solidity and sound practical adhesion to fixed principles governing
+sturdy furniture fashioned for hard and continued usage. Of course,
+there were no screws used in those days, and little glue. The joints
+dovetailed into each other with great exactness and were fastened by
+the wooden pins so often visible in old examples. The modern copyist
+has a fine regard for these wooden pegs. He knows that his clients
+set store by them, and he accordingly sees to it that they are well
+in evidence in his replicas. But there is yet a distinction which may
+be noticed between his pegs and the originals. His are accurately
+round, turned by machinery to fit an equally circular machine-turned
+hole. They tell their own story instantly to a trained eye, to say
+nothing of the piece of furniture as a whole, which always has little
+conflicting touches to denote its modernity.
+
+As an instance of the form of the sixteenth century continuing in
+use until mid-seventeenth-century days the illustration of an oak
+table (p. 63) brings out this point. The heavy baluster-like legs,
+only just removed from the earlier bulbous types, and the massive
+treatment belong to the days of James I., and yet such pieces really
+were made in Cromwellian days.
+
+The rude simplicity of much of the farmhouse furniture is indicated
+by the Monk's Bench illustrated (p. 53). The back is convertible into
+a table top. The early plainness of style for so late a piece as 1650
+is particularly noteworthy. This specimen is interesting by reason of
+its exceptionally large back.
+
+On the same page is illustrated a chest with two drawers underneath.
+This form is termed a "Mule Chest," and is the earliest form of the
+chest of drawers. These Cromwellian chests with drawers continued to
+be made in the country for a hundred years, but in more fashionable
+circles they soon developed into the well-known Jacobean chest of
+drawers, the prototype of the form in use to-day. As an instance of
+this lingering of fashion the chest illustrated is dated 1701, quite
+fifty years after its first appearance as a new style.
+
+  [Illustration: MONK'S BENCH. _C._ 1650.
+
+  With back convertible into table top. Exceptionally large back.
+  (Note early plainness of style.)
+
+  (_By courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell & Sons._)]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CHEST WITH DRAWERS UNDERNEATH.
+
+  Termed a "Mule Chest." The earliest form of chest of drawers.
+  This piece in style is Middle Seventeenth Century, but is dated
+  1701.]
+
+=Oak General in its Use.=--The oak as a wood was in general use both
+in the furniture of the richer classes and in the farmhouse furniture
+of seventeenth-century days and earlier. Inlaid work is unknown in
+furniture of this type. It was sparingly used in pieces of more
+important origin. The room shown at the Victoria and Albert Museum
+from Sizergh Castle has inlays of holly and bog oak. And the suite of
+furniture at Hardwicke Hall made for Bess of Hardwicke was made by
+English workmen who had been in Italy, the same persons who produced
+similar work at Longleat. Small panels with rough inlaid work are
+not uncommon in the seventeenth century in chests, bedsteads, and
+drawers. But the prevailing types of oak without the added inlays of
+other woods were rigidly adhered to in cabinet-makers' work for the
+farmhouse.
+
+The great oak forests, such as Sherwood, furnished an abundance of
+timber for all domestic purposes, and up to the seventeenth century
+little other wood was used for any structural or artistic purpose.
+Practically oak may be considered as the national wood. From the
+_Harry Grâce ŕ Dieu_ of Henry VIII. and the _Golden Hind_ of Drake
+to the _Victory_ of Nelson, the great ships were of English oak.
+The magnificent hammer-beam roof of Westminster Hall is of the same
+wonderful wood. All over the country are scattered buildings timbered
+with oak beams, from cathedrals and ancient churches to farmhouses
+and mills. The oak piles of old London Bridge were taken up after
+six centuries and a half and found to be still sound at the heart.
+The mass of furniture of nearly three centuries ago has survived
+owing to the durability of its wood. To this day English oak commands
+great esteem, although foreign oak has taken its place in the general
+timber trade, yet there is none which possesses such strong and
+lasting qualities. It will stand a strain of 1,900 lbs. per square
+inch transversely to its fibres.
+
+=Sturdy Independence of Country Furniture.=--The hardness of the
+oak as a wood is one of the factors which determined the styles of
+decoration of the furniture into which it was fashioned. It was
+not easily capable of intricate carved work, even in the hands of
+accomplished craftsmen. The fantastic flower and fruit pieces of
+Grinling Gibbons and other carvers were in lime or chestnut, and the
+age of walnut, a more pliant and softer wood to work in than oak, was
+yet to come. The country maker, little versed in the subtleties of
+cabinet-work, contented himself with a narrow range of types, which
+lasted over a considerable period. This is especially noticeable in
+his chairs, and specimens are found of the same form as the middle
+seventeenth century belonging to the last decade of the eighteenth
+century.
+
+  [Illustration: EARLY OAK TABLE. _C._ 1640.
+
+  Retaining Elizabethan bulbous form of leg and having Cromwellian
+  style feet. Brass handles added later.]
+
+  [Illustration: JOINT STOOLS.
+
+  Height, 1 ft. 10-1/2 ins. Height, 1 ft. 8-1/2 ins. Height, 1 ft. 5 ins.
+
+      (About 1640.)                           (About 1660.)]
+
+The typical sideboard of the seventeenth century only varies
+slightly in form according to the part of the country from
+which it comes. The general design is always permanent. A large
+cupboard below, two smaller ones above, set somewhat back from
+the front of the lower one, the sides of the upper ones sometimes
+canted off, leaving two triangular spaces of flat top at the
+ends of the bottom one. The whole is surmounted by a top shelf,
+supported by the upper cupboards and two boldly turned pillars.
+This is usually the design. The decoration is of the simplest,
+and presents nothing beyond the powers of the village carpenter.
+The mouldings are simple; there is slight conventional carving,
+frequently consisting of hollow flutings, and the pillars, boldly
+turned, are very rarely enriched by any ornament. A careful
+examination of such pieces is always interesting from a technical
+point of view. The framing of the panels is seen to be worked out
+by the plane, but the panels themselves more often than not have
+been reduced to approximate flatness with an adze. If viewed in
+a side light the surface is thus slightly varied, showing the
+differences in the planes of the various facets produced by the
+adze and giving an effect entirely different from the mechanical
+smoothing of a surface by the use of a plane.
+
+The framing of the front and ends of these sideboards is in
+detail exactly like the ordinary Jacobean wall panelling or
+wainscot. The mouldings are all worked on the rails or styles,
+not mitred and glued on, no mitred mouldings being used except
+occasionally in the centre panel between the doors. The framing
+is mortised together and pinned with oak pins. The doors are
+usually hung on iron strap hinges, and the handles of the doors
+are of wrought iron. Frequently the doors of the upper cupboards
+are hung on pivots, not hinges. Such a sideboard belongs to the
+middle period of the seventeenth century, and is representative
+of a wide class used in farmhouses.
+
+It is easier to follow the various movements in the design of the
+seventeenth-century table than a century later, when more complex
+circumstances governed its use. The illustrations on p. 57 give
+early forms, with some suggestion as to the progression in design.
+
+The early oak Table is a curious compound of design. It has
+retained the Elizabethan bulbous form of leg and has the
+Cromwellian foot. In date the piece is about 1640. The brass
+handle has been added later.
+
+The Joint Stools on the lower half of the page afford a picture
+of slowly advancing invention in turned work. The one on the left
+of the group is the earliest, and is about 1640 in date. Its legs
+are seen to be of coarser work, roughly turned, but typically
+early Jacobean in breadth of treatment. The two on the right are
+about 1660 in date. The left-hand one shows the urn-shaped leg of
+the strong, broad treatment (as in the Table illustrated p. 63),
+brought into subjection and exhibiting a gracefulness of form and
+balance that make furniture of this type so lovable. The smaller
+stool shows the ball-carving associated with the Restoration
+period, and found in gate tables. A combination of these styles
+of turning is shown in the graceful oak Table illustrated p. 65,
+in date about 1680.
+
+=Chests of Drawers.=--The conservative spirit of the minor
+craftsmen is especially noticeable in the articles of everyday
+use. The merchant's account ledger with its green back and
+cross-stitched pattern in vellum strips, still in use, is to
+be found in the same style in Holbein pictures of the days of
+the Hanseatic League. Brass and copper candlesticks have a long
+lineage, and their form is only a slight variant from very early
+examples. The evolution of ornament is especially interesting;
+the old stoneware Bellarmine form still remains in the bearded
+mask at the lip of china jugs at the beginning of the nineteenth
+century. The two buttons at the back of the coattails continue
+long after their primary use to loop up the sword-belt has
+vanished.
+
+In America the early carved chests of the Puritan colonists were
+followed by similar designs contemporary with our own Jacobean
+style for a period well towards the end of the seventeenth
+century. The panels on chairs and chests have the same arcaded
+designs as found in Elizabethan bedsteads and fireplaces. These
+become gradually crystallised in conventional form, and Lockwood,
+the American writer on old colonial furniture, has reduced the
+types coincident with our own Jacobean styles into ten distinct
+patterns, until the advent of the well-known chests of drawers
+with geometric raised ornament laid on, which pieces of furniture
+in Restoration days were set upon a stand.
+
+We have shown in the illustration (p. 53) the earliest form
+of the chest with drawers underneath. The stage transitional
+between this and the multifarious designs with bevelled panels
+in geometric design is exemplified by the chest, in date about
+1660, illustrated (p. 63), having two drawers and a centre
+bevelled panel, and with two arcaded panels on each side of this
+and also arcaded panels at the ends of the chest. This form was
+rapidly succeeded by the well-known chests of drawers on ball
+feet or on stand so much appreciated by collectors.
+
+We illustrate a sufficient number of pieces to cover the usual
+styles and to assist the beginner to identify examples coming
+under his observation. Although it should be noted that as these
+chests of drawers are so much sought after they are manufactured
+nowadays by the hundred and out of old wood, so that great care
+should be exercised in paying big prices for them unless under
+expert guidance.
+
+The specimen appearing on p. 65 is a fine example, in date 1660,
+and when the ball feet are original, as in this example, the
+genuineness of the chest of drawers is undoubted. Too often
+stands or feet are added, and it is exceedingly rare to find that
+the brass handles are original. Quite an industry is carried
+on in reproducing old brass escutcheons and handles from rare
+designs and carefully imparting to them signs of age, so that
+they may be used in made-up chests of drawers and tables.
+
+Of types of stands, the two chests of drawers illustrated p. 69
+are fair examples. The upper chest is a curious Jacobean type
+with sunk panels and having an unusually high stand. There is
+a suggestion that this has been added later, as the foot is
+eighteenth-century in character.
+
+The lower chest is of the Charles II. type with sunk panels
+and having the arcaded foot of that period. It will be observed
+that in addition to the four drawers it has a drawer at the
+bottom.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK TABLE. _C._ 1650.]
+
+  [Illustration: CHEST. ABOUT 1660.
+
+  With bevelled panels and drawers and arcaded panels and ends.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: SMALL OAK TABLE. _C._ 1680.
+
+  Showing two forms of mouldings in legs and stretcher.
+
+  (_By courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell & Sons._)]
+
+  [Illustration: JACOBEAN CHEST OF DRAWERS. _C._ 1660.
+
+  Height, 2 ft. 11-3/4 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 11 ins.; width, 3 ft.
+  3-1/2 ins. The ball foot, not always present, indicates genuine
+  example.]
+
+The treatment of the stand or legs of these chests exercised the
+ingenuity of various generations of cabinet-makers. In the specimen
+illustrated p. 69, the eighteenth century is reached. The transition
+from passing Jacobean styles into those of Queen Anne is clearly
+seen. The bevelled panels still remain, with added geometric
+intricacies of design, and a new feature appears in the fluted sides.
+But the most interesting feature is the cabriole leg, so definitely
+indicative of the eighteenth century.
+
+=The Slow Assimilation of Foreign Styles in Furniture.=--Farmhouse
+furniture almost eschewed fashion. In seventeenth-century days it
+pursued the even tenor of its way untrammelled by town influences.
+England in those days was not traversed by roads that lent themselves
+to neighbourly communication. A hundred years later Wedgwood found
+the wretched roads in Staffordshire, where waggons sunk axle-deep in
+ruts and pits, a hindrance to his business, and William Cobbett in
+his _Rural Rides_ leaves a record of Surrey woefully primitive at
+Hindhead, with dangerous hills and bogs, where the "horses took the
+lead and crept down, partly upon their feet and partly upon their
+hocks."
+
+From the days of James I. to those of James II., from the first
+Stuart Sovereign to the last of that ill-starred house, the country
+passed through rapid stages of volcanic history. The opening years
+of the century saw the colonisation of Ulster by the Scots and
+the English settlers, and the sailing of the _Mayflower_ and the
+foundation of New England by the Puritans, nine years after the
+publication of the Authorised version of the Bible. Under Charles I.
+came the struggle between the despotic power of the Crown and the
+newly awakened will of the people. Parliamentary right came into
+conflict with royal prerogative. The smouldering fire burst into
+flame when John Hampden, a country gentleman, refused to pay Ship
+Money, which was levied on the inland counties in 1637, and the
+arrest of five members of Parliament in 1642--Hampden, Pym, Holles,
+Haselrig, and Strode--precipitated the country into civil war.
+
+For seven years a continual series of battles were waged by the
+contending forces. The Eastern Counties formed themselves into a
+martial association, and the King set up his standard at Nottingham.
+From Bristol to Hull and from Nantwich to Newbury fierce engagements
+tore the country asunder. An Irish army was raised for the King, and
+the Scots under Leslie crossed the border in the Parliamentarian
+cause. With the execution of Charles I. came other dangers; the sword
+was not sheathed, nor had revolution left a contented country-side.
+Cromwell divided the kingdom into eleven military districts, and
+under his rule England took her place at the head of the Protestant
+States in Europe.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS.
+
+  Curious Jacobean type, with sunk panels and unusually high stand.
+  This stand is the well-known eighteenth-century foot.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS.
+
+  Charles II. type, with sunk panels and arcaded stand and feet
+  typical of the period.]
+
+With the death of the Protector and the restoration of the Stuarts,
+when Charles II. returned home, came an influx of foreign customs
+and foreign arts learned by expelled royalists in their enforced
+sojourn on the Continent. London and the Court instantly became
+the centre of voluptuous fashion. The pages of Pepys's _Diary_ afford
+instructive pictures of the last quarter of the century at Whitehall
+with the Merry Monarch exhibited in vivid colours, and more intimate
+still are the word-portraits cleverly etched by the Count de Grammont
+in his _Memoirs_ of the gay circle at Court. And after Charles came
+his brother James, nor were civil strife and Court intrigue memories
+of the past. Restlessness still characterises the closing years of
+the century. The insurrection of Monmouth in the West of England was
+followed by the Bloody Assize of Judge Jeffreys. The air is filled
+with trouble, and blundering statecraft brings fresh disaster,
+culminating in the ignominious flight of the King. Nor does this
+complete the changing scenes of the seventeenth century. A new era
+under William the Dutchman brought new and permanent influences, and
+religious toleration and constitutional government became firmly
+rooted as the heritage of the people of this country.
+
+It is essential that a rough idea of the period be gained in order
+to appreciate the kaleidoscopic character of the events that rapidly
+succeeded each other. The paralysis of the arts during the civil
+war had not a little influence on the furniture of the period
+belonging to the class of which we treat in this volume. The wealth
+of noble and patrician families had been scattered, estates had
+been confiscated, and sumptuous furniture and appointments pillaged
+and destroyed, especially when it offended the narrow tastes of the
+Puritan soldiery. Some of the minor pieces no doubt found their way
+into humbler homes and served as models for simpler folk. With
+a dearth of aristocratic patrons there were no new art impulses
+to stir craftsmen to their highest moods, but in spite of war and
+disturbances affecting all classes, furniture for common use had to
+be made, and the ready-found types exercised a continued influence on
+all the earlier work.
+
+In regard to farmhouse furniture the following types represent in the
+main the seventeenth-century styles: the bedstead, the sideboard or
+dresser, the table and the chair in its various forms, the Bible-box
+and the cradle. The Jacobean chest of drawers, a development of the
+dower-chest, came in mid-seventeenth-century days, and prior to
+the William and Mary styles. The sideboard, a development of the
+bacon-cupboard, came into fashion in the middle of the century. It
+was a reflex of the grander furniture of the manor house and the
+nobleman's mansion. It is difficult to fix exact dates to Jacobean
+furniture of this character. As a general rule it is safer to place
+it at a later date than is the usual custom.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS.
+
+  Showing transition to Queen Anne type. Cabriole feet, bevelled
+  panels, and fluted sides.]
+
+  [Illustration: WILLIAM AND MARY TABLE. _C._ 1670.
+
+  With finely turned legs and stretcher and scalloped underwork.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+=The Changing Habits of the People.=--The shifting phases of the
+restless seventeenth century make it exceedingly difficult, in spite
+of experts, to decide definitely as to the exact date of furniture.
+The country being in such an unsettled state obviously influenced the
+manufacture of domestic furniture. Its natural evolution was broken
+and the restraint of the Jacobean forms was in the main due to the
+conditions prevailing in regard to their manufacture. The long list
+of battles given in the chronological table at the commencement of
+this chapter is advisedly recorded to show the intense upheaval which
+was caused by the civil wars which raged from north to south, from
+east to west, and convulsed any artistic impulses which may have been
+in process of materialisation.
+
+It is obvious the class of Table of the William and Mary period,
+in date about 1670, illustrated (p. 73), with finely turned legs
+and stretcher and scalloped underwork, belongs to a period far
+more advanced in comfort than the days when such a table as that
+illustrated p. 63 was the ordinary type.
+
+By the end of the century the growth of sea power and the astonishing
+development of trade brought corresponding domestic luxuries. The two
+children's stools illustrated (p. 77) must have come from a country
+squire's or wealthy provincial merchant's house. Their upholstered
+seats emulate the grandeur of finer types. The rare form of oak
+bedstead illustrated on the same page is a survival of the early
+type. In date this is about 1700; not too often are such examples
+found, for enterprising restorers and makers have seized these
+old Jacobean bedsteads and converted them into so-called Jacobean
+"sideboards," wherein nothing is old except the wood.
+
+It requires some little imagination to conjure up what the daily
+meals were in the days of the early Stuarts. There was the leather
+jack, the horn mug, and the long table in the hall where the farmer
+and his servants ate together. An old black-letter song, entitled
+"When this old cap was new," in date 1666, in the Roxburgh "Songs
+and Ballads," has two verses which paint a lively picture:--
+
+    "Black-jacks to every man
+      Were fill'd with wine and beer;
+    No pewter pot nor can
+      In those days did appear;
+    Good cheer in a nobleman's house
+      Was counted a seemly show;
+    We wanted not brawn nor souse
+      When this old cap was new.
+
+    We took not such delight
+      In cups of silver fine;
+    None under the degree of knight
+      In plate drank beer or wine;
+    Now each mechanical man
+      Hath a cupboard of plate for show,
+    Which was a rare thing then
+      When this old cap was new."
+
+The "mechanical man" is a delightful touch of the old song-writer.
+We fear he would have been shocked at the degeneracy of a later day,
+when in place of the mug that was handed round came the effeminate
+teacups. The change from ale, at breakfast and dinner and supper,
+to tea the beverage of the poor, would be a sad awakening from the
+ideals set up by the rollicking song-writer of Restoration days. But
+such innovations must needs be closely regarded by the student of
+furniture.
+
+We wish sometimes that historians had spared a few pages from
+military evolutions and Court intrigues to let us know what the
+parlours and bedrooms of our ancestors looked like. A rough résumé
+from Macaulay's "State of England in 1685," wherein he quotes
+authority by authority, holds a mirror to seventeenth-century life.
+
+  [Illustration: CHILDREN'S STOOLS, _C._ 1690.]
+
+  [Illustration: RARE BEDSTEAD. _C._ 1700.
+
+  Survival of early type.]
+
+At Enfield, hardly out of sight of the smoke of the capital,
+was a region of five-and-twenty miles in circumference, which
+contained only three houses and scarcely any enclosed fields,
+where deer wandered free in thousands. Red deer were as common in
+Gloucestershire and Hampshire as they are now in the Grampians. Queen
+Anne, travelling to Portsmouth, on one occasion, saw a herd of no
+less than five hundred.
+
+Agriculture was not a greatly known science. The rotation of crops
+was imperfectly understood. The turnip had just been introduced to
+this country, but it was not the practice to feed sheep and oxen with
+this in the winter. They were killed and salted at the beginning of
+the cold weather, and during several months even the gentry tasted
+little fresh animal food except game and river fish. In the days of
+Charles II. it was at the beginning of November that families laid in
+their stock of salt provisions, then called Martinmas beef.
+
+The state of the roads in those days was somewhat barbarous. Ruts
+were deep, descents precipitous, and the way often difficult to
+distinguish in the dusk from the unenclosed fen and heath on each
+side. Pepys and his wife, travelling in their own coach, lost their
+way between Newbury and Reading.[2] In some parts of Kent and Sussex
+none but the strongest horses could, in winter, get through the
+bog in which they sank deep at every step. The coaches were often
+pulled by oxen.[3] When Prince George of Denmark visited the mansion
+of Petworth he was six hours travelling nine miles. Throughout the
+country north of York and west of Exeter goods were carried by long
+trains of packhorses.
+
+  [2] _Pepys's Diary_, June 12, 16 8.
+
+  [3] Postlethwaite's "Dictionary of Roads."
+
+The capital was a place far removed from the country. It was seldom
+that the country squire paid a visit thither. "Towards London and
+Londoners he felt an aversion that more than once produced important
+political effects" (Macaulay). Apart from the country gentlemen
+were the petty proprietors who cultivated their own fields with
+their own hands and enjoyed a modest competence without affecting
+to have scutcheons and crests. This great class of yeomanry formed
+a much more important part of the nation than now. According to the
+most reliable statistics of the seventeenth century, there were no
+less than a hundred and sixty thousand proprietors, who with their
+families made a seventh of the population of those days, and these
+derived their livelihood from small freehold estates.
+
+Such, then, were the chief differences dividing the life of the
+country from the life of the town. The London merchants had town
+mansions hardly less inferior to the nobility. Chelsea was a quiet
+village with a thousand inhabitants, and sportsmen with dog and gun
+wandered over Marylebone. General Oglethorpe, who died in 1785, used
+to boast that he had shot a woodcock in what is now Regent Street, in
+Queen Anne's reign.
+
+The days of the Stuarts were not so rosy as writers of romance
+have chosen to have us believe. At Norwich, the centre of the cloth
+industry, children of the tender age of six were engaged in labour.
+At Bristol a labyrinth of narrow lanes, too narrow for cart traffic,
+was built over vaults. Goods were conveyed across the city in trucks
+drawn by dogs. Meat was so dear that King, in his "Natural and
+Political Conclusions," estimates that half the population of the
+country only ate animal food twice a week, and the other half only
+once a week or not at all. "Bread such as is now given to the inmates
+of a workhouse was then seldom seen even on the trencher of a yeoman
+or a shopkeeper. The majority of the nation lived almost entirely on
+rye, barley, and oats."
+
+The change from these conditions to those we associate with the
+eighteenth century was not a sudden but a slow one. With the increase
+of average prosperity came the additional requirements in household
+furniture. It is impossible now to state accurately what the exact
+furniture was of the various classes of the community. Many of the
+seventeenth-century pieces now remaining have been treasured in great
+houses and belong to a variety which in those days was regarded as
+sumptuous. Now and again we catch glimpses of the former life of the
+men and women of those days. Little pieces of conclusive evidence
+are brought to light which enable safe conclusions to be drawn. But
+the everyday normal character has too often gone unrecorded. We are
+left with Court memoirs, diaries of the great, literary proofs of the
+more scholarly, but the simple annals of the poor are, in the main,
+unrecorded.
+
+In view of this series of queer and remarkable facts strung together
+to afford the reader a rough and ready picture of those dim days,
+one comes to believe that much of the ordinary seventeenth-century
+furniture must be regarded as having belonged to the great yeoman
+class of the community. With this belief the collector very rightly
+regards it of sterling worth, as reminiscent of the men from whose
+sturdy stock has sprung a great race.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE GATE-LEG TABLE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE GATE-LEG TABLE
+
+   Its early form--Transitional and experimental stages--Its
+   establishment as a permanent popular type--The gate-leg table
+   in the Jacobean period--Walnut and mahogany varieties--Its
+   utility and beauty contribute to its long survival--Its
+   adoption in modern days.
+
+
+The gate-leg table is always regarded with veneration by collectors.
+It has a charm of style and beauty of construction which afford
+never-ending delight to possessors of old examples. It is an inspired
+piece of cabinet-work which belongs to the middle of the seventeenth
+century, and exhibits the supreme effort of the early Jacobean
+craftsmen to break away from the square massive tables, the lineal
+descendants of the great bulbous-legged table of the Elizabethan
+hall. Dining-tables with the device of slides to draw out when
+occasion required, even in early days became a necessity. It is a
+note indicating the changing habits of the people. A table was no
+longer used for one purpose. The large table required a permanent
+place in a large room. But smaller houses fitted with minor
+furniture had their limitations of space, and so the ingenuity of a
+table that would close together and stand against a wall, or could be
+used as a round table for dining, was a welcome innovation.
+
+=Its Early Form.=--The series of illustrations in this chapter afford
+a fairly comprehensive survey of the progress and differing character
+of the gate-leg table during the hundred years that it held a place
+in domestic furniture. It is difficult to say with exactitude which
+are the earliest forms, or whether the round table without the moving
+gates was a sort of transitional form prior to the use of the movable
+legs. It is quite possible that in his attempt to invent something
+more convenient than the heavy square dining-table the progressive
+cabinet-maker of the middle seventeenth century did strike the
+half-way form. But on the other hand it must be admitted that there
+is the possibility that the gate-leg table came first, and that the
+types with three legs and half circular tops stand by themselves as
+later types. On the whole, one is inclined to the belief, especially
+as it prettily illustrates forms of natural evolution, that the
+three-legged table with fixed legs and half round top came first.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK SIDE TABLE. _C._ 1660.
+
+  Plain style. The precursor of the gate-leg table.]
+
+  [Illustration: TRIANGULAR GATE-LEG TABLE. _C._ 1640.
+
+  Fine example. With arcaded spandrils and gate. This is the next
+  stage of development to above table.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+The two tables illustrated on p. 87 belong to this three-legged type.
+The upper one is half circular at the top and the three legs are
+stationary. This particular table is in date about 1660, and although
+in this instance it is obviously later than other forms we illustrate
+having gate-legs, yet by the theory we have advanced above, it
+belongs to a type prior to the use of a gate. The lower one is a
+fine example, in date about 1640, of a triangular gate-leg table.
+The top is round, and the illustration shows the gate open at right
+angles to the stretcher. The arcaded spandrils are an interesting and
+rare feature.
+
+=Transitional Types.=--Not only is the feeling towards the gradual
+establishment of this new form of table shown in its construction,
+first with four legs until it developed into a table with twelve
+legs and double gates, but the styles of ornament used in the
+turning differ greatly in character. The leg is capable of wide and
+differing treatment. There is the urn leg, a rare and early type,
+the ball turned leg, egg-and-reel turned leg, and the straight leg.
+In regard to the stretcher similar varieties occur. Sometimes it is
+entirely plain, and when it is decoratively turned it varies from
+the early survival of the Gothic trestle to the rare cross stretcher
+of the late collapsible table. In some types of Yorkshire tables
+the stretchers are splat-form, like a ladder-back chair. The feet
+differ in no less degree from the usual Jacobean type to the scroll
+or Spanish foot at a later date. In the early eighteenth century
+there is the interesting series of Queen Anne flap tables which
+have gate-legs. Some have the bottom stretcher to the gate-leg.
+These belong to the walnut period, when a greater vivacity became
+noticeable in English cabinet work.
+
+It is this picturesque and endless stream of designs which appeals to
+the collector. It is quite worthy of study to follow the difference
+in the cabinet-work of these gate tables. The long line of craftsmen
+who fashioned them added here and there not only touches of
+ornament that were personal, but invented details of construction as
+improvements to existing forms.
+
+A very early type with urn legs and having plain gates is that
+illustrated p. 91. It is small in size and belongs to the first half
+of the seventeenth century. The survival of the Gothic trestle feet
+of an earlier type is noteworthy. The table on the same page has the
+trestle ends still retained. There is still the single leg at each
+end, as in the example above. The gates are square and plain and the
+legs are ball turned, a combination representing an early type. The
+size of this piece is small and its date is about 1650 or somewhat
+later.
+
+=Its Establishment as a Popular Type.=--The varied improvements and
+the slightly differing characteristics make it perfectly clear, when
+examined in detail, that the gate table in various parts of the
+country had firmly established itself and had won popular approval as
+a permanent type. In the search for tables of this form, however wide
+the net is spread by those indefatigable seekers in out-of-the-way
+places, and by the small army of trade collectors who scour the
+country for the purpose of unearthing something rare and unique,
+the story is always the same. In the most remote districts such
+tables are still found: the growth of the use of this gate-leg form
+permeated every part of the country. It was copied and recopied,
+native touches were added, and the old leading lines followed by
+generation after generation of craftsmen. It had as great a vogue
+during the long period of its history as the styles of Chippendale
+chairs had at a later date, when every country cabinet-maker was
+seized with the desire to produce minor Chippendale in oak or beech
+or elm.
+
+  [Illustration: SMALL GATE TABLE. VERY EARLY TYPE.
+
+  Length, 3 ft.; breadth, 2 ft. 4 ins.; height, 2 ft. 3 ins. Urn
+  legs with plain gates with survival of Gothic trestle feet.]
+
+  [Illustration: GATE TABLE. MIDDLE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+  Early example. Height, 2 ft.; top, 2 ft. 9 ins. × 2 ft. 3 ins.
+  Square gates and turned leg indicate early type. Trestle ends
+  still retained.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: RARE TABLE.
+
+  With double gates. Egg and reel turning. Turned stretchers.
+
+  (Examples such as this are worth Ł18 to Ł35 owing to rare form.)]
+
+  [Illustration: RARE GATE TABLE.
+
+  With double gates with only one flap and having turned
+  stretchers. Tables with one flap are rare and usually have two
+  gates.
+
+  {_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+=The Jacobean Period.=--Essentially the flower of the popular
+creations of the Jacobean furniture-designer, the gate table must
+always stand as reminiscent of the days of Charles I. and Charles
+II. No picture of this period is considered artistically complete
+unless there be a gate-leg table with its picturesque lines adding a
+technical touch of correctness to interiors. The portrait of Herrick,
+the parson-poet of Devon, imaginative though it be, whenever it
+appears on canvas or illustrating his lyrics, shows the poet beside
+a fine gate-leg table. Stage tradition is equally sure on the same
+point. A company of swaggering cavaliers at an inn is not complete
+without a group arranged at one of these tables quaffing wine from
+flagons.
+
+Without doubt the finest examples are to be found from the year 1660
+to the end of the reign of Charles II. A new impetus had been given
+to furniture-making in Restoration days. The country had settled
+down in tranquillity and the domestic arts began again to thrive in
+natural manner following the earlier motives of the days of Charles
+I. The recent civil wars had arrested their development, and now they
+burst forth again with renewed youth.
+
+Ripe examples of the best period may be assigned to the last three
+or four decades of the seventeenth century. These, it should be
+explained, are in oak. We illustrate (p. 93) a particularly pleasing
+specimen with double gates which belongs to this finest period.
+There are, it will be observed, twelve legs, and the stretchers are
+finely turned with what is known as the egg-and-reel pattern. As a
+matter of fact pieces such as this, on account of the rare form,
+bring from Ł15 to Ł35, and they are rapidly being gathered into the
+folds of collectors.
+
+Another rare form is shown on the same page. This, too, has double
+gates, and the stretchers are similarly turned. There is only one
+flap to this table, and it will be observed that it makes another
+variation from accepted styles in having a rectangular instead of a
+circular top. Tables with one flap are always rare, and when found
+they usually have two gates.
+
+It will be seen that there are pleasant surprises in following
+changing forms all through the period. On p. 97 a table is
+illustrated with two gates on one stretcher. This in date is about
+1660.
+
+The table below, on the same page, exhibits florid turning in the
+legs. The stretchers across the two legs are half way up and are the
+Yorkshire form of splat stretcher. This type is found as early as
+1660 and as late as 1750.
+
+The difference in structure is noticeable in two tables shown on p.
+99. The one has six legs and the other eight legs. The first has
+finely turned legs and stretchers in what is familiarly known as the
+"barley-sugar" pattern. Among its exceptional features are the legs
+being only six in number, the gates being hinged to stretcher, two
+legs thus being dispensed with, and the additional bar across the two
+central stretchers. This is a rare piece and in date is about
+1670. The Gate Table on the same page with eight legs is a good
+example of ball turning. This is a type which survived well into the
+eighteenth century.
+
+  [Illustration: GATE TABLE. _C._ 1660.
+
+  Rare form. Two gates on one stretcher. Length, 3 ft. 10 ins.;
+  width, 3 ft.]
+
+  [Illustration: GATE TABLE.
+
+  Exhibiting florid turning and Yorkshire type of splat stretchers.
+  Examples are found as early as 1660 and as late as 1750. Length,
+  4 ft. 7-1/2 ins.; width, 3 ft. 3-1/2 ins.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: GATE TABLE.
+
+  Fine "barley sugar" turned legs and stretchers.
+
+  Exceptional features: Only six legs (gates hinged to stretcher,
+  two legs thus dispensed with). Additional bar across two central
+  stretchers.
+
+  Rare example. Date 1670.]
+
+  [Illustration: GATE TABLE.
+
+  Good example of ball turning. A type which survived well into the
+  eighteenth century.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: COLLAPSIBLE TABLE WITH RARE X STRETCHER. _C._ 1660.
+
+  The top folds over. Fine example.
+
+  (_In the collection of Lady Mary Holland._)]
+
+  [Illustration: PRIMITIVE GATE-LEG TABLE. SEVENTEENTH OR EARLY
+  EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+  Gates at one end. Made by a local carpenter or wheelwright not
+  conversant with turning.]
+
+As exhibiting two types as wide asunder as the poles, and yet not far
+removed in point of time, the two tables illustrated, p. 101, make a
+curious contrast. The upper one, in date about 1660, is a slender,
+graceful example, with the unusual =X=-shaped stretcher. It will be
+seen from the illustration that the two stretchers when closed fit
+flat with the legs and the top flaps over, thus making the table
+practically collapsible.
+
+The lower Table, of late seventeenth or early eighteenth century,
+is a somewhat primitive form, with the gates at one end. This
+has obviously been made by a local carpenter or wheelwright not
+conversant with turning, as the shaping of the legs is strongly
+suggestive of the rude fashioning of the shafts of a farm wagon.
+
+=Walnut and Mahogany Varieties.=--As the mid-Jacobean period is
+left behind, and walnut is the chief wood used in ornamental turned
+work, so the character of the gate table begins to incline towards
+the technique more suitable to walnut than to oak. The turning, more
+easily done in the former wood, becomes more intricate. Hence some
+examples appear which are practically types of the walnut age. But,
+in general, the old gate-leg table is a survival throughout the
+William and Mary and Queen Anne periods, wherein country makers clung
+to the oak form and employed oak still in its manufacture.
+
+The William and Mary Gate Table illustrated (p. 105) is constructed
+with one gate. It is small in size, practically being an ornamental
+or occasional table. It has a fine character, and the "barley
+sugar" pattern is deeply turned. Side by side with this is a small
+square-topped Gate Table with the pillar-leg, denoting a reversion
+to early type. The stretcher is of the old trestle form. Both
+these pieces, on account of their small size and well-balanced
+construction, show that considerable attention was being paid to
+symmetry. Such specimens can readily be transplanted to more modern
+surroundings, and yet in some subtle manner harmonise with later
+furniture.
+
+They share this peculiarity with objects of Oriental art of the
+highest type. Old blue Nankin and old lac cabinets, although
+anachronisms amid furniture of a later date, possess the property of
+being in sympathy with their new environment, much in the same manner
+as an old Persian rug becomes a restful acquisition in a luxurious
+Western home.
+
+Some of the forms are so rare as to be almost unique. It is seldom
+that so interesting a piece is found as the Table illustrated (p.
+105) with the scroll feet in Spanish style. It has only one gate,
+and the top of the table lifts up, forming a box. The lock is shown
+at the front in the photograph. The adjacent table has a corrupted
+form of the Spanish foot, doubled under in cramped fashion like the
+flapper of a seal. This also has one gate; in date this piece is
+about 1680.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+    EARLY GATE TABLE.
+
+    With square top and pillar leg.
+    Stretcher: Old trestle form.
+    Top, 2 ft. 4 ins. × 1 ft. 10 ins.
+
+    WILLIAM AND MARY GATE TABLE.
+
+    Fine character deep-turning "barley sugar"
+    pattern with only one gate.
+    Top, 2 ft. 6 ins. × 2 ft.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell & Sons._)]
+
+  [Illustration: GATE TABLE WITH SQUARE TOP. _C._ 1680
+
+  Having one gate and corrupted form of carved Spanish foot.]
+
+  [Illustration: GATE-LEG TABLE. _C._ 1660.
+
+  With one gate. Top lifts up to form box. The feet are in Spanish
+  style.]
+
+The days of mahogany, with Chippendale in his prime and Hepplewhite,
+Ince and Mayhew, Robert Manwaring, Matthias Lock, William Shearer,
+and a crowd of others, brought intricate carving in mahogany into
+intense prominence. This was the golden age of furniture design. An
+outburst of enthusiasm, following the architectural triumphs of the
+Brothers Adam, wherein they raised interior decoration to a level as
+high as that in France, had swept over the country. In spite of the
+rich profusion of new design being poured out in illustrated volumes
+and in executed furniture, the old gate-leg table still survived.
+In form it was the same, but the richness of the new wood was too
+enticing for the cabinet-maker not to employ. Accordingly we find
+examples in mahogany.
+
+In the Chippendale period =X=-shaped, cluster-leg, gate tables
+are found, and turning was used in this cluster-leg form. The
+ripe inventiveness of such a design as the gate-leg table was too
+evident to escape the adoption by famous makers. When ingenuity of
+construction was at its zenith the gate-leg was not likely to be
+discarded in fashionable furniture.
+
+On p. 109 two specimens of this period are shown. The upper one is of
+somewhat unusual type, having a Cupid's bow underframing. It is seen
+that the Spanish foot has still survived into the eighteenth century.
+The lower table is again a rare form. It is probably early in date
+for mahogany, being about 1740. The Spanish foot is employed, but in
+a coarsened form, unusually inelegant, and suggestive of a golf club.
+
+=Its Utility and Beauty.=--It is a natural question that one may ask
+as to the reason that the gate table had such a prolonged life. It
+passed through several strong periods of fashionable styles that
+were overthrown in turn by newer designs. The reason is not far to
+seek. It survived because the public could not do without it. There
+must have been a continuous demand, unchecked by the excitements of
+contemporary substitutes. But apparently there was nothing to take
+its place, or which could permanently supplant it. Its utility is
+undoubtedly one of its most marked features. This alone affected
+its stability as a possession with which the farmer's wife and the
+cottager would not part. Customs long established in the country
+were not easily discontinued. Mother, daughter, and granddaughter
+clung to the old and practical form of table. Nowadays there are
+families in the shires whom nothing would induce to sell their old
+gate tables. Partly this is for love of the old home, but mainly is
+it the common-sense attitude which rebels against the sale of any
+piece of furniture which is in constant use. Many objects long gone
+into disuse, but really valuable from an artistic point of view, are
+readily dispensed with. The cottager imagines that if he disposes of
+a mere ornament for a sum of money with which he can buy something
+useful he has effected a good "deal."
+
+  [Illustration: MAHOGANY GATE TABLE.
+
+  Unusual type. With "Cupid's bow" underframing. Spanish foot
+  surviving into eighteenth century. Height, 2 ft. 5 ins.: diameter
+  of top, 3 ft. 6 ins.; width, 4 ft.]
+
+  [Illustration: MAHOGANY GATE TABLE.
+
+  Rare form. Probably made of the new fashionable wood about 1740.
+  Use of Spanish foot dying out. Diameter of top, 4 ft. 5-1/2 ins.
+  × 4 ft. 4 ins.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+So much for its utility. Its beauty is a quality which has appealed
+to persons of higher artistic instincts. It is not the quaintness,
+because there are scores of other objects equally quaint, nor is
+it altogether the antiquity, though, of course, nowadays that is
+a determining factor, but it is the actual symmetry of form and
+ingenious form of construction, enhanced by the wide range of
+decorative treatment, which irresistibly appeal to the lover of the
+beautiful. These manifold reasons, therefore, endowed the gate-leg
+table with great vitality. Its hold of the people was not relaxed
+till the age of the factory-made furniture. The banalities of the
+early-Victorian period, which destroyed taste in persons of finer
+susceptibilities than the common folk, supplanted the old historic
+form, and it was made no more.
+
+=Its Adoption in Modern Days.=--After William Morris and his school
+had preached the revival of taste and the return to the simple and
+the beautiful, and Ruskin with flowing rhetoric had instilled a love
+for homespun into men's minds, there came newer ideals which, with
+gradual dissemination, have grown into a great modern movement which
+has become so overwhelmingly popular that the pendulum has almost
+swung the other way. It has now become almost a truism that the
+person of taste to-day sees nothing good in anything that is not old.
+With this in view, artists and persons of advanced notions, if they
+could not procure the old, had copies made for them of some of the
+most beautiful styles suitable for modern requirements. In this there
+was always the great Morrisian principle in view that the highest art
+must show a full utilitarian purpose; so it came about that the gate
+table was revived and came gloriously into its own again. To-day, as
+in the seventeenth century, there is no more popular form of table,
+and the modern cabinet-maker is manufacturing hundreds of these
+tables.
+
+The life-history of the gate-leg table is, therefore, shown to be an
+interesting one. It is one of our oldest forms, and its construction
+nowadays, save that it is now produced in a factory, is singularly
+similar to that in the days when Oliver Cromwell was establishing our
+power as a voice in Europe, when James II. had an eye towards the
+supremacy of our navy, and when later our troops fought in Flanders.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE FARMHOUSE DRESSER
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE FARMHOUSE DRESSER
+
+   The days of the late Stuarts--Its early table form with
+   drawers--The decorated type with shelves--William and
+   Mary style with double cupboards--The Queen Anne cabriole
+   leg--Mid-eighteenth-century types.
+
+
+The various types of dresser associated with farmhouse use are
+interesting as being apart from the sideboard, a later fashion
+belonging to furniture of a higher type. It was not until the late
+days of Chippendale, and after, that the Side Table began to be
+designated a Sideboard, which later became a receptacle for wine,
+with a cellaret, and had a drawer for table-linen.
+
+The sideboard is not a modern term, for the word is found in Dryden
+and in Milton. In the late eighteenth-century days the sideboard had
+a brass rail at the back, and was ornamented by two mahogany urns of
+massive proportions. Usually these were used for iced water and for
+hot water, the latter for washing the knives and forks.
+
+The Adam sideboard with its severe classical lines, and Sheraton's
+elegant bow fronts and satinwood panels decorated with painting,
+belong to the later developments of the sideboard as now known.
+
+The dresser is something more homely. It is indissolubly connected
+with homeliness and with the farmhouse and the country-side. In its
+various forms it has appealed to lovers of simple furniture, and
+farmhouse examples have found their way into surroundings more or
+less incongruous. The dresser in its more primitive form requires the
+necessary environment. It loses its charm when placed in proximity to
+pieces of more pretentious character. The cupboard dresser, or the
+type with open shelves, is less decorative than some of the forms
+without the back. That is to say, it requires the exactly suitable
+accompaniment to prevent its simple lines from being eclipsed by
+furniture of a higher grade. The dresser is, therefore, especially
+desirable to the collector furnishing a country cottage in harmonious
+character; but its inclusion in the modern drawing-room is an
+incongruity and its presence in the dining-room is more often than
+not an unwarrantable intrusion.
+
+=The Days of the Late Stuarts.=--It will be seen that the early
+types have fronts finely decorated with geometric designs panelled
+in the same fashion as the Jacobean chests of drawers, such as that
+illustrated p. 69. The split baluster ornament is a noticeable
+feature in this style, and the fine graceful balance of the panels
+with the drawers with drop brass handles is an attractive feature
+beloved by connoisseurs of the late Stuart period. The decoration in
+the fronts of these early dressers is as diverse in character
+as the fronts of the contemporary chests of drawers. This variety is
+indicative of the personal character imparted to the work of the old
+designers. It is rare to find two examples exactly alike. They differ
+in details, much in the same manner as the brass candlesticks of the
+same period, which possess the same charm of individuality.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK DRESSER. ABOUT 1680.
+
+  With finely decorated front.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell & Sons._)]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK DRESSER.
+
+  Fine example of the period of James II.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK DRESSER OF UNUSUAL TYPE. EARLY EIGHTEENTH
+  CENTURY.
+
+  With arched formation below and serpentine outline at sides.
+  Height, 6 ft. 8-1/2 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 6 ins.; width, 6 ft. 2
+  ins.]
+
+  [Illustration: EARLY OAK DRESSER. ABOUT 1660.
+
+  With urn-shaped legs.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+Of this particular type of oak Dresser the two examples illustrated
+(p. 117) have characteristics which are common to the class. The
+geometric front panels, the laid-on moulding, and the Jacobean
+leg--in most cases the back legs of these side dressers are
+square--should be intently noticed. In regard to the number of
+the legs, this is governed by the length of the dresser. In the
+lower example it will be seen that there are six legs and that the
+stretcher is continued round three sides. In this example the legs
+begin to show indications of the late-Jacobean style of more delicate
+turning. In the upper example the legs are bolder.
+
+These are oak specimens; the walnut varieties of similar design offer
+more sumptuous decoration and belong to furniture more suitable for
+the manor house than for the farm or cottage.
+
+An earlier type, in date about 1660, illustrated p. 119, exhibits a
+less ornate appearance and has the split urn-shaped legs in front and
+flat legs at the back. The split legs are found sometimes in gate
+tables, but when such is the case it may safely be conjectured that
+these tables are not of English origin, as the split leg did not find
+great favour with the English cabinet-makers.
+
+Before passing to later examples it should be observed that this
+particular form of dresser is most frequently found without a top
+with shelves. Examples there are which, as we shall show, have the
+original top, but as a rule it is advisable to note this feature
+in examining these Jacobean dressers, for there are a great number
+in the market to which later tops have been added, as suitable to
+more modern requirements, or as likely to prove more attractive to
+those collectors not familiar with the dresser in its earlier form.
+Originally in early dressers with shelves there is no back, that is
+to say, the shelves showed the wall behind them. This deficiency has
+been obligingly supplied by later hands.
+
+The dresser, as it found itself after certain transitional stages had
+been passed through, is shown in the early eighteenth-century piece
+illustrated (p. 119). This is of the early days of the eighteenth
+century, that is to say, in the reign of Queen Anne. It is here seen
+that the dresser is a set piece of furniture possessing attributes
+instantly marking it as having been carefully designed with a due
+observance as to the purpose to which it was to be put. The shelf at
+the bottom was evidently intended for use; the arched formation below
+the drawers has been planned in that manner to admit of utensils
+placed there being taken out and replaced with ease. One can only
+conjecture what may have stood there, maybe a barrel of cider, or
+perhaps only a breadpan.
+
+=The Decorated Type with Shelves.=--The back with shelves was a
+useful addition, which, as will be seen in the earlier examples
+leading up to this later development, had borne several experiments
+in the way of cupboards. In this particular specimen the broken or
+serpentine outline at sides of shelves is a noticeable feature, and
+always adds a grace and charm to the dresser when employed by the
+cabinet-maker. Another example in which this is effectively used is
+illustrated on p. 123.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+    DRESSER. EARLY JACOBEAN.
+
+    Length, 6 ft. 5 ins.; height, 7 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 8-1/2 ins.
+
+    DRESSER. EARLIEST DECORATED TYPE.
+
+    Date about 1670.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+To return to the early-Jacobean types: two interesting pieces
+are illustrated together (p. 123). That on the left, with four
+legs and stretcher, has three drawers, and the upper portion or
+back is ornamented by a primitive scalloped design suggestive
+of the country hand. The other, on the right, has six legs and
+four drawers, and the upper portion is beginning to receive
+detailed treatment in regard to spacing of the shelves, and a
+small cupboard on each side fills the growing need of cupboards
+and drawers, a rapidly growing taste in English furniture for
+domestic use as the home-life began to be more complex. About
+this time nests of boxes and drawers in lac work from the East
+began to be imported into this country in the better houses,
+first as articles of great luxury and beauty, on account of
+their colour and fine gold work, and later as being something
+new and essentially utilitarian in regard to the accommodation
+they afforded for the treasures the housewife wished to put away
+from the prying eyes of her curious neighbours. As time went
+on, the art of the cabinet-maker became more intricate. It is
+not the place here to enter into the minutić of the development
+of drawers and bureaus and cabinets, but the late eighteenth
+century brought such furniture, apart from points in relation to
+beauty of design, to great constructive skill. The age was one of
+hidden contrivances and intricately cunning mechanism concealing
+secret drawers or receptacles. Such pieces were never made for
+farmhouse use; but the germ of the idea is ever present in all
+furniture with indications of locked drawers and cupboards. This
+is the note of intense civilisation as against the simpler modes
+of primitive folk who have no bolt to their door and no lock to
+guard their possessions.
+
+=William and Mary Style with Double Cupboards.=--The variety
+with double cupboards are interesting as giving a date to the
+dressers in which they are found. It is usually accurate to
+place such pieces in the William and Mary period, that is to say
+from the year 1689 to the end of the seventeenth century. The
+tendency in this class of furniture is to cling tenaciously to
+older forms, especially in certain portions of the cabinet-work
+which presented difficulties to the local cabinet-maker. The legs
+retained their early-Jacobean character even when associated with
+much later styles. This is noticeable in the William and Mary
+example illustrated (p. 127). The arcaded doors are inlaid, the
+canopy is decorated, the underwork beneath the drawers belongs
+essentially to the "Orange" period of design in its feeling.
+
+That the dresser could be made an ornamental piece of furniture
+and found its place as an important possession in the farmhouse,
+bright with an array of china, or pewter, or even silver, is
+amply shown by the two examples illustrated together of which
+the foregoing is one. The other oak dresser has at the top,
+where the mugs are hanging, the original mug-hooks. It is of
+the square-leg type and the arcaded work below the drawers
+gives distinction to its lines; it possesses also the broken or
+serpentine ends to the shelves. These curves and simple touches
+of ornament all contribute to make such dressers pleasing in
+character and representative of native work attempting with
+strong endeavour to produce artistic results suitable to their
+environment.
+
+  [Illustration: WILLIAM AND MARY OAK DRESSER. DATE _C._ 1689.
+
+  Decorated canopy, arcaded doors, inlaid and turned legs. Height,
+  6 ft. 8-1/2 ins.; length, 6 ft. 4 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 8 ins.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK DRESSER.
+
+  Square leg type; with original mug hooks. Height, 6 ft.; length,
+  4 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 5 ins.]
+
+=The Queen Anne Cabriole Leg.=--It is not to be expected that the
+long-continued triumph of the cabriole leg of the eighteenth century
+would leave the dresser without making its mark thereon. The exact
+curve of the cabriole leg is dangerous in the hands of a novice,
+who rarely if ever gets the correct balance in conjunction with the
+rest of the construction. Accordingly, in farmhouse pieces this
+tells its own story. It is as though the cabriole leg were a sudden
+afterthought. This touch of representative want of repose is shown in
+the specimen illustrated (p. 135). In date this is about 1740, and is
+a somewhat rare form, having double cupboards.
+
+A unique Dresser and Clock combined is illustrated (p. 131). The
+form of the dresser, it will be seen, is quite different from other
+specimens. The back is only sufficiently high to carry a row of small
+drawers. The legs are circular and tapered, terminating in circular
+feet. In the centre of the dresser is a clock of the familiar
+grandfather form in miniature. This clock is not an addition to the
+dresser, but is a portion of the dresser and was made with it. The
+illustration shows the size of the door of the clock-case, with its
+hinges not cut down or in any way interfered with, and the lock on
+the other side is in the centre of the panel. It is obvious that no
+later hand has tampered with this fine example, and it stands as a
+remarkable dresser and unique in form in its construction with this
+clock.
+
+=Mid-eighteenth-century Types.=--In the Lancashire Dresser
+illustrated (p. 135) the top is reminiscent of early types. The
+cupboard has removed its position to the middle, a departure from
+all earlier forms. This is a very characteristic example, and the
+ample drawer accommodation shows the speedy transition from the old
+form of dresser through its varied stages to the later modern variety
+of the kitchen dresser, devoid of poetry and lacking interest to
+the collector, and yet to the student having traces of its ancient
+lineage.
+
+The eighteenth-century farmhouse varieties offer no great departure.
+They aim at being capacious and massive. They make no pretensions
+to approach the niceties of the sideboard in use in the better
+houses. They supply an undoubted want in the farmhouse for storage.
+There were cordials and home-made wines and much prized linen and
+a bright array of silver and Sheffield plate and pewter, and no
+doubt tea services or porcelain from the new English factories of
+Worcester, Derby, Bow, or maybe Plymouth or Bristol, to be shielded
+from breakage. The farmer's wife and the farmer's daughters were less
+than human if they did not follow the new fashions in some degree,
+more or less, in tea-drinking and in becoming the proud possessors
+of tea services and dinner services somewhat more delicate than the
+old delft and coarse Staffordshire ware. The cupboards had ample
+accommodation for these more valuable accessories of the farmhouse
+parlour. The cabinet-maker therefore developed on lines exactly
+suitable for the country clients whom he served.
+
+  [Illustration: UNIQUE DRESSER AND CLOCK COMBINED.
+
+  The clock is not an addition, but is a portion of the dresser,
+  and was made for it.
+
+  (_In the collection of D. A. Bevan, Esq._)]
+
+The late forms show this marked tendency to provide innumerable
+drawers and cupboards, in the farmhouse dressers contemporary with
+Chippendale. Many examples are found which are practically elongated
+chests of drawers; the old characteristics of the dresser are absent,
+the back has disappeared altogether. There is no top with shelves.
+Eight large drawers and two capacious cupboards give great storage
+room in a piece often 9 feet in length. There is nothing finicking
+in this type of furniture. It stands for homely comfort and love of
+domestic order. We may be sure that the good dame who used this lower
+piece, with its eight solid drawers with sound locks, was a person
+of frugal habits and love of the old farmstead. We may safely assume
+that she had a well-filled stocking hidden away somewhere in this
+old-fashioned repository, put by for the rainy day.
+
+In conclusion it may be said that a good deal has been talked about
+Welsh dressers, as though they were a type absolutely apart from
+any other. The differences are not great, as the carving, in which
+the Welsh craftsman offers characteristics of his own, is absent in
+pieces of furniture such as the dresser. Then there is the Normandy
+dresser, a much-abused term: a considerable number of these, and
+others, too, from Brittany, have been imported and the terms have
+become trade descriptions. But in the main the English dresser
+has passed through the phases we have described, and the outlines
+herein suggested may be filled in by the painstaking collector. In
+the chapter dealing with local types there is an illustration of
+a Lancashire dresser (p. 273) which adds one more example to the
+gallery of dressers we give as types in this chapter.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK DRESSER. DATE ABOUT 1740.
+
+  With early double cupboards. Legs in Queen Anne style. Height, 6
+  ft. 7 ins.; width, 9 ft. 5-1/2 ins.; depth, 2 ft. 2-1/2 ins.]
+
+  [Illustration: LANCASHIRE DRESSER. MIDDLE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+  Top reminiscent of early types. Ample drawer accommodation.
+  Transition to modern dresser. Deeply cut panels. Cupboard in
+  middle as distinct from earlier forms at sides. Height, 7 ft. 2
+  ins.; width, 6 ft. 7 ins.; depth, 2 ft.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE BIBLE-BOX, THE CRADLE, THE SPINNING-WHEEL, AND THE
+BACON-CUPBOARD
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE BIBLE-BOX, THE CRADLE, THE SPINNING-WHEEL, AND THE BACON-CUPBOARD
+
+   The Puritan days of the seventeenth century--The Protestant
+   Bible in every home--The variety of carving found in
+   Bible-boxes--The Jacobean cradle and its forms--The
+   spinning-wheel--The bacon-cupboard.
+
+
+The Authorised version of the Holy Bible, "translated out of the
+original tongues and with the former translations diligently compared
+and revised," by His Majesty's command, found a place in every
+household in Stuart days. The letter of the learned translators "To
+the most High and Mighty Prince James, by the Grace of God, King of
+Great Britain, France, and Ireland, Defender of the Faith," &c.,
+retains its place in modern editions. It is an historic document
+worthy of preservation, and perhaps those who have forgotten its
+terms may be glad to have their memory refreshed. It is of surpassing
+moment to all who recognise the Protestant derivation of the Bible
+as we now know it, and the sectarian feelings which inspired the
+translators under King James in their fulsome dedication to the
+Modern Solomon. "Great and manifold were the blessings, most dread
+Sovereign, which Almighty God the Father of all mercies bestowed upon
+us the people of England, when first he sent your Majesty's Royal
+Person to rule and reign over us. For whereas it was the expectation
+of many, who wished not well unto our _Sion_, that upon the setting
+of that bright Occidental Star, Queen Elizabeth, of most happy
+memory, some thick and palpable clouds of darkness would so have
+overshadowed this land, that men should have been in doubt which way
+they were to walk; and that it should hardly be known who was to
+direct the unsettled State; the appearance of your Majesty, as the
+Sun in its strength, instantly dispelled those supposed and surmised
+mists, and gave unto all that were well affected exceeding cause of
+comfort; especially when we beheld the Government established in Your
+Highness and your hopeful seed, by an undoubted title, and this also
+accompanied by peace and tranquillity at home and abroad."
+
+It is, as we affirm, an interesting document as showing the Puritan
+tendencies at a time when much was in the melting-pot and the first
+of the Stuarts, with his broad Scots accent and his ungainly ways,
+came down to St. James's from the North. Compare the above literary
+dedication to James the First with the word-portrait painted by Green
+the historian, and one may draw one's own inferences. "His big head,
+his slobbering tongue, his quilted clothes, his rickety legs, stood
+out in as grotesque a contrast with all that men recalled of Henry
+or of Elizabeth as his gabble and rodomontade, his want of personal
+dignity, his buffoonery, his coarseness of speech, his pedantry, his
+contemptible cowardice. Under this ridiculous exterior, however, lay
+a man of much natural ability, a ripe scholar with a considerable
+fund of shrewdness, of mother-wit, and ready repartee."
+
+=The Protestant Bible in every Home.=--Himself a theologian, James
+influenced his contemporaries. "Theology rules there," said Grotius
+of England only two years after Elizabeth's death. There was an
+indifference to pure letters and persons were counted fine scholars
+who were diligent in the study of the Bible. The language of the
+people became enriched with this study, which extended to all
+classes. John Bunyan, the son of a tinker at Elstow, learned his
+intense prose from the Bible. The peasant absorbed the Bible till its
+words became his own. With the Puritan movement came the production
+of men of serious type, and with it too came the disappearance of
+the richer and brighter life and humour of Elizabethan days. It was
+a literary movement and a religious movement which penetrated to the
+lower classes and often left the upper classes and gentry unmoved.
+In dealing with this and its reflex upon the domestic habits of the
+people, the visible effects in regard to furniture are strikingly
+evident in the plethora of Bible-boxes belonging to those in this
+period of Biblical study, to whom Shakespeare and Ben Jonson were
+unknown and Spenser's _Faerie Queene_ and Milton's _Comus_ were
+sealed books.
+
+It would almost seem that in many cases the Bible was the only
+book which was read and treasured. It was incorporated in the home
+life. It served as a register to record the names and dates of
+birth and death or marriage of members of the family. Some of these
+family registers have been most valuable in tracing details in
+biography where parish registers have failed to supply the necessary
+information.
+
+=The Variety of Carving found in Bible-boxes.=--We give a series
+of illustrations indicating some of the interesting details of
+carving to be found on such boxes, where, as in work intended for a
+treasure-chest to preserve a sacred book, considerable zeal has gone
+to the elaboration of ornament. These seventeenth-century relics of
+a wave of religious enthusiasm are the crude Puritan likenesses,
+belonging to a less innately artistic race, of the tabernacles and
+ivory carved Madonnas and saints of the Italian renaissance. They
+both, though poles asunder in realisation, represent the instinctive
+love of man for ornament in connection with his religious emotions.
+Savage races with another ritual produce religious and ceremonial
+woodcarving representative of their best. Here, then, is the Puritan
+craftsmanship, mainly of provincial origin and found scattered over
+various parts of the country, following _motifs_ executed by the same
+hands as Jacobean chairs and dressers, but bearing rich touches of
+ornament, betraying much originality, within the limited scope of
+Jacobean design.
+
+The carving has nothing of the humour or strong bold relief of the
+miserere seats of the palmy days of the woodcarver in the fifteenth
+and early sixteenth century in details that might well have been
+applied to the Bible-box. The ambition of the Puritan woodcarver
+never reached figure-work, or he might have represented Biblical
+scenes if his abhorrence of graven images had not demoralised his
+fancy. Some of the early boxes have bold carving. We illustrate
+a fine example (p. 143) of the time of James I., about 1600. The
+design is floral, which embodies the well-known conventional rose.
+Illustrated on the same page is another carved box of unusual pattern
+with floriated design. It was a frequent practice to treat the front
+of the box as though it were continuous and the pattern leaves off
+at the ends much in the same manner as modern wallpaper. In the box
+above it will be seen that the front is panelled and the design is
+confined to the circumscribed area.
+
+  [Illustration: CARVED OAK BIBLE-BOX. FINE EXAMPLE. TIME OF JAMES
+  I. ABOUT 1600.
+
+  Length, 2 ft. 4 ins.; width, 1 ft. 4 ins.; height, 11-1/2 ins.]
+
+  [Illustration: CARVED BIBLE-BOX OF UNUSUAL PATTERN.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: BIBLE-BOX OF VERY RARE PATTERN. ABOUT 1650.
+
+  This type always had the same kind of clasp.]
+
+  [Illustration: BIBLE-BOX OF USUAL PATTERN COMMONLY FOUND.]
+
+Another piece with very rare pattern, in date about 1650, has a bold
+type of carving in the two semicircles stretched across the front.
+This use of semicircles occurs in types usually found. The example
+illustrated (p. 145) has incised carving or "scratch." It will be
+seen that there is never an attempt at inlay or any of the delicacies
+of the refined craftsman. Among the various types of "scratch" boxes
+the use of circles and heart-shaped ornament is constant. The locks
+found on this type of box are always of the class as shown in the
+illustration, and the clasp is well known.
+
+In the collection of Bible-boxes the novice must carefully learn
+the exact limitations of the school of woodworkers in this minor
+field. The touch of the foreign craftsman should be easily
+recognisable, with its piquancy and real artistic feeling. These
+Puritan Bible-boxes have flat lids, and in order to give some touch
+of romance to them or whet the appetite of the collector they are
+frequently described as "lace-boxes," though it is very doubtful if
+such boxes were ever used for storing lace. Sometimes similar boxes
+with sloping lids were used as early forms of writing-desks.
+
+=The Jacobean Cradle.=--The specimens of this type of furniture
+always exhibit, in the oak variety associated with farmhouse use,
+a plainness as a noticeable factor. They are usually panelled, but
+the panel has received no carved ornament and is especially simple.
+Of course they always have rockers. In the examples illustrated the
+slight variation in these rockers will be observed. Sometimes they
+are plain and sometimes they have slight ornamental curves. The only
+other ornament may be found in the turned knobs at the foot and
+sometimes at the head. Sometimes there are fine knobs on the hood.
+
+The hood is sometimes shaped and exhibits a naďve attempt at
+symmetrical design. These cradles have long been familiar objects
+in cottagers' homes, but are now being displaced by modern wicker
+cradles. The picture _A Flood_ (1870), by Sir John E. Millais, shows
+one of these cradles floating in a flooded meadow. The baby is
+crowing with delight, and a black cat sits at the foot of the cradle.
+
+The holes in the example illustrated (p. 149) are intended to receive
+a cord stretched across the cradle to protect the occupant.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CRADLE.
+
+  With shaped hood and turned knobs at head and foot.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CRADLE.
+
+  With shaped hood with turned ball ornaments. Holes on each side
+  to fasten rope to protect occupant.]
+
+  [Illustration: YARN-WINDER AND SPINNING-WHEEL.]
+
+  [Illustration: BUCKINGHAMSHIRE BOBBIN'S.
+
+  Turned wood bobbins with coloured beads to identify the bobbins
+  from each other.
+
+  (_In the collection of the author._)]
+
+=The Spinning-wheel.=--To this day the spinning-wheel is used in
+Scotland, in the Highlands. The wool or yarn winders are usually
+in windlass form with six spokes. The turning upon these winders
+and spinning wheels resembles the spindles on the spindle-back
+chairs. There is in Buckinghamshire bobbins a similar turning,
+individual in character and exhibiting considerable artistic beauty.
+In spinning-wheels there is considerable scope for the use of fine
+touches of ornament, in such practical objects dear to the housewife.
+Bone sometimes was used in the turned knobs. The making of these
+spinning-wheels was undertaken by persons desirous of winning the
+esteem of those who used them. Many of them have come down as
+heirlooms in families and have not been held as objects of art, to be
+regarded as curiosities, but as articles of everyday use.
+
+The use of the spinning-wheel was not confined exclusively to the
+farmer's wife. In early days great ladies were adepts at spinning.
+By the time of George III. it was employed by the ladies of titled
+families. Mrs. Delany, when staying with the Duchess of Portland at
+Bulstrode, writes: "The Queen came about twelve o'clock, and caught
+me at my spinning-wheel, and made me spin on and give her a lesson
+afterwards; and I must say she did it tolerably for a queen." This
+letter, dated 1781, goes to prove two things, that spinning was a
+real task still undertaken by great ladies, and not a fashionable
+amusement. Had it been the latter Mrs. Delany would not have used the
+expression "caught me at my spinning-wheel," wherein she indicates
+that the occupation was somewhat of a menial one.
+
+In regard to the Buckinghamshire bobbins, sometimes finely carved
+in bone, those illustrated (p 151.) indicate the character of the
+cottagers' treasures in the pillow-lace-making districts. The
+patterns of these bobbins are not repeated. Individual touches
+are given to these bobbins by the village turners which are not
+duplicated. In use, the bobbin has to be identified by some mark, and
+beads of different colours are employed, which are affixed by means
+of a wire to the bobbin, as is shown in the illustration.
+
+=The Bacon-cupboard.=--Another class which it is convenient to place
+among miscellaneous objects is the bacon-cupboard. The illustration
+(p. 231) shows the type of bacon-cupboard with seat and arms and
+drawers beneath. The position held by the bacon-cupboard in the
+farmhouse is shown by the growing dignity in the character of these
+cupboards. The gradual growth and development are shown in many
+specimens of the Queen Anne period, frequently of Lancashire origin.
+Such pieces, with classic pilasters, broken cornice, and bevelled
+panels and drawers beneath, are typified in wardrobes and dressers
+belonging to eighteenth-century farmhouse furniture. The development
+of capacious cupboards for various domestic uses is noticeable in
+this class of furniture up to early nineteenth-century days.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES
+
+   The advent of the cabriole leg--The so-called Queen Anne
+   style--The survival of oak in the provinces--The influence of
+   walnut on cabinet-making--The early-Georgian types--Chippendale
+   and his contemporaries.
+
+
+The dawn of the eighteenth century practically commenced with the
+reign of Queen Anne. The times were troublous. As princess, in the
+days of William the Dutchman and her sister Mary, she was forbidden
+the Court as John Churchill, then Earl of Marlborough, designed to
+overthrow William and place Anne on the throne. "Were I and my Lord
+Marlborough private persons," William exclaimed, "the sword would
+have to settle between us."
+
+At the death of Mary the Princess Anne, together with the
+Marlboroughs, was recalled to St. James's. At the death of William,
+in 1702, Anne came to the throne. Only just in her thirty-seventh
+year, she was so corpulent and gouty that she could not walk from
+Westminster Hall to the Abbey, and was carried in an open chair.
+During the Coronation ceremony she was too infirm to support herself
+in a standing position without assistance.
+
+The age of Anne is remarkable for its restless intrigues. Court plots
+were rife when Queen Anne "Mrs. Morley" in her private letters to the
+Duchess of Marlborough, who was "Mrs. Freeman," finally broke with
+the overbearing Duchess and made Abigail Hill, one of the Marlborough
+creatures, her chief confidant. The Protestant Whig party favoured
+the long war in the Low Countries and in Spain, although conducted by
+a Tory general, Marlborough, who, by the way, did not take the field
+in Flanders till he was fifty-two, a remarkable achievement for so
+great a military career, wherein he never fought a battle in which he
+was not victorious.
+
+The greatness of Marlborough is indisputable. His fond love for his
+wife runs like a gold thread through the dark web of his life. His
+wife had, during a large part of Anne's reign, despotic empire over
+Anne's feeble mind. "History exhibits to us few spectacles more
+remarkable," says Lord Macaulay, "than that of a great and wise man
+who, when he had contrived vast and profound schemes of policy, could
+carry them into effect only by inducing one foolish woman, who was
+often unmanageable, to manage another woman who was more foolish
+still."
+
+  [Illustration: LANCASHIRE OAK SETTLE. _C._ 1760.
+
+  Length, 6 ft.; depth, 2 ft. 1 in.]
+
+  [Illustration: LANCASHIRE QUEEN ANNE SETTLE.
+
+  Showing transition into later type of modern settee.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+To us now, with the secret springs of history laid bare, there is
+much to marvel at, much to deplore as trivial. In regard to matters
+of high state and the suppleness of time-servers, memoirs and private
+journals have exposed many a skeleton carefully hidden from public
+gaze. But of the life of the people, especially the life in the
+country districts, the picture is somewhat blurred. Men of letters
+flocked to the town--the town was London. Provincial life lies behind
+a curtain. There were Spanish doubloons coming up from Bristol and
+prize-money from the wars was scattered inland from the ports.
+Scotland was united to England by the Act of Union. "I desire," said
+the Queen, "and expect from my subjects of both nations that from
+henceforth they act with all possible respect and kindness to one
+another, and so that it may appear to all the world they have hearts
+disposed to become one people." This wish has been amply fulfilled
+and the union has become something more than a name. Never have two
+peoples different in thought, in tradition, and in established law
+become so completely welded together.
+
+But the war of the Spanish Succession must have drained English
+blood as it taxed English pockets. "Six millions of supplies and
+almost fifty millions of debt," wrote Swift bitterly. The tide of
+Marlborough's success was undoubtedly secured by the outpouring
+of English lives. Stalwart levies of men from the shires went to
+join the strange medley of the forces of the Allies commanded by
+Marlborough. Dutchmen, Danes, Hanoverians, Würtembergers, and
+Austrians jostled shoulders with each other in his troops. He
+launched them with calm imperturbability against his opponents
+at Malplaquet, for example, where with a Pyrrhic triumph he lost
+twenty-four thousand men against half that number of the French
+behind their entrenchments.
+
+It is little wonder that the war was unpopular in the country, where
+the Spanish Succession and the "balance of power" were only symbols
+for so much pressure on the needs of the labouring classes. Bonfires
+might be lit for Blenheim, but many a village mourned those who would
+never return.
+
+In spite of this intermingling of England with European politics,
+the general life of the people remained untouched from outside
+influence in regard to arts and manufacture. Cut off from intercourse
+with France, the grandeur of the art of Louis Quatorze was as far
+removed from early eighteenth-century England as though Boulle and
+Jean Bérain and Lepaute were in another continent and the château of
+Versailles in the fastnesses of the Urals. It is true that Louis XIV.
+presented two wonderful cabinets to the Duke of Monmouth, exquisite
+examples of metal inlay and coloured marquetry, but such pieces were
+beyond the capabilities of any English craftsman to emulate.
+
+The chief innovations of the early eighteenth century followed
+the Dutch lines familiarised in the preceding days of William and
+Mary. Oak remained in farmhouse and country furniture, but in the
+fashionable world walnut was extensively used, and occasionally
+mahogany. Corner cupboards were introduced early in the reign of
+Anne, and hooped chairs, familiar in engravings of Flemish interiors,
+came into general use. Fiddle-splat chairs were also common in
+the first half of the eighteenth century. In regard to feet, the
+ball-and-claw, and club foot were introduced. Caning of chairs went
+out of fashion till the end of the century. Shell and pendant
+ornament on knees of chair-legs became marked features, and, above
+all, the cabriole leg to chairs and tables is associated with the
+early years of the reign, and the term "Queen Anne" is always applied
+to such pieces.
+
+  [Illustration: CUPBOARD WITH DRAWERS. _C._ 1700.
+
+  With "swan head" pediment. Pedestal at top for delft or china.
+  Round beadings to drawers.]
+
+  [Illustration: QUEEN ANNE BUREAU BOOKCASE.
+
+  Farmhouse oak variety. Emulating a finer walnut or mahogany
+  piece.]
+
+  [Illustration: FINE EXAMPLE OAK TABLE. _C._ 1720.
+
+  Well-proportioned legs, club feet, original undercutting.
+  Exemplary of professional country cabinet-maker's highest work.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK TABLE. _C._ 1720.
+
+  With hoof feet and knee, possibly copied from a fine Queen Anne
+  piece, exemplifying the best work of country cabinet-maker.
+  Height, 2 ft. 7 ins.; top, 1 ft. 7-1/2 ins. × 2 ft. 3 ins.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+=The Cabriole Leg.=--This form of leg, swelling into massive
+proportions where it joins the seat, and curving outwards and
+tapering to a ball-and-claw foot or a club foot, lasted till end of
+Chippendale period, roughly, for nearly half a century. It assumed
+various forms until it was supplanted by the straight leg, and the
+stretcher, which had disappeared with the use of the cabriole leg,
+again came into use.
+
+Examples of the cabriole leg appear as illustrations to various types
+of furniture in this chapter. At first its use did not interfere
+with the employment of the stretcher, but about 1710 the stretcher
+disappeared. The Lancashire Queen Anne settle illustrated (p. 159)
+shows the stretcher joining the front leg to the back. In the settle
+illustrated above, in date 1760, it will be seen the stretchers have
+vanished.
+
+=The So-called Queen Anne Style.=--Fashions slowly adopted in cabinet
+design do not readily arrange themselves in exact periods coinciding
+with the reigns of individual sovereigns. But it is convenient to
+affix a label to certain marked changes and attribute their general
+use to a particular reign. The innovation of the square panel with
+broken corners and ornamental curves at top is found in Queen Anne
+settles. The departure from the square panel and line of the curved
+and broken top is exhibited in the second Great Seal of Anne,
+commemorating the Union with Scotland. It is reminiscent of the Dutch
+influence, and is found in Sussex firebacks of an earlier period. The
+straight lines of early-Jacobean cabinet-work were rapidly undergoing
+a change; the square wooden back of the chair was shortly to be
+replaced by fiddle splats, which in their turn, in late-Georgian
+days, became pierced and fretted and carved under the genius of
+Chippendale's hand.
+
+The two settles illustrated (p. 159) show several interesting points.
+The panels are typical of the love of the curved line, which Hogarth
+defined as the line of beauty. In the upper one the arms still retain
+the old Jacobean form in this farmhouse example. The ball foot still
+clings to the earlier form. The seat is sunk to receive a long
+cushion. In the adjacent specimen the seat with its cushion and the
+curved =S= arms upholstered show the transition into the later type
+of modern settee.
+
+The curved outline finds similar expression in the hood of
+grandfather clock-cases and in the shape of metal dials. A cupboard
+with drawers illustrated (p. 163) has what is known as a "swan head."
+The panels to the doors have similarly novel features in their
+structure. It will be observed that there is a square pedestal at
+the top of this piece, which was intended as a stand for a delft or
+Chinese jar. The drawers of this cupboard have round beadings.
+
+The typical instance of curved design with not a single straight
+line, not even the back legs, which are bowed, is the grandfather
+chair with the high back, upholstered all over. The cabriole legs
+with ball-and claw-feet, the =C=-shaped arms, the scroll upholstered
+wings, and the oval back, depart from the rectilinear; even the
+underframing of the seat is bow-shaped. Similarly, the walnut
+arm-chairs of the period from 1690 to 1715 had bold curves. The arms
+always possessed a curious scroll, the backs had broad splats with
+curling shoulders, and often a broad bold ribbon pattern making two
+loops to fill up the top of the hoop at the back, with a carved
+shell at the point of intersection. Big pieces of furniture, such
+as bureaus, had the broken arch pediment, and smaller objects, such
+as mirrors, had the arched or broken top; and when these dressing
+mirrors had small drawers, these disdained the straight front and
+became convex.
+
+Under the Dutch influence, in the first period of English veneer
+work, from about 1675 to 1715, very fine cabinets and bureaus and
+chests of drawers were made. Walnut was the wood employed, with
+the panels inlaid with pollard elm, boxwood, ebony, mahogany,
+sycamore, and other coloured woods. Figured walnut was beloved by
+the cabinet-maker beginning to feel his way in colour schemes of
+decoration. Bandings of herring-bone inlay and rounded mouldings to
+drawers are very characteristic. Bureaus and important pieces had
+birds and flowers and trees or feather marquetry after fine Dutch
+models. Picked walnut, especially exhibiting a fine feathered figure,
+was used as veneer, and with these and other glorious creations of
+the walnut school of cabinet-workers the age of walnut may be said
+to have been in full swing.
+
+=The Survival of Oak in the Provinces.=--The foregoing descriptions
+apply to fashionable folks' furniture. Such fashions did not come
+into usage in the farmhouses and in the cottages. Oak was still
+employed without being displaced by the walnut of the town maker.
+Oak was in the main more suitable for the particular class of
+furniture which was likely to receive less delicate care than
+the writing-cabinets and bureaus and the china-cupboards of more
+fastidious people. Tea-drinking had become the luxury of the
+great world of society, and had hardly come into general use in
+the country till late in the reign of Anne, though by 1690 it
+had gained considerable favour in London. Coffee was introduced
+slightly earlier, and many invectives in broadsides and in poetical
+satires appear in the late seventeenth century against coffee
+and coffee-houses. In 1674 the "Women's Petition against Coffee"
+complained that "it made men as unfruitful as the deserts whence that
+unhappy berry is said to be brought; that the offspring of our mighty
+ancestors would dwindle into a succession of apes and pigmies, and on
+a domestic message a husband would stop by the way to drink a couple
+of cups of coffee." The prejudice against coffee, and especially
+against coffee-houses, was lasting, and coffee failed to establish
+itself as a national beverage. The labouring classes declined to
+be weaned from their ale and other stronger drinks. The Spaniards
+brought chocolate from Mexico; Roger North, Attorney-General to
+James II., uttered a violent polemic against chocolate houses,
+perhaps more on account of the political clubs gathered there than
+against the beverage itself. "The use of coffee-houses," says he,
+"seems much improved by a new invention called chocolate-houses, for
+the benefit of rooks and cullies of quality, where gaming is added
+to the rest, as if the Devil had erected a new university, and those
+were the colleges of its professors."
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+    QUEEN ANNE GLASS- OR CHINA-CUPBOARD.
+
+    Spun glass doors. Heavy bars mark early type prior to tracery.
+
+    GEORGIAN CORNER CUPBOARD. LATE EIGHTEENTH
+    CENTURY.
+
+    Broken architraves and cushion top. Having original hinges.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: SMALL OAK TABLE. 1700-1720.
+
+  Height, 2 ft. 4-3/4 ins.; width, 2 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 9-3/4
+  ins. Graceful proportion with cabriole leg.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK TABLE.
+
+  Showing at a later period the last traces of the cabriole leg.]
+
+The varying phases of town life, of which the above quotations give
+a passing glimpse, found little reflex in the sturdy unchanging life
+of the provinces. Generation after generation, men farmed the same
+lands and their dependents lived in cottages adjacent; tillers of the
+ground, herdsmen, toilers in the fields, living by the sweat of their
+brow. They were content with simpler pleasures, which centred round
+the alehouse and the village green, or maybe the village church, if
+the hunting rector and the studious vicar were not too heedless of
+the fate of their flock. But other influences were soon to be at
+work to break the lethargy of those of the clergy who slumbered.
+Wesley founded the Methodist movement. Whitefield began his sermons
+in the fields and looked down from a green slope on several thousand
+colliers grimy from the coalpits near Bristol to see, as he preached,
+tears "making white channels down their blackened cheeks." Later
+again, Hannah More drew sympathy to the poverty and crime of the
+agricultural classes.
+
+=The Influence of Walnut on Cabinet-making.=--If oak was the wood
+which the country joiner loved best, he was not without some
+sympathetic leaning towards the effects which could be produced in
+the softer walnut. Such styles accordingly began slowly to have a
+marked influence upon the farmhouse furniture in early-Georgian days.
+It was not easy to produce curved lines in the refractory oak, tough
+and brittle, but the village craftsman essayed his best to please his
+patrons whose taste had been caught by the newer fashions observed in
+the squire's parlour when paying rare visits.
+
+In the two examples illustrated of farmhouse cupboard and bureau
+bookcase (p. 163) it will be seen that here is the country maker
+definitely trying his skill in his native wood to emulate the finer
+walnut examples of town cabinet-makers. This is even more noticeable
+in regard to some of the tables actually found in farmhouses
+belonging to as early as the first quarter of the eighteenth century.
+The two specimens illustrated (p. 165) exemplify this tendency to
+imitate the designs of trained workers. The country touch always
+betrays itself in the cabriole leg, whether in chair or in table. The
+upper table has less _naďveté_ than most examples found. There is
+a balance in its construction rarely found in provincial work. The
+legs, always the stumbling-block to the less experienced artificer,
+are here of exceptionally fine proportions, terminating in club feet.
+The lower table shows a less capable treatment of the cabriole leg.
+The hoof foot and the carved knee have obviously been copied from a
+fine Queen Anne model. In the underframing of both tables there is
+an experiment in ornament and form rarely attempted except in the
+highest flights of the country maker, and as such these two fine
+examples must be regarded.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK TABLE.
+
+  Showing clumsy corners and indicating the _naďveté_ of the
+  country cabinet-maker.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK TABLE.
+
+  Showing transition from cabriole leg to straight leg of 1760.]
+
+=The Early Georgian Types.=--Treating of the early-Hanoverian period
+from the death of Queen Anne in 1714, and including the reigns
+of George I. from 1714 to 1727 and George II. from 1727 to 1760,
+furniture of all types begins to assume a complexity of construction.
+At the final outburst the fine masterpieces of creation of the
+great schools of design during the last half of the eighteenth
+century, embodied the life-work of Chippendale, the brothers Adam,
+Hepplewhite, Sheraton, and many others. This period from 1750 to 1800
+was the golden age of design in England. It has had a far-reaching
+effect, and still casts its glory upon the present-day schools of
+designers, whose adaptations and lines of progress are based upon the
+finest flower of the eighteenth-century styles.
+
+The massive walnut chairs with deep underframing and broad hoop backs
+departed from the solid splats of the Anne style and endeavoured
+to become less squat by the employment of banded ribbon-work,
+coarse, heavy, and ponderous in style. Settees, arm-chairs and
+single chairs in this style came as the final efforts of the walnut
+school. The graceful ribbon designs interlacing each other in knots,
+and the flowing carving in mahogany of Chippendale, put a period
+to all dullness and heavy design. With the new style and the new
+wood a splendid field was opened to cabinet-makers, and the quick
+appreciation of these opportunities signalised their work as of
+permanent artistic value.
+
+Among more important pieces, though still falling under the category
+of farmhouse styles, may be mentioned the Queen Anne glass or china
+cupboard, and the Georgian corner cupboard, illustrated p. 171.
+
+The former has heavy bars, which mark the early type prior to
+tracery, and it has spun-glass doors. Porcelain factories at Bow,
+Worcester, and Derby brought such cupboards into more general use
+after the middle of the century. Staffordshire earthenware tea
+and coffee services were found in great numbers in farmhouses and
+cottages. After the days of delft and stoneware came the prized china
+services of the housewife. Pewter was largely used, but the number
+of ale-jugs of Toby form, or cider-mugs with rural subjects to suit
+the tastes of the users, indicate that more modern ideas and taste,
+once exclusive to the world of fashion, had penetrated the country
+districts.
+
+The Georgian corner cupboard shows the broken architraves and cushion
+top. The hinges should be noticed as being original.
+
+=Chippendale and his Contemporaries.=--At first using the cabriole
+leg with ball-and-claw foot, not quite as he found it, but reduced
+to slightly more slender proportions to be in symmetry with his less
+massive backs to chairs, Chippendale came to the straight line. He
+employed it in the legs of tables and in the seats of chairs, in the
+bracket supports, and in the top rail of his chairs. Chippendale
+in his day, made the first straight top rail to the chair. It is
+interesting to note the phases of changing design in country-made
+furniture prior to his time, and the sudden mastery of form
+which became the common inheritance of all after his and other
+contemporary design-books were promulgated broadcast.
+
+  [Illustration: QUEEN ANNE TEA TABLE. _C._ 1710.
+
+  With scalloped edge for cups. Height, 2 ft. 4 ins.; depth, 1 ft.
+  9 ins.; length, 2 ft. 8 ins.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK REVOLVING BOOK-STAND. _C._ 1720.
+
+  Rare form. Diameter of top, 2 ft.; height, 2 ft. 8 ins.
+
+  (_In the collection of Miss Holland._)]
+
+  [Illustration: COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE TABLE.
+
+  Leg with exaggerated knee, claw, and ball foot. Accuracy in
+  straight joinery. Failure in curved work.
+
+  Top, 2 ft. 7 ins. × 1 ft. 3 ins.; height, 2 ft. 4 ins.]
+
+  [Illustration: SQUARE MAHOGANY FLAP TABLE. _C._ 1730.
+
+  Height, 2 ft. 4 ins.; length, 3 ft. 10-1/2 ins.; width, 2 ft. 1
+  in. Round cross stretcher. Rare form.]
+
+  [Illustration: TRIPOD TABLE. _C._ 1760.
+
+  Chippendale style, probably unique. Elaborate rococo work.
+
+  (_In the collection of Harold Bendixon, Esq._)]
+
+In the table the cabriole leg showed early signs of passing away.
+The two examples illustrated (p. 173) clearly indicate this. The
+upper one, of the time of Queen Anne, shows the cabriole leg in fine
+proportion under due subjection, and is a delicate example of fine
+cabinet-work. The lower one sees the leg losing its cabriole curve,
+but still rounded and still possessing the club foot.
+
+Even more interesting are the two tables illustrated (p. 177).
+The country maker was slow to adopt the cabriole leg when it was
+fashionable, but when it became unfashionable he was equally
+loth to depart from his accustomed style. These clearly point to
+the transition between the cabriole leg and the straight leg of
+Chippendale, and are about 1760 in date.
+
+The forms of design of tables of eighteenth-century date are
+extremely varied in character, denoting the rapidly changing habits
+of the people. The Queen Anne tea-table, with scalloped edges for
+cups, marks the note of preciosity creeping into country life. A
+revolving bookstand in table form, of about 1720 in date, is another
+rare piece. The adjacent table (p. 181) is country Chippendale. The
+exaggerated knee and the feeble ball-and-claw foot mark the failure
+of the provincial hand at curved work, accurate though he might be in
+straight joinery. The "Cupid's bow" underframing is interesting in
+combination with the rest of the design.
+
+The tripod table offered difficulties of construction and is not
+often found. The example illustrated is probably unique in form. In
+date it is about 1760, and is remarkable for the attempt at elaborate
+rococo work. Sometimes, though not often, mahogany was used in
+farmhouse examples. The table illustrated (p. 183) is an instance of
+the use of this wood instead of oak. It is about 1730 in date, and
+exhibits an unusual form in the round cross stretcher, a touch of
+originality by the maker. It is, as will be seen, a square-topped
+table with flaps.
+
+Elaboration of a high order was happily not often attempted by the
+country workman, or the results with his limited experience would
+have been disastrous. Instead of a fine series of really good, solid,
+and well-constructed furniture made for practical use we should have
+had a wilderness of failures at attempting the impossible. A copy
+of a fine Chippendale side-table illustrated (p. 187) is a case in
+point. There is the usual want of balance in the poise of the leg,
+but the carving is of exceptional character. The table beneath, with
+its long and tapering legs, has all the characteristics of the Adam
+style. The beaded decoration on the legs, the classic fluting and the
+carved rosette claim distant relationship with the classic inventions
+of Robert Adam. The wood is pinewood, and as an example it is of
+singular interest.
+
+The rapid survey of eighteenth-century influences bearing on the
+class of furniture of which this volume treats will perhaps induce
+the collector to scrutinise more carefully all pieces coming under
+his notice, with a view to arriving at their salient features
+in connection with the native design of more or less untutored
+craftsmen.
+
+  [Illustration: ELABORATE TABLE.
+
+  Country attempt to imitate fine Chippendale side table. Note the
+  want of balance in leg.]
+
+  [Illustration: PINEWOOD COUNTRY-MADE ADAM TABLE.
+
+  Note the unusually long leg.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF THE CHAIR
+
+
+  [Illustration: OAK ARM-CHAIR. DATE _C._ 1675.
+
+  With elaborate scroll back.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK ARM-CHAIR. DATE 1650.
+
+  With scratched lozenge.]
+
+  [Illustration: CHESTNUT ARM-CHAIR. DATE 1690.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK ARM-CHAIR. DATE 1690.]
+
+(_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF THE CHAIR
+
+   Early days--The typical Jacobean oak chair--The evolution of
+   the stretcher--The chair-back and its development--Transition
+   between Jacobean and William and Mary forms--Farmhouse
+   styles contemporary with the cane-back chair--The Queen Anne
+   splat--Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton--The
+   grandfather chair--Ladder-back types--The spindle-back
+   chair--Corner chairs.
+
+
+In order to deal exhaustively with the evolution of the chair
+from its earliest forms to the latest developments in sumptuous
+upholstery, it would be necessary to make an extended survey of
+furniture, dating back to early classic days. To enumerate the
+manifold varieties belonging to various countries and to trace
+the gradual progress in form, which kept pace with the advance in
+civilisation, would be of sufficient interest to occupy a whole
+volume. Man, as a sitting or lounging animal, has grown to require
+more elaborate forms of chair, or settee, or sofa, and the modern
+tendency has been towards comfort and luxury.
+
+In regard to English furniture the intense contrast between the days
+of Elizabeth and those of Victoria is at once noticeable. According
+to Lord Macaulay in his comparison between the manners of his day and
+those of the past, the furniture of a middle-class dwelling-house of
+the nineteenth century was equal to that of a rich merchant in the
+time of Elizabeth. In general this may be true, though not as regards
+the spacious structure and the massive grandeur of the Tudor house.
+In many details the differences are most noteworthy. The wide gulf
+dividing the modern world from the days of the Armada may be realised
+by reflecting on such an astounding fact that Queen Elizabeth
+possessed at one time the only pair of silk stockings in her realm,
+which were presented to her by Mistress Montague, "which pleased her
+so well that she would never wear any cloth hose afterwards."
+
+The sturdy character of the yeomen of the days of the Tudors is
+exhibited in their furniture. The illustrations of this chapter in
+regard to the chair and its structural development indicate the
+slowly acquired tastes, running some decades behind the fashionable
+furniture, strong with foreign influences, which had come into more
+or less general use. "England no longer sent her fleeces to be woven
+in Flanders and to be dyed in Florence. The spinning of yarn, the
+weaving, fulling, and dyeing of cloth, was spreading rapidly from the
+towns to the country-side. The worsted trade, of which Norwich was
+the centre, extended over the whole of the Eastern Counties. Farmers'
+wives everywhere began to spin their wool from their own sheep's
+backs into a coarse homespun."
+
+The rough and wattled farmhouses were being replaced by dwellings of
+brick and stone. The disuse of salt fish and the greater consumption
+of meat marked the improvement which was taking place among the
+countryfolk. The wooden trenchers in the farmhouses were supplanted
+by pewter, and there were yeomen who could boast of their silver.
+Carpets in richer dwelling-houses superseded the wretched flooring of
+rushes. Even pillows, now in common usage, were articles of luxury
+in the sixteenth century. The farmer and the trader deemed them as
+only fit "for women in child-bed." The chimney-corner came into usage
+in Elizabethan days with the general use of chimneys. The medićval
+fortress had given place to the grandeur of the Elizabethan hall in
+the houses of the wealthy merchants. The rise of the middle classes
+brought with it in its wake the corresponding advance of the yeomen
+and their dependents. Visions of the New World "threw a haze of
+prodigality and profusion over the imagination of the meanest seaman."
+
+=Early Days.=--Of farmhouse types that can authoritatively be
+attributed to Tudor days there are few, but the succeeding age of
+the Stuarts is rich with examples of undoubted authenticity. Many of
+them are dated, and they all bear a strong family resemblance to each
+other, owing to the narrow range of _motifs_ in the carved panels.
+There is a fixed insularity in these early examples, and the same
+traditional patterns in scrollwork or in conventional lozenge design
+retained their hold for many generations. The oak arm-chair of a
+farmhouse kitchen made in the days of Charles I. was still followed
+in close detail in the days of George III., as dated examples
+testify, and it would puzzle an expert, without the date to guide
+him, to say whether the piece was eighteenth or seventeenth century
+work. It may be added that as a general rule there is a marked
+leaning towards generosity in imparting age to old furniture. It is
+now very generally recognised that, like wine, it gains prestige with
+length of years. It therefore grows in antiquity according to the
+fancy of the owner or the imagination of the collector.
+
+Among the early forms of chairs falling under the category of
+farmhouse furniture may be noticed examples of rough and massive
+build, eminently fit to serve the purpose for which they were
+designed. Ornament is reduced to a minimum, and they stand as rude
+monuments to the cabinet-maker's craft in fashioning them and
+following tradition to suit his client's tastes.
+
+In regard to the sixteenth century there cannot be said to be any
+type falling under the heading of cottage or farmhouse chairs. We
+have already illustrated (p. 35) an early form of Elizabethan days,
+but such examples are rare. Practically cottagers had only stools in
+common use. It was not until about 1650 that a simplified form of the
+well-known variety of the chairs of the Jacobean oak period came into
+general use.
+
+  [Illustration: YORKSHIRE CHAIR. DATE 1660.
+
+  Late example, with ball turning in stretcher.]
+
+  [Illustration: CROMWELLIAN CHAIRS. DATE 1660.
+
+  With indication of transition to Charles II. period.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+=The Typical Jacobean Oak Chair.=--The seventeenth century offers a
+wide field of selection, and many examples exist which undoubtedly
+were in use in farmhouses at that period. The arm-chair illustrated
+p. 191, with the initials "W.I A.", is evidently made for the
+farmhouse. It is noticeable for its complete absence of ornamental
+carving except a thinly scratched lozenge. In date this is from 1650
+to 1700, and if made for a wealthier person at that date it would be
+richly carved. The adjacent chair shows the next advance in type.
+It is a superior farmhouse chair of the period. It has a carved top
+with scroll cresting. The holes in the seat, it should be observed,
+originally held ropes, upon which a cushion was supported. The wooden
+seat is an addition made in the eighteenth century.
+
+The two other chairs illustrated on the same page are later examples,
+in date about 1690. One of these is fashioned of chestnut. The
+form of these backs is related to the contemporary high-back cane
+chairs of the time of Charles II. and James II. But these fashions
+influenced the proportions only of farmhouse chairs. In arriving
+at the date of such specimens as these the bevelled panel is an
+important factor in determining the late period.
+
+Cushions had no place in the effects of the farmhouse in early days,
+although ropes were sometimes used to support cushions, as we have
+shown. But as a general rule the wooden seats show tangible signs
+of rough usage of centuries, and the stretcher has its worn surface
+marked by generations of owners who found it protective against the
+cold flagged or rush-strewn floor and the draughts in days prior to
+carpets and rugs.
+
+=The Evolution of the Stretcher.=--In making a study of the evolution
+of the chair the stretcher is an important factor. For obvious
+reasons, as explained above, no early chairs were made without the
+stretcher across the front, a good sound serviceable piece of British
+oak to stand rough wear and tear. Gradually, keeping time with
+the march of comfort, the front stretcher begins to leave its old
+position near the floor, and in later examples it is half-way up the
+front legs. It still had a use, and a very important one: it added
+considerable strength and solidity to the chair, and is nearly always
+found in chairs intended for use. In the series illustrated herein
+there are only few examples without the front stretcher. Later it
+took another form, as the illustrated specimens in this chapter show:
+it united the two side stretchers, and crossed the chair underneath
+in the centre at right angles to the side stretchers. Its purpose in
+adding stability to this class of furniture was evidently never lost
+sight of.
+
+At first strictly utilitarian, the stretcher was a solid foot-rest;
+later, when partly utilitarian in adding to the strength, it became
+suitable for ornamentation, Although in the class of furniture here
+under review such ornament never took an elaborate form, there are
+examples slightly differing in character from chairs intended for the
+use of the wealthier classes, and these are evidently a local effort
+to keep in touch with prevailing taste.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK SETTLE.
+
+  With back panel under seat made from older Oak Chest. Date 1675.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK ARM CHAIR. DATE 1675.
+
+  With Bevelled Panels.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK ARM CHAIR. DATE 1777.
+
+  With initials A.S. C.B.]
+
+Finely turned stretchers, such as are found in gate tables, are a
+feature of a certain class of local chairs, such as those illustrated
+on p. 197. This kind of chair without arms is rather more
+decorated and conforms more to the styles of furniture made for
+higher spheres than the farmhouse. The upper chair with its light
+open back and ornate decoration is a Yorkshire type, and the ball
+turning in the stretcher shows the transition period to Charles II.
+The other two are Cromwellian chairs, but showing indications of the
+next period. In date they are all three about 1660.
+
+=The Chair-back and its Development.=--Another point in connection
+with the ordered progress of the chair-maker is the gradual
+development of the back of the chair. At first it was straight
+upright, and no attempt was made to impart an angle to rest the back
+of the sitter. Types such as the arm-chair with square panel (p.
+191) and the upright settle with the five panels illustrated on p.
+201 indicate this feature of discomfort. The next stage is a slight
+inclination in the back, still possessing a flat panel. This angle,
+while not conforming to modern notions of ease, was an attempt to
+offer greater comfort than before. This style, in a hundred forms,
+with the minimum of inclination in the back, continued for a very
+considerable period. It is found in the nearly straight-backed chairs
+of Derbyshire and Yorkshire origin, with the turned stretchers, and
+it actually in later days became almost upright in the series of
+chairs following the later Stuart types with cane back and cane seat,
+noticeable for their tall narrow backs with a resemblance to the
+_prie-dieu_ chair of continental usage.
+
+The settle illustrated is a plainer variety of the settle made for
+use by fashionable folk with delicately panelled back. Very often,
+in cottage furniture, chests and other pieces are broken up to make
+into smaller furniture or to be incorporated into furniture of a
+later design. Often it is found that the underframing of an old
+gate table made in the seventeenth or eighteenth century is from an
+earlier chest. In the present instance it will be seen that the back
+panels of the settle have been made from an older chest, which bears
+the inscribed initials, still visible, "I.E." In date this settle
+is about 1675, and is contemporary with the square-backed chair
+illustrated on the same page. Here the panel in back projects, that
+is, it is slightly bevelled forward. The bevelling of the panel is
+always a sign that a chair is later in date than the year 1670.
+
+Illustrated on the same page is a remarkable chair having the
+initials "A.S.C.B." and the date 1777 carved on it. It is a striking
+instance of the adherence to old time-honoured form by the local
+cabinet-maker, with touches that, even although the date were not
+present, would tell their own story. This dull wood proclaims a
+message in accents no less sure than the sturdy yeoman's to Lady
+Clara Vere de Vere, and as a chair in date _anno Domini_ 1777 may
+afford to "smile at the claims of long descent" of more pretentious
+and fashionable furniture. It is like a rich vein of dialect running
+in some old country song ripe with phrase of Saxon days. It seems
+incredible that this survival of early-Jacobean days should have been
+put together by a village craftsman true to convention and exact in
+seat and arms and stretcher. But it was not done unthinkingly. Here
+is a chair, astounding to note, made when Sheraton was creating
+his new styles to supplant Chippendale, and when Hepplewhite stood
+between the two masters as a _via media_. And the back of this
+village chair has two distinct features translated from Hepplewhite's
+school--the wheatear crest and the panel with its broken corner!
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CHAIRS. DATE ABOUT 1680.
+
+  Showing the inclination of the craftsmen to assimilate designs
+  then being fashioned in walnut.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+=Transition between Jacobean and William and Mary Forms.=--The rapid
+growth of the finer specimens of furniture made in walnut brought
+a new note into the farmhouse variety. The elegance and grace of
+the newer styles were at once evident. In the same manner as the
+grandiose splendour of Elizabethan woodcarving was succeeded by a
+less massive style in oak, degenerating into a rude simplicity in
+farmhouse examples, so in turn Jacobean lost favour. Walnut lent
+itself to more intricate turning, and lightness and greater delicacy
+claimed the popular favour of fashionable folk. The cane seat and the
+cane back at once indicate this new taste. The use of cushions became
+general and the sunk seat for the squab cushion is a feature in the
+later years of the seventeenth century.
+
+Oak still remained the favourite wood of the country craftsman, in
+spite of its more refractory qualities. But when the walnut styles
+became so firmly established that clients demanded furniture in
+this fashion, elm and beech and yew were found pliable enough to
+conform to the more slender touches and the finer turning considered
+desirable.
+
+Walnut was in its turn supplanted by mahogany, and it will be shown
+later how farmhouse furniture followed the dictates of fashion
+in days when the outburst of splendid design by Chippendale,
+Hepplewhite, and Sheraton, together with a crowd of lesser
+known men, spread far and wide new principles in the art of
+furniture-making and brought country furniture another stage in its
+evolution.
+
+Farmhouse furniture slowly assimilated the technique and design
+of the walnut age. The love for the native oak was so pronounced
+that country makers did not desert this wood and essayed to produce
+effects by its employment that were exceedingly difficult and
+oftentimes unsuccessful. The three chairs illustrated p. 205 show
+this transition style, about the year 1680, struggling with technical
+difficulties and affording a fine series of points in the evolution
+of design.
+
+=Farmhouse Styles contemporary with the Cane-back Chair.=--Farmhouse
+furniture rarely, if ever, had cane-work in the back or in the seat.
+But the craftsman, while appreciating the delicacy of the cane back
+in adding lightness to the chair, circumvented his inability to work
+in cane by substituting thin vertical splats to give the necessary
+effect of transparency. The three chairs illustrated show each in
+varying degree the quaint compromise made between the technique of
+oak and the technique of walnut, and the attempt to reproduce the
+walnut designs.
+
+The arm-chair exhibits strong relationship with the older Jacobean
+chair in its turned legs and uprights, but these have assumed a more
+slender proportion. The front stretcher is in the newer manner.
+The sunk seat is intended to receive a cushion. There should be no
+difficulty for the amateur correctly to assign a date to such a
+piece. The process of reasoning would be somewhat as follows:--The
+lower half of the chair is Jacobean, but the front stretcher suggests
+the Charles II. period, borne out by the open back, which removes
+it from the Cromwellian period, and the details of the top rail
+with its curved top indicate that the country maker had seen the
+tall straight-back chairs of the William and Mary period with the
+cane-work panel.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CHAIRS.
+
+  With cresting rail, of Charles II. period, retained and
+  perforated arch centre peculiar to walnut designs.
+
+  With elaboration in turned legs, and uprights, of William and
+  Mary period retained, and having Queen Anne splat of 1710.
+
+  With sunk seat for squab cushion, turned uprights and legs and
+  curious back, showing transition from lath back to splat back.]
+
+The middle chair more closely approaches the upright chair of the
+Charles II. period. There is a straight top-rail, supplemented by
+a lunette, giving the top a character of its own. This specimen is
+exceptionally interesting. The right-hand chair in its seat and legs
+is pronouncedly Jacobean. But the back with the three splats and the
+coarsely carved top-rail betray the hand of the country craftsman
+following in oak the more graceful curves of the worker in walnut of
+the days of Charles II.
+
+It will be seen that these three chairs, each in varying manner,
+evade the difficulties of the light cane-back by the substitution of
+thin rails, and, as will be seen from the illustration of three other
+chairs (p. 209), the next stage of walnut design with fiddle-shaped
+splat offered equal problems to the makers of cottage furniture.
+Sometimes they eliminated the splat altogether, while adopting other
+points of design found in chairs with the Queen Anne splat of 1710.
+In every case the fondness for old established styles is exhibited
+in the fact that the country cabinet-maker clings doggedly to these
+and appears too conservative or too timid to break wholly away from
+tradition. In consequence, his work, with patches of newer design
+welded on to the old, is quaintly incongruous. There is thus an
+absence of "thinking out" the design as a whole. The minor maker
+thought out the parts as he went along. Some of his results are
+extraordinary in their characteristics: they resemble that freak of
+fashion termed "harlequin" tea services, where the cups are of one
+pattern and the saucers of another. Bearing in mind these unfailing
+proclivities of the maker of cottage and farmhouse furniture, the
+collector should not find it difficult to recognise the country hand
+at once. Now and again one is struck with the extraordinary ingenuity
+of some of the work, or one is charmed with the faithfulness with
+which designs have been translated from the golden bowl to the
+silver, or, to be literal, from walnut and mahogany to oak and elm
+and beech. But one is never amazed at the delicacy of proportion, the
+balanced symmetry, or the fertility of invention--these attributes
+belong to cabinet-makers on a higher plane.
+
+Of three chairs illustrated on p. 209, that on the left in the legs
+and seat shows the moribund Jacobean style. The stretcher indicates
+the oncoming of the newer styles, and the back with its cresting
+rail is of the Charles II. period. Its retention is curious, and the
+perforated arched centre is peculiar to designs found in walnut; its
+use in oak by the maker of this chair was a blunder, as oak is too
+hard a wood to employ for such a design.
+
+  [Illustration: QUEEN ANNE CHAIR.
+
+  Entirely oak form except back and splat.]
+
+  [Illustration: QUEEN ANNE CHAIR.
+
+  In oak, with strong inclinations towards walnut styles.]
+
+Illustration: QUEEN ANNE CHAIR.
+
+Walnut design made in oak for farmhouse use.]
+
+  [Illustration: QUEEN ANNE ARM-CHAIR.
+
+  With shaped front, walnut design executed in oak.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE CHAIR, STYLE MERGING INTO
+  HEPPLEWHITE.
+
+  Less pronounced Cupid's bow top.]
+
+  [Illustration: TWO CHAIRS COUNTRY HEPPLEWHITE STYLE MADE ENTIRELY
+  IN OAK.
+
+  Left-hand chair with Prince of Wales's feathers.]
+
+  [Illustration: TYPES OF COTTAGE CHAIRS IN OAK.
+
+  Having features of the three styles--Queen Anne, Chippendale, and
+  Sheraton.
+
+    Two chairs Queen Anne style.      Chair Country Chippendale style.]
+
+The middle chair shows an equal admixture of styles. The elaboration
+in the turned legs and uprights belongs to the William and Mary
+period and the splat is the Queen Anne fiddle pattern of 1710.
+The seat begins to show another form in having the middle sunk for
+the use of a squab cushion.
+
+The right-hand chair parts with the underframing below the seat,
+which gives a touch of lightness to the construction. The turned
+legs and uprights have departed from the coarse early-Jacobean style
+and perceptibly depend on walnut prototypes for their character. The
+back shows the transition from the lath back (such as in the chairs
+simulating the cane-work) to the splat back. It is an interesting and
+rare example, marking the slow assimilation of new forms by isolated
+makers. This specimen came from Ireland and evidently possesses
+native touches of originality which defy the connoisseur to determine
+its exact date.
+
+=The Queen Anne Splat.=--The fiddle-shaped splat of 1710 marks a
+turning-point in the construction of the chair.
+
+The walnut chairs with caned backs of the time of James II. and the
+early days of William III. were carved richly, and sometimes there
+was a splat dividing the caning at the back, which later, also in
+caned-back examples, is curved and plain. The general tendency in
+the reigns of William and Mary, especially towards the close of the
+period, was one of economy, and elaborate carving began to disappear.
+
+The Queen Anne smooth splat of fiddle form rapidly became
+popular. This Anglo-Dutch style became acclimatised here, and is
+characteristic of the homely examples of the Queen Anne period. In
+walnut it was comparatively easy to carry out carving. In oak such
+elaboration was well-nigh impossible. It was therefore natural that
+in the farmhouse examples the plain Dutch splat would readily find
+favour as more easily executed. By the time that the fiddle splat had
+become popular the stretcher joining the cabriole legs commenced to
+disappear.
+
+The splat plays an important part as indicating sharp variations in
+design--walnut with open carving, intricate and floriated; walnut
+with the plain fiddle splat, with its corresponding minor form in
+oak; mahogany, with the advent of Chippendale, with the splat again
+open, carved with graceful ribbon-work.
+
+The arm-chair illustrated p. 213 is a remarkable instance of
+intermingling of styles. The front legs are in Jacobean style, and
+are continued in the same manner as the usual type of oak chair as
+supports for the arms, but an original touch and naďve departure is
+in the curve given to this upright from the seat upwards. The seat is
+shaped like that of the Windsor chair. The arms are somewhat stiff
+for the back with its Cupid's-bow design, which has a sprightliness
+and grace making it a thing apart. The whole is not unpleasing. It
+is a remarkable instance of the attempted assimilation of several
+diverse styles by an undeveloped cabinet-maker with strong ideas of
+his own. The oak form is rigidly retained in all except the back and
+splat of Queen Anne days.
+
+  [Illustration: COUNTRY-MADE OAK SETTEE WITH DOUBLE BACK IN
+  CHIPPENDALE STYLE.
+
+  The shaped underframing is a feature only found in farmhouse
+  varieties.]
+
+  [Illustration: COUNTRY-MADE OAK SETTEE IN CHINESE CHIPPENDALE
+  STYLE.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+The adjacent chair, with its tall back with curved splat and its
+cabriole legs, marks the transition between William and Mary and
+Queen Anne. The top rail indicates by its clumsy joinery the touch of
+the immature country cabinet-maker. It is an attempt to approach a
+fine model with insufficiency of skill by the maker. The use of the
+cabriole leg either in chairs or in dressers in homely furniture has
+always proved a stumbling-block to the minor craftsman. The delicacy
+of balance required in order to preserve the harmony of the whole has
+proved too subtle a problem for him to handle, and to the practised
+eye these farmhouse pieces at once proclaim their origin.
+
+The broad splat and the straight square front and the bold cabriole
+leg of the Queen Anne type in walnut were often copied in oak. The
+example of the chair with the later tapestry covering, illustrated p.
+213, is a case where the local cabinet-maker has faithfully copied
+detail for detail from some fine original in walnut. His is in oak
+for more strenuous usage. The adjacent arm-chair is of the Queen Anne
+style, with a shaped front that is very rarely found in such pieces.
+The maker here has not been so successful in catching the bold lines
+of his original. There is a sense of something lacking in the curves
+of the back. The touches of his own that he has added in the arms,
+reverting to an earlier Jacobean type, reveal the unpractised hand.
+
+=Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton.=--A word in passing
+may be said in regard to the unique character of furniture of these
+types. It is obvious that factory-made furniture turned out by the
+hundred pieces can offer nothing personal, whatever its merits or
+demerits of design or workmanship. It is this personal note, the
+love of a craftsman in his creation, that appeals to the collector,
+whether it be of Persian rugs or of old brass candlesticks. It is
+absent in art produced in a wholesale manner. Blunderingly as the
+village craftsmen went to work, they often stumbled into great
+things, and they always produced original results.
+
+Prior to the publication of the design-books of the great
+eighteenth-century masters of cabinet-making, the furniture of
+certain localities began to assume a character of its own, the
+result of long tradition, and designs such as the dragon found in
+Welsh carving became established. The term "unique" is peculiarly
+appropriate to furniture of this calibre, for rarely are two pieces
+found to be exactly alike. Not only did different makers add novel
+features, but the same craftsman apparently did not repeat himself.
+
+The permutations of form governing furniture are illimitable,
+associated as they are with so many details of construction. To
+take the chair--the leg, its shape, and the design of its turning;
+the style and character of the work on the stretcher; the form of
+the seat; the decoration and formation of the front; the back, its
+length, and the variety of splats and panels; and the top rail
+with its variations--these are only the salient features in which
+differences appear. Such modifications of design and piquant touches
+of personal character appeal to the collector, who loves the foibles
+and fanciful moods of the native craftsman, be he ever so humble.
+
+Chippendale published his "Director" in 1754, and it became a working
+guide to all ambitious craftsmen. Ince and Mayhew, cabinet-makers
+of Broad Street, Golden Square, had issued "Household Furniture" in
+1748, and Hepplewhite & Co. followed later with the "Cabinet Maker
+and Upholsterer's Guide" in 1788, where the delicacies of ornament
+were related to the chaster classic models, and in 1794 came Sheraton
+with his "Drawing Book," rich with subtle suggestiveness. A rough
+generalisation shows the Chippendale school holding sway from 1730
+to 1780, the Hepplewhite school from 1775 to 1795, and the Sheraton
+school from 1790 to 1805: and behind all, the strong influence of
+the Brothers Adam in their classic revival. What had previously been
+tradition came very speedily into line with current modes. Fashion,
+as we have shown, had a slow and impermanent effect upon village
+ideals. But the output of these great illustrated volumes, with
+working drawings, undoubtedly had a wide-reaching influence. The last
+quarter of the eighteenth century saw an intense outburst of interest
+in the arts of interior decoration. A great amount of finely designed
+and beautifully executed furniture belongs to those days, and the
+echo of the splendid achievements in mahogany and in satinwood is
+seen in the farmhouse and cottage furniture, which came singularly
+close upon the heels of fashion.
+
+Chippendale furniture in oak, elm, or beech is being largely
+collected. We illustrate a sufficient number of types to show that
+this class of design known as "Cottage Chippendale," has peculiar
+charms of its own. The arm-chair illustrated p. 225 is in elm, and
+is in the style Chippendale employed in his rich mahogany creations
+in 1760. The fine interlaced carving of the back is graceful and
+well proportioned. The adjacent chair, in elm, still follows the
+Chippendale style. The seat is rush, and the maker has confined
+himself to his own limitations and avoided in the splat the too
+intricate work of more sumptuous models. He has arrived at a very
+finely balanced result. The heart cut out of the splat is frequently
+found in cottage examples, suggesting that some of the more ornate
+examples may have been made as wedding presents for young couples
+just setting up housekeeping, or possibly the village cabinet-maker
+himself had thoughts in that direction, and such work was destined to
+equip his own home.
+
+The illustration of a chair, in beech, with a plain wooden seat, has
+a somewhat intricate ribbon-like pattern terminating in the Prince
+of Wales's feathers. The heart is present in the design at the base
+of the splat, cut out in fretwork. The arm-chair on the right, with
+its dipped seat, is in oak, and is an instance representing the
+adaptations of Sheraton styles in the provinces.
+
+Another page of chairs in oak (p. 215) shows the influences at work
+in moulding the character of the styles of the late eighteenth and
+early nineteenth century farmhouse furniture. Of the three chairs
+at top of p. 215, the left-hand one is in Chippendale style merging
+into Hepplewhite. The Cupid's bow at the top rail has become less
+pronounced. The other two chairs on right are typically Hepplewhite
+in character. The Prince of Wales's feathers, so often associated
+with Hepplewhite's own work, are embodied in the splat of one.
+
+  [Illustration: ELM CHAIR. COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE STYLE. 1760.]
+
+  [Illustration: ELM CHAIR, COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE STYLE.]
+
+  [Illustration: BEECH CHAIR. COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE STYLE.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CHAIR, COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE STYLE. WITH DROPPED
+  SEAT.]
+
+In the lower group, the right-hand chair is of the Chippendale
+type. The other two chairs have features of three styles--the Queen
+Anne, the Chippendale, and the Sheraton. It is this piquancy and
+incongruous combination of styles adjacent to each other in point
+of time, but having little other relationship, which make the
+provincialisms of the cabinet-maker of exceptional interest.
+
+At times more ambitious attempts were made in oak, following the
+lines of the Chippendale style in mahogany. These have pronounced
+features always recognisable as belonging to the farmhouse variety of
+furniture. Two examples are illustrated, p. 219. The upper example
+of country-made oak settee, with double back, at once indicates
+that it is provincial by the shaped underframing, which is never
+found in other classes of furniture. The lower example of farmhouse
+oak settee is clearly in Chippendale's Chinese style. A reference
+to the "Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Directory," published by
+Thomas Chippendale in 1754, shows that this Chinese style adopted
+by the local maker is very far removed from the series of delicate
+fretwork designs illustrated by Chippendale in his volume. It
+is true that the old designer of St. Martin's Lane sent forth
+his work with the sub-title stating that it was "calculated to
+improve and refine the present Taste, and suited to the Fancy and
+Circumstances of Persons in all Degrees of Life." The great master
+cabinet-maker, in scattering his designs far and wide, evidently
+had in mind the formation of a new style. He builded better than he
+knew. The importance of his book of designs cannot be overrated.
+It was subscribed for in Yorkshire, in Devon, in Westmorland, and
+in Ireland, and straightway minor men looked upon these delightful
+inventions and began to follow to the best of their ability the
+ideals set forth by Chippendale the dreamer.
+
+That he was an idealist in this book of designs is naďvely explained
+in his Preface: "I frankly confess that in the executing many of the
+drawings my pencil has but faintly copied out those images that my
+fancy suggested, and had they not been published till I could have
+pronounced them perfect, perhaps they had never seen the light." But
+Chippendale was also a practical cabinet-maker as well as a designer.
+He has a lingering doubt that after all, perhaps, the country
+cabinet-maker and those who bought the book for use might not be
+able to carry out his designs. Evidently this had struck others too.
+Perhaps he was accused of fobbing-off in a design-book mere fanciful
+work that was too far above the plane of ordinary cabinet-work. He
+meets this objection with a declaration, so to speak, upon honour,
+with which he winds up his Preface, which is a pretty piece of
+eighteenth-century advertising:--
+
+"Upon the whole, I have given no design but what may be executed
+with advantage by the hands of a skilful workman, though some of the
+profession have been diligent enough to represent them (especially
+those after the Gothic and Chinese manner) as so many specious
+drawings, impossible to be worked off by any mechanic whatsoever.
+I will not scruple to attribute this to malice, ignorance, and
+inability, and I am confident I can convince all noblemen, gentlemen,
+or others, who will honour me with their commands, that every design
+in the book can be improved, both as to beauty and enrichment, in the
+execution of it, by--Their Most Obedient Servant, Thomas Chippendale."
+
+Enough has been said to prove that "country Chippendale" is not
+a misnomer. It is equally true that the Hepplewhite style was
+disseminated in like fashion in the provinces. It must be remembered
+that these trade catalogues, as they really were, brought out
+somewhat in rivalry with each other by the great London designers
+and cabinet-makers, were the only literature the country makers
+had to indicate town fashions. These volumes therefore served a
+double purpose in procuring clients for the firm and in stimulating
+the art of the country designer. That they were in part intended
+to be educational is shown by the Preface to the "Cabinet Maker
+and Upholsterer's Guide," published by A. Hepplewhite & Co.,
+Cabinet-makers. We quote from the Preface of the third edition,
+"improved," 1794.
+
+The Preface opens with a lament that owing to "the mutability of
+all things, but more especially of fashions," foreigners who seek
+a knowledge of English taste and workmanship may be misled by the
+"labours of our predecessors in this line of little use."
+
+"The same reason in favour of this work will apply also to many of
+our own countrymen and artisans, whose distance from the metropolis
+makes even an imperfect knowledge of its improvements acquired with
+much trouble and expense."
+
+"In this instance we hope for reward; and though we lay no claim to
+extraordinary merit in our designs, we flatter ourselves they will be
+found serviceable to young workmen in general, and occasionally to
+more experienced ones."
+
+In view, therefore, of the books of design we have enumerated, it
+is obvious that the country designer had a new field open to him,
+and now and again he made ample use of his opportunities. During the
+last quarter of the eighteenth century there was quite an outburst of
+literature on furniture, much of it forgotten and much of it waiting
+to be disinterred by patient research; and with the dissemination of
+these fine designs some of the most perfect examples of country-made
+furniture began to exhibit touches of skill of the practised hand.
+
+=The Grandfather Chair.=--From the illustration given on p. 231 it
+will be seen that the type known as the "grandfather" has a humble
+lineage. It will be found with the same wings and curved arms and
+plain wooden seat in the alehouse or in the ingle nook of the
+farmhouse. The specimen we illustrate does duty as a bacon-cupboard
+as well as a chair. Usually such pieces have the cupboard opening at
+the back, but in this instance the cupboard opens in front.
+
+  [Illustration: COUNTRY GRANDFATHER CHAIR.]
+
+  [Illustration: ARM-CHAIR AND BACON-CUPBOARD.
+
+  Opens at foot. This type usually opens at back.]
+
+As early as the opening years of the eighteenth century there were
+upholstered chairs of a somewhat similar type to the so-called
+"grandfather" with scrolled arms or wings. The example we illustrate
+is representative of those which may be met with in the country
+farmhouse.
+
+=Ladder-back Types.=--The ladder-back chair belongs to the northern
+half of England, and similarly the spindle-back chair is found in
+the same locality. The Windsor chair, on the other hand, is mainly
+confined to the southern half of the country. These are points which
+become noticeable after years of systematised research, and although
+nowadays these three varieties of chair may still be found, somewhat
+scattered, their real home and place of origin is as indicated.
+Another feature of interest is that both ladder-back and spindle-back
+varieties, with but slight differences, are found on the Continent.
+
+It will be observed that this class of chair has a rush seat. This
+feature it has in common with the spindle-back chair.
+
+The rush-bottom chair covers a wide area. It comes with an air of
+_naďveté_ and rustic simplicity. One recalls the long lines of green
+rushes by the river-bank and the rush-gatherers in idyllic placidity
+slowly trimming the banks, disturbing coot and moorhen with their
+punt, and adding another human touch to the lonely angler. They are
+pursuing a calling as old as the river itself, and the use of rush
+for floor, for lighting, or for seating furniture, found occupation
+for generations of men plying curious trades, of which the plaiting
+of osiers into baskets and the thatching of cottage roofs may be
+numbered among the decaying industries. Indeed, this latter art
+and the making of birch and heath brooms may be almost said to be
+extinct. A good artisan who can thatch in the old artistic style is
+much sought after. Of course ricks have still to be thatched, but the
+picturesque skill of masters of this old-world craft is absent, and
+corrugated iron sheets have found favour in lieu of the old style.
+
+The ladder-back chair is, as its name denotes, decorated with
+horizontal supports, ladder fashion. These are capable of the most
+pleasing variation. The perfection of form of this type is seen in
+the arm-chair illustrated p. 237. The well-balanced proportion of
+the ladder rails is a test as to the excellence of the design. They
+are not meaningless ornaments put in place, unthinkingly, to create
+a new style. The two examples illustrated on page 235 show other
+types of the ladder-back chair. The left-hand one shows the later
+stages in the development of the design, and its top rail is of the
+Sheraton period. The right-hand one, with arms, is composite in its
+character, and is in date about 1820, and exhibits a touch of the
+Sheraton slenderness of style in the splats and the round turning of
+arms. Both examples show the quaint survival of the Queen Anne foot.
+The ladder-back form survived the eighteenth century and lasted down
+to within fifty years ago, when it became merged into that of the
+Windsor chair.
+
+  [Illustration: LADDER-BACK TYPE OF CHAIR.
+
+  Showing Empire influence in curved back.
+
+  Dated 1820-1830.]
+
+  [Illustration: SPINDLE-BACK NURSING CHAIR WITH ROCKER.
+
+  Three rows of spindles.]
+
+  [Illustration: SPINDLE-BACK CHAIR.
+
+  Two rows of spindles.]
+
+  [Illustration: LADDER-BACK CHAIRS WITH RUSH SEAT.
+
+  Both chairs showing quaint survival of the Queen Anne feet.
+
+    Late Eighteenth Century, with top
+    rail in Sheraton style.
+
+    Later form of splat with turned
+    ends. Dated 1820.]
+
+  [Illustration: COUNTRY BARBER'S CHAIR.]
+
+  [Illustration: LADDER-BACK CHAIR.
+
+  Perfect specimen in regard to style.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CORNER CHAIR.]
+
+  [Illustration: LADDER-BACK FORM OF CORNER CHAIR WITH RUSH SEAT.
+
+  Probably Lancashire.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+=The Spindle-back Chair.=--The spindle-back chair is of long lineage.
+As early as the reign of Charles I. this type was known. There
+is still treasured in America the chair of Governor Carver, with
+simple turning in legs and back, which practically consisted of
+upright posts rounded and having slight ornament. The back was set
+with "spindles." The older types of these chairs had thick upright
+posts, the back and back legs being two posts and the front legs,
+continued upward beyond the seat, forming supports for the arms.
+These posts are often six or seven inches in circumference, and
+belong to early-Jacobean days. The type found its way to America in
+Puritan days and has continued to be a favourite. Hickory wood was
+used for American specimens, and considerable attention has been paid
+to this form of chair and its varieties, the differing heights of the
+posts and the number of the spindles and their character, by American
+collectors. In England examples are not easily found of early date.
+The examples illustrated (p. 235), a Nursing Chair on rockers and an
+ordinary Spindle-Back Chair, are of eighteenth-century days, and are
+sufficient to indicate the type of chair, but these two represent the
+style when it had become of more general use. Practically it was not
+until the eighteenth century that such types were commonly used in
+cottages and farmhouses.
+
+These turned chairs, turned in every portion but the rush seat, lend
+themselves to the above-mentioned two styles of treatment. Their
+upright posts forming the open back can be treated with vertical
+splats divided by horizontal divisions, or they can, as in the ladder
+form, receive horizontal splats. The complete simplicity of this
+attitude towards the back absolved the homely cabinet-maker from
+dangerous experiments. Avoiding curved backs, he had not to face
+the intricacies of the nicety of balance in the splat. Altogether it
+was a very satisfactory solution, and in practice resulted in the
+production of a wide range of chairs, differing in slight details but
+well within the range of the local workman's art.
+
+The unassuming simplicity of this class of chair made its appeal
+to Madox-Brown, who held that simplicity and utility were the two
+desiderata, united with soundness of construction, for domestic
+furniture. Veneer was as abhorrent to him as to all genuine lovers
+of the artistic. "Let us be honest, let us be genuine in furniture
+as in aught else," were his words. "If we must needs make our chairs
+and tables of cheap wood, do not let them masquerade as mahogany or
+rosewood; let the thing appear that which it is; it will not lack
+dignity if it be good of its kind and well made." Accordingly he put
+his theories into practice and designed some furniture. In a chair in
+the possession of Mr. Harold Rathbone he has employed the rush seat
+and used spindles to decorate the back, and in another chair in the
+same collection he has adhered to the horizontal ladder-back style,
+coupled with the rush seat, with pleasing effect.
+
+=Corner Chairs.=--Among interesting types of chairs often with
+lingering traces of the Jacobean style and additional features
+of splats that may be regarded as standing on the threshold of
+the Chippendale period, corner chairs stand in a class alone. The
+illustrations on p. 237 show some typical examples. The chair with
+the double tier is the oak adaptation of Chippendale with the
+retention of the old Jacobean form of support for the arm. These
+chairs with this added tier are often used as country barber's
+chairs. The rush-seated corner chair on the same page, probably made
+in Lancashire, is suggestive of the ladder-back form, and there
+are indications in its construction that it is subsequent to the
+Hepplewhite period.
+
+With these notes relative to the evolution of the chair, and with
+carefully selected illustrations of types likely to be of use to the
+collector, enough has been said to whet the curiosity of the reader
+to study the matter for himself. It requires keen and discriminating
+judgment to allocate specimens with passing exactitude as to time and
+place. The taste for the subject must be natural and not acquired.
+Training alone will give the eye the readiness to detect false
+touches and modern additions. The search for bargains goes on apace,
+and those who enjoy stalking their quarry in out-of-the-way places
+have an exciting quest nowadays for fine pieces. To those with
+endless patience, forbearing under disappointment, and having plenty
+of leisure, the search will offer abundant delight, if, to quote Mrs.
+Battle, they enjoy "the rigour of the game."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE WINDSOR CHAIR
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE WINDSOR CHAIR
+
+   Early types--The stick legs without stretcher--The tavern
+   chair--Eighteenth-century pleasure gardens--The rail-back
+   variety--Chippendale style Windsor chairs--The survival of the
+   Windsor chair.
+
+
+The Windsor chair in its early form is coincident with the early
+years of the eighteenth century. Its history and development
+therefore exhibit traces of the various styles in furniture which
+ran their courses throughout the century. It is essentially a chair
+which belongs to minor furniture, and in its use it is bound up with
+the country farmhouse, the country inn, or in the metropolis with the
+chocolate-houses and taverns, and later with the innumerable pleasure
+gardens which sprang up around the metropolis in the eighteenth
+century.
+
+There is more than a strong suggestion that the type originated in
+the country. The first forms have a similarity to the easily made
+three-legged stools. The seat is one piece of wood into which holes
+are bored to admit the legs. The origin of the term "Windsor chair,"
+according to a story largely current in America, is that George III.,
+the Farmer King, saw a chair of this design in a humble cottage near
+Windsor, and was so enamoured of it that he ordered some to be made
+for the royal use. The chair had a singular vogue in America, and it
+is stated that George Washington had a row of Windsor chairs at his
+house at Mount Vernon, and Jefferson sat in a Windsor chair when he
+signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776.
+
+=The Stick Legs without Stretcher.=--Obviously this is the earliest
+type, and the illustrations of these primitive forms (p. 247) show
+the simplicity of the joinery. The chair on the left with its almost
+straight top rail suggests a probable date. It was not till 1768 that
+Chippendale made the first straight top rail in English furniture.
+The seat is of the saddle-form. The spindles at the back in the
+lower row taper at each end. It will be observed in all the types we
+illustrate in this chapter that the arms extend in one piece around
+the chair. Nor has every example the saddle seat. On the same page is
+illustrated one with a plain seat, but still having the stick legs
+set at an angle towards the centre of the chair.
+
+Whatever interest attaches to this early type, from a collecting
+point of view, they cannot compare in beauty with the finer varieties
+of a later period, with cabriole leg and with pierced splat,
+displaying a pleasing diversity of patterns in pierced work, no two
+of which are always quite alike.
+
+  [Illustration: WINDSOR CHAIRS.
+
+  Earliest form; stick legs with no stretcher.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+=The Tavern Chair.=--It was Dr. Johnson who declared that a tavern
+chair was the throne of human felicity. Undoubtedly the eighteenth
+century found the need of a comfortable chair for club meetings at
+taverns and alehouses. The country inn to-day has its Windsor chairs,
+many of them of great age. Nor were chairs of this type always with
+arms. There are many plainer chairs without arms and having what is
+termed "fiddle-string" backs; more often than not across this back
+there is a rail put transversely to strengthen it. Many of these
+chairs were made by local carpenters and wheelwrights. They employed
+any wood that happened to be in their workshop at the time; in
+consequence the variety of woods in which these chairs are found is
+great. Sometimes the seat is made from beech or elm and the arms are
+fashioned from the wood of the pear-tree. The curved horseshoe rails
+and back are more often than not constructed from the ash.
+
+=Eighteenth Century Pleasure Gardens.=--There is no doubt that we
+owe the considerable output of Windsor chairs in the middle of the
+eighteenth century to the growth of coffee-houses, and especially
+the numerous tea and pleasure gardens on the outskirts of London and
+other great towns. These semi-rural resorts began to be in great
+demand as a recreation for jaded eighteenth-century town-dwellers.
+The nobility and persons of fashion had Bath and Tunbridge Wells
+to fly to for country air and open-air recreation. The citizen and
+mechanic, the society beau, and the politician, crowded to Ranelagh
+Gardens, to Vauxhall, to Sadler's Wells, and to Hampstead, to
+enjoy sunny afternoons and summer evenings in the open air, or to
+spend Sundays. It was the eighteenth-century diversion similar to
+the nineteenth-century Crystal Palace and the twentieth-century
+Earl's Court. To quote Mr. Percy Macquoid in his lordly work on
+English furniture, "So great were the numbers of visitors to these
+places that attention was called to their increase in one of the
+contemporary weekly journals, where a calculation was made that on
+Sundays alone two hundred thousand people visited the tea-gardens
+situated on the northern side of London; and as half-a-crown per
+head was probably the least sum expended by them, it can be no
+exaggeration to state that Ł20,000 on a fine Sunday was taken at
+these places of amusement. Many cheap chairs must have been required
+at such places of entertainment."
+
+Between the year 1760 and the end of the century the Windsor chair
+was being made for general country use. "The backs and arms of
+these," continues Mr. Macquoid, "are made of hoops of yew, held
+together by a number of slender uprights and a perforated splat of
+the same tough and pliant wood; the seats were generally invariably
+of elm, as yew cut into a superficies of any size is liable to split;
+the legs and stretchers were generally of yew."
+
+  [Illustration: OLIVER GOLDSMITH'S CHAIR.
+
+  Wood, painted green, with circular seat, curved arms, and high
+  back. Bequeathed by Oliver Goldsmith in 1774 to his friend, Dr.
+  Hawes.
+
+  (_Bethnal Green Museum._)]
+
+=The Rail-back Variety.=--We have alluded to the use of the rail
+placed across the back from the top rail to the seat, crossing the
+uprights. It is not an elegant device, but it was used as a means
+of strengthening the back. It seems almost unnecessary, although
+possibly these chairs received a good deal of rough usage.
+Later, when the fiddle splat began to be employed, this transverse
+rail--sometimes there were two used--was discontinued. An historic
+example of the chair with transverse rails is that which was once
+in the possession of Oliver Goldsmith. There is no doubt about
+the authenticity of this, as it was bequeathed by the poet to his
+medical attendant, Dr. Hawes, who, by the way, was the founder of
+the Royal Humane Society. Goldsmith told his farmer friends at his
+cottage at Edgware that he should never in future spend more than two
+months a year in London, and at the time of his death in 1774 he was
+negotiating the sale of the lease of his Temple chambers. This chair
+(illustrated p. 251) has a rather small shaped seat, curved arms, a
+top rail that is of exceptional interest considering the date, which
+is, say, from 1770 to 1774, perhaps a little earlier. This was at the
+commencement of the Hepplewhite period, which lasted till 1790. The
+year 1768 was, as we have already said, the date at which chairs with
+straight top rails, designed by Adam and executed by Chippendale,
+were first made. The turned legs are interesting, showing the hoofed
+foot, and the turned stretcher retains an earlier form. The chair is
+of soft wood, probably beech, and is painted green. It is preserved
+at the Bethnal Green Museum, with the distinctive label on the stand:
+"Oliver Goldsmith's Chair."
+
+=The Splat Back and the Cabriole Leg.=--It is here that the Windsor
+chair assumes a character essentially charming and attracts the
+admiration of connoisseurs of styles that are peculiarly English.
+The splat back is a feature only found in English varieties of the
+Windsor chair. In America a great deal of attention has been paid to
+old types, and there the pliant hickory wood is used in the making
+of chairs of this form; but the splat back is never used in America,
+and when found by collectors there the piece is attributed to English
+manufacture.
+
+The splat, with its varying forms, denotes the date of the chair.
+From 1740 to 1770 the form with cabriole legs and with finely
+ornamented fiddle splat was at its best. We illustrate a sufficient
+number of specimens to show how graceful and perfectly well balanced
+these chairs had become. In contemplating pieces remarkable for the
+highest style, it must be admitted that their artistry and their
+simple unaffected sense of comfort do make a direct appeal to those
+who are willing to recognise fine qualities in minor furniture.
+
+The two chairs illustrated (p. 255) differ slightly in details of
+construction. That on the left has the plain urn splat, a survival
+of the Queen Anne type. The seat is finely shaped and the legs are
+cabriole form. The top rail is almost straight, and is ornamented
+at the two ends with turned discs. The three stretchers are turned,
+and in the adjacent chair the stretchers are similar, save in a
+slight variation in the pattern of the turning. But here the splat
+is perforated with an intricate design suggestive of the lines
+of Chippendale; the top rail is a departure in form, imparting a
+distinctiveness which lifts the chair from the ordinary type.
+
+  [Illustration: WINDSOR CHAIR.
+
+  With plain fiddle splat of Queen Anne type, Chippendale top rail
+  and cabriole legs, and three turned stretchers.]
+
+  [Illustration: WINDSOR CHAIR.
+
+  With pierced fiddle splat, shaped arms, cabriole legs, and three
+  turned stretchers.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: CHIPPENDALE WINDSOR CHAIRS.
+
+  Chippendale splats. The type of splat indicates the date of
+  Windsor chairs.]
+
+  [Illustration: HEPPLEWHITE WINDSOR CHAIR.
+
+  Exceptionally fine legs back and front. Urn back. Probably Welsh
+  carving.]
+
+  [Illustration: HEPPLEWHITE PERIOD WINDSOR CHAIR.
+
+  With wheel back, in yew.
+
+  (_By courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell & Sons._)]
+
+=Chippendale Style Windsor Chairs.=--The page of chairs (p.
+257) tells its own story. The beautiful sweep of the curved back is
+always a sign of the old and true form. Later imitations or replicas
+seem somehow to lose this effect. It has been suggested that the back
+of this style was produced by the village wheelwright in horseshoe
+form, but possibly that is a conjecture which is more fanciful than
+real. It has also--collectors are often fond of inventing theories to
+fit little-known facts--been asserted that the wheel-back variety,
+which is of somewhat more modern growth, is due to the same origin.
+This wheel is fretted with six triangular openings. One chair on
+this page has the wheel unperforated. In the examination of the
+details of the four examples there is nothing of great importance to
+differentiate them from each other in construction. The two at the
+top are suggestive of Chippendale in the ornament employed in the
+splat. The lower two incline more to the slightly later Hepplewhite
+period. Of these the one on the left has only fourteen upright rails
+at the lower portion and six in the upper portion of the back, in
+comparison with sixteen and eight in the other chairs. The legs of
+this chair are exceptionally fine both back and front. The work in
+the splat is slightly suggestive of Welsh carving, especially that
+style associated with Welsh love-spoons.
+
+Following the influence of Chippendale and Hepplewhite came the
+style of Sheraton, which after 1790 began to affect the character of
+some forms of minor furniture. That this was a very real factor is
+often shown most unexpectedly in cottage and farmhouse pieces. The
+satinwood and the painted panel, and the intricacies and subtleties
+of his employment of colour, were of course too far removed from
+the simple cabinet-work of the country maker to have the least
+effect upon him, even if he ever saw them. But the slenderness and
+elegance of the Sheraton styles did in a small degree have weight
+with cabinet-makers as a whole in the provinces. So that it is quite
+within reasonable surmise to attribute certain forms to the Sheraton
+school, or rather to the oncoming of the early nineteenth-century
+mannerisms. On p. 261 two examples are illustrated showing this
+influence. The one with the horseshoe back is devoid of the splat,
+which had now disappeared. The turned legs begin to show signs of
+modernity. The other has the top-rail familiar in later forms of
+cottage chair. The turned rails for the arms and the type of turning
+in the legs show signs of decadence. The fine days of the old Windsor
+chair were coming to an end.
+
+  [Illustration: WINDSOR CHAIR.
+
+  Horseshoe back, saddle seat, turned legs, with stretcher.
+  Sheraton style.]
+
+  [Illustration: WINDSOR CHAIR.
+
+  Curved top rail, turned arms, legs, and stretcher. Sheraton
+  style, pierced fiddle splat.]
+
+=The Survival of the Windsor Chair Type.=--Apart from the love of
+the simple form and especially well-conceived design of the Windsor
+chair, which have made it at once the especial favourite of artists
+and lovers of simplicity and utility, it has won the practical
+approval of generations of innkeepers, who to this day store hundreds
+of chairs for use at village festivals. What we have said in regard
+to the popularity of the gate-leg table applies in greater degree to
+the Windsor chair. The industry of turning the legs and rails of this
+type of chair is still carried on in Buckinghamshire. Until recent
+years much of this turning was done by hand by villagers in the
+district surrounding High Wycombe, where the parts are sent to be
+finished and made up. To this day some of the old chair-makers use
+the antiquated pole lathe. But the chairs have departed from their
+old stateliness. It is true that they have survived, almost in spite
+of themselves. They are not now the objects of beauty they once were.
+But they have, by reason of modern requirements, found a fresh field
+of usefulness. Will it be supposed that the modern office chair is
+in reality a Windsor? An examination will at once show this, even
+in the latest American types. The saddle-shaped seat is there, the
+straight turned legs, and the back is the same except that the upper
+extension has disappeared and the old centre rail has become broader
+as a properly-formed rest for the tired clerk's back. A perusal
+of a few catalogues of up-to-date office furniture will establish
+this. Here, then, is the last stage of the country Windsor chair.
+The twentieth-century Windsor has come to town and graces the head
+cashier's private office in a bank or the senior partner's room of a
+firm of stockbrokers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+LOCAL TYPES
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+LOCAL TYPES
+
+   Welsh carving--Scottish types--Lancashire dressers, wardrobes,
+   and chairs--Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire, Cambridge, and Essex
+   tables--Isle of Man tables.
+
+
+The charm of collecting cottage and farmhouse furniture lies
+in the wide area over which it is found. Those who have given
+especial attention to collecting it have learned instinctively
+to differentiate between the work of various localities. Some
+well-defined types of cottage furniture are only to be found in
+certain counties, and nowhere else. Take for example the ladder-back
+and the spindle chairs. The latter are usually found in the northern
+half and the former in the southern half of England. It is obvious
+that craftsmen developing on original lines, or on lines more or
+less apart from outside influence, must establish designs peculiarly
+identified with their field of labours.
+
+The sturdy insularity of the British peasant, and his uneasy
+reception of foreign suggestion, have had a very pronounced influence
+upon his methods of work. He has the defects of his qualities, the
+stern, almost uncompromising conservatism in habit of mind and in
+his daily pursuits. A close study of the thoughts, and as far as
+is recorded the written ideals, of the rural labouring population
+exhibit an extraordinary fixity of purpose in clinging tenaciously
+to old customs. The country songs more often than not express
+disapproval of innovations and call up the memories of slowly
+vanishing customs. The farm hands recall wistfully the old style of
+Shearers' feasts and Harvest homes, when great festivities with song
+and dance and old country sports enlivened the company. In Yorkshire
+this was termed the Mel Supper, in Kent the Kern Supper, and in parts
+of the North of England it was called the Churn Supper. Annual feasts
+were given to labourers such as the Wayzgoose or Bean feast, which
+later name remains to this day. The good old days is a refrain not
+confined to the cottager in his relation with the farmer. The farmer,
+imbued with the same wistful regard for the vanished past, bewails
+the May Day tenants' feast of the eighteenth-century English squire.
+
+We get touches of disdain for the oncoming fashion of seclusion which
+invaded the farmhouse in "A Farmer's Boy," by Robert Bloomfield. He
+laments that the annual feast of the harvest home had lost its former
+joviality. This was written in 1798.
+
+"The aspect only with the substance gone." Evidently the mug that
+passed around was becoming a thing of the past.
+
+    "The self-same Horn is still at our command,
+    But serves none now but the plebeian hand."
+
+The picture he draws of the farmer who, in face of prevailing
+fashion, "yields up the custom that he dearly loves" is pathetic. The
+long table and dining in common together had seemingly vanished. "The
+_separate_ table and the costly bowl" touch the rustic poet's pride.
+He italicises the word "separate."
+
+  [Illustration: CHEST. DATED 1636.
+
+  With Welsh inscription on lid. (Standing on table of later date.)]
+
+  [Illustration: WELSH CUPBOARD.
+
+  With typical coarse style of carving. Should be 1650 at latest.
+  Inscribed I.S. 1710.]
+
+This loving regard for the past is natural at a time when the rural
+population jealously feared the oncoming of the age of machinery,
+which threatened to supersede many of their local industries and
+finally succeeded in so doing. The obstinate adherence to old forms
+was possibly part of a nervous fear of the unknown future. The
+love for existing forms of furniture was therefore part of this
+apprehensive retention of tradition. Not only was the resistance
+of town fashions a strong feature, but local prejudices prevailed
+against the adoption of designs belonging to rival counties. To
+this day the Staffordshire clothes-horse, carried on pulleys to
+the ceiling when not in use, differs from the clothes-horse of the
+cottager in the South with no such mechanical device. In Edinburgh,
+in the narrow closes, there is a kind of gallows projecting from the
+windows.
+
+These apparently minor details which find their embodiment in
+articles of everyday use, fascinate and hold the attention of the
+acute collector of cottage furniture.
+
+The same local types apply to the art of the potter and are well
+known to collectors. There are Sussex "tygs" and Nottingham "bears"
+and Sunderland and Newcastle jugs and mugs. Bristol had its
+characteristic earthenware, and the Lowestoft china factory was
+strongly Suffolk in its homely inscriptions with a touch of dialect.
+
+=Welsh Carving.=--Wales is famous for the abundance of the oak
+farmhouse furniture proudly kept to this day in families who have
+held the same homestead sometimes for centuries. One of the most
+noticeable features is the elaboration of the carving and its
+native representation, coarsely carved, without foreign influence,
+of birds and beasts and heraldic monsters which largely figure
+in the decorative panels of chests, and especially dressers. So
+popular was oak that it might almost be advanced that there never
+was any mahogany in Wales. But it is indisputable that the great
+outburst in carved mahogany chairbacks coincident with the advent of
+Chippendale and the publication of his _Director_, never penetrated
+Wales, although it led to the foundation of a remarkable school of
+woodcarving on the new lines in Ireland, known as Irish Chippendale,
+a study of which can be made in Mr. Owen Wheeler's volume on old
+furniture.
+
+The intense love of the Welsh woodcarver for intricacy is hardly
+less than that of the sturdy Swiss craftsmen environed by mountains.
+Perhaps the long winters and the solitary life influence the
+development of individual character in the applied arts. The Welsh
+love-spoons of wood, linked together and exhibiting delicate pierced
+work and minute carving of no mean order, are among other attractive
+specimens of native art. Ironwork of fine quality is also to be found
+in Wales.
+
+  [Illustration: LANCASHIRE DRESSER. ABOUT 1730-1750.
+
+  Oak inlaid with mahogany.]
+
+  [Illustration: ELM WARDROBE (WELSH). ABOUT 1670.]
+
+(_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)
+
+  [Illustration: FLAP-TOP TABLE.
+
+  Rare Hertfordshire Example. Diameter of top, 2 ft. 6 ins.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell & Sons._)]
+
+  [Illustration: LANCASHIRE SPINDLE-BACK CHAIRS.]
+A carved oak chest of Welsh origin, dated 1636, with Welsh
+inscription on lid, is illustrated (p. 269). The table on which it
+stands is of a later date. The carving in this piece is delicate
+and the middle panel is typical of the representation of birds and
+foliage. The Welsh cupboard on the same page typifies the coarse
+woodcarving associated with Welsh farmhouse art. In style this really
+belongs to a date not later than 1650. But it is dated 1710 and
+bears the initials "I.S." This is an interesting example, showing
+how middle-Jacobean styles lingered in country districts remote from
+outside influence until the early eighteenth century.
+
+An elm wardrobe, probably about 1670 in date, shows another type,
+but still retaining the coarse character of its carving and its
+well-filled panels and uprights (illustrated p. 273).
+
+=Scottish Types.=--Scotland has antiquities of her own which are
+closely allied to those of all the Gaelic races. As with Welsh
+carved farmhouse furniture, there is a marked leaning towards coarse
+style. As a rule it is too utilitarian in appearance to display
+much carving. The spinning-wheel is still found in farmhouses, and
+is still used in Harris and the outlying islands. Sometimes these
+old Highland spinning-wheels come into the market with the smooth
+surface worn by generations of workers, a surface impossible to
+reproduce. The Scottish ironwork is especially interesting. Perhaps
+the most curious of the Scottish antiquities is the crusie. This is
+undoubtedly a survival of the classic oil lamp. It consists of a
+shallow trough with a spout in which the wick stands, the oil being
+contained in the trough (see illustration, p. 289).
+
+=Lancashire Furniture.=--The especial characteristics of
+Lancashire-made furniture are a strong leaning to solid structure and
+a very noticeable reticence in carving. Well-balanced as a rule, and
+possessing good joinery, they have been favourites with collectors
+of furniture designed for modern use. A Queen Anne oak dresser
+illustrated (p. 135) shows this Lancashire sturdiness at its best.
+This style of large dresser with cabriole legs is associated with
+Lancashire cabinet work.
+
+A Lancashire dresser, the date of which is from about 1730 to 1750,
+shows the oak dresser inlaid with mahogany. The carved pediment and
+the carved underwork beneath the drawers mark this as an unusual
+specimen (p. 273).
+
+A typical Lancashire oak settle is illustrated (p. 279), showing the
+Jacobean style in the carved work and in the arms. In date this is
+about 1660. It will be noticed that the front of the seat has a row
+of holes, which, prior to the upholstered cushion, a later addition,
+were intended for ropes to support a cushion, much in the same manner
+as the iron laths of a modern bedstead.
+
+On the same page is illustrated an oak chest of drawers of Yorkshire
+origin, in date about 1770. Its plain lines suggest the Hepplewhite
+types of subdued character.
+
+In regard to spindle-back chairs, Lancashire offers distinctive
+varieties. Two examples are illustrated (p. 275) as indicating this
+local type.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS. _C._ 1770.
+
+  Yorkshire type.
+
+  Height, 3 ft. 3 ins.; width, 3 ft. 1 in.; depth, 1 ft. 5-1/2 ins.]
+
+  [Illustration: LANCASHIRE OAK SETTLE. _C._ 1660.]
+  [Illustration: ISLE OF MAN TABLE.
+
+  Showing three legs with knee breeches and buckle shoes.]
+
+  [Illustration: "CRICKET" TABLE. _C._ 1700.]
+
+  [Illustration: "CRICKET." _C._ 1750.
+
+  (These types are found in Hertfordshire, South Bedfordshire,
+  South Cambridge, and Essex.)]
+=Three Legged Tables.=--Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire, Cambridge, and
+Essex have produced a type of tables termed colloquially "cricket
+tables," possibly because the three legs are suggestive of three
+stumps. The term is a foolish one and not very appropriate. A very
+interesting flap-top table with the three flaps to turn down,
+illustrated (p. 275), is a very rare Hertfordshire example. This is
+small in size, having only a diameter of two and a half feet.
+
+Two other tables, one in date about 1700 and the other, of slender
+form, in date about 1750, are typical of this class of table. A very
+interesting table is a specimen from the Isle of Man having three
+carved legs with knee-breeches and buckle shoes.
+
+Sussex is also well-known for her ironwork (see Chapter X.).
+
+Norfolk and Suffolk used to have a class of oak furniture of quaint
+type, less cumbersome than the Welsh. A type of Sheraton Windsor
+chair, often inlaid with brass, used also to be found there.
+
+On the whole, those localities which are removed from important towns
+are the richest in cottage furniture, for example, Wales, Devonshire,
+Cumberland, Northumberland, and parts of Yorkshire. In places, where
+the prosperity of the peasants is of long standing, the cottage
+furniture has been maintained whole almost until the present day.
+
+Altogether the study of local types affords considerable scope for
+critical study. It is essential that such pieces should be identified
+and classified before it is too late. Rapidly all cottage and
+farmhouse furniture is being scattered over all parts of England.
+Collectors transfer furniture from the North to the South, and
+the rural treasures of the peasant have been brought to towns and
+dispersed to alien districts. The Education Act of 1870 and the
+halfpenny newspaper have brought town fashions to the door of the
+cottager, and the motor has laid a heavy tribute on rustic seclusion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MISCELLANEOUS IRONWORK, Etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MISCELLANEOUS IRONWORK, ETC.
+
+   The rushlight-holder--The dipper--The chimney crane--The
+   Scottish crusie--Firedogs--The Warming-pan--Sussex
+   firebacks--Grandfather clocks.
+
+
+The everyday iron utensils and implements of the cottages were
+simple. It is one of the curious features of the English peasantry
+that just as they clung to their oak of generations back when
+mahogany was in vogue, so they adhered tenaciously to ironwork of
+almost medićval character when other metals were in fashionable
+everyday use. Thus the cottager did not feel the oncoming desire for
+the brass, or later silver and plated candlesticks, but remained
+firm in his affection for the rushlight-holders in iron, the same
+types which his ancestors had used, and the firedogs and firebacks
+of earlier type remained to decorate his hearth. Thus ironwork and
+rarely brasswork form the sum total of the metal portion of cottage
+furniture. We will deal with these various utilitarian objects one by
+one.
+
+It must be remembered that the country farmer was not familiar with
+ready-made candles, and it probably no more entered his head to
+purchase candles in a town than it occurred to him to do other than
+bake his own bread. The cottager therefore made his candles for
+himself. If he were well-to-do and could afford to entertain his
+friends in modest fashion, he would doubtless like to illuminate his
+table with candles of symmetrical form. In which case he would use
+a candle-mould, and the wax bought in towns would serve for this
+purpose. But he was not always so rich, and perhaps he was happiest
+of all with the faintly glimmering rush dips which his forbears used.
+These afforded a rough-and-ready form of lighting. They burned and
+spluttered like a torch or flickered faintly as the tallow grew thin.
+Their form closely resembled an amateur's first attempt at making a
+cigarette. They were made in the following manner: the thin wirelike
+rushes which grew by the water's edge were gathered and stripped of
+their green surface till only the soft white pith remained. This
+served as a wick. The wax was then melted over a fire in a trough or
+candle-dipper, of which an illustration appears (p. 289).
+
+Across this long receptacle the pith wicks were laid till the wax
+soaked into them. They were then taken out for the wax to cool and
+were dipped once or twice afterwards in order to form their outer
+coating. By such a primitive process a kind of thin taper was
+formed. It was not parallel along its sides, but bulged and narrowed
+throughout its length in primitive manner.
+
+  [Illustration: RUSHLIGHT HOLDERS.
+
+  Showing rush fixed ready for lighting.
+
+    SCOTCH CRUSIE.
+
+    With holder.
+
+    RUSHLIGHT HOLDERS.
+
+    Showing forceps for holding
+    rushlight.]
+
+  [Illustration: SUFFOLK PIPE CLEANER.
+
+  The long clay "churchwarden" pipes were placed in this iron
+  rack and put into the fire, after which they came out perfectly
+  cleaned.
+
+  CANDLE-DIPPER.
+
+  (_In the collection of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: QUEEN ANNE POT-HANGER.
+
+  With original grate. Same date.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: KETTLE TRIVET.
+
+  Brass and Iron. Dated about 1770.]
+
+Such a taper, from its uneven thickness, would naturally not
+fit the socket of a candlestick, and the only receptacle would be a
+scissor-like mechanism with jaws capable of clasping it at any point.
+Thus we find the rushlight-holder of common use, as illustrated (p.
+289).
+
+The illustrations show two rush-holders with the rushlights affixed
+in position ready for lighting, and one showing how the jaws or
+forceps clip the rushlight. In practice about an inch or an inch and
+a half was above the clip and the rest below. A rushlight some twelve
+to fifteen inches long would burn half an hour, and it had to receive
+constant attention, being pushed upwards every five minutes. But it
+must be remembered that the persons who used this primitive form of
+light did not use it for reading nor for a long period at a time.
+They usually went to bed early after sunset.
+
+In regard to rushlight-holders the earliest form was without the
+accompanying candle-socket, but when the use of tallow dip candles
+became prevalent, later forms are found, as illustrated, with the
+candle-socket in addition to the holder for the rushlight.
+
+The Scottish crusie is an iron trough of dimensions like a small
+sauceboat, which was used for lighting purposes, and was often
+suspended, as in the one illustrated (p. 289), from a crane or
+hanger. This crusie was filled with oil and the illumination given
+by a floating wick, much in the same manner as classic examples, to
+which the shape bears a distant resemblance.
+
+The firedogs were always simple, doubtless the product of the local
+blacksmith. Where they had hooks along the backs they held crossbars
+to prevent the logs falling into the room. The dates of these, as
+of all cottage ironwork, are almost impossible to fix, owing to the
+survival of the earlier types even so late as the middle of the
+nineteenth century.
+
+=The Chimney Crane.=--A most important part of the cottager's
+fireplace was his chimney crane. These were of two kinds, the
+pot-hook and the swing-arm variety. The pot-hook hung in the chimney
+from a chain, and from its teeth was fixed a catch which might be
+lowered or raised to keep the cauldron at a level with the flames.
+
+The swing-arm type is more elaborate, and was made to fit very large
+fireplaces, where the fire might not invariably be in the same spot
+on the hearth. This type was used in the kitchens of the better
+farmhouses. Its end was fixed to the wall of the hearth, and the pot
+could be swung backwards and forwards and sideways, besides being
+raised or lowered to the fire.
+
+The pot-hook is of great antiquity, and belongs to days when man
+first learned to cook his food. Frequently in this country early
+examples are dug up. There are fine specimens to be seen of the late
+Celtic period at the Owens College Museum, at the Northampton Museum,
+at the Liverpool Museum, at the Pitt Rivers Museum at Farnham, at the
+Victoria and Albert Museum, and elsewhere.
+
+"Pot-hooks and hangers" is an English phrase denoting the beginning
+of things academic, and the French phrase _pendre la crémaillčre_
+(literally to hang the pot-hook) is used to-day in reference to what
+we term a "house-warming" party on settling in a new abode.
+
+Another interesting cottage treasure is the cake-baker. This was a
+kind of thick frying-pan having a lid, which protected the dough from
+the heat when it was held over the smouldering ashes. The tops of
+these are often incised with quaint patterns, the impress of which
+appears on the cake.
+
+Kettle-trivets are sometimes found in cottages, possibly relics from
+better houses or having belonged to the more prosperous farmer.
+They are not wholly of iron, being partly of brass. The specimen
+illustrated (p. 291) is of late eighteenth-century days.
+
+=The Warming-pan.=--There is an especial charm in the old brass
+warming-pan of the farmhouse and the treasured highly-polished
+ornament of many a proud cottager to-day. Many modern-made
+warming-pans from Holland and elsewhere have found their way into
+the possession of unsuspecting collectors. But fine old English
+warming-pans are interesting, and summon up memories of careful
+housewives and well-aired lavender-smelling sheets in ancient
+old-world inns. On fine examples inscriptions may be found, and the
+incised work of the pattern on the brass covers is often individual
+in character.
+
+Of the examples illustrated (p. 307) one has an incised inscription
+around the edge, "The Lord only is my portion." The other has a
+dotted geometrical pattern with a star-like design of conventional
+floral incised work.
+
+It is unfortunate that the diligence of the housewife has often
+obliterated much of the fine work of some of these designs. The
+warming-pan offers in itself a complete field for the collector. He
+can compare the work of seventeenth-century Dutch examples, with
+their quaint religious inscriptions and their finely embossed and
+engraved ornamentation, with English specimens of the same date.
+That the warming-pan was in use in Elizabethan days is proved by
+references in Shakespeare. It has a long history, from Sir John
+Falstaff, when Bardolph was bidden to put his face between the
+sheets and do the office of a warming-pan, to Mr. Pickwick--to quote
+Sergeant Buzfuz, "Don't trouble yourself about the warming-pan--the
+warming-pan! Why, gentlemen, who does trouble himself about a
+warming-pan?"
+
+=Sussex Firebacks.=--The fireback was usually part of the cottager's
+belongings, though perhaps only one would figure in his house, where
+possibly his only hearth was in his living-room.
+
+These were cast and forged in various parts of the country, and large
+numbers appear to have been made in Sussex, which is, or rather
+was, the greatest hunting-ground for good specimens of cottagers'
+ironwork. Some highly interesting specimens of these are to be herein
+illustrated.
+
+The records of the Sussex iron industry go back to a very early date,
+and the town of Lewes, in the thirteenth century, raised taxes by
+charging a toll on every cartload of iron admitted. Under Edward
+III. the Sussex ironworks provided three thousand horseshoes and
+twenty-nine thousand nails for the English army in its campaign in
+Scotland. The local rhyme--
+
+    "Master Hogge and his man John
+    They did cast the first cannon"--
+
+is not without reason, as in Bodiam Castle and elsewhere are mortars
+of Sussex work of fifteenth-century style. In the sixteenth century a
+considerable number of firebacks was made, some with the royal arms
+and with the royal cipher, "E.R.," and bearing dates and sometimes
+makers' names.
+
+  [Illustration: COUNTRY FIREDOGS. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIRE GRATE. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+The earliest form was stamped with the _fleur-de-lys_ or with
+portions of twisted cable to form some sort of symmetrical design.
+We are enabled, by the kindness of Mr. C. Dawson, F.S.A., of Lewes,
+to reproduce some Sussex firebacks from his collection. An example
+of the first half of the sixteenth century, illustrated (p. 301),
+shows the rope-like border impressed on the sand mould, and the field
+impressed with repetitions of a _fleur-de-lys_ from a single stamp.
+Another interesting fireback is the "Royal Oak" design, with the
+initials "C.R." This is commemorative of the escape of Charles II.
+from pursuit by Cromwell's Ironsides and his refuge in the oak-tree.
+It will be observed that this specimen has a moulded edge, which
+is from a single wood pattern carved in one piece. Amidst the oak
+foliage will be seen three crowns, and this exuberance of loyalty
+bears a resemblance to certain chairs of the period (copied by the
+score nowadays), in which the crown finds a place in the stretcher.
+
+One fireback illustrated (p. 303) shows an ironmaster with his hammer
+at his forge. The adjacent piece has the Tudor rose surmounted by
+the royal crown, and bears the date 1650, slightly earlier than the
+"Royal Oak" example.
+
+All the foregoing specimens are native in their conception of design.
+They approximate closely to the Jacobean carved panel with its narrow
+range of subjects, and have a relationship to Stuart needlework with
+its royal symbolism. Later came the Dutch influence, most marked in
+its effect upon the shape, height, and character of these firebacks.
+This became especially noticeable in the eighteenth century, and
+in the illustrations (p. 303) of two wooden patterns from which
+the firebacks were made at Ashburnham, Sussex, this is clearly
+shown. The designs are ornate and represent either some scriptural
+or mythological subject. The woodcarving is of a style strongly
+under Dutch influence, and the tall proportions suggest gravestones
+(indeed, in Sussex there are headstones made of iron, with pictures
+and inscriptions).
+
+The mode of casting these iron firebacks in sand and the employment
+of wooden patterns to form the mould into which the molten metal was
+to run is familiar to any foundry in casting iron. In regard to the
+early examples with the twisted cable rim, it is conjectured that
+pieces of twisted rope were actually laid on the wet sand to produce
+this pattern--that is, before the use of carved wooden patterns
+such as are illustrated. In regard to the bolder "cable twist"
+pattern, it is believed this was produced by impression of pieces of
+rope stiffened with glue, and twisted around iron rods.
+
+  [Illustration: SUSSEX IRON FIREBACK. FIRST HALF OF SIXTEENTH
+  CENTURY.
+
+  Rope-like border impressed on sand mould. The field impressed
+  with repetitions from a single _fleur-de-lys_ stamp.]
+
+  [Illustration: SUSSEX IRON FIREBACK.
+
+  The Royal Oak Design, commemorative of the Restoration. Late
+  Seventeenth Century. Moulded edge and carved in one piece from a
+  single pattern.
+
+  (_In the collection of Charles Dawson, Esq., F.S.A., Lewes._)]
+
+  [Illustration: SUSSEX FIREBACKS.
+
+    Tudor Rose surmounted by Royal
+    Crown. Dated 1650.
+
+    Depicting Ironmaster at his Forge.
+    (Very rusty and worn.)]
+
+  [Illustration: ORIGINAL WOODEN PATTERNS.
+
+  Dutch influence. Eighteenth Century. From which firebacks were
+  made at Ashburnham, Sussex.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Charles Dawson, Esq., F.S.A., Lewes._)]
+
+The size of the wooden pattern is slightly larger than the resultant
+fireback, owing to the shrinkage of the metal on cooling. This
+diminution in design is a factor in the potter's art, when figures
+in some cases lose nearly a third of their original proportions when
+moulded in the clay prior to firing.
+
+Firebacks have attracted a considerable amount of interest. There are
+many collectors, and a great deal of close study has been applied to
+the subject. Country museums in the vicinity of the Weald of Sussex
+and Kent contain many notable examples, especially those of Lewes,
+Hastings, Brighton, Rochester, Maidstone, and Guildford. In the first
+mentioned there are some very rare and beautiful examples of Sussex
+firebacks.
+
+Especially interesting in connection with the Sussex ironworks is the
+illustration (p. 309) of a clock face made by a local maker, Beeching
+of Ashburnham, in the late seventeenth century. This brass dial of a
+thirty-hour clock, with single hand and alarum, is ornamented with
+designs showing various phases of the iron industry as carried on in
+Sussex. There is a cannon with diminutive figures holding the match.
+There are cannon-balls, and a liliputian fireback with a crown on
+it. Men with pickaxes, men felling trees, and others tending the
+furnaces, symbolise the business of a foundry.
+
+It was not until 1690 that the minute numerals were placed outside
+the minute divisions in clock faces, so that this face, having the
+minute numerals absent and the minute divisions in the inner circle,
+presumably belongs to the late seventeenth century.
+
+=Grandfather Clocks.=--A volume on cottage and farmhouse furniture
+would be incomplete without some reference to grandfather clocks.
+At the beginning of the eighteenth century this type of clock had
+become popular. The early brass-bracket clock known as "Cromwellian,"
+varying from six to ten inches in height, had a spring. With the use
+of the long pendulum and revolving drums, around which catgut is
+wound to support the heavy weights, these unprotected parts required
+a wooden case.
+
+The "lantern" or "bird-cage" clocks (wallclocks from which the
+pendulum and weights hung unprotected) lasted till about 1680, when
+the first grandfather type with wood case came into use.
+
+The early examples with cases exhibiting fine marquetry are outside
+the scope of the class of furniture now under consideration. In such
+specimens there is frequently a round or oval opening covered with
+glass in the centre of the panel.
+
+In earlier types the metal dial is square, and later it became
+lunetted at top, and the wood case had a corresponding curve. In
+clocks made for great houses there were chimes, and their works
+were by well-known town makers. But in cottage examples, instead
+of the eight-day movement, more often than not the clock only ran
+for twenty-four hours. There is little attempt at ornament in
+these plain oak varieties. The case is soundly constructed, and
+sometimes, in exceptional examples, the head is surmounted by
+brass ball finials, as in the finer examples. As a rule the country
+cabinet-maker confined himself to an ornamental scrolled head. In
+later examples the metal dial--and these come at the beginning of the
+nineteenth century--is painted with some rustic scene with figures,
+and frequently there is a revolving dial showing the days of the
+month.
+
+  [Illustration: WARMING-PANS.
+
+  Finely decorated with incised work. One with inscription, "The
+  Lord only is my portion."
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Mr. S. G. Fenton._)]
+
+  [Illustration: GRANDFATHER CLOCK.
+
+  With Oak Case.
+
+  Made by J. Paxton, St. Neots. Height, 6 ft. 10 ins.]
+
+  [Illustration: BRASS DIAL OF THIRTY-HOUR CLOCK.
+
+  Single Hand and Alarum. Late Seventeenth Century.
+
+  Ornamented with designs showing various phases of the iron
+  industry, as carried on at Ashburnham, Sussex.
+
+  (_In the collection of Charles Dawson, Esq., F.S.A., Lewes._)]
+
+The entire head covering the dial is often removable in old clocks to
+which there is no hinged door, as in later made examples.
+
+These country grandfather clocks are much treasured by their owners,
+and have been handed down in families for generations. Owing to the
+indefatigability of collectors and their persistent and tempting
+offers, many have left their old homes. The demand has been great,
+and thousands of "grandfather" clocks have been made during the last
+twenty years and sold as "antique," or old cases with plain panels
+have received the unwelcome attention of the modern restorer and have
+been carved to please a popular whim for carved oak panels.
+
+In regard to dates of grandfather clocks the records of the
+Clockmakers' Company give a list of makers of the eighteenth century,
+enabling the period to be fairly accurately fixed. The walnut
+cases inlaid with floral marquetry, often attributed to the period
+1690-1725, that is William and Mary and Queen Anne, frequently belong
+to a quarter of a century later. The case-makers clung more closely
+to old designs than did the clockmakers. Hence the case very often
+is of apparently older style than the works, though both were made
+contemporaneously. In addition to this, new clocks were put in older
+cases, or _vice versa_, which, like putting new pictures in old
+frames, adds to the gaiety of collecting.
+
+In general the London clock-cases are only roughly indicative, in
+comparison with the Company records, of contemporary styles of
+furniture. In country-made pieces the wood cases are anything from
+twenty to forty years behind London fashions. For example, the arched
+top occurs after 1720 in London, and after 1735 in the provinces. In
+the _Director_ of Chippendale and in Sheraton's and Hepplewhite's
+books of designs there are illustrations of clock cases. The
+progression of styles of eighteenth-century grandfather clock cases
+is from plain oak to figured walnut, black and red lacquer, floral,
+"seaweed," or mosaic marquetry, and in the latter decades of the
+eighteenth century inlaid mahogany cases, and many of these have
+finely veneered panels. In many country clocks oak cases are veneered
+in mahogany, but as a rule country made grandfather cases are plain
+oak. The example illustrated (p. 307) indicates the plain type of
+solidly made provincial piece. The clock was made by J. Paxton at St.
+Neots.
+
+The mahogany-cased grandfather clock is never found in cottages.
+There are no Chippendale styles in this field for the collector to
+search for. The plainness of the country style has happily in many
+instances preserved them from alien hands. An interesting revival,
+chiefly on account of expense, is found in the Dutch clock, with
+china face painted with flowers, which the cottager bought in early
+and middle nineteenth-century days. This form of clock reverted to
+the unprotected pendulum and weights, and is an object-lesson in what
+the style of English clock was before the use of a long wooden case.
+But these Dutch clocks are interesting rather than valuable, and have
+not yet claimed the attention of collectors.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+OLD ENGLISH CHINTZES
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+OLD ENGLISH CHINTZES
+
+BY HUGH PHILLIPS
+
+   The charm of old English chintz--Huguenot cloth-printers settle
+   in England--Jacob Stampe at the sign of the Calico Printer--The
+   Queen Anne period--The Chippendale period--The age of machinery.
+
+
+The present chapter has been added with perhaps some justification,
+since it seemed to the writer that such a subject as old English
+chintzes might appropriately take its place beside the equally homely
+craft of the rural cabinet-maker.
+
+For the chintz is the _tapisserie d'aubusson_ of the peasant--it
+covers his chairs and drapes his windows, giving warmth and wealth of
+colour to the otherwise barren appearance of his cottage. Further,
+it reflects his simple horticultural tastes, for the brilliantly
+coloured roses, pansies, and convolvuluses which shine prominently on
+the glazed surface of the cloth are those flowers which are always to
+be found in his garden.
+
+Chintz or printed cotton is the only decorative fabric known to the
+village upholsterer. When persons of wealth hung their windows with
+silk brocades and covered their chairs with costly needlework and
+damasks, the rural cabinet-maker was supplying his modest _clientčle_
+with these homely patterns printed upon common cloth.
+
+These unassuming fabrics were as much cherished by the cottagers as
+anything which they possessed. The classical ornament of expensive
+silks they did not understand, and the freely treated birds and
+flowers which figured on chintz represented the Alpha and Omega of
+beauty in textile design.
+
+So great, indeed, is the fascination of these for the cottagers that
+to-day, in districts less penetrated by modern advance, the rural
+populace will not extend their affections to the up-to-date designs
+of upholsterers, but insist upon the old spot and sprig patterns of
+their ancestors.
+
+There is much wisdom in the conservative taste of the peasant, for
+the old chintz of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was
+of the highest artistic merit. In the heyday of its fame the fabric
+was exceedingly fashionable amongst the richest persons, and there
+are abundant records of the popularity of old English chintzes upon
+the Continent. For, at its best periods, the chintz was not a base
+imitation of more expensive fabrics; it did not, for instance,
+occupy the relationship of pewter to silver or moulded composition
+to genuine woodcarving. On the contrary, the designing of chintzes
+is an art of distinction, governed by canons which bear little
+relationship to other decorative textile crafts. For where the
+silk-weaver is confined to solid patterns which will appear in his
+transverse threads, the printer of cloths can wander unrestrained
+into designs of wonderful intricacy and beauty: every colour in
+nature he can imitate, and no object is too delicate or too rich to
+stamp upon his cotton. Indeed, his art stops little short of that of
+the painter of pictures.
+
+  [Illustration: OLD TRADE CARD SHOWING CALICO PRINTERS AT WORK.
+
+  "Jacob Stampe living at ye Sighn of the Callico Printer in
+  Hounsditch Prints all sorts of Callicoes Lineings Silkes Stuffs
+  New or Ould at Reasonable Rates."
+
+  (_From old print at British Museum._)]
+
+  [Illustration: ENGLISH PRINTED CALICO. ABOUT 1690.
+
+  With contemporary portraits.
+
+  (_By courtesy of Mr. T. D. Phillips._)]
+
+A glance at the illustrations will more closely confirm this, for
+such designs could not be imitated by any other textile process, the
+multitudinous twists and curves and the delicate shades and patches
+of colour being only possible to the printer.
+
+Interesting as is the study of old chintzes, the history of the art
+in England is even more fascinating. From the obscurity of a small
+local craft it became one of our great national industries.
+
+Of its earliest history in England we know nothing, and a search
+among old documents fails to reveal any traces of chintz-printing
+before the Renaissance. There are several vague references to the
+subject in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but none of them
+disclose any solid information. Thus the question of who was the
+first chintz-printer remains an unsolved riddle. It appears, however,
+that in the seventeenth century there was a gradual immigration of
+foreign workmen of Dutch and French nationalities who were well
+versed in the art of cotton-printing--then well established upon the
+Continent. These people came over in gradually increasing numbers,
+their arrival culminating in the huge influx of foreigners about 1650
+to 1700.
+
+The majority of them were by trade silk-weavers and printers. Their
+departure was a serious blow to France, for they transferred to
+England what had been great national industries in France. Settling
+in and about London, the refugees peaceably recommenced their work,
+and soon the weaving of silks in Spitalfields and the printing of
+chintzes in Richmond, Bow, and Old Ford became a source of great
+prosperity to this country.
+
+On p. 319 is an illustration of a seventeenth-century trade card
+of one of the chintz-printers, or, as they were then called,
+calico-printers. Here we see in a most lucid manner the process by
+which chintzes were produced in the time of James II. The inscription
+runs: "Jacob Stampe living at Ye Sighn of the Callico Printer in
+Hounsditch Prints all sorts of Callicoes Lineings Silkes Stuffs, New
+or Ould, at Reasonable Rates."
+
+A printer is standing at a table upon which is stretched a length
+of cloth, which falls in folds on the floor. He holds in his hand a
+wooden block, which he is applying at intervals to the cloth. The
+other hand contains a mallet, which is about to strike the wooden
+block and stamp the colour firmly into the threads of the material.
+Behind him is an apprentice boy, standing over a tub of colour,
+preparing the blocks for his master to use.
+
+  [Illustration: HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ.
+
+  Queen Anne Period.]
+
+  [Illustration: HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ.
+
+  Chinese style. Middle Eighteenth Century.]
+
+By so clumsy a process very delicate work could not be produced,
+and, indeed, the few examples of this period which remain are very
+heavy in character. One of these, which has been lent by Mr. J. D.
+Phillips, the owner, is illustrated on p. 319. It belongs to the
+end of the seventeenth century and corresponds to the William and
+Mary period of English furniture, being contemporary with the pieces
+illustrated on pp. 77, 117 in the earlier chapters. It will be seen
+that this example contains two portraits in costume of the late
+Stuart period, possibly intended for portraits of William and Mary.
+Their portraits are of frequent occurrence on Lambeth delft of this
+period.
+
+The printer has only produced the outline, the colour being added by
+hand with a brush, for at this date the printing of colour by the
+successive application of blocks had not been mastered. The black
+ink to-day lies thick upon the cloth, as coarsely as though it had
+been dabbed on with a stencil. The material is a rough hand-woven
+canvas. Printed cloths of the period of Charles II. and James II. and
+William and Mary are exceedingly rare and seldom met with, as, owing
+to their roughness, they have been destroyed by subsequent owners. A
+few, however, are to be found on walnut chairs under the coverings
+of later date. Often, indeed, one meets a chair covered in Victorian
+horsehair which will reveal underneath the successive coverings of
+many generations of owners, including perhaps the material in which
+it was first upholstered.
+
+As the seventeenth century wore on and we enter upon the early
+years of the eighteenth century--the days of Queen Anne--the
+chintz-printers became more prosperous. Their work, owing to its
+increasing delicacy, met with great public approval, and it began
+to supplant woven silks for the purposes of curtains, coverings, and
+dresses. Thus the silk-weavers of Spitalfields found a declining
+market for their goods and soon came into friction with the printers.
+Much bad feeling ensued, and eventually their quarrels resulted
+in the distribution of defamatory literature which is to-day most
+amusing. The weavers circulated the curious "Spittlefields Ballad"
+against "Calico Madams," or the ladies who wore chintz dresses.
+
+THE SPITTLEFIELDS BALLADS
+
+OR THE
+
+WEAVER'S COMPLAINT AGAINST THE CALLICO MADAMS
+
+    Our trade is so bad
+    That the weavers run mad
+    Through the want of both work and provisions,
+    That some hungry poor rogues
+    Feed on grains like our hogs,
+    They're reduced to such wretched conditions,
+    Then well may they tayre
+    What our ladies now wear
+    And as foes to our country upbraid 'em,
+    Till none shall be thought
+    A more scandalous slut
+    Than a tawdry Callico Madam.
+
+    When our trade was in wealth
+    Our women had health,
+    We silks, rich embroideries and satins,
+    Fine stuffs and good crapes
+    For each ord'nary trapes
+    That is destin'd to hobble in pattins;
+    But now we've a Chince
+    For the wife of a prince,
+    And a butterfly gown for a gay dame,
+    Thin painted old sheets
+    For each trull in the streets
+    To appear like a Callico Madam.
+
+  [Illustration: HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ.
+
+  Exotic-Bird style. Middle Eighteenth Century.]
+
+  [Illustration: HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ.
+
+  Gothic style. Late Eighteenth Century.]
+
+The poet in several long stanzas warms in his indignation, and
+finally directs his verse against the male friends of all fair
+wearers of chintzes, suggesting that--
+
+      "It's no matter at all
+    If the Prince of Iniquity had 'em,
+      Or that each for a bride
+      Should be cursedly tied
+    To some damn'd Callico Madam."
+
+It is not surprising that the weavers should find it difficult to
+set their productions against those of the cloth-printers, for the
+chintzes of this period are surpassingly beautiful. One of them
+is illustrated on p. 323. Here the material is no longer a rough
+canvas, but is now a light dress cambric, similar to the thin smooth
+chintz cloth which has survived till to-day. A delicate pattern of
+intertwining stems winds upwards, the stalks having blossoms of
+finely cut outline and brilliant colours. Old chintzes of this period
+may be recognised by their lightness and by the long thin designs of
+intermingling flowers of Indian type. These were all more or less
+borrowed from the Marsupalitan printed cloths brought over by the
+India trading companies, and the flowers and colourings of this date
+are nearly always very closely copied from Eastern originals, the
+cornflower and carnation being among those most frequently met with.
+
+The ill-feeling between the printers and weavers was of long
+duration, and eventually took the form of open riots and street
+demonstrations similar to those of to-day. On one occasion, in
+1719, they went from Spitalfields to Westminster and protested
+against the popularity of chintzes and suggested that their use be
+forbidden. On the return journey they manifested their feelings by
+tearing off the chintz gowns of various ladies whom they met upon
+the route. Evidently Parliament pandered to these labour riots, for
+in 1736 printed cloths were forbidden by Act of Parliament, but this
+legislation was of short duration; the Act was soon repealed and the
+fascinating material became the rage once more.
+
+The next stage at which we look upon chintz-printing is about
+1760, in the middle of the period of Chippendale furniture. This
+is the golden period of its printing. Technically and artistically
+the hand-printed chintz now reached its climax. Colour-work by
+superimposed blocks was in full swing, and the designer had, in
+the works of contemporary artists, a wider field for the selection
+of subjects suitable for his fabric. Among the many varieties of
+chintzes which we find at this date the most prominent are the Gothic
+and Chinese designs to suit the current taste in furniture, and the
+exotic bird patterns, which are perhaps the finest of all.
+
+  [Illustration: HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ. ABOUT 1760.
+
+  By R. Jones, of Old Ford, London.]
+
+The formation of the designs has changed considerably by this time
+and we no longer find the intertwining or serpentine form as in the
+Queen Anne chintzes. The flowers and objects to be printed are now
+massed together and represented as little disjointed islands
+floating in mid-air. By this distinctive feature they may easily be
+recognised. One of these charming exotic bird chintzes is illustrated
+on p. 327. Here a pheasant is resting under a palm-tree upon a small
+island of densely packed foliage. The whole idea of the design
+is taken from the Chinese porcelain of the period. The bird, the
+flowers, and every object portrayed come from the East and are drawn
+in the manner constantly seen upon the _Famille Rose_ dishes and
+vases of the period. These exotic bird patterns are not exclusively
+found upon chintzes, for the collector of English porcelain will be
+familiar with them in the early productions of the Bow and Worcester
+factories.
+
+Another feature which one notices in printed fabrics at this date is
+the buff ground. The cloth is white, and the pattern is printed upon
+it in this state so that the pinks, blues, and greens of the flowers
+may have every advantage of transparency. The buff background is then
+printed in afterwards, leaving a thin margin around the design. In
+this manner great richness and depth is given to the colours without
+undue harshness, which would be the result if they were exhibited
+upon a white background. The illustration on p. 323 shows a chintz in
+the Chinese manner, designed to conform with the oriental furniture
+of Chippendale. Here again we see the detached islets of vegetation,
+but instead of exotic birds we have Chinese vases containing flowers,
+and in the foreground a rococo shell, one of the then little-known
+species from the East greatly treasured in England. The carnations
+and foliage will be readily recognised as copies from Chinese
+paintings. One might illustrate a very large number of these Chinese
+chintzes, but space will only permit one example. This particular
+specimen is probably unique; it is taken from an old roll of chintz
+printed about 1760 and left over after the owner had curtained
+his house. The roll (about twenty yards long) has been carefully
+preserved and handed down from generation to generation, so that its
+original colours and soft glaze remain intact.
+
+A chintz in the Gothic manner is illustrated on p. 327. It differs
+slightly from the others in that the island formation is combined
+with serpentine foliage. In the centre is a patch of ground upon
+which are the ruins of a Gothic church. The artist, however, has not
+forgotten to please those patrons who might prefer the Chinese style,
+and therefore he has quietly added the incongruous elements of prunus
+flowers in the foreground and palm-trees in the background. At first
+this quaint admixture may appear a bad art, but it must be remembered
+that at this quaint period the whole principle of decorative design
+was upset by the rococo school, and quaintness and delicacy of detail
+outweighed the greater considerations of line and proportion. We
+find a similar treatment of design later on in many Spode plates,
+especially in blue transfer-printed subjects.
+
+  [Illustration: PRINTED CHINTZ.
+
+  Hepplewhite Period.]
+
+  [Illustration: PRINTED CHINTZ.
+
+  Victorian Period.]
+
+In the third quarter of the eighteenth century we enter upon a new
+era in the history of chintzes. We may appropriately call it the
+age of machinery, for from this date the mechanical processes came
+in whereby chintz-printing was raised from the position of a
+comparatively small craft to that of a huge national industry. The
+great manufacturing towns in the North, such as Manchester, were
+rising in importance, and Lancashire was forming the basis of its
+gigantic cotton trade. Following these trade movements, the old
+industry of cloth-printing gradually left its centre in London and
+was developed on a larger scale in the North of England.
+
+In spite of this great commercial spirit which seized the printing of
+textiles, hand-block printing did not pass away, for it has survived
+till to-day as the best method for fine artistic work; cretonnes and
+chintzes produced in this manner, even during the nineteenth century,
+are always good. Mechanical roller work, however, was responsible for
+a large output of work which is little worthy of preservation, and
+in the nineteenth century we find much machine-printed chintz which,
+to say the least, is not reminiscent of the fine handwork which
+preceded it in the mid-eighteenth century. The earliest machine-work
+was carried out by means of engraved copper plates applied to the
+cloth in a printer's press. One of these is illustrated on p. 331.
+It is exceedingly fine in its details, and very few old specimens of
+this pattern are in existence. In several places are inserted the
+printer's name and date, "R. Jones, Old Ford, 1761." The design is
+doubtless borrowed from the _Toiles de Jouy_, printed by a Bavarian
+at Jouay, near Versailles, about this time. The drawing, however, is
+finer than any specimens of his work which have come to the author's
+notice. A shepherdess is tending to her flock amid a classical ruin
+while she is listening to the music of a flute. In another portion of
+the design, a cock and hen are mourning for the loss of one of their
+brood which has been carried off by an eagle. This design is worthy
+of interest for its superior quality, as it must have been produced
+for some very fine house. There is another specimen printed in red in
+the Victoria and Albert Museum. The one which is illustrated here was
+found upon an exceedingly fine Chippendale bedstead.
+
+During the Hepplewhite and Sheraton periods of furniture the chintz
+ceases to have its pattern detached and grouped. Architectural
+details with figures disappear, and once more the designer returns to
+flowers as his subject for illustration. The foliage, however, now
+takes the form of vertical stripes, being contained within lace-like
+ribands placed at even distances. On p. 335 is an illustration of a
+chintz about 1790 in which these features will be noticed.
+
+In the nineteenth century we find the chintz covered with disjointed
+sprigs, as though the flowers had been plucked and cast upon the
+cloth. Their outline is softened by a margin of dots. An illustration
+of this style is shown on p. 335.
+
+  [Illustration: PRINTED CHINTZ.
+
+  From the Calico Printing Factory at Sobden, in Lancashire.
+  Printed in 1831 under the direction of Richard Cobden.
+
+  (_In the collection of Mrs. Cobden Unwin._)]
+
+One need not pursue the history of chintzes further, for to do so
+would entail a discussion of modern methods. Suffice it to say that
+in the nineteenth century we come across the hideous black grounds,
+the base imitation of woven designs, leopard skins, and other
+inartistic perversions. We must rather bid adieu to this beautiful
+art ere it has begun to decline. It will afford the reader much
+pleasure if he should form a collection of old specimens and frame
+them around his walls, for then he will fully appreciate their charm.
+In examining his own collection the author has spent many a pleasant
+hour, for these gaily coloured chintzes are among the most articulate
+relics which have come down to us. They breathe the spirit, the
+feelings, and the ideals of the periods wherein they were made. They
+show lucidly the various changes in fashion and the rise and wane
+in the popularity of certain forms of decoration. So delectable are
+their soft, faded colours, so fascinating are the designs, and above
+all, so enchanting is the old-world musty scent which always clings
+to them, that it would be hard indeed to withhold one's affection
+from them.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+    Adam style table, 186
+
+    America, the Windsor chair acclimatised in, 246
+
+    America, spindle-back chairs, 239
+
+    America, carved chests of Puritan colonists, 60
+
+    America, types coincident with Jacobean, 60
+
+    Anachronism in country makers' work, 204
+
+    Anne, Queen, chintz printing in time of, 325
+
+    Anne, Queen, style--cabriole leg, advent of, 167
+
+    Anne, Queen, chests of drawers, 67
+
+    Anne, Queen, scandal at Court of, 158
+
+    Anne, Queen, so-called style, 167
+
+
+    Back--the chair, and its development, 203
+
+    Bacon cupboards, 154
+
+    Ball and claw foot, introduction of, 162
+
+    "Barley sugar" turning, illustrated, 105
+
+    Bedfordshire tables, 283
+
+    Bedstead, Jacobean, illustrated, 77
+
+    Bevel of panel indicating date, 204
+
+    Bible-boxes, 34, 139-154
+
+    Bloomfield, Robert, quoted, 268
+
+    Bobbins, Buckinghamshire, 153
+
+    Brittany dressers, 134
+
+    Broken corners, Queen Anne style, 167, 169
+
+    Buckinghamshire bobbins, 153
+
+    Bureau bookcase and cupboard, 176
+
+    Bureaus, marquetry in coloured woods, 169
+
+    Byzantine types of furniture existent in Elizabethan days, 37
+
+
+    Cabriole leg, advent of the, 167
+
+    Cabriole leg (Queen Anne period), 129
+
+    Cambridge tables, 283
+
+    Candle dipper, the, 288
+
+    Cane-back chairs, 203, 207
+
+    Cane-back chairs, late Stuart, 199
+
+    Cane-back chair, its influence on farmhouse styles, 208
+
+    Caning in chairs out of fashion, 162
+
+    Chairs--
+      America, Windsor chair, types of, 246
+      Back, the, its development, 203
+      Caned-back chair, its influence on farmhouse styles, 208
+      Caned chairs, late Stuart, 199, 203, 207
+      Caning out of fashion, 162
+      Charles II. period styles, 211
+      Chippendale styles, 179
+      Chippendale, Windsor styles, 254
+      Corner chairs, 240
+      Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, 221
+      Cupid's bow top rail, 218
+      Cushions, their use with, 199, 207
+      Derbyshire chairs, 203
+      Elizabethan turned chairs, 37
+      Evolution of the chair, 189-241
+      Fiddle splat chairs, introduction of, 162
+      Fiddle splat, Queen Anne style, 217
+      Fiddle splat, Windsor, at its best, 254
+      "Fiddle-string" backs, 249
+      Goldsmith, Oliver, his chair, 253
+      Grandfather variety, 168, 230
+      Hepplewhite country styles, 221
+      Hepplewhite Windsor chairs, 254
+      Horseshoe back, Windsor, 259, 260
+      Jacobean, typical form, 196
+      Ladder-back chairs, 233
+      Lancashire rush-bottom chairs, 241
+      Lancashire spindle back chairs, 278
+      Modern office-chair, derivation of, 260
+      Prince of Wales's feathers in back, 227
+      Ribbon-back, introduction of, 179
+      Rush-bottomed chairs, 233
+      Shell ornament employed, 167
+      Sheraton country styles, 221
+      Sheraton Windsor chairs, 259, 260
+      Spindle-back chairs, 234
+      Splat, Queen Anne, the, 217
+      Straight-backed chairs, 203
+      Stretcher, evolution of the, 200
+      Tavern chairs, 249
+      Wheel-back Windsor chairs, 259
+      Woods used, Windsor chairs, 249, 250
+
+    Charles II. chests of drawers, 62
+
+    Charles II. period, impetus given to furniture design, 95
+
+    Charles II. period, styles of chairs, 211
+
+    Chests, Gothic, 34
+
+    Chests, sixteenth century, 34
+
+    Chests, Welsh carving, 277
+
+    Chests of drawers, 60
+
+    Chests of drawers, Charles II. period, 62
+
+    Chests of drawers, Queen Anne style, 67
+
+    Children's stools, Jacobean, illustrated, 77
+
+    Chimney crane, the, 294
+
+    China and glass cupboards, 180
+
+    Chinese designs in chintzes, 333
+
+    Chinese style of Chippendale, 227
+
+    Chintz printing becomes a national industry, 321
+
+    Chintzes, old English, 317-341
+
+    Chippendale and his contemporaries, 180
+
+    Chippendale clock cases, 312
+
+    Chippendale quoted, 227, 228
+
+    Chippendale, ribbon designs of, 179
+
+    Chippendale style, provincial, 221
+
+    Chippendale style Windsor chairs, 254
+
+    Chocolate houses, polemic against, 170
+
+    Chronology, seventeenth-century, 45-48
+
+    Claw-and-ball foot, introduction of, 162
+
+    Clock and dresser combined, 129
+
+    Clocks, grandfather, 306
+
+    Club foot, introduction of, 162
+
+    Cobbett, William, quoted, 67
+
+    Coffee-drinking and coffee-houses, 170
+
+    Coffee, women's petition against, 170
+
+    Corner chairs, 240
+
+    Cottage furniture and earthenware compared, 31
+
+    Country cabinet-maker, his mixture of styles, 211
+
+    Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, 221
+
+    Country furniture, its sturdy independence, 24
+
+    Country makers little influenced by contemporary fashion, 50
+
+    Cradles, 148
+
+    Cromwellian chests with drawers, 52
+
+    Crusie, the Scottish, 277, 293
+
+    Cupboard, the bacon, 154
+
+    Cupboard, Welsh carving, 277
+
+    Cupboards, corner, introduction of, 162
+
+    Cupboards and drawers, taste for, 125
+
+    "Cupid's bow" underframing, 107, 185
+
+    "Cupid's bow" top rail of chair, 218
+
+    Cushions, their use with chairs, 199, 207
+
+
+    Delany, Mrs., quoted, 153
+
+    Denmark, the conservation of old farmhouse furniture in, 38
+
+    Derbyshire chairs, 203
+
+    Design books, eighteenth-century, publication of, 222
+
+    _Director_, by Chippendale, a working guide, 223
+
+    Drawer accommodation a feature in late dressers, 130
+
+    Drawers, chests of, 60
+
+    Drawers, chests of, Charles II. period, 62
+
+    Drawers, chests of, Queen Anne style, 67
+
+    Dresser and clock combined, 129
+
+    Dressers, farmhouse, 115-135
+
+    Dressers--
+      Brittany, 134
+      Lancashire, 134
+      Normandy, 134
+      Welsh, 133
+
+    Dutch artisans print early English chintzes, 321
+
+    Dutch influence early eighteenth century, 168, 170
+
+
+    Earthenware and cottage furniture compared, 31
+
+    Eighteenth-century dressers, 130
+
+    Eighteenth-century pleasure gardens, 249
+
+    Eighteenth-century styles, 157-187
+
+    Elizabethan turned chairs, 37
+
+    English chintzes, old, 317-341
+
+    English farmhouse furniture, desirability of its preservation, 42
+
+    English joiners' work, its solidity, 51
+
+    Essex tables, 283
+
+    Exotic bird patterns in chintzes, 333
+
+
+    "Farmer's Boy" (Robert Bloomfield) quoted, 268
+
+    Farmhouse furniture (English), desirability of its preservation, 42
+
+    Farmhouse furniture influenced by walnut styles, 208
+
+    Farmhouse styles contemporary with the cane-back chair, 208
+
+    Feet--
+      Arcaded foot, Charles II. period, 62
+      Ball, 62;
+        illustrated, 65
+      Claw-and-ball foot, introduction of the, 162
+      Club foot, its introduction, 162
+      Hoof foot, the, 176
+      Scroll or Spanish foot, 104, 203
+      Spanish foot, the, 104, 203
+      Spanish foot, in corrupted form, illustrated, 105, 109
+      Trestle, in Gothic style, 90
+
+    Fiddle splat chairs, introduction of, 162
+
+    Fiddle splat, Queen Anne style, 217
+
+    Fiddle splat Windsor chair at its best, 254
+
+    "Fiddle-string" backs, 249
+
+    Firebacks, Sussex, 296
+
+    Firebacks, Sussex, fine examples exhibited, 305
+
+    Firedogs, cottage and farmhouse, 294
+
+    Food of country population, seventeenth century, 81
+
+    Foreign styles, slow assimilation of, 67
+
+    French artisans print early English chintzes, 321
+
+
+    Gate-leg tables, 85-112
+
+    Gate-leg table, double gates, 96;
+      illustrated, 93
+
+    Gate-leg table, established as a popular type, 90
+
+    Gate-leg table, square top, illustrated, 105
+
+    Geometric panels, chests of drawers, 61;
+      dressers, 121
+
+    Georgian styles, early types, 179
+
+    Gibbons, Grinling, the style of, 56
+
+    Goldsmith, Oliver, his chair, 253
+
+    Gothic brackets to chests, 34
+
+    Gothic chests, 34
+
+    Gothic trestle, gate-leg table, 89
+
+    Grandfather chair, the, 230
+
+    Grandfather chair, curved lines of, 168
+
+    Grandfather clocks, 306
+
+    Grandfather clock combined with dresser, 129
+
+    Great Seal of Queen Anne, showing style of ornament, 168
+
+
+    Hardwick Hall, suite at, 55
+
+    Hepplewhite clock cases, 312
+
+    Hepplewhite influence on village work, 207
+
+    Hepplewhite quoted, 229, 230
+
+    Hepplewhite style, provincial, 221
+
+    Hertfordshire tables, 283
+
+    Hogarth, the line of beauty the curve, 168
+
+    Hoof foot, the, 176
+
+    Horseshoe-back Windsor chairs, 130, 257, 260
+
+
+    Incongruity of provincial cabinet-maker, 211
+
+    Inlaid work rarely employed, 55
+
+    Inlaid work with walnut, 169
+
+    Inlaid work, woods used, 169
+
+    Irish Chippendale, 272
+
+    Ironwork, miscellaneous, 287-313
+
+    Ironwork, Scottish, 277
+
+    Isle of Man tables, 283
+
+
+    Jacobean cradles, 148
+
+    Jacobean dressers with geometric panels, 121
+
+    Jacobean furniture, typical styles, 49
+
+    Jacobean oak chair, typical form, 196
+
+    Jacobean period, its characteristics, 95
+
+    Jacobean period, late styles of, 115
+
+    Jacobean style, its transition to William and Mary, 207
+
+    Jacobean Sussex firebacks, 299, 300
+
+    Joinery, the solidity of English, 51
+
+    Jones, R., of Old Ford, chintz printer, 337
+
+
+    Kettle trivet, the cottager's, 295
+
+
+    Lacquer employed in clock-cases, 312
+
+    Ladder-back chair, the, 233
+
+    Lancashire chintzes, 337
+
+    Lancashire dressers, 134
+
+    Lancashire furniture, 278
+
+    Lancashire Queen Anne settle, 167
+
+    Lancashire rush-bottom chair, 241
+
+    Legs--
+      "Barley sugar" turning illustrated, 105
+      Cabriole leg, introduction of the, 167
+      Egg and reel turning, 43;
+        illustrated, 93
+      Eight legs (gate table), 99
+      Elizabethan bulbous leg, 60
+      Jacobean straight-turned leg, 60
+      Jacobean, various forms of turning, 89
+      Queen Anne cabriole leg, 129
+      Six legs, gate table, illustrated, 99
+      Split urn leg, illustrated, 91, 119
+      Straight leg again in vogue, 180
+      Urn-shaped leg, 60
+      Urn-shaped splat, 121;
+        illustrated, 91, 119
+
+    Linen-fold pattern on chests, 32
+
+    Local types, 33
+
+    Local types of furniture, 267-284
+
+    London and the vicinity, chintz printed in, 322
+
+    Longleat, oak furniture at, 55
+
+    Lyngby (near Copenhagen), collection of old farmhouse furniture at, 41
+
+
+    Macaulay quoted, 158
+
+    Macaulay, "State of England in 1685" quoted, 76
+
+    Mahogany gate-leg tables, 103
+
+    Mahogany styles, their gracefulness, 179
+
+    Mahogany, the chief designers of, of the golden age, 104
+
+    Marlborough, Duchess of, and her intrigues, 158
+
+    Marquetry bureaus in coloured woods, 169
+
+    Marquetry, woods used in, 169
+
+    Minor cabinet-makers' work lacking harmony, 212
+
+    Modern office-chair, derivation from Windsor type, 263
+
+    More, Hannah, and the agricultural classes, 175
+
+    Morris, William, his influence on furniture, 111
+
+    "Mule" chests, 52
+
+
+    Norfolk, oak furniture, 283
+
+    Normandy dressers, 134
+
+    Normans, furniture, styles of, introduced by, 37
+
+    North, Roger, quoted, 170
+
+
+    Oak, erroneously used to carry out walnut designs, 212
+
+    Oak, general in its use, 55
+
+    Oak supplanted by walnut in fashionable furniture, 207
+
+    Oak the chief wood employed, 33
+
+    Office-chair, derivation from Windsor type, 263
+
+    Oriental patterns in chintzes, 333
+
+
+    Panelling, bevel of, indicating date of, 204
+
+    Panels, sunk, Jacobean style, 62
+
+    Patterns, wood, used for firebacks, 300
+
+    People, changing habits of the, in seventeenth century, 72
+
+    Pepys's _Diary_, quoted, 79
+
+    Pleasure gardens, eighteenth-century, 249
+
+    Pot-hook, the, 294
+
+    Pot-hooks, fine examples, where exhibited, 294
+
+    Prince of Wales's feathers, 227
+
+    Provincial furniture many decades behind fashion, 50
+
+
+    Queen Anne, cabriole leg, 129
+
+    Queen Anne dressers, 122
+
+    Queen Anne flap tables, 89
+
+    Queen Anne period, the splat of the, 217
+
+
+    Restoration period, chests of drawers, 62
+
+    Ribbon designs, introduction of, 179
+
+    Roads in provinces, bad state of, 79
+
+    Rush-bottom chair, the, 233
+
+    Rushlight holder, the, 288
+
+
+    Scandinavian origin of Elizabethan chair, 37
+
+    Scotland, Union with, proclamation by Queen Anne, 161
+
+    Scottish types of ironwork, 277
+
+    "Seaweed" marquetry in clock-cases, 312
+
+    Settle, Lancashire form, 278
+
+    Settle, Queen Anne style, 167
+
+    Seventeenth-century, chronology of, 45-48
+
+    Seventeenth-century settle (Lancashire), 278
+
+    Seventeenth-century sideboard, typical style, 56
+
+    Seventeenth-century styles, 49-82
+
+    Seventeenth-century styles, types of, 72
+
+    Shell ornament, early eighteenth-century, 167
+
+    Sheraton clock-cases, 312
+
+    Sheraton influence on country makers, 234
+
+    Sheraton influence in Windsor chairs, 259
+
+    Sheraton style, provincial, 221
+
+    Sideboard, typical seventeenth-century style, 56
+
+    Sixteenth-century chests, 34
+
+    Sizergh Castle, oak room at, 55
+
+    Spanish foot, its use, 104, 107
+
+    Spanish Succession, War of the, 161
+
+    Spindle-back chair, the, 234
+
+    Spindle-back chairs (Lancashire), 278
+
+    Spinning-wheels, 153
+
+    Spitalfields weavers, complaint as to chintz fashions, 326, 330
+
+    Splat, the Queen Anne, 217
+
+    Staffordshire pottery and cottage furniture compared, 31
+
+    Stands for chests of drawers, 67
+
+    Stockholm, collection of farmhouse furniture at, 38
+
+    Stools, children's Jacobean, illustrated, 77
+
+    Straight-backed chairs, 203
+
+    Stretcher, evolution of the, 200
+
+    Stretcher, Yorkshire splat form, 96
+
+    Suffolk oak furniture, 283
+
+    Sussex firebacks, 296
+
+    Sussex ironworks, the, 295, 296
+
+    "Swan head" to cupboard, 168
+
+    Sweden, the conservation of old farmhouse furniture in, 38
+
+    Swift quoted, 161
+
+
+    Tables--
+      Adam style, 186
+      Arcaded spandrils, illustrated, 179
+      Bedfordshire types, 283
+      Cambridge types, 283
+      Collapsible form (Charles II.), 103
+      Cross stretcher, =X= form, 103
+      Cupid's bow underframing, 107;
+        illustrated, 109
+      Elizabethan bulbous-leg form, 60
+      Essex types, 283
+      Flap tables (Queen Anne), 89;
+        (Georgian), illustrated, 183
+      Gate-leg, 85-112
+      Gothic trestle, gate-leg table, 89
+      Hertfordshire types, 283
+      Isle of Man table, 283
+      Scalloped-edge tea-table, illustrated, 181
+      Scalloped underframing, illustrated, 73
+      Sixteenth-century style, 52
+      Spandrils, arcaded, illustrated, 179
+      Stretchers, splat form, 89;
+        illustrated, 97
+      Tea-table, Queen Anne style, 185
+      Three-legged, 283
+      Underframing, Cupid's bow, illustrated, 109
+      Various local types, 283
+      Yorkshire type, 89
+
+    Tapers, how made by cottagers, 288
+
+    Tavern chair, the, 249
+
+    Tea-drinking becomes national, 170
+
+    Tea-gardens, eighteenth-century, 249
+
+    Tea-table, Queen Anne style, 185
+
+    Three-legged tables, 283
+
+    Transition from Jacobean to William and Mary styles, 207
+
+    Trestle in gate-leg table, 89
+
+    Triangular gate form, 86;
+      illustrated, 87
+
+    Tripod tables, 185
+
+    Turning, various patterns in Jacobean leg, 89
+
+
+    Union with Scotland, 161
+
+
+    Varangian Guard introduce Byzantine furniture into Scandinavia, 37
+
+    Veneer, in walnut, early eighteenth-century, 169
+
+    Village cabinet-maker, originality of, 32
+
+
+    Wales, Prince of, feathers in chair back, 227
+
+    Walnut gate-leg tables, 103
+
+    Walnut in general use, 207
+
+    Walnut styles, early eighteenth-century, 169
+
+    Walnut supplanted by mahogany, 207
+
+    Warming-pan, the, 295
+
+    Wardrobe, Lancashire type, 278
+
+    Welsh carving, 272
+
+    Welsh dressers, 133
+
+    Wesley and the Methodist movement, 175
+
+    Whitefield and the colliers, 175
+
+    Wheel-back Windsor chairs, 257
+
+    William and Mary dressers, 126
+
+    William and Mary gate-leg tables, 104
+
+    William and Mary period, finely turned work, 75
+
+    William and Mary style, its development from Jacobean, 207
+
+    Windsor chair, the, 243-263
+
+    Windsor chair, the, Sheraton influence, 259
+
+    Windsor chair, its survival, 260
+
+    Windsor chairs, Chippendale style, 254
+
+    Wood patterns used for firebacks, 300
+
+    Woods employed in farmhouse furniture, 33
+
+    Woods used in Windsor chairs, 249, 250
+
+    Woods used in walnut marquetry, 169
+
+    Women's petition against coffee, 170
+
+
+    Yorkshire chairs, 203
+
+    Yorkshire splat stretcher to tables, 96
+
+
+UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED, THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUMES FOR COLLECTORS
+
+BY THE SAME AUTHOR
+
+
+CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE
+
+Companion volume to "Chats on Cottage and Farmhouse Furniture"
+
+_Press Notices, First Edition_
+
+"Mr. Hayden knows his subject intimately."--_Pall Mall Gazette._
+
+"The hints to collectors are the best and clearest we have seen; so
+that altogether this is a model book of its kind."--_Athenćum._
+
+"A useful and instructive volume."--_Spectator._
+
+"An abundance of illustrations completes a well-written and
+well-constructed history."--_Daily News._
+
+"Mr. Hayden's taste is sound and his knowledge thorough."--_Scotsman._
+
+"A book of more than usual comprehensiveness and more than usual
+merit."--_Vanity Fair._
+
+"Mr. Hayden has worked at his subject on systematic lines, and has
+made his book what it purports to be--a practical guide for the
+collector."--_Saturday Review._
+
+
+CHATS ON ENGLISH CHINA
+
+_Press Notices, First Edition_
+
+"A handsome handbook that the amateur in doubt will find useful,
+and the china-lover will enjoy for its illustrations, and for the
+author's obvious love and understanding of his subject."--_St.
+James's Gazette._
+
+"All lovers of china will find much entertainment in this
+volume."--_Daily News._
+
+"It gives in a few pithy chapters just what the beginner wants to
+know about the principal varieties of English ware. We can warmly
+commend the book to the china collector."--_Pall Mall Gazette._
+
+"One of the best points about the book is the clear way in which the
+characteristics of each factory are noted down separately, so that
+the veriest tyro ought to be able to judge for himself if he has a
+piece or pieces which would come under this heading, and the marks
+are very accurately given."--_Queen._
+
+
+CHATS ON ENGLISH EARTHENWARE
+
+(Companion volume to "Chats on English China")
+
+"Complementary to the useful companion volume, in this 'Chats'
+Series, on English China which Mr. Hayden issued five years
+ago."--_Times._
+
+"Is a compendious account of our native English faďence, abundantly
+illustrated and accurately written."--_Guardian._
+
+"A thoroughly trustworthy working handbook."--_Truth._
+
+"It is a mine of knowledge, gathered from all quarters, and the
+outcome of personal experience and research, and it is written with
+no little charm of style."--_Lady's Pictorial._
+
+"Mr. Hayden knows and writes exactly what is needed to help the
+amateur to become an intelligent collector, while his painstaking
+care in verifying facts renders his work a stable book of
+reference."--_Connoisseur._
+
+"The volume has been written as a companion to Mr. Hayden's 'Chats
+on English China' in the same series, and those who recall the
+admirable character of that book will find this to be in no way
+inferior."--_Nation._
+
+"The illustrations are profuse and excellent, and the author and the
+publishers must be commended for offering us so many reproductions of
+typical specimens that have not appeared in any previous handbook.
+The illustrations alone are worth the cost of the book."--_Manchester
+Guardian._
+
+"Mr. Hayden's book is filled to overflowing with beautiful and most
+instructive and helpful illustrations, and altogether it is one that
+will give immense pleasure to collectors, and much information to the
+admiring but ignorant."--_Liverpool Courier._
+
+
+CHATS ON OLD PRINTS
+
+A Practical Guide to Collecting and Identifying Old Engravings.
+
+"Mr. Hayden writes at once with enthusiasm and discrimination on his
+theme."--_Daily Telegraph._
+
+"Any one who, having an initial interest in matters of art, wants to
+form sound and intelligent opinions about engravings, will find this
+book the very thing for him."--_Literary World._
+
+"These 'Chats' comprise a full and admirably lucid description of
+every branch of the engraver's art, with copious and suggestive
+illustrations."--_Morning Leader._
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chats on Cottage and Farmhouse
+Furniture, by Arthur Hayden
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHATS ON FURNITURE ***
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chats on Cottage and Farmhouse Furniture, by 
+Arthur Hayden
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Chats on Cottage and Farmhouse Furniture
+
+Author: Arthur Hayden
+
+Release Date: January 6, 2014 [EBook #44603]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHATS ON FURNITURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Mary Akers and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<p>Transcriber's note:<br />
+    Spelling and punctuation inconsistencies have been harmonized.
+    The original hyphenation and use of accented words has been
+    retained. Obvious printer errors have been repaired. Please see the
+    end of this book for further notes.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_i"></a></p>
+
+<div class="bbox3">
+
+<p class="center">COMPANION VOLUME BY THE SAME AUTHOR</p>
+
+<p class="title2">CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Illustrated by 72 Full-page Plates.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">CONTENTS</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="3" summary="ad">
+<tr>
+  <td class="small" colspan="2">CHAPTER</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">I.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">The Renaissance on the Continent</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">II.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">The English Renaissance</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr3"> III.</td>
+  <td><span class="smcap">Stuart or Jacobean</span> (Early Seventeenth Century)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr3">IV.</td>
+  <td><span class="smcap">Stuart or Jacobean</span> (Late Seventeenth Century)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">V.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">Queen Anne and Early Georgian Styles</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">VI.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">French Furniture: the Period of Louis XV.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr3">VII.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">French Furniture: the Period of Louis XVI.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr3">VIII.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">French Furniture: the Period of Louis XVI.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">IX.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">French Furniture: the First Empire Style</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">X.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">Chippendale and his Style</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XI.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">Adam, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton Styles</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XII.</td>
+  <td class="smcap">Hints to Collectors</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><a id="Page_1"></a></p>
+
+<p id="half-title">CHATS ON<br />
+COTTAGE AND<br />
+FARMHOUSE FURNITURE</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_2"></a></p>
+
+<div class="bbox2">
+
+<p class="title2"><b>BOOKS FOR COLLECTORS</b></p>
+
+<p class="center small"><i>With Coloured Frontispieces and many Illustrations.</i><br />
+<i>Large Crown 8vo, cloth.</i></p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON ENGLISH CHINA.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">Arthur Hayden</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">Arthur Hayden</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON OLD PRINTS.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">Arthur Hayden</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON COSTUME.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">G. Woolliscroft Rhead</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON OLD LACE AND<br />
+<span class="i0h">NEEDLEWORK.</span><br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">E. L. Lowes</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON ORIENTAL CHINA.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">J. F. Blacker</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON MINIATURES.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">J. J. Foster</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON ENGLISH EARTHENWARE.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">Arthur Hayden</span>.<br />
+(Companion Volume to "Chats on English China.")</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON AUTOGRAPHS.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">A. M. Broadley</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON OLD PEWTER.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">H. J. L. J. Massé</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON POSTAGE STAMPS.<br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">Fred J. Melville</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON OLD JEWELLERY AND<br />
+<span class="i0h">TRINKETS.</span><br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">MacIver Percival</span>.</p>
+
+<p>CHATS ON COTTAGE AND FARMHOUSE<br />
+<span class="i0h">FURNITURE.</span><br />
+<span class="i1">By</span> <span class="smcap">Arthur Hayden</span>.<br />
+(Companion Volume to "Chats on Old Furniture.")</p>
+
+<p class="center">LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN.<br />
+NEW YORK: F. A. STOKES COMPANY.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="c30" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_3"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_4"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="sideboard_of_carved_oak_english_seventeenth_century" id="sideboard_of_carved_oak_english_seventeenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_005.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SIDEBOARD OF CARVED OAK. ENGLISH, SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.<br />
+(<cite>In the Victoria and Albert Museum.</cite>)</p>
+<p class="right"><i>Frontispiece.</i></p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c30" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_5"></a></p>
+
+<h1><span class="smcap">Chats on Cottage</span><br />
+<span class="small">AND</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Farmhouse Furniture</span></h1>
+
+<p class="p4 center small">BY</p>
+
+<p class="center large"><b>ARTHUR HAYDEN</b><br />
+<span class="small">AUTHOR OF "CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE," ETC.</span></p>
+
+<p class="p4 center"><span class="small">WITH A CHAPTER ON</span><br />
+<span class="x-large"><b>OLD ENGLISH CHINTZES</b></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">By HUGH PHILLIPS</span></p>
+
+<p class="p4 center small">AND SEVENTY-THREE FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS</p>
+
+<p class="p4 center">NEW YORK<br />
+<span class="large"><b>FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY</b></span><br />
+PUBLISHERS</p>
+
+<hr class="c30" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_6"></a></p>
+
+<p class="p4 center small">(<i>All rights reserved.</i>)</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_7"></a></p>
+
+<p class="p6 center">TO<br />
+MY OLD FRIEND<br />
+<span class="x-large">FREDERIC ARUP</span><br />
+I DEDICATE THIS VOLUME<br />
+IN MEMORY OF A HAPPY LABOUR<br />
+OF LOVE COMPLETED</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_8"></a></p>
+
+<hr class="c15" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>The number of works dealing with old English
+furniture has grown rapidly during the last ten
+years. Not only has the subject been broadly
+treated from the historic or from the collector's
+point of view, but latterly everything has been
+scientifically reduced into departments of knowledge,
+and individual periods have received detailed
+treatment at the hands of specialists.</p>
+
+<p>Museums and well-known collections, noblemen's
+seats and country houses have furnished photographs
+of the finest examples, and these, now well-known,
+pieces have appeared again and again as illustrations
+to volumes by various hands.</p>
+
+<p>It is obviously essential in the study of the history
+and evolution of furniture-making in this country
+that superlative specimens be selected as ideal types
+for the student of design or for the collector, but
+such pieces must always be beyond the means of the
+average collector.</p>
+
+<p>The present volume has been written for that large
+class of collectors, who, while appreciating the beauty
+and the subtlety of great masterpieces of English
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span>
+furniture, have not long enough purses to pay the
+prices such examples bring after fierce competition
+in the auction-room.</p>
+
+<p>The field of minor work affords peculiar pleasure
+and demands especial study. The character of the
+cottage and farmhouse furniture is as sturdy and independent
+as that of the persons for whom it was made.
+For three centuries unknown cabinet-makers in towns
+and in villages produced work unaffected by any
+foreign influences. Linen-chests, bacon-cupboards,
+Bible-boxes, gate tables, and other tables, dressers,
+and chairs possess particular styles of treatment in
+different districts. The eighteenth-century cabinet-makers
+scattered up and down the three kingdoms
+and in America found in Chippendale's "Director"
+a design-book which stimulated them to produce
+furniture of compelling interest to the collector.</p>
+
+<p>The examples of such work illustrated in this
+volume have been taken from a wide area and are
+such as may come under the hand of the diligent
+collector in various parts of the country.</p>
+
+<p>In view of the increased love of collecting homely
+furniture suitable for modern use, it is my hope
+that this book may find a ready welcome,
+especially nowadays, when so many of the picturesque
+architectural details of old homesteads
+are being reproduced in the garden suburbs of
+great cities.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible that the authorities of local museums
+may find in this class of furniture a field for special
+research, as undoubtedly specimens of local work
+should be secured for permanent exhibition before
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span>
+they are dispersed far and wide and their identity
+with particular districts lost for ever.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the scientific study of farmhouse and
+cottage furniture, the ideal arrangement is that
+followed at Skansen, Stockholm, and at Lyngby,
+near Copenhagen. In the former a series of buildings
+have been erected in the open air, in connection
+with the Northern Museum, gathered from every
+part of Sweden, retaining their exterior character
+and fitted with the furniture of their former
+occupants. It was the desire of the founder, Dr.
+Hazelius, to present an epitome of the national life.
+Similarly at Lyngby, an adjunct of the <i>Dansk
+Folkemuseum</i> at Copenhagen, the life-work of Hr.
+Olsen has been given to gathering together and
+re-erecting a large number of old cottages and
+farmhouses from various districts in Denmark, from
+Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and from Norway and
+Sweden. These have their obsolete agricultural
+implements, and old methods of fencing and quaint
+styles of storage. The furniture stands in these
+specimen homes exactly as if they were occupied.
+It is a remarkable open-air museum, and the idea is
+worthy of serious consideration in this country. Old
+cottages and farmhouses are fast disappearing, and
+the preservation of these beauties of village and
+country life should appeal to all lovers of national
+monuments.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span>
+In connexion with farmhouse furniture, old chintzes
+is a subject never before written upon. A chapter
+in this volume is contributed by Mr. Hugh Phillips,
+whose special studies concerning this little known
+field enable him to present much valuable information
+which has never before been in print, together
+with illustrations of chintzes actually taken from
+authentic examples of old furniture.</p>
+
+<p>A brief survey is made of miscellaneous articles
+associated with cottage and farmhouse furniture.
+Some specimens of Sussex firebacks are illustrated,
+together with fenders, firedogs, pot-hooks, candle-holders,
+and brass and copper candlesticks.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations have been selected in order to
+convey a broad outline of the subject. My especial
+thanks are due to Messrs. Phillips, of the Manor
+House, Hitchin, for placing at my disposal the
+practical experience of many years' collecting in
+various parts of the country, and by enriching the
+volume with illustrations of many fine examples of
+great importance and rarity never before photographed.</p>
+
+<p>To Messrs. A. B. Daniell &amp; Sons I am indebted
+for photographs of specimens in their galleries.</p>
+
+<p>In presenting this volume it is my intention that
+it should be a companion volume to my "Chats on
+Old Furniture," which records the history and</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span>
+evolution of the finer styles of English furniture,
+showing the various foreign influences on English
+craftsmen who made furniture for the wealthy
+classes.</p>
+
+<p class="left40">ARTHUR HAYDEN.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_14"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="2" summary="contents">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER I</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">INTRODUCTORY NOTE</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>The minor collector&mdash;The originality of the village cabinet-maker&mdash;His
+freedom from foreign influences&mdash;The traditional
+character of his work&mdash;Difficult to establish dates to cottage
+and farmhouse furniture&mdash;Oak the chief wood employed&mdash;Beech,
+elm, and ash used in lieu of mahogany and satinwood&mdash;Village
+craftsmanship not debased by early-Victorian art&mdash;Its
+obliteration in the age of factory-made furniture&mdash;The
+conservation of old farmhouses with their furniture in
+Sweden and in Denmark&mdash;The need for the preservation
+and exhibition of old cottages and farmhouses in Great
+Britain.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER II</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>Typical Jacobean furniture&mdash;Solidity of English joiners'
+work&mdash;Oak general in its use&mdash;The oak forests of England&mdash;Sturdy
+independence of country furniture&mdash;Chests of
+drawers&mdash;The slow assimilation of foreign styles&mdash;The
+changing habits of the people.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER III</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">THE GATE-LEG TABLE</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>Its early form&mdash;Transitional and experimental stages&mdash;Its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span>
+establishment as a permanent popular type&mdash;The gate-leg
+table in the Jacobean period&mdash;Walnut and mahogany varieties&mdash;Its
+utility and beauty contribute to its long survival&mdash;Its
+adoption in modern days.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER IV</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">THE FARMHOUSE DRESSER</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+<td>The days of the late Stuarts&mdash;Its early table form with
+drawers&mdash;The decorated type with shelves&mdash;William and
+Mary style with double cupboards&mdash;The Queen Anne
+cabriole leg&mdash;Mid-eighteenth-century types.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER V</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">THE BIBLE-BOX, THE CRADLE, THE SPINNING-WHEEL,<br /><span class="i3">AND THE BACON-CUPBOARD</span></td>
+  <td class="tdr2"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>The Puritan days of the seventeenth century&mdash;The Protestant
+Bible in every home&mdash;The variety of carving found in Bible-boxes&mdash;The
+Jacobean cradle and its forms&mdash;The spinning-wheel&mdash;The
+bacon-cupboard.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VI</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>The advent of the cabriole leg&mdash;The so-called Queen Anne
+style&mdash;The survival of oak in the provinces&mdash;The influence
+of walnut on cabinet-making&mdash;The early-Georgian types&mdash;Chippendale
+and his contemporaries.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VII</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">THE EVOLUTION OF THE CHAIR</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>Early days&mdash;The typical Jacobean oak chair&mdash;The evolution
+of the stretcher&mdash;The chair-back and its development&mdash;Transition
+between Jacobean and William and Mary forms&mdash;Farmhouse
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span>
+styles contemporary with the cane-back chair&mdash;The
+Queen Anne splat&mdash;Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite,
+and Sheraton&mdash;The grandfather chair&mdash;Ladder-back types&mdash;The
+spindle-back chair&mdash;Corner chairs.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VIII</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">THE WINDSOR CHAIR</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>Early types&mdash;The stick legs without stretcher&mdash;The tavern
+chair&mdash;Eighteenth-century pleasure gardens&mdash;The rail-back
+variety&mdash;Chippendale style Windsor chairs&mdash;The survival of
+the Windsor chair.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER IX</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">LOCAL TYPES</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>Welsh carving&mdash;Scottish types&mdash;Lancashire dressers, wardrobes,
+and chairs&mdash;Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire, Cambridge,
+and Essex tables&mdash;Isle of Man tables.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER X</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">MISCELLANEOUS IRONWORK, ETC.</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td>The rushlight-holder&mdash;The dipper&mdash;The chimney crane&mdash;The
+Scottish crusie&mdash;Firedogs&mdash;The warming-pan&mdash;Sussex
+firebacks&mdash;Grandfather clocks.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER XI</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">OLD ENGLISH CHINTZES. (By Hugh Phillips)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+<td>The charm of old English chintz&mdash;Huguenot cloth-printers
+settle in England&mdash;Jacob Stampe at the sign of the Calico
+Printer&mdash;The Queen Anne period&mdash;The Chippendale period&mdash;The
+age of machinery.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">INDEX</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_343">343</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a id="Page_18"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="table">
+<tr>
+  <td>&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#sideboard_of_carved_oak_english_seventeenth_century">SIDEBOARD OF CARVED OAK (ENGLISH,<br /><span class="i2">SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY)</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2"><i>Frontispiece</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER I&mdash;<a href="#introductory_note"><span class="smcap">Introductory Note</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr small">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chests_sixteenth_century">CHESTS (SIXTEENTH CENTURY)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#elizabethan_chair">ELIZABETHAN CHAIR</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chest_seventeenth_century">CHEST (SEVENTEENTH CENTURY)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#interior_of_farmhouse_parlour">INTERIOR OF FARMHOUSE PARLOUR</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">39</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#interior_of_cottage">INTERIOR OF COTTAGE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">39</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER II</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#monks_bench">MONK'S BENCH</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">53</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_chest_with_drawers_underneath">OAK CHEST WITH DRAWERS UNDERNEATH</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">53</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#joint_stools">JOINT STOOLS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">57</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_table">OAK TABLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">57</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chest_restoration_period">CHEST (RESTORATION PERIOD)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">63</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#early_oak_table_middle_seventeenth_century">EARLY OAK TABLE (MIDDLE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">63</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#small_oak_table_c_1680">SMALL OAK TABLE (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1680)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span>
+  <a href="#jacobean_chest_of_drawers_c_1660">JACOBEAN CHEST OF DRAWERS (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1660)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chests_of_drawers">CHESTS OF DRAWERS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">69</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chest_of_drawers_cabriole_feet">CHEST OF DRAWERS (CABRIOLE FEET)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">73</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#william_and_mary_table_c_1670">WILLIAM AND MARY TABLE (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1670)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">73</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#childrens_stools">CHILDREN'S STOOLS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">77</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#rare_bedstead_c_1700">RARE BEDSTEAD (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1700)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">77</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER III</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#triangular_gate_table">TRIANGULAR GATE TABLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">87</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_side_table">OAK SIDE-TABLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">87</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#small_gate_table_very_early_type">SMALL GATE TABLE (VERY EARLY TYPE)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">91</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#gate_table_middle_seventeenth_century">GATE TABLE (MIDDLE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">91</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#rare_table_with_double_gates">RARE TABLE WITH DOUBLE GATES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">93</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#rare_table_with_double_gates_and_only_one_flap">RARE TABLE WITH DOUBLE GATES AND ONLY ONE FLAP</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">93</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#gate-_leg_table_restoration_period">GATE-LEG TABLE (RESTORATION PERIOD)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">97</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#gate_leg_table_yorkshire_type">GATE-LEG TABLE (YORKSHIRE TYPE)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">97</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#gate_leg_table_with_six_legs_barley_sugar_turning">GATE-LEG TABLE WITH SIX LEGS ("BARLEY-SUGAR"<br /><span class="i2">TURNING)</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">99</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#gate_leg_table_ball_turning">GATE-LEG TABLE (BALL TURNING)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">99</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#collapsible_table_with_rare_x_stretcher">COLLAPSIBLE TABLE WITH RARE <b>X</b> STRETCHER</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">101</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#primitive_gate_leg_table">PRIMITIVE GATE-LEG TABLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">101</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#william_and_mary_gate_leg_table">WILLIAM AND MARY GATE-LEG TABLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">105</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#square_top_gate_leg_tables">SQUARE-TOP GATE-LEG TABLES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">105</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#mahogany_gate_leg_tables">MAHOGANY GATE-LEG TABLES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">109</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span>
+CHAPTER IV</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_dresser_about_1680">OAK DRESSER (ABOUT 1680)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">117</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_dresser_period_of_james_ii">OAK DRESSER (PERIOD OF JAMES II.)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">117</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_dresser_early_eighteenth_century">OAK DRESSER (EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">119</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_dresser_urn_shaped_legs_restoration_period">OAK DRESSER, URN-SHAPED LEGS (RESTORATION PERIOD)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">119</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#middle_jacobean_dresser">MIDDLE-JACOBEAN DRESSER</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">123</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#william_and_mary_oak_dresser">WILLIAM AND MARY OAK DRESSER</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">127</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_dresser_square_leg_type">OAK DRESSER. SQUARE-LEG TYPE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">127</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#unique_dresser_and_clock_combined">UNIQUE DRESSER AND CLOCK COMBINED</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">131</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_dresser_queen_anne_cabriole_legs">OAK DRESSER. QUEEN ANNE CABRIOLE LEGS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">135</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#lancashire_oak_dresser">LANCASHIRE OAK DRESSER</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">135</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER V</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#bible_boxes_early_examples">BIBLE-BOXES. EARLY EXAMPLES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">143</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#bible_boxes_middle_seventeenth_century_and_ordinary_type">BIBLE-BOXES (MIDDLE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY AND<br /><span class="i2">ORDINARY TYPE)</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">145</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_cradles">OAK CRADLES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">149</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#yarn_winder_and_spinning_wheel">YARN-WINDER AND SPINNING-WHEEL</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">151</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#buckinghamshire_bobbins">BUCKINGHAMSHIRE BOBBINS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">151</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER VI</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#lancashire_oak_settles">LANCASHIRE OAK SETTLES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">159</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#cupboard_with_drawers">CUPBOARD WITH DRAWERS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">163</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#queen_anne_bureau_bookcase">QUEEN ANNE BUREAU BOOKCASE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">163</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_tables_early_eighteenth_century">OAK TABLES (EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">165</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span>
+  <a href="#queen_anne_glass_or_china_cupboard">QUEEN ANNE GLASS- OR CHINA-CUPBOARD</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">171</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#geogian_corner_cupboard">GEORGIAN CORNER-CUPBOARD</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">171</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_tables">OAK TABLES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">173</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_tables_with_typical_country_cabriole_legs">OAK TABLES, WITH TYPICAL COUNTRY CABRIOLE LEGS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">177</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#queen_anne_tea_table">QUEEN ANNE TEA-TABLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">181</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_revolving_book_stand">OAK REVOLVING BOOK-STAND</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">181</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#country_chippendale_table">COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE TABLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">181</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#square_mahogany_flap_table">SQUARE MAHOGANY FLAP-TABLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">183</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#tripod_table_c_1760">TRIPOD TABLE (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1760)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">183</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#country_chippendale_and_country_adam_tables">COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE AND COUNTRY ADAM TABLES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">187</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER VII</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_arm_chairs_one_dated_1650">OAK ARM-CHAIRS (ONE DATED 1650)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">191</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chestnut_arm_chair_and_oak_arm_chair_c_1690">CHESTNUT ARM-CHAIR AND OAK ARM-CHAIR (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1690)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">191</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#yorkshire_chair_restoration_period">YORKSHIRE CHAIR (RESTORATION PERIOD)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">197</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#cromwellian_chairs">CROMWELLIAN CHAIRS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">197</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_settle_c_1675">OAK SETTLE (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1675)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">201</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_arm_chairs_one_dated_1777">OAK ARM-CHAIRS (ONE DATED 1777)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">201</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_chairs_c_1680_in_walnut_styles">OAK CHAIRS (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1680) IN WALNUT STYLES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">205</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_chairs_showing_various_transitional_stages">OAK CHAIRS, SHOWING VARIOUS TRANSITIONAL STAGES</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">209</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chairs_in_queen_anne_style">CHAIRS IN QUEEN ANNE STYLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">213</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#country_chippendale_and_hepplewhite_chairs">COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE AND HEPPLEWHITE CHAIRS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">215</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_settees_in_chippendale_style">OAK SETTEES IN CHIPPENDALE STYLE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">219</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span>
+  <a href="#country_chairs_in_chippendale_and_sheraton_styles">COUNTRY CHAIRS IN CHIPPENDALE AND SHERATON<br /><span class="i2">STYLES</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">225</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#grandfather_chair">GRANDFATHER CHAIR</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">231</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#arm_chair_and_bacon_cupboard">ARM-CHAIR AND BACON-CUPBOARD</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">231</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#spindle_back_and_ladder_back_chairs">SPINDLE-BACK AND LADDER-BACK CHAIRS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">235</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#corner_chairs">CORNER CHAIRS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">237</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chairs_of_earliest_form_with_stick_legs">CHAIRS OF EARLIEST FORM WITH STICK LEGS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">247</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oliver_goldsmiths_chair">OLIVER GOLDSMITH'S CHAIR</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">251</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chairs_with_fiddle_splat_and_cabriole_legs">CHAIRS WITH FIDDLE-SPLAT AND CABRIOLE LEGS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">255</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chippendale_and_hepplewhite_windsor_chairs">CHIPPENDALE AND HEPPLEWHITE WINDSOR CHAIRS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">257</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#sheraton_style_windsor_chairs">SHERATON STYLE WINDSOR CHAIRS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">261</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER IX</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#chest_dated_1636_welsh">CHEST, DATED 1636 (WELSH)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">269</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#cupboard_dated_1710_welsh">CUPBOARD, DATED 1710 (WELSH)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">269</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#elm_wardrobe_welsh_oak_dresser_lancashire">ELM WARDROBE (WELSH). OAK DRESSER (LANCASHIRE)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">273</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#flap_top_table_hertfordshire_type">FLAP-TOP TABLE (HERTFORDSHIRE TYPE)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">275</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#spindle_back_chairs_lancashire">SPINDLE-BACK CHAIRS (LANCASHIRE)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">275</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#oak_chest_of_drawers_yorkshire_type">OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS (YORKSHIRE TYPE)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">279</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#lancashire_oak_settle_c_1660">LANCASHIRE OAK SETTLE (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 1660)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">279</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#three_legged_table_isle_of_man">THREE-LEGGED TABLE (ISLE OF MAN)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">281</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#cricket_tables_hertfordshire_south_beds_cambridge_and_essex">CRICKET TABLES (HERTFORDSHIRE,<br /><span class="i2">SOUTH BEDS, CAMBRIDGE, AND ESSEX)</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">281</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span>
+CHAPTER X</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#rushlight_holders_scotch_crusie_candle_dipper_pipe_cleaner_etc">RUSHLIGHT-HOLDERS, SCOTCH CRUSIE, CANDLE-DIPPER,<br /><span class="i2">PIPE CLEANER, ETC.</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">289</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#queen_anne_pot_hanger_with_original_grate">QUEEN ANNE POT-HANGER, WITH ORIGINAL GRATE</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">291</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#kettle_trivet">KETTLE TRIVET</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">291</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#country_firedogs_and_fire_grate_eighteenth_century">COUNTRY FIREDOGS AND FIRE-GRATE (EIGHTEENTH<br /><span class="i2">CENTURY)</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">297</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#sussex_iron_firebacks">SUSSEX IRON FIREBACKS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">301</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#sussex_iron_firebacks_and_original_wood_pattern">SUSSEX IRON FIREBACKS AND ORIGINAL WOOD PATTERN</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">303</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#grandfather_clock_and_warming_pans">GRANDFATHER CLOCK AND WARMING-PANS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">307</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#brass_dial_of_thirty_hour_clock">BRASS DIAL OF THIRTY-HOUR CLOCK</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">309</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2">CHAPTER XI&mdash;<a href="#old_english_chintzes"><span class="smcap">Old English Chintzes</span></a></td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#old_trade_card_showing_calico_printers_at_work">OLD TRADE CARD SHOWING CALICO PRINTERS AT<br />
+<span class="i2">WORK</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">319</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#huguenot_printed_chintz_with_portraits">HUGUENOT PRINTED CHINTZ WITH PORTRAITS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">319</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#hand_printed_chintzes_queen_anne_period_and_chinese_style">HAND-PRINTED CHINTZES. QUEEN ANNE PERIOD AND<br />
+<span class="i2">CHINESE STYLE</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">323</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#exotic_bird_and_gothic_styles_eighteenth_century">EXOTIC BIRD AND GOTHIC STYLES (EIGHTEENTH<br />
+<span class="i2">CENTURY)</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">327</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#hand_printed_chintz_by_r_jones_old_ford">HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ BY R. JONES (OLD FORD)</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">331</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#hepplewhite_period_and_victorian_period_designs">HEPPLEWHITE PERIOD AND VICTORIAN PERIOD DESIGNS</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">335</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#victorian_chintz_in_the_collection_of_mrs_cobden_unwin">VICTORIAN CHINTZ (IN THE COLLECTION OF MRS.<br />
+<span class="i2">COBDEN UNWIN)</span></a></td>
+  <td class="tdr2">339</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="c30" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_25"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I<br />
+<a name="introductory_note" id="introductory_note"></a>
+INTRODUCTORY<br />
+NOTE</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_26"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER I<br />
+<span class="medium">INTRODUCTORY NOTE</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">The minor collector&mdash;The originality of the village
+cabinet-maker&mdash;His freedom from foreign influences&mdash;The
+traditional character of his work&mdash;Difficulty
+to establish dates to cottage and farmhouse furniture&mdash;Oak
+the chief wood employed&mdash;Beech, elm, and
+ash used in lieu of mahogany and satinwood&mdash;Village
+craftsmanship not debased by early Victorian
+art&mdash;Its obliteration in the age of factory-made
+furniture&mdash;The conservation of old farmhouses with
+their furniture in Sweden and in Denmark&mdash;The
+need for the preservation and exhibition of old cottages
+and farmhouses in Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to launching another volume on the market
+dealing with old furniture, a word of explanation is
+desirable, for nowadays of making books there is no
+end, and much study is a weariness to the collector.</p>
+
+<p>In the present volume attention has been especially
+given to that class of furniture known as Cottage
+or Farmhouse. There is no volume dealing with this
+phase of collecting. Prices for old furniture of the
+finest quality have gone up by leaps and bounds,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span>
+and for those not possessed of ample means the
+collection of superlative styles is at an end. Singularly
+enough, the most native furniture and that
+most typically racy of the soil has not hitherto
+attracted the attention of wealthy collectors. The
+plutocrats who buy only the finest creations of
+Chippendale, who have immediate private information
+when an exquisitely designed Sheraton piece
+is found, who amass a mighty hoard of gilt Stuart
+furniture, or who boast of an unrivalled collection
+of Elizabethan oak, do not touch the minor furniture
+made during a period of three hundred years for the
+common people.</p>
+
+<p>The finest classes of English furniture made by
+skilful craftsmen for wealthy patrons must always
+be beyond the range of the minor collector. Every
+year brings keener zest among those interested in
+furniture of a bygone day, and it is therefore increasingly
+difficult for persons of taste and judgment
+who cannot afford high prices to satisfy their longings.
+It is obvious that specimens of massive
+appearance finely carved in oak of the Tudor age,
+or of elegantly turned work in walnut of Jacobean
+days, must be readily recognised as valuable. Sumptuous
+furniture tells its own story. It is unlikely
+nowadays that such wonderful "finds," concerning
+which imaginative writers are always telling us, will
+occur again&mdash;except on paper. Popular enthusiasm
+has been awakened, and more often than not the
+possessor of some mediocre piece of furniture or
+china attaches a value to it which is absurd. The
+publication of prices realised at auction has whetted
+<a id="Page_29"></a>
+<a id="Page_30"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span>
+the cupidity of would-be sellers who convert early
+nineteenth-century chairs by a nod of the head into
+"Queen Anne," and who aver with equal veracity
+that ordinary blue transfer printed ware has "been
+in the family a hundred years."</p>
+
+<div><a name="chests_sixteenth_century" id="chests_sixteenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_030a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CHEST. MIDDLE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+<p>Gothic carving. Solid wood ends, forming feet. Made from six boards; with hand-forged
+nails and large lock, characteristic of Gothic chests.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_030b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CHEST. SIXTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+<p>Lozenge panels, disc turning, and Gothic brackets (rare).</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Mr. F. W. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Cottage and farmhouse furniture may be said to
+be in somewhat parallel case to English earthenware.
+A quarter of a century ago, or even ten years ago,
+collectors in general confined their attention mainly
+to porcelain. The rage was for Worcester, Chelsea,
+Derby, or Bow. With the exception of Wedgwood
+and Turner, the Staffordshire potters had not found
+favour with the fashionable collector. Nowadays
+Toft dishes, Staffordshire figures by Enoch Wood,
+vases by Neale and Palmer, and the entire school
+of lustre ware, have received attention from the
+specialist, and scientific classification has brought
+prices within measurable distance of those paid for
+porcelain.</p>
+
+<p>What earthenware is to porcelain, so cottage and
+farmhouse furniture are to the elaborate styles
+made for the use of the richer classes. The French
+insipidities and rococo ornament of Chelsea and
+Derby and the oriental echoes of Worcester and of
+Bow are as little typical of national eighteenth-century
+sentiment as the ribbon-back chair and the
+Chinese fretwork of Chippendale or the satinwood
+elegances of Sheraton.</p>
+
+<p>To Staffordshire and to local potteries scattered
+all over the country from Sunderland to Bristol,
+from Lambeth to Nottingham, from Liverpool to
+Rye, one instinctively turns for real individuality
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span>
+and native tradition. Similarly farmhouse furniture
+exhibits the work of the local cabinet-maker in
+various districts, strongly marked by an adherence
+to traditional forms and intensely insular in its
+disregard of prevailing fashions. It is as English
+as the leather black-jack and the home-brewed ale.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporaneous with the great cabinet-makers
+who drew their inspiration from foreign sources&mdash;from
+Italy, from France, from Holland, and from
+Spain&mdash;small jobbing cabinet-makers in every village
+and town had their patrons, and when not making
+wagons or farm implements, produced furniture for
+everyday use. As may readily be supposed, there
+is in these results a blind naďveté which characterises
+a design handed down from generation to generation.
+This is one of the surprising features of the village
+cabinet-maker's work&mdash;its curious anachronism. The
+sublime indifference to passing fashions is astonishingly
+delightful to the student and to the collector.</p>
+
+<p>There is nothing more uncertain than to attempt
+with exactitude to place a date upon cottage or
+farmhouse furniture. The bacon-cupboard, the linen-chest,
+the gate-table, the ladder-back chair and the
+windsor chair, were made through successive generations
+down to fifty years ago without departing from
+the original pattern of the Charles I. or the Queen
+Anne period. Oak chests are found carved with the
+Gothic linen-fold pattern. They might be of the
+sixteenth century except for the fact that dates of
+the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century are
+carved upon them. Whole districts have retained
+similar styles for centuries, and the fondness for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">33</a></span>
+clearly defined types is almost as pronounced as that
+of the Asiatic rug-weaver, who makes the same
+patterns as his remote ancestors sold to the ancient
+Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>The village cabinet-maker's work knows no sequence
+of ages of oak, walnut, mahogany, and satinwood.
+His wood is from his native trees. His
+chairs come straight from the hedgerows. His history
+can be spanned in one long age of oak, intermingled
+here and there with elm and yew-tree and beech.
+The early days of primitive work go back to the
+marked class distinction between gentles and simples,
+and the end came only in the last decades of the
+nineteenth century, when the village craftsman was
+obliterated by the rapid advance of factory and
+machine made furniture.</p>
+
+<p>It may at first be assumed by the beginner that
+cottage and farmhouse furniture is throughout a weak
+and feeble imitation of finer pieces. But this is not
+so. The craftsmen who made this class of furniture
+formed for themselves special types which were never
+made by the London cabinet-makers. For instance,
+the Jacobean gate-table, the Lancashire wardrobe,
+the dresser, and the windsor chair, have styles
+peculiarly their own. In many of the specimens
+found it will be seen that the village cabinet-maker
+displayed very fine workmanship, and there are
+clever touches and delightful mannerisms which
+make such pieces of interest to the collector.</p>
+
+<p>In early days of the villeins, furniture was limited
+to a stool, a table, and perhaps a chest. Nor was
+the use of much furniture at the farm or in the cottage
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span>
+a feature in Tudor and early Stuart days. Gorgeously
+carved oak and richly turned walnut filled the
+mansions of the wealthy, but one does not find its
+simpler counterpart made for cottages till nearly 1660.
+The few pieces essential to every dwelling-house may
+be placed not earlier than the late sixteenth or early
+seventeenth century&mdash;the chest, the table, the form,
+and the Protestant Bible-box.</p>
+
+<p>Chests with scratched Gothic mouldings, tables of
+the trestle type as used to-day, forms of the most
+simple construction, exist, and may be said to belong
+to the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Bible-boxes became common during the early
+seventeenth century, and without change in their
+style were made till the late eighteenth century. In
+mid-seventeenth-century days the well-known gate-table
+was introduced.</p>
+
+<p>Of early pieces we illustrate a few examples,
+though in connection with farmhouse and cottage,
+the early days afford a poor field, as the furniture of
+those days now remaining was mostly made for great
+families. The two sixteenth-century chests illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_31">29</a>) are interesting as showing the early
+styles. The upper photograph is of a middle sixteenth-century
+chest, with Gothic carving and solid
+wood ends forming feet. This type of chest is made
+from six boards. The hand-forged nails show the
+rough joinery, and the large lock is characteristic of
+such Gothic chests. The lower chest is also of the sixteenth
+century. It has lozenge panels, and is further
+ornamented by disc turning. The Gothic brackets
+at the base are rare, and it is an interesting example.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span></p>
+
+<div><a name="elizabethan_chair" id="elizabethan_chair"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_036a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>ELIZABETHAN CHAIR</p>
+<p>This is of Scandinavian origin, and was known in England before
+the Roman Conquest, being shown in medićval MSS. Such designs
+survived the Gothic styles.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)]</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="chest_seventeenth_century" id="chest_seventeenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_036b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CHEST. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+<p>Panels with early scratched mouldings (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</i>, not mitred). Mitreing came into general
+use about 1600.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><a id="Page_36"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span>
+That the chest remained in somewhat primitive
+form is shown by the illustration of a seventeenth-century
+specimen (p. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>). It will be observed that
+the panels have early scratched mouldings, that is to
+say they are not mitred. The fashion of mitreing in
+cabinet-work came into general use about the year
+1600, but minor examples of country furniture often
+possess scratched moulding at a much later date.</p>
+
+<p>On the same page is an Elizabethan chair. This
+type is of exceptional interest. It has a long and
+proud history. They are, according to Mr. Percy
+Macquoid, "of Byzantine origin; their pattern was
+introduced by the Varangian Guard into Scandinavia,
+and from there doubtless brought to England by the
+Normans. They continued to be made until the end of
+the sixteenth century." These turned chairs are interesting
+as having spindles, which came into use at a
+much later period in the spindle-back chair.</p>
+
+<p>With the growth of prosperity and the increased
+use of domestic comforts, cottage furniture becomes
+a wider subject. Carved oak bedsteads, simple four-posters,
+bacon-cupboards, linen-chests became more
+common. In eighteenth-century days there was
+quite an outburst of enthusiasm, and the small
+cabinet-maker gained knowledge of his craft and
+became ambitious. On the promulgation of Chippendale's
+designs he made copies in elm and oak and
+beech for village patrons and essayed to follow
+Hepplewhite and even Sheraton.</p>
+
+<p>But this wave of success was followed by the competitive
+inroad made by factory-made cabinet-work,
+and during these last days the local cabinet-maker
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span>
+adhered closer than ever to the early oak examples
+of his forefathers. The village craft practically came
+to an end in the fifties, but it was a glorious end, and
+it is happy that it did not survive to produce bad
+work of atrocious design.</p>
+
+<p>The passing of cottage and farmhouse furniture
+may be said to be like the disappearance of dialect.
+The modern spirit has entered into village life, the
+town newspaper has permeated the country-side and
+disturbed the old-world repose. The lover of English
+folk-ways and the simplicity of rural life may echo
+the line of Wordsworth, "The things that I have
+seen I now can see no more."</p>
+
+<p>In the illustrations of two interiors shown on
+p. <a href="#Page_41">39</a> it will be seen how happily placed the furniture
+becomes when in its old home. The atmosphere
+of these rural homesteads is at once soothing and
+restful, and the pieces of furniture had an added
+dignity. It seems almost sacrilege to tear such
+relics of bygone days from their ancient resting-place.
+But the collector is abroad, and few sanctuaries
+have escaped his assiduous attention. The
+lower illustration shows the interior of a cottage with
+its original panelled walls. This cottage actually has
+Tudor frescoes.</p>
+
+<p>The study of old farmhouse and cottage furniture
+has not been pursued in this country in so scientific
+a manner as in Sweden and in Denmark. The conservation
+of national heirlooms is a matter which
+must be speedily dealt with before they become
+scattered. It is a point which cannot be repeated too
+often. At Skansen, Stockholm, old buildings have,
+<a id="Page_39"></a>
+<a id="Page_40"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span>
+under State supervision, been re-erected, and with
+their furniture they afford a practical illustration of
+the particular type of life of the district of their
+origin. At Lyngby, near Copenhagen, a series of
+farmhouses similarly illustrate old types of homesteads
+from various localities in Denmark, and from
+Iceland and the Faroe Islands.</p>
+
+<div><a name="interior_of_farmhouse_parlour" id="interior_of_farmhouse_parlour"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_040a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>INTERIOR OF FARMHOUSE PARLOUR.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="interior_of_cottage" id="interior_of_cottage"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_040b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>INTERIOR OF COTTAGE.</p>
+<p>With original panelled walls. This cottage has Tudor frescoes.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>By such a systematic and permanent record of
+farm and cottage life and the everyday art of the
+people it is possible to impart vitality to the study of
+the subject.</p>
+
+<p>The English method of museum arrangement in
+dry-as-dust manner, with rows of furniture and cases
+of china, is a valley of dry bones compared with such
+a fresh and vigorous handling and method of exposition
+as is followed in Scandinavia.</p>
+
+<p>If old English furniture is worth the preservation
+for the benefit of students of craftsmanship or as a
+relic of bygone customs, there is undoubted room
+for due consideration of the best means of exhibiting
+it. A series of representative farmhouses could be
+re-erected at some convenient spot. There are many
+parks around London and other great cities which
+would be benefited by such picturesque buildings.</p>
+
+<p>Before it is too late, and many of these beautiful
+structures have been destroyed to make room for
+modern improvements, and village life has become
+absorbed by the growing towns, it should be possible
+to step in and preserve some of the most typical
+examples for the enjoyment of the nation. The
+real interest shown by the public in out-of-door
+object-lessons of this nature is indicated by the great
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span>
+crowds at Exhibitions at Earl's Court and the like,
+which flocked to Tudor houses replete with old
+furniture, and villages transplanted in lath and
+plaster to simulate the real thing, which seemingly
+has been neglected from an educational point of
+view.</p>
+
+<p>The mountain farms and the homesteads of the
+men of the dales, fen farms, and stone cottages from
+the Cotswolds, half-timbered farms from Surrey,
+from Cheshire, and from Hampshire, dating back
+to early Stuart days&mdash;are not these worthy of preservation?
+In the Welsh hills, and nestling in the
+dips of the Grampians and the Cheviots, from Wessex
+to Northumbria, from the Border country to
+the extremity of Cornwall, from East Anglia to the
+Lakes, are treasures upon which the ruthless hand
+of destruction must shortly fall. Or far afield in
+Harris and in Skye, or remote Connemara, there
+are types which should find a permanent abiding
+place as national records of the homes of the men
+of the island kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>This should not be an impossible nor unthinkable
+problem to solve before such are allowed to pass
+away. The intense value of such a faithful record is
+worthy of careful consideration by the authorities,
+either as a national undertaking or under the auspices
+of one of the learned societies, such as the Society of
+Antiquaries, or the Society for the Protection of
+Ancient Buildings and Monuments, interested in the
+safeguarding of the national heritage bequeathed us
+by our forefathers.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_43"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II<br />
+SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY<br />
+STYLES</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_44"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHRONOLOGY</h3>
+
+<p class="center"><b>JAMES I. (1603-25)</b></p>
+
+<div class="hanging">
+
+<p><b>1606</b>&ensp; Second colonisation of Virginia begun; Raleigh's
+first colony in Virginia was founded
+in 1585.</p>
+
+<p><b>1611</b>&ensp; The colonisation of Ulster begun.</p>
+<p class="i3">Publication of the <i>Authorised version</i> of the
+<cite>Bible</cite>.</p>
+
+<p><b>1620</b>&ensp; The sailing of the <i>Mayflower</i> and the foundation
+of New England by the Puritans.
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><b>CHARLES I. (1625-49)</b></p>
+
+<div class="hanging">
+
+<p><b>1630</b>&ensp; John Winthrop and a number of Puritans settle
+in Massachusetts.</p>
+
+<p><b>1633</b>&ensp; Reclamation of forest lands.</p>
+
+<p><b>1634</b>&ensp; Wentworth introduces flax cultivation into Ireland.</p>
+
+<p><b>1635</b>&ensp; Taxes for Ship Money levied on inland
+counties.</p>
+
+<p><b>1637</b>&ensp; John Hampden, a country gentleman, refuses
+to pay Ship Money.
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>CIVIL WAR (1642-49)</b></p>
+
+<div class="hanging">
+
+<p><b>1642</b>&ensp; Battle of Edgehill. Formation of Eastern
+Association. Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex,
+Cambridge, and Hertford unite for purpose
+of defence against the Royalists.</p>
+
+<p><b>1643</b>&ensp; Battles of Reading, Grantham, Stratton,
+Chalgrove Field, Adwalton Moor (near
+Bradford), Lansdown, Roundway Down,
+Bristol, Gloucester, Newbury, Winceby,
+Hull.</p>
+
+<p><b>1644</b>&ensp; Battles of Nantwich, Copredy Bridge, Marston
+Moor, Tippermuir, Lostwithiel, Newbury.</p>
+
+<p><b>1645</b>&ensp; Battles of Inverlochy, Naseby, Langport,
+Kilsyth, Bristol, Philiphaugh, Rowton
+Heath.</p>
+
+<p><b>1648</b>&ensp; Battles of Maidstone, Pembroke, Preston, Colchester.
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><b>THE COMMONWEALTH (1642-58)</b></p>
+
+<div class="hanging">
+
+<p>
+<b>1649</b>&ensp; Battle of Rathmines. Storming of Drogheda
+and Wexford by Cromwell.</p>
+
+<p><b>1650</b>&ensp; Montrose defeated at Corbiesdale and executed.
+Battle of Dunbar.</p>
+
+<p><b>1651</b>&ensp; Battle of Worcester.</p>
+
+<p><b>1652</b>&ensp; War with Holland.</p>
+
+<p><b>1656</b>&ensp; War with Spain.</p>
+
+<p><b>1657</b>&ensp; Destruction of Spanish fleet by Blake.</p>
+
+<p><b>1658</b>&ensp; Battle of the Dunes. Victory of English and
+French fleet over Spain.
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">47</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>INTERREGNUM (1658-60)</b></p>
+
+<p class="hanging">
+<b>1659</b>&ensp; Rising in Cheshire for Charles.
+</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>CHARLES II. (1660-85)</b></p>
+
+<p class="hanging">
+<b>1672</b>&ensp; <i>The stop of the Exchequer.</i> Charles refuses to
+repay the principal of the sums he had
+borrowed and reduces interest from 12 per
+cent. to 6 per cent. This resulted in
+great distress, felt in various parts of the
+country.
+</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>JAMES II. (1685-88)</b></p>
+
+<p class="hanging">
+<b>1685</b>&ensp; Insurrection of Argyll in Scotland.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="i2h">Monmouth rising in West of England.</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="i2h">Revocation of Edict of Nantes. The expulsion
+of a large</span><br /> number of French Protestant
+artisans. Settlement of skilled silk-weavers
+and others in England.
+</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>WILLIAM III. AND MARY (1689-94)</b></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>WILLIAM III. (1689-1702)</b></p>
+
+<div class="hanging">
+
+<p><b>1689</b>&ensp; Siege of Londonderry.</p>
+
+<p><b>1690</b>&ensp; Battle of the Boyne. William defeats James,
+who flees to France.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">48</a></span>
+<b>1691</b>&ensp; Capitulation of Limerick; 10,000 Irish soldiers
+and officers joined the service of the
+French King.</p>
+
+<p><b>1692</b>&ensp; Battle of La Hogue, French fleet destroyed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">49</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER II<br />
+<span class="medium">SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">Typical Jacobean furniture&mdash;Solidity of English joiners'
+work&mdash;Oak general in its use&mdash;The oak forests of
+England&mdash;Sturdy independence of country furniture&mdash;Chests
+of drawers&mdash;The slow assimilation of
+foreign styles&mdash;The changing habits of the people.</p>
+
+<p>To the lover of old oak, varied in character and
+essentially English in its practical realisation of the
+exact needs of its users, the seventeenth century
+provides an exceptionally fine field. The chairs,
+the tables, the dower-chests and the four-post bedsteads
+of the farmhouse were sturdy reflections of
+sumptuous furniture made for the nobility and
+gentry in Jacobean and Elizabethan times. The
+designs may have been suggested by finer and early
+models, but the balance, the sense of proportion, and
+the carving, were the result of the village carpenter's
+own individual ideas as to the requirements of the
+furniture for use in the farmhouse. Obviously
+strength and stability were important factors, and
+ornament, as such, took a subsidiary place in his
+scheme. But, although coarse and possessing a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span>
+leaning towards the unwieldy, and often massive
+without the accompanying grandeur of the highly-trained
+craftsman's work, there is a breadth of
+treatment in such pieces which is at once recognisable.
+They were made for use and no little thought was
+bestowed on their lines, and, rightly appreciated,
+they possess a considerable beauty. There is nothing
+finicking about this seventeenth-century farmhouse
+furniture. There is no meaningless ornament. Produced
+in conditions suitable for quiet and restrained
+craftsmanship, contemplative cabinet-makers began
+to evolve styles that are far removed from the
+average design of furniture made to-day under more
+pretentious surroundings.</p>
+
+<p>The gate table, with its long history and its
+amplification of structure and ornament, to which a
+separate chapter is devoted (Chapter III), is a case
+in point. It was extensively used in inns and in
+farmhouses and found itself in set definite types
+spread over a wide area from one end of the country
+to the other. Its practicability caught the taste
+of lovers of utility. Its added gracefulness of form,
+in combination with its adaptability to modern needs,
+has recaptured the fancy of housewives to-day. It
+is the happy survival of a beautiful and useful piece
+of ingenious cabinet-work.</p>
+
+<p>To-day one finds unexpectedly a London fashion
+lingering in the provinces years afterwards. A stray
+air from a light opera or some catch-phrase of town
+slang is gaily bandied about as current coin in
+bucolic jest long after its circulation in the metropolis
+has ceased. The fashions in provincial furniture
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span>
+moved as slowly. Half a century after certain styles
+were the vogue they crept imperceptibly into country
+use. In speech and song the transplantation is
+more rapid, but in craftsmanship, the studied work
+of men's hands, the use of novelty is against the
+grain of the conservative mind of the country
+cabinet-maker. Therefore throughout the entire
+field of this minor furniture it must be borne in
+mind that it is quite usual to find examples of one
+century reflecting the glories of the period long
+since gone.</p>
+
+<p><b>Solidity of English Joiners' Work.</b>&mdash;The love of old
+country furniture of the seventeenth century is
+hardly an acquired taste. Old oak is at once a
+jarring note in a Sheraton drawing-room with
+delicate colour scheme of dainty wallpaper and
+satin coverings. But as a general rule, when it is
+first seen in its proper environment, in an old-world
+farmhouse with panelled walls, and mullioned
+windows, set squarely on an oak floor and beneath
+blackened oak beams ripe with age, it wins immediate
+recognition as representative of a fine period of
+furniture. It is admitted by experts, and it is the
+proud boast of possessors of old oak, that the joiner's
+work of this style&mdash;the seventeenth century at its
+best&mdash;stands unequalled for its solidity and sound
+practical adhesion to fixed principles governing
+sturdy furniture fashioned for hard and continued
+usage. Of course, there were no screws used in
+those days, and little glue. The joints dovetailed
+into each other with great exactness and were
+fastened by the wooden pins so often visible in old
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">52</a></span>
+examples. The modern copyist has a fine regard
+for these wooden pegs. He knows that his clients
+set store by them, and he accordingly sees to it that
+they are well in evidence in his replicas. But there
+is yet a distinction which may be noticed between
+his pegs and the originals. His are accurately round,
+turned by machinery to fit an equally circular
+machine-turned hole. They tell their own story
+instantly to a trained eye, to say nothing of the
+piece of furniture as a whole, which always has little
+conflicting touches to denote its modernity.</p>
+
+<p>As an instance of the form of the sixteenth century
+continuing in use until mid-seventeenth-century days
+the illustration of an oak table (p. <a href="#Page_59">63</a>) brings out
+this point. The heavy baluster-like legs, only just
+removed from the earlier bulbous types, and the
+massive treatment belong to the days of James I.,
+and yet such pieces really were made in Cromwellian
+days.</p>
+
+<p>The rude simplicity of much of the farmhouse
+furniture is indicated by the Monk's Bench illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_55">53</a>). The back is convertible into a table top.
+The early plainness of style for so late a piece as
+1650 is particularly noteworthy. This specimen is
+interesting by reason of its exceptionally large back.</p>
+
+<p>On the same page is illustrated a chest with two
+drawers underneath. This form is termed a "Mule
+Chest," and is the earliest form of the chest of
+drawers. These Cromwellian chests with drawers
+continued to be made in the country for a hundred
+years, but in more fashionable circles they soon
+developed into the well-known Jacobean chest of
+<a id="Page_53"></a>
+<a id="Page_54"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span>
+drawers, the prototype of the form in use to-day.
+As an instance of this lingering of fashion the chest
+illustrated is dated 1701, quite fifty years after its
+first appearance as a new style.</p>
+
+<div><a name="monks_bench" id="monks_bench"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_054a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>MONK'S BENCH. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1650.</p>
+<p>With back convertible into table top. Exceptionally large back.<br />
+(Note early plainness of style.)</p>
+<p>(<i>By courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell &amp; Sons.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="oak_chest_with_drawers_underneath" id="oak_chest_with_drawers_underneath"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_054b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CHEST WITH DRAWERS UNDERNEATH.</p>
+<p>Termed a "Mule Chest." The earliest form of chest of drawers. This piece in style
+is Middle Seventeenth Century, but is dated 1701.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Oak General in its Use.</b>&mdash;The oak as a wood was in
+general use both in the furniture of the richer classes
+and in the farmhouse furniture of seventeenth-century
+days and earlier. Inlaid work is unknown in furniture
+of this type. It was sparingly used in pieces of
+more important origin. The room shown at the
+Victoria and Albert Museum from Sizergh Castle
+has inlays of holly and bog oak. And the suite of
+furniture at Hardwicke Hall made for Bess of Hardwicke
+was made by English workmen who had been
+in Italy, the same persons who produced similar
+work at Longleat. Small panels with rough inlaid
+work are not uncommon in the seventeenth century
+in chests, bedsteads, and drawers. But the prevailing
+types of oak without the added inlays of other
+woods were rigidly adhered to in cabinet-makers'
+work for the farmhouse.</p>
+
+<p>The great oak forests, such as Sherwood, furnished
+an abundance of timber for all domestic purposes,
+and up to the seventeenth century little other wood
+was used for any structural or artistic purpose.
+Practically oak may be considered as the national
+wood. From the <i>Harry Grâce ŕ Dieu</i> of Henry VIII.
+and the <i>Golden Hind</i> of Drake to the <i>Victory</i> of
+Nelson, the great ships were of English oak. The
+magnificent hammer-beam roof of Westminster Hall
+is of the same wonderful wood. All over the country
+are scattered buildings timbered with oak beams,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span>
+from cathedrals and ancient churches to farmhouses
+and mills. The oak piles of old London Bridge were
+taken up after six centuries and a half and found to
+be still sound at the heart. The mass of furniture of
+nearly three centuries ago has survived owing to the
+durability of its wood. To this day English oak
+commands great esteem, although foreign oak has
+taken its place in the general timber trade, yet there
+is none which possesses such strong and lasting
+qualities. It will stand a strain of 1,900 lbs. per
+square inch transversely to its fibres.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sturdy Independence of Country Furniture.</b>&mdash;The
+hardness of the oak as a wood is one of the factors
+which determined the styles of decoration of the
+furniture into which it was fashioned. It was not
+easily capable of intricate carved work, even in
+the hands of accomplished craftsmen. The fantastic
+flower and fruit pieces of Grinling Gibbons and other
+carvers were in lime or chestnut, and the age of
+walnut, a more pliant and softer wood to work in
+than oak, was yet to come. The country maker,
+little versed in the subtleties of cabinet-work, contented
+himself with a narrow range of types, which
+lasted over a considerable period. This is especially
+noticeable in his chairs, and specimens are found of
+the same form as the middle seventeenth century
+belonging to the last decade of the eighteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The typical sideboard of the seventeenth century
+only varies slightly in form according to the part
+of the country from which it comes. The general
+design is always permanent. A large cupboard
+<a id="Page_57"></a>
+<a id="Page_58"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span>
+below, two smaller ones above, set somewhat back
+from the front of the lower one, the sides of the
+upper ones sometimes canted off, leaving two triangular
+spaces of flat top at the ends of the bottom
+one. The whole is surmounted by a top shelf, supported
+by the upper cupboards and two boldly turned
+pillars. This is usually the design. The decoration
+is of the simplest, and presents nothing beyond the
+powers of the village carpenter. The mouldings are
+simple; there is slight conventional carving, frequently
+consisting of hollow flutings, and the pillars, boldly
+turned, are very rarely enriched by any ornament. A
+careful examination of such pieces is always interesting
+from a technical point of view. The framing of
+the panels is seen to be worked out by the plane, but
+the panels themselves more often than not have been
+reduced to approximate flatness with an adze. If
+viewed in a side light the surface is thus slightly
+varied, showing the differences in the planes of the
+various facets produced by the adze and giving an
+effect entirely different from the mechanical smoothing
+of a surface by the use of a plane.</p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_table" id="oak_table"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_058a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>EARLY OAK TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1640.</p>
+<p>Retaining Elizabethan bulbous form of leg and having Cromwellian style feet.
+Brass handles added later.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="joint_stools" id="joint_stools"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_058b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>JOINT STOOLS.</p>
+<p>Height, 1 ft. 10-1/2 ins.</p>
+<p>(About 1640.)</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>Height, 1 ft. 8-1/2 ins.</p>
+<p>Height, 1 ft. 5 ins.</p>
+<p>(About 1660.)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The framing of the front and ends of these sideboards
+is in detail exactly like the ordinary Jacobean
+wall panelling or wainscot. The mouldings are all
+worked on the rails or styles, not mitred and glued
+on, no mitred mouldings being used except occasionally
+in the centre panel between the doors. The
+framing is mortised together and pinned with oak
+pins. The doors are usually hung on iron strap
+hinges, and the handles of the doors are of wrought
+iron. Frequently the doors of the upper cupboards
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span>
+are hung on pivots, not hinges. Such a sideboard
+belongs to the middle period of the seventeenth
+century, and is representative of a wide class used
+in farmhouses.</p>
+
+<p>It is easier to follow the various movements in
+the design of the seventeenth-century table than a
+century later, when more complex circumstances
+governed its use. The illustrations on p. <a href="#Page_59">57</a> give
+early forms, with some suggestion as to the progression
+in design.</p>
+
+<p>The early oak Table is a curious compound of
+design. It has retained the Elizabethan bulbous form
+of leg and has the Cromwellian foot. In date the piece
+is about 1640. The brass handle has been added later.</p>
+
+<p>The Joint Stools on the lower half of the page
+afford a picture of slowly advancing invention in
+turned work. The one on the left of the group is
+the earliest, and is about 1640 in date. Its legs are
+seen to be of coarser work, roughly turned, but
+typically early Jacobean in breadth of treatment.
+The two on the right are about 1660 in date. The
+left-hand one shows the urn-shaped leg of the strong,
+broad treatment (as in the Table illustrated p. <a href="#Page_59">63</a>),
+brought into subjection and exhibiting a gracefulness
+of form and balance that make furniture of this type
+so lovable. The smaller stool shows the ball-carving
+associated with the Restoration period, and found in
+gate tables. A combination of these styles of turning
+is shown in the graceful oak Table illustrated
+p. <a href="#Page_67">65</a>, in date about 1680.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chests of Drawers.</b>&mdash;The conservative spirit of the
+minor craftsmen is especially noticeable in the articles
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">61</a></span>
+of everyday use. The merchant's account ledger
+with its green back and cross-stitched pattern in
+vellum strips, still in use, is to be found in the same
+style in Holbein pictures of the days of the Hanseatic
+League. Brass and copper candlesticks have a long
+lineage, and their form is only a slight variant from
+very early examples. The evolution of ornament is
+especially interesting; the old stoneware Bellarmine
+form still remains in the bearded mask at the lip
+of china jugs at the beginning of the nineteenth
+century. The two buttons at the back of the coattails
+continue long after their primary use to loop up
+the sword-belt has vanished.</p>
+
+<p>In America the early carved chests of the Puritan
+colonists were followed by similar designs contemporary
+with our own Jacobean style for a period
+well towards the end of the seventeenth century.
+The panels on chairs and chests have the same
+arcaded designs as found in Elizabethan bedsteads
+and fireplaces. These become gradually crystallised
+in conventional form, and Lockwood, the American
+writer on old colonial furniture, has reduced the types
+coincident with our own Jacobean styles into ten
+distinct patterns, until the advent of the well-known
+chests of drawers with geometric raised ornament
+laid on, which pieces of furniture in Restoration days
+were set upon a stand.</p>
+
+<p>We have shown in the illustration (p. <a href="#Page_55">53</a>) the
+earliest form of the chest with drawers underneath.
+The stage transitional between this and the multifarious
+designs with bevelled panels in geometric
+design is exemplified by the chest, in date about
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span>
+1660, illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_67">63</a>), having two drawers and a
+centre bevelled panel, and with two arcaded panels
+on each side of this and also arcaded panels at the
+ends of the chest. This form was rapidly succeeded
+by the well-known chests of drawers on ball feet or
+on stand so much appreciated by collectors.</p>
+
+<p>We illustrate a sufficient number of pieces to
+cover the usual styles and to assist the beginner to
+identify examples coming under his observation.
+Although it should be noted that as these chests of
+drawers are so much sought after they are manufactured
+nowadays by the hundred and out of old
+wood, so that great care should be exercised in
+paying big prices for them unless under expert
+guidance.</p>
+
+<p>The specimen appearing on p. <a href="#Page_67">65</a> is a fine
+example, in date 1660, and when the ball feet are
+original, as in this example, the genuineness of the
+chest of drawers is undoubted. Too often stands or
+feet are added, and it is exceedingly rare to find that
+the brass handles are original. Quite an industry is
+carried on in reproducing old brass escutcheons and
+handles from rare designs and carefully imparting to
+them signs of age, so that they may be used in
+made-up chests of drawers and tables.</p>
+
+<p>Of types of stands, the two chests of drawers
+illustrated p. <a href="#Page_71">69</a> are fair examples. The upper
+chest is a curious Jacobean type with sunk panels and
+having an unusually high stand. There is a suggestion
+that this has been added later, as the foot is
+eighteenth-century in character.</p>
+
+<p>The lower chest is of the Charles II. type with
+<a id="Page_63"></a>
+<a id="Page_64"></a>
+<a id="Page_65"></a>
+<a id="Page_66"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span>
+sunk panels and having the arcaded foot of that
+period. It will be observed that in addition to the
+four drawers it has a drawer at the bottom.</p>
+
+<div><a name="early_oak_table_middle_seventeenth_century" id="early_oak_table_middle_seventeenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_064a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1650.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="chest_restoration_period" id="chest_restoration_period"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_064b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CHEST. ABOUT 1660.</p>
+<p>With bevelled panels and drawers and arcaded panels and ends.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="small_oak_table_c_1680" id="small_oak_table_c_1680"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_066a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SMALL OAK TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1680.</p>
+<p>Showing two forms of mouldings in legs and stretcher.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="jacobean_chest_of_drawers_c_1660" id="jacobean_chest_of_drawers_c_1660"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_066b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>JACOBEAN CHEST OF DRAWERS. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1660.</p>
+<p>Height, 2 ft. 11-3/4 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 11 ins.; width, 3 ft. 3-1/2 ins.
+The ball foot, not always present, indicates genuine example.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The treatment of the stand or legs of these chests
+exercised the ingenuity of various generations of
+cabinet-makers. In the specimen illustrated p. <a href="#Page_71">69</a>,
+the eighteenth century is reached. The transition
+from passing Jacobean styles into those of Queen
+Anne is clearly seen. The bevelled panels still
+remain, with added geometric intricacies of design,
+and a new feature appears in the fluted sides. But
+the most interesting feature is the cabriole leg, so
+definitely indicative of the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Slow Assimilation of Foreign Styles in Furniture.</b>&mdash;Farmhouse
+furniture almost eschewed fashion. In
+seventeenth-century days it pursued the even tenor
+of its way untrammelled by town influences. England
+in those days was not traversed by roads that
+lent themselves to neighbourly communication. A
+hundred years later Wedgwood found the wretched
+roads in Staffordshire, where waggons sunk axle-deep
+in ruts and pits, a hindrance to his business,
+and William Cobbett in his <i>Rural Rides</i> leaves a
+record of Surrey woefully primitive at Hindhead,
+with dangerous hills and bogs, where the "horses
+took the lead and crept down, partly upon their feet
+and partly upon their hocks."</p>
+
+<p>From the days of James I. to those of James II.,
+from the first Stuart Sovereign to the last of that ill-starred
+house, the country passed through rapid
+stages of volcanic history. The opening years of the
+century saw the colonisation of Ulster by the Scots
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">68</a></span>
+and the English settlers, and the sailing of the <i>Mayflower</i>
+and the foundation of New England by the
+Puritans, nine years after the publication of the
+Authorised version of the Bible. Under Charles I.
+came the struggle between the despotic power of the
+Crown and the newly awakened will of the people.
+Parliamentary right came into conflict with royal prerogative.
+The smouldering fire burst into flame when
+John Hampden, a country gentleman, refused to pay
+Ship Money, which was levied on the inland counties
+in 1637, and the arrest of five members of Parliament
+in 1642&mdash;Hampden, Pym, Holles, Haselrig, and
+Strode&mdash;precipitated the country into civil war.</p>
+
+<p>For seven years a continual series of battles were
+waged by the contending forces. The Eastern
+Counties formed themselves into a martial association,
+and the King set up his standard at Nottingham.
+From Bristol to Hull and from Nantwich to Newbury
+fierce engagements tore the country asunder.
+An Irish army was raised for the King, and the Scots
+under Leslie crossed the border in the Parliamentarian
+cause. With the execution of Charles I.
+came other dangers; the sword was not sheathed,
+nor had revolution left a contented country-side.
+Cromwell divided the kingdom into eleven military
+districts, and under his rule England took her place
+at the head of the Protestant States in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>With the death of the Protector and the restoration
+of the Stuarts, when Charles II. returned home,
+came an influx of foreign customs and foreign arts
+learned by expelled royalists in their enforced
+sojourn on the Continent. London and the Court
+<a id="Page_69"></a>
+<a id="Page_70"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span>
+instantly became the centre of voluptuous fashion.
+The pages of Pepys's <i>Diary</i> afford instructive pictures
+of the last quarter of the century at Whitehall with
+the Merry Monarch exhibited in vivid colours, and
+more intimate still are the word-portraits cleverly
+etched by the Count de Grammont in his <i>Memoirs</i>
+of the gay circle at Court. And after Charles came
+his brother James, nor were civil strife and Court
+intrigue memories of the past. Restlessness still
+characterises the closing years of the century. The
+insurrection of Monmouth in the West of England
+was followed by the Bloody Assize of Judge Jeffreys.
+The air is filled with trouble, and blundering statecraft
+brings fresh disaster, culminating in the ignominious
+flight of the King. Nor does this complete
+the changing scenes of the seventeenth century. A
+new era under William the Dutchman brought new
+and permanent influences, and religious toleration
+and constitutional government became firmly rooted
+as the heritage of the people of this country.</p>
+
+<div><a name="chests_of_drawers" id="chests_of_drawers"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_070a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS.</p>
+<p>Curious Jacobean type, with sunk panels and unusually high
+stand. This stand is the well-known eighteenth-century foot.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_070b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS.</p>
+<p>Charles II. type, with sunk panels and arcaded stand and
+feet typical of the period.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>It is essential that a rough idea of the period
+be gained in order to appreciate the kaleidoscopic
+character of the events that rapidly succeeded each
+other. The paralysis of the arts during the civil
+war had not a little influence on the furniture of the
+period belonging to the class of which we treat in
+this volume. The wealth of noble and patrician
+families had been scattered, estates had been confiscated,
+and sumptuous furniture and appointments
+pillaged and destroyed, especially when it offended
+the narrow tastes of the Puritan soldiery. Some of
+the minor pieces no doubt found their way into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">72</a></span>
+humbler homes and served as models for simpler
+folk. With a dearth of aristocratic patrons there
+were no new art impulses to stir craftsmen to their
+highest moods, but in spite of war and disturbances
+affecting all classes, furniture for common use had
+to be made, and the ready-found types exercised a
+continued influence on all the earlier work.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to farmhouse furniture the following
+types represent in the main the seventeenth-century
+styles: the bedstead, the sideboard or dresser,
+the table and the chair in its various forms, the
+Bible-box and the cradle. The Jacobean chest of
+drawers, a development of the dower-chest, came in
+mid-seventeenth-century days, and prior to the
+William and Mary styles. The sideboard, a development
+of the bacon-cupboard, came into fashion in
+the middle of the century. It was a reflex of the
+grander furniture of the manor house and the
+nobleman's mansion. It is difficult to fix exact
+dates to Jacobean furniture of this character. As
+a general rule it is safer to place it at a later date
+than is the usual custom.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Changing Habits of the People.</b>&mdash;The shifting
+phases of the restless seventeenth century make it
+exceedingly difficult, in spite of experts, to decide
+definitely as to the exact date of furniture. The
+country being in such an unsettled state obviously
+influenced the manufacture of domestic furniture.
+Its natural evolution was broken and the restraint of
+the Jacobean forms was in the main due to the
+conditions prevailing in regard to their manufacture.
+The long list of battles given in the chronological
+<a id="Page_73"></a>
+<a id="Page_74"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span>
+table at the commencement of this chapter is
+advisedly recorded to show the intense upheaval
+which was caused by the civil wars which raged
+from north to south, from east to west, and convulsed
+any artistic impulses which may have been in process
+of materialisation.</p>
+
+<div><a name="chest_of_drawers_cabriole_feet" id="chest_of_drawers_cabriole_feet"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_074a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS.</p>
+<p>Showing transition to Queen Anne type. Cabriole feet, bevelled panels, and
+fluted sides.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="william_and_mary_table_c_1670" id="william_and_mary_table_c_1670"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_074b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>WILLIAM AND MARY TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1670.</p>
+<p>With finely turned legs and stretcher and scalloped underwork.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>It is obvious the class of Table of the William
+and Mary period, in date about 1670, illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_75">73</a>),
+with finely turned legs and stretcher and scalloped
+underwork, belongs to a period far more advanced
+in comfort than the days when such a table as that
+illustrated p. <a href="#Page_67">63</a> was the ordinary type.</p>
+
+<p>By the end of the century the growth of sea power
+and the astonishing development of trade brought
+corresponding domestic luxuries. The two children's
+stools illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_79">77</a>) must have come from a
+country squire's or wealthy provincial merchant's
+house. Their upholstered seats emulate the grandeur
+of finer types. The rare form of oak bedstead
+illustrated on the same page is a survival of the
+early type. In date this is about 1700; not too
+often are such examples found, for enterprising
+restorers and makers have seized these old Jacobean
+bedsteads and converted them into so-called Jacobean
+"sideboards," wherein nothing is old except the
+wood.</p>
+
+<p>It requires some little imagination to conjure up
+what the daily meals were in the days of the early
+Stuarts. There was the leather jack, the horn mug,
+and the long table in the hall where the farmer and
+his servants ate together. An old black-letter song,
+entitled "When this old cap was new," in date 1666,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span>
+in the Roxburgh "Songs and Ballads," has two verses
+which paint a lively picture:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
+<div class="line">"Black-jacks to every man</div>
+<div class="line i1h">  Were fill'd with wine and beer;</div>
+<div class="line i0h">No pewter pot nor can</div>
+<div class="line i1h">  In those days did appear;</div>
+<div class="line i0h">Good cheer in a nobleman's house</div>
+<div class="line i1h">  Was counted a seemly show;</div>
+<div class="line i0h">We wanted not brawn nor souse</div>
+<div class="line i1h">  When this old cap was new.</div>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<div class="line i0h">We took not such delight</div>
+<div class="line i1h">  In cups of silver fine;</div>
+<div class="line i0h">None under the degree of knight</div>
+<div class="line i1h">  In plate drank beer or wine;</div>
+<div class="line i0h">Now each mechanical man</div>
+<div class="line i1h">  Hath a cupboard of plate for show,</div>
+<div class="line i0h">Which was a rare thing then</div>
+<div class="line i1h">  When this old cap was new."</div>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>The "mechanical man" is a delightful touch of
+the old song-writer. We fear he would have been
+shocked at the degeneracy of a later day, when in
+place of the mug that was handed round came the
+effeminate teacups. The change from ale, at breakfast
+and dinner and supper, to tea the beverage of
+the poor, would be a sad awakening from the ideals
+set up by the rollicking song-writer of Restoration
+days. But such innovations must needs be closely
+regarded by the student of furniture.</p>
+
+<p>We wish sometimes that historians had spared a
+few pages from military evolutions and Court
+intrigues to let us know what the parlours and
+bedrooms of our ancestors looked like. A rough
+résumé from Macaulay's "State of England in 1685,"
+<a id="Page_77"></a>
+<a id="Page_78"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span>
+wherein he quotes authority by authority, holds a
+mirror to seventeenth-century life.</p>
+
+<div><a name="childrens_stools" id="childrens_stools"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_078a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CHILDREN'S STOOLS, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1690.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="rare_bedstead_c_1700" id="rare_bedstead_c_1700"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_078b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>RARE BEDSTEAD. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1700.</p>
+<p>Survival of early type.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>At Enfield, hardly out of sight of the smoke of the
+capital, was a region of five-and-twenty miles in
+circumference, which contained only three houses
+and scarcely any enclosed fields, where deer wandered
+free in thousands. Red deer were as common in
+Gloucestershire and Hampshire as they are now in
+the Grampians. Queen Anne, travelling to Portsmouth,
+on one occasion, saw a herd of no less than
+five hundred.</p>
+
+<p>Agriculture was not a greatly known science.
+The rotation of crops was imperfectly understood.
+The turnip had just been introduced to this country,
+but it was not the practice to feed sheep and oxen
+with this in the winter. They were killed and salted
+at the beginning of the cold weather, and during
+several months even the gentry tasted little fresh
+animal food except game and river fish. In the
+days of Charles II. it was at the beginning of
+November that families laid in their stock of salt
+provisions, then called Martinmas beef.</p>
+
+<p>The state of the roads in those days was somewhat
+barbarous. Ruts were deep, descents precipitous,
+and the way often difficult to distinguish in
+the dusk from the unenclosed fen and heath on each
+side. Pepys and his wife, travelling in their own
+coach, lost their way between Newbury and Reading.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+In some parts of Kent and Sussex none but the
+strongest horses could, in winter, get through the
+bog in which they sank deep at every step. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span>
+coaches were often pulled by oxen.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> When Prince
+George of Denmark visited the mansion of Petworth
+he was six hours travelling nine miles. Throughout
+the country north of York and west of Exeter goods
+were carried by long trains of packhorses.</p>
+
+<p>The capital was a place far removed from the
+country. It was seldom that the country squire paid
+a visit thither. "Towards London and Londoners
+he felt an aversion that more than once produced
+important political effects" (Macaulay). Apart from
+the country gentlemen were the petty proprietors who
+cultivated their own fields with their own hands and
+enjoyed a modest competence without affecting to
+have scutcheons and crests. This great class of yeomanry
+formed a much more important part of the
+nation than now. According to the most reliable
+statistics of the seventeenth century, there were no
+less than a hundred and sixty thousand proprietors,
+who with their families made a seventh of the population
+of those days, and these derived their livelihood
+from small freehold estates.</p>
+
+<p>Such, then, were the chief differences dividing the
+life of the country from the life of the town. The
+London merchants had town mansions hardly less
+inferior to the nobility. Chelsea was a quiet village
+with a thousand inhabitants, and sportsmen with dog
+and gun wandered over Marylebone. General Oglethorpe,
+who died in 1785, used to boast that he had
+shot a woodcock in what is now Regent Street, in
+Queen Anne's reign.</p>
+
+<p>The days of the Stuarts were not so rosy as writers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span>
+of romance have chosen to have us believe. At
+Norwich, the centre of the cloth industry, children of
+the tender age of six were engaged in labour. At
+Bristol a labyrinth of narrow lanes, too narrow for
+cart traffic, was built over vaults. Goods were conveyed
+across the city in trucks drawn by dogs. Meat
+was so dear that King, in his "Natural and Political
+Conclusions," estimates that half the population of
+the country only ate animal food twice a week, and
+the other half only once a week or not at all. "Bread
+such as is now given to the inmates of a workhouse
+was then seldom seen even on the trencher of a
+yeoman or a shopkeeper. The majority of the nation
+lived almost entirely on rye, barley, and oats."</p>
+
+<p>The change from these conditions to those we
+associate with the eighteenth century was not a
+sudden but a slow one. With the increase of average
+prosperity came the additional requirements in household
+furniture. It is impossible now to state accurately
+what the exact furniture was of the various classes of
+the community. Many of the seventeenth-century
+pieces now remaining have been treasured in great
+houses and belong to a variety which in those days
+was regarded as sumptuous. Now and again we
+catch glimpses of the former life of the men and
+women of those days. Little pieces of conclusive
+evidence are brought to light which enable safe conclusions
+to be drawn. But the everyday normal
+character has too often gone unrecorded. We are
+left with Court memoirs, diaries of the great, literary
+proofs of the more scholarly, but the simple annals of
+the poor are, in the main, unrecorded.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span>
+In view of this series of queer and remarkable
+facts strung together to afford the reader a rough
+and ready picture of those dim days, one comes to
+believe that much of the ordinary seventeenth-century
+furniture must be regarded as having belonged to the
+great yeoman class of the community. With this
+belief the collector very rightly regards it of sterling
+worth, as reminiscent of the men from whose sturdy
+stock has sprung a great race.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_83"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III<br />
+THE GATE-LEG<br />
+TABLE</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_84"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER III<br />
+<span class="medium">THE GATE-LEG TABLE</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">Its early form&mdash;Transitional and experimental stages&mdash;Its
+establishment as a permanent popular type&mdash;The
+gate-leg table in the Jacobean period&mdash;Walnut and
+mahogany varieties&mdash;Its utility and beauty contribute
+to its long survival&mdash;Its adoption in modern
+days.</p>
+
+<p>The gate-leg table is always regarded with veneration
+by collectors. It has a charm of style and beauty of
+construction which afford never-ending delight to possessors
+of old examples. It is an inspired piece of
+cabinet-work which belongs to the middle of the
+seventeenth century, and exhibits the supreme effort
+of the early Jacobean craftsmen to break away from
+the square massive tables, the lineal descendants of
+the great bulbous-legged table of the Elizabethan
+hall. Dining-tables with the device of slides to
+draw out when occasion required, even in early
+days became a necessity. It is a note indicating the
+changing habits of the people. A table was no
+longer used for one purpose. The large table required
+a permanent place in a large room. But smaller
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">86</a></span>
+houses fitted with minor furniture had their limitations
+of space, and so the ingenuity of a table that would
+close together and stand against a wall, or could be
+used as a round table for dining, was a welcome
+innovation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Its Early Form.</b>&mdash;The series of illustrations in this
+chapter afford a fairly comprehensive survey of the
+progress and differing character of the gate-leg table
+during the hundred years that it held a place in
+domestic furniture. It is difficult to say with exactitude
+which are the earliest forms, or whether the
+round table without the moving gates was a sort of
+transitional form prior to the use of the movable legs.
+It is quite possible that in his attempt to invent
+something more convenient than the heavy square
+dining-table the progressive cabinet-maker of the
+middle seventeenth century did strike the half-way
+form. But on the other hand it must be admitted
+that there is the possibility that the gate-leg
+table came first, and that the types with three legs and
+half circular tops stand by themselves as later types.
+On the whole, one is inclined to the belief, especially
+as it prettily illustrates forms of natural evolution,
+that the three-legged table with fixed legs and half
+round top came first.</p>
+
+<p>The two tables illustrated on p. <a href="#Page_89">87</a> belong to
+this three-legged type. The upper one is half circular
+at the top and the three legs are stationary. This
+particular table is in date about 1660, and although
+in this instance it is obviously later than other forms
+we illustrate having gate-legs, yet by the theory we
+have advanced above, it belongs to a type prior to the
+<a id="Page_87"></a>
+<a id="Page_88"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">89</a></span>
+use of a gate. The lower one is a fine example, in date
+about 1640, of a triangular gate-leg table. The top
+is round, and the illustration shows the gate open at
+right angles to the stretcher. The arcaded spandrils
+are an interesting and rare feature.</p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_side_table" id="oak_side_table"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_088a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK SIDE TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1660.</p>
+<p>Plain style. The precursor of the gate-leg table.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="triangular_gate_table" id="triangular_gate_table"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_088b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>TRIANGULAR GATE-LEG TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1640.</p>
+<p>Fine example. With arcaded spandrils and gate. This is the next stage of
+development to above table.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Transitional Types.</b>&mdash;Not only is the feeling towards
+the gradual establishment of this new form of table
+shown in its construction, first with four legs until it
+developed into a table with twelve legs and double
+gates, but the styles of ornament used in the turning
+differ greatly in character. The leg is capable of
+wide and differing treatment. There is the urn leg, a
+rare and early type, the ball turned leg, egg-and-reel
+turned leg, and the straight leg. In regard to the
+stretcher similar varieties occur. Sometimes it is
+entirely plain, and when it is decoratively turned it
+varies from the early survival of the Gothic trestle to
+the rare cross stretcher of the late collapsible table.
+In some types of Yorkshire tables the stretchers are
+splat-form, like a ladder-back chair. The feet differ
+in no less degree from the usual Jacobean type to
+the scroll or Spanish foot at a later date. In the early
+eighteenth century there is the interesting series of
+Queen Anne flap tables which have gate-legs. Some
+have the bottom stretcher to the gate-leg. These
+belong to the walnut period, when a greater vivacity
+became noticeable in English cabinet work.</p>
+
+<p>It is this picturesque and endless stream of designs
+which appeals to the collector. It is quite worthy of
+study to follow the difference in the cabinet-work of
+these gate tables. The long line of craftsmen who
+fashioned them added here and there not only
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span>
+touches of ornament that were personal, but invented
+details of construction as improvements to existing
+forms.</p>
+
+<p>A very early type with urn legs and having plain
+gates is that illustrated p. <a href="#Page_95">91</a>. It is small in size
+and belongs to the first half of the seventeenth
+century. The survival of the Gothic trestle feet of an
+earlier type is noteworthy. The table on the same
+page has the trestle ends still retained. There is still
+the single leg at each end, as in the example above.
+The gates are square and plain and the legs are ball
+turned, a combination representing an early type.
+The size of this piece is small and its date is about
+1650 or somewhat later.</p>
+
+<p><b>Its Establishment as a Popular Type.</b>&mdash;The varied
+improvements and the slightly differing characteristics
+make it perfectly clear, when examined in detail,
+that the gate table in various parts of the country
+had firmly established itself and had won popular
+approval as a permanent type. In the search for
+tables of this form, however wide the net is spread by
+those indefatigable seekers in out-of-the-way places,
+and by the small army of trade collectors who scour
+the country for the purpose of unearthing something
+rare and unique, the story is always the same. In
+the most remote districts such tables are still found:
+the growth of the use of this gate-leg form permeated
+every part of the country. It was copied and recopied,
+native touches were added, and the old
+leading lines followed by generation after generation
+of craftsmen. It had as great a vogue during the
+long period of its history as the styles of Chippendale
+<a id="Page_91"></a>
+<a id="Page_92"></a>
+<a id="Page_93"></a>
+<a id="Page_94"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span>
+chairs had at a later date, when every country
+cabinet-maker was seized with the desire to produce
+minor Chippendale in oak or beech or elm.</p>
+
+<div><a name="small_gate_table_very_early_type" id="small_gate_table_very_early_type"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_092a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SMALL GATE TABLE. VERY EARLY TYPE.</p>
+<p>Length, 3 ft.; breadth, 2 ft. 4 ins.; height, 2 ft. 3 ins. Urn legs with plain gates
+with survival of Gothic trestle feet.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="gate_table_middle_seventeenth_century" id="gate_table_middle_seventeenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_092b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>GATE TABLE. MIDDLE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+<p>Early example. Height, 2 ft.; top, 2 ft. 9 ins. × 2 ft. 3 ins. Square gates and
+turned leg indicate early type. Trestle ends still retained.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="rare_table_with_double_gates" id="rare_table_with_double_gates"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_094a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>RARE TABLE.</p>
+<p>With double gates. Egg and reel turning. Turned stretchers.</p>
+<p>(Examples such as this are worth Ł18 to Ł35 owing to rare form.)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="rare_table_with_double_gates_and_only_one_flap" id="rare_table_with_double_gates_and_only_one_flap"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_094b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>RARE GATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>With double gates with only one flap and having turned stretchers. Tables with one
+flap are rare and usually have two gates.</p>
+<p>{<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)]</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Jacobean Period.</b>&mdash;Essentially the flower of the
+popular creations of the Jacobean furniture-designer,
+the gate table must always stand as reminiscent of
+the days of Charles I. and Charles II. No picture
+of this period is considered artistically complete
+unless there be a gate-leg table with its picturesque
+lines adding a technical touch of correctness to
+interiors. The portrait of Herrick, the parson-poet of
+Devon, imaginative though it be, whenever it appears
+on canvas or illustrating his lyrics, shows the poet
+beside a fine gate-leg table. Stage tradition is
+equally sure on the same point. A company of
+swaggering cavaliers at an inn is not complete without
+a group arranged at one of these tables quaffing
+wine from flagons.</p>
+
+<p>Without doubt the finest examples are to be
+found from the year 1660 to the end of the reign
+of Charles II. A new impetus had been given to
+furniture-making in Restoration days. The country
+had settled down in tranquillity and the domestic
+arts began again to thrive in natural manner following
+the earlier motives of the days of Charles I. The
+recent civil wars had arrested their development, and
+now they burst forth again with renewed youth.</p>
+
+<p>Ripe examples of the best period may be assigned
+to the last three or four decades of the seventeenth
+century. These, it should be explained, are in
+oak. We illustrate (p. <a href="#Page_95">93</a>) a particularly pleasing
+specimen with double gates which belongs to this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">96</a></span>
+finest period. There are, it will be observed, twelve
+legs, and the stretchers are finely turned with what is
+known as the egg-and-reel pattern. As a matter of
+fact pieces such as this, on account of the rare form,
+bring from Ł15 to Ł35, and they are rapidly being
+gathered into the folds of collectors.</p>
+
+<p>Another rare form is shown on the same page.
+This, too, has double gates, and the stretchers are
+similarly turned. There is only one flap to this table,
+and it will be observed that it makes another variation
+from accepted styles in having a rectangular
+instead of a circular top. Tables with one flap are
+always rare, and when found they usually have two
+gates.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that there are pleasant surprises in
+following changing forms all through the period.
+On p. <a href="#Page_103">97</a> a table is illustrated with two gates on one
+stretcher. This in date is about 1660.</p>
+
+<p>The table below, on the same page, exhibits florid
+turning in the legs. The stretchers across the two
+legs are half way up and are the Yorkshire form of
+splat stretcher. This type is found as early as 1660
+and as late as 1750.</p>
+
+<p>The difference in structure is noticeable in two
+tables shown on p. <a href="#Page_103">99</a>. The one has six legs and the
+other eight legs. The first has finely turned legs
+and stretchers in what is familiarly known as the
+"barley-sugar" pattern. Among its exceptional
+features are the legs being only six in number, the
+gates being hinged to stretcher, two legs thus being
+dispensed with, and the additional bar across the two
+central stretchers. This is a rare piece and in date is
+<a id="Page_97"></a>
+<a id="Page_98"></a>
+<a id="Page_99"></a>
+<a id="Page_100"></a>
+<a id="Page_101"></a>
+<a id="Page_102"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span>
+about 1670. The Gate Table on the same page with
+eight legs is a good example of ball turning. This
+is a type which survived well into the eighteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<div><a name="gate-_leg_table_restoration_period" id="gate-_leg_table_restoration_period"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_098a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>GATE TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1660.</p>
+<p>Rare form. Two gates on one stretcher. Length, 3 ft. 10 ins.; width, 3 ft.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="gate_leg_table_yorkshire_type" id="gate_leg_table_yorkshire_type"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_098b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>GATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>Exhibiting florid turning and Yorkshire type of splat stretchers. Examples are found
+as early as 1660 and as late as 1750. Length, 4 ft. 7-1/2 ins.; width, 3 ft. 3-1/2 ins.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="gate_leg_table_with_six_legs_barley_sugar_turning" id="gate_leg_table_with_six_legs_barley_sugar_turning"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_100a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>GATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>Fine "barley sugar" turned legs and stretchers.</p>
+<p>Exceptional features: Only six legs (gates hinged to stretcher, two legs thus dispensed
+with). Additional bar across two central stretchers.</p>
+<p>Rare example. Date 1670.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="gate_leg_table_ball_turning" id="gate_leg_table_ball_turning"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_100b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>GATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>Good example of ball turning. A type which survived well into the eighteenth century.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="collapsible_table_with_rare_x_stretcher" id="collapsible_table_with_rare_x_stretcher"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_102a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>COLLAPSIBLE TABLE WITH RARE X STRETCHER. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1660.</p>
+<p>The top folds over. Fine example.</p>
+<p>(<i>In the collection of Lady Mary Holland.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="primitive_gate_leg_table" id="primitive_gate_leg_table"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_102b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>PRIMITIVE GATE-LEG TABLE. SEVENTEENTH OR EARLY
+EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+<p>Gates at one end. Made by a local carpenter or wheelwright not conversant
+with turning.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>As exhibiting two types as wide asunder as the
+poles, and yet not far removed in point of time,
+the two tables illustrated, p. <a href="#Page_103">101</a>, make a curious
+contrast. The upper one, in date about 1660, is a
+slender, graceful example, with the unusual <b>X</b>-shaped
+stretcher. It will be seen from the illustration
+that the two stretchers when closed fit flat with the
+legs and the top flaps over, thus making the table
+practically collapsible.</p>
+
+<p>The lower Table, of late seventeenth or early
+eighteenth century, is a somewhat primitive form,
+with the gates at one end. This has obviously been
+made by a local carpenter or wheelwright not conversant
+with turning, as the shaping of the legs is
+strongly suggestive of the rude fashioning of the
+shafts of a farm wagon.</p>
+
+<p><b>Walnut and Mahogany Varieties.</b>&mdash;As the mid-Jacobean
+period is left behind, and walnut is the
+chief wood used in ornamental turned work, so
+the character of the gate table begins to incline
+towards the technique more suitable to walnut than
+to oak. The turning, more easily done in the former
+wood, becomes more intricate. Hence some examples
+appear which are practically types of the walnut age.
+But, in general, the old gate-leg table is a survival
+throughout the William and Mary and Queen Anne
+periods, wherein country makers clung to the oak
+form and employed oak still in its manufacture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span>
+The William and Mary Gate Table illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_107">105</a>) is constructed with one gate. It is small
+in size, practically being an ornamental or occasional
+table. It has a fine character, and the "barley sugar"
+pattern is deeply turned. Side by side with this is a
+small square-topped Gate Table with the pillar-leg,
+denoting a reversion to early type. The stretcher is
+of the old trestle form. Both these pieces, on account
+of their small size and well-balanced construction,
+show that considerable attention was being paid to
+symmetry. Such specimens can readily be transplanted
+to more modern surroundings, and yet in
+some subtle manner harmonise with later furniture.</p>
+
+<p>They share this peculiarity with objects of Oriental
+art of the highest type. Old blue Nankin and old
+lac cabinets, although anachronisms amid furniture
+of a later date, possess the property of being in
+sympathy with their new environment, much in the
+same manner as an old Persian rug becomes a restful
+acquisition in a luxurious Western home.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the forms are so rare as to be almost
+unique. It is seldom that so interesting a piece is
+found as the Table illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_107">105</a>) with the
+scroll feet in Spanish style. It has only one gate,
+and the top of the table lifts up, forming a box. The
+lock is shown at the front in the photograph. The
+adjacent table has a corrupted form of the Spanish
+foot, doubled under in cramped fashion like the flapper
+of a seal. This also has one gate; in date this piece
+is about 1680.</p>
+
+<p>The days of mahogany, with Chippendale in his
+prime and Hepplewhite, Ince and Mayhew, Robert
+<a id="Page_105"></a>
+<a id="Page_106"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span>
+Manwaring, Matthias Lock, William Shearer, and a
+crowd of others, brought intricate carving in mahogany
+into intense prominence. This was the golden age
+of furniture design. An outburst of enthusiasm,
+following the architectural triumphs of the Brothers
+Adam, wherein they raised interior decoration to a
+level as high as that in France, had swept over the
+country. In spite of the rich profusion of new design
+being poured out in illustrated volumes and in
+executed furniture, the old gate-leg table still survived.
+In form it was the same, but the richness of
+the new wood was too enticing for the cabinet-maker
+not to employ. Accordingly we find examples in
+mahogany.</p>
+
+<div><a name="william_and_mary_gate_leg_table" id="william_and_mary_gate_leg_table"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_106a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>EARLY GATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>With square top and pillar leg.<br />
+Stretcher: Old trestle form.<br />
+Top, 2 ft. 4 ins. × 1 ft. 10 ins.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>WILLIAM AND MARY GATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>Fine character deep-turning "barley sugar"<br />
+pattern with only one gate.<br />
+Top, 2 ft. 6 ins. × 2 ft.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell &amp; Sons.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="square_top_gate_leg_tables" id="square_top_gate_leg_tables"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_106b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>GATE TABLE WITH<br /> SQUARE TOP. <i>C.</i> 1680</p>
+<p>Having one gate and corrupted form<br />
+of carved Spanish foot.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>GATE-LEG TABLE. <i>C.</i> 1660.</p>
+<p>With one gate. Top lifts up to form box.<br />
+The feet are in Spanish style.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>In the Chippendale period <b>X</b>-shaped, cluster-leg,
+gate tables are found, and turning was used in this
+cluster-leg form. The ripe inventiveness of such a
+design as the gate-leg table was too evident to escape
+the adoption by famous makers. When ingenuity of
+construction was at its zenith the gate-leg was not
+likely to be discarded in fashionable furniture.</p>
+
+<p>On p. <a href="#Page_111">109</a> two specimens of this period are
+shown. The upper one is of somewhat unusual type,
+having a Cupid's bow underframing. It is seen that
+the Spanish foot has still survived into the eighteenth
+century. The lower table is again a rare form. It is
+probably early in date for mahogany, being about
+1740. The Spanish foot is employed, but in a
+coarsened form, unusually inelegant, and suggestive
+of a golf club.</p>
+
+<p><b>Its Utility and Beauty.</b>&mdash;It is a natural question that
+one may ask as to the reason that the gate table had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span>
+such a prolonged life. It passed through several
+strong periods of fashionable styles that were overthrown
+in turn by newer designs. The reason is not
+far to seek. It survived because the public could
+not do without it. There must have been a continuous
+demand, unchecked by the excitements of
+contemporary substitutes. But apparently there was
+nothing to take its place, or which could permanently
+supplant it. Its utility is undoubtedly one of its
+most marked features. This alone affected its stability
+as a possession with which the farmer's wife and
+the cottager would not part. Customs long established
+in the country were not easily discontinued.
+Mother, daughter, and granddaughter clung to the
+old and practical form of table. Nowadays there are
+families in the shires whom nothing would induce to
+sell their old gate tables. Partly this is for love of
+the old home, but mainly is it the common-sense
+attitude which rebels against the sale of any piece of
+furniture which is in constant use. Many objects
+long gone into disuse, but really valuable from an
+artistic point of view, are readily dispensed with.
+The cottager imagines that if he disposes of a mere
+ornament for a sum of money with which he can buy
+something useful he has effected a good "deal."</p>
+
+<p>So much for its utility. Its beauty is a quality
+which has appealed to persons of higher artistic
+instincts. It is not the quaintness, because there are
+scores of other objects equally quaint, nor is it altogether
+the antiquity, though, of course, nowadays that
+is a determining factor, but it is the actual symmetry
+of form and ingenious form of construction, enhanced
+<a id="Page_109"></a>
+<a id="Page_110"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span>
+by the wide range of decorative treatment, which
+irresistibly appeal to the lover of the beautiful. These
+manifold reasons, therefore, endowed the gate-leg
+table with great vitality. Its hold of the people was
+not relaxed till the age of the factory-made furniture.
+The banalities of the early-Victorian period, which
+destroyed taste in persons of finer susceptibilities than
+the common folk, supplanted the old historic form,
+and it was made no more.</p>
+
+<div><a name="mahogany_gate_leg_tables" id="mahogany_gate_leg_tables"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_110a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>MAHOGANY GATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>Unusual type. With "Cupid's bow" underframing. Spanish foot surviving into
+eighteenth century. Height, 2 ft. 5 ins.: diameter of top, 3 ft. 6 ins.; width, 4 ft.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_110b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>MAHOGANY GATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>Rare form. Probably made of the new fashionable wood about 1740. Use of Spanish
+foot dying out. Diameter of top, 4 ft. 5-1/2 ins. × 4 ft. 4 ins.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)]</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Its Adoption in Modern Days.</b>&mdash;After William Morris
+and his school had preached the revival of taste and
+the return to the simple and the beautiful, and Ruskin
+with flowing rhetoric had instilled a love for homespun
+into men's minds, there came newer ideals
+which, with gradual dissemination, have grown into
+a great modern movement which has become so
+overwhelmingly popular that the pendulum has
+almost swung the other way. It has now become
+almost a truism that the person of taste to-day sees
+nothing good in anything that is not old. With
+this in view, artists and persons of advanced notions,
+if they could not procure the old, had copies made
+for them of some of the most beautiful styles suitable
+for modern requirements. In this there was always
+the great Morrisian principle in view that the highest
+art must show a full utilitarian purpose; so it came
+about that the gate table was revived and came
+gloriously into its own again. To-day, as in the
+seventeenth century, there is no more popular form
+of table, and the modern cabinet-maker is manufacturing
+hundreds of these tables.</p>
+
+<p>The life-history of the gate-leg table is, therefore,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span>
+shown to be an interesting one. It is one of our
+oldest forms, and its construction nowadays, save
+that it is now produced in a factory, is singularly
+similar to that in the days when Oliver Cromwell
+was establishing our power as a voice in Europe,
+when James II. had an eye towards the supremacy
+of our navy, and when later our troops fought in
+Flanders.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_113"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV<br />
+THE FARMHOUSE<br />
+DRESSER</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_114"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_115"></a></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER IV<br />
+<span class="medium">THE FARMHOUSE DRESSER</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">The days of the late Stuarts&mdash;Its early table form with
+drawers&mdash;The decorated type with shelves&mdash;William
+and Mary style with double cupboards&mdash;The Queen
+Anne cabriole leg&mdash;Mid-eighteenth-century types.</p>
+
+<p>The various types of dresser associated with farmhouse
+use are interesting as being apart from the
+sideboard, a later fashion belonging to furniture of a
+higher type. It was not until the late days of Chippendale,
+and after, that the Side Table began to
+be designated a Sideboard, which later became a
+receptacle for wine, with a cellaret, and had a
+drawer for table-linen.</p>
+
+<p>The sideboard is not a modern term, for the word
+is found in Dryden and in Milton. In the late
+eighteenth-century days the sideboard had a brass
+rail at the back, and was ornamented by two
+mahogany urns of massive proportions. Usually
+these were used for iced water and for hot water,
+the latter for washing the knives and forks.</p>
+
+<p>The Adam sideboard with its severe classical
+lines, and Sheraton's elegant bow fronts and satinwood
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span>
+panels decorated with painting, belong to the
+later developments of the sideboard as now known.</p>
+
+<p>The dresser is something more homely. It is
+indissolubly connected with homeliness and with the
+farmhouse and the country-side. In its various forms
+it has appealed to lovers of simple furniture, and
+farmhouse examples have found their way into surroundings
+more or less incongruous. The dresser
+in its more primitive form requires the necessary
+environment. It loses its charm when placed in
+proximity to pieces of more pretentious character.
+The cupboard dresser, or the type with open shelves,
+is less decorative than some of the forms without
+the back. That is to say, it requires the exactly
+suitable accompaniment to prevent its simple lines
+from being eclipsed by furniture of a higher grade.
+The dresser is, therefore, especially desirable to the
+collector furnishing a country cottage in harmonious
+character; but its inclusion in the modern drawing-room
+is an incongruity and its presence in the dining-room
+is more often than not an unwarrantable
+intrusion.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Days of the Late Stuarts.</b>&mdash;It will be seen that
+the early types have fronts finely decorated with
+geometric designs panelled in the same fashion as
+the Jacobean chests of drawers, such as that illustrated
+p. <a href="#Page_71">69</a>. The split baluster ornament is a
+noticeable feature in this style, and the fine graceful
+balance of the panels with the drawers with drop
+brass handles is an attractive feature beloved by
+connoisseurs of the late Stuart period. The decoration
+in the fronts of these early dressers is as diverse
+<a id="Page_117"></a>
+<a id="Page_118"></a>
+<a id="Page_119"></a>
+<a id="Page_120"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span>
+in character as the fronts of the contemporary chests
+of drawers. This variety is indicative of the personal
+character imparted to the work of the old designers.
+It is rare to find two examples exactly alike. They
+differ in details, much in the same manner as the
+brass candlesticks of the same period, which possess
+the same charm of individuality.</p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_dresser_about_1680" id="oak_dresser_about_1680"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_118a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK DRESSER. ABOUT 1680.</p>
+<p>With finely decorated front.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell &amp; Sons.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="oak_dresser_period_of_james_ii" id="oak_dresser_period_of_james_ii"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_118b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK DRESSER.</p>
+<p>Fine example of the period of James II.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="oak_dresser_early_eighteenth_century" id="oak_dresser_early_eighteenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_120a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK DRESSER OF UNUSUAL TYPE. EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+<p>With arched formation below and serpentine outline at sides.
+Height, 6 ft. 8-1/2 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 6 ins.; width, 6 ft. 2 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="oak_dresser_urn_shaped_legs_restoration_period" id="oak_dresser_urn_shaped_legs_restoration_period"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_120b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>EARLY OAK DRESSER. ABOUT 1660.</p>
+<p>With urn-shaped legs.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)]</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Of this particular type of oak Dresser the two
+examples illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_121">117</a>) have characteristics
+which are common to the class. The geometric front
+panels, the laid-on moulding, and the Jacobean leg&mdash;in
+most cases the back legs of these side dressers are
+square&mdash;should be intently noticed. In regard to the
+number of the legs, this is governed by the length of
+the dresser. In the lower example it will be seen
+that there are six legs and that the stretcher is
+continued round three sides. In this example the
+legs begin to show indications of the late-Jacobean
+style of more delicate turning. In the upper
+example the legs are bolder.</p>
+
+<p>These are oak specimens; the walnut varieties of
+similar design offer more sumptuous decoration and
+belong to furniture more suitable for the manor
+house than for the farm or cottage.</p>
+
+<p>An earlier type, in date about 1660, illustrated
+p. <a href="#Page_121">119</a>, exhibits a less ornate appearance and has the
+split urn-shaped legs in front and flat legs at the
+back. The split legs are found sometimes in gate
+tables, but when such is the case it may safely be
+conjectured that these tables are not of English
+origin, as the split leg did not find great favour with
+the English cabinet-makers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span>
+Before passing to later examples it should be
+observed that this particular form of dresser is most
+frequently found without a top with shelves.
+Examples there are which, as we shall show, have
+the original top, but as a rule it is advisable to note
+this feature in examining these Jacobean dressers, for
+there are a great number in the market to which
+later tops have been added, as suitable to more
+modern requirements, or as likely to prove more
+attractive to those collectors not familiar with the
+dresser in its earlier form. Originally in early
+dressers with shelves there is no back, that is to say,
+the shelves showed the wall behind them. This
+deficiency has been obligingly supplied by later
+hands.</p>
+
+<p>The dresser, as it found itself after certain transitional
+stages had been passed through, is shown in
+the early eighteenth-century piece illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_121">119</a>).
+This is of the early days of the eighteenth century,
+that is to say, in the reign of Queen Anne. It is
+here seen that the dresser is a set piece of furniture
+possessing attributes instantly marking it as having
+been carefully designed with a due observance as to
+the purpose to which it was to be put. The shelf at
+the bottom was evidently intended for use; the
+arched formation below the drawers has been
+planned in that manner to admit of utensils placed
+there being taken out and replaced with ease. One
+can only conjecture what may have stood there,
+maybe a barrel of cider, or perhaps only a breadpan.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Decorated Type with Shelves.</b>&mdash;The back with
+shelves was a useful addition, which, as will be seen
+<a id="Page_123"></a>
+<a id="Page_124"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span>
+in the earlier examples leading up to this later
+development, had borne several experiments in the
+way of cupboards. In this particular specimen the
+broken or serpentine outline at sides of shelves is a
+noticeable feature, and always adds a grace and
+charm to the dresser when employed by the cabinet-maker.
+Another example in which this is effectively
+used is illustrated on p. <a href="#Page_125">123</a>.</p>
+
+<div><a name="middle_jacobean_dresser" id="middle_jacobean_dresser"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_124a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>DRESSER. EARLY JACOBEAN.</p>
+<p>Length, 6 ft. 5 ins.; height, 7 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 8-1/2 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_124b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>DRESSER. EARLIEST DECORATED TYPE.</p>
+<p>Date about 1670.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>To return to the early-Jacobean types: two interesting
+pieces are illustrated together (p. <a href="#Page_125">123</a>). That
+on the left, with four legs and stretcher, has three
+drawers, and the upper portion or back is ornamented
+by a primitive scalloped design suggestive of the
+country hand. The other, on the right, has six legs
+and four drawers, and the upper portion is beginning
+to receive detailed treatment in regard to spacing of
+the shelves, and a small cupboard on each side
+fills the growing need of cupboards and drawers, a
+rapidly growing taste in English furniture for
+domestic use as the home-life began to be more complex.
+About this time nests of boxes and drawers in
+lac work from the East began to be imported into
+this country in the better houses, first as articles of
+great luxury and beauty, on account of their colour
+and fine gold work, and later as being something new
+and essentially utilitarian in regard to the accommodation
+they afforded for the treasures the housewife
+wished to put away from the prying eyes of her
+curious neighbours. As time went on, the art of the
+cabinet-maker became more intricate. It is not the
+place here to enter into the minutić of the development
+of drawers and bureaus and cabinets, but the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span>
+late eighteenth century brought such furniture, apart
+from points in relation to beauty of design, to great
+constructive skill. The age was one of hidden contrivances
+and intricately cunning mechanism concealing
+secret drawers or receptacles. Such pieces were
+never made for farmhouse use; but the germ of the
+idea is ever present in all furniture with indications of
+locked drawers and cupboards. This is the note
+of intense civilisation as against the simpler modes
+of primitive folk who have no bolt to their door and
+no lock to guard their possessions.</p>
+
+<p><b>William and Mary Style with Double Cupboards.</b>&mdash;The
+variety with double cupboards are interesting as
+giving a date to the dressers in which they are found.
+It is usually accurate to place such pieces in the
+William and Mary period, that is to say from the
+year 1689 to the end of the seventeenth century.
+The tendency in this class of furniture is to cling
+tenaciously to older forms, especially in certain
+portions of the cabinet-work which presented difficulties
+to the local cabinet-maker. The legs retained
+their early-Jacobean character even when associated
+with much later styles. This is noticeable in the
+William and Mary example illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_129">127</a>). The
+arcaded doors are inlaid, the canopy is decorated, the
+underwork beneath the drawers belongs essentially
+to the "Orange" period of design in its feeling.</p>
+
+<p>That the dresser could be made an ornamental
+piece of furniture and found its place as an important
+possession in the farmhouse, bright with an array of
+china, or pewter, or even silver, is amply shown by
+the two examples illustrated together of which the
+<a id="Page_127"></a>
+<a id="Page_128"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span>
+foregoing is one. The other oak dresser has at the
+top, where the mugs are hanging, the original mug-hooks.
+It is of the square-leg type and the arcaded
+work below the drawers gives distinction to its lines;
+it possesses also the broken or serpentine ends to
+the shelves. These curves and simple touches of
+ornament all contribute to make such dressers
+pleasing in character and representative of native
+work attempting with strong endeavour to produce
+artistic results suitable to their environment.</p>
+
+<div><a name="william_and_mary_oak_dresser" id="william_and_mary_oak_dresser"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_128a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>WILLIAM AND MARY OAK DRESSER. DATE <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1689.</p>
+<p>Decorated canopy, arcaded doors, inlaid and turned legs.<br />
+Height, 6 ft. 8-1/2 ins.; length, 6 ft. 4 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 8 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="oak_dresser_square_leg_type" id="oak_dresser_square_leg_type"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_128b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK DRESSER.</p>
+<p>Square leg type; with original mug hooks.<br />
+Height, 6 ft.; length, 4 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 5 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Queen Anne Cabriole Leg.</b>&mdash;It is not to be
+expected that the long-continued triumph of the
+cabriole leg of the eighteenth century would leave
+the dresser without making its mark thereon. The
+exact curve of the cabriole leg is dangerous in the
+hands of a novice, who rarely if ever gets the correct
+balance in conjunction with the rest of the construction.
+Accordingly, in farmhouse pieces this tells its
+own story. It is as though the cabriole leg were a
+sudden afterthought. This touch of representative
+want of repose is shown in the specimen illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_137">135</a>). In date this is about 1740, and is a somewhat
+rare form, having double cupboards.</p>
+
+<p>A unique Dresser and Clock combined is illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_133">131</a>). The form of the dresser, it will be seen,
+is quite different from other specimens. The back
+is only sufficiently high to carry a row of small
+drawers. The legs are circular and tapered, terminating
+in circular feet. In the centre of the dresser
+is a clock of the familiar grandfather form in
+miniature. This clock is not an addition to the
+dresser, but is a portion of the dresser and was made
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span>
+with it. The illustration shows the size of the door
+of the clock-case, with its hinges not cut down or in
+any way interfered with, and the lock on the other
+side is in the centre of the panel. It is obvious that
+no later hand has tampered with this fine example,
+and it stands as a remarkable dresser and unique in
+form in its construction with this clock.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mid-eighteenth-century Types.</b>&mdash;In the Lancashire
+Dresser illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_137">135</a>) the top is reminiscent of
+early types. The cupboard has removed its position
+to the middle, a departure from all earlier forms.
+This is a very characteristic example, and the ample
+drawer accommodation shows the speedy transition
+from the old form of dresser through its varied stages
+to the later modern variety of the kitchen dresser,
+devoid of poetry and lacking interest to the collector,
+and yet to the student having traces of its ancient
+lineage.</p>
+
+<p>The eighteenth-century farmhouse varieties offer
+no great departure. They aim at being capacious
+and massive. They make no pretensions to approach
+the niceties of the sideboard in use in the better
+houses. They supply an undoubted want in the
+farmhouse for storage. There were cordials and
+home-made wines and much prized linen and a
+bright array of silver and Sheffield plate and pewter,
+and no doubt tea services or porcelain from the new
+English factories of Worcester, Derby, Bow, or
+maybe Plymouth or Bristol, to be shielded from
+breakage. The farmer's wife and the farmer's
+daughters were less than human if they did not
+follow the new fashions in some degree, more or
+<a id="Page_131"></a>
+<a id="Page_132"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span>
+less, in tea-drinking and in becoming the proud
+possessors of tea services and dinner services somewhat
+more delicate than the old delft and coarse
+Staffordshire ware. The cupboards had ample
+accommodation for these more valuable accessories
+of the farmhouse parlour. The cabinet-maker therefore
+developed on lines exactly suitable for the
+country clients whom he served.</p>
+
+<div><a name="unique_dresser_and_clock_combined" id="unique_dresser_and_clock_combined"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_132.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>UNIQUE DRESSER AND CLOCK COMBINED.</p>
+<p>The clock is not an addition, but is a portion of the dresser, and was made for it.</p>
+<p>(<i>In the collection of D. A. Bevan, Esq.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The late forms show this marked tendency to
+provide innumerable drawers and cupboards, in the
+farmhouse dressers contemporary with Chippendale.
+Many examples are found which are practically
+elongated chests of drawers; the old characteristics
+of the dresser are absent, the back has disappeared
+altogether. There is no top with shelves. Eight large
+drawers and two capacious cupboards give great
+storage room in a piece often 9 feet in length. There
+is nothing finicking in this type of furniture. It stands
+for homely comfort and love of domestic order. We
+may be sure that the good dame who used this lower
+piece, with its eight solid drawers with sound locks,
+was a person of frugal habits and love of the old
+farmstead. We may safely assume that she had a
+well-filled stocking hidden away somewhere in this
+old-fashioned repository, put by for the rainy day.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion it may be said that a good deal has
+been talked about Welsh dressers, as though they
+were a type absolutely apart from any other. The
+differences are not great, as the carving, in which the
+Welsh craftsman offers characteristics of his own, is
+absent in pieces of furniture such as the dresser.
+Then there is the Normandy dresser, a much-abused
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span>
+term: a considerable number of these, and others,
+too, from Brittany, have been imported and the
+terms have become trade descriptions. But in the
+main the English dresser has passed through the
+phases we have described, and the outlines herein
+suggested may be filled in by the painstaking
+collector. In the chapter dealing with local types
+there is an illustration of a Lancashire dresser (p. <a href="#Page_273">273</a>)
+which adds one more example to the gallery of
+dressers we give as types in this chapter.
+<a id="Page_135"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_136"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_137"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_dresser_queen_anne_cabriole_legs" id="oak_dresser_queen_anne_cabriole_legs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_136a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK DRESSER. DATE ABOUT 1740.</p>
+<p>With early double cupboards. Legs in Queen Anne style. Height, 6 ft. 7 ins.;
+width, 9 ft. 5-1/2 ins.; depth, 2 ft. 2-1/2 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="lancashire_oak_dresser" id="lancashire_oak_dresser"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_136b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>LANCASHIRE DRESSER. MIDDLE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+<p>Top reminiscent of early types. Ample drawer accommodation. Transition
+to modern dresser. Deeply cut panels. Cupboard in middle as distinct
+from earlier forms at sides. Height, 7 ft. 2 ins.; width, 6 ft. 7 ins.;
+depth, 2 ft.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER V<br />
+THE BIBLE-BOX,<br />
+THE CRADLE,<br />
+THE SPINNING-WHEEL,<br />
+AND THE BACON-CUPBOARD</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_138"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER V</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">THE BIBLE-BOX, THE CRADLE, THE SPINNING-WHEEL,<br />
+AND THE BACON-CUPBOARD</p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">The Puritan days of the seventeenth century&mdash;The
+Protestant Bible in every home&mdash;The variety of
+carving found in Bible-boxes&mdash;The Jacobean cradle
+and its forms&mdash;The spinning-wheel&mdash;The bacon-cupboard.</p>
+
+<p>The Authorised version of the Holy Bible, "translated
+out of the original tongues and with the former
+translations diligently compared and revised," by
+His Majesty's command, found a place in every
+household in Stuart days. The letter of the learned
+translators "To the most High and Mighty Prince
+James, by the Grace of God, King of Great Britain,
+France, and Ireland, Defender of the Faith," &amp;c.,
+retains its place in modern editions. It is an historic
+document worthy of preservation, and perhaps those
+who have forgotten its terms may be glad to have
+their memory refreshed. It is of surpassing moment
+to all who recognise the Protestant derivation of the
+Bible as we now know it, and the sectarian feelings
+which inspired the translators under King James in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span>
+their fulsome dedication to the Modern Solomon.
+"Great and manifold were the blessings, most dread
+Sovereign, which Almighty God the Father of all
+mercies bestowed upon us the people of England,
+when first he sent your Majesty's Royal Person to
+rule and reign over us. For whereas it was the
+expectation of many, who wished not well unto
+our <i>Sion</i>, that upon the setting of that bright
+Occidental Star, Queen Elizabeth, of most happy
+memory, some thick and palpable clouds of darkness
+would so have overshadowed this land, that men
+should have been in doubt which way they were to
+walk; and that it should hardly be known who was
+to direct the unsettled State; the appearance of your
+Majesty, as the Sun in its strength, instantly dispelled
+those supposed and surmised mists, and gave unto all
+that were well affected exceeding cause of comfort;
+especially when we beheld the Government established
+in Your Highness and your hopeful seed, by
+an undoubted title, and this also accompanied by
+peace and tranquillity at home and abroad."</p>
+
+<p>It is, as we affirm, an interesting document as
+showing the Puritan tendencies at a time when much
+was in the melting-pot and the first of the Stuarts,
+with his broad Scots accent and his ungainly ways,
+came down to St. James's from the North. Compare
+the above literary dedication to James the First with
+the word-portrait painted by Green the historian, and
+one may draw one's own inferences. "His big head,
+his slobbering tongue, his quilted clothes, his rickety
+legs, stood out in as grotesque a contrast with all that
+men recalled of Henry or of Elizabeth as his gabble
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span>
+and rodomontade, his want of personal dignity, his
+buffoonery, his coarseness of speech, his pedantry,
+his contemptible cowardice. Under this ridiculous
+exterior, however, lay a man of much natural ability,
+a ripe scholar with a considerable fund of shrewdness,
+of mother-wit, and ready repartee."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Protestant Bible in every Home.</b>&mdash;Himself a
+theologian, James influenced his contemporaries.
+"Theology rules there," said Grotius of England
+only two years after Elizabeth's death. There was
+an indifference to pure letters and persons were
+counted fine scholars who were diligent in the study
+of the Bible. The language of the people became
+enriched with this study, which extended to all
+classes. John Bunyan, the son of a tinker at Elstow,
+learned his intense prose from the Bible. The peasant
+absorbed the Bible till its words became his own.
+With the Puritan movement came the production
+of men of serious type, and with it too came the
+disappearance of the richer and brighter life and
+humour of Elizabethan days. It was a literary
+movement and a religious movement which penetrated
+to the lower classes and often left the upper
+classes and gentry unmoved. In dealing with this
+and its reflex upon the domestic habits of the people,
+the visible effects in regard to furniture are strikingly
+evident in the plethora of Bible-boxes belonging to
+those in this period of Biblical study, to whom
+Shakespeare and Ben Jonson were unknown and
+Spenser's <em>Faerie Queene</em> and Milton's <em>Comus</em> were
+sealed books.</p>
+
+<p>It would almost seem that in many cases the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span>
+Bible was the only book which was read and
+treasured. It was incorporated in the home life. It
+served as a register to record the names and dates
+of birth and death or marriage of members of
+the family. Some of these family registers have
+been most valuable in tracing details in biography
+where parish registers have failed to supply the
+necessary information.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Variety of Carving found in Bible-boxes.</b>&mdash;We
+give a series of illustrations indicating some of the
+interesting details of carving to be found on such
+boxes, where, as in work intended for a treasure-chest
+to preserve a sacred book, considerable zeal
+has gone to the elaboration of ornament. These
+seventeenth-century relics of a wave of religious
+enthusiasm are the crude Puritan likenesses, belonging
+to a less innately artistic race, of the tabernacles
+and ivory carved Madonnas and saints of the Italian
+renaissance. They both, though poles asunder in
+realisation, represent the instinctive love of man for
+ornament in connection with his religious emotions.
+Savage races with another ritual produce religious
+and ceremonial woodcarving representative of their
+best. Here, then, is the Puritan craftsmanship, mainly
+of provincial origin and found scattered over various
+parts of the country, following <i>motifs</i> executed by
+the same hands as Jacobean chairs and dressers, but
+bearing rich touches of ornament, betraying much
+originality, within the limited scope of Jacobean design.</p>
+
+<p>The carving has nothing of the humour or strong
+bold relief of the miserere seats of the palmy days of
+the woodcarver in the fifteenth and early sixteenth
+<a id="Page_143"></a>
+<a id="Page_144"></a>
+<a id="Page_145"></a>
+<a id="Page_146"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span>
+century in details that might well have been applied
+to the Bible-box. The ambition of the Puritan woodcarver
+never reached figure-work, or he might have
+represented Biblical scenes if his abhorrence of graven
+images had not demoralised his fancy. Some of the
+early boxes have bold carving. We illustrate a fine
+example (p. <a href="#Page_147">143</a>) of the time of James I., about 1600.
+The design is floral, which embodies the well-known
+conventional rose. Illustrated on the same page is
+another carved box of unusual pattern with floriated
+design. It was a frequent practice to treat the front
+of the box as though it were continuous and the
+pattern leaves off at the ends much in the same
+manner as modern wallpaper. In the box above it
+will be seen that the front is panelled and the design
+is confined to the circumscribed area.</p>
+
+<div><a name="bible_boxes_early_examples" id="bible_boxes_early_examples"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_144a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CARVED OAK BIBLE-BOX. FINE EXAMPLE. TIME OF JAMES I.
+ABOUT 1600.</p>
+<p>Length, 2 ft. 4 ins.; width, 1 ft. 4 ins.; height, 11-1/2 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_144b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CARVED BIBLE-BOX OF UNUSUAL PATTERN.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="bible_boxes_middle_seventeenth_century_and_ordinary_type" id="bible_boxes_middle_seventeenth_century_and_ordinary_type"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_146a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>BIBLE-BOX OF VERY RARE PATTERN. ABOUT 1650.</p>
+<p>This type always had the same kind of clasp.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_146b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>BIBLE-BOX OF USUAL PATTERN COMMONLY FOUND.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Another piece with very rare pattern, in date
+about 1650, has a bold type of carving in the two
+semicircles stretched across the front. This use of
+semicircles occurs in types usually found. The
+example illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_147">145</a>) has incised carving or
+"scratch." It will be seen that there is never an
+attempt at inlay or any of the delicacies of the
+refined craftsman. Among the various types of
+"scratch" boxes the use of circles and heart-shaped
+ornament is constant. The locks found on this
+type of box are always of the class as shown in the
+illustration, and the clasp is well known.</p>
+
+<p>In the collection of Bible-boxes the novice must
+carefully learn the exact limitations of the school of
+woodworkers in this minor field. The touch of the
+foreign craftsman should be easily recognisable, with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span>
+its piquancy and real artistic feeling. These Puritan
+Bible-boxes have flat lids, and in order to give some
+touch of romance to them or whet the appetite of
+the collector they are frequently described as "lace-boxes,"
+though it is very doubtful if such boxes were
+ever used for storing lace. Sometimes similar boxes
+with sloping lids were used as early forms of writing-desks.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Jacobean Cradle.</b>&mdash;The specimens of this type
+of furniture always exhibit, in the oak variety
+associated with farmhouse use, a plainness as a noticeable
+factor. They are usually panelled, but the
+panel has received no carved ornament and is
+especially simple. Of course they always have
+rockers. In the examples illustrated the slight
+variation in these rockers will be observed. Sometimes
+they are plain and sometimes they have slight
+ornamental curves. The only other ornament may
+be found in the turned knobs at the foot and sometimes
+at the head. Sometimes there are fine knobs
+on the hood.</p>
+
+<p>The hood is sometimes shaped and exhibits a
+naďve attempt at symmetrical design. These cradles
+have long been familiar objects in cottagers' homes,
+but are now being displaced by modern wicker
+cradles. The picture <i>A Flood</i> (1870), by Sir John
+E. Millais, shows one of these cradles floating in a
+flooded meadow. The baby is crowing with delight,
+and a black cat sits at the foot of the cradle.</p>
+
+<p>The holes in the example illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_153">149</a>) are
+intended to receive a cord stretched across the cradle
+to protect the occupant.<a id="Page_149"></a><a id="Page_150"></a>
+<a id="Page_151"></a><a id="Page_152"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span></p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_cradles" id="oak_cradles"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_150a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CRADLE.</p>
+<p>With shaped hood and turned knobs at head and foot.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_150b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CRADLE.</p>
+<p>With shaped hood with turned ball ornaments. Holes on each side to fasten rope to
+protect occupant.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="yarn_winder_and_spinning_wheel" id="yarn_winder_and_spinning_wheel"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_152a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>YARN-WINDER AND SPINNING-WHEEL.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="buckinghamshire_bobbins" id="buckinghamshire_bobbins"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_152b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>BUCKINGHAMSHIRE BOBBIN'S.</p>
+<p>Turned wood bobbins with coloured beads to identify the bobbins from
+each other.</p>
+<p>(<i>In the collection of the author.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Spinning-wheel.</b>&mdash;To this day the spinning-wheel
+is used in Scotland, in the Highlands. The
+wool or yarn winders are usually in windlass form
+with six spokes. The turning upon these winders
+and spinning wheels resembles the spindles on the
+spindle-back chairs. There is in Buckinghamshire
+bobbins a similar turning, individual in character and
+exhibiting considerable artistic beauty. In spinning-wheels
+there is considerable scope for the use of fine
+touches of ornament, in such practical objects dear
+to the housewife. Bone sometimes was used in
+the turned knobs. The making of these spinning-wheels
+was undertaken by persons desirous of
+winning the esteem of those who used them. Many
+of them have come down as heirlooms in families
+and have not been held as objects of art, to be
+regarded as curiosities, but as articles of everyday
+use.</p>
+
+<p>The use of the spinning-wheel was not confined
+exclusively to the farmer's wife. In early days great
+ladies were adepts at spinning. By the time of
+George III. it was employed by the ladies of titled
+families. Mrs. Delany, when staying with the
+Duchess of Portland at Bulstrode, writes: "The
+Queen came about twelve o'clock, and caught me at
+my spinning-wheel, and made me spin on and give
+her a lesson afterwards; and I must say she did it
+tolerably for a queen." This letter, dated 1781, goes
+to prove two things, that spinning was a real task
+still undertaken by great ladies, and not a fashionable
+amusement. Had it been the latter Mrs.
+Delany would not have used the expression "caught
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span>
+me at my spinning-wheel," wherein she indicates that
+the occupation was somewhat of a menial one.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the Buckinghamshire bobbins, sometimes
+finely carved in bone, those illustrated (p 151.)
+indicate the character of the cottagers' treasures in
+the pillow-lace-making districts. The patterns of
+these bobbins are not repeated. Individual touches
+are given to these bobbins by the village turners
+which are not duplicated. In use, the bobbin has to
+be identified by some mark, and beads of different
+colours are employed, which are affixed by means of
+a wire to the bobbin, as is shown in the illustration.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Bacon-cupboard.</b>&mdash;Another class which it is
+convenient to place among miscellaneous objects is
+the bacon-cupboard. The illustration (p. <a href="#Page_230">231</a>) shows
+the type of bacon-cupboard with seat and arms and
+drawers beneath. The position held by the bacon-cupboard
+in the farmhouse is shown by the growing
+dignity in the character of these cupboards. The
+gradual growth and development are shown in many
+specimens of the Queen Anne period, frequently of
+Lancashire origin. Such pieces, with classic pilasters,
+broken cornice, and bevelled panels and drawers
+beneath, are typified in wardrobes and dressers belonging
+to eighteenth-century farmhouse furniture.
+The development of capacious cupboards for various
+domestic uses is noticeable in this class of furniture
+up to early nineteenth-century days.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_155"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VI<br />
+EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY<br />
+STYLES</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_156"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER VI<br />
+<span class="medium">EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">The advent of the cabriole leg&mdash;The so-called Queen
+Anne style&mdash;The survival of oak in the provinces&mdash;The
+influence of walnut on cabinet-making&mdash;The
+early-Georgian types&mdash;Chippendale and his
+contemporaries.</p>
+
+<p>The dawn of the eighteenth century practically
+commenced with the reign of Queen Anne. The
+times were troublous. As princess, in the days of
+William the Dutchman and her sister Mary, she
+was forbidden the Court as John Churchill, then
+Earl of Marlborough, designed to overthrow William
+and place Anne on the throne. "Were I and my
+Lord Marlborough private persons," William exclaimed,
+"the sword would have to settle between us."</p>
+
+<p>At the death of Mary the Princess Anne, together
+with the Marlboroughs, was recalled to St. James's.
+At the death of William, in 1702, Anne came to the
+throne. Only just in her thirty-seventh year, she
+was so corpulent and gouty that she could not walk
+from Westminster Hall to the Abbey, and was
+carried in an open chair. During the Coronation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span>
+ceremony she was too infirm to support herself in a
+standing position without assistance.</p>
+
+<p>The age of Anne is remarkable for its restless
+intrigues. Court plots were rife when Queen Anne
+"Mrs. Morley" in her private letters to the Duchess
+of Marlborough, who was "Mrs. Freeman," finally
+broke with the overbearing Duchess and made
+Abigail Hill, one of the Marlborough creatures, her
+chief confidant. The Protestant Whig party favoured
+the long war in the Low Countries and in Spain,
+although conducted by a Tory general, Marlborough,
+who, by the way, did not take the field in Flanders
+till he was fifty-two, a remarkable achievement for so
+great a military career, wherein he never fought a
+battle in which he was not victorious.</p>
+
+<p>The greatness of Marlborough is indisputable.
+His fond love for his wife runs like a gold thread
+through the dark web of his life. His wife had,
+during a large part of Anne's reign, despotic empire
+over Anne's feeble mind. "History exhibits to us
+few spectacles more remarkable," says Lord
+Macaulay, "than that of a great and wise man who,
+when he had contrived vast and profound schemes of
+policy, could carry them into effect only by inducing
+one foolish woman, who was often unmanageable, to
+manage another woman who was more foolish still."</p>
+
+<p>To us now, with the secret springs of history laid
+bare, there is much to marvel at, much to deplore as
+trivial. In regard to matters of high state and the
+suppleness of time-servers, memoirs and private
+journals have exposed many a skeleton carefully
+hidden from public gaze. But of the life of the
+<a id="Page_159"></a>
+<a id="Page_160"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span>
+people, especially the life in the country districts,
+the picture is somewhat blurred. Men of letters
+flocked to the town&mdash;the town was London. Provincial
+life lies behind a curtain. There were Spanish
+doubloons coming up from Bristol and prize-money
+from the wars was scattered inland from the ports.
+Scotland was united to England by the Act of
+Union. "I desire," said the Queen, "and expect
+from my subjects of both nations that from henceforth
+they act with all possible respect and kindness
+to one another, and so that it may appear to all the
+world they have hearts disposed to become one
+people." This wish has been amply fulfilled and the
+union has become something more than a name.
+Never have two peoples different in thought, in
+tradition, and in established law become so completely
+welded together.</p>
+
+<div><a name="lancashire_oak_settles" id="lancashire_oak_settles"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_160a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>LANCASHIRE OAK SETTLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1760.</p>
+<p>Length, 6 ft.; depth, 2 ft. 1 in.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_160b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>LANCASHIRE QUEEN ANNE SETTLE.</p>
+<p>Showing transition into later type of modern settee.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>But the war of the Spanish Succession must have
+drained English blood as it taxed English pockets.
+"Six millions of supplies and almost fifty millions
+of debt," wrote Swift bitterly. The tide of Marlborough's
+success was undoubtedly secured by the
+outpouring of English lives. Stalwart levies of men
+from the shires went to join the strange medley of
+the forces of the Allies commanded by Marlborough.
+Dutchmen, Danes, Hanoverians, Würtembergers, and
+Austrians jostled shoulders with each other in his
+troops. He launched them with calm imperturbability
+against his opponents at Malplaquet, for example,
+where with a Pyrrhic triumph he lost twenty-four
+thousand men against half that number of the French
+behind their entrenchments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span>
+It is little wonder that the war was unpopular in
+the country, where the Spanish Succession and the
+"balance of power" were only symbols for so much
+pressure on the needs of the labouring classes. Bonfires
+might be lit for Blenheim, but many a village
+mourned those who would never return.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of this intermingling of England with
+European politics, the general life of the people
+remained untouched from outside influence in regard
+to arts and manufacture. Cut off from intercourse
+with France, the grandeur of the art of Louis
+Quatorze was as far removed from early eighteenth-century
+England as though Boulle and Jean Bérain
+and Lepaute were in another continent and the
+château of Versailles in the fastnesses of the Urals.
+It is true that Louis XIV. presented two wonderful
+cabinets to the Duke of Monmouth, exquisite
+examples of metal inlay and coloured marquetry,
+but such pieces were beyond the capabilities of any
+English craftsman to emulate.</p>
+
+<p>The chief innovations of the early eighteenth
+century followed the Dutch lines familiarised in the
+preceding days of William and Mary. Oak remained
+in farmhouse and country furniture, but in the fashionable
+world walnut was extensively used, and occasionally
+mahogany. Corner cupboards were introduced
+early in the reign of Anne, and hooped chairs,
+familiar in engravings of Flemish interiors, came
+into general use. Fiddle-splat chairs were also
+common in the first half of the eighteenth century.
+In regard to feet, the ball-and-claw, and club foot
+were introduced. Caning of chairs went out of
+<a id="Page_163"></a>
+<a id="Page_164"></a>
+<a id="Page_165"></a>
+<a id="Page_166"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span>
+fashion till the end of the century. Shell and
+pendant ornament on knees of chair-legs became
+marked features, and, above all, the cabriole leg to
+chairs and tables is associated with the early years
+of the reign, and the term "Queen Anne" is always
+applied to such pieces.</p>
+
+<div><a name="cupboard_with_drawers" id="cupboard_with_drawers"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_164a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CUPBOARD WITH DRAWERS. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1700.</p>
+<p>With "swan head" pediment. Pedestal at top for
+delft or china. Round beadings to drawers.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="queen_anne_bureau_bookcase" id="queen_anne_bureau_bookcase"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_164b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>QUEEN ANNE BUREAU BOOKCASE.</p>
+<p>Farmhouse oak variety. Emulating a finer
+walnut or mahogany piece.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="oak_tables_early_eighteenth_century" id="oak_tables_early_eighteenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_166a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>FINE EXAMPLE OAK TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1720.</p>
+<p>Well-proportioned legs, club feet, original undercutting. Exemplary of
+professional country cabinet-maker's highest work.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_166b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1720.</p>
+<p>With hoof feet and knee, possibly copied from a fine Queen Anne piece,
+exemplifying the best work of country cabinet-maker. Height,
+2 ft. 7 ins.; top, 1 ft. 7-1/2 ins. × 2 ft. 3 ins.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Cabriole Leg.</b>&mdash;This form of leg, swelling into
+massive proportions where it joins the seat, and curving
+outwards and tapering to a ball-and-claw foot
+or a club foot, lasted till end of Chippendale period,
+roughly, for nearly half a century. It assumed
+various forms until it was supplanted by the straight
+leg, and the stretcher, which had disappeared with
+the use of the cabriole leg, again came into use.</p>
+
+<p>Examples of the cabriole leg appear as illustrations
+to various types of furniture in this chapter.
+At first its use did not interfere with the employment
+of the stretcher, but about 1710 the stretcher disappeared.
+The Lancashire Queen Anne settle illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_161">159</a>) shows the stretcher joining the front
+leg to the back. In the settle illustrated above,
+in date 1760, it will be seen the stretchers have
+vanished.</p>
+
+<p><b>The So-called Queen Anne Style.</b>&mdash;Fashions slowly
+adopted in cabinet design do not readily arrange
+themselves in exact periods coinciding with the
+reigns of individual sovereigns. But it is convenient
+to affix a label to certain marked changes and attribute
+their general use to a particular reign. The
+innovation of the square panel with broken corners
+and ornamental curves at top is found in Queen
+Anne settles. The departure from the square
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span>
+panel and line of the curved and broken top is
+exhibited in the second Great Seal of Anne,
+commemorating the Union with Scotland. It is
+reminiscent of the Dutch influence, and is found
+in Sussex firebacks of an earlier period. The
+straight lines of early-Jacobean cabinet-work were
+rapidly undergoing a change; the square wooden
+back of the chair was shortly to be replaced by
+fiddle splats, which in their turn, in late-Georgian
+days, became pierced and fretted and carved under
+the genius of Chippendale's hand.</p>
+
+<p>The two settles illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_161">159</a>) show several
+interesting points. The panels are typical of the
+love of the curved line, which Hogarth defined as the
+line of beauty. In the upper one the arms still
+retain the old Jacobean form in this farmhouse
+example. The ball foot still clings to the earlier
+form. The seat is sunk to receive a long cushion.
+In the adjacent specimen the seat with its cushion
+and the curved <b>S</b> arms upholstered show the transition
+into the later type of modern settee.</p>
+
+<p>The curved outline finds similar expression in the
+hood of grandfather clock-cases and in the shape
+of metal dials. A cupboard with drawers illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_167">163</a>) has what is known as a "swan head." The
+panels to the doors have similarly novel features in
+their structure. It will be observed that there is a
+square pedestal at the top of this piece, which was
+intended as a stand for a delft or Chinese jar. The
+drawers of this cupboard have round beadings.</p>
+
+<p>The typical instance of curved design with not
+a single straight line, not even the back legs, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span>
+are bowed, is the grandfather chair with the high
+back, upholstered all over. The cabriole legs with
+ball-and claw-feet, the <b>C</b>-shaped arms, the scroll
+upholstered wings, and the oval back, depart from
+the rectilinear; even the underframing of the seat
+is bow-shaped. Similarly, the walnut arm-chairs of
+the period from 1690 to 1715 had bold curves. The
+arms always possessed a curious scroll, the backs had
+broad splats with curling shoulders, and often a
+broad bold ribbon pattern making two loops to fill
+up the top of the hoop at the back, with a carved
+shell at the point of intersection. Big pieces of
+furniture, such as bureaus, had the broken arch pediment,
+and smaller objects, such as mirrors, had the
+arched or broken top; and when these dressing
+mirrors had small drawers, these disdained the
+straight front and became convex.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Dutch influence, in the first period of
+English veneer work, from about 1675 to 1715, very
+fine cabinets and bureaus and chests of drawers were
+made. Walnut was the wood employed, with the
+panels inlaid with pollard elm, boxwood, ebony,
+mahogany, sycamore, and other coloured woods.
+Figured walnut was beloved by the cabinet-maker
+beginning to feel his way in colour schemes of
+decoration. Bandings of herring-bone inlay and
+rounded mouldings to drawers are very characteristic.
+Bureaus and important pieces had birds and
+flowers and trees or feather marquetry after fine
+Dutch models. Picked walnut, especially exhibiting
+a fine feathered figure, was used as veneer, and with
+these and other glorious creations of the walnut
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span>
+school of cabinet-workers the age of walnut may be
+said to have been in full swing.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Survival of Oak in the Provinces.</b>&mdash;The foregoing
+descriptions apply to fashionable folks' furniture.
+Such fashions did not come into usage in the farmhouses
+and in the cottages. Oak was still employed
+without being displaced by the walnut of the town
+maker. Oak was in the main more suitable for the
+particular class of furniture which was likely to
+receive less delicate care than the writing-cabinets
+and bureaus and the china-cupboards of more fastidious
+people. Tea-drinking had become the luxury
+of the great world of society, and had hardly come
+into general use in the country till late in the reign
+of Anne, though by 1690 it had gained considerable
+favour in London. Coffee was introduced
+slightly earlier, and many invectives in broadsides
+and in poetical satires appear in the late seventeenth
+century against coffee and coffee-houses. In 1674
+the "Women's Petition against Coffee" complained
+that "it made men as unfruitful as the deserts
+whence that unhappy berry is said to be brought;
+that the offspring of our mighty ancestors would
+dwindle into a succession of apes and pigmies, and
+on a domestic message a husband would stop by the
+way to drink a couple of cups of coffee." The
+prejudice against coffee, and especially against coffee-houses,
+was lasting, and coffee failed to establish
+itself as a national beverage. The labouring classes
+declined to be weaned from their ale and other
+stronger drinks. The Spaniards brought chocolate
+from Mexico; Roger North, Attorney-General to
+<a id="Page_171"></a>
+<a id="Page_172"></a>
+<a id="Page_173"></a>
+<a id="Page_174"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span>
+James II., uttered a violent polemic against chocolate
+houses, perhaps more on account of the political
+clubs gathered there than against the beverage itself.
+"The use of coffee-houses," says he, "seems much
+improved by a new invention called chocolate-houses,
+for the benefit of rooks and cullies of quality, where
+gaming is added to the rest, as if the Devil had
+erected a new university, and those were the colleges
+of its professors."</p>
+
+<div><a name="queen_anne_glass_or_china_cupboard" id="queen_anne_glass_or_china_cupboard"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_172a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>QUEEN ANNE GLASS- OR CHINA-CUPBOARD.</p>
+<p>Spun glass doors. Heavy bars mark early type prior to tracery.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="geogian_corner_cupboard" id="geogian_corner_cupboard"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_172b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>GEORGIAN CORNER CUPBOARD. LATE EIGHTEENTH
+CENTURY.</p>
+<p>Broken architraves and cushion top. Having original hinges.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="oak_tables" id="oak_tables"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_174a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SMALL OAK TABLE. 1700-1720.</p>
+<p>Height, 2 ft. 4-3/4 ins.; width, 2 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 9-3/4 ins.
+Graceful proportion with cabriole leg.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_174b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK TABLE.</p>
+<p>Showing at a later period the last traces of the cabriole leg.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The varying phases of town life, of which the
+above quotations give a passing glimpse, found little
+reflex in the sturdy unchanging life of the provinces.
+Generation after generation, men farmed the same
+lands and their dependents lived in cottages adjacent;
+tillers of the ground, herdsmen, toilers in the fields,
+living by the sweat of their brow. They were content
+with simpler pleasures, which centred round the alehouse
+and the village green, or maybe the village
+church, if the hunting rector and the studious vicar
+were not too heedless of the fate of their flock. But
+other influences were soon to be at work to break
+the lethargy of those of the clergy who slumbered.
+Wesley founded the Methodist movement. Whitefield
+began his sermons in the fields and looked down
+from a green slope on several thousand colliers grimy
+from the coalpits near Bristol to see, as he preached,
+tears "making white channels down their blackened
+cheeks." Later again, Hannah More drew sympathy
+to the poverty and crime of the agricultural classes.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Influence of Walnut on Cabinet-making.</b>&mdash;If oak
+was the wood which the country joiner loved best, he
+was not without some sympathetic leaning towards
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span>
+the effects which could be produced in the softer
+walnut. Such styles accordingly began slowly to
+have a marked influence upon the farmhouse furniture
+in early-Georgian days. It was not easy to produce
+curved lines in the refractory oak, tough and brittle,
+but the village craftsman essayed his best to please
+his patrons whose taste had been caught by the
+newer fashions observed in the squire's parlour when
+paying rare visits.</p>
+
+<p>In the two examples illustrated of farmhouse
+cupboard and bureau bookcase (p. <a href="#Page_167">163</a>) it will be
+seen that here is the country maker definitely trying
+his skill in his native wood to emulate the finer
+walnut examples of town cabinet-makers. This is
+even more noticeable in regard to some of the tables
+actually found in farmhouses belonging to as early as
+the first quarter of the eighteenth century. The two
+specimens illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_167">165</a>) exemplify this tendency
+to imitate the designs of trained workers.
+The country touch always betrays itself in the
+cabriole leg, whether in chair or in table. The upper
+table has less <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">naďveté</i> than most examples found.
+There is a balance in its construction rarely found in
+provincial work. The legs, always the stumbling-block
+to the less experienced artificer, are here of
+exceptionally fine proportions, terminating in club
+feet. The lower table shows a less capable treatment
+of the cabriole leg. The hoof foot and the carved
+knee have obviously been copied from a fine Queen
+Anne model. In the underframing of both tables
+there is an experiment in ornament and form rarely
+attempted except in the highest flights of the country
+<a id="Page_177"></a>
+<a id="Page_178"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span>
+maker, and as such these two fine examples must be
+regarded.</p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_tables_with_typical_country_cabriole_legs" id="oak_tables_with_typical_country_cabriole_legs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_178a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK TABLE.</p>
+<p>Showing clumsy corners and indicating the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">naďveté</i> of the country
+cabinet-maker.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_178b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK TABLE.</p>
+<p>Showing transition from cabriole leg to straight leg of 1760.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Early Georgian Types.</b>&mdash;Treating of the early-Hanoverian
+period from the death of Queen Anne
+in 1714, and including the reigns of George I. from
+1714 to 1727 and George II. from 1727 to 1760,
+furniture of all types begins to assume a complexity of
+construction. At the final outburst the fine masterpieces
+of creation of the great schools of design
+during the last half of the eighteenth century, embodied
+the life-work of Chippendale, the brothers
+Adam, Hepplewhite, Sheraton, and many others.
+This period from 1750 to 1800 was the golden age
+of design in England. It has had a far-reaching
+effect, and still casts its glory upon the present-day
+schools of designers, whose adaptations and lines of
+progress are based upon the finest flower of the
+eighteenth-century styles.</p>
+
+<p>The massive walnut chairs with deep underframing
+and broad hoop backs departed from the solid splats
+of the Anne style and endeavoured to become less
+squat by the employment of banded ribbon-work,
+coarse, heavy, and ponderous in style. Settees, arm-chairs
+and single chairs in this style came as the final
+efforts of the walnut school. The graceful ribbon
+designs interlacing each other in knots, and the
+flowing carving in mahogany of Chippendale, put a
+period to all dullness and heavy design. With the
+new style and the new wood a splendid field was
+opened to cabinet-makers, and the quick appreciation
+of these opportunities signalised their work as of
+permanent artistic value.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span>
+Among more important pieces, though still falling
+under the category of farmhouse styles, may be
+mentioned the Queen Anne glass or china cupboard,
+and the Georgian corner cupboard, illustrated p. <a href="#Page_175">171</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The former has heavy bars, which mark the early
+type prior to tracery, and it has spun-glass doors.
+Porcelain factories at Bow, Worcester, and Derby
+brought such cupboards into more general use after
+the middle of the century. Staffordshire earthenware
+tea and coffee services were found in great
+numbers in farmhouses and cottages. After the
+days of delft and stoneware came the prized china
+services of the housewife. Pewter was largely used,
+but the number of ale-jugs of Toby form, or cider-mugs
+with rural subjects to suit the tastes of the
+users, indicate that more modern ideas and taste, once
+exclusive to the world of fashion, had penetrated the
+country districts.</p>
+
+<p>The Georgian corner cupboard shows the broken
+architraves and cushion top. The hinges should be
+noticed as being original.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chippendale and his Contemporaries.</b>&mdash;At first using
+the cabriole leg with ball-and-claw foot, not quite
+as he found it, but reduced to slightly more slender
+proportions to be in symmetry with his less massive
+backs to chairs, Chippendale came to the straight
+line. He employed it in the legs of tables and in
+the seats of chairs, in the bracket supports, and in
+the top rail of his chairs. Chippendale in his day, made
+the first straight top rail to the chair. It is interesting
+to note the phases of changing design in country-made
+furniture prior to his time, and the sudden
+<a id="Page_181"></a>
+<a id="Page_182"></a>
+<a id="Page_183"></a>
+<a id="Page_184"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span>
+mastery of form which became the common inheritance
+of all after his and other contemporary design-books
+were promulgated broadcast.</p>
+
+<div><a name="queen_anne_tea_table" id="queen_anne_tea_table"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_182a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>QUEEN ANNE TEA TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1710.</p>
+<p>With scalloped edge for cups. Height, 2 ft. 4 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 9 ins.; length, 2 ft. 8 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="oak_revolving_book_stand" id="oak_revolving_book_stand"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_182b1.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK REVOLVING BOOK-STAND. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1720.</p>
+<p>Rare form. Diameter of top, 2 ft.;
+height, 2 ft. 8 ins.</p>
+<p>(<i>In the collection of Miss Holland.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="country_chippendale_table" id="country_chippendale_table"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_182b2.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE TABLE.</p>
+<p>Leg with exaggerated knee, claw, and
+ball foot. Accuracy in straight joinery.
+Failure in curved work.</p>
+<p>Top, 2 ft. 7 ins. × 1 ft. 3 ins.; height, 2 ft. 4 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="square_mahogany_flap_table" id="square_mahogany_flap_table"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_184a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SQUARE MAHOGANY FLAP TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1730.</p>
+<p>Height, 2 ft. 4 ins.; length, 3 ft. 10-1/2 ins.; width, 2 ft. 1 in. Round cross stretcher.
+Rare form.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="tripod_table_c_1760" id="tripod_table_c_1760"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_184b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>TRIPOD TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1760.</p>
+<p>Chippendale style, probably unique. Elaborate rococo work.</p>
+<p>(<i>In the collection of Harold Bendixon, Esq.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>In the table the cabriole leg showed early signs of
+passing away. The two examples illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_175">173</a>)
+clearly indicate this. The upper one, of the time of
+Queen Anne, shows the cabriole leg in fine proportion
+under due subjection, and is a delicate example of
+fine cabinet-work. The lower one sees the leg losing
+its cabriole curve, but still rounded and still possessing
+the club foot.</p>
+
+<p>Even more interesting are the two tables illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_179">177</a>). The country maker was slow to adopt the
+cabriole leg when it was fashionable, but when it
+became unfashionable he was equally loth to depart
+from his accustomed style. These clearly point to the
+transition between the cabriole leg and the straight
+leg of Chippendale, and are about 1760 in date.</p>
+
+<p>The forms of design of tables of eighteenth-century
+date are extremely varied in character, denoting the
+rapidly changing habits of the people. The Queen
+Anne tea-table, with scalloped edges for cups, marks
+the note of preciosity creeping into country life. A
+revolving bookstand in table form, of about 1720 in
+date, is another rare piece. The adjacent table
+(p. <a href="#Page_185">181</a>) is country Chippendale. The exaggerated
+knee and the feeble ball-and-claw foot mark the
+failure of the provincial hand at curved work, accurate
+though he might be in straight joinery. The "Cupid's
+bow" underframing is interesting in combination with
+the rest of the design.</p>
+
+<p>The tripod table offered difficulties of construction
+and is not often found. The example illustrated is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span>
+probably unique in form. In date it is about 1760,
+and is remarkable for the attempt at elaborate rococo
+work. Sometimes, though not often, mahogany was
+used in farmhouse examples. The table illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_185">183</a>) is an instance of the use of this wood instead
+of oak. It is about 1730 in date, and exhibits an
+unusual form in the round cross stretcher, a touch of
+originality by the maker. It is, as will be seen, a
+square-topped table with flaps.</p>
+
+<p>Elaboration of a high order was happily not often
+attempted by the country workman, or the results
+with his limited experience would have been disastrous.
+Instead of a fine series of really good, solid,
+and well-constructed furniture made for practical use
+we should have had a wilderness of failures at
+attempting the impossible. A copy of a fine
+Chippendale side-table illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>) is a case
+in point. There is the usual want of balance in
+the poise of the leg, but the carving is of exceptional
+character. The table beneath, with its long
+and tapering legs, has all the characteristics of the
+Adam style. The beaded decoration on the legs,
+the classic fluting and the carved rosette claim
+distant relationship with the classic inventions of
+Robert Adam. The wood is pinewood, and as an
+example it is of singular interest.</p>
+
+<p>The rapid survey of eighteenth-century influences
+bearing on the class of furniture of which this volume
+treats will perhaps induce the collector to scrutinise
+more carefully all pieces coming under his notice,
+with a view to arriving at their salient features in
+connection with the native design of more or less
+untutored craftsmen.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_187"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="country_chippendale_and_country_adam_tables" id="country_chippendale_and_country_adam_tables"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_188a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>ELABORATE TABLE.</p>
+<p>Country attempt to imitate fine Chippendale side table. Note the want of
+balance in leg.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_188b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>PINEWOOD COUNTRY-MADE ADAM TABLE.</p>
+<p>Note the unusually long leg.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><a id="Page_188"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_189"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VII<br />
+THE EVOLUTION<br />
+OF THE CHAIR</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_190"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_191"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_192"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span></p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_arm_chairs_one_dated_1650" id="oak_arm_chairs_one_dated_1650"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_192a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK ARM-CHAIR. DATE <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1675.</p>
+<p>With elaborate scroll back.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>OAK ARM-CHAIR. DATE 1650.</p>
+<p>With scratched lozenge.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="chestnut_arm_chair_and_oak_arm_chair_c_1690" id="chestnut_arm_chair_and_oak_arm_chair_c_1690"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_192b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CHESTNUT ARM-CHAIR. DATE 1690.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>OAK ARM-CHAIR. DATE 1690.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER VII<br />
+<span class="medium">THE EVOLUTION OF THE CHAIR</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">Early days&mdash;The typical Jacobean oak chair&mdash;The
+evolution of the stretcher&mdash;The chair-back and its
+development&mdash;Transition between Jacobean and
+William and Mary forms&mdash;Farmhouse styles contemporary
+with the cane-back chair&mdash;The Queen
+Anne splat&mdash;Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite,
+and Sheraton&mdash;The grandfather chair&mdash;Ladder-back
+types&mdash;The spindle-back chair&mdash;Corner chairs.</p>
+
+<p>In order to deal exhaustively with the evolution of
+the chair from its earliest forms to the latest developments
+in sumptuous upholstery, it would be necessary
+to make an extended survey of furniture, dating back
+to early classic days. To enumerate the manifold
+varieties belonging to various countries and to trace
+the gradual progress in form, which kept pace with
+the advance in civilisation, would be of sufficient
+interest to occupy a whole volume. Man, as a sitting
+or lounging animal, has grown to require more
+elaborate forms of chair, or settee, or sofa, and the
+modern tendency has been towards comfort and
+luxury.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span>
+In regard to English furniture the intense contrast
+between the days of Elizabeth and those of Victoria
+is at once noticeable. According to Lord Macaulay
+in his comparison between the manners of his day
+and those of the past, the furniture of a middle-class
+dwelling-house of the nineteenth century was equal
+to that of a rich merchant in the time of Elizabeth.
+In general this may be true, though not as regards
+the spacious structure and the massive grandeur of
+the Tudor house. In many details the differences
+are most noteworthy. The wide gulf dividing the
+modern world from the days of the Armada may be
+realised by reflecting on such an astounding fact that
+Queen Elizabeth possessed at one time the only pair
+of silk stockings in her realm, which were presented
+to her by Mistress Montague, "which pleased her so
+well that she would never wear any cloth hose
+afterwards."</p>
+
+<p>The sturdy character of the yeomen of the days
+of the Tudors is exhibited in their furniture. The
+illustrations of this chapter in regard to the chair
+and its structural development indicate the slowly
+acquired tastes, running some decades behind the
+fashionable furniture, strong with foreign influences,
+which had come into more or less general use.
+"England no longer sent her fleeces to be woven in
+Flanders and to be dyed in Florence. The spinning
+of yarn, the weaving, fulling, and dyeing of cloth, was
+spreading rapidly from the towns to the country-side.
+The worsted trade, of which Norwich was the centre,
+extended over the whole of the Eastern Counties.
+Farmers' wives everywhere began to spin their wool
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span>
+from their own sheep's backs into a coarse homespun."</p>
+
+<p>The rough and wattled farmhouses were being
+replaced by dwellings of brick and stone. The disuse
+of salt fish and the greater consumption of meat
+marked the improvement which was taking place
+among the countryfolk. The wooden trenchers in
+the farmhouses were supplanted by pewter, and there
+were yeomen who could boast of their silver. Carpets
+in richer dwelling-houses superseded the wretched
+flooring of rushes. Even pillows, now in common
+usage, were articles of luxury in the sixteenth
+century. The farmer and the trader deemed them
+as only fit "for women in child-bed." The chimney-corner
+came into usage in Elizabethan days with the
+general use of chimneys. The medićval fortress had
+given place to the grandeur of the Elizabethan hall
+in the houses of the wealthy merchants. The rise of
+the middle classes brought with it in its wake the
+corresponding advance of the yeomen and their
+dependents. Visions of the New World "threw a
+haze of prodigality and profusion over the imagination
+of the meanest seaman."</p>
+
+<p><b>Early Days.</b>&mdash;Of farmhouse types that can authoritatively
+be attributed to Tudor days there are few,
+but the succeeding age of the Stuarts is rich with
+examples of undoubted authenticity. Many of them
+are dated, and they all bear a strong family resemblance
+to each other, owing to the narrow range of
+<i>motifs</i> in the carved panels. There is a fixed
+insularity in these early examples, and the same
+traditional patterns in scrollwork or in conventional
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span>
+lozenge design retained their hold for many generations.
+The oak arm-chair of a farmhouse kitchen
+made in the days of Charles I. was still followed in
+close detail in the days of George III., as dated
+examples testify, and it would puzzle an expert,
+without the date to guide him, to say whether the
+piece was eighteenth or seventeenth century work.
+It may be added that as a general rule there is a
+marked leaning towards generosity in imparting age
+to old furniture. It is now very generally recognised
+that, like wine, it gains prestige with length of years.
+It therefore grows in antiquity according to the fancy
+of the owner or the imagination of the collector.</p>
+
+<p>Among the early forms of chairs falling under
+the category of farmhouse furniture may be noticed
+examples of rough and massive build, eminently fit
+to serve the purpose for which they were designed.
+Ornament is reduced to a minimum, and they stand
+as rude monuments to the cabinet-maker's craft in
+fashioning them and following tradition to suit his
+client's tastes.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the sixteenth century there cannot be
+said to be any type falling under the heading of
+cottage or farmhouse chairs. We have already illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>) an early form of Elizabethan days,
+but such examples are rare. Practically cottagers
+had only stools in common use. It was not until
+about 1650 that a simplified form of the well-known
+variety of the chairs of the Jacobean oak period
+came into general use.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Typical Jacobean Oak Chair.</b>&mdash;The seventeenth
+century offers a wide field of selection, and many
+<a id="Page_197"></a>
+<a id="Page_198"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span>
+examples exist which undoubtedly were in use in
+farmhouses at that period. The arm-chair illustrated
+p. <a href="#Page_193">191</a>, with the initials "W.I A.", is evidently made
+for the farmhouse. It is noticeable for its complete
+absence of ornamental carving except a thinly
+scratched lozenge. In date this is from 1650 to 1700,
+and if made for a wealthier person at that date it
+would be richly carved. The adjacent chair shows
+the next advance in type. It is a superior farmhouse
+chair of the period. It has a carved top with scroll
+cresting. The holes in the seat, it should be observed,
+originally held ropes, upon which a cushion was
+supported. The wooden seat is an addition made in
+the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<div><a name="yorkshire_chair_restoration_period" id="yorkshire_chair_restoration_period"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_198a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>YORKSHIRE CHAIR. DATE 1660.</p>
+<p>Late example, with ball turning in stretcher.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="cromwellian_chairs" id="cromwellian_chairs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_198b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CROMWELLIAN CHAIRS. DATE 1660.</p>
+<p>With indication of transition to Charles II. period.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The two other chairs illustrated on the same page
+are later examples, in date about 1690. One of
+these is fashioned of chestnut. The form of these
+backs is related to the contemporary high-back cane
+chairs of the time of Charles II. and James II. But
+these fashions influenced the proportions only of
+farmhouse chairs. In arriving at the date of such
+specimens as these the bevelled panel is an important
+factor in determining the late period.</p>
+
+<p>Cushions had no place in the effects of the farmhouse
+in early days, although ropes were sometimes
+used to support cushions, as we have shown. But as
+a general rule the wooden seats show tangible signs
+of rough usage of centuries, and the stretcher has its
+worn surface marked by generations of owners who
+found it protective against the cold flagged or rush-strewn
+floor and the draughts in days prior to carpets
+and rugs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span>
+<b>The Evolution of the Stretcher.</b>&mdash;In making a study
+of the evolution of the chair the stretcher is an
+important factor. For obvious reasons, as explained
+above, no early chairs were made without the stretcher
+across the front, a good sound serviceable piece of
+British oak to stand rough wear and tear. Gradually,
+keeping time with the march of comfort, the front
+stretcher begins to leave its old position near the
+floor, and in later examples it is half-way up the front
+legs. It still had a use, and a very important one: it
+added considerable strength and solidity to the chair,
+and is nearly always found in chairs intended for use.
+In the series illustrated herein there are only few
+examples without the front stretcher. Later it took
+another form, as the illustrated specimens in this
+chapter show: it united the two side stretchers, and
+crossed the chair underneath in the centre at right
+angles to the side stretchers. Its purpose in adding
+stability to this class of furniture was evidently never
+lost sight of.</p>
+
+<p>At first strictly utilitarian, the stretcher was a solid
+foot-rest; later, when partly utilitarian in adding to
+the strength, it became suitable for ornamentation,
+Although in the class of furniture here under review
+such ornament never took an elaborate form, there
+are examples slightly differing in character from
+chairs intended for the use of the wealthier classes,
+and these are evidently a local effort to keep in touch
+with prevailing taste.</p>
+
+<p>Finely turned stretchers, such as are found in gate
+tables, are a feature of a certain class of local chairs,
+such as those illustrated on p. <a href="#Page_199">197</a>. This kind of
+<a id="Page_201"></a>
+<a id="Page_202"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span>
+chair without arms is rather more decorated and
+conforms more to the styles of furniture made for
+higher spheres than the farmhouse. The upper chair
+with its light open back and ornate decoration is a
+Yorkshire type, and the ball turning in the stretcher
+shows the transition period to Charles II. The other
+two are Cromwellian chairs, but showing indications
+of the next period. In date they are all three
+about 1660.</p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_settle_c_1675" id="oak_settle_c_1675"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_202a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK SETTLE.</p>
+<p>With back panel under seat made from older Oak Chest. Date 1675.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="oak_arm_chairs_one_dated_1777" id="oak_arm_chairs_one_dated_1777"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_202b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK ARM CHAIR. DATE 1675.</p>
+<p>With Bevelled Panels.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>OAK ARM CHAIR. DATE 1777.</p>
+<p>With initials A.S. C.B.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Chair-back and its Development.</b>&mdash;Another point
+in connection with the ordered progress of the chair-maker
+is the gradual development of the back of
+the chair. At first it was straight upright, and no
+attempt was made to impart an angle to rest the back
+of the sitter. Types such as the arm-chair with
+square panel (p. <a href="#Page_191">191</a>) and the upright settle with the
+five panels illustrated on p. <a href="#Page_203">201</a> indicate this feature
+of discomfort. The next stage is a slight inclination
+in the back, still possessing a flat panel. This angle,
+while not conforming to modern notions of ease, was
+an attempt to offer greater comfort than before. This
+style, in a hundred forms, with the minimum of inclination
+in the back, continued for a very considerable
+period. It is found in the nearly straight-backed
+chairs of Derbyshire and Yorkshire origin, with the
+turned stretchers, and it actually in later days became
+almost upright in the series of chairs following the
+later Stuart types with cane back and cane seat,
+noticeable for their tall narrow backs with a resemblance
+to the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">prie-dieu</i> chair of continental usage.</p>
+
+<p>The settle illustrated is a plainer variety of the
+settle made for use by fashionable folk with delicately
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span>
+panelled back. Very often, in cottage furniture, chests
+and other pieces are broken up to make into smaller
+furniture or to be incorporated into furniture of a
+later design. Often it is found that the underframing
+of an old gate table made in the seventeenth or
+eighteenth century is from an earlier chest. In the
+present instance it will be seen that the back panels
+of the settle have been made from an older chest,
+which bears the inscribed initials, still visible, "I.E." In
+date this settle is about 1675, and is contemporary
+with the square-backed chair illustrated on the same
+page. Here the panel in back projects, that is, it is
+slightly bevelled forward. The bevelling of the panel
+is always a sign that a chair is later in date than the
+year 1670.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrated on the same page is a remarkable chair
+having the initials "A.S.C.B." and the date 1777 carved
+on it. It is a striking instance of the adherence to
+old time-honoured form by the local cabinet-maker,
+with touches that, even although the date were not
+present, would tell their own story. This dull wood
+proclaims a message in accents no less sure than the
+sturdy yeoman's to Lady Clara Vere de Vere, and as
+a chair in date <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anno Domini</i> 1777 may afford to "smile
+at the claims of long descent" of more pretentious and
+fashionable furniture. It is like a rich vein of dialect
+running in some old country song ripe with phrase of
+Saxon days. It seems incredible that this survival of
+early-Jacobean days should have been put together
+by a village craftsman true to convention and exact
+in seat and arms and stretcher. But it was not done
+unthinkingly. Here is a chair, astounding to note, made
+<a id="Page_205"></a>
+<a id="Page_206"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span>
+when Sheraton was creating his new styles to supplant
+Chippendale, and when Hepplewhite stood between
+the two masters as a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">via media</i>. And the back of
+this village chair has two distinct features translated
+from Hepplewhite's school&mdash;the wheatear crest and
+the panel with its broken corner!</p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_chairs_c_1680_in_walnut_styles" id="oak_chairs_c_1680_in_walnut_styles"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_206.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CHAIRS. DATE ABOUT 1680.</p>
+<p>Showing the inclination of the craftsmen to assimilate designs then being fashioned in walnut.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Transition between Jacobean and William and Mary
+Forms.</b>&mdash;The rapid growth of the finer specimens of
+furniture made in walnut brought a new note into the
+farmhouse variety. The elegance and grace of the
+newer styles were at once evident. In the same
+manner as the grandiose splendour of Elizabethan
+woodcarving was succeeded by a less massive style in
+oak, degenerating into a rude simplicity in farmhouse
+examples, so in turn Jacobean lost favour. Walnut
+lent itself to more intricate turning, and lightness and
+greater delicacy claimed the popular favour of fashionable
+folk. The cane seat and the cane back at once
+indicate this new taste. The use of cushions became
+general and the sunk seat for the squab cushion is a
+feature in the later years of the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Oak still remained the favourite wood of the
+country craftsman, in spite of its more refractory
+qualities. But when the walnut styles became so
+firmly established that clients demanded furniture in
+this fashion, elm and beech and yew were found
+pliable enough to conform to the more slender touches
+and the finer turning considered desirable.</p>
+
+<p>Walnut was in its turn supplanted by mahogany,
+and it will be shown later how farmhouse furniture
+followed the dictates of fashion in days when the
+outburst of splendid design by Chippendale, Hepplewhite,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span>
+and Sheraton, together with a crowd of lesser
+known men, spread far and wide new principles in the
+art of furniture-making and brought country furniture
+another stage in its evolution.</p>
+
+<p>Farmhouse furniture slowly assimilated the technique
+and design of the walnut age. The love for the
+native oak was so pronounced that country makers
+did not desert this wood and essayed to produce
+effects by its employment that were exceedingly
+difficult and oftentimes unsuccessful. The three
+chairs illustrated p. <a href="#Page_207">205</a> show this transition style,
+about the year 1680, struggling with technical difficulties
+and affording a fine series of points in the
+evolution of design.</p>
+
+<p><b>Farmhouse Styles contemporary with the Cane-back
+Chair.</b>&mdash;Farmhouse furniture rarely, if ever, had cane-work
+in the back or in the seat. But the craftsman,
+while appreciating the delicacy of the cane back in
+adding lightness to the chair, circumvented his
+inability to work in cane by substituting thin vertical
+splats to give the necessary effect of transparency.
+The three chairs illustrated show each in varying
+degree the quaint compromise made between the
+technique of oak and the technique of walnut, and
+the attempt to reproduce the walnut designs.</p>
+
+<p>The arm-chair exhibits strong relationship with the
+older Jacobean chair in its turned legs and uprights,
+but these have assumed a more slender proportion.
+The front stretcher is in the newer manner. The
+sunk seat is intended to receive a cushion. There
+should be no difficulty for the amateur correctly
+to assign a date to such a piece. The process of
+<a id="Page_209"></a>
+<a id="Page_210"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">211</a></span>
+reasoning would be somewhat as follows:&mdash;The
+lower half of the chair is Jacobean, but the front
+stretcher suggests the Charles II. period, borne out
+by the open back, which removes it from the Cromwellian
+period, and the details of the top rail with its
+curved top indicate that the country maker had seen
+the tall straight-back chairs of the William and Mary
+period with the cane-work panel.</p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_chairs_showing_various_transitional_stages" id="oak_chairs_showing_various_transitional_stages"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_210.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CHAIRS.</p>
+<p>With cresting rail, of Charles II. period, retained
+and perforated arch centre peculiar
+to walnut designs.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>With elaboration in turned legs, and uprights,
+of William and Mary period retained,
+and having Queen Anne splat of 1710.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>With sunk seat for squab cushion, turned
+uprights and legs and curious back, showing
+transition from lath back to splat back.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The middle chair more closely approaches the
+upright chair of the Charles II. period. There is a
+straight top-rail, supplemented by a lunette, giving
+the top a character of its own. This specimen is
+exceptionally interesting. The right-hand chair in
+its seat and legs is pronouncedly Jacobean. But the
+back with the three splats and the coarsely carved
+top-rail betray the hand of the country craftsman
+following in oak the more graceful curves of the
+worker in walnut of the days of Charles II.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that these three chairs, each in
+varying manner, evade the difficulties of the light
+cane-back by the substitution of thin rails, and, as
+will be seen from the illustration of three other
+chairs (p. <a href="#Page_211">209</a>), the next stage of walnut design with
+fiddle-shaped splat offered equal problems to the
+makers of cottage furniture. Sometimes they eliminated
+the splat altogether, while adopting other points
+of design found in chairs with the Queen Anne splat
+of 1710. In every case the fondness for old established
+styles is exhibited in the fact that the country
+cabinet-maker clings doggedly to these and appears
+too conservative or too timid to break wholly away
+from tradition. In consequence, his work, with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span>
+patches of newer design welded on to the old, is
+quaintly incongruous. There is thus an absence of
+"thinking out" the design as a whole. The minor
+maker thought out the parts as he went along. Some
+of his results are extraordinary in their characteristics:
+they resemble that freak of fashion termed
+"harlequin" tea services, where the cups are of one
+pattern and the saucers of another. Bearing in mind
+these unfailing proclivities of the maker of cottage
+and farmhouse furniture, the collector should not find
+it difficult to recognise the country hand at once.
+Now and again one is struck with the extraordinary
+ingenuity of some of the work, or one is charmed
+with the faithfulness with which designs have been
+translated from the golden bowl to the silver, or, to
+be literal, from walnut and mahogany to oak and elm
+and beech. But one is never amazed at the delicacy
+of proportion, the balanced symmetry, or the fertility
+of invention&mdash;these attributes belong to cabinet-makers
+on a higher plane.</p>
+
+<p>Of three chairs illustrated on p. <a href="#Page_211">209</a>, that on the
+left in the legs and seat shows the moribund
+Jacobean style. The stretcher indicates the oncoming
+of the newer styles, and the back with its cresting
+rail is of the Charles II. period. Its retention is
+curious, and the perforated arched centre is peculiar
+to designs found in walnut; its use in oak by the
+maker of this chair was a blunder, as oak is too hard
+a wood to employ for such a design.</p>
+
+<p>The middle chair shows an equal admixture of
+styles. The elaboration in the turned legs and
+uprights belongs to the William and Mary period
+<a id="Page_213"></a>
+<a id="Page_214"></a>
+<a id="Page_215"></a>
+<a id="Page_216"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span>
+and the splat is the Queen Anne fiddle pattern of
+1710. The seat begins to show another form in
+having the middle sunk for the use of a squab
+cushion.</p>
+
+<div><a name="chairs_in_queen_anne_style" id="chairs_in_queen_anne_style"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_214a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>QUEEN ANNE CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Entirely oak form except back and splat.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>QUEEN ANNE CHAIR.</p>
+<p>In oak, with strong inclinations towards
+walnut styles.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_214b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>QUEEN ANNE CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Walnut design made in oak for farmhouse use.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>QUEEN ANE ARM-CHAIR.</p>
+<p>With shaped front, walnut design executed in oak.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="country_chippendale_and_hepplewhite_chairs" id="country_chippendale_and_hepplewhite_chairs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_216a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE
+CHAIR, STYLE MERGING INTO
+HEPPLEWHITE.</p>
+<p>Less pronounced Cupid's bow top.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>TWO CHAIRS COUNTRY HEPPLEWHITE STYLE
+MADE ENTIRELY IN OAK.</p>
+<p>Left-hand chair with Prince of Wales's feathers.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_216b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>TYPES OF COTTAGE CHAIRS IN OAK.</p>
+<p>Having features of the three styles&mdash;Queen Anne, Chippendale, and Sheraton.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>Two chairs Queen Anne style.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>Chair Country Chippendale style.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The right-hand chair parts with the underframing
+below the seat, which gives a touch of lightness to the
+construction. The turned legs and uprights have
+departed from the coarse early-Jacobean style and
+perceptibly depend on walnut prototypes for their
+character. The back shows the transition from the
+lath back (such as in the chairs simulating the cane-work)
+to the splat back. It is an interesting and
+rare example, marking the slow assimilation of new
+forms by isolated makers. This specimen came from
+Ireland and evidently possesses native touches of
+originality which defy the connoisseur to determine
+its exact date.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Queen Anne Splat.</b>&mdash;The fiddle-shaped splat of
+1710 marks a turning-point in the construction of
+the chair.</p>
+
+<p>The walnut chairs with caned backs of the time
+of James II. and the early days of William III.
+were carved richly, and sometimes there was a splat
+dividing the caning at the back, which later, also in
+caned-back examples, is curved and plain. The
+general tendency in the reigns of William and Mary,
+especially towards the close of the period, was one of
+economy, and elaborate carving began to disappear.</p>
+
+<p>The Queen Anne smooth splat of fiddle form
+rapidly became popular. This Anglo-Dutch style
+became acclimatised here, and is characteristic of the
+homely examples of the Queen Anne period. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">218</a></span>
+walnut it was comparatively easy to carry out
+carving. In oak such elaboration was well-nigh
+impossible. It was therefore natural that in the
+farmhouse examples the plain Dutch splat would
+readily find favour as more easily executed. By the
+time that the fiddle splat had become popular the
+stretcher joining the cabriole legs commenced to
+disappear.</p>
+
+<p>The splat plays an important part as indicating
+sharp variations in design&mdash;walnut with open carving,
+intricate and floriated; walnut with the plain
+fiddle splat, with its corresponding minor form in
+oak; mahogany, with the advent of Chippendale,
+with the splat again open, carved with graceful
+ribbon-work.</p>
+
+<p>The arm-chair illustrated p. <a href="#Page_217">213</a> is a remarkable
+instance of intermingling of styles. The front legs
+are in Jacobean style, and are continued in the same
+manner as the usual type of oak chair as supports for
+the arms, but an original touch and naďve departure
+is in the curve given to this upright from the seat
+upwards. The seat is shaped like that of the
+Windsor chair. The arms are somewhat stiff for the
+back with its Cupid's-bow design, which has a
+sprightliness and grace making it a thing apart. The
+whole is not unpleasing. It is a remarkable instance
+of the attempted assimilation of several diverse styles
+by an undeveloped cabinet-maker with strong ideas
+of his own. The oak form is rigidly retained in all
+except the back and splat of Queen Anne days.</p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_settees_in_chippendale_style" id="oak_settees_in_chippendale_style"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_220a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>COUNTRY-MADE OAK SETTEE WITH DOUBLE BACK IN
+CHIPPENDALE STYLE.</p>
+<p>The shaped underframing is a feature only found in farmhouse varieties.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_220b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>COUNTRY-MADE OAK SETTEE IN CHINESE CHIPPENDALE STYLE.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The adjacent chair, with its tall back with curved
+splat and its cabriole legs, marks the transition
+<a id="Page_219"></a>
+<a id="Page_220"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span>
+between William and Mary and Queen Anne. The
+top rail indicates by its clumsy joinery the touch of
+the immature country cabinet-maker. It is an
+attempt to approach a fine model with insufficiency
+of skill by the maker. The use of the cabriole leg
+either in chairs or in dressers in homely furniture has
+always proved a stumbling-block to the minor craftsman.
+The delicacy of balance required in order to
+preserve the harmony of the whole has proved too
+subtle a problem for him to handle, and to the
+practised eye these farmhouse pieces at once proclaim
+their origin.</p>
+
+<p>The broad splat and the straight square front and
+the bold cabriole leg of the Queen Anne type in
+walnut were often copied in oak. The example of
+the chair with the later tapestry covering, illustrated
+p. <a href="#Page_217">213</a>, is a case where the local cabinet-maker has
+faithfully copied detail for detail from some fine
+original in walnut. His is in oak for more strenuous
+usage. The adjacent arm-chair is of the Queen Anne
+style, with a shaped front that is very rarely found
+in such pieces. The maker here has not been so
+successful in catching the bold lines of his original.
+There is a sense of something lacking in the curves
+of the back. The touches of his own that he has
+added in the arms, reverting to an earlier Jacobean
+type, reveal the unpractised hand.</p>
+
+<p><b>Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton.</b>&mdash;A
+word in passing may be said in regard to the unique
+character of furniture of these types. It is obvious
+that factory-made furniture turned out by the hundred
+pieces can offer nothing personal, whatever its merits
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span>
+or demerits of design or workmanship. It is this
+personal note, the love of a craftsman in his creation,
+that appeals to the collector, whether it be of Persian
+rugs or of old brass candlesticks. It is absent in
+art produced in a wholesale manner. Blunderingly
+as the village craftsmen went to work, they often
+stumbled into great things, and they always produced
+original results.</p>
+
+<p>Prior to the publication of the design-books of the
+great eighteenth-century masters of cabinet-making,
+the furniture of certain localities began to assume
+a character of its own, the result of long tradition,
+and designs such as the dragon found in Welsh
+carving became established. The term "unique" is
+peculiarly appropriate to furniture of this calibre, for
+rarely are two pieces found to be exactly alike. Not
+only did different makers add novel features, but
+the same craftsman apparently did not repeat
+himself.</p>
+
+<p>The permutations of form governing furniture are
+illimitable, associated as they are with so many
+details of construction. To take the chair&mdash;the leg,
+its shape, and the design of its turning; the style
+and character of the work on the stretcher; the form
+of the seat; the decoration and formation of the
+front; the back, its length, and the variety of splats
+and panels; and the top rail with its variations&mdash;these
+are only the salient features in which differences
+appear. Such modifications of design and piquant
+touches of personal character appeal to the collector,
+who loves the foibles and fanciful moods of the native
+craftsman, be he ever so humble.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span>
+Chippendale published his "Director" in 1754, and
+it became a working guide to all ambitious craftsmen.
+Ince and Mayhew, cabinet-makers of Broad
+Street, Golden Square, had issued "Household
+Furniture" in 1748, and Hepplewhite &amp; Co.
+followed later with the "Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's
+Guide" in 1788, where the delicacies of
+ornament were related to the chaster classic models,
+and in 1794 came Sheraton with his "Drawing
+Book," rich with subtle suggestiveness. A rough
+generalisation shows the Chippendale school holding
+sway from 1730 to 1780, the Hepplewhite school
+from 1775 to 1795, and the Sheraton school from
+1790 to 1805: and behind all, the strong influence of
+the Brothers Adam in their classic revival. What
+had previously been tradition came very speedily
+into line with current modes. Fashion, as we have
+shown, had a slow and impermanent effect upon
+village ideals. But the output of these great
+illustrated volumes, with working drawings, undoubtedly
+had a wide-reaching influence. The last
+quarter of the eighteenth century saw an intense
+outburst of interest in the arts of interior decoration.
+A great amount of finely designed and beautifully
+executed furniture belongs to those days, and the
+echo of the splendid achievements in mahogany and
+in satinwood is seen in the farmhouse and cottage
+furniture, which came singularly close upon the heels
+of fashion.</p>
+
+<p>Chippendale furniture in oak, elm, or beech is
+being largely collected. We illustrate a sufficient
+number of types to show that this class of design
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span>
+known as "Cottage Chippendale," has peculiar charms
+of its own. The arm-chair illustrated p. <a href="#Page_227">225</a> is in
+elm, and is in the style Chippendale employed in
+his rich mahogany creations in 1760. The fine
+interlaced carving of the back is graceful and well
+proportioned. The adjacent chair, in elm, still
+follows the Chippendale style. The seat is rush,
+and the maker has confined himself to his own
+limitations and avoided in the splat the too intricate
+work of more sumptuous models. He has arrived
+at a very finely balanced result. The heart cut out
+of the splat is frequently found in cottage examples,
+suggesting that some of the more ornate examples
+may have been made as wedding presents for young
+couples just setting up housekeeping, or possibly the
+village cabinet-maker himself had thoughts in that
+direction, and such work was destined to equip his
+own home.</p>
+
+<p>The illustration of a chair, in beech, with a plain
+wooden seat, has a somewhat intricate ribbon-like
+pattern terminating in the Prince of Wales's feathers.
+The heart is present in the design at the base of
+the splat, cut out in fretwork. The arm-chair on
+the right, with its dipped seat, is in oak, and is an
+instance representing the adaptations of Sheraton
+styles in the provinces.</p>
+
+<p>Another page of chairs in oak (p. <a href="#Page_217">215</a>) shows the
+influences at work in moulding the character of the
+styles of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
+century farmhouse furniture. Of the three chairs at
+top of p. <a href="#Page_217">215</a>, the left-hand one is in Chippendale
+style merging into Hepplewhite. The Cupid's bow
+<a id="Page_225"></a>
+<a id="Page_226"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span>
+at the top rail has become less pronounced. The
+other two chairs on right are typically Hepplewhite
+in character. The Prince of Wales's feathers, so
+often associated with Hepplewhite's own work, are
+embodied in the splat of one.</p>
+
+<div><a name="country_chairs_in_chippendale_and_sheraton_styles" id="country_chairs_in_chippendale_and_sheraton_styles"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_226a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>ELM CHAIR, COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE
+STYLE. 1760.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+ELM CHAIR, COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE STYLE.
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_226b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>BEECH CHAIR. COUNTRY
+CHIPPENDALE STYLE.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>OAK CHAIR, COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE
+STYLE. WITH DROPPED SEAT.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>In the lower group, the right-hand chair is of the
+Chippendale type. The other two chairs have
+features of three styles&mdash;the Queen Anne, the
+Chippendale, and the Sheraton. It is this piquancy
+and incongruous combination of styles adjacent to
+each other in point of time, but having little other
+relationship, which make the provincialisms of the
+cabinet-maker of exceptional interest.</p>
+
+<p>At times more ambitious attempts were made in
+oak, following the lines of the Chippendale style in
+mahogany. These have pronounced features always
+recognisable as belonging to the farmhouse variety
+of furniture. Two examples are illustrated, p. <a href="#Page_218">219</a>.
+The upper example of country-made oak settee,
+with double back, at once indicates that it is
+provincial by the shaped underframing, which is
+never found in other classes of furniture. The lower
+example of farmhouse oak settee is clearly in
+Chippendale's Chinese style. A reference to the
+"Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Directory," published
+by Thomas Chippendale in 1754, shows that
+this Chinese style adopted by the local maker is very
+far removed from the series of delicate fretwork
+designs illustrated by Chippendale in his volume.
+It is true that the old designer of St. Martin's Lane
+sent forth his work with the sub-title stating that
+it was "calculated to improve and refine the present
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span>
+Taste, and suited to the Fancy and Circumstances
+of Persons in all Degrees of Life." The great
+master cabinet-maker, in scattering his designs far
+and wide, evidently had in mind the formation of a
+new style. He builded better than he knew. The
+importance of his book of designs cannot be overrated.
+It was subscribed for in Yorkshire, in Devon,
+in Westmorland, and in Ireland, and straightway
+minor men looked upon these delightful inventions
+and began to follow to the best of their ability the
+ideals set forth by Chippendale the dreamer.</p>
+
+<p>That he was an idealist in this book of designs is
+naďvely explained in his Preface: "I frankly confess
+that in the executing many of the drawings my
+pencil has but faintly copied out those images that
+my fancy suggested, and had they not been published
+till I could have pronounced them perfect, perhaps
+they had never seen the light." But Chippendale
+was also a practical cabinet-maker as well as a
+designer. He has a lingering doubt that after all,
+perhaps, the country cabinet-maker and those who
+bought the book for use might not be able to carry
+out his designs. Evidently this had struck others
+too. Perhaps he was accused of fobbing-off in a
+design-book mere fanciful work that was too far
+above the plane of ordinary cabinet-work. He meets
+this objection with a declaration, so to speak, upon
+honour, with which he winds up his Preface, which
+is a pretty piece of eighteenth-century advertising:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Upon the whole, I have given no design but what
+may be executed with advantage by the hands of a
+skilful workman, though some of the profession have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span>
+been diligent enough to represent them (especially
+those after the Gothic and Chinese manner) as so
+many specious drawings, impossible to be worked off
+by any mechanic whatsoever. I will not scruple to
+attribute this to malice, ignorance, and inability, and
+I am confident I can convince all noblemen, gentlemen,
+or others, who will honour me with their
+commands, that every design in the book can be
+improved, both as to beauty and enrichment, in the
+execution of it, by&mdash;Their Most Obedient Servant,
+Thomas Chippendale."</p>
+
+<p>Enough has been said to prove that "country
+Chippendale" is not a misnomer. It is equally true
+that the Hepplewhite style was disseminated in like
+fashion in the provinces. It must be remembered
+that these trade catalogues, as they really were,
+brought out somewhat in rivalry with each other by
+the great London designers and cabinet-makers, were
+the only literature the country makers had to indicate
+town fashions. These volumes therefore served a
+double purpose in procuring clients for the firm and
+in stimulating the art of the country designer. That
+they were in part intended to be educational is shown
+by the Preface to the "Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's
+Guide," published by A. Hepplewhite &amp; Co.,
+Cabinet-makers. We quote from the Preface of
+the third edition, "improved," 1794.</p>
+
+<p>The Preface opens with a lament that owing to
+"the mutability of all things, but more especially of
+fashions," foreigners who seek a knowledge of English
+taste and workmanship may be misled by the "labours
+of our predecessors in this line of little use."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span>
+"The same reason in favour of this work will
+apply also to many of our own countrymen and
+artisans, whose distance from the metropolis makes
+even an imperfect knowledge of its improvements
+acquired with much trouble and expense."</p>
+
+<p>"In this instance we hope for reward; and though
+we lay no claim to extraordinary merit in our designs,
+we flatter ourselves they will be found serviceable to
+young workmen in general, and occasionally to more
+experienced ones."</p>
+
+<p>In view, therefore, of the books of design we have
+enumerated, it is obvious that the country designer
+had a new field open to him, and now and again he
+made ample use of his opportunities. During the
+last quarter of the eighteenth century there was quite
+an outburst of literature on furniture, much of it
+forgotten and much of it waiting to be disinterred
+by patient research; and with the dissemination of
+these fine designs some of the most perfect examples
+of country-made furniture began to exhibit touches
+of skill of the practised hand.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Grandfather Chair.</b>&mdash;From the illustration given
+on p. <a href="#Page_230">231</a> it will be seen that the type known as
+the "grandfather" has a humble lineage. It will be
+found with the same wings and curved arms and
+plain wooden seat in the alehouse or in the ingle nook
+of the farmhouse. The specimen we illustrate does
+duty as a bacon-cupboard as well as a chair. Usually
+such pieces have the cupboard opening at the back,
+but in this instance the cupboard opens in front.</p>
+
+<div><a name="grandfather_chair" id="grandfather_chair"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_232a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>COUNTRY GRANDFATHER CHAIR.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="arm_chair_and_bacon_cupboard" id="arm_chair_and_bacon_cupboard"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_232b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>ARM-CHAIR AND BACON-CUPBOARD.</p>
+<p>Opens at foot. This type usually opens at back.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>As early as the opening years of the eighteenth
+century there were upholstered chairs of a somewhat
+<a id="Page_231"></a>
+<a id="Page_232"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span>
+similar type to the so-called "grandfather" with
+scrolled arms or wings. The example we illustrate
+is representative of those which may be met with in
+the country farmhouse.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ladder-back Types.</b>&mdash;The ladder-back chair belongs
+to the northern half of England, and similarly the
+spindle-back chair is found in the same locality.
+The Windsor chair, on the other hand, is mainly
+confined to the southern half of the country. These
+are points which become noticeable after years of
+systematised research, and although nowadays these
+three varieties of chair may still be found, somewhat
+scattered, their real home and place of origin is as
+indicated. Another feature of interest is that both
+ladder-back and spindle-back varieties, with but
+slight differences, are found on the Continent.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that this class of chair has a
+rush seat. This feature it has in common with the
+spindle-back chair.</p>
+
+<p>The rush-bottom chair covers a wide area. It
+comes with an air of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">naďveté</i> and rustic simplicity.
+One recalls the long lines of green rushes by the
+river-bank and the rush-gatherers in idyllic placidity
+slowly trimming the banks, disturbing coot and
+moorhen with their punt, and adding another human
+touch to the lonely angler. They are pursuing a
+calling as old as the river itself, and the use of rush
+for floor, for lighting, or for seating furniture, found
+occupation for generations of men plying curious
+trades, of which the plaiting of osiers into baskets
+and the thatching of cottage roofs may be numbered
+among the decaying industries. Indeed, this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span>
+latter art and the making of birch and heath brooms
+may be almost said to be extinct. A good artisan
+who can thatch in the old artistic style is much
+sought after. Of course ricks have still to be thatched,
+but the picturesque skill of masters of this old-world
+craft is absent, and corrugated iron sheets have found
+favour in lieu of the old style.</p>
+
+<p>The ladder-back chair is, as its name denotes,
+decorated with horizontal supports, ladder fashion.
+These are capable of the most pleasing variation.
+The perfection of form of this type is seen in the
+arm-chair illustrated p. <a href="#Page_234">237</a>. The well-balanced
+proportion of the ladder rails is a test as to the
+excellence of the design. They are not meaningless
+ornaments put in place, unthinkingly, to create a new
+style. The two examples illustrated on page 235
+show other types of the ladder-back chair. The
+left-hand one shows the later stages in the development
+of the design, and its top rail is of the Sheraton
+period. The right-hand one, with arms, is composite
+in its character, and is in date about 1820, and
+exhibits a touch of the Sheraton slenderness of style
+in the splats and the round turning of arms. Both
+examples show the quaint survival of the Queen
+Anne foot. The ladder-back form survived the
+eighteenth century and lasted down to within fifty
+years ago, when it became merged into that of the
+Windsor chair.</p>
+
+<div><a name="spindle_back_and_ladder_back_chairs" id="spindle_back_and_ladder_back_chairs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_236a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>LADDER-BACK TYPE
+OF CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Showing Empire influence
+in curved back.</p>
+<p>Dated 1820-1830.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>SPINDLE-BACK NURSING CHAIR WITH ROCKER.</p>
+<p>Three rows of spindles.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>SPINDLE-BACK CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Two rows of spindles.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_236b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>LADDER-BACK CHAIRS WITH RUSH SEAT.</p>
+<p>Both chairs showing quaint survival of the Queen Anne feet.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>Late Eighteenth Century, with top
+rail in Sheraton style.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>Later form of splat with turned
+ends. Dated 1820.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="corner_chairs" id="corner_chairs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_238a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>COUNTRY BARBER'S CHAIR.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>LADDER-BACK CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Perfect specimen in regard to style.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_238b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CORNER CHAIR.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>LADDER-BACK FORM OF CORNER CHAIR
+WITH RUSH SEAT.</p>
+<p>Probably Lancashire.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Spindle-back Chair.</b>&mdash;The spindle-back chair is
+of long lineage. As early as the reign of Charles I.
+this type was known. There is still treasured in
+America the chair of Governor Carver, with simple
+<a id="Page_235"></a>
+<a id="Page_236"></a>
+<a id="Page_237"></a>
+<a id="Page_238"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span>
+turning in legs and back, which practically consisted
+of upright posts rounded and having slight ornament.
+The back was set with "spindles." The older types
+of these chairs had thick upright posts, the back and
+back legs being two posts and the front legs, continued
+upward beyond the seat, forming supports for
+the arms. These posts are often six or seven inches
+in circumference, and belong to early-Jacobean days.
+The type found its way to America in Puritan days
+and has continued to be a favourite. Hickory wood
+was used for American specimens, and considerable
+attention has been paid to this form of chair and its
+varieties, the differing heights of the posts and the
+number of the spindles and their character, by
+American collectors. In England examples are not
+easily found of early date. The examples illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_234">235</a>), a Nursing Chair on rockers and an ordinary
+Spindle-Back Chair, are of eighteenth-century days,
+and are sufficient to indicate the type of chair, but
+these two represent the style when it had become
+of more general use. Practically it was not until the
+eighteenth century that such types were commonly
+used in cottages and farmhouses.</p>
+
+<p>These turned chairs, turned in every portion but
+the rush seat, lend themselves to the above-mentioned
+two styles of treatment. Their upright posts forming
+the open back can be treated with vertical splats
+divided by horizontal divisions, or they can, as in the
+ladder form, receive horizontal splats. The complete
+simplicity of this attitude towards the back absolved
+the homely cabinet-maker from dangerous experiments.
+Avoiding curved backs, he had not to face
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">240</a></span>
+the intricacies of the nicety of balance in the splat.
+Altogether it was a very satisfactory solution, and in
+practice resulted in the production of a wide range
+of chairs, differing in slight details but well within
+the range of the local workman's art.</p>
+
+<p>The unassuming simplicity of this class of chair
+made its appeal to Madox-Brown, who held that
+simplicity and utility were the two desiderata, united
+with soundness of construction, for domestic furniture.
+Veneer was as abhorrent to him as to all genuine
+lovers of the artistic. "Let us be honest, let us be
+genuine in furniture as in aught else," were his words.
+"If we must needs make our chairs and tables of
+cheap wood, do not let them masquerade as mahogany
+or rosewood; let the thing appear that which it is;
+it will not lack dignity if it be good of its kind and
+well made." Accordingly he put his theories into
+practice and designed some furniture. In a chair in
+the possession of Mr. Harold Rathbone he has
+employed the rush seat and used spindles to decorate
+the back, and in another chair in the same collection
+he has adhered to the horizontal ladder-back style,
+coupled with the rush seat, with pleasing effect.</p>
+
+<p><b>Corner Chairs.</b>&mdash;Among interesting types of chairs
+often with lingering traces of the Jacobean style
+and additional features of splats that may be
+regarded as standing on the threshold of the
+Chippendale period, corner chairs stand in a class
+alone. The illustrations on p. <a href="#Page_234">237</a> show some typical
+examples. The chair with the double tier is the oak
+adaptation of Chippendale with the retention of the
+old Jacobean form of support for the arm. These
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span>
+chairs with this added tier are often used as country
+barber's chairs. The rush-seated corner chair on the
+same page, probably made in Lancashire, is suggestive
+of the ladder-back form, and there are indications in
+its construction that it is subsequent to the Hepplewhite
+period.</p>
+
+<p>With these notes relative to the evolution of the
+chair, and with carefully selected illustrations of
+types likely to be of use to the collector, enough has
+been said to whet the curiosity of the reader to study
+the matter for himself. It requires keen and discriminating
+judgment to allocate specimens with
+passing exactitude as to time and place. The taste
+for the subject must be natural and not acquired.
+Training alone will give the eye the readiness to
+detect false touches and modern additions. The
+search for bargains goes on apace, and those who
+enjoy stalking their quarry in out-of-the-way places
+have an exciting quest nowadays for fine pieces.
+To those with endless patience, forbearing under
+disappointment, and having plenty of leisure, the
+search will offer abundant delight, if, to quote Mrs.
+Battle, they enjoy "the rigour of the game."</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_242"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_243"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII<br />
+THE WINDSOR<br />
+CHAIR</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_244"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER VIII<br />
+<span class="medium">THE WINDSOR CHAIR</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">Early types&mdash;The stick legs without stretcher&mdash;The
+tavern chair&mdash;Eighteenth-century pleasure gardens&mdash;The
+rail-back variety&mdash;Chippendale style
+Windsor chairs&mdash;The survival of the Windsor
+chair.</p>
+
+<p>The Windsor chair in its early form is coincident
+with the early years of the eighteenth century. Its
+history and development therefore exhibit traces of
+the various styles in furniture which ran their courses
+throughout the century. It is essentially a chair
+which belongs to minor furniture, and in its use it
+is bound up with the country farmhouse, the country
+inn, or in the metropolis with the chocolate-houses
+and taverns, and later with the innumerable pleasure
+gardens which sprang up around the metropolis in
+the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>There is more than a strong suggestion that the
+type originated in the country. The first forms have
+a similarity to the easily made three-legged stools.
+The seat is one piece of wood into which holes are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span>
+bored to admit the legs. The origin of the term
+"Windsor chair," according to a story largely current
+in America, is that George III., the Farmer King, saw
+a chair of this design in a humble cottage near
+Windsor, and was so enamoured of it that he ordered
+some to be made for the royal use. The chair had
+a singular vogue in America, and it is stated that
+George Washington had a row of Windsor chairs at
+his house at Mount Vernon, and Jefferson sat in a
+Windsor chair when he signed the Declaration of
+Independence in 1776.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Stick Legs without Stretcher.</b>&mdash;Obviously this
+is the earliest type, and the illustrations of these
+primitive forms (p. <a href="#Page_249">247</a>) show the simplicity of the
+joinery. The chair on the left with its almost
+straight top rail suggests a probable date. It was
+not till 1768 that Chippendale made the first straight
+top rail in English furniture. The seat is of the
+saddle-form. The spindles at the back in the lower
+row taper at each end. It will be observed in all
+the types we illustrate in this chapter that the arms
+extend in one piece around the chair. Nor has
+every example the saddle seat. On the same page
+is illustrated one with a plain seat, but still having
+the stick legs set at an angle towards the centre of
+the chair.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever interest attaches to this early type, from
+a collecting point of view, they cannot compare in
+beauty with the finer varieties of a later period, with
+cabriole leg and with pierced splat, displaying a
+pleasing diversity of patterns in pierced work, no
+two of which are always quite alike.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_247"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_248"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">249</a></span></p>
+
+<div><a name="chairs_of_earliest_form_with_stick_legs" id="chairs_of_earliest_form_with_stick_legs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_248.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>WINDSOR CHAIRS.</p>
+<p>Earliest form; stick legs with no stretcher.</p>
+<p>(By the courtesy of Messers. Phillips, Hitchin.)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Tavern Chair.</b>&mdash;It was Dr. Johnson who declared
+that a tavern chair was the throne of human felicity.
+Undoubtedly the eighteenth century found the need
+of a comfortable chair for club meetings at taverns
+and alehouses. The country inn to-day has its
+Windsor chairs, many of them of great age. Nor
+were chairs of this type always with arms. There
+are many plainer chairs without arms and having
+what is termed "fiddle-string" backs; more often
+than not across this back there is a rail put transversely
+to strengthen it. Many of these chairs were
+made by local carpenters and wheelwrights. They
+employed any wood that happened to be in their
+workshop at the time; in consequence the variety
+of woods in which these chairs are found is great.
+Sometimes the seat is made from beech or elm and
+the arms are fashioned from the wood of the pear-tree.
+The curved horseshoe rails and back are more
+often than not constructed from the ash.</p>
+
+<p><b>Eighteenth Century Pleasure Gardens.</b>&mdash;There is no
+doubt that we owe the considerable output of
+Windsor chairs in the middle of the eighteenth
+century to the growth of coffee-houses, and especially
+the numerous tea and pleasure gardens on the outskirts
+of London and other great towns. These
+semi-rural resorts began to be in great demand as
+a recreation for jaded eighteenth-century town-dwellers.
+The nobility and persons of fashion had
+Bath and Tunbridge Wells to fly to for country air
+and open-air recreation. The citizen and mechanic,
+the society beau, and the politician, crowded to
+Ranelagh Gardens, to Vauxhall, to Sadler's Wells,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span>
+and to Hampstead, to enjoy sunny afternoons and
+summer evenings in the open air, or to spend
+Sundays. It was the eighteenth-century diversion
+similar to the nineteenth-century Crystal Palace
+and the twentieth-century Earl's Court. To quote
+Mr. Percy Macquoid in his lordly work on English
+furniture, "So great were the numbers of visitors to
+these places that attention was called to their increase
+in one of the contemporary weekly journals, where a
+calculation was made that on Sundays alone two
+hundred thousand people visited the tea-gardens
+situated on the northern side of London; and as
+half-a-crown per head was probably the least sum
+expended by them, it can be no exaggeration to
+state that Ł20,000 on a fine Sunday was taken at
+these places of amusement. Many cheap chairs must
+have been required at such places of entertainment."</p>
+
+<p>Between the year 1760 and the end of the century
+the Windsor chair was being made for general
+country use. "The backs and arms of these," continues
+Mr. Macquoid, "are made of hoops of yew,
+held together by a number of slender uprights and a
+perforated splat of the same tough and pliant wood;
+the seats were generally invariably of elm, as yew cut
+into a superficies of any size is liable to split; the
+legs and stretchers were generally of yew."</p>
+
+<div><a name="oliver_goldsmiths_chair" id="oliver_goldsmiths_chair"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_252.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OLIVER GOLDSMITH'S CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Wood, painted green, with circular seat, curved arms, and
+high back. Bequeathed by Oliver Goldsmith in 1774 to his
+friend, Dr. Hawes.</p>
+<p>(<i>Bethnal Green Museum.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Rail-back Variety.</b>&mdash;We have alluded to the use
+of the rail placed across the back from the top rail to
+the seat, crossing the uprights. It is not an elegant
+device, but it was used as a means of strengthening
+the back. It seems almost unnecessary, although
+possibly these chairs received a good deal of rough
+<a id="Page_251"></a>
+<a id="Page_252"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span>
+usage. Later, when the fiddle splat began to be
+employed, this transverse rail&mdash;sometimes there were
+two used&mdash;was discontinued. An historic example of
+the chair with transverse rails is that which was once
+in the possession of Oliver Goldsmith. There is no
+doubt about the authenticity of this, as it was
+bequeathed by the poet to his medical attendant,
+Dr. Hawes, who, by the way, was the founder of the
+Royal Humane Society. Goldsmith told his farmer
+friends at his cottage at Edgware that he should never
+in future spend more than two months a year in
+London, and at the time of his death in 1774 he was
+negotiating the sale of the lease of his Temple chambers.
+This chair (illustrated p. <a href="#Page_250">251</a>) has a rather small
+shaped seat, curved arms, a top rail that is of exceptional
+interest considering the date, which is, say, from
+1770 to 1774, perhaps a little earlier. This was at the
+commencement of the Hepplewhite period, which
+lasted till 1790. The year 1768 was, as we have
+already said, the date at which chairs with straight
+top rails, designed by Adam and executed by
+Chippendale, were first made. The turned legs are
+interesting, showing the hoofed foot, and the turned
+stretcher retains an earlier form. The chair is of
+soft wood, probably beech, and is painted green. It
+is preserved at the Bethnal Green Museum, with the
+distinctive label on the stand: "Oliver Goldsmith's
+Chair."</p>
+
+<p><b>The Splat Back and the Cabriole Leg.</b>&mdash;It is here that
+the Windsor chair assumes a character essentially
+charming and attracts the admiration of connoisseurs
+of styles that are peculiarly English. The splat back
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span>
+is a feature only found in English varieties of the
+Windsor chair. In America a great deal of attention
+has been paid to old types, and there the pliant
+hickory wood is used in the making of chairs of this
+form; but the splat back is never used in America,
+and when found by collectors there the piece is
+attributed to English manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>The splat, with its varying forms, denotes the date
+of the chair. From 1740 to 1770 the form with
+cabriole legs and with finely ornamented fiddle splat
+was at its best. We illustrate a sufficient number of
+specimens to show how graceful and perfectly well
+balanced these chairs had become. In contemplating
+pieces remarkable for the highest style, it must be
+admitted that their artistry and their simple unaffected
+sense of comfort do make a direct appeal
+to those who are willing to recognise fine qualities
+in minor furniture.</p>
+
+<p>The two chairs illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_254">255</a>) differ slightly
+in details of construction. That on the left has the
+plain urn splat, a survival of the Queen Anne type.
+The seat is finely shaped and the legs are cabriole
+form. The top rail is almost straight, and is
+ornamented at the two ends with turned discs.
+The three stretchers are turned, and in the adjacent
+chair the stretchers are similar, save in a slight variation
+in the pattern of the turning. But here the
+splat is perforated with an intricate design suggestive
+of the lines of Chippendale; the top rail is a departure
+in form, imparting a distinctiveness which
+lifts the chair from the ordinary type.</p>
+
+<div><a name="chairs_with_fiddle_splat_and_cabriole_legs" id="chairs_with_fiddle_splat_and_cabriole_legs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_256.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>WINDSOR CHAIR.</p>
+<p>With plain fiddle splat of Queen Anne type, Chippendale top rail
+and cabriole legs, and three turned stretchers.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>WINDSOR CHAIR.</p>
+<p>With pierced fiddle splat, shaped arms, cabriole legs, and
+three turned stretchers.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="chippendale_and_hepplewhite_windsor_chairs" id="chippendale_and_hepplewhite_windsor_chairs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_258a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CHIPPENDALE WINDSOR CHAIRS.</p>
+<p>Chippendale splats. The type of splat indicates the date of Windsor chairs.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_258b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>HEPPLEWHITE WINDSOR CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Exceptionally fine legs back and front. Urn
+back. Probably Welsh carving.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>HEPPLEWHITE PERIOD WINDSOR CHAIR.</p>
+<p>With wheel back, in yew.</p>
+<p>(<i>By courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell &amp; Sons.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Chippendale Style Windsor Chairs.</b>&mdash;The page of
+<a id="Page_255"></a>
+<a id="Page_256"></a>
+<a id="Page_257"></a>
+<a id="Page_258"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span>
+chairs (p. <a href="#Page_254">257</a>) tells its own story. The beautiful
+sweep of the curved back is always a sign of the
+old and true form. Later imitations or replicas
+seem somehow to lose this effect. It has been suggested
+that the back of this style was produced by
+the village wheelwright in horseshoe form, but possibly
+that is a conjecture which is more fanciful than
+real. It has also&mdash;collectors are often fond of inventing
+theories to fit little-known facts&mdash;been asserted
+that the wheel-back variety, which is of somewhat
+more modern growth, is due to the same origin.
+This wheel is fretted with six triangular openings.
+One chair on this page has the wheel unperforated.
+In the examination of the details of the four
+examples there is nothing of great importance to
+differentiate them from each other in construction.
+The two at the top are suggestive of Chippendale in
+the ornament employed in the splat. The lower two
+incline more to the slightly later Hepplewhite period.
+Of these the one on the left has only fourteen upright
+rails at the lower portion and six in the upper portion
+of the back, in comparison with sixteen and eight in
+the other chairs. The legs of this chair are exceptionally
+fine both back and front. The work in the
+splat is slightly suggestive of Welsh carving, especially
+that style associated with Welsh love-spoons.</p>
+
+<p>Following the influence of Chippendale and
+Hepplewhite came the style of Sheraton, which
+after 1790 began to affect the character of some
+forms of minor furniture. That this was a very real
+factor is often shown most unexpectedly in cottage
+and farmhouse pieces. The satinwood and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span>
+painted panel, and the intricacies and subtleties of
+his employment of colour, were of course too far
+removed from the simple cabinet-work of the country
+maker to have the least effect upon him, even if he
+ever saw them. But the slenderness and elegance of
+the Sheraton styles did in a small degree have weight
+with cabinet-makers as a whole in the provinces.
+So that it is quite within reasonable surmise to
+attribute certain forms to the Sheraton school, or
+rather to the oncoming of the early nineteenth-century
+mannerisms. On p. <a href="#Page_260">261</a> two examples are
+illustrated showing this influence. The one with the
+horseshoe back is devoid of the splat, which had
+now disappeared. The turned legs begin to show
+signs of modernity. The other has the top-rail
+familiar in later forms of cottage chair. The turned
+rails for the arms and the type of turning in the legs
+show signs of decadence. The fine days of the old
+Windsor chair were coming to an end.</p>
+
+<div><a name="sheraton_style_windsor_chairs" id="sheraton_style_windsor_chairs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_262.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>WINDSOR CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Horseshoe back, saddle seat, turned legs, with stretcher.
+Sheraton style.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>WINDSOR CHAIR.</p>
+<p>Curved top rail, turned arms, legs, and stretcher. Sheraton
+style, pierced fiddle splat.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>The Survival of the Windsor Chair Type.</b>&mdash;Apart
+from the love of the simple form and especially well-conceived
+design of the Windsor chair, which have
+made it at once the especial favourite of artists and
+lovers of simplicity and utility, it has won the practical
+approval of generations of innkeepers, who to
+this day store hundreds of chairs for use at village
+festivals. What we have said in regard to the popularity
+of the gate-leg table applies in greater degree
+to the Windsor chair. The industry of turning the
+legs and rails of this type of chair is still carried on
+in Buckinghamshire. Until recent years much of
+this turning was done by hand by villagers in the
+<a id="Page_261"></a>
+<a id="Page_262"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">263</a></span>
+district surrounding High Wycombe, where the parts
+are sent to be finished and made up. To this day
+some of the old chair-makers use the antiquated pole
+lathe. But the chairs have departed from their old
+stateliness. It is true that they have survived, almost
+in spite of themselves. They are not now the objects
+of beauty they once were. But they have, by reason
+of modern requirements, found a fresh field of usefulness.
+Will it be supposed that the modern office
+chair is in reality a Windsor? An examination will
+at once show this, even in the latest American types.
+The saddle-shaped seat is there, the straight turned
+legs, and the back is the same except that the upper
+extension has disappeared and the old centre rail has
+become broader as a properly-formed rest for the
+tired clerk's back. A perusal of a few catalogues of
+up-to-date office furniture will establish this. Here,
+then, is the last stage of the country Windsor chair.
+The twentieth-century Windsor has come to town
+and graces the head cashier's private office in a
+bank or the senior partner's room of a firm of
+stockbrokers.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_264"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_265"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IX<br />
+LOCAL TYPES</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_266"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER IX<br />
+<span class="medium">LOCAL TYPES</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">Welsh carving&mdash;Scottish types&mdash;Lancashire dressers,
+wardrobes, and chairs&mdash;Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire,
+Cambridge, and Essex tables&mdash;Isle of Man tables.</p>
+
+<p>The charm of collecting cottage and farmhouse
+furniture lies in the wide area over which it is found.
+Those who have given especial attention to collecting
+it have learned instinctively to differentiate between
+the work of various localities. Some well-defined
+types of cottage furniture are only to be found in
+certain counties, and nowhere else. Take for example
+the ladder-back and the spindle chairs. The latter
+are usually found in the northern half and the former
+in the southern half of England. It is obvious that
+craftsmen developing on original lines, or on lines
+more or less apart from outside influence, must
+establish designs peculiarly identified with their
+field of labours.</p>
+
+<p>The sturdy insularity of the British peasant, and
+his uneasy reception of foreign suggestion, have had
+a very pronounced influence upon his methods of
+work. He has the defects of his qualities, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span>
+stern, almost uncompromising conservatism in habit
+of mind and in his daily pursuits. A close study of
+the thoughts, and as far as is recorded the written
+ideals, of the rural labouring population exhibit
+an extraordinary fixity of purpose in clinging
+tenaciously to old customs. The country songs
+more often than not express disapproval of innovations
+and call up the memories of slowly vanishing
+customs. The farm hands recall wistfully the old
+style of Shearers' feasts and Harvest homes, when
+great festivities with song and dance and old country
+sports enlivened the company. In Yorkshire this
+was termed the Mel Supper, in Kent the Kern
+Supper, and in parts of the North of England it
+was called the Churn Supper. Annual feasts were
+given to labourers such as the Wayzgoose or Bean
+feast, which later name remains to this day. The
+good old days is a refrain not confined to the cottager
+in his relation with the farmer. The farmer, imbued
+with the same wistful regard for the vanished past,
+bewails the May Day tenants' feast of the eighteenth-century
+English squire.</p>
+
+<p>We get touches of disdain for the oncoming fashion
+of seclusion which invaded the farmhouse in "A
+Farmer's Boy," by Robert Bloomfield. He laments
+that the annual feast of the harvest home had lost
+its former joviality. This was written in 1798.</p>
+
+<p>"The aspect only with the substance gone."
+Evidently the mug that passed around was becoming
+a thing of the past.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
+<div class="line">"The self-same Horn is still at our command,</div>
+<div class="line i0h">But serves none now but the plebeian hand."</div>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p><a id="Page_269"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_270"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span>
+The picture he draws of the farmer who, in face of
+prevailing fashion, "yields up the custom that he
+dearly loves" is pathetic. The long table and
+dining in common together had seemingly vanished.
+"The <i>separate</i> table and the costly bowl" touch
+the rustic poet's pride. He italicises the word
+"separate."</p>
+
+<div><a name="chest_dated_1636_welsh" id="chest_dated_1636_welsh"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_270a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>CHEST. DATED 1636.</p>
+<p>With Welsh inscription on lid. (Standing on table of later date.)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="cupboard_dated_1710_welsh" id="cupboard_dated_1710_welsh"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_270b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>WELSH CUPBOARD.</p>
+<p>With typical coarse style of carving. Should be 1650 at latest.
+Inscribed I.S. 1710.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>This loving regard for the past is natural at a
+time when the rural population jealously feared the
+oncoming of the age of machinery, which threatened
+to supersede many of their local industries and finally
+succeeded in so doing. The obstinate adherence to
+old forms was possibly part of a nervous fear of the
+unknown future. The love for existing forms of
+furniture was therefore part of this apprehensive
+retention of tradition. Not only was the resistance
+of town fashions a strong feature, but local prejudices
+prevailed against the adoption of designs belonging
+to rival counties. To this day the Staffordshire
+clothes-horse, carried on pulleys to the ceiling when
+not in use, differs from the clothes-horse of the
+cottager in the South with no such mechanical
+device. In Edinburgh, in the narrow closes, there
+is a kind of gallows projecting from the windows.</p>
+
+<p>These apparently minor details which find their
+embodiment in articles of everyday use, fascinate
+and hold the attention of the acute collector of
+cottage furniture.</p>
+
+<p>The same local types apply to the art of the potter
+and are well known to collectors. There are Sussex
+"tygs" and Nottingham "bears" and Sunderland
+and Newcastle jugs and mugs. Bristol had its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span>
+characteristic earthenware, and the Lowestoft china
+factory was strongly Suffolk in its homely inscriptions
+with a touch of dialect.</p>
+
+<p><b>Welsh Carving.</b>&mdash;Wales is famous for the abundance
+of the oak farmhouse furniture proudly kept to this
+day in families who have held the same homestead
+sometimes for centuries. One of the most noticeable
+features is the elaboration of the carving and its
+native representation, coarsely carved, without
+foreign influence, of birds and beasts and heraldic
+monsters which largely figure in the decorative
+panels of chests, and especially dressers. So popular
+was oak that it might almost be advanced that
+there never was any mahogany in Wales. But it
+is indisputable that the great outburst in carved
+mahogany chairbacks coincident with the advent of
+Chippendale and the publication of his <i>Director</i>,
+never penetrated Wales, although it led to the
+foundation of a remarkable school of woodcarving
+on the new lines in Ireland, known as Irish Chippendale,
+a study of which can be made in Mr. Owen
+Wheeler's volume on old furniture.</p>
+
+<p>The intense love of the Welsh woodcarver for
+intricacy is hardly less than that of the sturdy Swiss
+craftsmen environed by mountains. Perhaps the long
+winters and the solitary life influence the development
+of individual character in the applied arts.
+The Welsh love-spoons of wood, linked together
+and exhibiting delicate pierced work and minute
+carving of no mean order, are among other attractive
+specimens of native art. Ironwork of fine quality
+is also to be found in Wales.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_273"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="elm_wardrobe_welsh_oak_dresser_lancashire" id="elm_wardrobe_welsh_oak_dresser_lancashire"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_274a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>LANCASHIRE DRESSER. ABOUT 1730-1750.</p>
+<p>Oak inlaid with mahogany.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_274b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>ELM WARDROBE (WELSH). ABOUT 1670.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_274"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_275"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="flap_top_table_hertfordshire_type" id="flap_top_table_hertfordshire_type"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_276a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>FLAP-TOP TABLE.</p>
+<p>Rare Hertfordshire Example. Diameter of top, 2 ft. 6 ins.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell &amp; Sons.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="spindle_back_chairs_lancashire" id="spindle_back_chairs_lancashire"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_276b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>LANCASHIRE SPINDLE-BACK CHAIRS.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><a id="Page_276"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span>
+A carved oak chest of Welsh origin, dated 1636,
+with Welsh inscription on lid, is illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_271">269</a>).
+The table on which it stands is of a later date. The
+carving in this piece is delicate and the middle panel
+is typical of the representation of birds and foliage.
+The Welsh cupboard on the same page typifies the
+coarse woodcarving associated with Welsh farmhouse
+art. In style this really belongs to a date
+not later than 1650. But it is dated 1710 and bears
+the initials "I.S." This is an interesting example,
+showing how middle-Jacobean styles lingered in
+country districts remote from outside influence until
+the early eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>An elm wardrobe, probably about 1670 in date,
+shows another type, but still retaining the coarse
+character of its carving and its well-filled panels
+and uprights (illustrated p. <a href="#Page_273">273</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Scottish Types.</b>&mdash;Scotland has antiquities of her own
+which are closely allied to those of all the Gaelic
+races. As with Welsh carved farmhouse furniture,
+there is a marked leaning towards coarse style. As
+a rule it is too utilitarian in appearance to display
+much carving. The spinning-wheel is still found
+in farmhouses, and is still used in Harris and the
+outlying islands. Sometimes these old Highland
+spinning-wheels come into the market with the
+smooth surface worn by generations of workers, a
+surface impossible to reproduce. The Scottish ironwork
+is especially interesting. Perhaps the most
+curious of the Scottish antiquities is the crusie. This
+is undoubtedly a survival of the classic oil lamp. It
+consists of a shallow trough with a spout in which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span>
+the wick stands, the oil being contained in the trough
+(see illustration, p. <a href="#Page_288">289</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Lancashire Furniture.</b>&mdash;The especial characteristics
+of Lancashire-made furniture are a strong leaning to
+solid structure and a very noticeable reticence in
+carving. Well-balanced as a rule, and possessing
+good joinery, they have been favourites with collectors
+of furniture designed for modern use. A
+Queen Anne oak dresser illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_137">135</a>) shows
+this Lancashire sturdiness at its best. This style
+of large dresser with cabriole legs is associated with
+Lancashire cabinet work.</p>
+
+<p>A Lancashire dresser, the date of which is from
+about 1730 to 1750, shows the oak dresser inlaid with
+mahogany. The carved pediment and the carved
+underwork beneath the drawers mark this as an
+unusual specimen (p. <a href="#Page_273">273</a>).</p>
+
+<p>A typical Lancashire oak settle is illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>),
+showing the Jacobean style in the carved work and
+in the arms. In date this is about 1660. It will be
+noticed that the front of the seat has a row of holes,
+which, prior to the upholstered cushion, a later
+addition, were intended for ropes to support a
+cushion, much in the same manner as the iron laths
+of a modern bedstead.</p>
+
+<p>On the same page is illustrated an oak chest of
+drawers of Yorkshire origin, in date about 1770. Its
+plain lines suggest the Hepplewhite types of subdued
+character.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to spindle-back chairs, Lancashire offers
+distinctive varieties. Two examples are illustrated
+(p. <a href="#Page_275">275</a>) as indicating this local type.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_279"></a></p>
+
+<div><a name="oak_chest_of_drawers_yorkshire_type" id="oak_chest_of_drawers_yorkshire_type"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_280a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1770.</p>
+<p>Yorkshire type.</p>
+<p>Height, 3 ft. 3 ins.; width, 3 ft. 1 in.; depth, 1 ft. 5-1/2 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="lancashire_oak_settle_c_1660" id="lancashire_oak_settle_c_1660"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_280b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>LANCASHIRE OAK SETTLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1660.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="three_legged_table_isle_of_man" id="three_legged_table_isle_of_man"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_282a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>ISLE OF MAN TABLE.</p>
+<p>Showing three legs with knee breeches and buckle
+shoes.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="cricket_tables_hertfordshire_south_beds_cambridge_and_essex" id="cricket_tables_hertfordshire_south_beds_cambridge_and_essex"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_282b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>"CRICKET" TABLE. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1700.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>"CRICKET." <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C.</i> 1750.</p>
+<p>(These types are found in Hertfordshire, South Bedfordshire, South Cambridge, and Essex.)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><a id="Page_280"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_281"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_282"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">283</a></span>
+<b>Three Legged Tables.</b>&mdash;Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire,
+Cambridge, and Essex have produced a type of
+tables termed colloquially "cricket tables," possibly
+because the three legs are suggestive of three stumps.
+The term is a foolish one and not very appropriate.
+A very interesting flap-top table with the three flaps
+to turn down, illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_275">275</a>), is a very rare Hertfordshire
+example. This is small in size, having only
+a diameter of two and a half feet.</p>
+
+<p>Two other tables, one in date about 1700 and the
+other, of slender form, in date about 1750, are typical
+of this class of table. A very interesting table is a
+specimen from the Isle of Man having three carved
+legs with knee-breeches and buckle shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Sussex is also well-known for her ironwork (see
+Chapter X.).</p>
+
+<p>Norfolk and Suffolk used to have a class of oak
+furniture of quaint type, less cumbersome than the
+Welsh. A type of Sheraton Windsor chair, often
+inlaid with brass, used also to be found there.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, those localities which are removed
+from important towns are the richest in cottage
+furniture, for example, Wales, Devonshire, Cumberland,
+Northumberland, and parts of Yorkshire. In
+places, where the prosperity of the peasants is of long
+standing, the cottage furniture has been maintained
+whole almost until the present day.</p>
+
+<p>Altogether the study of local types affords considerable
+scope for critical study. It is essential that
+such pieces should be identified and classified before
+it is too late. Rapidly all cottage and farmhouse
+furniture is being scattered over all parts of England.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span>
+Collectors transfer furniture from the North to the
+South, and the rural treasures of the peasant have
+been brought to towns and dispersed to alien districts.
+The Education Act of 1870 and the halfpenny
+newspaper have brought town fashions to the door of
+the cottager, and the motor has laid a heavy tribute
+on rustic seclusion.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_285"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER X<br />
+MISCELLANEOUS<br />
+IRONWORK, Etc.</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_286"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER X<br />
+<span class="medium">MISCELLANEOUS IRONWORK, ETC.</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">The rushlight-holder&mdash;The dipper&mdash;The chimney crane&mdash;The
+Scottish crusie&mdash;Firedogs&mdash;The Warming-pan&mdash;Sussex
+firebacks&mdash;Grandfather clocks.</p>
+
+<p>The everyday iron utensils and implements of the
+cottages were simple. It is one of the curious
+features of the English peasantry that just as they
+clung to their oak of generations back when mahogany
+was in vogue, so they adhered tenaciously
+to ironwork of almost medićval character when
+other metals were in fashionable everyday use.
+Thus the cottager did not feel the oncoming desire
+for the brass, or later silver and plated candlesticks,
+but remained firm in his affection for the rushlight-holders
+in iron, the same types which his ancestors
+had used, and the firedogs and firebacks of earlier
+type remained to decorate his hearth. Thus ironwork
+and rarely brasswork form the sum total of
+the metal portion of cottage furniture. We will
+deal with these various utilitarian objects one by one.</p>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that the country farmer
+was not familiar with ready-made candles, and it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">288</a></span>
+probably no more entered his head to purchase
+candles in a town than it occurred to him to do
+other than bake his own bread. The cottager therefore
+made his candles for himself. If he were
+well-to-do and could afford to entertain his friends
+in modest fashion, he would doubtless like to illuminate
+his table with candles of symmetrical form.
+In which case he would use a candle-mould, and
+the wax bought in towns would serve for this
+purpose. But he was not always so rich, and
+perhaps he was happiest of all with the faintly
+glimmering rush dips which his forbears used.
+These afforded a rough-and-ready form of lighting.
+They burned and spluttered like a torch or flickered
+faintly as the tallow grew thin. Their form closely
+resembled an amateur's first attempt at making a
+cigarette. They were made in the following manner:
+the thin wirelike rushes which grew by the water's
+edge were gathered and stripped of their green
+surface till only the soft white pith remained. This
+served as a wick. The wax was then melted over
+a fire in a trough or candle-dipper, of which an
+illustration appears (p. <a href="#Page_288">289</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Across this long receptacle the pith wicks were
+laid till the wax soaked into them. They were
+then taken out for the wax to cool and were dipped
+once or twice afterwards in order to form their
+outer coating. By such a primitive process a kind
+of thin taper was formed. It was not parallel along
+its sides, but bulged and narrowed throughout its
+length in primitive manner.</p>
+
+<div><a name="rushlight_holders_scotch_crusie_candle_dipper_pipe_cleaner_etc" id="rushlight_holders_scotch_crusie_candle_dipper_pipe_cleaner_etc"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_290a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>RUSHLIGHT HOLDERS.</p>
+<p>Showing rush fixed ready for lighting.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>SCOTCH CRUSIE.</p>
+<p>With holder.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>RUSHLIGHT HOLDERS.</p>
+<p>Showing forceps for holding
+rushlight.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_290b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SUFFOLK PIPE CLEANER.</p>
+<p>The long clay "churchwarden" pipes were placed in this iron rack and
+put into the fire, after which they came out perfectly cleaned.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>CANDLE-DIPPER.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>(<i>In the collection of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="queen_anne_pot_hanger_with_original_grate" id="queen_anne_pot_hanger_with_original_grate"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_292a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>QUEEN ANNE POT-HANGER.</p>
+<p>With original grate. Same date.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="kettle_trivet" id="kettle_trivet"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_292b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>KETTLE TRIVET.</p>
+<p>Brass and Iron. Dated about 1770.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Such a taper, from its uneven thickness, would
+<a id="Page_289"></a>
+<a id="Page_290"></a>
+<a id="Page_291"></a>
+<a id="Page_292"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">293</a></span>
+naturally not fit the socket of a candlestick, and the
+only receptacle would be a scissor-like mechanism
+with jaws capable of clasping it at any point.
+Thus we find the rushlight-holder of common use,
+as illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_288">289</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations show two rush-holders with the
+rushlights affixed in position ready for lighting,
+and one showing how the jaws or forceps clip
+the rushlight. In practice about an inch or an
+inch and a half was above the clip and the rest
+below. A rushlight some twelve to fifteen inches
+long would burn half an hour, and it had to
+receive constant attention, being pushed upwards
+every five minutes. But it must be remembered
+that the persons who used this primitive form of
+light did not use it for reading nor for a long
+period at a time. They usually went to bed early
+after sunset.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to rushlight-holders the earliest form
+was without the accompanying candle-socket, but
+when the use of tallow dip candles became prevalent,
+later forms are found, as illustrated, with the
+candle-socket in addition to the holder for the
+rushlight.</p>
+
+<p>The Scottish crusie is an iron trough of dimensions
+like a small sauceboat, which was used for lighting
+purposes, and was often suspended, as in the one
+illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_288">289</a>), from a crane or hanger. This
+crusie was filled with oil and the illumination given
+by a floating wick, much in the same manner as
+classic examples, to which the shape bears a distant
+resemblance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span>
+The firedogs were always simple, doubtless the
+product of the local blacksmith. Where they had
+hooks along the backs they held crossbars to
+prevent the logs falling into the room. The dates
+of these, as of all cottage ironwork, are almost impossible
+to fix, owing to the survival of the earlier
+types even so late as the middle of the nineteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Chimney Crane.</b>&mdash;A most important part of the
+cottager's fireplace was his chimney crane. These
+were of two kinds, the pot-hook and the swing-arm
+variety. The pot-hook hung in the chimney from
+a chain, and from its teeth was fixed a catch which
+might be lowered or raised to keep the cauldron at
+a level with the flames.</p>
+
+<p>The swing-arm type is more elaborate, and was
+made to fit very large fireplaces, where the fire might
+not invariably be in the same spot on the hearth.
+This type was used in the kitchens of the better
+farmhouses. Its end was fixed to the wall of the
+hearth, and the pot could be swung backwards and
+forwards and sideways, besides being raised or
+lowered to the fire.</p>
+
+<p>The pot-hook is of great antiquity, and belongs
+to days when man first learned to cook his food.
+Frequently in this country early examples are dug
+up. There are fine specimens to be seen of the
+late Celtic period at the Owens College Museum,
+at the Northampton Museum, at the Liverpool
+Museum, at the Pitt Rivers Museum at Farnham,
+at the Victoria and Albert Museum, and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>"Pot-hooks and hangers" is an English phrase
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span>
+denoting the beginning of things academic, and
+the French phrase <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pendre la crémaillčre</i> (literally
+to hang the pot-hook) is used to-day in reference
+to what we term a "house-warming" party on
+settling in a new abode.</p>
+
+<p>Another interesting cottage treasure is the cake-baker.
+This was a kind of thick frying-pan having
+a lid, which protected the dough from the heat when
+it was held over the smouldering ashes. The tops
+of these are often incised with quaint patterns, the
+impress of which appears on the cake.</p>
+
+<p>Kettle-trivets are sometimes found in cottages,
+possibly relics from better houses or having belonged
+to the more prosperous farmer. They are not
+wholly of iron, being partly of brass. The specimen
+illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_288">291</a>) is of late eighteenth-century
+days.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Warming-pan.</b>&mdash;There is an especial charm
+in the old brass warming-pan of the farmhouse and
+the treasured highly-polished ornament of many
+a proud cottager to-day. Many modern-made
+warming-pans from Holland and elsewhere have
+found their way into the possession of unsuspecting
+collectors. But fine old English warming-pans
+are interesting, and summon up memories of careful
+housewives and well-aired lavender-smelling sheets in
+ancient old-world inns. On fine examples inscriptions
+may be found, and the incised work of the pattern
+on the brass covers is often individual in character.</p>
+
+<p>Of the examples illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_311">307</a>) one has an
+incised inscription around the edge, "The Lord only
+is my portion." The other has a dotted geometrical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span>
+pattern with a star-like design of conventional floral
+incised work.</p>
+
+<p>It is unfortunate that the diligence of the housewife
+has often obliterated much of the fine work of
+some of these designs. The warming-pan offers in
+itself a complete field for the collector. He can
+compare the work of seventeenth-century Dutch
+examples, with their quaint religious inscriptions
+and their finely embossed and engraved ornamentation,
+with English specimens of the same date.
+That the warming-pan was in use in Elizabethan
+days is proved by references in Shakespeare. It
+has a long history, from Sir John Falstaff, when
+Bardolph was bidden to put his face between the
+sheets and do the office of a warming-pan, to
+Mr. Pickwick&mdash;to quote Sergeant Buzfuz, "Don't
+trouble yourself about the warming-pan&mdash;the
+warming-pan! Why, gentlemen, who does trouble
+himself about a warming-pan?"</p>
+
+<p><b>Sussex Firebacks.</b>&mdash;The fireback was usually part
+of the cottager's belongings, though perhaps only one
+would figure in his house, where possibly his only
+hearth was in his living-room.</p>
+
+<p>These were cast and forged in various parts of the
+country, and large numbers appear to have been
+made in Sussex, which is, or rather was, the greatest
+hunting-ground for good specimens of cottagers'
+ironwork. Some highly interesting specimens of
+these are to be herein illustrated.</p>
+
+<p>The records of the Sussex iron industry go back to
+a very early date, and the town of Lewes, in the
+thirteenth century, raised taxes by charging a toll on
+<a id="Page_297"></a>
+<a id="Page_298"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">299</a></span>
+every cartload of iron admitted. Under Edward III.
+the Sussex ironworks provided three thousand horseshoes
+and twenty-nine thousand nails for the English
+army in its campaign in Scotland. The local
+rhyme&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
+<div class="line">"Master Hogge and his man John</div>
+<div class="line i0h">They did cast the first cannon"&mdash;</div>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>is not without reason, as in Bodiam Castle and elsewhere
+are mortars of Sussex work of fifteenth-century
+style. In the sixteenth century a considerable
+number of firebacks was made, some with the
+royal arms and with the royal cipher, "E.R.," and
+bearing dates and sometimes makers' names.</p>
+
+<div><a name="country_firedogs_and_fire_grate_eighteenth_century" id="country_firedogs_and_fire_grate_eighteenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_298a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>COUNTRY FIREDOGS. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_298b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>FIRE GRATE. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The earliest form was stamped with the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fleur-de-lys</i>
+or with portions of twisted cable to form some sort
+of symmetrical design. We are enabled, by the
+kindness of Mr. C. Dawson, F.S.A., of Lewes, to
+reproduce some Sussex firebacks from his collection.
+An example of the first half of the sixteenth century,
+illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_305">301</a>), shows the rope-like border impressed
+on the sand mould, and the field impressed
+with repetitions of a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fleur-de-lys</i> from a single stamp.
+Another interesting fireback is the "Royal Oak"
+design, with the initials "C.R." This is commemorative
+of the escape of Charles II. from pursuit by
+Cromwell's Ironsides and his refuge in the oak-tree.
+It will be observed that this specimen has a moulded
+edge, which is from a single wood pattern carved
+in one piece. Amidst the oak foliage will be seen
+three crowns, and this exuberance of loyalty bears
+a resemblance to certain chairs of the period (copied
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span>
+by the score nowadays), in which the crown finds a
+place in the stretcher.</p>
+
+<p>One fireback illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_305">303</a>) shows an ironmaster
+with his hammer at his forge. The adjacent
+piece has the Tudor rose surmounted by the royal
+crown, and bears the date 1650, slightly earlier than
+the "Royal Oak" example.</p>
+
+<p>All the foregoing specimens are native in their
+conception of design. They approximate closely to
+the Jacobean carved panel with its narrow range
+of subjects, and have a relationship to Stuart needlework
+with its royal symbolism. Later came the
+Dutch influence, most marked in its effect upon the
+shape, height, and character of these firebacks. This
+became especially noticeable in the eighteenth century,
+and in the illustrations (p. <a href="#Page_305">303</a>) of two wooden
+patterns from which the firebacks were made at
+Ashburnham, Sussex, this is clearly shown. The
+designs are ornate and represent either some
+scriptural or mythological subject. The woodcarving
+is of a style strongly under Dutch influence,
+and the tall proportions suggest gravestones (indeed,
+in Sussex there are headstones made of iron, with
+pictures and inscriptions).</p>
+
+<p>The mode of casting these iron firebacks in sand
+and the employment of wooden patterns to form the
+mould into which the molten metal was to run is
+familiar to any foundry in casting iron. In regard
+to the early examples with the twisted cable rim,
+it is conjectured that pieces of twisted rope were
+actually laid on the wet sand to produce this pattern&mdash;that
+is, before the use of carved wooden patterns such
+<a id="Page_301"></a>
+<a id="Page_302"></a>
+<a id="Page_303"></a>
+<a id="Page_304"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">305</a></span>
+as are illustrated. In regard to the bolder "cable
+twist" pattern, it is believed this was produced by
+impression of pieces of rope stiffened with glue, and
+twisted around iron rods.</p>
+
+<div><a name="sussex_iron_firebacks" id="sussex_iron_firebacks"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_302a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SUSSEX IRON FIREBACK. FIRST HALF OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY.</p>
+<p>Rope-like border impressed on sand mould. The field impressed with
+repetitions from a single <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fleur-de-lys</i> stamp.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_302b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SUSSEX IRON FIREBACK.</p>
+<p>The Royal Oak Design, commemorative of the Restoration. Late Seventeenth Century.
+Moulded edge and carved in one piece from a single pattern.</p>
+<p>(<i>In the collection of Charles Dawson, Esq., F.S.A., Lewes.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="sussex_iron_firebacks_and_original_wood_pattern" id="sussex_iron_firebacks_and_original_wood_pattern"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_304a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>SUSSEX FIREBACKS.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>Tudor Rose surmounted by Royal
+Crown. Dated 1650.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>Depicting Ironmaster at his Forge.<br />
+(Very rusty and worn.)]
+</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_304b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>ORIGINAL WOODEN PATTERNS.</p>
+<p>Dutch influence. Eighteenth Century.
+From which firebacks were made at Ashburnham, Sussex.</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Charles Dawson, Esq., F.S.A., Lewes.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The size of the wooden pattern is slightly larger
+than the resultant fireback, owing to the shrinkage
+of the metal on cooling. This diminution in design
+is a factor in the potter's art, when figures in some
+cases lose nearly a third of their original proportions
+when moulded in the clay prior to firing.</p>
+
+<p>Firebacks have attracted a considerable amount
+of interest. There are many collectors, and a great
+deal of close study has been applied to the subject.
+Country museums in the vicinity of the Weald of
+Sussex and Kent contain many notable examples,
+especially those of Lewes, Hastings, Brighton,
+Rochester, Maidstone, and Guildford. In the first
+mentioned there are some very rare and beautiful
+examples of Sussex firebacks.</p>
+
+<p>Especially interesting in connection with the
+Sussex ironworks is the illustration (p. <a href="#Page_311">309</a>) of a clock
+face made by a local maker, Beeching of Ashburnham,
+in the late seventeenth century. This
+brass dial of a thirty-hour clock, with single hand
+and alarum, is ornamented with designs showing
+various phases of the iron industry as carried on in
+Sussex. There is a cannon with diminutive figures
+holding the match. There are cannon-balls, and a
+liliputian fireback with a crown on it. Men with
+pickaxes, men felling trees, and others tending the
+furnaces, symbolise the business of a foundry.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until 1690 that the minute numerals
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">306</a></span>
+were placed outside the minute divisions in clock
+faces, so that this face, having the minute numerals
+absent and the minute divisions in the inner circle,
+presumably belongs to the late seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p><b>Grandfather Clocks.</b>&mdash;A volume on cottage and
+farmhouse furniture would be incomplete without
+some reference to grandfather clocks. At the beginning
+of the eighteenth century this type of clock
+had become popular. The early brass-bracket clock
+known as "Cromwellian," varying from six to ten
+inches in height, had a spring. With the use of the
+long pendulum and revolving drums, around which
+catgut is wound to support the heavy weights, these
+unprotected parts required a wooden case.</p>
+
+<p>The "lantern" or "bird-cage" clocks (wallclocks
+from which the pendulum and weights hung unprotected)
+lasted till about 1680, when the first
+grandfather type with wood case came into use.</p>
+
+<p>The early examples with cases exhibiting fine
+marquetry are outside the scope of the class of
+furniture now under consideration. In such specimens
+there is frequently a round or oval opening covered
+with glass in the centre of the panel.</p>
+
+<p>In earlier types the metal dial is square, and later
+it became lunetted at top, and the wood case had a
+corresponding curve. In clocks made for great
+houses there were chimes, and their works were by
+well-known town makers. But in cottage examples,
+instead of the eight-day movement, more often than
+not the clock only ran for twenty-four hours. There
+is little attempt at ornament in these plain oak
+varieties. The case is soundly constructed, and
+<a id="Page_307"></a>
+<a id="Page_308"></a>
+<a id="Page_309"></a>
+<a id="Page_310"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">311</a></span>
+sometimes, in exceptional examples, the head is surmounted
+by brass ball finials, as in the finer examples.
+As a rule the country cabinet-maker confined himself
+to an ornamental scrolled head. In later examples
+the metal dial&mdash;and these come at the beginning of
+the nineteenth century&mdash;is painted with some rustic
+scene with figures, and frequently there is a revolving
+dial showing the days of the month.</p>
+
+<div><a name="grandfather_clock_and_warming_pans" id="grandfather_clock_and_warming_pans"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_308.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>WARMING-PANS.</p>
+<p>Finely decorated with incised work.
+One with inscription, "The Lord only is my portion."</p>
+<p>(<i>By the courtesy of Mr. S. G. Fenton.</i>)</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>GRANDFATHER CLOCK.</p>
+<p>With Oak Case.</p>
+<p>Made by J. Paxton, St. Neots. Height, 6 ft. 10 ins.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div><a name="brass_dial_of_thirty_hour_clock" id="brass_dial_of_thirty_hour_clock"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_310.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>BRASS DIAL OF THIRTY-HOUR CLOCK.</p>
+<p>Single Hand and Alarum. Late Seventeenth Century.</p>
+<p>Ornamented with designs showing various phases of the iron industry, as carried on
+at Ashburnham, Sussex.</p>
+<p>(<i>In the collection of Charles Dawson, Esq., F.S.A., Lewes.</i>)]</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The entire head covering the dial is often removable
+in old clocks to which there is no hinged door, as in
+later made examples.</p>
+
+<p>These country grandfather clocks are much
+treasured by their owners, and have been handed
+down in families for generations. Owing to the
+indefatigability of collectors and their persistent and
+tempting offers, many have left their old homes.
+The demand has been great, and thousands of
+"grandfather" clocks have been made during the
+last twenty years and sold as "antique," or old cases
+with plain panels have received the unwelcome
+attention of the modern restorer and have been
+carved to please a popular whim for carved oak
+panels.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to dates of grandfather clocks the
+records of the Clockmakers' Company give a list
+of makers of the eighteenth century, enabling the
+period to be fairly accurately fixed. The walnut
+cases inlaid with floral marquetry, often attributed
+to the period 1690-1725, that is William and Mary
+and Queen Anne, frequently belong to a quarter of
+a century later. The case-makers clung more closely
+to old designs than did the clockmakers. Hence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">312</a></span>
+the case very often is of apparently older style
+than the works, though both were made contemporaneously.
+In addition to this, new clocks
+were put in older cases, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vice versa</i>, which, like
+putting new pictures in old frames, adds to the gaiety
+of collecting.</p>
+
+<p>In general the London clock-cases are only
+roughly indicative, in comparison with the Company
+records, of contemporary styles of furniture. In
+country-made pieces the wood cases are anything
+from twenty to forty years behind London fashions.
+For example, the arched top occurs after 1720 in
+London, and after 1735 in the provinces. In the
+<i>Director</i> of Chippendale and in Sheraton's and
+Hepplewhite's books of designs there are illustrations
+of clock cases. The progression of styles of eighteenth-century
+grandfather clock cases is from plain oak
+to figured walnut, black and red lacquer, floral,
+"seaweed," or mosaic marquetry, and in the latter
+decades of the eighteenth century inlaid mahogany
+cases, and many of these have finely veneered panels.
+In many country clocks oak cases are veneered in
+mahogany, but as a rule country made grandfather
+cases are plain oak. The example illustrated (p. <a href="#Page_311">307</a>)
+indicates the plain type of solidly made provincial
+piece. The clock was made by J. Paxton at St.
+Neots.</p>
+
+<p>The mahogany-cased grandfather clock is never
+found in cottages. There are no Chippendale styles
+in this field for the collector to search for. The
+plainness of the country style has happily in many
+instances preserved them from alien hands. An
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">313</a></span>
+interesting revival, chiefly on account of expense, is
+found in the Dutch clock, with china face painted
+with flowers, which the cottager bought in early and
+middle nineteenth-century days. This form of clock
+reverted to the unprotected pendulum and weights,
+and is an object-lesson in what the style of English
+clock was before the use of a long wooden case.
+But these Dutch clocks are interesting rather than
+valuable, and have not yet claimed the attention of
+collectors.</p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_314"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_315"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XI<br />
+<a name="old_english_chintzes" id="old_english_chintzes"></a>
+OLD ENGLISH<br />
+CHINTZES</h2>
+
+<p><a id="Page_316"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">317</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHAPTER XI<br />
+<span class="medium">OLD ENGLISH CHINTZES</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">By Hugh Phillips</span></p>
+
+<p class="hanging2">The charm of old English chintz&mdash;Huguenot cloth-printers
+settle in England&mdash;Jacob Stampe at the sign
+of the Calico Printer&mdash;The Queen Anne period&mdash;The
+Chippendale period&mdash;The age of machinery.</p>
+
+<p>The present chapter has been added with perhaps
+some justification, since it seemed to the writer that
+such a subject as old English chintzes might appropriately
+take its place beside the equally homely
+craft of the rural cabinet-maker.</p>
+
+<p>For the chintz is the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tapisserie d'aubusson</i> of the
+peasant&mdash;it covers his chairs and drapes his windows,
+giving warmth and wealth of colour to the otherwise
+barren appearance of his cottage. Further, it reflects
+his simple horticultural tastes, for the brilliantly
+coloured roses, pansies, and convolvuluses which
+shine prominently on the glazed surface of the cloth
+are those flowers which are always to be found in his
+garden.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">318</a></span>
+Chintz or printed cotton is the only decorative
+fabric known to the village upholsterer. When
+persons of wealth hung their windows with silk
+brocades and covered their chairs with costly needlework
+and damasks, the rural cabinet-maker was
+supplying his modest <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">clientčle</i> with these homely
+patterns printed upon common cloth.</p>
+
+<p>These unassuming fabrics were as much cherished
+by the cottagers as anything which they possessed.
+The classical ornament of expensive silks they did
+not understand, and the freely treated birds and
+flowers which figured on chintz represented the
+Alpha and Omega of beauty in textile design.</p>
+
+<p>So great, indeed, is the fascination of these for the
+cottagers that to-day, in districts less penetrated
+by modern advance, the rural populace will not
+extend their affections to the up-to-date designs of
+upholsterers, but insist upon the old spot and sprig
+patterns of their ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>There is much wisdom in the conservative taste of
+the peasant, for the old chintz of the eighteenth and
+early nineteenth centuries was of the highest artistic
+merit. In the heyday of its fame the fabric was
+exceedingly fashionable amongst the richest persons,
+and there are abundant records of the popularity of
+old English chintzes upon the Continent. For, at
+its best periods, the chintz was not a base imitation
+of more expensive fabrics; it did not, for instance,
+occupy the relationship of pewter to silver or
+moulded composition to genuine woodcarving. On
+the contrary, the designing of chintzes is an art of
+distinction, governed by canons which bear little
+<a id="Page_319"></a>
+<a id="Page_320"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">321</a></span>
+relationship to other decorative textile crafts. For
+where the silk-weaver is confined to solid patterns
+which will appear in his transverse threads, the printer
+of cloths can wander unrestrained into designs of
+wonderful intricacy and beauty: every colour in
+nature he can imitate, and no object is too delicate
+or too rich to stamp upon his cotton. Indeed, his art
+stops little short of that of the painter of pictures.</p>
+
+<div><a name="old_trade_card_showing_calico_printers_at_work" id="old_trade_card_showing_calico_printers_at_work"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_320a.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>OLD TRADE CARD SHOWING CALICO PRINTERS AT WORK.</p>
+<p>"Jacob Stampe living at ye Sighn of the Callico Printer in Hounsditch Prints
+all sorts of Callicoes Lineings Silkes Stuffs New or Ould at Reasonable Rates."</p>
+<p>(<i>From old print at British Museum.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div><a name="huguenot_printed_chintz_with_portraits" id="huguenot_printed_chintz_with_portraits"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_320b.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>ENGLISH PRINTED CALICO. ABOUT 1690.</p>
+<p>With contemporary portraits.</p>
+<p>(<i>By courtesy of Mr. T. D. Phillips.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>A glance at the illustrations will more closely
+confirm this, for such designs could not be imitated
+by any other textile process, the multitudinous
+twists and curves and the delicate shades and patches
+of colour being only possible to the printer.</p>
+
+<p>Interesting as is the study of old chintzes, the
+history of the art in England is even more fascinating.
+From the obscurity of a small local craft it became
+one of our great national industries.</p>
+
+<p>Of its earliest history in England we know nothing,
+and a search among old documents fails to reveal
+any traces of chintz-printing before the Renaissance.
+There are several vague references to the subject in
+the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but none
+of them disclose any solid information. Thus the
+question of who was the first chintz-printer remains
+an unsolved riddle. It appears, however, that in the
+seventeenth century there was a gradual immigration
+of foreign workmen of Dutch and French nationalities
+who were well versed in the art of cotton-printing&mdash;then
+well established upon the Continent. These
+people came over in gradually increasing numbers,
+their arrival culminating in the huge influx of
+foreigners about 1650 to 1700.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">322</a></span>
+The majority of them were by trade silk-weavers
+and printers. Their departure was a serious blow
+to France, for they transferred to England what had
+been great national industries in France. Settling
+in and about London, the refugees peaceably recommenced
+their work, and soon the weaving of
+silks in Spitalfields and the printing of chintzes in
+Richmond, Bow, and Old Ford became a source of
+great prosperity to this country.</p>
+
+<p>On p. <a href="#Page_321">319</a> is an illustration of a seventeenth-century
+trade card of one of the chintz-printers, or,
+as they were then called, calico-printers. Here we
+see in a most lucid manner the process by which
+chintzes were produced in the time of James II.
+The inscription runs: "Jacob Stampe living at Ye
+Sighn of the Callico Printer in Hounsditch Prints all
+sorts of Callicoes Lineings Silkes Stuffs, New or
+Ould, at Reasonable Rates."</p>
+
+<p>A printer is standing at a table upon which is
+stretched a length of cloth, which falls in folds on
+the floor. He holds in his hand a wooden block,
+which he is applying at intervals to the cloth. The
+other hand contains a mallet, which is about to strike
+the wooden block and stamp the colour firmly into
+the threads of the material. Behind him is an
+apprentice boy, standing over a tub of colour, preparing
+the blocks for his master to use.</p>
+
+<div><a name="hand_printed_chintzes_queen_anne_period_and_chinese_style" id="hand_printed_chintzes_queen_anne_period_and_chinese_style"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_324.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ.</p>
+<p>Queen Anne Period.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ.</p>
+<p>Chinese style. Middle Eighteenth Century.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>By so clumsy a process very delicate work could
+not be produced, and, indeed, the few examples of
+this period which remain are very heavy in character.
+One of these, which has been lent by Mr. J. D. Phillips,
+the owner, is illustrated on p. <a href="#Page_321">319</a>. It belongs to the
+<a id="Page_323"></a>
+<a id="Page_324"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">325</a></span>
+end of the seventeenth century and corresponds to
+the William and Mary period of English furniture,
+being contemporary with the pieces illustrated on
+pp. <a href="#Page_79">77</a>, <a href="#Page_121">117</a> in the earlier chapters. It will be seen
+that this example contains two portraits in costume
+of the late Stuart period, possibly intended for
+portraits of William and Mary. Their portraits are
+of frequent occurrence on Lambeth delft of this
+period.</p>
+
+<p>The printer has only produced the outline, the
+colour being added by hand with a brush, for at
+this date the printing of colour by the successive
+application of blocks had not been mastered. The
+black ink to-day lies thick upon the cloth, as
+coarsely as though it had been dabbed on with a
+stencil. The material is a rough hand-woven canvas.
+Printed cloths of the period of Charles II. and
+James II. and William and Mary are exceedingly
+rare and seldom met with, as, owing to their
+roughness, they have been destroyed by subsequent
+owners. A few, however, are to be found on walnut
+chairs under the coverings of later date. Often,
+indeed, one meets a chair covered in Victorian
+horsehair which will reveal underneath the successive
+coverings of many generations of owners, including
+perhaps the material in which it was first
+upholstered.</p>
+
+<p>As the seventeenth century wore on and we enter
+upon the early years of the eighteenth century&mdash;the
+days of Queen Anne&mdash;the chintz-printers became
+more prosperous. Their work, owing to its increasing
+delicacy, met with great public approval,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">326</a></span>
+and it began to supplant woven silks for the purposes
+of curtains, coverings, and dresses. Thus the silk-weavers
+of Spitalfields found a declining market for
+their goods and soon came into friction with the
+printers. Much bad feeling ensued, and eventually
+their quarrels resulted in the distribution of defamatory
+literature which is to-day most amusing. The
+weavers circulated the curious "Spittlefields Ballad"
+against "Calico Madams," or the ladies who wore
+chintz dresses.</p>
+
+<p>THE SPITTLEFIELDS BALLADS</p>
+
+<p>OR THE</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Weaver's Complaint Against the Callico
+Madams</span></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
+<div class="line">Our trade is so bad</div>
+<div class="line">That the weavers run mad</div>
+<div class="line">Through the want of both work and provisions,</div>
+<div class="line">That some hungry poor rogues</div>
+<div class="line">Feed on grains like our hogs,</div>
+<div class="line">They're reduced to such wretched conditions,</div>
+<div class="line">Then well may they tayre</div>
+<div class="line">What our ladies now wear</div>
+<div class="line">And as foes to our country upbraid 'em,</div>
+<div class="line">Till none shall be thought</div>
+<div class="line">A more scandalous slut</div>
+<div class="line">Than a tawdry Callico Madam.</div>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<div class="line">When our trade was in wealth</div>
+<div class="line">Our women had health,</div>
+<div class="line">We silks, rich embroideries and satins,</div>
+<div class="line">Fine stuffs and good crapes</div>
+<div class="line">For each ord'nary trapes</div>
+<div class="line">That is destin'd to hobble in pattins;
+<a id="Page_327"></a>
+<a id="Page_328"></a></div>
+<div class="line"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">329</a></span>
+But now we've a Chince</div>
+<div class="line">For the wife of a prince,</div>
+<div class="line">And a butterfly gown for a gay dame,</div>
+<div class="line">Thin painted old sheets</div>
+<div class="line">For each trull in the streets</div>
+<div class="line">To appear like a Callico Madam.</div>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<div><a name="exotic_bird_and_gothic_styles_eighteenth_century" id="exotic_bird_and_gothic_styles_eighteenth_century"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_328.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ.</p>
+<p>Exotic-Bird style. Middle Eighteenth Century.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ.</p>
+<p>Gothic style. Late Eighteenth Century.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The poet in several long stanzas warms in his
+indignation, and finally directs his verse against the
+male friends of all fair wearers of chintzes, suggesting
+that&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
+<div class="line i1">  "It's no matter at all</div>
+<div class="line">If the Prince of Iniquity had 'em,</div>
+<div class="line i1">  Or that each for a bride</div>
+<div class="line i1">  Should be cursedly tied</div>
+<div class="line">To some damn'd Callico Madam."</div>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>It is not surprising that the weavers should find it
+difficult to set their productions against those of the
+cloth-printers, for the chintzes of this period are
+surpassingly beautiful. One of them is illustrated on
+p. <a href="#Page_322">323</a>. Here the material is no longer a rough
+canvas, but is now a light dress cambric, similar to
+the thin smooth chintz cloth which has survived till
+to-day. A delicate pattern of intertwining stems
+winds upwards, the stalks having blossoms of finely
+cut outline and brilliant colours. Old chintzes of
+this period may be recognised by their lightness and
+by the long thin designs of intermingling flowers of
+Indian type. These were all more or less borrowed
+from the Marsupalitan printed cloths brought over
+by the India trading companies, and the flowers and
+colourings of this date are nearly always very closely
+copied from Eastern originals, the cornflower and carnation
+being among those most frequently met with.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">330</a></span>
+The ill-feeling between the printers and weavers
+was of long duration, and eventually took the form of
+open riots and street demonstrations similar to those
+of to-day. On one occasion, in 1719, they went from
+Spitalfields to Westminster and protested against the
+popularity of chintzes and suggested that their use be
+forbidden. On the return journey they manifested
+their feelings by tearing off the chintz gowns of
+various ladies whom they met upon the route.
+Evidently Parliament pandered to these labour riots,
+for in 1736 printed cloths were forbidden by Act of
+Parliament, but this legislation was of short duration;
+the Act was soon repealed and the fascinating
+material became the rage once more.</p>
+
+<p>The next stage at which we look upon chintz-printing
+is about 1760, in the middle of the period
+of Chippendale furniture. This is the golden period
+of its printing. Technically and artistically the
+hand-printed chintz now reached its climax. Colour-work
+by superimposed blocks was in full swing, and
+the designer had, in the works of contemporary
+artists, a wider field for the selection of subjects
+suitable for his fabric. Among the many varieties
+of chintzes which we find at this date the most
+prominent are the Gothic and Chinese designs
+to suit the current taste in furniture, and the exotic
+bird patterns, which are perhaps the finest of all.</p>
+
+<div><a name="hand_printed_chintz_by_r_jones_old_ford" id="hand_printed_chintz_by_r_jones_old_ford"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_332.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ. ABOUT 1760.</p>
+<p>By R. Jones, of Old Ford, London.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The formation of the designs has changed considerably
+by this time and we no longer find the
+intertwining or serpentine form as in the Queen
+Anne chintzes. The flowers and objects to be
+printed are now massed together and represented as
+<a id="Page_331"></a>
+<a id="Page_332"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">333</a></span>
+little disjointed islands floating in mid-air. By this
+distinctive feature they may easily be recognised.
+One of these charming exotic bird chintzes is illustrated
+on p. <a href="#Page_329">327</a>. Here a pheasant is resting under
+a palm-tree upon a small island of densely packed
+foliage. The whole idea of the design is taken from
+the Chinese porcelain of the period. The bird, the
+flowers, and every object portrayed come from the
+East and are drawn in the manner constantly seen
+upon the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Famille Rose</i> dishes and vases of the period.
+These exotic bird patterns are not exclusively found
+upon chintzes, for the collector of English porcelain
+will be familiar with them in the early productions of
+the Bow and Worcester factories.</p>
+
+<p>Another feature which one notices in printed fabrics
+at this date is the buff ground. The cloth is white,
+and the pattern is printed upon it in this state so
+that the pinks, blues, and greens of the flowers
+may have every advantage of transparency. The
+buff background is then printed in afterwards, leaving
+a thin margin around the design. In this manner
+great richness and depth is given to the colours without
+undue harshness, which would be the result if
+they were exhibited upon a white background. The
+illustration on p. <a href="#Page_329">323</a> shows a chintz in the Chinese
+manner, designed to conform with the oriental
+furniture of Chippendale. Here again we see the
+detached islets of vegetation, but instead of exotic
+birds we have Chinese vases containing flowers,
+and in the foreground a rococo shell, one of the
+then little-known species from the East greatly
+treasured in England. The carnations and foliage
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">334</a></span>
+will be readily recognised as copies from Chinese
+paintings. One might illustrate a very large number
+of these Chinese chintzes, but space will only permit
+one example. This particular specimen is probably
+unique; it is taken from an old roll of chintz printed
+about 1760 and left over after the owner had curtained
+his house. The roll (about twenty yards
+long) has been carefully preserved and handed down
+from generation to generation, so that its original
+colours and soft glaze remain intact.</p>
+
+<p>A chintz in the Gothic manner is illustrated on
+p. <a href="#Page_329">327</a>. It differs slightly from the others in that the
+island formation is combined with serpentine foliage.
+In the centre is a patch of ground upon which are
+the ruins of a Gothic church. The artist, however,
+has not forgotten to please those patrons who might
+prefer the Chinese style, and therefore he has quietly
+added the incongruous elements of prunus flowers in
+the foreground and palm-trees in the background.
+At first this quaint admixture may appear a bad art,
+but it must be remembered that at this quaint period
+the whole principle of decorative design was upset by
+the rococo school, and quaintness and delicacy of
+detail outweighed the greater considerations of line
+and proportion. We find a similar treatment of
+design later on in many Spode plates, especially in
+blue transfer-printed subjects.</p>
+
+<div><a name="hepplewhite_period_and_victorian_period_designs" id="hepplewhite_period_and_victorian_period_designs"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_336.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>PRINTED CHINTZ.</p>
+<p>Hepplewhite Period.</p>
+<hr class="c12" />
+<p>PRINTED CHINTZ.</p>
+<p>Victorian Period.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>In the third quarter of the eighteenth century
+we enter upon a new era in the history of chintzes.
+We may appropriately call it the age of machinery,
+for from this date the mechanical processes came
+in whereby chintz-printing was raised from the
+<a id="Page_335"></a>
+<a id="Page_336"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">337</a></span>
+position of a comparatively small craft to that of a
+huge national industry. The great manufacturing
+towns in the North, such as Manchester, were
+rising in importance, and Lancashire was forming
+the basis of its gigantic cotton trade. Following
+these trade movements, the old industry of cloth-printing
+gradually left its centre in London and
+was developed on a larger scale in the North of
+England.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of this great commercial spirit which
+seized the printing of textiles, hand-block printing
+did not pass away, for it has survived till to-day as
+the best method for fine artistic work; cretonnes and
+chintzes produced in this manner, even during the
+nineteenth century, are always good. Mechanical
+roller work, however, was responsible for a large output
+of work which is little worthy of preservation, and
+in the nineteenth century we find much machine-printed
+chintz which, to say the least, is not reminiscent
+of the fine handwork which preceded it in the
+mid-eighteenth century. The earliest machine-work
+was carried out by means of engraved copper plates
+applied to the cloth in a printer's press. One of
+these is illustrated on p. <a href="#Page_330">331</a>. It is exceedingly fine
+in its details, and very few old specimens of this
+pattern are in existence. In several places are
+inserted the printer's name and date, "R. Jones, Old
+Ford, 1761." The design is doubtless borrowed from
+the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Toiles de Jouy</i>, printed by a Bavarian at Jouay,
+near Versailles, about this time. The drawing, however,
+is finer than any specimens of his work which
+have come to the author's notice. A shepherdess is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">338</a></span>
+tending to her flock amid a classical ruin while she is
+listening to the music of a flute. In another portion
+of the design, a cock and hen are mourning for
+the loss of one of their brood which has been carried
+off by an eagle. This design is worthy of interest
+for its superior quality, as it must have been produced
+for some very fine house. There is another
+specimen printed in red in the Victoria and Albert
+Museum. The one which is illustrated here was
+found upon an exceedingly fine Chippendale bedstead.</p>
+
+<p>During the Hepplewhite and Sheraton periods of
+furniture the chintz ceases to have its pattern
+detached and grouped. Architectural details with
+figures disappear, and once more the designer returns
+to flowers as his subject for illustration. The foliage,
+however, now takes the form of vertical stripes, being
+contained within lace-like ribands placed at even
+distances. On p. <a href="#Page_334">335</a> is an illustration of a chintz
+about 1790 in which these features will be noticed.</p>
+
+<p>In the nineteenth century we find the chintz
+covered with disjointed sprigs, as though the flowers
+had been plucked and cast upon the cloth. Their
+outline is softened by a margin of dots. An illustration
+of this style is shown on p. <a href="#Page_334">335</a>.</p>
+
+<div><a name="victorian_chintz_in_the_collection_of_mrs_cobden_unwin" id="victorian_chintz_in_the_collection_of_mrs_cobden_unwin"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img class="mw" src="images/i_340.jpg" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<p>PRINTED CHINTZ.</p>
+<p>From the Calico Printing Factory at Sobden, in Lancashire.
+Printed in 1831 under the direction of Richard Cobden.</p>
+<p>(<i>In the collection of Mrs. Cobden Unwin.</i>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>One need not pursue the history of chintzes
+further, for to do so would entail a discussion of
+modern methods. Suffice it to say that in the
+nineteenth century we come across the hideous black
+grounds, the base imitation of woven designs, leopard
+skins, and other inartistic perversions. We must
+rather bid adieu to this beautiful art ere it has begun
+<a id="Page_339"></a>
+<a id="Page_340"></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">341</a></span>
+to decline. It will afford the reader much pleasure
+if he should form a collection of old specimens and
+frame them around his walls, for then he will fully
+appreciate their charm. In examining his own
+collection the author has spent many a pleasant hour,
+for these gaily coloured chintzes are among the most
+articulate relics which have come down to us. They
+breathe the spirit, the feelings, and the ideals of the
+periods wherein they were made. They show lucidly
+the various changes in fashion and the rise and wane
+in the popularity of certain forms of decoration. So
+delectable are their soft, faded colours, so fascinating
+are the designs, and above all, so enchanting is the
+old-world musty scent which always clings to them,
+that it would be hard indeed to withhold one's
+affection from them.</p>
+
+<hr class="c30" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_342"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_343"></a></p>
+
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+<div class="left20">
+
+<ul>
+
+<li>Adam style table, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li>America, the Windsor chair acclimatised in, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li>America, spindle-back chairs, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li>America, carved chests of Puritan colonists, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li>America, types coincident with Jacobean, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li>Anachronism in country makers' work, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>Anne, Queen, chintz printing in time of, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li>
+
+<li>Anne, Queen, style&mdash;cabriole leg, advent of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Anne, Queen, chests of drawers, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Anne, Queen, scandal at Court of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li>Anne, Queen, so-called style, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Back&mdash;the chair, and its development, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>Bacon cupboards, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>Ball and claw foot, introduction of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>"Barley sugar" turning, illustrated, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+<li>Bedfordshire tables, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Bedstead, Jacobean, illustrated, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li>Bevel of panel indicating date, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>Bible-boxes, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>-<a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>Bloomfield, Robert, quoted, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li>Bobbins, Buckinghamshire, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>Brittany dressers, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li>Broken corners, Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Buckinghamshire bobbins, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>Bureau bookcase and cupboard, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li>Bureaus, marquetry in coloured woods, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Byzantine types of furniture existent in Elizabethan days, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Cabriole leg, advent of the, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Cabriole leg (Queen Anne period), <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>Cambridge tables, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Candle dipper, the, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li>Cane-back chairs, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Cane-back chairs, late Stuart, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>Cane-back chair, its influence on farmhouse styles, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Caning in chairs out of fashion, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Chairs&mdash;
+  America, Windsor chair, types of, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>
+  Back, the, its development, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>
+  Caned-back chair, its influence on farmhouse styles, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">344</a></span>
+  Caned chairs, late Stuart, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>
+  Caning out of fashion, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>
+  Charles II. period styles, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>
+  Chippendale styles, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>
+  Chippendale, Windsor styles, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>
+  Corner chairs, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>
+  Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>
+  Cupid's bow top rail, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>
+  Cushions, their use with, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>
+  Derbyshire chairs, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>
+  Elizabethan turned chairs, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>
+  Evolution of the chair, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-<a href="#Page_241">241</a>
+  Fiddle splat chairs, introduction of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>
+  Fiddle splat, Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>
+  Fiddle splat, Windsor, at its best, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>
+  "Fiddle-string" backs, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>
+  Goldsmith, Oliver, his chair, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>
+  Grandfather variety, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>
+  Hepplewhite country styles, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>
+  Hepplewhite Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>
+  Horseshoe back, Windsor, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>
+  Jacobean, typical form, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>
+  Ladder-back chairs, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>
+  Lancashire rush-bottom chairs, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>
+  Lancashire spindle back chairs, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>
+  Modern office-chair, derivation of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>
+  Prince of Wales's feathers in back, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>
+  Ribbon-back, introduction of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>
+  Rush-bottomed chairs, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>
+  Shell ornament employed, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>
+  Sheraton country styles, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>
+  Sheraton Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>
+  Spindle-back chairs, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>
+  Splat, Queen Anne, the, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>
+  Straight-backed chairs, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>
+  Stretcher, evolution of the, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>
+  Tavern chairs, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>
+  Wheel-back Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>
+  Woods used, Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li>Charles II. chests of drawers, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li>Charles II. period, impetus given to furniture design, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li>Charles II. period, styles of chairs, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>Chests, Gothic, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Chests, sixteenth century, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Chests, Welsh carving, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Chests of drawers, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li>Chests of drawers, Charles II. period, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li>Chests of drawers, Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Children's stools, Jacobean, illustrated, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li>Chimney crane, the, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li>China and glass cupboards, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li>Chinese designs in chintzes, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+
+<li>Chinese style of Chippendale, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li>Chintz printing becomes a national industry, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li>Chintzes, old English, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>-<a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li>Chippendale and his contemporaries, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li>Chippendale clock cases, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li>Chippendale quoted, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li>Chippendale, ribbon designs of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li>Chippendale style, provincial, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Chippendale style Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li>Chocolate houses, polemic against, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">345</a></span>
+Chronology, seventeenth-century, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li>Claw-and-ball foot, introduction of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Clock and dresser combined, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>Clocks, grandfather, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li>Club foot, introduction of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Cobbett, William, quoted, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Coffee-drinking and coffee-houses, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>Coffee, women's petition against, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>Corner chairs, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li>Cottage furniture and earthenware compared, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+<li>Country cabinet-maker, his mixture of styles, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Country furniture, its sturdy independence, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li>Country makers little influenced by contemporary fashion, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li>Cradles, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>Cromwellian chests with drawers, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li>Crusie, the Scottish, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Cupboard, the bacon, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>Cupboard, Welsh carving, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Cupboards, corner, introduction of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Cupboards and drawers, taste for, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+
+<li>"Cupid's bow" underframing, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li>"Cupid's bow" top rail of chair, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li>Cushions, their use with chairs, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Delany, Mrs., quoted, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>Denmark, the conservation of old farmhouse furniture in, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li>Derbyshire chairs, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>Design books, eighteenth-century, publication of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Director</i>, by Chippendale, a working guide, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>Drawer accommodation a feature in late dressers, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>Drawers, chests of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li>Drawers, chests of, Charles II. period, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li>Drawers, chests of, Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Dresser and clock combined, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>Dressers, farmhouse, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li>Dressers&mdash;
+  Brittany, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>
+  Lancashire, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>
+  Normandy, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>
+  Welsh, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li>Dutch artisans print early English chintzes, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li>Dutch influence early eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Earthenware and cottage furniture compared, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+<li>Eighteenth-century dressers, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>Eighteenth-century pleasure gardens, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Eighteenth-century styles, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-<a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li>Elizabethan turned chairs, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>English chintzes, old, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>-<a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li>English farmhouse furniture, desirability of its preservation, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li>English joiners' work, its solidity, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li>Essex tables, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Exotic bird patterns in chintzes, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>"Farmer's Boy" (Robert Bloomfield) quoted, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">346</a></span>
+Farmhouse furniture (English), desirability of its preservation, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li>Farmhouse furniture influenced by walnut styles, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Farmhouse styles contemporary with the cane-back chair, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Feet&mdash;
+  Arcaded foot, Charles II. period, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>
+  Ball, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;
+    illustrated, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>
+  Claw-and-ball foot, introduction of the, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>
+  Club foot, its introduction, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>
+  Hoof foot, the, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>
+  Scroll or Spanish foot, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>
+  Spanish foot, the, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>
+  Spanish foot, in corrupted form, illustrated, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>
+  Trestle, in Gothic style, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li>Fiddle splat chairs, introduction of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Fiddle splat, Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li>Fiddle splat Windsor chair at its best, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li>"Fiddle-string" backs, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Firebacks, Sussex, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li>Firebacks, Sussex, fine examples exhibited, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li>Firedogs, cottage and farmhouse, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li>Food of country population, seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li>Foreign styles, slow assimilation of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>French artisans print early English chintzes, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Gate-leg tables, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li>Gate-leg table, double gates, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;
+  illustrated, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li>Gate-leg table, established as a popular type, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li>Gate-leg table, square top, illustrated, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+<li>Geometric panels, chests of drawers, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;
+  dressers, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li>Georgian styles, early types, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li>Gibbons, Grinling, the style of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li>Goldsmith, Oliver, his chair, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li>Gothic brackets to chests, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Gothic chests, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Gothic trestle, gate-leg table, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li>Grandfather chair, the, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li>Grandfather chair, curved lines of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li>Grandfather clocks, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li>Grandfather clock combined with dresser, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>Great Seal of Queen Anne, showing style of ornament, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Hardwick Hall, suite at, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li>Hepplewhite clock cases, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li>Hepplewhite influence on village work, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Hepplewhite quoted, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li>Hepplewhite style, provincial, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Hertfordshire tables, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Hogarth, the line of beauty the curve, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li>Hoof foot, the, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li>Horseshoe-back Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Incongruity of provincial cabinet-maker, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>Inlaid work rarely employed, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li>Inlaid work with walnut, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Inlaid work, woods used, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Irish Chippendale, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li>Ironwork, miscellaneous, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-<a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">347</a></span>
+Ironwork, Scottish, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Isle of Man tables, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Jacobean cradles, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>Jacobean dressers with geometric panels, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li>Jacobean furniture, typical styles, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li>Jacobean oak chair, typical form, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li>Jacobean period, its characteristics, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li>Jacobean period, late styles of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li>Jacobean style, its transition to William and Mary, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Jacobean Sussex firebacks, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li>Joinery, the solidity of English, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li>Jones, R., of Old Ford, chintz printer, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Kettle trivet, the cottager's, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Lacquer employed in clock-cases, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li>Ladder-back chair, the, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+
+<li>Lancashire chintzes, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+
+<li>Lancashire dressers, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li>Lancashire furniture, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Lancashire Queen Anne settle, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Lancashire rush-bottom chair, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li>Legs&mdash;
+  "Barley sugar" turning illustrated, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>
+  Cabriole leg, introduction of the, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>
+  Egg and reel turning, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;
+    illustrated, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>
+  Eight legs (gate table), <a href="#Page_99">99</a>
+  Elizabethan bulbous leg, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>
+  Jacobean straight-turned leg, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>
+  Jacobean, various forms of turning, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>
+  Queen Anne cabriole leg, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>
+  Six legs, gate table, illustrated, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>
+  Split urn leg, illustrated, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>
+  Straight leg again in vogue, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>
+  Urn-shaped leg, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>
+  Urn-shaped splat, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;
+    illustrated, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+<li>Linen-fold pattern on chests, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li>Local types, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li>Local types of furniture, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>-<a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li>London and the vicinity, chintz printed in, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+
+<li>Longleat, oak furniture at, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li>Lyngby (near Copenhagen), collection of old farmhouse furniture at, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Macaulay quoted, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li>Macaulay, "State of England in 1685" quoted, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+
+<li>Mahogany gate-leg tables, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li>Mahogany styles, their gracefulness, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li>Mahogany, the chief designers of, of the golden age, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li>Marlborough, Duchess of, and her intrigues, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li>Marquetry bureaus in coloured woods, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Marquetry, woods used in, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Minor cabinet-makers' work lacking harmony, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li>Modern office-chair, derivation from Windsor type, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li>More, Hannah, and the agricultural classes, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">348</a></span>
+Morris, William, his influence on furniture, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li>"Mule" chests, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Norfolk, oak furniture, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Normandy dressers, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li>Normans, furniture, styles of, introduced by, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>North, Roger, quoted, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Oak, erroneously used to carry out walnut designs, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li>Oak, general in its use, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li>Oak supplanted by walnut in fashionable furniture, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Oak the chief wood employed, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li>Office-chair, derivation from Windsor type, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li>Oriental patterns in chintzes, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Panelling, bevel of, indicating date of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>Panels, sunk, Jacobean style, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li>Patterns, wood, used for firebacks, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li>People, changing habits of the, in seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li>Pepys's <i>Diary</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+<li>Pleasure gardens, eighteenth-century, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Pot-hook, the, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li>Pot-hooks, fine examples, where exhibited, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li>Prince of Wales's feathers, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li>Provincial furniture many decades behind fashion, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Queen Anne, cabriole leg, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>Queen Anne dressers, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li>Queen Anne flap tables, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li>Queen Anne period, the splat of the, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Restoration period, chests of drawers, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li>Ribbon designs, introduction of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li>Roads in provinces, bad state of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+<li>Rush-bottom chair, the, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+
+<li>Rushlight holder, the, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Scandinavian origin of Elizabethan chair, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Scotland, Union with, proclamation by Queen Anne, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>Scottish types of ironwork, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>"Seaweed" marquetry in clock-cases, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li>Settle, Lancashire form, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Settle, Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Seventeenth-century, chronology of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li>Seventeenth-century settle (Lancashire), <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Seventeenth-century sideboard, typical style, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li>Seventeenth-century styles, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-<a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li>Seventeenth-century styles, types of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li>Shell ornament, early eighteenth-century, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Sheraton clock-cases, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li>Sheraton influence on country makers, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li>Sheraton influence in Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li>Sheraton style, provincial, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Sideboard, typical seventeenth-century style, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li>Sixteenth-century chests, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Sizergh Castle, oak room at, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li>Spanish foot, its use, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li>Spanish Succession, War of the, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>Spindle-back chair, the, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li>Spindle-back chairs (Lancashire), <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">349</a></span>
+Spinning-wheels, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>Spitalfields weavers, complaint as to chintz fashions, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+
+<li>Splat, the Queen Anne, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li>Staffordshire pottery and cottage furniture compared, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+<li>Stands for chests of drawers, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Stockholm, collection of farmhouse furniture at, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li>Stools, children's Jacobean, illustrated, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li>Straight-backed chairs, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>Stretcher, evolution of the, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li>Stretcher, Yorkshire splat form, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li>Suffolk oak furniture, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Sussex firebacks, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li>Sussex ironworks, the, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li>"Swan head" to cupboard, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li>Sweden, the conservation of old farmhouse furniture in, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li>Swift quoted, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Tables&mdash;
+  Adam style, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>
+  Arcaded spandrils, illustrated, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>
+  Bedfordshire types, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>
+  Cambridge types, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>
+  Collapsible form (Charles II.), <a href="#Page_103">103</a>
+  Cross stretcher, <b>X</b> form, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>
+  Cupid's bow underframing, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;
+    illustrated, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>
+  Elizabethan bulbous-leg form, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>
+  Essex types, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>
+  Flap tables (Queen Anne), <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;
+    (Georgian), illustrated, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>
+  Gate-leg, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_112">112</a>
+  Gothic trestle, gate-leg table, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>
+  Hertfordshire types, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>
+  Isle of Man table, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>
+  Scalloped-edge tea-table, illustrated, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>
+  Scalloped underframing, illustrated, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>
+  Sixteenth-century style, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>
+  Spandrils, arcaded, illustrated, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>
+  Stretchers, splat form, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;
+    illustrated, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>
+  Tea-table, Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>
+  Three-legged, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>
+  Underframing, Cupid's bow, illustrated, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>
+  Various local types, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>
+  Yorkshire type, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li>Tapers, how made by cottagers, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li>Tavern chair, the, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Tea-drinking becomes national, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>Tea-gardens, eighteenth-century, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Tea-table, Queen Anne style, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li>Three-legged tables, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Transition from Jacobean to William and Mary styles, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Trestle in gate-leg table, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li>Triangular gate form, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;
+  illustrated, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li>Tripod tables, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li>Turning, various patterns in Jacobean leg, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Union with Scotland, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Varangian Guard introduce Byzantine furniture into Scandinavia, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Veneer, in walnut, early eighteenth-century, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">350</a></span>
+Village cabinet-maker, originality of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Wales, Prince of, feathers in chair back, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li>Walnut gate-leg tables, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li>Walnut in general use, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Walnut styles, early eighteenth-century, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Walnut supplanted by mahogany, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Warming-pan, the, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li>Wardrobe, Lancashire type, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Welsh carving, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li>Welsh dressers, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li>Wesley and the Methodist movement, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li>Whitefield and the colliers, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li>Wheel-back Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li>William and Mary dressers, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li>William and Mary gate-leg tables, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li>William and Mary period, finely turned work, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li>William and Mary style, its development from Jacobean, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Windsor chair, the, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>-<a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li>Windsor chair, the, Sheraton influence, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li>Windsor chair, its survival, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li>Windsor chairs, Chippendale style, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li>Wood patterns used for firebacks, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li>Woods employed in farmhouse furniture, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li>Woods used in Windsor chairs, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li>Woods used in walnut marquetry, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Women's petition against coffee, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+<li>Yorkshire chairs, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>Yorkshire splat stretcher to tables, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4">UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED, THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON.</p>
+
+<hr class="c30" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_351"></a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2>
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Those interested in the method pursued in Sweden and Denmark
+and the grave necessity for speedy measures to preserve our national
+cottages and farmhouses from effacement will find illuminating articles
+on the subject from the pen of "Home Counties" in the <cite>World's
+Work</cite>, August, October, and November, 1910, and in the American
+<cite>Educational Review</cite>, February, 1911, in an article by Lucy M.
+Salmon. "Old West Surrey," by Gertrude Jekyll (Longmans &amp; Co.),
+1904, contains a wealth of suggestive material relating to cottage
+furniture and articles of daily use of old-style country life now
+passing away.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> <cite>Pepys's Diary</cite>, June 12, 16 8.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Postlethwaite's "Dictionary of Roads."</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="c30" />
+
+<div class="bbox">
+
+<p class="center">VOLUMES FOR COLLECTORS<br />
+&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;BY THE SAME AUTHOR&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE</p>
+
+<p class="center">Companion volume to "Chats on Cottage and Farmhouse Furniture"<br />
+<i>Press Notices, First Edition</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Mr.</span> Hayden knows his subject intimately."&mdash;<cite>Pall Mall Gazette.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"The</span> hints to collectors are the best and clearest we have seen;
+so that altogether this is a model book of its kind."&mdash;<cite>Athenćum.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"A</span> useful and instructive volume."&mdash;<cite>Spectator.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"An</span> abundance of illustrations completes a well-written and well-constructed
+history."&mdash;<cite>Daily News.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Mr.</span> Hayden's taste is sound and his knowledge thorough."&mdash;<cite>Scotsman.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"A</span> book of more than usual comprehensiveness and more than
+usual merit."&mdash;<cite>Vanity Fair.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Mr.</span> Hayden has worked at his subject on systematic lines, and
+has made his book what it purports to be&mdash;a practical guide for the
+collector."&mdash;<cite>Saturday Review.</cite></p>
+
+<hr class="c65" />
+
+<p class="title1">CHATS ON ENGLISH CHINA</p>
+
+<p class="center"><cite>Press Notices, First Edition</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"A</span> handsome handbook that the amateur in doubt will find useful,
+and the china-lover will enjoy for its illustrations, and for the author's
+obvious love and understanding of his subject."&mdash;<cite>St. James's Gazette.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"All</span> lovers of china will find much entertainment in this volume."&mdash;<cite>Daily
+News.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"It</span> gives in a few pithy chapters just what the beginner wants to
+know about the principal varieties of English ware. We can warmly
+commend the book to the china collector."&mdash;<cite>Pall Mall Gazette.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"One</span> of the best points about the book is the clear way in which
+the characteristics of each factory are noted down separately, so that
+the veriest tyro ought to be able to judge for himself if he has a piece
+or pieces which would come under this heading, and the marks are
+very accurately given."&mdash;<cite>Queen.</cite></p>
+
+<hr class="c65" />
+
+<p><a id="Page_352"></a></p>
+
+<p class="title1">CHATS ON<br />
+ENGLISH EARTHENWARE</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Companion volume to "Chats on English China")</p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Complementary</span> to the useful companion volume, in this 'Chats'
+Series, on English China which Mr. Hayden issued five years ago."&mdash;<cite>Times.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Is</span> a compendious account of our native English faďence, abundantly
+illustrated and accurately written."&mdash;<cite>Guardian.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"A</span> thoroughly trustworthy working handbook."&mdash;<cite>Truth.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"It</span> is a mine of knowledge, gathered from all quarters, and the
+outcome of personal experience and research, and it is written with
+no little charm of style."&mdash;<cite>Lady's Pictorial.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Mr.</span> Hayden knows and writes exactly what is needed to help the
+amateur to become an intelligent collector, while his painstaking care
+in verifying facts renders his work a stable book of reference."&mdash;<cite>Connoisseur.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"The</span> volume has been written as a companion to Mr. Hayden's
+'Chats on English China' in the same series, and those who recall
+the admirable character of that book will find this to be in no way
+inferior."&mdash;<cite>Nation.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"The</span> illustrations are profuse and excellent, and the author and
+the publishers must be commended for offering us so many reproductions
+of typical specimens that have not appeared in any previous
+handbook. The illustrations alone are worth the cost of the book."&mdash;<cite>Manchester
+Guardian.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Mr.</span> Hayden's book is filled to overflowing with beautiful and most
+instructive and helpful illustrations, and altogether it is one that will
+give immense pleasure to collectors, and much information to the
+admiring but ignorant."&mdash;<cite>Liverpool Courier.</cite></p>
+
+<hr class="c65" />
+
+<p class="title1">CHATS ON OLD PRINTS</p>
+
+<p class="center">A Practical Guide to Collecting and Identifying
+Old Engravings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Mr.</span> Hayden writes at once with enthusiasm and discrimination on
+his theme."&mdash;<cite>Daily Telegraph.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"Any</span> one who, having an initial interest in matters of art, wants to
+form sound and intelligent opinions about engravings, will find this
+book the very thing for him."&mdash;<cite>Literary World.</cite></p>
+
+<p><span class="i1">"These</span> 'Chats' comprise a full and admirably lucid description of
+every branch of the engraver's art, with copious and suggestive illustrations."&mdash;<cite>Morning
+Leader.</cite></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<p>Transcriber's note:<br />
+The original page numbers that refer to illustrations have been retained, however, if you click
+on a link, it will take you to the page where the illustration now resides.</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chats on Cottage and Farmhouse
+Furniture, by Arthur Hayden
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHATS ON FURNITURE ***
+
+***** This file should be named 44603-h.htm or 44603-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/6/0/44603/
+
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+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
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+
+
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+will be renamed.
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+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chats on Cottage and Farmhouse Furniture, by
+Arthur Hayden
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Chats on Cottage and Farmhouse Furniture
+
+Author: Arthur Hayden
+
+Release Date: January 6, 2014 [EBook #44603]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHATS ON FURNITURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Mary Akers and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+    Minor spelling and punctuation inconsistencies have been
+    harmonized. Italic text has been marked with _underscores_.
+    Obvious typos have been corrected.
+
+
+
+
+COMPANION VOLUME BY THE SAME AUTHOR
+
+CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE
+
+_Illustrated by 72 Full-page Plates._
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+    CHAPTER
+       I. THE RENAISSANCE ON THE CONTINENT
+      II. THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE
+     III. STUART OR JACOBEAN (Early Seventeenth Century)
+      IV. STUART OR JACOBEAN (Late Seventeenth Century)
+       V. QUEEN ANNE AND EARLY GEORGIAN STYLES
+      VI. FRENCH FURNITURE: THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV.
+     VII. FRENCH FURNITURE: THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XV.
+    VIII. FRENCH FURNITURE: THE PERIOD OF LOUIS XVI.
+      IX. FRENCH FURNITURE: THE FIRST EMPIRE STYLE
+       X. CHIPPENDALE AND HIS STYLE
+      XI. ADAM, HEPPLEWHITE, AND SHERATON STYLES
+     XII. HINTS TO COLLECTORS
+
+
+
+
+    CHATS ON
+    COTTAGE AND
+    FARMHOUSE FURNITURE
+
+
+
+
+BOOKS FOR COLLECTORS
+
+_With Coloured Frontispieces and many Illustrations._
+
+_Large Crown 8vo, cloth._
+
+
+   CHATS ON ENGLISH CHINA.
+
+    By ARTHUR HAYDEN.
+
+   CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE.
+
+    By ARTHUR HAYDEN.
+
+   CHATS ON OLD PRINTS.
+
+    By ARTHUR HAYDEN.
+
+   CHATS ON COSTUME.
+
+    By G. WOOLLISCROFT RHEAD.
+
+   CHATS ON OLD LACE AND NEEDLEWORK.
+
+    By E. L. LOWES.
+
+   CHATS ON ORIENTAL CHINA.
+
+    By J. F. BLACKER.
+
+   CHATS ON MINIATURES.
+
+    By J. J. FOSTER.
+
+   CHATS ON ENGLISH EARTHENWARE.
+
+    By ARTHUR HAYDEN.
+
+    (Companion Volume to "Chats on English China.")
+
+   CHATS ON AUTOGRAPHS.
+
+    By A. M. BROADLEY.
+
+   CHATS ON OLD PEWTER.
+
+    By H. J. L. J. MASSE, M.A.
+
+   CHATS ON POSTAGE STAMPS.
+
+    By FRED J. MELVILLE.
+
+   CHATS ON OLD JEWELLERY AND TRINKETS.
+
+    By MACIVER PERCIVAL.
+
+   CHATS ON COTTAGE AND FARMHOUSE FURNITURE.
+
+    By ARTHUR HAYDEN.
+
+    (Companion Volume to "Chats on Old Furniture.")
+
+
+    LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN.
+    NEW YORK: F. A. STOKES COMPANY.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: SIDEBOARD OF CARVED OAK. ENGLISH, SEVENTEENTH
+  CENTURY.
+
+  (_In the Victoria and Albert Museum._)
+
+    _Frontispiece._]
+
+
+
+
+    CHATS ON COTTAGE
+
+    AND
+
+    FARMHOUSE FURNITURE
+
+    BY
+
+    ARTHUR HAYDEN
+
+    AUTHOR OF "CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE," ETC.
+
+    WITH A CHAPTER ON
+
+    OLD ENGLISH CHINTZES
+
+    BY HUGH PHILLIPS
+
+    AND SEVENTY-THREE FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+    NEW YORK
+
+    FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY
+
+    PUBLISHERS
+
+
+
+
+(_All rights reserved._)
+
+
+
+
+    TO
+    MY OLD FRIEND
+    FREDERIC ARUP
+    I DEDICATE THIS VOLUME
+    IN MEMORY OF A HAPPY LABOUR
+    OF LOVE COMPLETED
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The number of works dealing with old English furniture has grown
+rapidly during the last ten years. Not only has the subject been
+broadly treated from the historic or from the collector's point
+of view, but latterly everything has been scientifically reduced
+into departments of knowledge, and individual periods have received
+detailed treatment at the hands of specialists.
+
+Museums and well-known collections, noblemen's seats and country
+houses have furnished photographs of the finest examples, and these,
+now well-known, pieces have appeared again and again as illustrations
+to volumes by various hands.
+
+It is obviously essential in the study of the history and evolution
+of furniture-making in this country that superlative specimens
+be selected as ideal types for the student of design or for the
+collector, but such pieces must always be beyond the means of the
+average collector.
+
+The present volume has been written for that large class of
+collectors, who, while appreciating the beauty and the subtlety of
+great masterpieces of English furniture, have not long enough purses
+to pay the prices such examples bring after fierce competition in the
+auction-room.
+
+The field of minor work affords peculiar pleasure and demands
+especial study. The character of the cottage and farmhouse furniture
+is as sturdy and independent as that of the persons for whom it
+was made. For three centuries unknown cabinet-makers in towns and
+in villages produced work unaffected by any foreign influences.
+Linen-chests, bacon-cupboards, Bible-boxes, gate tables, and other
+tables, dressers, and chairs possess particular styles of treatment
+in different districts. The eighteenth-century cabinet-makers
+scattered up and down the three kingdoms and in America found in
+Chippendale's "Director" a design-book which stimulated them to
+produce furniture of compelling interest to the collector.
+
+The examples of such work illustrated in this volume have been taken
+from a wide area and are such as may come under the hand of the
+diligent collector in various parts of the country.
+
+In view of the increased love of collecting homely furniture
+suitable for modern use, it is my hope that this book may find a
+ready welcome, especially nowadays, when so many of the picturesque
+architectural details of old homesteads are being reproduced in the
+garden suburbs of great cities.
+
+It is possible that the authorities of local museums may find in
+this class of furniture a field for special research, as undoubtedly
+specimens of local work should be secured for permanent exhibition
+before they are dispersed far and wide and their identity with
+particular districts lost for ever.
+
+In regard to the scientific study of farmhouse and cottage furniture,
+the ideal arrangement is that followed at Skansen, Stockholm, and
+at Lyngby, near Copenhagen. In the former a series of buildings
+have been erected in the open air, in connection with the Northern
+Museum, gathered from every part of Sweden, retaining their exterior
+character and fitted with the furniture of their former occupants. It
+was the desire of the founder, Dr. Hazelius, to present an epitome
+of the national life. Similarly at Lyngby, an adjunct of the _Dansk
+Folkemuseum_ at Copenhagen, the life-work of Hr. Olsen has been given
+to gathering together and re-erecting a large number of old cottages
+and farmhouses from various districts in Denmark, from Iceland, the
+Faroe Islands, and from Norway and Sweden. These have their obsolete
+agricultural implements, and old methods of fencing and quaint styles
+of storage. The furniture stands in these specimen homes exactly as
+if they were occupied. It is a remarkable open-air museum, and the
+idea is worthy of serious consideration in this country. Old cottages
+and farmhouses are fast disappearing, and the preservation of these
+beauties of village and country life should appeal to all lovers of
+national monuments.[1]
+
+  [1] Those interested in the method pursued in Sweden and Denmark
+  and the grave necessity for speedy measures to preserve our
+  national cottages and farmhouses from effacement will find
+  illuminating articles on the subject from the pen of "Home
+  Counties" in the _World's Work_, August, October, and November,
+  1910, and in the American _Educational Review_, February, 1911,
+  in an article by Lucy M. Salmon. "Old West Surrey," by Gertrude
+  Jekyll (Longmans & Co.), 1904, contains a wealth of suggestive
+  material relating to cottage furniture and articles of daily use
+  of old-style country life now passing away.
+In connexion with farmhouse furniture, old chintzes is a subject
+never before written upon. A chapter in this volume is contributed
+by Mr. Hugh Phillips, whose special studies concerning this little
+known field enable him to present much valuable information which has
+never before been in print, together with illustrations of chintzes
+actually taken from authentic examples of old furniture.
+
+A brief survey is made of miscellaneous articles associated with
+cottage and farmhouse furniture. Some specimens of Sussex firebacks
+are illustrated, together with fenders, firedogs, pot-hooks,
+candle-holders, and brass and copper candlesticks.
+
+The illustrations have been selected in order to convey a broad
+outline of the subject. My especial thanks are due to Messrs.
+Phillips, of the Manor House, Hitchin, for placing at my disposal
+the practical experience of many years' collecting in various parts
+of the country, and by enriching the volume with illustrations of
+many fine examples of great importance and rarity never before
+photographed.
+
+To Messrs. A. B. Daniell & Sons I am indebted for photographs of
+specimens in their galleries.
+
+In presenting this volume it is my intention that it should be a
+companion volume to my "Chats on Old Furniture," which records the
+history and evolution of the finer styles of English furniture,
+showing the various foreign influences on English craftsmen who made
+furniture for the wealthy classes.
+
+    ARTHUR HAYDEN.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+    CHAPTER I
+                                                                    PAGE
+    INTRODUCTORY NOTE                                                 25
+
+    The minor collector--The originality of the village
+    cabinet-maker--His freedom from foreign influences--The
+    traditional character of his work--Difficult to establish dates
+    to cottage and farmhouse furniture--Oak the chief wood
+    employed--Beech, elm, and ash used in lieu of mahogany and
+    satinwood--Village craftsmanship not debased by early-Victorian
+    art--Its obliteration in the age of factory-made furniture--The
+    conservation of old farmhouses with their furniture in
+    Sweden and in Denmark--The need for the preservation
+    and exhibition of old cottages and farmhouses in Great
+    Britain.
+
+    CHAPTER II
+
+    SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES                                        43
+
+    Typical Jacobean furniture--Solidity of English joiners'
+    work--Oak general in its use--The oak forests of England--Sturdy
+    independence of country furniture--Chests of
+    drawers--The slow assimilation of foreign styles--The
+    changing habits of the people.
+
+    CHAPTER III
+
+    THE GATE-LEG TABLE                                                83
+
+    Its early form--Transitional and experimental stages--Its
+    establishment as a permanent popular type--The gate-leg
+    table in the Jacobean period--Walnut and mahogany varieties--Its
+    utility and beauty contribute to its long survival--Its
+    adoption in modern days.
+
+    CHAPTER IV
+
+    THE FARMHOUSE DRESSER                                            113
+
+    The days of the late Stuarts--Its early table form with
+    drawers--The decorated type with shelves--William and
+    Mary style with double cupboards--The Queen Anne
+    cabriole leg--Mid-eighteenth-century types.
+
+    CHAPTER V
+
+    THE BIBLE-BOX, THE CRADLE, THE SPINNING-WHEEL,
+    AND THE BACON-CUPBOARD                                           137
+
+    The Puritan days of the seventeenth century--The Protestant
+    Bible in every home--The variety of carving found in
+    Bible-boxes--The Jacobean cradle and its forms--The
+    spinning-wheel--The bacon-cupboard.
+
+    CHAPTER VI
+
+    EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES                                        155
+
+    The advent of the cabriole leg--The so-called Queen Anne
+    style--The survival of oak in the provinces--The influence
+    of walnut on cabinet-making--The early-Georgian types--Chippendale
+    and his contemporaries.
+
+    CHAPTER VII
+
+    THE EVOLUTION OF THE CHAIR                                       189
+
+    Early days--The typical Jacobean oak chair--The evolution
+    of the stretcher--The chair-back and its development--Transition
+    between Jacobean and William and Mary forms--Farmhouse
+    styles contemporary with the cane-back chair--The
+    Queen Anne splat--Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite,
+    and Sheraton--The grandfather chair--Ladder-back types--The
+    spindle-back chair--Corner chairs.
+
+    CHAPTER VIII
+
+    THE WINDSOR CHAIR                                                243
+
+    Early types--The stick legs without stretcher--The tavern
+    chair--Eighteenth-century pleasure gardens--The rail-back
+    variety--Chippendale style Windsor chairs--The survival of
+    the Windsor chair.
+
+    CHAPTER IX
+
+    LOCAL TYPES                                                      265
+
+    Welsh carving--Scottish types--Lancashire dressers, wardrobes,
+    and chairs--Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire, Cambridge,
+    and Essex tables--Isle of Man tables.
+
+    CHAPTER X
+
+    MISCELLANEOUS IRONWORK, ETC.                                     285
+
+    The rushlight-holder--The dipper--The chimney crane--The
+    Scottish crusie--Firedogs--The warming-pan--Sussex
+    firebacks--Grandfather clocks.
+
+    CHAPTER XI
+
+    OLD ENGLISH CHINTZES. (By Hugh Phillips)                         315
+
+    The charm of old English chintz--Huguenot cloth-printers
+    settle in England--Jacob Stampe at the sign of the Calico
+    Printer--The Queen Anne period--The Chippendale period--The
+    age of machinery.
+
+    INDEX                                                            343
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    SIDEBOARD OF CARVED OAK (ENGLISH,
+      SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY)                      _Frontispiece_
+
+
+  CHAPTER I--INTRODUCTORY NOTE
+                                                         PAGE
+    CHESTS (SIXTEENTH CENTURY)                             29
+
+    ELIZABETHAN CHAIR                                      35
+
+    CHEST (SEVENTEENTH CENTURY)                            35
+
+    INTERIOR OF FARMHOUSE PARLOUR                          39
+
+    INTERIOR OF COTTAGE                                    39
+
+
+  CHAPTER II
+
+    MONK'S BENCH                                           53
+
+    OAK CHEST WITH DRAWERS UNDERNEATH                      53
+
+    JOINT STOOLS                                           57
+
+    OAK TABLE                                              57
+
+    CHEST (RESTORATION PERIOD)                             63
+
+    EARLY OAK TABLE (MIDDLE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY)           63
+
+    SMALL OAK TABLE (_c._ 1680)                            65
+
+    JACOBEAN CHEST OF DRAWERS (_c._ 1660)                  65
+
+    CHESTS OF DRAWERS                                      69
+
+    CHEST OF DRAWERS (CABRIOLE FEET)                       73
+
+    WILLIAM AND MARY TABLE (_c._ 1670)                     73
+
+    CHILDREN'S STOOLS                                      77
+
+    RARE BEDSTEAD (_c._ 1700)                              77
+
+
+  CHAPTER III
+
+    TRIANGULAR GATE TABLE                                  87
+
+    OAK SIDE-TABLE                                         87
+
+    SMALL GATE TABLE (VERY EARLY TYPE)                     91
+
+    GATE TABLE (MIDDLE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY)                91
+
+    RARE TABLE WITH DOUBLE GATES                           93
+
+    RARE TABLE WITH DOUBLE GATES AND ONLY ONE FLAP         93
+
+    GATE-LEG TABLE (RESTORATION PERIOD)                    97
+
+    GATE-LEG TABLE (YORKSHIRE TYPE)                        97
+
+    GATE-LEG TABLE WITH SIX LEGS ("BARLEY-SUGAR"
+      TURNING)                                             99
+
+    GATE-LEG TABLE (BALL TURNING)                          99
+
+    COLLAPSIBLE TABLE WITH RARE =X= STRETCHER             101
+
+    PRIMITIVE GATE-LEG TABLE                              101
+
+    WILLIAM AND MARY GATE-LEG TABLE                       105
+
+    SQUARE-TOP GATE-LEG TABLES                            105
+
+    MAHOGANY GATE-LEG TABLES                              109
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV
+
+    OAK DRESSER (ABOUT 1680)                              117
+
+    OAK DRESSER (PERIOD OF JAMES II.)                     117
+
+    OAK DRESSER (EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY)                119
+
+    OAK DRESSER, URN-SHAPED LEGS (RESTORATION PERIOD)     119
+
+    MIDDLE-JACOBEAN DRESSER                               123
+
+    WILLIAM AND MARY OAK DRESSER                          127
+
+    OAK DRESSER. SQUARE-LEG TYPE                          127
+
+    UNIQUE DRESSER AND CLOCK COMBINED                     131
+
+    OAK DRESSER. QUEEN ANNE CABRIOLE LEGS                 135
+
+    LANCASHIRE OAK DRESSER                                135
+
+
+  CHAPTER V
+
+    BIBLE-BOXES. EARLY EXAMPLES                           143
+
+    BIBLE-BOXES (MIDDLE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY AND
+    ORDINARY TYPE)                                        145
+
+    OAK CRADLES                                           149
+
+    YARN-WINDER AND SPINNING-WHEEL                        151
+
+    BUCKINGHAMSHIRE BOBBINS                               151
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI
+
+    LANCASHIRE OAK SETTLES                                159
+
+    CUPBOARD WITH DRAWERS                                 163
+
+    QUEEN ANNE BUREAU BOOKCASE                            163
+
+    OAK TABLES (EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY)                 165
+
+    QUEEN ANNE GLASS- OR CHINA-CUPBOARD                   171
+
+    GEORGIAN CORNER-CUPBOARD                              171
+
+    OAK TABLES                                            173
+
+    OAK TABLES, WITH TYPICAL COUNTRY CABRIOLE LEGS        177
+
+    QUEEN ANNE TEA-TABLE                                  181
+
+    OAK REVOLVING BOOK-STAND                              181
+
+    COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE TABLE                             181
+
+    SQUARE MAHOGANY FLAP-TABLE                            183
+
+    TRIPOD TABLE (_c._ 1760)                              183
+
+    COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE AND COUNTRY ADAM TABLES           187
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII
+
+    OAK ARM-CHAIRS (ONE DATED 1650)                       191
+
+    CHESTNUT ARM-CHAIR AND OAK ARM-CHAIR (_c._ 1690)      191
+
+    YORKSHIRE CHAIR (RESTORATION PERIOD)                  197
+
+    CROMWELLIAN CHAIRS                                    197
+
+    OAK SETTLE (_c._ 1675)                                201
+
+    OAK ARM-CHAIRS (ONE DATED 1777)                       201
+
+    OAK CHAIRS (_c._ 1680) IN WALNUT STYLES               205
+
+    OAK CHAIRS, SHOWING VARIOUS TRANSITIONAL STAGES       209
+
+    CHAIRS IN QUEEN ANNE STYLE                            213
+
+    COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE AND HEPPLEWHITE CHAIRS            215
+
+    OAK SETTEES IN CHIPPENDALE STYLE                      219
+
+    COUNTRY CHAIRS IN CHIPPENDALE AND SHERATON
+    STYLES                                                225
+
+    GRANDFATHER CHAIR                                     231
+
+    ARM-CHAIR AND BACON-CUPBOARD                          231
+
+    SPINDLE-BACK AND LADDER-BACK CHAIRS                   235
+
+    CORNER CHAIRS                                         237
+
+
+  CHAPTER VIII
+
+    CHAIRS OF EARLIEST FORM WITH STICK LEGS               247
+
+    OLIVER GOLDSMITH'S CHAIR                              251
+
+    CHAIRS WITH FIDDLE-SPLAT AND CABRIOLE LEGS            255
+
+    CHIPPENDALE AND HEPPLEWHITE WINDSOR CHAIRS            257
+
+    SHERATON STYLE WINDSOR CHAIRS                         261
+
+
+  CHAPTER IX
+
+    CHEST, DATED 1636 (WELSH)                             269
+
+    CUPBOARD, DATED 1710 (WELSH)                          269
+
+    ELM WARDROBE (WELSH). OAK DRESSER (LANCASHIRE)        273
+
+    FLAP-TOP TABLE (HERTFORDSHIRE TYPE)                   275
+
+    SPINDLE-BACK CHAIRS (LANCASHIRE)                      275
+
+    OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS (YORKSHIRE TYPE)                 279
+
+    LANCASHIRE OAK SETTLE (_c._ 1660)                     279
+
+    THREE-LEGGED TABLE (ISLE OF MAN)                      281
+
+    CRICKET TABLES (HERTFORDSHIRE, SOUTH BEDS,
+      CAMBRIDGE, AND ESSEX)                               281
+
+
+  CHAPTER X
+
+    RUSHLIGHT-HOLDERS, SCOTCH CRUSIE, CANDLE-DIPPER,
+    PIPE CLEANER, ETC.                                    289
+
+    QUEEN ANNE POT-HANGER, WITH ORIGINAL GRATE            291
+
+    KETTLE TRIVET                                         291
+
+    COUNTRY FIREDOGS AND FIRE-GRATE (EIGHTEENTH
+    CENTURY)                                              297
+
+    SUSSEX IRON FIREBACKS                                 301
+
+    SUSSEX IRON FIREBACKS AND ORIGINAL WOOD PATTERN       303
+
+    GRANDFATHER CLOCK AND WARMING-PANS                    307
+
+    BRASS DIAL OF THIRTY-HOUR CLOCK                       309
+
+
+  CHAPTER XI--OLD ENGLISH CHINTZES
+
+    OLD TRADE CARD SHOWING CALICO PRINTERS AT
+    WORK                                                  319
+
+    HUGUENOT PRINTED CHINTZ WITH PORTRAITS                319
+
+    HAND-PRINTED CHINTZES. QUEEN ANNE PERIOD AND
+    CHINESE STYLE                                         323
+
+    EXOTIC BIRD AND GOTHIC STYLES (EIGHTEENTH
+    CENTURY)                                              327
+
+    HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ BY R. JONES (OLD FORD)            331
+
+    HEPPLEWHITE PERIOD AND VICTORIAN PERIOD DESIGNS       335
+
+    VICTORIAN CHINTZ (IN THE COLLECTION OF MRS.
+    COBDEN UNWIN)                                         339
+
+
+
+
+    CHAPTER I
+
+    INTRODUCTORY
+    NOTE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTORY NOTE
+
+   The minor collector--The originality of the village
+   cabinet-maker--His freedom from foreign influences--The
+   traditional character of his work--Difficulty to establish
+   dates to cottage and farmhouse furniture--Oak the chief wood
+   employed--Beech, elm, and ash used in lieu of mahogany and
+   satinwood--Village craftsmanship not debased by early Victorian
+   art--Its obliteration in the age of factory-made furniture--The
+   conservation of old farmhouses with their furniture in Sweden
+   and in Denmark--The need for the preservation and exhibition of
+   old cottages and farmhouses in Great Britain.
+
+
+In regard to launching another volume on the market dealing with old
+furniture, a word of explanation is desirable, for nowadays of making
+books there is no end, and much study is a weariness to the collector.
+
+In the present volume attention has been especially given to that
+class of furniture known as Cottage or Farmhouse. There is no volume
+dealing with this phase of collecting. Prices for old furniture of
+the finest quality have gone up by leaps and bounds, and for those
+not possessed of ample means the collection of superlative styles is
+at an end. Singularly enough, the most native furniture and that most
+typically racy of the soil has not hitherto attracted the attention
+of wealthy collectors. The plutocrats who buy only the finest
+creations of Chippendale, who have immediate private information
+when an exquisitely designed Sheraton piece is found, who amass a
+mighty hoard of gilt Stuart furniture, or who boast of an unrivalled
+collection of Elizabethan oak, do not touch the minor furniture made
+during a period of three hundred years for the common people.
+
+The finest classes of English furniture made by skilful craftsmen
+for wealthy patrons must always be beyond the range of the minor
+collector. Every year brings keener zest among those interested in
+furniture of a bygone day, and it is therefore increasingly difficult
+for persons of taste and judgment who cannot afford high prices to
+satisfy their longings. It is obvious that specimens of massive
+appearance finely carved in oak of the Tudor age, or of elegantly
+turned work in walnut of Jacobean days, must be readily recognised
+as valuable. Sumptuous furniture tells its own story. It is unlikely
+nowadays that such wonderful "finds," concerning which imaginative
+writers are always telling us, will occur again--except on paper.
+Popular enthusiasm has been awakened, and more often than not the
+possessor of some mediocre piece of furniture or china attaches a
+value to it which is absurd. The publication of prices realised at
+auction has whetted the cupidity of would-be sellers who convert
+early nineteenth-century chairs by a nod of the head into "Queen
+Anne," and who aver with equal veracity that ordinary blue transfer
+printed ware has "been in the family a hundred years."
+
+  [Illustration: CHEST. MIDDLE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+  Gothic carving. Solid wood ends, forming feet. Made from six
+  boards; with hand-forged nails and large lock, characteristic of
+  Gothic chests.]
+
+  [Illustration: CHEST. SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+  Lozenge panels, disc turning, and Gothic brackets (rare).
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Mr. F. W. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+Cottage and farmhouse furniture may be said to be in somewhat
+parallel case to English earthenware. A quarter of a century ago, or
+even ten years ago, collectors in general confined their attention
+mainly to porcelain. The rage was for Worcester, Chelsea, Derby, or
+Bow. With the exception of Wedgwood and Turner, the Staffordshire
+potters had not found favour with the fashionable collector. Nowadays
+Toft dishes, Staffordshire figures by Enoch Wood, vases by Neale and
+Palmer, and the entire school of lustre ware, have received attention
+from the specialist, and scientific classification has brought prices
+within measurable distance of those paid for porcelain.
+
+What earthenware is to porcelain, so cottage and farmhouse furniture
+are to the elaborate styles made for the use of the richer classes.
+The French insipidities and rococo ornament of Chelsea and Derby and
+the oriental echoes of Worcester and of Bow are as little typical of
+national eighteenth-century sentiment as the ribbon-back chair and
+the Chinese fretwork of Chippendale or the satinwood elegances of
+Sheraton.
+
+To Staffordshire and to local potteries scattered all over the
+country from Sunderland to Bristol, from Lambeth to Nottingham, from
+Liverpool to Rye, one instinctively turns for real individuality and
+native tradition. Similarly farmhouse furniture exhibits the work of
+the local cabinet-maker in various districts, strongly marked by an
+adherence to traditional forms and intensely insular in its disregard
+of prevailing fashions. It is as English as the leather black-jack
+and the home-brewed ale.
+
+Contemporaneous with the great cabinet-makers who drew their
+inspiration from foreign sources--from Italy, from France, from
+Holland, and from Spain--small jobbing cabinet-makers in every
+village and town had their patrons, and when not making wagons
+or farm implements, produced furniture for everyday use. As may
+readily be supposed, there is in these results a blind naivete which
+characterises a design handed down from generation to generation.
+This is one of the surprising features of the village cabinet-maker's
+work--its curious anachronism. The sublime indifference to passing
+fashions is astonishingly delightful to the student and to the
+collector.
+
+There is nothing more uncertain than to attempt with exactitude to
+place a date upon cottage or farmhouse furniture. The bacon-cupboard,
+the linen-chest, the gate-table, the ladder-back chair and the
+windsor chair, were made through successive generations down to
+fifty years ago without departing from the original pattern of the
+Charles I. or the Queen Anne period. Oak chests are found carved
+with the Gothic linen-fold pattern. They might be of the sixteenth
+century except for the fact that dates of the late eighteenth and
+early nineteenth century are carved upon them. Whole districts
+have retained similar styles for centuries, and the fondness for
+clearly defined types is almost as pronounced as that of the Asiatic
+rug-weaver, who makes the same patterns as his remote ancestors sold
+to the ancient Greeks.
+
+The village cabinet-maker's work knows no sequence of ages of oak,
+walnut, mahogany, and satinwood. His wood is from his native trees.
+His chairs come straight from the hedgerows. His history can be
+spanned in one long age of oak, intermingled here and there with elm
+and yew-tree and beech. The early days of primitive work go back to
+the marked class distinction between gentles and simples, and the end
+came only in the last decades of the nineteenth century, when the
+village craftsman was obliterated by the rapid advance of factory and
+machine made furniture.
+
+It may at first be assumed by the beginner that cottage and farmhouse
+furniture is throughout a weak and feeble imitation of finer pieces.
+But this is not so. The craftsmen who made this class of furniture
+formed for themselves special types which were never made by the
+London cabinet-makers. For instance, the Jacobean gate-table, the
+Lancashire wardrobe, the dresser, and the windsor chair, have styles
+peculiarly their own. In many of the specimens found it will be seen
+that the village cabinet-maker displayed very fine workmanship, and
+there are clever touches and delightful mannerisms which make such
+pieces of interest to the collector.
+
+In early days of the villeins, furniture was limited to a stool, a
+table, and perhaps a chest. Nor was the use of much furniture at the
+farm or in the cottage a feature in Tudor and early Stuart days.
+Gorgeously carved oak and richly turned walnut filled the mansions
+of the wealthy, but one does not find its simpler counterpart made
+for cottages till nearly 1660. The few pieces essential to every
+dwelling-house may be placed not earlier than the late sixteenth or
+early seventeenth century--the chest, the table, the form, and the
+Protestant Bible-box.
+
+Chests with scratched Gothic mouldings, tables of the trestle type as
+used to-day, forms of the most simple construction, exist, and may be
+said to belong to the sixteenth century.
+
+Bible-boxes became common during the early seventeenth century, and
+without change in their style were made till the late eighteenth
+century. In mid-seventeenth-century days the well-known gate-table
+was introduced.
+
+Of early pieces we illustrate a few examples, though in connection
+with farmhouse and cottage, the early days afford a poor field, as
+the furniture of those days now remaining was mostly made for great
+families. The two sixteenth-century chests illustrated (p. 29) are
+interesting as showing the early styles. The upper photograph is
+of a middle sixteenth-century chest, with Gothic carving and solid
+wood ends forming feet. This type of chest is made from six boards.
+The hand-forged nails show the rough joinery, and the large lock is
+characteristic of such Gothic chests. The lower chest is also of the
+sixteenth century. It has lozenge panels, and is further ornamented
+by disc turning. The Gothic brackets at the base are rare, and it is
+an interesting example.
+
+  [Illustration: ELIZABETHAN CHAIR.
+
+  This is of Scandinavian origin, and was known in England before
+  the Roman Conquest, being shown in mediaeval MSS. Such designs
+  survived the Gothic styles.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: CHEST. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+  Panels with early scratched mouldings (_i.e._, not mitred).
+  Mitreing came into general use about 1600.]
+
+That the chest remained in somewhat primitive form is shown by the
+illustration of a seventeenth-century specimen (p. 35). It will be
+observed that the panels have early scratched mouldings, that is to
+say they are not mitred. The fashion of mitreing in cabinet-work came
+into general use about the year 1600, but minor examples of country
+furniture often possess scratched moulding at a much later date.
+
+On the same page is an Elizabethan chair. This type is of exceptional
+interest. It has a long and proud history. They are, according
+to Mr. Percy Macquoid, "of Byzantine origin; their pattern was
+introduced by the Varangian Guard into Scandinavia, and from there
+doubtless brought to England by the Normans. They continued to be
+made until the end of the sixteenth century." These turned chairs are
+interesting as having spindles, which came into use at a much later
+period in the spindle-back chair.
+
+With the growth of prosperity and the increased use of domestic
+comforts, cottage furniture becomes a wider subject. Carved oak
+bedsteads, simple four-posters, bacon-cupboards, linen-chests became
+more common. In eighteenth-century days there was quite an outburst
+of enthusiasm, and the small cabinet-maker gained knowledge of his
+craft and became ambitious. On the promulgation of Chippendale's
+designs he made copies in elm and oak and beech for village patrons
+and essayed to follow Hepplewhite and even Sheraton.
+
+But this wave of success was followed by the competitive inroad made
+by factory-made cabinet-work, and during these last days the local
+cabinet-maker adhered closer than ever to the early oak examples of
+his forefathers. The village craft practically came to an end in the
+fifties, but it was a glorious end, and it is happy that it did not
+survive to produce bad work of atrocious design.
+
+The passing of cottage and farmhouse furniture may be said to be like
+the disappearance of dialect. The modern spirit has entered into
+village life, the town newspaper has permeated the country-side and
+disturbed the old-world repose. The lover of English folk-ways and
+the simplicity of rural life may echo the line of Wordsworth, "The
+things that I have seen I now can see no more."
+
+In the illustrations of two interiors shown on p. 39 it will be seen
+how happily placed the furniture becomes when in its old home. The
+atmosphere of these rural homesteads is at once soothing and restful,
+and the pieces of furniture had an added dignity. It seems almost
+sacrilege to tear such relics of bygone days from their ancient
+resting-place. But the collector is abroad, and few sanctuaries have
+escaped his assiduous attention. The lower illustration shows the
+interior of a cottage with its original panelled walls. This cottage
+actually has Tudor frescoes.
+
+  [Illustration: INTERIOR OF FARMHOUSE PARLOUR.]
+
+  [Illustration: INTERIOR OF COTTAGE.
+
+  With original panelled walls. This cottage has Tudor frescoes.]
+
+The study of old farmhouse and cottage furniture has not been
+pursued in this country in so scientific a manner as in Sweden and
+in Denmark. The conservation of national heirlooms is a matter which
+must be speedily dealt with before they become scattered. It is a
+point which cannot be repeated too often. At Skansen, Stockholm, old
+buildings have, under State supervision, been re-erected, and
+with their furniture they afford a practical illustration of the
+particular type of life of the district of their origin. At Lyngby,
+near Copenhagen, a series of farmhouses similarly illustrate old
+types of homesteads from various localities in Denmark, and from
+Iceland and the Faroe Islands.
+
+By such a systematic and permanent record of farm and cottage life
+and the everyday art of the people it is possible to impart vitality
+to the study of the subject.
+
+The English method of museum arrangement in dry-as-dust manner,
+with rows of furniture and cases of china, is a valley of dry bones
+compared with such a fresh and vigorous handling and method of
+exposition as is followed in Scandinavia.
+
+If old English furniture is worth the preservation for the benefit of
+students of craftsmanship or as a relic of bygone customs, there is
+undoubted room for due consideration of the best means of exhibiting
+it. A series of representative farmhouses could be re-erected at some
+convenient spot. There are many parks around London and other great
+cities which would be benefited by such picturesque buildings.
+
+Before it is too late, and many of these beautiful structures have
+been destroyed to make room for modern improvements, and village
+life has become absorbed by the growing towns, it should be possible
+to step in and preserve some of the most typical examples for the
+enjoyment of the nation. The real interest shown by the public in
+out-of-door object-lessons of this nature is indicated by the great
+crowds at Exhibitions at Earl's Court and the like, which flocked to
+Tudor houses replete with old furniture, and villages transplanted in
+lath and plaster to simulate the real thing, which seemingly has been
+neglected from an educational point of view.
+
+The mountain farms and the homesteads of the men of the dales, fen
+farms, and stone cottages from the Cotswolds, half-timbered farms
+from Surrey, from Cheshire, and from Hampshire, dating back to early
+Stuart days--are not these worthy of preservation? In the Welsh
+hills, and nestling in the dips of the Grampians and the Cheviots,
+from Wessex to Northumbria, from the Border country to the extremity
+of Cornwall, from East Anglia to the Lakes, are treasures upon which
+the ruthless hand of destruction must shortly fall. Or far afield in
+Harris and in Skye, or remote Connemara, there are types which should
+find a permanent abiding place as national records of the homes of
+the men of the island kingdom.
+
+This should not be an impossible nor unthinkable problem to
+solve before such are allowed to pass away. The intense value of
+such a faithful record is worthy of careful consideration by the
+authorities, either as a national undertaking or under the auspices
+of one of the learned societies, such as the Society of Antiquaries,
+or the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings and Monuments,
+interested in the safeguarding of the national heritage bequeathed us
+by our forefathers.
+
+
+
+
+    CHAPTER II
+
+    SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY
+    STYLES
+
+
+
+
+CHRONOLOGY
+
+
+JAMES I. (1603-25)
+
+   =1606= Second colonisation of Virginia begun; Raleigh's first
+   colony in Virginia was founded in 1585.
+
+   =1611= The colonisation of Ulster begun.
+
+   Publication of the _Authorised version_ of the _Bible_.
+
+   =1620= The sailing of the _Mayflower_ and the foundation of New
+   England by the Puritans.
+
+
+CHARLES I. (1625-49)
+
+   =1630= John Winthrop and a number of Puritans settle in
+   Massachusetts.
+
+   =1633= Reclamation of forest lands.
+
+   =1634= Wentworth introduces flax cultivation into Ireland.
+
+   =1635= Taxes for Ship Money levied on inland counties.
+
+   =1637= John Hampden, a country gentleman, refuses to pay Ship
+   Money.
+
+
+CIVIL WAR (1642-49)
+
+   =1642= Battle of Edgehill. Formation of Eastern Association.
+   Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridge, and Hertford unite for
+   purpose of defence against the Royalists.
+
+   =1643= Battles of Reading, Grantham, Stratton, Chalgrove
+   Field, Adwalton Moor (near Bradford), Lansdown, Roundway Down,
+   Bristol, Gloucester, Newbury, Winceby, Hull.
+
+   =1644= Battles of Nantwich, Copredy Bridge, Marston Moor,
+   Tippermuir, Lostwithiel, Newbury.
+
+   =1645= Battles of Inverlochy, Naseby, Langport, Kilsyth,
+   Bristol, Philiphaugh, Rowton Heath.
+
+   =1648= Battles of Maidstone, Pembroke, Preston, Colchester.
+
+
+THE COMMONWEALTH (1642-58)
+
+   =1649= Battle of Rathmines. Storming of Drogheda and Wexford by
+   Cromwell.
+
+   =1650= Montrose defeated at Corbiesdale and executed. Battle of
+   Dunbar.
+
+   =1651= Battle of Worcester.
+
+   =1652= War with Holland.
+
+   =1656= War with Spain.
+
+   =1657= Destruction of Spanish fleet by Blake.
+
+   =1658= Battle of the Dunes. Victory of English and French fleet
+   over Spain.
+
+
+INTERREGNUM (1658-60)
+
+   =1659= Rising in Cheshire for Charles.
+
+
+CHARLES II. (1660-85)
+
+   =1672= _The stop of the Exchequer._ Charles refuses to repay
+   the principal of the sums he had borrowed and reduces interest
+   from 12 per cent. to 6 per cent. This resulted in great
+   distress, felt in various parts of the country.
+
+
+JAMES II. (1685-88)
+
+   =1685= Insurrection of Argyll in Scotland.
+
+   Monmouth rising in West of England.
+
+   Revocation of Edict of Nantes. The expulsion of a large
+   number of French Protestant artisans. Settlement of skilled
+   silk-weavers and others in England.
+
+
+WILLIAM III. AND MARY (1689-94)
+
+
+WILLIAM III. (1689-1702)
+
+   =1689= Siege of Londonderry.
+
+   =1690= Battle of the Boyne. William defeats James, who flees to
+   France.
+
+   =1691= Capitulation of Limerick; 10,000 Irish soldiers and
+   officers joined the service of the French King.
+
+   =1692= Battle of La Hogue, French fleet destroyed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES
+
+   Typical Jacobean furniture--Solidity of English joiners'
+   work--Oak general in its use--The oak forests of
+   England--Sturdy independence of country furniture--Chests of
+   drawers--The slow assimilation of foreign styles--The changing
+   habits of the people.
+
+
+To the lover of old oak, varied in character and essentially English
+in its practical realisation of the exact needs of its users, the
+seventeenth century provides an exceptionally fine field. The
+chairs, the tables, the dower-chests and the four-post bedsteads
+of the farmhouse were sturdy reflections of sumptuous furniture
+made for the nobility and gentry in Jacobean and Elizabethan times.
+The designs may have been suggested by finer and early models, but
+the balance, the sense of proportion, and the carving, were the
+result of the village carpenter's own individual ideas as to the
+requirements of the furniture for use in the farmhouse. Obviously
+strength and stability were important factors, and ornament, as
+such, took a subsidiary place in his scheme. But, although coarse
+and possessing a leaning towards the unwieldy, and often massive
+without the accompanying grandeur of the highly-trained craftsman's
+work, there is a breadth of treatment in such pieces which is at
+once recognisable. They were made for use and no little thought was
+bestowed on their lines, and, rightly appreciated, they possess
+a considerable beauty. There is nothing finicking about this
+seventeenth-century farmhouse furniture. There is no meaningless
+ornament. Produced in conditions suitable for quiet and restrained
+craftsmanship, contemplative cabinet-makers began to evolve styles
+that are far removed from the average design of furniture made to-day
+under more pretentious surroundings.
+
+The gate table, with its long history and its amplification of
+structure and ornament, to which a separate chapter is devoted
+(Chapter III), is a case in point. It was extensively used in inns
+and in farmhouses and found itself in set definite types spread
+over a wide area from one end of the country to the other. Its
+practicability caught the taste of lovers of utility. Its added
+gracefulness of form, in combination with its adaptability to modern
+needs, has recaptured the fancy of housewives to-day. It is the happy
+survival of a beautiful and useful piece of ingenious cabinet-work.
+
+To-day one finds unexpectedly a London fashion lingering in the
+provinces years afterwards. A stray air from a light opera or some
+catch-phrase of town slang is gaily bandied about as current coin in
+bucolic jest long after its circulation in the metropolis has ceased.
+The fashions in provincial furniture moved as slowly. Half a century
+after certain styles were the vogue they crept imperceptibly into
+country use. In speech and song the transplantation is more rapid,
+but in craftsmanship, the studied work of men's hands, the use of
+novelty is against the grain of the conservative mind of the country
+cabinet-maker. Therefore throughout the entire field of this minor
+furniture it must be borne in mind that it is quite usual to find
+examples of one century reflecting the glories of the period long
+since gone.
+
+=Solidity of English Joiners' Work.=--The love of old country
+furniture of the seventeenth century is hardly an acquired taste.
+Old oak is at once a jarring note in a Sheraton drawing-room with
+delicate colour scheme of dainty wallpaper and satin coverings. But
+as a general rule, when it is first seen in its proper environment,
+in an old-world farmhouse with panelled walls, and mullioned windows,
+set squarely on an oak floor and beneath blackened oak beams ripe
+with age, it wins immediate recognition as representative of a fine
+period of furniture. It is admitted by experts, and it is the proud
+boast of possessors of old oak, that the joiner's work of this
+style--the seventeenth century at its best--stands unequalled for its
+solidity and sound practical adhesion to fixed principles governing
+sturdy furniture fashioned for hard and continued usage. Of course,
+there were no screws used in those days, and little glue. The joints
+dovetailed into each other with great exactness and were fastened by
+the wooden pins so often visible in old examples. The modern copyist
+has a fine regard for these wooden pegs. He knows that his clients
+set store by them, and he accordingly sees to it that they are well
+in evidence in his replicas. But there is yet a distinction which may
+be noticed between his pegs and the originals. His are accurately
+round, turned by machinery to fit an equally circular machine-turned
+hole. They tell their own story instantly to a trained eye, to say
+nothing of the piece of furniture as a whole, which always has little
+conflicting touches to denote its modernity.
+
+As an instance of the form of the sixteenth century continuing in
+use until mid-seventeenth-century days the illustration of an oak
+table (p. 63) brings out this point. The heavy baluster-like legs,
+only just removed from the earlier bulbous types, and the massive
+treatment belong to the days of James I., and yet such pieces really
+were made in Cromwellian days.
+
+The rude simplicity of much of the farmhouse furniture is indicated
+by the Monk's Bench illustrated (p. 53). The back is convertible into
+a table top. The early plainness of style for so late a piece as 1650
+is particularly noteworthy. This specimen is interesting by reason of
+its exceptionally large back.
+
+On the same page is illustrated a chest with two drawers underneath.
+This form is termed a "Mule Chest," and is the earliest form of the
+chest of drawers. These Cromwellian chests with drawers continued to
+be made in the country for a hundred years, but in more fashionable
+circles they soon developed into the well-known Jacobean chest of
+drawers, the prototype of the form in use to-day. As an instance of
+this lingering of fashion the chest illustrated is dated 1701, quite
+fifty years after its first appearance as a new style.
+
+  [Illustration: MONK'S BENCH. _C._ 1650.
+
+  With back convertible into table top. Exceptionally large back.
+  (Note early plainness of style.)
+
+  (_By courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell & Sons._)]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CHEST WITH DRAWERS UNDERNEATH.
+
+  Termed a "Mule Chest." The earliest form of chest of drawers.
+  This piece in style is Middle Seventeenth Century, but is dated
+  1701.]
+
+=Oak General in its Use.=--The oak as a wood was in general use both
+in the furniture of the richer classes and in the farmhouse furniture
+of seventeenth-century days and earlier. Inlaid work is unknown in
+furniture of this type. It was sparingly used in pieces of more
+important origin. The room shown at the Victoria and Albert Museum
+from Sizergh Castle has inlays of holly and bog oak. And the suite of
+furniture at Hardwicke Hall made for Bess of Hardwicke was made by
+English workmen who had been in Italy, the same persons who produced
+similar work at Longleat. Small panels with rough inlaid work are
+not uncommon in the seventeenth century in chests, bedsteads, and
+drawers. But the prevailing types of oak without the added inlays of
+other woods were rigidly adhered to in cabinet-makers' work for the
+farmhouse.
+
+The great oak forests, such as Sherwood, furnished an abundance of
+timber for all domestic purposes, and up to the seventeenth century
+little other wood was used for any structural or artistic purpose.
+Practically oak may be considered as the national wood. From the
+_Harry Grace a Dieu_ of Henry VIII. and the _Golden Hind_ of Drake
+to the _Victory_ of Nelson, the great ships were of English oak.
+The magnificent hammer-beam roof of Westminster Hall is of the same
+wonderful wood. All over the country are scattered buildings timbered
+with oak beams, from cathedrals and ancient churches to farmhouses
+and mills. The oak piles of old London Bridge were taken up after
+six centuries and a half and found to be still sound at the heart.
+The mass of furniture of nearly three centuries ago has survived
+owing to the durability of its wood. To this day English oak commands
+great esteem, although foreign oak has taken its place in the general
+timber trade, yet there is none which possesses such strong and
+lasting qualities. It will stand a strain of 1,900 lbs. per square
+inch transversely to its fibres.
+
+=Sturdy Independence of Country Furniture.=--The hardness of the
+oak as a wood is one of the factors which determined the styles of
+decoration of the furniture into which it was fashioned. It was
+not easily capable of intricate carved work, even in the hands of
+accomplished craftsmen. The fantastic flower and fruit pieces of
+Grinling Gibbons and other carvers were in lime or chestnut, and the
+age of walnut, a more pliant and softer wood to work in than oak, was
+yet to come. The country maker, little versed in the subtleties of
+cabinet-work, contented himself with a narrow range of types, which
+lasted over a considerable period. This is especially noticeable in
+his chairs, and specimens are found of the same form as the middle
+seventeenth century belonging to the last decade of the eighteenth
+century.
+
+  [Illustration: EARLY OAK TABLE. _C._ 1640.
+
+  Retaining Elizabethan bulbous form of leg and having Cromwellian
+  style feet. Brass handles added later.]
+
+  [Illustration: JOINT STOOLS.
+
+  Height, 1 ft. 10-1/2 ins. Height, 1 ft. 8-1/2 ins. Height, 1 ft. 5 ins.
+
+      (About 1640.)                           (About 1660.)]
+
+The typical sideboard of the seventeenth century only varies
+slightly in form according to the part of the country from
+which it comes. The general design is always permanent. A large
+cupboard below, two smaller ones above, set somewhat back from
+the front of the lower one, the sides of the upper ones sometimes
+canted off, leaving two triangular spaces of flat top at the
+ends of the bottom one. The whole is surmounted by a top shelf,
+supported by the upper cupboards and two boldly turned pillars.
+This is usually the design. The decoration is of the simplest,
+and presents nothing beyond the powers of the village carpenter.
+The mouldings are simple; there is slight conventional carving,
+frequently consisting of hollow flutings, and the pillars, boldly
+turned, are very rarely enriched by any ornament. A careful
+examination of such pieces is always interesting from a technical
+point of view. The framing of the panels is seen to be worked out
+by the plane, but the panels themselves more often than not have
+been reduced to approximate flatness with an adze. If viewed in
+a side light the surface is thus slightly varied, showing the
+differences in the planes of the various facets produced by the
+adze and giving an effect entirely different from the mechanical
+smoothing of a surface by the use of a plane.
+
+The framing of the front and ends of these sideboards is in
+detail exactly like the ordinary Jacobean wall panelling or
+wainscot. The mouldings are all worked on the rails or styles,
+not mitred and glued on, no mitred mouldings being used except
+occasionally in the centre panel between the doors. The framing
+is mortised together and pinned with oak pins. The doors are
+usually hung on iron strap hinges, and the handles of the doors
+are of wrought iron. Frequently the doors of the upper cupboards
+are hung on pivots, not hinges. Such a sideboard belongs to the
+middle period of the seventeenth century, and is representative
+of a wide class used in farmhouses.
+
+It is easier to follow the various movements in the design of the
+seventeenth-century table than a century later, when more complex
+circumstances governed its use. The illustrations on p. 57 give
+early forms, with some suggestion as to the progression in design.
+
+The early oak Table is a curious compound of design. It has
+retained the Elizabethan bulbous form of leg and has the
+Cromwellian foot. In date the piece is about 1640. The brass
+handle has been added later.
+
+The Joint Stools on the lower half of the page afford a picture
+of slowly advancing invention in turned work. The one on the left
+of the group is the earliest, and is about 1640 in date. Its legs
+are seen to be of coarser work, roughly turned, but typically
+early Jacobean in breadth of treatment. The two on the right are
+about 1660 in date. The left-hand one shows the urn-shaped leg of
+the strong, broad treatment (as in the Table illustrated p. 63),
+brought into subjection and exhibiting a gracefulness of form and
+balance that make furniture of this type so lovable. The smaller
+stool shows the ball-carving associated with the Restoration
+period, and found in gate tables. A combination of these styles
+of turning is shown in the graceful oak Table illustrated p. 65,
+in date about 1680.
+
+=Chests of Drawers.=--The conservative spirit of the minor
+craftsmen is especially noticeable in the articles of everyday
+use. The merchant's account ledger with its green back and
+cross-stitched pattern in vellum strips, still in use, is to
+be found in the same style in Holbein pictures of the days of
+the Hanseatic League. Brass and copper candlesticks have a long
+lineage, and their form is only a slight variant from very early
+examples. The evolution of ornament is especially interesting;
+the old stoneware Bellarmine form still remains in the bearded
+mask at the lip of china jugs at the beginning of the nineteenth
+century. The two buttons at the back of the coattails continue
+long after their primary use to loop up the sword-belt has
+vanished.
+
+In America the early carved chests of the Puritan colonists were
+followed by similar designs contemporary with our own Jacobean
+style for a period well towards the end of the seventeenth
+century. The panels on chairs and chests have the same arcaded
+designs as found in Elizabethan bedsteads and fireplaces. These
+become gradually crystallised in conventional form, and Lockwood,
+the American writer on old colonial furniture, has reduced the
+types coincident with our own Jacobean styles into ten distinct
+patterns, until the advent of the well-known chests of drawers
+with geometric raised ornament laid on, which pieces of furniture
+in Restoration days were set upon a stand.
+
+We have shown in the illustration (p. 53) the earliest form
+of the chest with drawers underneath. The stage transitional
+between this and the multifarious designs with bevelled panels
+in geometric design is exemplified by the chest, in date about
+1660, illustrated (p. 63), having two drawers and a centre
+bevelled panel, and with two arcaded panels on each side of this
+and also arcaded panels at the ends of the chest. This form was
+rapidly succeeded by the well-known chests of drawers on ball
+feet or on stand so much appreciated by collectors.
+
+We illustrate a sufficient number of pieces to cover the usual
+styles and to assist the beginner to identify examples coming
+under his observation. Although it should be noted that as these
+chests of drawers are so much sought after they are manufactured
+nowadays by the hundred and out of old wood, so that great care
+should be exercised in paying big prices for them unless under
+expert guidance.
+
+The specimen appearing on p. 65 is a fine example, in date 1660,
+and when the ball feet are original, as in this example, the
+genuineness of the chest of drawers is undoubted. Too often
+stands or feet are added, and it is exceedingly rare to find that
+the brass handles are original. Quite an industry is carried
+on in reproducing old brass escutcheons and handles from rare
+designs and carefully imparting to them signs of age, so that
+they may be used in made-up chests of drawers and tables.
+
+Of types of stands, the two chests of drawers illustrated p. 69
+are fair examples. The upper chest is a curious Jacobean type
+with sunk panels and having an unusually high stand. There is
+a suggestion that this has been added later, as the foot is
+eighteenth-century in character.
+
+The lower chest is of the Charles II. type with sunk panels
+and having the arcaded foot of that period. It will be observed
+that in addition to the four drawers it has a drawer at the
+bottom.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK TABLE. _C._ 1650.]
+
+  [Illustration: CHEST. ABOUT 1660.
+
+  With bevelled panels and drawers and arcaded panels and ends.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: SMALL OAK TABLE. _C._ 1680.
+
+  Showing two forms of mouldings in legs and stretcher.
+
+  (_By courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell & Sons._)]
+
+  [Illustration: JACOBEAN CHEST OF DRAWERS. _C._ 1660.
+
+  Height, 2 ft. 11-3/4 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 11 ins.; width, 3 ft.
+  3-1/2 ins. The ball foot, not always present, indicates genuine
+  example.]
+
+The treatment of the stand or legs of these chests exercised the
+ingenuity of various generations of cabinet-makers. In the specimen
+illustrated p. 69, the eighteenth century is reached. The transition
+from passing Jacobean styles into those of Queen Anne is clearly
+seen. The bevelled panels still remain, with added geometric
+intricacies of design, and a new feature appears in the fluted sides.
+But the most interesting feature is the cabriole leg, so definitely
+indicative of the eighteenth century.
+
+=The Slow Assimilation of Foreign Styles in Furniture.=--Farmhouse
+furniture almost eschewed fashion. In seventeenth-century days it
+pursued the even tenor of its way untrammelled by town influences.
+England in those days was not traversed by roads that lent themselves
+to neighbourly communication. A hundred years later Wedgwood found
+the wretched roads in Staffordshire, where waggons sunk axle-deep in
+ruts and pits, a hindrance to his business, and William Cobbett in
+his _Rural Rides_ leaves a record of Surrey woefully primitive at
+Hindhead, with dangerous hills and bogs, where the "horses took the
+lead and crept down, partly upon their feet and partly upon their
+hocks."
+
+From the days of James I. to those of James II., from the first
+Stuart Sovereign to the last of that ill-starred house, the country
+passed through rapid stages of volcanic history. The opening years
+of the century saw the colonisation of Ulster by the Scots and
+the English settlers, and the sailing of the _Mayflower_ and the
+foundation of New England by the Puritans, nine years after the
+publication of the Authorised version of the Bible. Under Charles I.
+came the struggle between the despotic power of the Crown and the
+newly awakened will of the people. Parliamentary right came into
+conflict with royal prerogative. The smouldering fire burst into
+flame when John Hampden, a country gentleman, refused to pay Ship
+Money, which was levied on the inland counties in 1637, and the
+arrest of five members of Parliament in 1642--Hampden, Pym, Holles,
+Haselrig, and Strode--precipitated the country into civil war.
+
+For seven years a continual series of battles were waged by the
+contending forces. The Eastern Counties formed themselves into a
+martial association, and the King set up his standard at Nottingham.
+From Bristol to Hull and from Nantwich to Newbury fierce engagements
+tore the country asunder. An Irish army was raised for the King, and
+the Scots under Leslie crossed the border in the Parliamentarian
+cause. With the execution of Charles I. came other dangers; the sword
+was not sheathed, nor had revolution left a contented country-side.
+Cromwell divided the kingdom into eleven military districts, and
+under his rule England took her place at the head of the Protestant
+States in Europe.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS.
+
+  Curious Jacobean type, with sunk panels and unusually high stand.
+  This stand is the well-known eighteenth-century foot.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS.
+
+  Charles II. type, with sunk panels and arcaded stand and feet
+  typical of the period.]
+
+With the death of the Protector and the restoration of the Stuarts,
+when Charles II. returned home, came an influx of foreign customs
+and foreign arts learned by expelled royalists in their enforced
+sojourn on the Continent. London and the Court instantly became
+the centre of voluptuous fashion. The pages of Pepys's _Diary_ afford
+instructive pictures of the last quarter of the century at Whitehall
+with the Merry Monarch exhibited in vivid colours, and more intimate
+still are the word-portraits cleverly etched by the Count de Grammont
+in his _Memoirs_ of the gay circle at Court. And after Charles came
+his brother James, nor were civil strife and Court intrigue memories
+of the past. Restlessness still characterises the closing years of
+the century. The insurrection of Monmouth in the West of England was
+followed by the Bloody Assize of Judge Jeffreys. The air is filled
+with trouble, and blundering statecraft brings fresh disaster,
+culminating in the ignominious flight of the King. Nor does this
+complete the changing scenes of the seventeenth century. A new era
+under William the Dutchman brought new and permanent influences, and
+religious toleration and constitutional government became firmly
+rooted as the heritage of the people of this country.
+
+It is essential that a rough idea of the period be gained in order
+to appreciate the kaleidoscopic character of the events that rapidly
+succeeded each other. The paralysis of the arts during the civil
+war had not a little influence on the furniture of the period
+belonging to the class of which we treat in this volume. The wealth
+of noble and patrician families had been scattered, estates had
+been confiscated, and sumptuous furniture and appointments pillaged
+and destroyed, especially when it offended the narrow tastes of the
+Puritan soldiery. Some of the minor pieces no doubt found their way
+into humbler homes and served as models for simpler folk. With
+a dearth of aristocratic patrons there were no new art impulses
+to stir craftsmen to their highest moods, but in spite of war and
+disturbances affecting all classes, furniture for common use had to
+be made, and the ready-found types exercised a continued influence on
+all the earlier work.
+
+In regard to farmhouse furniture the following types represent in the
+main the seventeenth-century styles: the bedstead, the sideboard or
+dresser, the table and the chair in its various forms, the Bible-box
+and the cradle. The Jacobean chest of drawers, a development of the
+dower-chest, came in mid-seventeenth-century days, and prior to
+the William and Mary styles. The sideboard, a development of the
+bacon-cupboard, came into fashion in the middle of the century. It
+was a reflex of the grander furniture of the manor house and the
+nobleman's mansion. It is difficult to fix exact dates to Jacobean
+furniture of this character. As a general rule it is safer to place
+it at a later date than is the usual custom.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS.
+
+  Showing transition to Queen Anne type. Cabriole feet, bevelled
+  panels, and fluted sides.]
+
+  [Illustration: WILLIAM AND MARY TABLE. _C._ 1670.
+
+  With finely turned legs and stretcher and scalloped underwork.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+=The Changing Habits of the People.=--The shifting phases of the
+restless seventeenth century make it exceedingly difficult, in spite
+of experts, to decide definitely as to the exact date of furniture.
+The country being in such an unsettled state obviously influenced the
+manufacture of domestic furniture. Its natural evolution was broken
+and the restraint of the Jacobean forms was in the main due to the
+conditions prevailing in regard to their manufacture. The long list
+of battles given in the chronological table at the commencement of
+this chapter is advisedly recorded to show the intense upheaval which
+was caused by the civil wars which raged from north to south, from
+east to west, and convulsed any artistic impulses which may have been
+in process of materialisation.
+
+It is obvious the class of Table of the William and Mary period,
+in date about 1670, illustrated (p. 73), with finely turned legs
+and stretcher and scalloped underwork, belongs to a period far
+more advanced in comfort than the days when such a table as that
+illustrated p. 63 was the ordinary type.
+
+By the end of the century the growth of sea power and the astonishing
+development of trade brought corresponding domestic luxuries. The two
+children's stools illustrated (p. 77) must have come from a country
+squire's or wealthy provincial merchant's house. Their upholstered
+seats emulate the grandeur of finer types. The rare form of oak
+bedstead illustrated on the same page is a survival of the early
+type. In date this is about 1700; not too often are such examples
+found, for enterprising restorers and makers have seized these
+old Jacobean bedsteads and converted them into so-called Jacobean
+"sideboards," wherein nothing is old except the wood.
+
+It requires some little imagination to conjure up what the daily
+meals were in the days of the early Stuarts. There was the leather
+jack, the horn mug, and the long table in the hall where the farmer
+and his servants ate together. An old black-letter song, entitled
+"When this old cap was new," in date 1666, in the Roxburgh "Songs
+and Ballads," has two verses which paint a lively picture:--
+
+    "Black-jacks to every man
+      Were fill'd with wine and beer;
+    No pewter pot nor can
+      In those days did appear;
+    Good cheer in a nobleman's house
+      Was counted a seemly show;
+    We wanted not brawn nor souse
+      When this old cap was new.
+
+    We took not such delight
+      In cups of silver fine;
+    None under the degree of knight
+      In plate drank beer or wine;
+    Now each mechanical man
+      Hath a cupboard of plate for show,
+    Which was a rare thing then
+      When this old cap was new."
+
+The "mechanical man" is a delightful touch of the old song-writer.
+We fear he would have been shocked at the degeneracy of a later day,
+when in place of the mug that was handed round came the effeminate
+teacups. The change from ale, at breakfast and dinner and supper,
+to tea the beverage of the poor, would be a sad awakening from the
+ideals set up by the rollicking song-writer of Restoration days. But
+such innovations must needs be closely regarded by the student of
+furniture.
+
+We wish sometimes that historians had spared a few pages from
+military evolutions and Court intrigues to let us know what the
+parlours and bedrooms of our ancestors looked like. A rough resume
+from Macaulay's "State of England in 1685," wherein he quotes
+authority by authority, holds a mirror to seventeenth-century life.
+
+  [Illustration: CHILDREN'S STOOLS, _C._ 1690.]
+
+  [Illustration: RARE BEDSTEAD. _C._ 1700.
+
+  Survival of early type.]
+
+At Enfield, hardly out of sight of the smoke of the capital,
+was a region of five-and-twenty miles in circumference, which
+contained only three houses and scarcely any enclosed fields,
+where deer wandered free in thousands. Red deer were as common in
+Gloucestershire and Hampshire as they are now in the Grampians. Queen
+Anne, travelling to Portsmouth, on one occasion, saw a herd of no
+less than five hundred.
+
+Agriculture was not a greatly known science. The rotation of crops
+was imperfectly understood. The turnip had just been introduced to
+this country, but it was not the practice to feed sheep and oxen with
+this in the winter. They were killed and salted at the beginning of
+the cold weather, and during several months even the gentry tasted
+little fresh animal food except game and river fish. In the days of
+Charles II. it was at the beginning of November that families laid in
+their stock of salt provisions, then called Martinmas beef.
+
+The state of the roads in those days was somewhat barbarous. Ruts
+were deep, descents precipitous, and the way often difficult to
+distinguish in the dusk from the unenclosed fen and heath on each
+side. Pepys and his wife, travelling in their own coach, lost their
+way between Newbury and Reading.[2] In some parts of Kent and Sussex
+none but the strongest horses could, in winter, get through the
+bog in which they sank deep at every step. The coaches were often
+pulled by oxen.[3] When Prince George of Denmark visited the mansion
+of Petworth he was six hours travelling nine miles. Throughout the
+country north of York and west of Exeter goods were carried by long
+trains of packhorses.
+
+  [2] _Pepys's Diary_, June 12, 16 8.
+
+  [3] Postlethwaite's "Dictionary of Roads."
+
+The capital was a place far removed from the country. It was seldom
+that the country squire paid a visit thither. "Towards London and
+Londoners he felt an aversion that more than once produced important
+political effects" (Macaulay). Apart from the country gentlemen
+were the petty proprietors who cultivated their own fields with
+their own hands and enjoyed a modest competence without affecting
+to have scutcheons and crests. This great class of yeomanry formed
+a much more important part of the nation than now. According to the
+most reliable statistics of the seventeenth century, there were no
+less than a hundred and sixty thousand proprietors, who with their
+families made a seventh of the population of those days, and these
+derived their livelihood from small freehold estates.
+
+Such, then, were the chief differences dividing the life of the
+country from the life of the town. The London merchants had town
+mansions hardly less inferior to the nobility. Chelsea was a quiet
+village with a thousand inhabitants, and sportsmen with dog and gun
+wandered over Marylebone. General Oglethorpe, who died in 1785, used
+to boast that he had shot a woodcock in what is now Regent Street, in
+Queen Anne's reign.
+
+The days of the Stuarts were not so rosy as writers of romance
+have chosen to have us believe. At Norwich, the centre of the cloth
+industry, children of the tender age of six were engaged in labour.
+At Bristol a labyrinth of narrow lanes, too narrow for cart traffic,
+was built over vaults. Goods were conveyed across the city in trucks
+drawn by dogs. Meat was so dear that King, in his "Natural and
+Political Conclusions," estimates that half the population of the
+country only ate animal food twice a week, and the other half only
+once a week or not at all. "Bread such as is now given to the inmates
+of a workhouse was then seldom seen even on the trencher of a yeoman
+or a shopkeeper. The majority of the nation lived almost entirely on
+rye, barley, and oats."
+
+The change from these conditions to those we associate with the
+eighteenth century was not a sudden but a slow one. With the increase
+of average prosperity came the additional requirements in household
+furniture. It is impossible now to state accurately what the exact
+furniture was of the various classes of the community. Many of the
+seventeenth-century pieces now remaining have been treasured in great
+houses and belong to a variety which in those days was regarded as
+sumptuous. Now and again we catch glimpses of the former life of the
+men and women of those days. Little pieces of conclusive evidence
+are brought to light which enable safe conclusions to be drawn. But
+the everyday normal character has too often gone unrecorded. We are
+left with Court memoirs, diaries of the great, literary proofs of the
+more scholarly, but the simple annals of the poor are, in the main,
+unrecorded.
+
+In view of this series of queer and remarkable facts strung together
+to afford the reader a rough and ready picture of those dim days,
+one comes to believe that much of the ordinary seventeenth-century
+furniture must be regarded as having belonged to the great yeoman
+class of the community. With this belief the collector very rightly
+regards it of sterling worth, as reminiscent of the men from whose
+sturdy stock has sprung a great race.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE GATE-LEG TABLE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE GATE-LEG TABLE
+
+   Its early form--Transitional and experimental stages--Its
+   establishment as a permanent popular type--The gate-leg table
+   in the Jacobean period--Walnut and mahogany varieties--Its
+   utility and beauty contribute to its long survival--Its
+   adoption in modern days.
+
+
+The gate-leg table is always regarded with veneration by collectors.
+It has a charm of style and beauty of construction which afford
+never-ending delight to possessors of old examples. It is an inspired
+piece of cabinet-work which belongs to the middle of the seventeenth
+century, and exhibits the supreme effort of the early Jacobean
+craftsmen to break away from the square massive tables, the lineal
+descendants of the great bulbous-legged table of the Elizabethan
+hall. Dining-tables with the device of slides to draw out when
+occasion required, even in early days became a necessity. It is a
+note indicating the changing habits of the people. A table was no
+longer used for one purpose. The large table required a permanent
+place in a large room. But smaller houses fitted with minor
+furniture had their limitations of space, and so the ingenuity of a
+table that would close together and stand against a wall, or could be
+used as a round table for dining, was a welcome innovation.
+
+=Its Early Form.=--The series of illustrations in this chapter afford
+a fairly comprehensive survey of the progress and differing character
+of the gate-leg table during the hundred years that it held a place
+in domestic furniture. It is difficult to say with exactitude which
+are the earliest forms, or whether the round table without the moving
+gates was a sort of transitional form prior to the use of the movable
+legs. It is quite possible that in his attempt to invent something
+more convenient than the heavy square dining-table the progressive
+cabinet-maker of the middle seventeenth century did strike the
+half-way form. But on the other hand it must be admitted that there
+is the possibility that the gate-leg table came first, and that the
+types with three legs and half circular tops stand by themselves as
+later types. On the whole, one is inclined to the belief, especially
+as it prettily illustrates forms of natural evolution, that the
+three-legged table with fixed legs and half round top came first.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK SIDE TABLE. _C._ 1660.
+
+  Plain style. The precursor of the gate-leg table.]
+
+  [Illustration: TRIANGULAR GATE-LEG TABLE. _C._ 1640.
+
+  Fine example. With arcaded spandrils and gate. This is the next
+  stage of development to above table.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+The two tables illustrated on p. 87 belong to this three-legged type.
+The upper one is half circular at the top and the three legs are
+stationary. This particular table is in date about 1660, and although
+in this instance it is obviously later than other forms we illustrate
+having gate-legs, yet by the theory we have advanced above, it
+belongs to a type prior to the use of a gate. The lower one is a
+fine example, in date about 1640, of a triangular gate-leg table.
+The top is round, and the illustration shows the gate open at right
+angles to the stretcher. The arcaded spandrils are an interesting and
+rare feature.
+
+=Transitional Types.=--Not only is the feeling towards the gradual
+establishment of this new form of table shown in its construction,
+first with four legs until it developed into a table with twelve
+legs and double gates, but the styles of ornament used in the
+turning differ greatly in character. The leg is capable of wide and
+differing treatment. There is the urn leg, a rare and early type,
+the ball turned leg, egg-and-reel turned leg, and the straight leg.
+In regard to the stretcher similar varieties occur. Sometimes it is
+entirely plain, and when it is decoratively turned it varies from
+the early survival of the Gothic trestle to the rare cross stretcher
+of the late collapsible table. In some types of Yorkshire tables
+the stretchers are splat-form, like a ladder-back chair. The feet
+differ in no less degree from the usual Jacobean type to the scroll
+or Spanish foot at a later date. In the early eighteenth century
+there is the interesting series of Queen Anne flap tables which
+have gate-legs. Some have the bottom stretcher to the gate-leg.
+These belong to the walnut period, when a greater vivacity became
+noticeable in English cabinet work.
+
+It is this picturesque and endless stream of designs which appeals to
+the collector. It is quite worthy of study to follow the difference
+in the cabinet-work of these gate tables. The long line of craftsmen
+who fashioned them added here and there not only touches of
+ornament that were personal, but invented details of construction as
+improvements to existing forms.
+
+A very early type with urn legs and having plain gates is that
+illustrated p. 91. It is small in size and belongs to the first half
+of the seventeenth century. The survival of the Gothic trestle feet
+of an earlier type is noteworthy. The table on the same page has the
+trestle ends still retained. There is still the single leg at each
+end, as in the example above. The gates are square and plain and the
+legs are ball turned, a combination representing an early type. The
+size of this piece is small and its date is about 1650 or somewhat
+later.
+
+=Its Establishment as a Popular Type.=--The varied improvements and
+the slightly differing characteristics make it perfectly clear, when
+examined in detail, that the gate table in various parts of the
+country had firmly established itself and had won popular approval as
+a permanent type. In the search for tables of this form, however wide
+the net is spread by those indefatigable seekers in out-of-the-way
+places, and by the small army of trade collectors who scour the
+country for the purpose of unearthing something rare and unique,
+the story is always the same. In the most remote districts such
+tables are still found: the growth of the use of this gate-leg form
+permeated every part of the country. It was copied and recopied,
+native touches were added, and the old leading lines followed by
+generation after generation of craftsmen. It had as great a vogue
+during the long period of its history as the styles of Chippendale
+chairs had at a later date, when every country cabinet-maker was
+seized with the desire to produce minor Chippendale in oak or beech
+or elm.
+
+  [Illustration: SMALL GATE TABLE. VERY EARLY TYPE.
+
+  Length, 3 ft.; breadth, 2 ft. 4 ins.; height, 2 ft. 3 ins. Urn
+  legs with plain gates with survival of Gothic trestle feet.]
+
+  [Illustration: GATE TABLE. MIDDLE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+  Early example. Height, 2 ft.; top, 2 ft. 9 ins. x 2 ft. 3 ins.
+  Square gates and turned leg indicate early type. Trestle ends
+  still retained.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: RARE TABLE.
+
+  With double gates. Egg and reel turning. Turned stretchers.
+
+  (Examples such as this are worth L18 to L35 owing to rare form.)]
+
+  [Illustration: RARE GATE TABLE.
+
+  With double gates with only one flap and having turned
+  stretchers. Tables with one flap are rare and usually have two
+  gates.
+
+  {_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+=The Jacobean Period.=--Essentially the flower of the popular
+creations of the Jacobean furniture-designer, the gate table must
+always stand as reminiscent of the days of Charles I. and Charles
+II. No picture of this period is considered artistically complete
+unless there be a gate-leg table with its picturesque lines adding a
+technical touch of correctness to interiors. The portrait of Herrick,
+the parson-poet of Devon, imaginative though it be, whenever it
+appears on canvas or illustrating his lyrics, shows the poet beside
+a fine gate-leg table. Stage tradition is equally sure on the same
+point. A company of swaggering cavaliers at an inn is not complete
+without a group arranged at one of these tables quaffing wine from
+flagons.
+
+Without doubt the finest examples are to be found from the year 1660
+to the end of the reign of Charles II. A new impetus had been given
+to furniture-making in Restoration days. The country had settled
+down in tranquillity and the domestic arts began again to thrive in
+natural manner following the earlier motives of the days of Charles
+I. The recent civil wars had arrested their development, and now they
+burst forth again with renewed youth.
+
+Ripe examples of the best period may be assigned to the last three
+or four decades of the seventeenth century. These, it should be
+explained, are in oak. We illustrate (p. 93) a particularly pleasing
+specimen with double gates which belongs to this finest period.
+There are, it will be observed, twelve legs, and the stretchers are
+finely turned with what is known as the egg-and-reel pattern. As a
+matter of fact pieces such as this, on account of the rare form,
+bring from L15 to L35, and they are rapidly being gathered into the
+folds of collectors.
+
+Another rare form is shown on the same page. This, too, has double
+gates, and the stretchers are similarly turned. There is only one
+flap to this table, and it will be observed that it makes another
+variation from accepted styles in having a rectangular instead of a
+circular top. Tables with one flap are always rare, and when found
+they usually have two gates.
+
+It will be seen that there are pleasant surprises in following
+changing forms all through the period. On p. 97 a table is
+illustrated with two gates on one stretcher. This in date is about
+1660.
+
+The table below, on the same page, exhibits florid turning in the
+legs. The stretchers across the two legs are half way up and are the
+Yorkshire form of splat stretcher. This type is found as early as
+1660 and as late as 1750.
+
+The difference in structure is noticeable in two tables shown on p.
+99. The one has six legs and the other eight legs. The first has
+finely turned legs and stretchers in what is familiarly known as the
+"barley-sugar" pattern. Among its exceptional features are the legs
+being only six in number, the gates being hinged to stretcher, two
+legs thus being dispensed with, and the additional bar across the two
+central stretchers. This is a rare piece and in date is about
+1670. The Gate Table on the same page with eight legs is a good
+example of ball turning. This is a type which survived well into the
+eighteenth century.
+
+  [Illustration: GATE TABLE. _C._ 1660.
+
+  Rare form. Two gates on one stretcher. Length, 3 ft. 10 ins.;
+  width, 3 ft.]
+
+  [Illustration: GATE TABLE.
+
+  Exhibiting florid turning and Yorkshire type of splat stretchers.
+  Examples are found as early as 1660 and as late as 1750. Length,
+  4 ft. 7-1/2 ins.; width, 3 ft. 3-1/2 ins.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: GATE TABLE.
+
+  Fine "barley sugar" turned legs and stretchers.
+
+  Exceptional features: Only six legs (gates hinged to stretcher,
+  two legs thus dispensed with). Additional bar across two central
+  stretchers.
+
+  Rare example. Date 1670.]
+
+  [Illustration: GATE TABLE.
+
+  Good example of ball turning. A type which survived well into the
+  eighteenth century.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: COLLAPSIBLE TABLE WITH RARE X STRETCHER. _C._ 1660.
+
+  The top folds over. Fine example.
+
+  (_In the collection of Lady Mary Holland._)]
+
+  [Illustration: PRIMITIVE GATE-LEG TABLE. SEVENTEENTH OR EARLY
+  EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+  Gates at one end. Made by a local carpenter or wheelwright not
+  conversant with turning.]
+
+As exhibiting two types as wide asunder as the poles, and yet not far
+removed in point of time, the two tables illustrated, p. 101, make a
+curious contrast. The upper one, in date about 1660, is a slender,
+graceful example, with the unusual =X=-shaped stretcher. It will be
+seen from the illustration that the two stretchers when closed fit
+flat with the legs and the top flaps over, thus making the table
+practically collapsible.
+
+The lower Table, of late seventeenth or early eighteenth century,
+is a somewhat primitive form, with the gates at one end. This
+has obviously been made by a local carpenter or wheelwright not
+conversant with turning, as the shaping of the legs is strongly
+suggestive of the rude fashioning of the shafts of a farm wagon.
+
+=Walnut and Mahogany Varieties.=--As the mid-Jacobean period is
+left behind, and walnut is the chief wood used in ornamental turned
+work, so the character of the gate table begins to incline towards
+the technique more suitable to walnut than to oak. The turning, more
+easily done in the former wood, becomes more intricate. Hence some
+examples appear which are practically types of the walnut age. But,
+in general, the old gate-leg table is a survival throughout the
+William and Mary and Queen Anne periods, wherein country makers clung
+to the oak form and employed oak still in its manufacture.
+
+The William and Mary Gate Table illustrated (p. 105) is constructed
+with one gate. It is small in size, practically being an ornamental
+or occasional table. It has a fine character, and the "barley
+sugar" pattern is deeply turned. Side by side with this is a small
+square-topped Gate Table with the pillar-leg, denoting a reversion
+to early type. The stretcher is of the old trestle form. Both
+these pieces, on account of their small size and well-balanced
+construction, show that considerable attention was being paid to
+symmetry. Such specimens can readily be transplanted to more modern
+surroundings, and yet in some subtle manner harmonise with later
+furniture.
+
+They share this peculiarity with objects of Oriental art of the
+highest type. Old blue Nankin and old lac cabinets, although
+anachronisms amid furniture of a later date, possess the property of
+being in sympathy with their new environment, much in the same manner
+as an old Persian rug becomes a restful acquisition in a luxurious
+Western home.
+
+Some of the forms are so rare as to be almost unique. It is seldom
+that so interesting a piece is found as the Table illustrated (p.
+105) with the scroll feet in Spanish style. It has only one gate,
+and the top of the table lifts up, forming a box. The lock is shown
+at the front in the photograph. The adjacent table has a corrupted
+form of the Spanish foot, doubled under in cramped fashion like the
+flapper of a seal. This also has one gate; in date this piece is
+about 1680.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+    EARLY GATE TABLE.
+
+    With square top and pillar leg.
+    Stretcher: Old trestle form.
+    Top, 2 ft. 4 ins. x 1 ft. 10 ins.
+
+    WILLIAM AND MARY GATE TABLE.
+
+    Fine character deep-turning "barley sugar"
+    pattern with only one gate.
+    Top, 2 ft. 6 ins. x 2 ft.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell & Sons._)]
+
+  [Illustration: GATE TABLE WITH SQUARE TOP. _C._ 1680
+
+  Having one gate and corrupted form of carved Spanish foot.]
+
+  [Illustration: GATE-LEG TABLE. _C._ 1660.
+
+  With one gate. Top lifts up to form box. The feet are in Spanish
+  style.]
+
+The days of mahogany, with Chippendale in his prime and Hepplewhite,
+Ince and Mayhew, Robert Manwaring, Matthias Lock, William Shearer,
+and a crowd of others, brought intricate carving in mahogany into
+intense prominence. This was the golden age of furniture design. An
+outburst of enthusiasm, following the architectural triumphs of the
+Brothers Adam, wherein they raised interior decoration to a level as
+high as that in France, had swept over the country. In spite of the
+rich profusion of new design being poured out in illustrated volumes
+and in executed furniture, the old gate-leg table still survived.
+In form it was the same, but the richness of the new wood was too
+enticing for the cabinet-maker not to employ. Accordingly we find
+examples in mahogany.
+
+In the Chippendale period =X=-shaped, cluster-leg, gate tables
+are found, and turning was used in this cluster-leg form. The
+ripe inventiveness of such a design as the gate-leg table was too
+evident to escape the adoption by famous makers. When ingenuity of
+construction was at its zenith the gate-leg was not likely to be
+discarded in fashionable furniture.
+
+On p. 109 two specimens of this period are shown. The upper one is of
+somewhat unusual type, having a Cupid's bow underframing. It is seen
+that the Spanish foot has still survived into the eighteenth century.
+The lower table is again a rare form. It is probably early in date
+for mahogany, being about 1740. The Spanish foot is employed, but in
+a coarsened form, unusually inelegant, and suggestive of a golf club.
+
+=Its Utility and Beauty.=--It is a natural question that one may ask
+as to the reason that the gate table had such a prolonged life. It
+passed through several strong periods of fashionable styles that
+were overthrown in turn by newer designs. The reason is not far to
+seek. It survived because the public could not do without it. There
+must have been a continuous demand, unchecked by the excitements of
+contemporary substitutes. But apparently there was nothing to take
+its place, or which could permanently supplant it. Its utility is
+undoubtedly one of its most marked features. This alone affected
+its stability as a possession with which the farmer's wife and the
+cottager would not part. Customs long established in the country
+were not easily discontinued. Mother, daughter, and granddaughter
+clung to the old and practical form of table. Nowadays there are
+families in the shires whom nothing would induce to sell their old
+gate tables. Partly this is for love of the old home, but mainly is
+it the common-sense attitude which rebels against the sale of any
+piece of furniture which is in constant use. Many objects long gone
+into disuse, but really valuable from an artistic point of view, are
+readily dispensed with. The cottager imagines that if he disposes of
+a mere ornament for a sum of money with which he can buy something
+useful he has effected a good "deal."
+
+  [Illustration: MAHOGANY GATE TABLE.
+
+  Unusual type. With "Cupid's bow" underframing. Spanish foot
+  surviving into eighteenth century. Height, 2 ft. 5 ins.: diameter
+  of top, 3 ft. 6 ins.; width, 4 ft.]
+
+  [Illustration: MAHOGANY GATE TABLE.
+
+  Rare form. Probably made of the new fashionable wood about 1740.
+  Use of Spanish foot dying out. Diameter of top, 4 ft. 5-1/2 ins.
+  x 4 ft. 4 ins.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+So much for its utility. Its beauty is a quality which has appealed
+to persons of higher artistic instincts. It is not the quaintness,
+because there are scores of other objects equally quaint, nor is
+it altogether the antiquity, though, of course, nowadays that is
+a determining factor, but it is the actual symmetry of form and
+ingenious form of construction, enhanced by the wide range of
+decorative treatment, which irresistibly appeal to the lover of the
+beautiful. These manifold reasons, therefore, endowed the gate-leg
+table with great vitality. Its hold of the people was not relaxed
+till the age of the factory-made furniture. The banalities of the
+early-Victorian period, which destroyed taste in persons of finer
+susceptibilities than the common folk, supplanted the old historic
+form, and it was made no more.
+
+=Its Adoption in Modern Days.=--After William Morris and his school
+had preached the revival of taste and the return to the simple and
+the beautiful, and Ruskin with flowing rhetoric had instilled a love
+for homespun into men's minds, there came newer ideals which, with
+gradual dissemination, have grown into a great modern movement which
+has become so overwhelmingly popular that the pendulum has almost
+swung the other way. It has now become almost a truism that the
+person of taste to-day sees nothing good in anything that is not old.
+With this in view, artists and persons of advanced notions, if they
+could not procure the old, had copies made for them of some of the
+most beautiful styles suitable for modern requirements. In this there
+was always the great Morrisian principle in view that the highest art
+must show a full utilitarian purpose; so it came about that the gate
+table was revived and came gloriously into its own again. To-day, as
+in the seventeenth century, there is no more popular form of table,
+and the modern cabinet-maker is manufacturing hundreds of these
+tables.
+
+The life-history of the gate-leg table is, therefore, shown to be an
+interesting one. It is one of our oldest forms, and its construction
+nowadays, save that it is now produced in a factory, is singularly
+similar to that in the days when Oliver Cromwell was establishing our
+power as a voice in Europe, when James II. had an eye towards the
+supremacy of our navy, and when later our troops fought in Flanders.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE FARMHOUSE DRESSER
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE FARMHOUSE DRESSER
+
+   The days of the late Stuarts--Its early table form with
+   drawers--The decorated type with shelves--William and
+   Mary style with double cupboards--The Queen Anne cabriole
+   leg--Mid-eighteenth-century types.
+
+
+The various types of dresser associated with farmhouse use are
+interesting as being apart from the sideboard, a later fashion
+belonging to furniture of a higher type. It was not until the late
+days of Chippendale, and after, that the Side Table began to be
+designated a Sideboard, which later became a receptacle for wine,
+with a cellaret, and had a drawer for table-linen.
+
+The sideboard is not a modern term, for the word is found in Dryden
+and in Milton. In the late eighteenth-century days the sideboard had
+a brass rail at the back, and was ornamented by two mahogany urns of
+massive proportions. Usually these were used for iced water and for
+hot water, the latter for washing the knives and forks.
+
+The Adam sideboard with its severe classical lines, and Sheraton's
+elegant bow fronts and satinwood panels decorated with painting,
+belong to the later developments of the sideboard as now known.
+
+The dresser is something more homely. It is indissolubly connected
+with homeliness and with the farmhouse and the country-side. In its
+various forms it has appealed to lovers of simple furniture, and
+farmhouse examples have found their way into surroundings more or
+less incongruous. The dresser in its more primitive form requires the
+necessary environment. It loses its charm when placed in proximity to
+pieces of more pretentious character. The cupboard dresser, or the
+type with open shelves, is less decorative than some of the forms
+without the back. That is to say, it requires the exactly suitable
+accompaniment to prevent its simple lines from being eclipsed by
+furniture of a higher grade. The dresser is, therefore, especially
+desirable to the collector furnishing a country cottage in harmonious
+character; but its inclusion in the modern drawing-room is an
+incongruity and its presence in the dining-room is more often than
+not an unwarrantable intrusion.
+
+=The Days of the Late Stuarts.=--It will be seen that the early
+types have fronts finely decorated with geometric designs panelled
+in the same fashion as the Jacobean chests of drawers, such as that
+illustrated p. 69. The split baluster ornament is a noticeable
+feature in this style, and the fine graceful balance of the panels
+with the drawers with drop brass handles is an attractive feature
+beloved by connoisseurs of the late Stuart period. The decoration in
+the fronts of these early dressers is as diverse in character
+as the fronts of the contemporary chests of drawers. This variety is
+indicative of the personal character imparted to the work of the old
+designers. It is rare to find two examples exactly alike. They differ
+in details, much in the same manner as the brass candlesticks of the
+same period, which possess the same charm of individuality.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK DRESSER. ABOUT 1680.
+
+  With finely decorated front.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell & Sons._)]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK DRESSER.
+
+  Fine example of the period of James II.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK DRESSER OF UNUSUAL TYPE. EARLY EIGHTEENTH
+  CENTURY.
+
+  With arched formation below and serpentine outline at sides.
+  Height, 6 ft. 8-1/2 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 6 ins.; width, 6 ft. 2
+  ins.]
+
+  [Illustration: EARLY OAK DRESSER. ABOUT 1660.
+
+  With urn-shaped legs.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+Of this particular type of oak Dresser the two examples illustrated
+(p. 117) have characteristics which are common to the class. The
+geometric front panels, the laid-on moulding, and the Jacobean
+leg--in most cases the back legs of these side dressers are
+square--should be intently noticed. In regard to the number of
+the legs, this is governed by the length of the dresser. In the
+lower example it will be seen that there are six legs and that the
+stretcher is continued round three sides. In this example the legs
+begin to show indications of the late-Jacobean style of more delicate
+turning. In the upper example the legs are bolder.
+
+These are oak specimens; the walnut varieties of similar design offer
+more sumptuous decoration and belong to furniture more suitable for
+the manor house than for the farm or cottage.
+
+An earlier type, in date about 1660, illustrated p. 119, exhibits a
+less ornate appearance and has the split urn-shaped legs in front and
+flat legs at the back. The split legs are found sometimes in gate
+tables, but when such is the case it may safely be conjectured that
+these tables are not of English origin, as the split leg did not find
+great favour with the English cabinet-makers.
+
+Before passing to later examples it should be observed that this
+particular form of dresser is most frequently found without a top
+with shelves. Examples there are which, as we shall show, have the
+original top, but as a rule it is advisable to note this feature
+in examining these Jacobean dressers, for there are a great number
+in the market to which later tops have been added, as suitable to
+more modern requirements, or as likely to prove more attractive to
+those collectors not familiar with the dresser in its earlier form.
+Originally in early dressers with shelves there is no back, that is
+to say, the shelves showed the wall behind them. This deficiency has
+been obligingly supplied by later hands.
+
+The dresser, as it found itself after certain transitional stages had
+been passed through, is shown in the early eighteenth-century piece
+illustrated (p. 119). This is of the early days of the eighteenth
+century, that is to say, in the reign of Queen Anne. It is here seen
+that the dresser is a set piece of furniture possessing attributes
+instantly marking it as having been carefully designed with a due
+observance as to the purpose to which it was to be put. The shelf at
+the bottom was evidently intended for use; the arched formation below
+the drawers has been planned in that manner to admit of utensils
+placed there being taken out and replaced with ease. One can only
+conjecture what may have stood there, maybe a barrel of cider, or
+perhaps only a breadpan.
+
+=The Decorated Type with Shelves.=--The back with shelves was a
+useful addition, which, as will be seen in the earlier examples
+leading up to this later development, had borne several experiments
+in the way of cupboards. In this particular specimen the broken or
+serpentine outline at sides of shelves is a noticeable feature, and
+always adds a grace and charm to the dresser when employed by the
+cabinet-maker. Another example in which this is effectively used is
+illustrated on p. 123.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+    DRESSER. EARLY JACOBEAN.
+
+    Length, 6 ft. 5 ins.; height, 7 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 8-1/2 ins.
+
+    DRESSER. EARLIEST DECORATED TYPE.
+
+    Date about 1670.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+To return to the early-Jacobean types: two interesting pieces
+are illustrated together (p. 123). That on the left, with four
+legs and stretcher, has three drawers, and the upper portion or
+back is ornamented by a primitive scalloped design suggestive
+of the country hand. The other, on the right, has six legs and
+four drawers, and the upper portion is beginning to receive
+detailed treatment in regard to spacing of the shelves, and a
+small cupboard on each side fills the growing need of cupboards
+and drawers, a rapidly growing taste in English furniture for
+domestic use as the home-life began to be more complex. About
+this time nests of boxes and drawers in lac work from the East
+began to be imported into this country in the better houses,
+first as articles of great luxury and beauty, on account of
+their colour and fine gold work, and later as being something
+new and essentially utilitarian in regard to the accommodation
+they afforded for the treasures the housewife wished to put away
+from the prying eyes of her curious neighbours. As time went
+on, the art of the cabinet-maker became more intricate. It is
+not the place here to enter into the minutiae of the development
+of drawers and bureaus and cabinets, but the late eighteenth
+century brought such furniture, apart from points in relation to
+beauty of design, to great constructive skill. The age was one of
+hidden contrivances and intricately cunning mechanism concealing
+secret drawers or receptacles. Such pieces were never made for
+farmhouse use; but the germ of the idea is ever present in all
+furniture with indications of locked drawers and cupboards. This
+is the note of intense civilisation as against the simpler modes
+of primitive folk who have no bolt to their door and no lock to
+guard their possessions.
+
+=William and Mary Style with Double Cupboards.=--The variety
+with double cupboards are interesting as giving a date to the
+dressers in which they are found. It is usually accurate to
+place such pieces in the William and Mary period, that is to say
+from the year 1689 to the end of the seventeenth century. The
+tendency in this class of furniture is to cling tenaciously to
+older forms, especially in certain portions of the cabinet-work
+which presented difficulties to the local cabinet-maker. The legs
+retained their early-Jacobean character even when associated with
+much later styles. This is noticeable in the William and Mary
+example illustrated (p. 127). The arcaded doors are inlaid, the
+canopy is decorated, the underwork beneath the drawers belongs
+essentially to the "Orange" period of design in its feeling.
+
+That the dresser could be made an ornamental piece of furniture
+and found its place as an important possession in the farmhouse,
+bright with an array of china, or pewter, or even silver, is
+amply shown by the two examples illustrated together of which
+the foregoing is one. The other oak dresser has at the top,
+where the mugs are hanging, the original mug-hooks. It is of
+the square-leg type and the arcaded work below the drawers
+gives distinction to its lines; it possesses also the broken or
+serpentine ends to the shelves. These curves and simple touches
+of ornament all contribute to make such dressers pleasing in
+character and representative of native work attempting with
+strong endeavour to produce artistic results suitable to their
+environment.
+
+  [Illustration: WILLIAM AND MARY OAK DRESSER. DATE _C._ 1689.
+
+  Decorated canopy, arcaded doors, inlaid and turned legs. Height,
+  6 ft. 8-1/2 ins.; length, 6 ft. 4 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 8 ins.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK DRESSER.
+
+  Square leg type; with original mug hooks. Height, 6 ft.; length,
+  4 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 5 ins.]
+
+=The Queen Anne Cabriole Leg.=--It is not to be expected that the
+long-continued triumph of the cabriole leg of the eighteenth century
+would leave the dresser without making its mark thereon. The exact
+curve of the cabriole leg is dangerous in the hands of a novice,
+who rarely if ever gets the correct balance in conjunction with the
+rest of the construction. Accordingly, in farmhouse pieces this
+tells its own story. It is as though the cabriole leg were a sudden
+afterthought. This touch of representative want of repose is shown in
+the specimen illustrated (p. 135). In date this is about 1740, and is
+a somewhat rare form, having double cupboards.
+
+A unique Dresser and Clock combined is illustrated (p. 131). The
+form of the dresser, it will be seen, is quite different from other
+specimens. The back is only sufficiently high to carry a row of small
+drawers. The legs are circular and tapered, terminating in circular
+feet. In the centre of the dresser is a clock of the familiar
+grandfather form in miniature. This clock is not an addition to the
+dresser, but is a portion of the dresser and was made with it. The
+illustration shows the size of the door of the clock-case, with its
+hinges not cut down or in any way interfered with, and the lock on
+the other side is in the centre of the panel. It is obvious that no
+later hand has tampered with this fine example, and it stands as a
+remarkable dresser and unique in form in its construction with this
+clock.
+
+=Mid-eighteenth-century Types.=--In the Lancashire Dresser
+illustrated (p. 135) the top is reminiscent of early types. The
+cupboard has removed its position to the middle, a departure from
+all earlier forms. This is a very characteristic example, and the
+ample drawer accommodation shows the speedy transition from the old
+form of dresser through its varied stages to the later modern variety
+of the kitchen dresser, devoid of poetry and lacking interest to
+the collector, and yet to the student having traces of its ancient
+lineage.
+
+The eighteenth-century farmhouse varieties offer no great departure.
+They aim at being capacious and massive. They make no pretensions
+to approach the niceties of the sideboard in use in the better
+houses. They supply an undoubted want in the farmhouse for storage.
+There were cordials and home-made wines and much prized linen and
+a bright array of silver and Sheffield plate and pewter, and no
+doubt tea services or porcelain from the new English factories of
+Worcester, Derby, Bow, or maybe Plymouth or Bristol, to be shielded
+from breakage. The farmer's wife and the farmer's daughters were less
+than human if they did not follow the new fashions in some degree,
+more or less, in tea-drinking and in becoming the proud possessors
+of tea services and dinner services somewhat more delicate than the
+old delft and coarse Staffordshire ware. The cupboards had ample
+accommodation for these more valuable accessories of the farmhouse
+parlour. The cabinet-maker therefore developed on lines exactly
+suitable for the country clients whom he served.
+
+  [Illustration: UNIQUE DRESSER AND CLOCK COMBINED.
+
+  The clock is not an addition, but is a portion of the dresser,
+  and was made for it.
+
+  (_In the collection of D. A. Bevan, Esq._)]
+
+The late forms show this marked tendency to provide innumerable
+drawers and cupboards, in the farmhouse dressers contemporary with
+Chippendale. Many examples are found which are practically elongated
+chests of drawers; the old characteristics of the dresser are absent,
+the back has disappeared altogether. There is no top with shelves.
+Eight large drawers and two capacious cupboards give great storage
+room in a piece often 9 feet in length. There is nothing finicking
+in this type of furniture. It stands for homely comfort and love of
+domestic order. We may be sure that the good dame who used this lower
+piece, with its eight solid drawers with sound locks, was a person
+of frugal habits and love of the old farmstead. We may safely assume
+that she had a well-filled stocking hidden away somewhere in this
+old-fashioned repository, put by for the rainy day.
+
+In conclusion it may be said that a good deal has been talked about
+Welsh dressers, as though they were a type absolutely apart from
+any other. The differences are not great, as the carving, in which
+the Welsh craftsman offers characteristics of his own, is absent in
+pieces of furniture such as the dresser. Then there is the Normandy
+dresser, a much-abused term: a considerable number of these, and
+others, too, from Brittany, have been imported and the terms have
+become trade descriptions. But in the main the English dresser
+has passed through the phases we have described, and the outlines
+herein suggested may be filled in by the painstaking collector. In
+the chapter dealing with local types there is an illustration of
+a Lancashire dresser (p. 273) which adds one more example to the
+gallery of dressers we give as types in this chapter.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK DRESSER. DATE ABOUT 1740.
+
+  With early double cupboards. Legs in Queen Anne style. Height, 6
+  ft. 7 ins.; width, 9 ft. 5-1/2 ins.; depth, 2 ft. 2-1/2 ins.]
+
+  [Illustration: LANCASHIRE DRESSER. MIDDLE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+  Top reminiscent of early types. Ample drawer accommodation.
+  Transition to modern dresser. Deeply cut panels. Cupboard in
+  middle as distinct from earlier forms at sides. Height, 7 ft. 2
+  ins.; width, 6 ft. 7 ins.; depth, 2 ft.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE BIBLE-BOX, THE CRADLE, THE SPINNING-WHEEL, AND THE
+BACON-CUPBOARD
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE BIBLE-BOX, THE CRADLE, THE SPINNING-WHEEL, AND THE BACON-CUPBOARD
+
+   The Puritan days of the seventeenth century--The Protestant
+   Bible in every home--The variety of carving found in
+   Bible-boxes--The Jacobean cradle and its forms--The
+   spinning-wheel--The bacon-cupboard.
+
+
+The Authorised version of the Holy Bible, "translated out of the
+original tongues and with the former translations diligently compared
+and revised," by His Majesty's command, found a place in every
+household in Stuart days. The letter of the learned translators "To
+the most High and Mighty Prince James, by the Grace of God, King of
+Great Britain, France, and Ireland, Defender of the Faith," &c.,
+retains its place in modern editions. It is an historic document
+worthy of preservation, and perhaps those who have forgotten its
+terms may be glad to have their memory refreshed. It is of surpassing
+moment to all who recognise the Protestant derivation of the Bible
+as we now know it, and the sectarian feelings which inspired the
+translators under King James in their fulsome dedication to the
+Modern Solomon. "Great and manifold were the blessings, most dread
+Sovereign, which Almighty God the Father of all mercies bestowed upon
+us the people of England, when first he sent your Majesty's Royal
+Person to rule and reign over us. For whereas it was the expectation
+of many, who wished not well unto our _Sion_, that upon the setting
+of that bright Occidental Star, Queen Elizabeth, of most happy
+memory, some thick and palpable clouds of darkness would so have
+overshadowed this land, that men should have been in doubt which way
+they were to walk; and that it should hardly be known who was to
+direct the unsettled State; the appearance of your Majesty, as the
+Sun in its strength, instantly dispelled those supposed and surmised
+mists, and gave unto all that were well affected exceeding cause of
+comfort; especially when we beheld the Government established in Your
+Highness and your hopeful seed, by an undoubted title, and this also
+accompanied by peace and tranquillity at home and abroad."
+
+It is, as we affirm, an interesting document as showing the Puritan
+tendencies at a time when much was in the melting-pot and the first
+of the Stuarts, with his broad Scots accent and his ungainly ways,
+came down to St. James's from the North. Compare the above literary
+dedication to James the First with the word-portrait painted by Green
+the historian, and one may draw one's own inferences. "His big head,
+his slobbering tongue, his quilted clothes, his rickety legs, stood
+out in as grotesque a contrast with all that men recalled of Henry
+or of Elizabeth as his gabble and rodomontade, his want of personal
+dignity, his buffoonery, his coarseness of speech, his pedantry, his
+contemptible cowardice. Under this ridiculous exterior, however, lay
+a man of much natural ability, a ripe scholar with a considerable
+fund of shrewdness, of mother-wit, and ready repartee."
+
+=The Protestant Bible in every Home.=--Himself a theologian, James
+influenced his contemporaries. "Theology rules there," said Grotius
+of England only two years after Elizabeth's death. There was an
+indifference to pure letters and persons were counted fine scholars
+who were diligent in the study of the Bible. The language of the
+people became enriched with this study, which extended to all
+classes. John Bunyan, the son of a tinker at Elstow, learned his
+intense prose from the Bible. The peasant absorbed the Bible till its
+words became his own. With the Puritan movement came the production
+of men of serious type, and with it too came the disappearance of
+the richer and brighter life and humour of Elizabethan days. It was
+a literary movement and a religious movement which penetrated to the
+lower classes and often left the upper classes and gentry unmoved.
+In dealing with this and its reflex upon the domestic habits of the
+people, the visible effects in regard to furniture are strikingly
+evident in the plethora of Bible-boxes belonging to those in this
+period of Biblical study, to whom Shakespeare and Ben Jonson were
+unknown and Spenser's _Faerie Queene_ and Milton's _Comus_ were
+sealed books.
+
+It would almost seem that in many cases the Bible was the only
+book which was read and treasured. It was incorporated in the home
+life. It served as a register to record the names and dates of
+birth and death or marriage of members of the family. Some of these
+family registers have been most valuable in tracing details in
+biography where parish registers have failed to supply the necessary
+information.
+
+=The Variety of Carving found in Bible-boxes.=--We give a series
+of illustrations indicating some of the interesting details of
+carving to be found on such boxes, where, as in work intended for a
+treasure-chest to preserve a sacred book, considerable zeal has gone
+to the elaboration of ornament. These seventeenth-century relics of
+a wave of religious enthusiasm are the crude Puritan likenesses,
+belonging to a less innately artistic race, of the tabernacles and
+ivory carved Madonnas and saints of the Italian renaissance. They
+both, though poles asunder in realisation, represent the instinctive
+love of man for ornament in connection with his religious emotions.
+Savage races with another ritual produce religious and ceremonial
+woodcarving representative of their best. Here, then, is the Puritan
+craftsmanship, mainly of provincial origin and found scattered over
+various parts of the country, following _motifs_ executed by the same
+hands as Jacobean chairs and dressers, but bearing rich touches of
+ornament, betraying much originality, within the limited scope of
+Jacobean design.
+
+The carving has nothing of the humour or strong bold relief of the
+miserere seats of the palmy days of the woodcarver in the fifteenth
+and early sixteenth century in details that might well have been
+applied to the Bible-box. The ambition of the Puritan woodcarver
+never reached figure-work, or he might have represented Biblical
+scenes if his abhorrence of graven images had not demoralised his
+fancy. Some of the early boxes have bold carving. We illustrate
+a fine example (p. 143) of the time of James I., about 1600. The
+design is floral, which embodies the well-known conventional rose.
+Illustrated on the same page is another carved box of unusual pattern
+with floriated design. It was a frequent practice to treat the front
+of the box as though it were continuous and the pattern leaves off
+at the ends much in the same manner as modern wallpaper. In the box
+above it will be seen that the front is panelled and the design is
+confined to the circumscribed area.
+
+  [Illustration: CARVED OAK BIBLE-BOX. FINE EXAMPLE. TIME OF JAMES
+  I. ABOUT 1600.
+
+  Length, 2 ft. 4 ins.; width, 1 ft. 4 ins.; height, 11-1/2 ins.]
+
+  [Illustration: CARVED BIBLE-BOX OF UNUSUAL PATTERN.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: BIBLE-BOX OF VERY RARE PATTERN. ABOUT 1650.
+
+  This type always had the same kind of clasp.]
+
+  [Illustration: BIBLE-BOX OF USUAL PATTERN COMMONLY FOUND.]
+
+Another piece with very rare pattern, in date about 1650, has a bold
+type of carving in the two semicircles stretched across the front.
+This use of semicircles occurs in types usually found. The example
+illustrated (p. 145) has incised carving or "scratch." It will be
+seen that there is never an attempt at inlay or any of the delicacies
+of the refined craftsman. Among the various types of "scratch" boxes
+the use of circles and heart-shaped ornament is constant. The locks
+found on this type of box are always of the class as shown in the
+illustration, and the clasp is well known.
+
+In the collection of Bible-boxes the novice must carefully learn
+the exact limitations of the school of woodworkers in this minor
+field. The touch of the foreign craftsman should be easily
+recognisable, with its piquancy and real artistic feeling. These
+Puritan Bible-boxes have flat lids, and in order to give some touch
+of romance to them or whet the appetite of the collector they are
+frequently described as "lace-boxes," though it is very doubtful if
+such boxes were ever used for storing lace. Sometimes similar boxes
+with sloping lids were used as early forms of writing-desks.
+
+=The Jacobean Cradle.=--The specimens of this type of furniture
+always exhibit, in the oak variety associated with farmhouse use,
+a plainness as a noticeable factor. They are usually panelled, but
+the panel has received no carved ornament and is especially simple.
+Of course they always have rockers. In the examples illustrated the
+slight variation in these rockers will be observed. Sometimes they
+are plain and sometimes they have slight ornamental curves. The only
+other ornament may be found in the turned knobs at the foot and
+sometimes at the head. Sometimes there are fine knobs on the hood.
+
+The hood is sometimes shaped and exhibits a naive attempt at
+symmetrical design. These cradles have long been familiar objects
+in cottagers' homes, but are now being displaced by modern wicker
+cradles. The picture _A Flood_ (1870), by Sir John E. Millais, shows
+one of these cradles floating in a flooded meadow. The baby is
+crowing with delight, and a black cat sits at the foot of the cradle.
+
+The holes in the example illustrated (p. 149) are intended to receive
+a cord stretched across the cradle to protect the occupant.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CRADLE.
+
+  With shaped hood and turned knobs at head and foot.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CRADLE.
+
+  With shaped hood with turned ball ornaments. Holes on each side
+  to fasten rope to protect occupant.]
+
+  [Illustration: YARN-WINDER AND SPINNING-WHEEL.]
+
+  [Illustration: BUCKINGHAMSHIRE BOBBIN'S.
+
+  Turned wood bobbins with coloured beads to identify the bobbins
+  from each other.
+
+  (_In the collection of the author._)]
+
+=The Spinning-wheel.=--To this day the spinning-wheel is used in
+Scotland, in the Highlands. The wool or yarn winders are usually
+in windlass form with six spokes. The turning upon these winders
+and spinning wheels resembles the spindles on the spindle-back
+chairs. There is in Buckinghamshire bobbins a similar turning,
+individual in character and exhibiting considerable artistic beauty.
+In spinning-wheels there is considerable scope for the use of fine
+touches of ornament, in such practical objects dear to the housewife.
+Bone sometimes was used in the turned knobs. The making of these
+spinning-wheels was undertaken by persons desirous of winning the
+esteem of those who used them. Many of them have come down as
+heirlooms in families and have not been held as objects of art, to be
+regarded as curiosities, but as articles of everyday use.
+
+The use of the spinning-wheel was not confined exclusively to the
+farmer's wife. In early days great ladies were adepts at spinning.
+By the time of George III. it was employed by the ladies of titled
+families. Mrs. Delany, when staying with the Duchess of Portland at
+Bulstrode, writes: "The Queen came about twelve o'clock, and caught
+me at my spinning-wheel, and made me spin on and give her a lesson
+afterwards; and I must say she did it tolerably for a queen." This
+letter, dated 1781, goes to prove two things, that spinning was a
+real task still undertaken by great ladies, and not a fashionable
+amusement. Had it been the latter Mrs. Delany would not have used the
+expression "caught me at my spinning-wheel," wherein she indicates
+that the occupation was somewhat of a menial one.
+
+In regard to the Buckinghamshire bobbins, sometimes finely carved
+in bone, those illustrated (p 151.) indicate the character of the
+cottagers' treasures in the pillow-lace-making districts. The
+patterns of these bobbins are not repeated. Individual touches
+are given to these bobbins by the village turners which are not
+duplicated. In use, the bobbin has to be identified by some mark, and
+beads of different colours are employed, which are affixed by means
+of a wire to the bobbin, as is shown in the illustration.
+
+=The Bacon-cupboard.=--Another class which it is convenient to place
+among miscellaneous objects is the bacon-cupboard. The illustration
+(p. 231) shows the type of bacon-cupboard with seat and arms and
+drawers beneath. The position held by the bacon-cupboard in the
+farmhouse is shown by the growing dignity in the character of these
+cupboards. The gradual growth and development are shown in many
+specimens of the Queen Anne period, frequently of Lancashire origin.
+Such pieces, with classic pilasters, broken cornice, and bevelled
+panels and drawers beneath, are typified in wardrobes and dressers
+belonging to eighteenth-century farmhouse furniture. The development
+of capacious cupboards for various domestic uses is noticeable in
+this class of furniture up to early nineteenth-century days.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STYLES
+
+   The advent of the cabriole leg--The so-called Queen Anne
+   style--The survival of oak in the provinces--The influence of
+   walnut on cabinet-making--The early-Georgian types--Chippendale
+   and his contemporaries.
+
+
+The dawn of the eighteenth century practically commenced with the
+reign of Queen Anne. The times were troublous. As princess, in the
+days of William the Dutchman and her sister Mary, she was forbidden
+the Court as John Churchill, then Earl of Marlborough, designed to
+overthrow William and place Anne on the throne. "Were I and my Lord
+Marlborough private persons," William exclaimed, "the sword would
+have to settle between us."
+
+At the death of Mary the Princess Anne, together with the
+Marlboroughs, was recalled to St. James's. At the death of William,
+in 1702, Anne came to the throne. Only just in her thirty-seventh
+year, she was so corpulent and gouty that she could not walk from
+Westminster Hall to the Abbey, and was carried in an open chair.
+During the Coronation ceremony she was too infirm to support herself
+in a standing position without assistance.
+
+The age of Anne is remarkable for its restless intrigues. Court plots
+were rife when Queen Anne "Mrs. Morley" in her private letters to the
+Duchess of Marlborough, who was "Mrs. Freeman," finally broke with
+the overbearing Duchess and made Abigail Hill, one of the Marlborough
+creatures, her chief confidant. The Protestant Whig party favoured
+the long war in the Low Countries and in Spain, although conducted by
+a Tory general, Marlborough, who, by the way, did not take the field
+in Flanders till he was fifty-two, a remarkable achievement for so
+great a military career, wherein he never fought a battle in which he
+was not victorious.
+
+The greatness of Marlborough is indisputable. His fond love for his
+wife runs like a gold thread through the dark web of his life. His
+wife had, during a large part of Anne's reign, despotic empire over
+Anne's feeble mind. "History exhibits to us few spectacles more
+remarkable," says Lord Macaulay, "than that of a great and wise man
+who, when he had contrived vast and profound schemes of policy, could
+carry them into effect only by inducing one foolish woman, who was
+often unmanageable, to manage another woman who was more foolish
+still."
+
+  [Illustration: LANCASHIRE OAK SETTLE. _C._ 1760.
+
+  Length, 6 ft.; depth, 2 ft. 1 in.]
+
+  [Illustration: LANCASHIRE QUEEN ANNE SETTLE.
+
+  Showing transition into later type of modern settee.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+To us now, with the secret springs of history laid bare, there is
+much to marvel at, much to deplore as trivial. In regard to matters
+of high state and the suppleness of time-servers, memoirs and private
+journals have exposed many a skeleton carefully hidden from public
+gaze. But of the life of the people, especially the life in the
+country districts, the picture is somewhat blurred. Men of letters
+flocked to the town--the town was London. Provincial life lies behind
+a curtain. There were Spanish doubloons coming up from Bristol and
+prize-money from the wars was scattered inland from the ports.
+Scotland was united to England by the Act of Union. "I desire," said
+the Queen, "and expect from my subjects of both nations that from
+henceforth they act with all possible respect and kindness to one
+another, and so that it may appear to all the world they have hearts
+disposed to become one people." This wish has been amply fulfilled
+and the union has become something more than a name. Never have two
+peoples different in thought, in tradition, and in established law
+become so completely welded together.
+
+But the war of the Spanish Succession must have drained English
+blood as it taxed English pockets. "Six millions of supplies and
+almost fifty millions of debt," wrote Swift bitterly. The tide of
+Marlborough's success was undoubtedly secured by the outpouring
+of English lives. Stalwart levies of men from the shires went to
+join the strange medley of the forces of the Allies commanded by
+Marlborough. Dutchmen, Danes, Hanoverians, Wuertembergers, and
+Austrians jostled shoulders with each other in his troops. He
+launched them with calm imperturbability against his opponents
+at Malplaquet, for example, where with a Pyrrhic triumph he lost
+twenty-four thousand men against half that number of the French
+behind their entrenchments.
+
+It is little wonder that the war was unpopular in the country, where
+the Spanish Succession and the "balance of power" were only symbols
+for so much pressure on the needs of the labouring classes. Bonfires
+might be lit for Blenheim, but many a village mourned those who would
+never return.
+
+In spite of this intermingling of England with European politics,
+the general life of the people remained untouched from outside
+influence in regard to arts and manufacture. Cut off from intercourse
+with France, the grandeur of the art of Louis Quatorze was as far
+removed from early eighteenth-century England as though Boulle and
+Jean Berain and Lepaute were in another continent and the chateau of
+Versailles in the fastnesses of the Urals. It is true that Louis XIV.
+presented two wonderful cabinets to the Duke of Monmouth, exquisite
+examples of metal inlay and coloured marquetry, but such pieces were
+beyond the capabilities of any English craftsman to emulate.
+
+The chief innovations of the early eighteenth century followed
+the Dutch lines familiarised in the preceding days of William and
+Mary. Oak remained in farmhouse and country furniture, but in the
+fashionable world walnut was extensively used, and occasionally
+mahogany. Corner cupboards were introduced early in the reign of
+Anne, and hooped chairs, familiar in engravings of Flemish interiors,
+came into general use. Fiddle-splat chairs were also common in
+the first half of the eighteenth century. In regard to feet, the
+ball-and-claw, and club foot were introduced. Caning of chairs went
+out of fashion till the end of the century. Shell and pendant
+ornament on knees of chair-legs became marked features, and, above
+all, the cabriole leg to chairs and tables is associated with the
+early years of the reign, and the term "Queen Anne" is always applied
+to such pieces.
+
+  [Illustration: CUPBOARD WITH DRAWERS. _C._ 1700.
+
+  With "swan head" pediment. Pedestal at top for delft or china.
+  Round beadings to drawers.]
+
+  [Illustration: QUEEN ANNE BUREAU BOOKCASE.
+
+  Farmhouse oak variety. Emulating a finer walnut or mahogany
+  piece.]
+
+  [Illustration: FINE EXAMPLE OAK TABLE. _C._ 1720.
+
+  Well-proportioned legs, club feet, original undercutting.
+  Exemplary of professional country cabinet-maker's highest work.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK TABLE. _C._ 1720.
+
+  With hoof feet and knee, possibly copied from a fine Queen Anne
+  piece, exemplifying the best work of country cabinet-maker.
+  Height, 2 ft. 7 ins.; top, 1 ft. 7-1/2 ins. x 2 ft. 3 ins.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+=The Cabriole Leg.=--This form of leg, swelling into massive
+proportions where it joins the seat, and curving outwards and
+tapering to a ball-and-claw foot or a club foot, lasted till end of
+Chippendale period, roughly, for nearly half a century. It assumed
+various forms until it was supplanted by the straight leg, and the
+stretcher, which had disappeared with the use of the cabriole leg,
+again came into use.
+
+Examples of the cabriole leg appear as illustrations to various types
+of furniture in this chapter. At first its use did not interfere
+with the employment of the stretcher, but about 1710 the stretcher
+disappeared. The Lancashire Queen Anne settle illustrated (p. 159)
+shows the stretcher joining the front leg to the back. In the settle
+illustrated above, in date 1760, it will be seen the stretchers have
+vanished.
+
+=The So-called Queen Anne Style.=--Fashions slowly adopted in cabinet
+design do not readily arrange themselves in exact periods coinciding
+with the reigns of individual sovereigns. But it is convenient to
+affix a label to certain marked changes and attribute their general
+use to a particular reign. The innovation of the square panel with
+broken corners and ornamental curves at top is found in Queen Anne
+settles. The departure from the square panel and line of the curved
+and broken top is exhibited in the second Great Seal of Anne,
+commemorating the Union with Scotland. It is reminiscent of the Dutch
+influence, and is found in Sussex firebacks of an earlier period. The
+straight lines of early-Jacobean cabinet-work were rapidly undergoing
+a change; the square wooden back of the chair was shortly to be
+replaced by fiddle splats, which in their turn, in late-Georgian
+days, became pierced and fretted and carved under the genius of
+Chippendale's hand.
+
+The two settles illustrated (p. 159) show several interesting points.
+The panels are typical of the love of the curved line, which Hogarth
+defined as the line of beauty. In the upper one the arms still retain
+the old Jacobean form in this farmhouse example. The ball foot still
+clings to the earlier form. The seat is sunk to receive a long
+cushion. In the adjacent specimen the seat with its cushion and the
+curved =S= arms upholstered show the transition into the later type
+of modern settee.
+
+The curved outline finds similar expression in the hood of
+grandfather clock-cases and in the shape of metal dials. A cupboard
+with drawers illustrated (p. 163) has what is known as a "swan head."
+The panels to the doors have similarly novel features in their
+structure. It will be observed that there is a square pedestal at
+the top of this piece, which was intended as a stand for a delft or
+Chinese jar. The drawers of this cupboard have round beadings.
+
+The typical instance of curved design with not a single straight
+line, not even the back legs, which are bowed, is the grandfather
+chair with the high back, upholstered all over. The cabriole legs
+with ball-and claw-feet, the =C=-shaped arms, the scroll upholstered
+wings, and the oval back, depart from the rectilinear; even the
+underframing of the seat is bow-shaped. Similarly, the walnut
+arm-chairs of the period from 1690 to 1715 had bold curves. The arms
+always possessed a curious scroll, the backs had broad splats with
+curling shoulders, and often a broad bold ribbon pattern making two
+loops to fill up the top of the hoop at the back, with a carved
+shell at the point of intersection. Big pieces of furniture, such
+as bureaus, had the broken arch pediment, and smaller objects, such
+as mirrors, had the arched or broken top; and when these dressing
+mirrors had small drawers, these disdained the straight front and
+became convex.
+
+Under the Dutch influence, in the first period of English veneer
+work, from about 1675 to 1715, very fine cabinets and bureaus and
+chests of drawers were made. Walnut was the wood employed, with
+the panels inlaid with pollard elm, boxwood, ebony, mahogany,
+sycamore, and other coloured woods. Figured walnut was beloved by
+the cabinet-maker beginning to feel his way in colour schemes of
+decoration. Bandings of herring-bone inlay and rounded mouldings to
+drawers are very characteristic. Bureaus and important pieces had
+birds and flowers and trees or feather marquetry after fine Dutch
+models. Picked walnut, especially exhibiting a fine feathered figure,
+was used as veneer, and with these and other glorious creations of
+the walnut school of cabinet-workers the age of walnut may be said
+to have been in full swing.
+
+=The Survival of Oak in the Provinces.=--The foregoing descriptions
+apply to fashionable folks' furniture. Such fashions did not come
+into usage in the farmhouses and in the cottages. Oak was still
+employed without being displaced by the walnut of the town maker.
+Oak was in the main more suitable for the particular class of
+furniture which was likely to receive less delicate care than
+the writing-cabinets and bureaus and the china-cupboards of more
+fastidious people. Tea-drinking had become the luxury of the
+great world of society, and had hardly come into general use in
+the country till late in the reign of Anne, though by 1690 it
+had gained considerable favour in London. Coffee was introduced
+slightly earlier, and many invectives in broadsides and in poetical
+satires appear in the late seventeenth century against coffee
+and coffee-houses. In 1674 the "Women's Petition against Coffee"
+complained that "it made men as unfruitful as the deserts whence that
+unhappy berry is said to be brought; that the offspring of our mighty
+ancestors would dwindle into a succession of apes and pigmies, and on
+a domestic message a husband would stop by the way to drink a couple
+of cups of coffee." The prejudice against coffee, and especially
+against coffee-houses, was lasting, and coffee failed to establish
+itself as a national beverage. The labouring classes declined to
+be weaned from their ale and other stronger drinks. The Spaniards
+brought chocolate from Mexico; Roger North, Attorney-General to
+James II., uttered a violent polemic against chocolate houses,
+perhaps more on account of the political clubs gathered there than
+against the beverage itself. "The use of coffee-houses," says he,
+"seems much improved by a new invention called chocolate-houses, for
+the benefit of rooks and cullies of quality, where gaming is added
+to the rest, as if the Devil had erected a new university, and those
+were the colleges of its professors."
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+    QUEEN ANNE GLASS- OR CHINA-CUPBOARD.
+
+    Spun glass doors. Heavy bars mark early type prior to tracery.
+
+    GEORGIAN CORNER CUPBOARD. LATE EIGHTEENTH
+    CENTURY.
+
+    Broken architraves and cushion top. Having original hinges.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: SMALL OAK TABLE. 1700-1720.
+
+  Height, 2 ft. 4-3/4 ins.; width, 2 ft. 3 ins.; depth, 1 ft. 9-3/4
+  ins. Graceful proportion with cabriole leg.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK TABLE.
+
+  Showing at a later period the last traces of the cabriole leg.]
+
+The varying phases of town life, of which the above quotations give
+a passing glimpse, found little reflex in the sturdy unchanging life
+of the provinces. Generation after generation, men farmed the same
+lands and their dependents lived in cottages adjacent; tillers of the
+ground, herdsmen, toilers in the fields, living by the sweat of their
+brow. They were content with simpler pleasures, which centred round
+the alehouse and the village green, or maybe the village church, if
+the hunting rector and the studious vicar were not too heedless of
+the fate of their flock. But other influences were soon to be at
+work to break the lethargy of those of the clergy who slumbered.
+Wesley founded the Methodist movement. Whitefield began his sermons
+in the fields and looked down from a green slope on several thousand
+colliers grimy from the coalpits near Bristol to see, as he preached,
+tears "making white channels down their blackened cheeks." Later
+again, Hannah More drew sympathy to the poverty and crime of the
+agricultural classes.
+
+=The Influence of Walnut on Cabinet-making.=--If oak was the wood
+which the country joiner loved best, he was not without some
+sympathetic leaning towards the effects which could be produced in
+the softer walnut. Such styles accordingly began slowly to have a
+marked influence upon the farmhouse furniture in early-Georgian days.
+It was not easy to produce curved lines in the refractory oak, tough
+and brittle, but the village craftsman essayed his best to please his
+patrons whose taste had been caught by the newer fashions observed in
+the squire's parlour when paying rare visits.
+
+In the two examples illustrated of farmhouse cupboard and bureau
+bookcase (p. 163) it will be seen that here is the country maker
+definitely trying his skill in his native wood to emulate the finer
+walnut examples of town cabinet-makers. This is even more noticeable
+in regard to some of the tables actually found in farmhouses
+belonging to as early as the first quarter of the eighteenth century.
+The two specimens illustrated (p. 165) exemplify this tendency to
+imitate the designs of trained workers. The country touch always
+betrays itself in the cabriole leg, whether in chair or in table. The
+upper table has less _naivete_ than most examples found. There is
+a balance in its construction rarely found in provincial work. The
+legs, always the stumbling-block to the less experienced artificer,
+are here of exceptionally fine proportions, terminating in club feet.
+The lower table shows a less capable treatment of the cabriole leg.
+The hoof foot and the carved knee have obviously been copied from a
+fine Queen Anne model. In the underframing of both tables there is
+an experiment in ornament and form rarely attempted except in the
+highest flights of the country maker, and as such these two fine
+examples must be regarded.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK TABLE.
+
+  Showing clumsy corners and indicating the _naivete_ of the
+  country cabinet-maker.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK TABLE.
+
+  Showing transition from cabriole leg to straight leg of 1760.]
+
+=The Early Georgian Types.=--Treating of the early-Hanoverian period
+from the death of Queen Anne in 1714, and including the reigns
+of George I. from 1714 to 1727 and George II. from 1727 to 1760,
+furniture of all types begins to assume a complexity of construction.
+At the final outburst the fine masterpieces of creation of the
+great schools of design during the last half of the eighteenth
+century, embodied the life-work of Chippendale, the brothers Adam,
+Hepplewhite, Sheraton, and many others. This period from 1750 to 1800
+was the golden age of design in England. It has had a far-reaching
+effect, and still casts its glory upon the present-day schools of
+designers, whose adaptations and lines of progress are based upon the
+finest flower of the eighteenth-century styles.
+
+The massive walnut chairs with deep underframing and broad hoop backs
+departed from the solid splats of the Anne style and endeavoured
+to become less squat by the employment of banded ribbon-work,
+coarse, heavy, and ponderous in style. Settees, arm-chairs and
+single chairs in this style came as the final efforts of the walnut
+school. The graceful ribbon designs interlacing each other in knots,
+and the flowing carving in mahogany of Chippendale, put a period
+to all dullness and heavy design. With the new style and the new
+wood a splendid field was opened to cabinet-makers, and the quick
+appreciation of these opportunities signalised their work as of
+permanent artistic value.
+
+Among more important pieces, though still falling under the category
+of farmhouse styles, may be mentioned the Queen Anne glass or china
+cupboard, and the Georgian corner cupboard, illustrated p. 171.
+
+The former has heavy bars, which mark the early type prior to
+tracery, and it has spun-glass doors. Porcelain factories at Bow,
+Worcester, and Derby brought such cupboards into more general use
+after the middle of the century. Staffordshire earthenware tea
+and coffee services were found in great numbers in farmhouses and
+cottages. After the days of delft and stoneware came the prized china
+services of the housewife. Pewter was largely used, but the number
+of ale-jugs of Toby form, or cider-mugs with rural subjects to suit
+the tastes of the users, indicate that more modern ideas and taste,
+once exclusive to the world of fashion, had penetrated the country
+districts.
+
+The Georgian corner cupboard shows the broken architraves and cushion
+top. The hinges should be noticed as being original.
+
+=Chippendale and his Contemporaries.=--At first using the cabriole
+leg with ball-and-claw foot, not quite as he found it, but reduced
+to slightly more slender proportions to be in symmetry with his less
+massive backs to chairs, Chippendale came to the straight line. He
+employed it in the legs of tables and in the seats of chairs, in the
+bracket supports, and in the top rail of his chairs. Chippendale
+in his day, made the first straight top rail to the chair. It is
+interesting to note the phases of changing design in country-made
+furniture prior to his time, and the sudden mastery of form
+which became the common inheritance of all after his and other
+contemporary design-books were promulgated broadcast.
+
+  [Illustration: QUEEN ANNE TEA TABLE. _C._ 1710.
+
+  With scalloped edge for cups. Height, 2 ft. 4 ins.; depth, 1 ft.
+  9 ins.; length, 2 ft. 8 ins.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK REVOLVING BOOK-STAND. _C._ 1720.
+
+  Rare form. Diameter of top, 2 ft.; height, 2 ft. 8 ins.
+
+  (_In the collection of Miss Holland._)]
+
+  [Illustration: COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE TABLE.
+
+  Leg with exaggerated knee, claw, and ball foot. Accuracy in
+  straight joinery. Failure in curved work.
+
+  Top, 2 ft. 7 ins. x 1 ft. 3 ins.; height, 2 ft. 4 ins.]
+
+  [Illustration: SQUARE MAHOGANY FLAP TABLE. _C._ 1730.
+
+  Height, 2 ft. 4 ins.; length, 3 ft. 10-1/2 ins.; width, 2 ft. 1
+  in. Round cross stretcher. Rare form.]
+
+  [Illustration: TRIPOD TABLE. _C._ 1760.
+
+  Chippendale style, probably unique. Elaborate rococo work.
+
+  (_In the collection of Harold Bendixon, Esq._)]
+
+In the table the cabriole leg showed early signs of passing away.
+The two examples illustrated (p. 173) clearly indicate this. The
+upper one, of the time of Queen Anne, shows the cabriole leg in fine
+proportion under due subjection, and is a delicate example of fine
+cabinet-work. The lower one sees the leg losing its cabriole curve,
+but still rounded and still possessing the club foot.
+
+Even more interesting are the two tables illustrated (p. 177).
+The country maker was slow to adopt the cabriole leg when it was
+fashionable, but when it became unfashionable he was equally
+loth to depart from his accustomed style. These clearly point to
+the transition between the cabriole leg and the straight leg of
+Chippendale, and are about 1760 in date.
+
+The forms of design of tables of eighteenth-century date are
+extremely varied in character, denoting the rapidly changing habits
+of the people. The Queen Anne tea-table, with scalloped edges for
+cups, marks the note of preciosity creeping into country life. A
+revolving bookstand in table form, of about 1720 in date, is another
+rare piece. The adjacent table (p. 181) is country Chippendale. The
+exaggerated knee and the feeble ball-and-claw foot mark the failure
+of the provincial hand at curved work, accurate though he might be in
+straight joinery. The "Cupid's bow" underframing is interesting in
+combination with the rest of the design.
+
+The tripod table offered difficulties of construction and is not
+often found. The example illustrated is probably unique in form. In
+date it is about 1760, and is remarkable for the attempt at elaborate
+rococo work. Sometimes, though not often, mahogany was used in
+farmhouse examples. The table illustrated (p. 183) is an instance of
+the use of this wood instead of oak. It is about 1730 in date, and
+exhibits an unusual form in the round cross stretcher, a touch of
+originality by the maker. It is, as will be seen, a square-topped
+table with flaps.
+
+Elaboration of a high order was happily not often attempted by the
+country workman, or the results with his limited experience would
+have been disastrous. Instead of a fine series of really good, solid,
+and well-constructed furniture made for practical use we should have
+had a wilderness of failures at attempting the impossible. A copy
+of a fine Chippendale side-table illustrated (p. 187) is a case in
+point. There is the usual want of balance in the poise of the leg,
+but the carving is of exceptional character. The table beneath, with
+its long and tapering legs, has all the characteristics of the Adam
+style. The beaded decoration on the legs, the classic fluting and the
+carved rosette claim distant relationship with the classic inventions
+of Robert Adam. The wood is pinewood, and as an example it is of
+singular interest.
+
+The rapid survey of eighteenth-century influences bearing on the
+class of furniture of which this volume treats will perhaps induce
+the collector to scrutinise more carefully all pieces coming under
+his notice, with a view to arriving at their salient features
+in connection with the native design of more or less untutored
+craftsmen.
+
+  [Illustration: ELABORATE TABLE.
+
+  Country attempt to imitate fine Chippendale side table. Note the
+  want of balance in leg.]
+
+  [Illustration: PINEWOOD COUNTRY-MADE ADAM TABLE.
+
+  Note the unusually long leg.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF THE CHAIR
+
+
+  [Illustration: OAK ARM-CHAIR. DATE _C._ 1675.
+
+  With elaborate scroll back.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK ARM-CHAIR. DATE 1650.
+
+  With scratched lozenge.]
+
+  [Illustration: CHESTNUT ARM-CHAIR. DATE 1690.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK ARM-CHAIR. DATE 1690.]
+
+(_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF THE CHAIR
+
+   Early days--The typical Jacobean oak chair--The evolution of
+   the stretcher--The chair-back and its development--Transition
+   between Jacobean and William and Mary forms--Farmhouse
+   styles contemporary with the cane-back chair--The Queen Anne
+   splat--Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton--The
+   grandfather chair--Ladder-back types--The spindle-back
+   chair--Corner chairs.
+
+
+In order to deal exhaustively with the evolution of the chair
+from its earliest forms to the latest developments in sumptuous
+upholstery, it would be necessary to make an extended survey of
+furniture, dating back to early classic days. To enumerate the
+manifold varieties belonging to various countries and to trace
+the gradual progress in form, which kept pace with the advance in
+civilisation, would be of sufficient interest to occupy a whole
+volume. Man, as a sitting or lounging animal, has grown to require
+more elaborate forms of chair, or settee, or sofa, and the modern
+tendency has been towards comfort and luxury.
+
+In regard to English furniture the intense contrast between the days
+of Elizabeth and those of Victoria is at once noticeable. According
+to Lord Macaulay in his comparison between the manners of his day and
+those of the past, the furniture of a middle-class dwelling-house of
+the nineteenth century was equal to that of a rich merchant in the
+time of Elizabeth. In general this may be true, though not as regards
+the spacious structure and the massive grandeur of the Tudor house.
+In many details the differences are most noteworthy. The wide gulf
+dividing the modern world from the days of the Armada may be realised
+by reflecting on such an astounding fact that Queen Elizabeth
+possessed at one time the only pair of silk stockings in her realm,
+which were presented to her by Mistress Montague, "which pleased her
+so well that she would never wear any cloth hose afterwards."
+
+The sturdy character of the yeomen of the days of the Tudors is
+exhibited in their furniture. The illustrations of this chapter in
+regard to the chair and its structural development indicate the
+slowly acquired tastes, running some decades behind the fashionable
+furniture, strong with foreign influences, which had come into more
+or less general use. "England no longer sent her fleeces to be woven
+in Flanders and to be dyed in Florence. The spinning of yarn, the
+weaving, fulling, and dyeing of cloth, was spreading rapidly from the
+towns to the country-side. The worsted trade, of which Norwich was
+the centre, extended over the whole of the Eastern Counties. Farmers'
+wives everywhere began to spin their wool from their own sheep's
+backs into a coarse homespun."
+
+The rough and wattled farmhouses were being replaced by dwellings of
+brick and stone. The disuse of salt fish and the greater consumption
+of meat marked the improvement which was taking place among the
+countryfolk. The wooden trenchers in the farmhouses were supplanted
+by pewter, and there were yeomen who could boast of their silver.
+Carpets in richer dwelling-houses superseded the wretched flooring of
+rushes. Even pillows, now in common usage, were articles of luxury
+in the sixteenth century. The farmer and the trader deemed them as
+only fit "for women in child-bed." The chimney-corner came into usage
+in Elizabethan days with the general use of chimneys. The mediaeval
+fortress had given place to the grandeur of the Elizabethan hall in
+the houses of the wealthy merchants. The rise of the middle classes
+brought with it in its wake the corresponding advance of the yeomen
+and their dependents. Visions of the New World "threw a haze of
+prodigality and profusion over the imagination of the meanest seaman."
+
+=Early Days.=--Of farmhouse types that can authoritatively be
+attributed to Tudor days there are few, but the succeeding age of
+the Stuarts is rich with examples of undoubted authenticity. Many of
+them are dated, and they all bear a strong family resemblance to each
+other, owing to the narrow range of _motifs_ in the carved panels.
+There is a fixed insularity in these early examples, and the same
+traditional patterns in scrollwork or in conventional lozenge design
+retained their hold for many generations. The oak arm-chair of a
+farmhouse kitchen made in the days of Charles I. was still followed
+in close detail in the days of George III., as dated examples
+testify, and it would puzzle an expert, without the date to guide
+him, to say whether the piece was eighteenth or seventeenth century
+work. It may be added that as a general rule there is a marked
+leaning towards generosity in imparting age to old furniture. It is
+now very generally recognised that, like wine, it gains prestige with
+length of years. It therefore grows in antiquity according to the
+fancy of the owner or the imagination of the collector.
+
+Among the early forms of chairs falling under the category of
+farmhouse furniture may be noticed examples of rough and massive
+build, eminently fit to serve the purpose for which they were
+designed. Ornament is reduced to a minimum, and they stand as rude
+monuments to the cabinet-maker's craft in fashioning them and
+following tradition to suit his client's tastes.
+
+In regard to the sixteenth century there cannot be said to be any
+type falling under the heading of cottage or farmhouse chairs. We
+have already illustrated (p. 35) an early form of Elizabethan days,
+but such examples are rare. Practically cottagers had only stools in
+common use. It was not until about 1650 that a simplified form of the
+well-known variety of the chairs of the Jacobean oak period came into
+general use.
+
+  [Illustration: YORKSHIRE CHAIR. DATE 1660.
+
+  Late example, with ball turning in stretcher.]
+
+  [Illustration: CROMWELLIAN CHAIRS. DATE 1660.
+
+  With indication of transition to Charles II. period.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+=The Typical Jacobean Oak Chair.=--The seventeenth century offers a
+wide field of selection, and many examples exist which undoubtedly
+were in use in farmhouses at that period. The arm-chair illustrated
+p. 191, with the initials "W.I A.", is evidently made for the
+farmhouse. It is noticeable for its complete absence of ornamental
+carving except a thinly scratched lozenge. In date this is from 1650
+to 1700, and if made for a wealthier person at that date it would be
+richly carved. The adjacent chair shows the next advance in type.
+It is a superior farmhouse chair of the period. It has a carved top
+with scroll cresting. The holes in the seat, it should be observed,
+originally held ropes, upon which a cushion was supported. The wooden
+seat is an addition made in the eighteenth century.
+
+The two other chairs illustrated on the same page are later examples,
+in date about 1690. One of these is fashioned of chestnut. The
+form of these backs is related to the contemporary high-back cane
+chairs of the time of Charles II. and James II. But these fashions
+influenced the proportions only of farmhouse chairs. In arriving
+at the date of such specimens as these the bevelled panel is an
+important factor in determining the late period.
+
+Cushions had no place in the effects of the farmhouse in early days,
+although ropes were sometimes used to support cushions, as we have
+shown. But as a general rule the wooden seats show tangible signs
+of rough usage of centuries, and the stretcher has its worn surface
+marked by generations of owners who found it protective against the
+cold flagged or rush-strewn floor and the draughts in days prior to
+carpets and rugs.
+
+=The Evolution of the Stretcher.=--In making a study of the evolution
+of the chair the stretcher is an important factor. For obvious
+reasons, as explained above, no early chairs were made without the
+stretcher across the front, a good sound serviceable piece of British
+oak to stand rough wear and tear. Gradually, keeping time with
+the march of comfort, the front stretcher begins to leave its old
+position near the floor, and in later examples it is half-way up the
+front legs. It still had a use, and a very important one: it added
+considerable strength and solidity to the chair, and is nearly always
+found in chairs intended for use. In the series illustrated herein
+there are only few examples without the front stretcher. Later it
+took another form, as the illustrated specimens in this chapter show:
+it united the two side stretchers, and crossed the chair underneath
+in the centre at right angles to the side stretchers. Its purpose in
+adding stability to this class of furniture was evidently never lost
+sight of.
+
+At first strictly utilitarian, the stretcher was a solid foot-rest;
+later, when partly utilitarian in adding to the strength, it became
+suitable for ornamentation, Although in the class of furniture here
+under review such ornament never took an elaborate form, there are
+examples slightly differing in character from chairs intended for the
+use of the wealthier classes, and these are evidently a local effort
+to keep in touch with prevailing taste.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK SETTLE.
+
+  With back panel under seat made from older Oak Chest. Date 1675.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK ARM CHAIR. DATE 1675.
+
+  With Bevelled Panels.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK ARM CHAIR. DATE 1777.
+
+  With initials A.S. C.B.]
+
+Finely turned stretchers, such as are found in gate tables, are a
+feature of a certain class of local chairs, such as those illustrated
+on p. 197. This kind of chair without arms is rather more
+decorated and conforms more to the styles of furniture made for
+higher spheres than the farmhouse. The upper chair with its light
+open back and ornate decoration is a Yorkshire type, and the ball
+turning in the stretcher shows the transition period to Charles II.
+The other two are Cromwellian chairs, but showing indications of the
+next period. In date they are all three about 1660.
+
+=The Chair-back and its Development.=--Another point in connection
+with the ordered progress of the chair-maker is the gradual
+development of the back of the chair. At first it was straight
+upright, and no attempt was made to impart an angle to rest the back
+of the sitter. Types such as the arm-chair with square panel (p.
+191) and the upright settle with the five panels illustrated on p.
+201 indicate this feature of discomfort. The next stage is a slight
+inclination in the back, still possessing a flat panel. This angle,
+while not conforming to modern notions of ease, was an attempt to
+offer greater comfort than before. This style, in a hundred forms,
+with the minimum of inclination in the back, continued for a very
+considerable period. It is found in the nearly straight-backed chairs
+of Derbyshire and Yorkshire origin, with the turned stretchers, and
+it actually in later days became almost upright in the series of
+chairs following the later Stuart types with cane back and cane seat,
+noticeable for their tall narrow backs with a resemblance to the
+_prie-dieu_ chair of continental usage.
+
+The settle illustrated is a plainer variety of the settle made for
+use by fashionable folk with delicately panelled back. Very often,
+in cottage furniture, chests and other pieces are broken up to make
+into smaller furniture or to be incorporated into furniture of a
+later design. Often it is found that the underframing of an old
+gate table made in the seventeenth or eighteenth century is from an
+earlier chest. In the present instance it will be seen that the back
+panels of the settle have been made from an older chest, which bears
+the inscribed initials, still visible, "I.E." In date this settle
+is about 1675, and is contemporary with the square-backed chair
+illustrated on the same page. Here the panel in back projects, that
+is, it is slightly bevelled forward. The bevelling of the panel is
+always a sign that a chair is later in date than the year 1670.
+
+Illustrated on the same page is a remarkable chair having the
+initials "A.S.C.B." and the date 1777 carved on it. It is a striking
+instance of the adherence to old time-honoured form by the local
+cabinet-maker, with touches that, even although the date were not
+present, would tell their own story. This dull wood proclaims a
+message in accents no less sure than the sturdy yeoman's to Lady
+Clara Vere de Vere, and as a chair in date _anno Domini_ 1777 may
+afford to "smile at the claims of long descent" of more pretentious
+and fashionable furniture. It is like a rich vein of dialect running
+in some old country song ripe with phrase of Saxon days. It seems
+incredible that this survival of early-Jacobean days should have been
+put together by a village craftsman true to convention and exact in
+seat and arms and stretcher. But it was not done unthinkingly. Here
+is a chair, astounding to note, made when Sheraton was creating
+his new styles to supplant Chippendale, and when Hepplewhite stood
+between the two masters as a _via media_. And the back of this
+village chair has two distinct features translated from Hepplewhite's
+school--the wheatear crest and the panel with its broken corner!
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CHAIRS. DATE ABOUT 1680.
+
+  Showing the inclination of the craftsmen to assimilate designs
+  then being fashioned in walnut.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+=Transition between Jacobean and William and Mary Forms.=--The rapid
+growth of the finer specimens of furniture made in walnut brought
+a new note into the farmhouse variety. The elegance and grace of
+the newer styles were at once evident. In the same manner as the
+grandiose splendour of Elizabethan woodcarving was succeeded by a
+less massive style in oak, degenerating into a rude simplicity in
+farmhouse examples, so in turn Jacobean lost favour. Walnut lent
+itself to more intricate turning, and lightness and greater delicacy
+claimed the popular favour of fashionable folk. The cane seat and the
+cane back at once indicate this new taste. The use of cushions became
+general and the sunk seat for the squab cushion is a feature in the
+later years of the seventeenth century.
+
+Oak still remained the favourite wood of the country craftsman, in
+spite of its more refractory qualities. But when the walnut styles
+became so firmly established that clients demanded furniture in
+this fashion, elm and beech and yew were found pliable enough to
+conform to the more slender touches and the finer turning considered
+desirable.
+
+Walnut was in its turn supplanted by mahogany, and it will be shown
+later how farmhouse furniture followed the dictates of fashion
+in days when the outburst of splendid design by Chippendale,
+Hepplewhite, and Sheraton, together with a crowd of lesser
+known men, spread far and wide new principles in the art of
+furniture-making and brought country furniture another stage in its
+evolution.
+
+Farmhouse furniture slowly assimilated the technique and design
+of the walnut age. The love for the native oak was so pronounced
+that country makers did not desert this wood and essayed to produce
+effects by its employment that were exceedingly difficult and
+oftentimes unsuccessful. The three chairs illustrated p. 205 show
+this transition style, about the year 1680, struggling with technical
+difficulties and affording a fine series of points in the evolution
+of design.
+
+=Farmhouse Styles contemporary with the Cane-back Chair.=--Farmhouse
+furniture rarely, if ever, had cane-work in the back or in the seat.
+But the craftsman, while appreciating the delicacy of the cane back
+in adding lightness to the chair, circumvented his inability to work
+in cane by substituting thin vertical splats to give the necessary
+effect of transparency. The three chairs illustrated show each in
+varying degree the quaint compromise made between the technique of
+oak and the technique of walnut, and the attempt to reproduce the
+walnut designs.
+
+The arm-chair exhibits strong relationship with the older Jacobean
+chair in its turned legs and uprights, but these have assumed a more
+slender proportion. The front stretcher is in the newer manner.
+The sunk seat is intended to receive a cushion. There should be no
+difficulty for the amateur correctly to assign a date to such a
+piece. The process of reasoning would be somewhat as follows:--The
+lower half of the chair is Jacobean, but the front stretcher suggests
+the Charles II. period, borne out by the open back, which removes
+it from the Cromwellian period, and the details of the top rail
+with its curved top indicate that the country maker had seen the
+tall straight-back chairs of the William and Mary period with the
+cane-work panel.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CHAIRS.
+
+  With cresting rail, of Charles II. period, retained and
+  perforated arch centre peculiar to walnut designs.
+
+  With elaboration in turned legs, and uprights, of William and
+  Mary period retained, and having Queen Anne splat of 1710.
+
+  With sunk seat for squab cushion, turned uprights and legs and
+  curious back, showing transition from lath back to splat back.]
+
+The middle chair more closely approaches the upright chair of the
+Charles II. period. There is a straight top-rail, supplemented by
+a lunette, giving the top a character of its own. This specimen is
+exceptionally interesting. The right-hand chair in its seat and legs
+is pronouncedly Jacobean. But the back with the three splats and the
+coarsely carved top-rail betray the hand of the country craftsman
+following in oak the more graceful curves of the worker in walnut of
+the days of Charles II.
+
+It will be seen that these three chairs, each in varying manner,
+evade the difficulties of the light cane-back by the substitution of
+thin rails, and, as will be seen from the illustration of three other
+chairs (p. 209), the next stage of walnut design with fiddle-shaped
+splat offered equal problems to the makers of cottage furniture.
+Sometimes they eliminated the splat altogether, while adopting other
+points of design found in chairs with the Queen Anne splat of 1710.
+In every case the fondness for old established styles is exhibited
+in the fact that the country cabinet-maker clings doggedly to these
+and appears too conservative or too timid to break wholly away from
+tradition. In consequence, his work, with patches of newer design
+welded on to the old, is quaintly incongruous. There is thus an
+absence of "thinking out" the design as a whole. The minor maker
+thought out the parts as he went along. Some of his results are
+extraordinary in their characteristics: they resemble that freak of
+fashion termed "harlequin" tea services, where the cups are of one
+pattern and the saucers of another. Bearing in mind these unfailing
+proclivities of the maker of cottage and farmhouse furniture, the
+collector should not find it difficult to recognise the country hand
+at once. Now and again one is struck with the extraordinary ingenuity
+of some of the work, or one is charmed with the faithfulness with
+which designs have been translated from the golden bowl to the
+silver, or, to be literal, from walnut and mahogany to oak and elm
+and beech. But one is never amazed at the delicacy of proportion, the
+balanced symmetry, or the fertility of invention--these attributes
+belong to cabinet-makers on a higher plane.
+
+Of three chairs illustrated on p. 209, that on the left in the legs
+and seat shows the moribund Jacobean style. The stretcher indicates
+the oncoming of the newer styles, and the back with its cresting
+rail is of the Charles II. period. Its retention is curious, and the
+perforated arched centre is peculiar to designs found in walnut; its
+use in oak by the maker of this chair was a blunder, as oak is too
+hard a wood to employ for such a design.
+
+  [Illustration: QUEEN ANNE CHAIR.
+
+  Entirely oak form except back and splat.]
+
+  [Illustration: QUEEN ANNE CHAIR.
+
+  In oak, with strong inclinations towards walnut styles.]
+
+Illustration: QUEEN ANNE CHAIR.
+
+Walnut design made in oak for farmhouse use.]
+
+  [Illustration: QUEEN ANNE ARM-CHAIR.
+
+  With shaped front, walnut design executed in oak.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE CHAIR, STYLE MERGING INTO
+  HEPPLEWHITE.
+
+  Less pronounced Cupid's bow top.]
+
+  [Illustration: TWO CHAIRS COUNTRY HEPPLEWHITE STYLE MADE ENTIRELY
+  IN OAK.
+
+  Left-hand chair with Prince of Wales's feathers.]
+
+  [Illustration: TYPES OF COTTAGE CHAIRS IN OAK.
+
+  Having features of the three styles--Queen Anne, Chippendale, and
+  Sheraton.
+
+    Two chairs Queen Anne style.      Chair Country Chippendale style.]
+
+The middle chair shows an equal admixture of styles. The elaboration
+in the turned legs and uprights belongs to the William and Mary
+period and the splat is the Queen Anne fiddle pattern of 1710.
+The seat begins to show another form in having the middle sunk for
+the use of a squab cushion.
+
+The right-hand chair parts with the underframing below the seat,
+which gives a touch of lightness to the construction. The turned
+legs and uprights have departed from the coarse early-Jacobean style
+and perceptibly depend on walnut prototypes for their character. The
+back shows the transition from the lath back (such as in the chairs
+simulating the cane-work) to the splat back. It is an interesting and
+rare example, marking the slow assimilation of new forms by isolated
+makers. This specimen came from Ireland and evidently possesses
+native touches of originality which defy the connoisseur to determine
+its exact date.
+
+=The Queen Anne Splat.=--The fiddle-shaped splat of 1710 marks a
+turning-point in the construction of the chair.
+
+The walnut chairs with caned backs of the time of James II. and the
+early days of William III. were carved richly, and sometimes there
+was a splat dividing the caning at the back, which later, also in
+caned-back examples, is curved and plain. The general tendency in
+the reigns of William and Mary, especially towards the close of the
+period, was one of economy, and elaborate carving began to disappear.
+
+The Queen Anne smooth splat of fiddle form rapidly became
+popular. This Anglo-Dutch style became acclimatised here, and is
+characteristic of the homely examples of the Queen Anne period. In
+walnut it was comparatively easy to carry out carving. In oak such
+elaboration was well-nigh impossible. It was therefore natural that
+in the farmhouse examples the plain Dutch splat would readily find
+favour as more easily executed. By the time that the fiddle splat had
+become popular the stretcher joining the cabriole legs commenced to
+disappear.
+
+The splat plays an important part as indicating sharp variations in
+design--walnut with open carving, intricate and floriated; walnut
+with the plain fiddle splat, with its corresponding minor form in
+oak; mahogany, with the advent of Chippendale, with the splat again
+open, carved with graceful ribbon-work.
+
+The arm-chair illustrated p. 213 is a remarkable instance of
+intermingling of styles. The front legs are in Jacobean style, and
+are continued in the same manner as the usual type of oak chair as
+supports for the arms, but an original touch and naive departure is
+in the curve given to this upright from the seat upwards. The seat is
+shaped like that of the Windsor chair. The arms are somewhat stiff
+for the back with its Cupid's-bow design, which has a sprightliness
+and grace making it a thing apart. The whole is not unpleasing. It
+is a remarkable instance of the attempted assimilation of several
+diverse styles by an undeveloped cabinet-maker with strong ideas of
+his own. The oak form is rigidly retained in all except the back and
+splat of Queen Anne days.
+
+  [Illustration: COUNTRY-MADE OAK SETTEE WITH DOUBLE BACK IN
+  CHIPPENDALE STYLE.
+
+  The shaped underframing is a feature only found in farmhouse
+  varieties.]
+
+  [Illustration: COUNTRY-MADE OAK SETTEE IN CHINESE CHIPPENDALE
+  STYLE.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+The adjacent chair, with its tall back with curved splat and its
+cabriole legs, marks the transition between William and Mary and
+Queen Anne. The top rail indicates by its clumsy joinery the touch of
+the immature country cabinet-maker. It is an attempt to approach a
+fine model with insufficiency of skill by the maker. The use of the
+cabriole leg either in chairs or in dressers in homely furniture has
+always proved a stumbling-block to the minor craftsman. The delicacy
+of balance required in order to preserve the harmony of the whole has
+proved too subtle a problem for him to handle, and to the practised
+eye these farmhouse pieces at once proclaim their origin.
+
+The broad splat and the straight square front and the bold cabriole
+leg of the Queen Anne type in walnut were often copied in oak. The
+example of the chair with the later tapestry covering, illustrated p.
+213, is a case where the local cabinet-maker has faithfully copied
+detail for detail from some fine original in walnut. His is in oak
+for more strenuous usage. The adjacent arm-chair is of the Queen Anne
+style, with a shaped front that is very rarely found in such pieces.
+The maker here has not been so successful in catching the bold lines
+of his original. There is a sense of something lacking in the curves
+of the back. The touches of his own that he has added in the arms,
+reverting to an earlier Jacobean type, reveal the unpractised hand.
+
+=Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton.=--A word in passing
+may be said in regard to the unique character of furniture of these
+types. It is obvious that factory-made furniture turned out by the
+hundred pieces can offer nothing personal, whatever its merits or
+demerits of design or workmanship. It is this personal note, the
+love of a craftsman in his creation, that appeals to the collector,
+whether it be of Persian rugs or of old brass candlesticks. It is
+absent in art produced in a wholesale manner. Blunderingly as the
+village craftsmen went to work, they often stumbled into great
+things, and they always produced original results.
+
+Prior to the publication of the design-books of the great
+eighteenth-century masters of cabinet-making, the furniture of
+certain localities began to assume a character of its own, the
+result of long tradition, and designs such as the dragon found in
+Welsh carving became established. The term "unique" is peculiarly
+appropriate to furniture of this calibre, for rarely are two pieces
+found to be exactly alike. Not only did different makers add novel
+features, but the same craftsman apparently did not repeat himself.
+
+The permutations of form governing furniture are illimitable,
+associated as they are with so many details of construction. To
+take the chair--the leg, its shape, and the design of its turning;
+the style and character of the work on the stretcher; the form of
+the seat; the decoration and formation of the front; the back, its
+length, and the variety of splats and panels; and the top rail
+with its variations--these are only the salient features in which
+differences appear. Such modifications of design and piquant touches
+of personal character appeal to the collector, who loves the foibles
+and fanciful moods of the native craftsman, be he ever so humble.
+
+Chippendale published his "Director" in 1754, and it became a working
+guide to all ambitious craftsmen. Ince and Mayhew, cabinet-makers
+of Broad Street, Golden Square, had issued "Household Furniture" in
+1748, and Hepplewhite & Co. followed later with the "Cabinet Maker
+and Upholsterer's Guide" in 1788, where the delicacies of ornament
+were related to the chaster classic models, and in 1794 came Sheraton
+with his "Drawing Book," rich with subtle suggestiveness. A rough
+generalisation shows the Chippendale school holding sway from 1730
+to 1780, the Hepplewhite school from 1775 to 1795, and the Sheraton
+school from 1790 to 1805: and behind all, the strong influence of
+the Brothers Adam in their classic revival. What had previously been
+tradition came very speedily into line with current modes. Fashion,
+as we have shown, had a slow and impermanent effect upon village
+ideals. But the output of these great illustrated volumes, with
+working drawings, undoubtedly had a wide-reaching influence. The last
+quarter of the eighteenth century saw an intense outburst of interest
+in the arts of interior decoration. A great amount of finely designed
+and beautifully executed furniture belongs to those days, and the
+echo of the splendid achievements in mahogany and in satinwood is
+seen in the farmhouse and cottage furniture, which came singularly
+close upon the heels of fashion.
+
+Chippendale furniture in oak, elm, or beech is being largely
+collected. We illustrate a sufficient number of types to show that
+this class of design known as "Cottage Chippendale," has peculiar
+charms of its own. The arm-chair illustrated p. 225 is in elm, and
+is in the style Chippendale employed in his rich mahogany creations
+in 1760. The fine interlaced carving of the back is graceful and
+well proportioned. The adjacent chair, in elm, still follows the
+Chippendale style. The seat is rush, and the maker has confined
+himself to his own limitations and avoided in the splat the too
+intricate work of more sumptuous models. He has arrived at a very
+finely balanced result. The heart cut out of the splat is frequently
+found in cottage examples, suggesting that some of the more ornate
+examples may have been made as wedding presents for young couples
+just setting up housekeeping, or possibly the village cabinet-maker
+himself had thoughts in that direction, and such work was destined to
+equip his own home.
+
+The illustration of a chair, in beech, with a plain wooden seat, has
+a somewhat intricate ribbon-like pattern terminating in the Prince
+of Wales's feathers. The heart is present in the design at the base
+of the splat, cut out in fretwork. The arm-chair on the right, with
+its dipped seat, is in oak, and is an instance representing the
+adaptations of Sheraton styles in the provinces.
+
+Another page of chairs in oak (p. 215) shows the influences at work
+in moulding the character of the styles of the late eighteenth and
+early nineteenth century farmhouse furniture. Of the three chairs
+at top of p. 215, the left-hand one is in Chippendale style merging
+into Hepplewhite. The Cupid's bow at the top rail has become less
+pronounced. The other two chairs on right are typically Hepplewhite
+in character. The Prince of Wales's feathers, so often associated
+with Hepplewhite's own work, are embodied in the splat of one.
+
+  [Illustration: ELM CHAIR. COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE STYLE. 1760.]
+
+  [Illustration: ELM CHAIR, COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE STYLE.]
+
+  [Illustration: BEECH CHAIR. COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE STYLE.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CHAIR, COUNTRY CHIPPENDALE STYLE. WITH DROPPED
+  SEAT.]
+
+In the lower group, the right-hand chair is of the Chippendale
+type. The other two chairs have features of three styles--the Queen
+Anne, the Chippendale, and the Sheraton. It is this piquancy and
+incongruous combination of styles adjacent to each other in point
+of time, but having little other relationship, which make the
+provincialisms of the cabinet-maker of exceptional interest.
+
+At times more ambitious attempts were made in oak, following the
+lines of the Chippendale style in mahogany. These have pronounced
+features always recognisable as belonging to the farmhouse variety of
+furniture. Two examples are illustrated, p. 219. The upper example
+of country-made oak settee, with double back, at once indicates
+that it is provincial by the shaped underframing, which is never
+found in other classes of furniture. The lower example of farmhouse
+oak settee is clearly in Chippendale's Chinese style. A reference
+to the "Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Directory," published by
+Thomas Chippendale in 1754, shows that this Chinese style adopted
+by the local maker is very far removed from the series of delicate
+fretwork designs illustrated by Chippendale in his volume. It
+is true that the old designer of St. Martin's Lane sent forth
+his work with the sub-title stating that it was "calculated to
+improve and refine the present Taste, and suited to the Fancy and
+Circumstances of Persons in all Degrees of Life." The great master
+cabinet-maker, in scattering his designs far and wide, evidently
+had in mind the formation of a new style. He builded better than he
+knew. The importance of his book of designs cannot be overrated.
+It was subscribed for in Yorkshire, in Devon, in Westmorland, and
+in Ireland, and straightway minor men looked upon these delightful
+inventions and began to follow to the best of their ability the
+ideals set forth by Chippendale the dreamer.
+
+That he was an idealist in this book of designs is naively explained
+in his Preface: "I frankly confess that in the executing many of the
+drawings my pencil has but faintly copied out those images that my
+fancy suggested, and had they not been published till I could have
+pronounced them perfect, perhaps they had never seen the light." But
+Chippendale was also a practical cabinet-maker as well as a designer.
+He has a lingering doubt that after all, perhaps, the country
+cabinet-maker and those who bought the book for use might not be
+able to carry out his designs. Evidently this had struck others too.
+Perhaps he was accused of fobbing-off in a design-book mere fanciful
+work that was too far above the plane of ordinary cabinet-work. He
+meets this objection with a declaration, so to speak, upon honour,
+with which he winds up his Preface, which is a pretty piece of
+eighteenth-century advertising:--
+
+"Upon the whole, I have given no design but what may be executed
+with advantage by the hands of a skilful workman, though some of the
+profession have been diligent enough to represent them (especially
+those after the Gothic and Chinese manner) as so many specious
+drawings, impossible to be worked off by any mechanic whatsoever.
+I will not scruple to attribute this to malice, ignorance, and
+inability, and I am confident I can convince all noblemen, gentlemen,
+or others, who will honour me with their commands, that every design
+in the book can be improved, both as to beauty and enrichment, in the
+execution of it, by--Their Most Obedient Servant, Thomas Chippendale."
+
+Enough has been said to prove that "country Chippendale" is not
+a misnomer. It is equally true that the Hepplewhite style was
+disseminated in like fashion in the provinces. It must be remembered
+that these trade catalogues, as they really were, brought out
+somewhat in rivalry with each other by the great London designers
+and cabinet-makers, were the only literature the country makers
+had to indicate town fashions. These volumes therefore served a
+double purpose in procuring clients for the firm and in stimulating
+the art of the country designer. That they were in part intended
+to be educational is shown by the Preface to the "Cabinet Maker
+and Upholsterer's Guide," published by A. Hepplewhite & Co.,
+Cabinet-makers. We quote from the Preface of the third edition,
+"improved," 1794.
+
+The Preface opens with a lament that owing to "the mutability of
+all things, but more especially of fashions," foreigners who seek
+a knowledge of English taste and workmanship may be misled by the
+"labours of our predecessors in this line of little use."
+
+"The same reason in favour of this work will apply also to many of
+our own countrymen and artisans, whose distance from the metropolis
+makes even an imperfect knowledge of its improvements acquired with
+much trouble and expense."
+
+"In this instance we hope for reward; and though we lay no claim to
+extraordinary merit in our designs, we flatter ourselves they will be
+found serviceable to young workmen in general, and occasionally to
+more experienced ones."
+
+In view, therefore, of the books of design we have enumerated, it
+is obvious that the country designer had a new field open to him,
+and now and again he made ample use of his opportunities. During the
+last quarter of the eighteenth century there was quite an outburst of
+literature on furniture, much of it forgotten and much of it waiting
+to be disinterred by patient research; and with the dissemination of
+these fine designs some of the most perfect examples of country-made
+furniture began to exhibit touches of skill of the practised hand.
+
+=The Grandfather Chair.=--From the illustration given on p. 231 it
+will be seen that the type known as the "grandfather" has a humble
+lineage. It will be found with the same wings and curved arms and
+plain wooden seat in the alehouse or in the ingle nook of the
+farmhouse. The specimen we illustrate does duty as a bacon-cupboard
+as well as a chair. Usually such pieces have the cupboard opening at
+the back, but in this instance the cupboard opens in front.
+
+  [Illustration: COUNTRY GRANDFATHER CHAIR.]
+
+  [Illustration: ARM-CHAIR AND BACON-CUPBOARD.
+
+  Opens at foot. This type usually opens at back.]
+
+As early as the opening years of the eighteenth century there were
+upholstered chairs of a somewhat similar type to the so-called
+"grandfather" with scrolled arms or wings. The example we illustrate
+is representative of those which may be met with in the country
+farmhouse.
+
+=Ladder-back Types.=--The ladder-back chair belongs to the northern
+half of England, and similarly the spindle-back chair is found in
+the same locality. The Windsor chair, on the other hand, is mainly
+confined to the southern half of the country. These are points which
+become noticeable after years of systematised research, and although
+nowadays these three varieties of chair may still be found, somewhat
+scattered, their real home and place of origin is as indicated.
+Another feature of interest is that both ladder-back and spindle-back
+varieties, with but slight differences, are found on the Continent.
+
+It will be observed that this class of chair has a rush seat. This
+feature it has in common with the spindle-back chair.
+
+The rush-bottom chair covers a wide area. It comes with an air of
+_naivete_ and rustic simplicity. One recalls the long lines of green
+rushes by the river-bank and the rush-gatherers in idyllic placidity
+slowly trimming the banks, disturbing coot and moorhen with their
+punt, and adding another human touch to the lonely angler. They are
+pursuing a calling as old as the river itself, and the use of rush
+for floor, for lighting, or for seating furniture, found occupation
+for generations of men plying curious trades, of which the plaiting
+of osiers into baskets and the thatching of cottage roofs may be
+numbered among the decaying industries. Indeed, this latter art
+and the making of birch and heath brooms may be almost said to be
+extinct. A good artisan who can thatch in the old artistic style is
+much sought after. Of course ricks have still to be thatched, but the
+picturesque skill of masters of this old-world craft is absent, and
+corrugated iron sheets have found favour in lieu of the old style.
+
+The ladder-back chair is, as its name denotes, decorated with
+horizontal supports, ladder fashion. These are capable of the most
+pleasing variation. The perfection of form of this type is seen in
+the arm-chair illustrated p. 237. The well-balanced proportion of
+the ladder rails is a test as to the excellence of the design. They
+are not meaningless ornaments put in place, unthinkingly, to create
+a new style. The two examples illustrated on page 235 show other
+types of the ladder-back chair. The left-hand one shows the later
+stages in the development of the design, and its top rail is of the
+Sheraton period. The right-hand one, with arms, is composite in its
+character, and is in date about 1820, and exhibits a touch of the
+Sheraton slenderness of style in the splats and the round turning of
+arms. Both examples show the quaint survival of the Queen Anne foot.
+The ladder-back form survived the eighteenth century and lasted down
+to within fifty years ago, when it became merged into that of the
+Windsor chair.
+
+  [Illustration: LADDER-BACK TYPE OF CHAIR.
+
+  Showing Empire influence in curved back.
+
+  Dated 1820-1830.]
+
+  [Illustration: SPINDLE-BACK NURSING CHAIR WITH ROCKER.
+
+  Three rows of spindles.]
+
+  [Illustration: SPINDLE-BACK CHAIR.
+
+  Two rows of spindles.]
+
+  [Illustration: LADDER-BACK CHAIRS WITH RUSH SEAT.
+
+  Both chairs showing quaint survival of the Queen Anne feet.
+
+    Late Eighteenth Century, with top
+    rail in Sheraton style.
+
+    Later form of splat with turned
+    ends. Dated 1820.]
+
+  [Illustration: COUNTRY BARBER'S CHAIR.]
+
+  [Illustration: LADDER-BACK CHAIR.
+
+  Perfect specimen in regard to style.]
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CORNER CHAIR.]
+
+  [Illustration: LADDER-BACK FORM OF CORNER CHAIR WITH RUSH SEAT.
+
+  Probably Lancashire.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+=The Spindle-back Chair.=--The spindle-back chair is of long lineage.
+As early as the reign of Charles I. this type was known. There
+is still treasured in America the chair of Governor Carver, with
+simple turning in legs and back, which practically consisted of
+upright posts rounded and having slight ornament. The back was set
+with "spindles." The older types of these chairs had thick upright
+posts, the back and back legs being two posts and the front legs,
+continued upward beyond the seat, forming supports for the arms.
+These posts are often six or seven inches in circumference, and
+belong to early-Jacobean days. The type found its way to America in
+Puritan days and has continued to be a favourite. Hickory wood was
+used for American specimens, and considerable attention has been paid
+to this form of chair and its varieties, the differing heights of the
+posts and the number of the spindles and their character, by American
+collectors. In England examples are not easily found of early date.
+The examples illustrated (p. 235), a Nursing Chair on rockers and an
+ordinary Spindle-Back Chair, are of eighteenth-century days, and are
+sufficient to indicate the type of chair, but these two represent the
+style when it had become of more general use. Practically it was not
+until the eighteenth century that such types were commonly used in
+cottages and farmhouses.
+
+These turned chairs, turned in every portion but the rush seat, lend
+themselves to the above-mentioned two styles of treatment. Their
+upright posts forming the open back can be treated with vertical
+splats divided by horizontal divisions, or they can, as in the ladder
+form, receive horizontal splats. The complete simplicity of this
+attitude towards the back absolved the homely cabinet-maker from
+dangerous experiments. Avoiding curved backs, he had not to face
+the intricacies of the nicety of balance in the splat. Altogether it
+was a very satisfactory solution, and in practice resulted in the
+production of a wide range of chairs, differing in slight details but
+well within the range of the local workman's art.
+
+The unassuming simplicity of this class of chair made its appeal
+to Madox-Brown, who held that simplicity and utility were the two
+desiderata, united with soundness of construction, for domestic
+furniture. Veneer was as abhorrent to him as to all genuine lovers
+of the artistic. "Let us be honest, let us be genuine in furniture
+as in aught else," were his words. "If we must needs make our chairs
+and tables of cheap wood, do not let them masquerade as mahogany or
+rosewood; let the thing appear that which it is; it will not lack
+dignity if it be good of its kind and well made." Accordingly he put
+his theories into practice and designed some furniture. In a chair in
+the possession of Mr. Harold Rathbone he has employed the rush seat
+and used spindles to decorate the back, and in another chair in the
+same collection he has adhered to the horizontal ladder-back style,
+coupled with the rush seat, with pleasing effect.
+
+=Corner Chairs.=--Among interesting types of chairs often with
+lingering traces of the Jacobean style and additional features
+of splats that may be regarded as standing on the threshold of
+the Chippendale period, corner chairs stand in a class alone. The
+illustrations on p. 237 show some typical examples. The chair with
+the double tier is the oak adaptation of Chippendale with the
+retention of the old Jacobean form of support for the arm. These
+chairs with this added tier are often used as country barber's
+chairs. The rush-seated corner chair on the same page, probably made
+in Lancashire, is suggestive of the ladder-back form, and there
+are indications in its construction that it is subsequent to the
+Hepplewhite period.
+
+With these notes relative to the evolution of the chair, and with
+carefully selected illustrations of types likely to be of use to the
+collector, enough has been said to whet the curiosity of the reader
+to study the matter for himself. It requires keen and discriminating
+judgment to allocate specimens with passing exactitude as to time and
+place. The taste for the subject must be natural and not acquired.
+Training alone will give the eye the readiness to detect false
+touches and modern additions. The search for bargains goes on apace,
+and those who enjoy stalking their quarry in out-of-the-way places
+have an exciting quest nowadays for fine pieces. To those with
+endless patience, forbearing under disappointment, and having plenty
+of leisure, the search will offer abundant delight, if, to quote Mrs.
+Battle, they enjoy "the rigour of the game."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE WINDSOR CHAIR
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE WINDSOR CHAIR
+
+   Early types--The stick legs without stretcher--The tavern
+   chair--Eighteenth-century pleasure gardens--The rail-back
+   variety--Chippendale style Windsor chairs--The survival of the
+   Windsor chair.
+
+
+The Windsor chair in its early form is coincident with the early
+years of the eighteenth century. Its history and development
+therefore exhibit traces of the various styles in furniture which
+ran their courses throughout the century. It is essentially a chair
+which belongs to minor furniture, and in its use it is bound up with
+the country farmhouse, the country inn, or in the metropolis with the
+chocolate-houses and taverns, and later with the innumerable pleasure
+gardens which sprang up around the metropolis in the eighteenth
+century.
+
+There is more than a strong suggestion that the type originated in
+the country. The first forms have a similarity to the easily made
+three-legged stools. The seat is one piece of wood into which holes
+are bored to admit the legs. The origin of the term "Windsor chair,"
+according to a story largely current in America, is that George III.,
+the Farmer King, saw a chair of this design in a humble cottage near
+Windsor, and was so enamoured of it that he ordered some to be made
+for the royal use. The chair had a singular vogue in America, and it
+is stated that George Washington had a row of Windsor chairs at his
+house at Mount Vernon, and Jefferson sat in a Windsor chair when he
+signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776.
+
+=The Stick Legs without Stretcher.=--Obviously this is the earliest
+type, and the illustrations of these primitive forms (p. 247) show
+the simplicity of the joinery. The chair on the left with its almost
+straight top rail suggests a probable date. It was not till 1768 that
+Chippendale made the first straight top rail in English furniture.
+The seat is of the saddle-form. The spindles at the back in the
+lower row taper at each end. It will be observed in all the types we
+illustrate in this chapter that the arms extend in one piece around
+the chair. Nor has every example the saddle seat. On the same page is
+illustrated one with a plain seat, but still having the stick legs
+set at an angle towards the centre of the chair.
+
+Whatever interest attaches to this early type, from a collecting
+point of view, they cannot compare in beauty with the finer varieties
+of a later period, with cabriole leg and with pierced splat,
+displaying a pleasing diversity of patterns in pierced work, no two
+of which are always quite alike.
+
+  [Illustration: WINDSOR CHAIRS.
+
+  Earliest form; stick legs with no stretcher.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+=The Tavern Chair.=--It was Dr. Johnson who declared that a tavern
+chair was the throne of human felicity. Undoubtedly the eighteenth
+century found the need of a comfortable chair for club meetings at
+taverns and alehouses. The country inn to-day has its Windsor chairs,
+many of them of great age. Nor were chairs of this type always with
+arms. There are many plainer chairs without arms and having what is
+termed "fiddle-string" backs; more often than not across this back
+there is a rail put transversely to strengthen it. Many of these
+chairs were made by local carpenters and wheelwrights. They employed
+any wood that happened to be in their workshop at the time; in
+consequence the variety of woods in which these chairs are found is
+great. Sometimes the seat is made from beech or elm and the arms are
+fashioned from the wood of the pear-tree. The curved horseshoe rails
+and back are more often than not constructed from the ash.
+
+=Eighteenth Century Pleasure Gardens.=--There is no doubt that we
+owe the considerable output of Windsor chairs in the middle of the
+eighteenth century to the growth of coffee-houses, and especially
+the numerous tea and pleasure gardens on the outskirts of London and
+other great towns. These semi-rural resorts began to be in great
+demand as a recreation for jaded eighteenth-century town-dwellers.
+The nobility and persons of fashion had Bath and Tunbridge Wells
+to fly to for country air and open-air recreation. The citizen and
+mechanic, the society beau, and the politician, crowded to Ranelagh
+Gardens, to Vauxhall, to Sadler's Wells, and to Hampstead, to
+enjoy sunny afternoons and summer evenings in the open air, or to
+spend Sundays. It was the eighteenth-century diversion similar to
+the nineteenth-century Crystal Palace and the twentieth-century
+Earl's Court. To quote Mr. Percy Macquoid in his lordly work on
+English furniture, "So great were the numbers of visitors to these
+places that attention was called to their increase in one of the
+contemporary weekly journals, where a calculation was made that on
+Sundays alone two hundred thousand people visited the tea-gardens
+situated on the northern side of London; and as half-a-crown per
+head was probably the least sum expended by them, it can be no
+exaggeration to state that L20,000 on a fine Sunday was taken at
+these places of amusement. Many cheap chairs must have been required
+at such places of entertainment."
+
+Between the year 1760 and the end of the century the Windsor chair
+was being made for general country use. "The backs and arms of
+these," continues Mr. Macquoid, "are made of hoops of yew, held
+together by a number of slender uprights and a perforated splat of
+the same tough and pliant wood; the seats were generally invariably
+of elm, as yew cut into a superficies of any size is liable to split;
+the legs and stretchers were generally of yew."
+
+  [Illustration: OLIVER GOLDSMITH'S CHAIR.
+
+  Wood, painted green, with circular seat, curved arms, and high
+  back. Bequeathed by Oliver Goldsmith in 1774 to his friend, Dr.
+  Hawes.
+
+  (_Bethnal Green Museum._)]
+
+=The Rail-back Variety.=--We have alluded to the use of the rail
+placed across the back from the top rail to the seat, crossing the
+uprights. It is not an elegant device, but it was used as a means
+of strengthening the back. It seems almost unnecessary, although
+possibly these chairs received a good deal of rough usage.
+Later, when the fiddle splat began to be employed, this transverse
+rail--sometimes there were two used--was discontinued. An historic
+example of the chair with transverse rails is that which was once
+in the possession of Oliver Goldsmith. There is no doubt about
+the authenticity of this, as it was bequeathed by the poet to his
+medical attendant, Dr. Hawes, who, by the way, was the founder of
+the Royal Humane Society. Goldsmith told his farmer friends at his
+cottage at Edgware that he should never in future spend more than two
+months a year in London, and at the time of his death in 1774 he was
+negotiating the sale of the lease of his Temple chambers. This chair
+(illustrated p. 251) has a rather small shaped seat, curved arms, a
+top rail that is of exceptional interest considering the date, which
+is, say, from 1770 to 1774, perhaps a little earlier. This was at the
+commencement of the Hepplewhite period, which lasted till 1790. The
+year 1768 was, as we have already said, the date at which chairs with
+straight top rails, designed by Adam and executed by Chippendale,
+were first made. The turned legs are interesting, showing the hoofed
+foot, and the turned stretcher retains an earlier form. The chair is
+of soft wood, probably beech, and is painted green. It is preserved
+at the Bethnal Green Museum, with the distinctive label on the stand:
+"Oliver Goldsmith's Chair."
+
+=The Splat Back and the Cabriole Leg.=--It is here that the Windsor
+chair assumes a character essentially charming and attracts the
+admiration of connoisseurs of styles that are peculiarly English.
+The splat back is a feature only found in English varieties of the
+Windsor chair. In America a great deal of attention has been paid to
+old types, and there the pliant hickory wood is used in the making
+of chairs of this form; but the splat back is never used in America,
+and when found by collectors there the piece is attributed to English
+manufacture.
+
+The splat, with its varying forms, denotes the date of the chair.
+From 1740 to 1770 the form with cabriole legs and with finely
+ornamented fiddle splat was at its best. We illustrate a sufficient
+number of specimens to show how graceful and perfectly well balanced
+these chairs had become. In contemplating pieces remarkable for the
+highest style, it must be admitted that their artistry and their
+simple unaffected sense of comfort do make a direct appeal to those
+who are willing to recognise fine qualities in minor furniture.
+
+The two chairs illustrated (p. 255) differ slightly in details of
+construction. That on the left has the plain urn splat, a survival
+of the Queen Anne type. The seat is finely shaped and the legs are
+cabriole form. The top rail is almost straight, and is ornamented
+at the two ends with turned discs. The three stretchers are turned,
+and in the adjacent chair the stretchers are similar, save in a
+slight variation in the pattern of the turning. But here the splat
+is perforated with an intricate design suggestive of the lines
+of Chippendale; the top rail is a departure in form, imparting a
+distinctiveness which lifts the chair from the ordinary type.
+
+  [Illustration: WINDSOR CHAIR.
+
+  With plain fiddle splat of Queen Anne type, Chippendale top rail
+  and cabriole legs, and three turned stretchers.]
+
+  [Illustration: WINDSOR CHAIR.
+
+  With pierced fiddle splat, shaped arms, cabriole legs, and three
+  turned stretchers.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: CHIPPENDALE WINDSOR CHAIRS.
+
+  Chippendale splats. The type of splat indicates the date of
+  Windsor chairs.]
+
+  [Illustration: HEPPLEWHITE WINDSOR CHAIR.
+
+  Exceptionally fine legs back and front. Urn back. Probably Welsh
+  carving.]
+
+  [Illustration: HEPPLEWHITE PERIOD WINDSOR CHAIR.
+
+  With wheel back, in yew.
+
+  (_By courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell & Sons._)]
+
+=Chippendale Style Windsor Chairs.=--The page of chairs (p.
+257) tells its own story. The beautiful sweep of the curved back is
+always a sign of the old and true form. Later imitations or replicas
+seem somehow to lose this effect. It has been suggested that the back
+of this style was produced by the village wheelwright in horseshoe
+form, but possibly that is a conjecture which is more fanciful than
+real. It has also--collectors are often fond of inventing theories to
+fit little-known facts--been asserted that the wheel-back variety,
+which is of somewhat more modern growth, is due to the same origin.
+This wheel is fretted with six triangular openings. One chair on
+this page has the wheel unperforated. In the examination of the
+details of the four examples there is nothing of great importance to
+differentiate them from each other in construction. The two at the
+top are suggestive of Chippendale in the ornament employed in the
+splat. The lower two incline more to the slightly later Hepplewhite
+period. Of these the one on the left has only fourteen upright rails
+at the lower portion and six in the upper portion of the back, in
+comparison with sixteen and eight in the other chairs. The legs of
+this chair are exceptionally fine both back and front. The work in
+the splat is slightly suggestive of Welsh carving, especially that
+style associated with Welsh love-spoons.
+
+Following the influence of Chippendale and Hepplewhite came the
+style of Sheraton, which after 1790 began to affect the character of
+some forms of minor furniture. That this was a very real factor is
+often shown most unexpectedly in cottage and farmhouse pieces. The
+satinwood and the painted panel, and the intricacies and subtleties
+of his employment of colour, were of course too far removed from
+the simple cabinet-work of the country maker to have the least
+effect upon him, even if he ever saw them. But the slenderness and
+elegance of the Sheraton styles did in a small degree have weight
+with cabinet-makers as a whole in the provinces. So that it is quite
+within reasonable surmise to attribute certain forms to the Sheraton
+school, or rather to the oncoming of the early nineteenth-century
+mannerisms. On p. 261 two examples are illustrated showing this
+influence. The one with the horseshoe back is devoid of the splat,
+which had now disappeared. The turned legs begin to show signs of
+modernity. The other has the top-rail familiar in later forms of
+cottage chair. The turned rails for the arms and the type of turning
+in the legs show signs of decadence. The fine days of the old Windsor
+chair were coming to an end.
+
+  [Illustration: WINDSOR CHAIR.
+
+  Horseshoe back, saddle seat, turned legs, with stretcher.
+  Sheraton style.]
+
+  [Illustration: WINDSOR CHAIR.
+
+  Curved top rail, turned arms, legs, and stretcher. Sheraton
+  style, pierced fiddle splat.]
+
+=The Survival of the Windsor Chair Type.=--Apart from the love of
+the simple form and especially well-conceived design of the Windsor
+chair, which have made it at once the especial favourite of artists
+and lovers of simplicity and utility, it has won the practical
+approval of generations of innkeepers, who to this day store hundreds
+of chairs for use at village festivals. What we have said in regard
+to the popularity of the gate-leg table applies in greater degree to
+the Windsor chair. The industry of turning the legs and rails of this
+type of chair is still carried on in Buckinghamshire. Until recent
+years much of this turning was done by hand by villagers in the
+district surrounding High Wycombe, where the parts are sent to be
+finished and made up. To this day some of the old chair-makers use
+the antiquated pole lathe. But the chairs have departed from their
+old stateliness. It is true that they have survived, almost in spite
+of themselves. They are not now the objects of beauty they once were.
+But they have, by reason of modern requirements, found a fresh field
+of usefulness. Will it be supposed that the modern office chair is
+in reality a Windsor? An examination will at once show this, even
+in the latest American types. The saddle-shaped seat is there, the
+straight turned legs, and the back is the same except that the upper
+extension has disappeared and the old centre rail has become broader
+as a properly-formed rest for the tired clerk's back. A perusal
+of a few catalogues of up-to-date office furniture will establish
+this. Here, then, is the last stage of the country Windsor chair.
+The twentieth-century Windsor has come to town and graces the head
+cashier's private office in a bank or the senior partner's room of a
+firm of stockbrokers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+LOCAL TYPES
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+LOCAL TYPES
+
+   Welsh carving--Scottish types--Lancashire dressers, wardrobes,
+   and chairs--Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire, Cambridge, and Essex
+   tables--Isle of Man tables.
+
+
+The charm of collecting cottage and farmhouse furniture lies
+in the wide area over which it is found. Those who have given
+especial attention to collecting it have learned instinctively
+to differentiate between the work of various localities. Some
+well-defined types of cottage furniture are only to be found in
+certain counties, and nowhere else. Take for example the ladder-back
+and the spindle chairs. The latter are usually found in the northern
+half and the former in the southern half of England. It is obvious
+that craftsmen developing on original lines, or on lines more or
+less apart from outside influence, must establish designs peculiarly
+identified with their field of labours.
+
+The sturdy insularity of the British peasant, and his uneasy
+reception of foreign suggestion, have had a very pronounced influence
+upon his methods of work. He has the defects of his qualities, the
+stern, almost uncompromising conservatism in habit of mind and in
+his daily pursuits. A close study of the thoughts, and as far as
+is recorded the written ideals, of the rural labouring population
+exhibit an extraordinary fixity of purpose in clinging tenaciously
+to old customs. The country songs more often than not express
+disapproval of innovations and call up the memories of slowly
+vanishing customs. The farm hands recall wistfully the old style of
+Shearers' feasts and Harvest homes, when great festivities with song
+and dance and old country sports enlivened the company. In Yorkshire
+this was termed the Mel Supper, in Kent the Kern Supper, and in parts
+of the North of England it was called the Churn Supper. Annual feasts
+were given to labourers such as the Wayzgoose or Bean feast, which
+later name remains to this day. The good old days is a refrain not
+confined to the cottager in his relation with the farmer. The farmer,
+imbued with the same wistful regard for the vanished past, bewails
+the May Day tenants' feast of the eighteenth-century English squire.
+
+We get touches of disdain for the oncoming fashion of seclusion which
+invaded the farmhouse in "A Farmer's Boy," by Robert Bloomfield. He
+laments that the annual feast of the harvest home had lost its former
+joviality. This was written in 1798.
+
+"The aspect only with the substance gone." Evidently the mug that
+passed around was becoming a thing of the past.
+
+    "The self-same Horn is still at our command,
+    But serves none now but the plebeian hand."
+
+The picture he draws of the farmer who, in face of prevailing
+fashion, "yields up the custom that he dearly loves" is pathetic. The
+long table and dining in common together had seemingly vanished. "The
+_separate_ table and the costly bowl" touch the rustic poet's pride.
+He italicises the word "separate."
+
+  [Illustration: CHEST. DATED 1636.
+
+  With Welsh inscription on lid. (Standing on table of later date.)]
+
+  [Illustration: WELSH CUPBOARD.
+
+  With typical coarse style of carving. Should be 1650 at latest.
+  Inscribed I.S. 1710.]
+
+This loving regard for the past is natural at a time when the rural
+population jealously feared the oncoming of the age of machinery,
+which threatened to supersede many of their local industries and
+finally succeeded in so doing. The obstinate adherence to old forms
+was possibly part of a nervous fear of the unknown future. The
+love for existing forms of furniture was therefore part of this
+apprehensive retention of tradition. Not only was the resistance
+of town fashions a strong feature, but local prejudices prevailed
+against the adoption of designs belonging to rival counties. To
+this day the Staffordshire clothes-horse, carried on pulleys to
+the ceiling when not in use, differs from the clothes-horse of the
+cottager in the South with no such mechanical device. In Edinburgh,
+in the narrow closes, there is a kind of gallows projecting from the
+windows.
+
+These apparently minor details which find their embodiment in
+articles of everyday use, fascinate and hold the attention of the
+acute collector of cottage furniture.
+
+The same local types apply to the art of the potter and are well
+known to collectors. There are Sussex "tygs" and Nottingham "bears"
+and Sunderland and Newcastle jugs and mugs. Bristol had its
+characteristic earthenware, and the Lowestoft china factory was
+strongly Suffolk in its homely inscriptions with a touch of dialect.
+
+=Welsh Carving.=--Wales is famous for the abundance of the oak
+farmhouse furniture proudly kept to this day in families who have
+held the same homestead sometimes for centuries. One of the most
+noticeable features is the elaboration of the carving and its
+native representation, coarsely carved, without foreign influence,
+of birds and beasts and heraldic monsters which largely figure
+in the decorative panels of chests, and especially dressers. So
+popular was oak that it might almost be advanced that there never
+was any mahogany in Wales. But it is indisputable that the great
+outburst in carved mahogany chairbacks coincident with the advent of
+Chippendale and the publication of his _Director_, never penetrated
+Wales, although it led to the foundation of a remarkable school of
+woodcarving on the new lines in Ireland, known as Irish Chippendale,
+a study of which can be made in Mr. Owen Wheeler's volume on old
+furniture.
+
+The intense love of the Welsh woodcarver for intricacy is hardly
+less than that of the sturdy Swiss craftsmen environed by mountains.
+Perhaps the long winters and the solitary life influence the
+development of individual character in the applied arts. The Welsh
+love-spoons of wood, linked together and exhibiting delicate pierced
+work and minute carving of no mean order, are among other attractive
+specimens of native art. Ironwork of fine quality is also to be found
+in Wales.
+
+  [Illustration: LANCASHIRE DRESSER. ABOUT 1730-1750.
+
+  Oak inlaid with mahogany.]
+
+  [Illustration: ELM WARDROBE (WELSH). ABOUT 1670.]
+
+(_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)
+
+  [Illustration: FLAP-TOP TABLE.
+
+  Rare Hertfordshire Example. Diameter of top, 2 ft. 6 ins.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. A. B. Daniell & Sons._)]
+
+  [Illustration: LANCASHIRE SPINDLE-BACK CHAIRS.]
+A carved oak chest of Welsh origin, dated 1636, with Welsh
+inscription on lid, is illustrated (p. 269). The table on which it
+stands is of a later date. The carving in this piece is delicate
+and the middle panel is typical of the representation of birds and
+foliage. The Welsh cupboard on the same page typifies the coarse
+woodcarving associated with Welsh farmhouse art. In style this really
+belongs to a date not later than 1650. But it is dated 1710 and
+bears the initials "I.S." This is an interesting example, showing
+how middle-Jacobean styles lingered in country districts remote from
+outside influence until the early eighteenth century.
+
+An elm wardrobe, probably about 1670 in date, shows another type,
+but still retaining the coarse character of its carving and its
+well-filled panels and uprights (illustrated p. 273).
+
+=Scottish Types.=--Scotland has antiquities of her own which are
+closely allied to those of all the Gaelic races. As with Welsh
+carved farmhouse furniture, there is a marked leaning towards coarse
+style. As a rule it is too utilitarian in appearance to display
+much carving. The spinning-wheel is still found in farmhouses, and
+is still used in Harris and the outlying islands. Sometimes these
+old Highland spinning-wheels come into the market with the smooth
+surface worn by generations of workers, a surface impossible to
+reproduce. The Scottish ironwork is especially interesting. Perhaps
+the most curious of the Scottish antiquities is the crusie. This is
+undoubtedly a survival of the classic oil lamp. It consists of a
+shallow trough with a spout in which the wick stands, the oil being
+contained in the trough (see illustration, p. 289).
+
+=Lancashire Furniture.=--The especial characteristics of
+Lancashire-made furniture are a strong leaning to solid structure and
+a very noticeable reticence in carving. Well-balanced as a rule, and
+possessing good joinery, they have been favourites with collectors
+of furniture designed for modern use. A Queen Anne oak dresser
+illustrated (p. 135) shows this Lancashire sturdiness at its best.
+This style of large dresser with cabriole legs is associated with
+Lancashire cabinet work.
+
+A Lancashire dresser, the date of which is from about 1730 to 1750,
+shows the oak dresser inlaid with mahogany. The carved pediment and
+the carved underwork beneath the drawers mark this as an unusual
+specimen (p. 273).
+
+A typical Lancashire oak settle is illustrated (p. 279), showing the
+Jacobean style in the carved work and in the arms. In date this is
+about 1660. It will be noticed that the front of the seat has a row
+of holes, which, prior to the upholstered cushion, a later addition,
+were intended for ropes to support a cushion, much in the same manner
+as the iron laths of a modern bedstead.
+
+On the same page is illustrated an oak chest of drawers of Yorkshire
+origin, in date about 1770. Its plain lines suggest the Hepplewhite
+types of subdued character.
+
+In regard to spindle-back chairs, Lancashire offers distinctive
+varieties. Two examples are illustrated (p. 275) as indicating this
+local type.
+
+  [Illustration: OAK CHEST OF DRAWERS. _C._ 1770.
+
+  Yorkshire type.
+
+  Height, 3 ft. 3 ins.; width, 3 ft. 1 in.; depth, 1 ft. 5-1/2 ins.]
+
+  [Illustration: LANCASHIRE OAK SETTLE. _C._ 1660.]
+  [Illustration: ISLE OF MAN TABLE.
+
+  Showing three legs with knee breeches and buckle shoes.]
+
+  [Illustration: "CRICKET" TABLE. _C._ 1700.]
+
+  [Illustration: "CRICKET." _C._ 1750.
+
+  (These types are found in Hertfordshire, South Bedfordshire,
+  South Cambridge, and Essex.)]
+=Three Legged Tables.=--Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire, Cambridge, and
+Essex have produced a type of tables termed colloquially "cricket
+tables," possibly because the three legs are suggestive of three
+stumps. The term is a foolish one and not very appropriate. A very
+interesting flap-top table with the three flaps to turn down,
+illustrated (p. 275), is a very rare Hertfordshire example. This is
+small in size, having only a diameter of two and a half feet.
+
+Two other tables, one in date about 1700 and the other, of slender
+form, in date about 1750, are typical of this class of table. A very
+interesting table is a specimen from the Isle of Man having three
+carved legs with knee-breeches and buckle shoes.
+
+Sussex is also well-known for her ironwork (see Chapter X.).
+
+Norfolk and Suffolk used to have a class of oak furniture of quaint
+type, less cumbersome than the Welsh. A type of Sheraton Windsor
+chair, often inlaid with brass, used also to be found there.
+
+On the whole, those localities which are removed from important towns
+are the richest in cottage furniture, for example, Wales, Devonshire,
+Cumberland, Northumberland, and parts of Yorkshire. In places, where
+the prosperity of the peasants is of long standing, the cottage
+furniture has been maintained whole almost until the present day.
+
+Altogether the study of local types affords considerable scope for
+critical study. It is essential that such pieces should be identified
+and classified before it is too late. Rapidly all cottage and
+farmhouse furniture is being scattered over all parts of England.
+Collectors transfer furniture from the North to the South, and
+the rural treasures of the peasant have been brought to towns and
+dispersed to alien districts. The Education Act of 1870 and the
+halfpenny newspaper have brought town fashions to the door of the
+cottager, and the motor has laid a heavy tribute on rustic seclusion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MISCELLANEOUS IRONWORK, Etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MISCELLANEOUS IRONWORK, ETC.
+
+   The rushlight-holder--The dipper--The chimney crane--The
+   Scottish crusie--Firedogs--The Warming-pan--Sussex
+   firebacks--Grandfather clocks.
+
+
+The everyday iron utensils and implements of the cottages were
+simple. It is one of the curious features of the English peasantry
+that just as they clung to their oak of generations back when
+mahogany was in vogue, so they adhered tenaciously to ironwork of
+almost mediaeval character when other metals were in fashionable
+everyday use. Thus the cottager did not feel the oncoming desire for
+the brass, or later silver and plated candlesticks, but remained
+firm in his affection for the rushlight-holders in iron, the same
+types which his ancestors had used, and the firedogs and firebacks
+of earlier type remained to decorate his hearth. Thus ironwork and
+rarely brasswork form the sum total of the metal portion of cottage
+furniture. We will deal with these various utilitarian objects one by
+one.
+
+It must be remembered that the country farmer was not familiar with
+ready-made candles, and it probably no more entered his head to
+purchase candles in a town than it occurred to him to do other than
+bake his own bread. The cottager therefore made his candles for
+himself. If he were well-to-do and could afford to entertain his
+friends in modest fashion, he would doubtless like to illuminate his
+table with candles of symmetrical form. In which case he would use
+a candle-mould, and the wax bought in towns would serve for this
+purpose. But he was not always so rich, and perhaps he was happiest
+of all with the faintly glimmering rush dips which his forbears used.
+These afforded a rough-and-ready form of lighting. They burned and
+spluttered like a torch or flickered faintly as the tallow grew thin.
+Their form closely resembled an amateur's first attempt at making a
+cigarette. They were made in the following manner: the thin wirelike
+rushes which grew by the water's edge were gathered and stripped of
+their green surface till only the soft white pith remained. This
+served as a wick. The wax was then melted over a fire in a trough or
+candle-dipper, of which an illustration appears (p. 289).
+
+Across this long receptacle the pith wicks were laid till the wax
+soaked into them. They were then taken out for the wax to cool and
+were dipped once or twice afterwards in order to form their outer
+coating. By such a primitive process a kind of thin taper was
+formed. It was not parallel along its sides, but bulged and narrowed
+throughout its length in primitive manner.
+
+  [Illustration: RUSHLIGHT HOLDERS.
+
+  Showing rush fixed ready for lighting.
+
+    SCOTCH CRUSIE.
+
+    With holder.
+
+    RUSHLIGHT HOLDERS.
+
+    Showing forceps for holding
+    rushlight.]
+
+  [Illustration: SUFFOLK PIPE CLEANER.
+
+  The long clay "churchwarden" pipes were placed in this iron
+  rack and put into the fire, after which they came out perfectly
+  cleaned.
+
+  CANDLE-DIPPER.
+
+  (_In the collection of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: QUEEN ANNE POT-HANGER.
+
+  With original grate. Same date.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Messrs. Phillips, Hitchin._)]
+
+  [Illustration: KETTLE TRIVET.
+
+  Brass and Iron. Dated about 1770.]
+
+Such a taper, from its uneven thickness, would naturally not
+fit the socket of a candlestick, and the only receptacle would be a
+scissor-like mechanism with jaws capable of clasping it at any point.
+Thus we find the rushlight-holder of common use, as illustrated (p.
+289).
+
+The illustrations show two rush-holders with the rushlights affixed
+in position ready for lighting, and one showing how the jaws or
+forceps clip the rushlight. In practice about an inch or an inch and
+a half was above the clip and the rest below. A rushlight some twelve
+to fifteen inches long would burn half an hour, and it had to receive
+constant attention, being pushed upwards every five minutes. But it
+must be remembered that the persons who used this primitive form of
+light did not use it for reading nor for a long period at a time.
+They usually went to bed early after sunset.
+
+In regard to rushlight-holders the earliest form was without the
+accompanying candle-socket, but when the use of tallow dip candles
+became prevalent, later forms are found, as illustrated, with the
+candle-socket in addition to the holder for the rushlight.
+
+The Scottish crusie is an iron trough of dimensions like a small
+sauceboat, which was used for lighting purposes, and was often
+suspended, as in the one illustrated (p. 289), from a crane or
+hanger. This crusie was filled with oil and the illumination given
+by a floating wick, much in the same manner as classic examples, to
+which the shape bears a distant resemblance.
+
+The firedogs were always simple, doubtless the product of the local
+blacksmith. Where they had hooks along the backs they held crossbars
+to prevent the logs falling into the room. The dates of these, as
+of all cottage ironwork, are almost impossible to fix, owing to the
+survival of the earlier types even so late as the middle of the
+nineteenth century.
+
+=The Chimney Crane.=--A most important part of the cottager's
+fireplace was his chimney crane. These were of two kinds, the
+pot-hook and the swing-arm variety. The pot-hook hung in the chimney
+from a chain, and from its teeth was fixed a catch which might be
+lowered or raised to keep the cauldron at a level with the flames.
+
+The swing-arm type is more elaborate, and was made to fit very large
+fireplaces, where the fire might not invariably be in the same spot
+on the hearth. This type was used in the kitchens of the better
+farmhouses. Its end was fixed to the wall of the hearth, and the pot
+could be swung backwards and forwards and sideways, besides being
+raised or lowered to the fire.
+
+The pot-hook is of great antiquity, and belongs to days when man
+first learned to cook his food. Frequently in this country early
+examples are dug up. There are fine specimens to be seen of the late
+Celtic period at the Owens College Museum, at the Northampton Museum,
+at the Liverpool Museum, at the Pitt Rivers Museum at Farnham, at the
+Victoria and Albert Museum, and elsewhere.
+
+"Pot-hooks and hangers" is an English phrase denoting the beginning
+of things academic, and the French phrase _pendre la cremaillere_
+(literally to hang the pot-hook) is used to-day in reference to what
+we term a "house-warming" party on settling in a new abode.
+
+Another interesting cottage treasure is the cake-baker. This was a
+kind of thick frying-pan having a lid, which protected the dough from
+the heat when it was held over the smouldering ashes. The tops of
+these are often incised with quaint patterns, the impress of which
+appears on the cake.
+
+Kettle-trivets are sometimes found in cottages, possibly relics from
+better houses or having belonged to the more prosperous farmer.
+They are not wholly of iron, being partly of brass. The specimen
+illustrated (p. 291) is of late eighteenth-century days.
+
+=The Warming-pan.=--There is an especial charm in the old brass
+warming-pan of the farmhouse and the treasured highly-polished
+ornament of many a proud cottager to-day. Many modern-made
+warming-pans from Holland and elsewhere have found their way into
+the possession of unsuspecting collectors. But fine old English
+warming-pans are interesting, and summon up memories of careful
+housewives and well-aired lavender-smelling sheets in ancient
+old-world inns. On fine examples inscriptions may be found, and the
+incised work of the pattern on the brass covers is often individual
+in character.
+
+Of the examples illustrated (p. 307) one has an incised inscription
+around the edge, "The Lord only is my portion." The other has a
+dotted geometrical pattern with a star-like design of conventional
+floral incised work.
+
+It is unfortunate that the diligence of the housewife has often
+obliterated much of the fine work of some of these designs. The
+warming-pan offers in itself a complete field for the collector. He
+can compare the work of seventeenth-century Dutch examples, with
+their quaint religious inscriptions and their finely embossed and
+engraved ornamentation, with English specimens of the same date.
+That the warming-pan was in use in Elizabethan days is proved by
+references in Shakespeare. It has a long history, from Sir John
+Falstaff, when Bardolph was bidden to put his face between the
+sheets and do the office of a warming-pan, to Mr. Pickwick--to quote
+Sergeant Buzfuz, "Don't trouble yourself about the warming-pan--the
+warming-pan! Why, gentlemen, who does trouble himself about a
+warming-pan?"
+
+=Sussex Firebacks.=--The fireback was usually part of the cottager's
+belongings, though perhaps only one would figure in his house, where
+possibly his only hearth was in his living-room.
+
+These were cast and forged in various parts of the country, and large
+numbers appear to have been made in Sussex, which is, or rather
+was, the greatest hunting-ground for good specimens of cottagers'
+ironwork. Some highly interesting specimens of these are to be herein
+illustrated.
+
+The records of the Sussex iron industry go back to a very early date,
+and the town of Lewes, in the thirteenth century, raised taxes by
+charging a toll on every cartload of iron admitted. Under Edward
+III. the Sussex ironworks provided three thousand horseshoes and
+twenty-nine thousand nails for the English army in its campaign in
+Scotland. The local rhyme--
+
+    "Master Hogge and his man John
+    They did cast the first cannon"--
+
+is not without reason, as in Bodiam Castle and elsewhere are mortars
+of Sussex work of fifteenth-century style. In the sixteenth century a
+considerable number of firebacks was made, some with the royal arms
+and with the royal cipher, "E.R.," and bearing dates and sometimes
+makers' names.
+
+  [Illustration: COUNTRY FIREDOGS. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIRE GRATE. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+The earliest form was stamped with the _fleur-de-lys_ or with
+portions of twisted cable to form some sort of symmetrical design.
+We are enabled, by the kindness of Mr. C. Dawson, F.S.A., of Lewes,
+to reproduce some Sussex firebacks from his collection. An example
+of the first half of the sixteenth century, illustrated (p. 301),
+shows the rope-like border impressed on the sand mould, and the field
+impressed with repetitions of a _fleur-de-lys_ from a single stamp.
+Another interesting fireback is the "Royal Oak" design, with the
+initials "C.R." This is commemorative of the escape of Charles II.
+from pursuit by Cromwell's Ironsides and his refuge in the oak-tree.
+It will be observed that this specimen has a moulded edge, which
+is from a single wood pattern carved in one piece. Amidst the oak
+foliage will be seen three crowns, and this exuberance of loyalty
+bears a resemblance to certain chairs of the period (copied by the
+score nowadays), in which the crown finds a place in the stretcher.
+
+One fireback illustrated (p. 303) shows an ironmaster with his hammer
+at his forge. The adjacent piece has the Tudor rose surmounted by
+the royal crown, and bears the date 1650, slightly earlier than the
+"Royal Oak" example.
+
+All the foregoing specimens are native in their conception of design.
+They approximate closely to the Jacobean carved panel with its narrow
+range of subjects, and have a relationship to Stuart needlework with
+its royal symbolism. Later came the Dutch influence, most marked in
+its effect upon the shape, height, and character of these firebacks.
+This became especially noticeable in the eighteenth century, and
+in the illustrations (p. 303) of two wooden patterns from which
+the firebacks were made at Ashburnham, Sussex, this is clearly
+shown. The designs are ornate and represent either some scriptural
+or mythological subject. The woodcarving is of a style strongly
+under Dutch influence, and the tall proportions suggest gravestones
+(indeed, in Sussex there are headstones made of iron, with pictures
+and inscriptions).
+
+The mode of casting these iron firebacks in sand and the employment
+of wooden patterns to form the mould into which the molten metal was
+to run is familiar to any foundry in casting iron. In regard to the
+early examples with the twisted cable rim, it is conjectured that
+pieces of twisted rope were actually laid on the wet sand to produce
+this pattern--that is, before the use of carved wooden patterns
+such as are illustrated. In regard to the bolder "cable twist"
+pattern, it is believed this was produced by impression of pieces of
+rope stiffened with glue, and twisted around iron rods.
+
+  [Illustration: SUSSEX IRON FIREBACK. FIRST HALF OF SIXTEENTH
+  CENTURY.
+
+  Rope-like border impressed on sand mould. The field impressed
+  with repetitions from a single _fleur-de-lys_ stamp.]
+
+  [Illustration: SUSSEX IRON FIREBACK.
+
+  The Royal Oak Design, commemorative of the Restoration. Late
+  Seventeenth Century. Moulded edge and carved in one piece from a
+  single pattern.
+
+  (_In the collection of Charles Dawson, Esq., F.S.A., Lewes._)]
+
+  [Illustration: SUSSEX FIREBACKS.
+
+    Tudor Rose surmounted by Royal
+    Crown. Dated 1650.
+
+    Depicting Ironmaster at his Forge.
+    (Very rusty and worn.)]
+
+  [Illustration: ORIGINAL WOODEN PATTERNS.
+
+  Dutch influence. Eighteenth Century. From which firebacks were
+  made at Ashburnham, Sussex.
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Charles Dawson, Esq., F.S.A., Lewes._)]
+
+The size of the wooden pattern is slightly larger than the resultant
+fireback, owing to the shrinkage of the metal on cooling. This
+diminution in design is a factor in the potter's art, when figures
+in some cases lose nearly a third of their original proportions when
+moulded in the clay prior to firing.
+
+Firebacks have attracted a considerable amount of interest. There are
+many collectors, and a great deal of close study has been applied to
+the subject. Country museums in the vicinity of the Weald of Sussex
+and Kent contain many notable examples, especially those of Lewes,
+Hastings, Brighton, Rochester, Maidstone, and Guildford. In the first
+mentioned there are some very rare and beautiful examples of Sussex
+firebacks.
+
+Especially interesting in connection with the Sussex ironworks is the
+illustration (p. 309) of a clock face made by a local maker, Beeching
+of Ashburnham, in the late seventeenth century. This brass dial of a
+thirty-hour clock, with single hand and alarum, is ornamented with
+designs showing various phases of the iron industry as carried on in
+Sussex. There is a cannon with diminutive figures holding the match.
+There are cannon-balls, and a liliputian fireback with a crown on
+it. Men with pickaxes, men felling trees, and others tending the
+furnaces, symbolise the business of a foundry.
+
+It was not until 1690 that the minute numerals were placed outside
+the minute divisions in clock faces, so that this face, having the
+minute numerals absent and the minute divisions in the inner circle,
+presumably belongs to the late seventeenth century.
+
+=Grandfather Clocks.=--A volume on cottage and farmhouse furniture
+would be incomplete without some reference to grandfather clocks.
+At the beginning of the eighteenth century this type of clock had
+become popular. The early brass-bracket clock known as "Cromwellian,"
+varying from six to ten inches in height, had a spring. With the use
+of the long pendulum and revolving drums, around which catgut is
+wound to support the heavy weights, these unprotected parts required
+a wooden case.
+
+The "lantern" or "bird-cage" clocks (wallclocks from which the
+pendulum and weights hung unprotected) lasted till about 1680, when
+the first grandfather type with wood case came into use.
+
+The early examples with cases exhibiting fine marquetry are outside
+the scope of the class of furniture now under consideration. In such
+specimens there is frequently a round or oval opening covered with
+glass in the centre of the panel.
+
+In earlier types the metal dial is square, and later it became
+lunetted at top, and the wood case had a corresponding curve. In
+clocks made for great houses there were chimes, and their works
+were by well-known town makers. But in cottage examples, instead
+of the eight-day movement, more often than not the clock only ran
+for twenty-four hours. There is little attempt at ornament in
+these plain oak varieties. The case is soundly constructed, and
+sometimes, in exceptional examples, the head is surmounted by
+brass ball finials, as in the finer examples. As a rule the country
+cabinet-maker confined himself to an ornamental scrolled head. In
+later examples the metal dial--and these come at the beginning of the
+nineteenth century--is painted with some rustic scene with figures,
+and frequently there is a revolving dial showing the days of the
+month.
+
+  [Illustration: WARMING-PANS.
+
+  Finely decorated with incised work. One with inscription, "The
+  Lord only is my portion."
+
+  (_By the courtesy of Mr. S. G. Fenton._)]
+
+  [Illustration: GRANDFATHER CLOCK.
+
+  With Oak Case.
+
+  Made by J. Paxton, St. Neots. Height, 6 ft. 10 ins.]
+
+  [Illustration: BRASS DIAL OF THIRTY-HOUR CLOCK.
+
+  Single Hand and Alarum. Late Seventeenth Century.
+
+  Ornamented with designs showing various phases of the iron
+  industry, as carried on at Ashburnham, Sussex.
+
+  (_In the collection of Charles Dawson, Esq., F.S.A., Lewes._)]
+
+The entire head covering the dial is often removable in old clocks to
+which there is no hinged door, as in later made examples.
+
+These country grandfather clocks are much treasured by their owners,
+and have been handed down in families for generations. Owing to the
+indefatigability of collectors and their persistent and tempting
+offers, many have left their old homes. The demand has been great,
+and thousands of "grandfather" clocks have been made during the last
+twenty years and sold as "antique," or old cases with plain panels
+have received the unwelcome attention of the modern restorer and have
+been carved to please a popular whim for carved oak panels.
+
+In regard to dates of grandfather clocks the records of the
+Clockmakers' Company give a list of makers of the eighteenth century,
+enabling the period to be fairly accurately fixed. The walnut
+cases inlaid with floral marquetry, often attributed to the period
+1690-1725, that is William and Mary and Queen Anne, frequently belong
+to a quarter of a century later. The case-makers clung more closely
+to old designs than did the clockmakers. Hence the case very often
+is of apparently older style than the works, though both were made
+contemporaneously. In addition to this, new clocks were put in older
+cases, or _vice versa_, which, like putting new pictures in old
+frames, adds to the gaiety of collecting.
+
+In general the London clock-cases are only roughly indicative, in
+comparison with the Company records, of contemporary styles of
+furniture. In country-made pieces the wood cases are anything from
+twenty to forty years behind London fashions. For example, the arched
+top occurs after 1720 in London, and after 1735 in the provinces. In
+the _Director_ of Chippendale and in Sheraton's and Hepplewhite's
+books of designs there are illustrations of clock cases. The
+progression of styles of eighteenth-century grandfather clock cases
+is from plain oak to figured walnut, black and red lacquer, floral,
+"seaweed," or mosaic marquetry, and in the latter decades of the
+eighteenth century inlaid mahogany cases, and many of these have
+finely veneered panels. In many country clocks oak cases are veneered
+in mahogany, but as a rule country made grandfather cases are plain
+oak. The example illustrated (p. 307) indicates the plain type of
+solidly made provincial piece. The clock was made by J. Paxton at St.
+Neots.
+
+The mahogany-cased grandfather clock is never found in cottages.
+There are no Chippendale styles in this field for the collector to
+search for. The plainness of the country style has happily in many
+instances preserved them from alien hands. An interesting revival,
+chiefly on account of expense, is found in the Dutch clock, with
+china face painted with flowers, which the cottager bought in early
+and middle nineteenth-century days. This form of clock reverted to
+the unprotected pendulum and weights, and is an object-lesson in what
+the style of English clock was before the use of a long wooden case.
+But these Dutch clocks are interesting rather than valuable, and have
+not yet claimed the attention of collectors.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+OLD ENGLISH CHINTZES
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+OLD ENGLISH CHINTZES
+
+BY HUGH PHILLIPS
+
+   The charm of old English chintz--Huguenot cloth-printers settle
+   in England--Jacob Stampe at the sign of the Calico Printer--The
+   Queen Anne period--The Chippendale period--The age of machinery.
+
+
+The present chapter has been added with perhaps some justification,
+since it seemed to the writer that such a subject as old English
+chintzes might appropriately take its place beside the equally homely
+craft of the rural cabinet-maker.
+
+For the chintz is the _tapisserie d'aubusson_ of the peasant--it
+covers his chairs and drapes his windows, giving warmth and wealth of
+colour to the otherwise barren appearance of his cottage. Further,
+it reflects his simple horticultural tastes, for the brilliantly
+coloured roses, pansies, and convolvuluses which shine prominently on
+the glazed surface of the cloth are those flowers which are always to
+be found in his garden.
+
+Chintz or printed cotton is the only decorative fabric known to the
+village upholsterer. When persons of wealth hung their windows with
+silk brocades and covered their chairs with costly needlework and
+damasks, the rural cabinet-maker was supplying his modest _clientele_
+with these homely patterns printed upon common cloth.
+
+These unassuming fabrics were as much cherished by the cottagers as
+anything which they possessed. The classical ornament of expensive
+silks they did not understand, and the freely treated birds and
+flowers which figured on chintz represented the Alpha and Omega of
+beauty in textile design.
+
+So great, indeed, is the fascination of these for the cottagers that
+to-day, in districts less penetrated by modern advance, the rural
+populace will not extend their affections to the up-to-date designs
+of upholsterers, but insist upon the old spot and sprig patterns of
+their ancestors.
+
+There is much wisdom in the conservative taste of the peasant, for
+the old chintz of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was
+of the highest artistic merit. In the heyday of its fame the fabric
+was exceedingly fashionable amongst the richest persons, and there
+are abundant records of the popularity of old English chintzes upon
+the Continent. For, at its best periods, the chintz was not a base
+imitation of more expensive fabrics; it did not, for instance,
+occupy the relationship of pewter to silver or moulded composition
+to genuine woodcarving. On the contrary, the designing of chintzes
+is an art of distinction, governed by canons which bear little
+relationship to other decorative textile crafts. For where the
+silk-weaver is confined to solid patterns which will appear in his
+transverse threads, the printer of cloths can wander unrestrained
+into designs of wonderful intricacy and beauty: every colour in
+nature he can imitate, and no object is too delicate or too rich to
+stamp upon his cotton. Indeed, his art stops little short of that of
+the painter of pictures.
+
+  [Illustration: OLD TRADE CARD SHOWING CALICO PRINTERS AT WORK.
+
+  "Jacob Stampe living at ye Sighn of the Callico Printer in
+  Hounsditch Prints all sorts of Callicoes Lineings Silkes Stuffs
+  New or Ould at Reasonable Rates."
+
+  (_From old print at British Museum._)]
+
+  [Illustration: ENGLISH PRINTED CALICO. ABOUT 1690.
+
+  With contemporary portraits.
+
+  (_By courtesy of Mr. T. D. Phillips._)]
+
+A glance at the illustrations will more closely confirm this, for
+such designs could not be imitated by any other textile process, the
+multitudinous twists and curves and the delicate shades and patches
+of colour being only possible to the printer.
+
+Interesting as is the study of old chintzes, the history of the art
+in England is even more fascinating. From the obscurity of a small
+local craft it became one of our great national industries.
+
+Of its earliest history in England we know nothing, and a search
+among old documents fails to reveal any traces of chintz-printing
+before the Renaissance. There are several vague references to the
+subject in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but none of them
+disclose any solid information. Thus the question of who was the
+first chintz-printer remains an unsolved riddle. It appears, however,
+that in the seventeenth century there was a gradual immigration of
+foreign workmen of Dutch and French nationalities who were well
+versed in the art of cotton-printing--then well established upon the
+Continent. These people came over in gradually increasing numbers,
+their arrival culminating in the huge influx of foreigners about 1650
+to 1700.
+
+The majority of them were by trade silk-weavers and printers. Their
+departure was a serious blow to France, for they transferred to
+England what had been great national industries in France. Settling
+in and about London, the refugees peaceably recommenced their work,
+and soon the weaving of silks in Spitalfields and the printing of
+chintzes in Richmond, Bow, and Old Ford became a source of great
+prosperity to this country.
+
+On p. 319 is an illustration of a seventeenth-century trade card
+of one of the chintz-printers, or, as they were then called,
+calico-printers. Here we see in a most lucid manner the process by
+which chintzes were produced in the time of James II. The inscription
+runs: "Jacob Stampe living at Ye Sighn of the Callico Printer in
+Hounsditch Prints all sorts of Callicoes Lineings Silkes Stuffs, New
+or Ould, at Reasonable Rates."
+
+A printer is standing at a table upon which is stretched a length
+of cloth, which falls in folds on the floor. He holds in his hand a
+wooden block, which he is applying at intervals to the cloth. The
+other hand contains a mallet, which is about to strike the wooden
+block and stamp the colour firmly into the threads of the material.
+Behind him is an apprentice boy, standing over a tub of colour,
+preparing the blocks for his master to use.
+
+  [Illustration: HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ.
+
+  Queen Anne Period.]
+
+  [Illustration: HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ.
+
+  Chinese style. Middle Eighteenth Century.]
+
+By so clumsy a process very delicate work could not be produced,
+and, indeed, the few examples of this period which remain are very
+heavy in character. One of these, which has been lent by Mr. J. D.
+Phillips, the owner, is illustrated on p. 319. It belongs to the
+end of the seventeenth century and corresponds to the William and
+Mary period of English furniture, being contemporary with the pieces
+illustrated on pp. 77, 117 in the earlier chapters. It will be seen
+that this example contains two portraits in costume of the late
+Stuart period, possibly intended for portraits of William and Mary.
+Their portraits are of frequent occurrence on Lambeth delft of this
+period.
+
+The printer has only produced the outline, the colour being added by
+hand with a brush, for at this date the printing of colour by the
+successive application of blocks had not been mastered. The black
+ink to-day lies thick upon the cloth, as coarsely as though it had
+been dabbed on with a stencil. The material is a rough hand-woven
+canvas. Printed cloths of the period of Charles II. and James II. and
+William and Mary are exceedingly rare and seldom met with, as, owing
+to their roughness, they have been destroyed by subsequent owners. A
+few, however, are to be found on walnut chairs under the coverings
+of later date. Often, indeed, one meets a chair covered in Victorian
+horsehair which will reveal underneath the successive coverings of
+many generations of owners, including perhaps the material in which
+it was first upholstered.
+
+As the seventeenth century wore on and we enter upon the early
+years of the eighteenth century--the days of Queen Anne--the
+chintz-printers became more prosperous. Their work, owing to its
+increasing delicacy, met with great public approval, and it began
+to supplant woven silks for the purposes of curtains, coverings, and
+dresses. Thus the silk-weavers of Spitalfields found a declining
+market for their goods and soon came into friction with the printers.
+Much bad feeling ensued, and eventually their quarrels resulted
+in the distribution of defamatory literature which is to-day most
+amusing. The weavers circulated the curious "Spittlefields Ballad"
+against "Calico Madams," or the ladies who wore chintz dresses.
+
+THE SPITTLEFIELDS BALLADS
+
+OR THE
+
+WEAVER'S COMPLAINT AGAINST THE CALLICO MADAMS
+
+    Our trade is so bad
+    That the weavers run mad
+    Through the want of both work and provisions,
+    That some hungry poor rogues
+    Feed on grains like our hogs,
+    They're reduced to such wretched conditions,
+    Then well may they tayre
+    What our ladies now wear
+    And as foes to our country upbraid 'em,
+    Till none shall be thought
+    A more scandalous slut
+    Than a tawdry Callico Madam.
+
+    When our trade was in wealth
+    Our women had health,
+    We silks, rich embroideries and satins,
+    Fine stuffs and good crapes
+    For each ord'nary trapes
+    That is destin'd to hobble in pattins;
+    But now we've a Chince
+    For the wife of a prince,
+    And a butterfly gown for a gay dame,
+    Thin painted old sheets
+    For each trull in the streets
+    To appear like a Callico Madam.
+
+  [Illustration: HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ.
+
+  Exotic-Bird style. Middle Eighteenth Century.]
+
+  [Illustration: HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ.
+
+  Gothic style. Late Eighteenth Century.]
+
+The poet in several long stanzas warms in his indignation, and
+finally directs his verse against the male friends of all fair
+wearers of chintzes, suggesting that--
+
+      "It's no matter at all
+    If the Prince of Iniquity had 'em,
+      Or that each for a bride
+      Should be cursedly tied
+    To some damn'd Callico Madam."
+
+It is not surprising that the weavers should find it difficult to
+set their productions against those of the cloth-printers, for the
+chintzes of this period are surpassingly beautiful. One of them
+is illustrated on p. 323. Here the material is no longer a rough
+canvas, but is now a light dress cambric, similar to the thin smooth
+chintz cloth which has survived till to-day. A delicate pattern of
+intertwining stems winds upwards, the stalks having blossoms of
+finely cut outline and brilliant colours. Old chintzes of this period
+may be recognised by their lightness and by the long thin designs of
+intermingling flowers of Indian type. These were all more or less
+borrowed from the Marsupalitan printed cloths brought over by the
+India trading companies, and the flowers and colourings of this date
+are nearly always very closely copied from Eastern originals, the
+cornflower and carnation being among those most frequently met with.
+
+The ill-feeling between the printers and weavers was of long
+duration, and eventually took the form of open riots and street
+demonstrations similar to those of to-day. On one occasion, in
+1719, they went from Spitalfields to Westminster and protested
+against the popularity of chintzes and suggested that their use be
+forbidden. On the return journey they manifested their feelings by
+tearing off the chintz gowns of various ladies whom they met upon
+the route. Evidently Parliament pandered to these labour riots, for
+in 1736 printed cloths were forbidden by Act of Parliament, but this
+legislation was of short duration; the Act was soon repealed and the
+fascinating material became the rage once more.
+
+The next stage at which we look upon chintz-printing is about
+1760, in the middle of the period of Chippendale furniture. This
+is the golden period of its printing. Technically and artistically
+the hand-printed chintz now reached its climax. Colour-work by
+superimposed blocks was in full swing, and the designer had, in
+the works of contemporary artists, a wider field for the selection
+of subjects suitable for his fabric. Among the many varieties of
+chintzes which we find at this date the most prominent are the Gothic
+and Chinese designs to suit the current taste in furniture, and the
+exotic bird patterns, which are perhaps the finest of all.
+
+  [Illustration: HAND-PRINTED CHINTZ. ABOUT 1760.
+
+  By R. Jones, of Old Ford, London.]
+
+The formation of the designs has changed considerably by this time
+and we no longer find the intertwining or serpentine form as in the
+Queen Anne chintzes. The flowers and objects to be printed are now
+massed together and represented as little disjointed islands
+floating in mid-air. By this distinctive feature they may easily be
+recognised. One of these charming exotic bird chintzes is illustrated
+on p. 327. Here a pheasant is resting under a palm-tree upon a small
+island of densely packed foliage. The whole idea of the design
+is taken from the Chinese porcelain of the period. The bird, the
+flowers, and every object portrayed come from the East and are drawn
+in the manner constantly seen upon the _Famille Rose_ dishes and
+vases of the period. These exotic bird patterns are not exclusively
+found upon chintzes, for the collector of English porcelain will be
+familiar with them in the early productions of the Bow and Worcester
+factories.
+
+Another feature which one notices in printed fabrics at this date is
+the buff ground. The cloth is white, and the pattern is printed upon
+it in this state so that the pinks, blues, and greens of the flowers
+may have every advantage of transparency. The buff background is then
+printed in afterwards, leaving a thin margin around the design. In
+this manner great richness and depth is given to the colours without
+undue harshness, which would be the result if they were exhibited
+upon a white background. The illustration on p. 323 shows a chintz in
+the Chinese manner, designed to conform with the oriental furniture
+of Chippendale. Here again we see the detached islets of vegetation,
+but instead of exotic birds we have Chinese vases containing flowers,
+and in the foreground a rococo shell, one of the then little-known
+species from the East greatly treasured in England. The carnations
+and foliage will be readily recognised as copies from Chinese
+paintings. One might illustrate a very large number of these Chinese
+chintzes, but space will only permit one example. This particular
+specimen is probably unique; it is taken from an old roll of chintz
+printed about 1760 and left over after the owner had curtained
+his house. The roll (about twenty yards long) has been carefully
+preserved and handed down from generation to generation, so that its
+original colours and soft glaze remain intact.
+
+A chintz in the Gothic manner is illustrated on p. 327. It differs
+slightly from the others in that the island formation is combined
+with serpentine foliage. In the centre is a patch of ground upon
+which are the ruins of a Gothic church. The artist, however, has not
+forgotten to please those patrons who might prefer the Chinese style,
+and therefore he has quietly added the incongruous elements of prunus
+flowers in the foreground and palm-trees in the background. At first
+this quaint admixture may appear a bad art, but it must be remembered
+that at this quaint period the whole principle of decorative design
+was upset by the rococo school, and quaintness and delicacy of detail
+outweighed the greater considerations of line and proportion. We
+find a similar treatment of design later on in many Spode plates,
+especially in blue transfer-printed subjects.
+
+  [Illustration: PRINTED CHINTZ.
+
+  Hepplewhite Period.]
+
+  [Illustration: PRINTED CHINTZ.
+
+  Victorian Period.]
+
+In the third quarter of the eighteenth century we enter upon a new
+era in the history of chintzes. We may appropriately call it the
+age of machinery, for from this date the mechanical processes came
+in whereby chintz-printing was raised from the position of a
+comparatively small craft to that of a huge national industry. The
+great manufacturing towns in the North, such as Manchester, were
+rising in importance, and Lancashire was forming the basis of its
+gigantic cotton trade. Following these trade movements, the old
+industry of cloth-printing gradually left its centre in London and
+was developed on a larger scale in the North of England.
+
+In spite of this great commercial spirit which seized the printing of
+textiles, hand-block printing did not pass away, for it has survived
+till to-day as the best method for fine artistic work; cretonnes and
+chintzes produced in this manner, even during the nineteenth century,
+are always good. Mechanical roller work, however, was responsible for
+a large output of work which is little worthy of preservation, and
+in the nineteenth century we find much machine-printed chintz which,
+to say the least, is not reminiscent of the fine handwork which
+preceded it in the mid-eighteenth century. The earliest machine-work
+was carried out by means of engraved copper plates applied to the
+cloth in a printer's press. One of these is illustrated on p. 331.
+It is exceedingly fine in its details, and very few old specimens of
+this pattern are in existence. In several places are inserted the
+printer's name and date, "R. Jones, Old Ford, 1761." The design is
+doubtless borrowed from the _Toiles de Jouy_, printed by a Bavarian
+at Jouay, near Versailles, about this time. The drawing, however, is
+finer than any specimens of his work which have come to the author's
+notice. A shepherdess is tending to her flock amid a classical ruin
+while she is listening to the music of a flute. In another portion of
+the design, a cock and hen are mourning for the loss of one of their
+brood which has been carried off by an eagle. This design is worthy
+of interest for its superior quality, as it must have been produced
+for some very fine house. There is another specimen printed in red in
+the Victoria and Albert Museum. The one which is illustrated here was
+found upon an exceedingly fine Chippendale bedstead.
+
+During the Hepplewhite and Sheraton periods of furniture the chintz
+ceases to have its pattern detached and grouped. Architectural
+details with figures disappear, and once more the designer returns to
+flowers as his subject for illustration. The foliage, however, now
+takes the form of vertical stripes, being contained within lace-like
+ribands placed at even distances. On p. 335 is an illustration of a
+chintz about 1790 in which these features will be noticed.
+
+In the nineteenth century we find the chintz covered with disjointed
+sprigs, as though the flowers had been plucked and cast upon the
+cloth. Their outline is softened by a margin of dots. An illustration
+of this style is shown on p. 335.
+
+  [Illustration: PRINTED CHINTZ.
+
+  From the Calico Printing Factory at Sobden, in Lancashire.
+  Printed in 1831 under the direction of Richard Cobden.
+
+  (_In the collection of Mrs. Cobden Unwin._)]
+
+One need not pursue the history of chintzes further, for to do so
+would entail a discussion of modern methods. Suffice it to say that
+in the nineteenth century we come across the hideous black grounds,
+the base imitation of woven designs, leopard skins, and other
+inartistic perversions. We must rather bid adieu to this beautiful
+art ere it has begun to decline. It will afford the reader much
+pleasure if he should form a collection of old specimens and frame
+them around his walls, for then he will fully appreciate their charm.
+In examining his own collection the author has spent many a pleasant
+hour, for these gaily coloured chintzes are among the most articulate
+relics which have come down to us. They breathe the spirit, the
+feelings, and the ideals of the periods wherein they were made. They
+show lucidly the various changes in fashion and the rise and wane
+in the popularity of certain forms of decoration. So delectable are
+their soft, faded colours, so fascinating are the designs, and above
+all, so enchanting is the old-world musty scent which always clings
+to them, that it would be hard indeed to withhold one's affection
+from them.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+    Adam style table, 186
+
+    America, the Windsor chair acclimatised in, 246
+
+    America, spindle-back chairs, 239
+
+    America, carved chests of Puritan colonists, 60
+
+    America, types coincident with Jacobean, 60
+
+    Anachronism in country makers' work, 204
+
+    Anne, Queen, chintz printing in time of, 325
+
+    Anne, Queen, style--cabriole leg, advent of, 167
+
+    Anne, Queen, chests of drawers, 67
+
+    Anne, Queen, scandal at Court of, 158
+
+    Anne, Queen, so-called style, 167
+
+
+    Back--the chair, and its development, 203
+
+    Bacon cupboards, 154
+
+    Ball and claw foot, introduction of, 162
+
+    "Barley sugar" turning, illustrated, 105
+
+    Bedfordshire tables, 283
+
+    Bedstead, Jacobean, illustrated, 77
+
+    Bevel of panel indicating date, 204
+
+    Bible-boxes, 34, 139-154
+
+    Bloomfield, Robert, quoted, 268
+
+    Bobbins, Buckinghamshire, 153
+
+    Brittany dressers, 134
+
+    Broken corners, Queen Anne style, 167, 169
+
+    Buckinghamshire bobbins, 153
+
+    Bureau bookcase and cupboard, 176
+
+    Bureaus, marquetry in coloured woods, 169
+
+    Byzantine types of furniture existent in Elizabethan days, 37
+
+
+    Cabriole leg, advent of the, 167
+
+    Cabriole leg (Queen Anne period), 129
+
+    Cambridge tables, 283
+
+    Candle dipper, the, 288
+
+    Cane-back chairs, 203, 207
+
+    Cane-back chairs, late Stuart, 199
+
+    Cane-back chair, its influence on farmhouse styles, 208
+
+    Caning in chairs out of fashion, 162
+
+    Chairs--
+      America, Windsor chair, types of, 246
+      Back, the, its development, 203
+      Caned-back chair, its influence on farmhouse styles, 208
+      Caned chairs, late Stuart, 199, 203, 207
+      Caning out of fashion, 162
+      Charles II. period styles, 211
+      Chippendale styles, 179
+      Chippendale, Windsor styles, 254
+      Corner chairs, 240
+      Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, 221
+      Cupid's bow top rail, 218
+      Cushions, their use with, 199, 207
+      Derbyshire chairs, 203
+      Elizabethan turned chairs, 37
+      Evolution of the chair, 189-241
+      Fiddle splat chairs, introduction of, 162
+      Fiddle splat, Queen Anne style, 217
+      Fiddle splat, Windsor, at its best, 254
+      "Fiddle-string" backs, 249
+      Goldsmith, Oliver, his chair, 253
+      Grandfather variety, 168, 230
+      Hepplewhite country styles, 221
+      Hepplewhite Windsor chairs, 254
+      Horseshoe back, Windsor, 259, 260
+      Jacobean, typical form, 196
+      Ladder-back chairs, 233
+      Lancashire rush-bottom chairs, 241
+      Lancashire spindle back chairs, 278
+      Modern office-chair, derivation of, 260
+      Prince of Wales's feathers in back, 227
+      Ribbon-back, introduction of, 179
+      Rush-bottomed chairs, 233
+      Shell ornament employed, 167
+      Sheraton country styles, 221
+      Sheraton Windsor chairs, 259, 260
+      Spindle-back chairs, 234
+      Splat, Queen Anne, the, 217
+      Straight-backed chairs, 203
+      Stretcher, evolution of the, 200
+      Tavern chairs, 249
+      Wheel-back Windsor chairs, 259
+      Woods used, Windsor chairs, 249, 250
+
+    Charles II. chests of drawers, 62
+
+    Charles II. period, impetus given to furniture design, 95
+
+    Charles II. period, styles of chairs, 211
+
+    Chests, Gothic, 34
+
+    Chests, sixteenth century, 34
+
+    Chests, Welsh carving, 277
+
+    Chests of drawers, 60
+
+    Chests of drawers, Charles II. period, 62
+
+    Chests of drawers, Queen Anne style, 67
+
+    Children's stools, Jacobean, illustrated, 77
+
+    Chimney crane, the, 294
+
+    China and glass cupboards, 180
+
+    Chinese designs in chintzes, 333
+
+    Chinese style of Chippendale, 227
+
+    Chintz printing becomes a national industry, 321
+
+    Chintzes, old English, 317-341
+
+    Chippendale and his contemporaries, 180
+
+    Chippendale clock cases, 312
+
+    Chippendale quoted, 227, 228
+
+    Chippendale, ribbon designs of, 179
+
+    Chippendale style, provincial, 221
+
+    Chippendale style Windsor chairs, 254
+
+    Chocolate houses, polemic against, 170
+
+    Chronology, seventeenth-century, 45-48
+
+    Claw-and-ball foot, introduction of, 162
+
+    Clock and dresser combined, 129
+
+    Clocks, grandfather, 306
+
+    Club foot, introduction of, 162
+
+    Cobbett, William, quoted, 67
+
+    Coffee-drinking and coffee-houses, 170
+
+    Coffee, women's petition against, 170
+
+    Corner chairs, 240
+
+    Cottage furniture and earthenware compared, 31
+
+    Country cabinet-maker, his mixture of styles, 211
+
+    Country Chippendale, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, 221
+
+    Country furniture, its sturdy independence, 24
+
+    Country makers little influenced by contemporary fashion, 50
+
+    Cradles, 148
+
+    Cromwellian chests with drawers, 52
+
+    Crusie, the Scottish, 277, 293
+
+    Cupboard, the bacon, 154
+
+    Cupboard, Welsh carving, 277
+
+    Cupboards, corner, introduction of, 162
+
+    Cupboards and drawers, taste for, 125
+
+    "Cupid's bow" underframing, 107, 185
+
+    "Cupid's bow" top rail of chair, 218
+
+    Cushions, their use with chairs, 199, 207
+
+
+    Delany, Mrs., quoted, 153
+
+    Denmark, the conservation of old farmhouse furniture in, 38
+
+    Derbyshire chairs, 203
+
+    Design books, eighteenth-century, publication of, 222
+
+    _Director_, by Chippendale, a working guide, 223
+
+    Drawer accommodation a feature in late dressers, 130
+
+    Drawers, chests of, 60
+
+    Drawers, chests of, Charles II. period, 62
+
+    Drawers, chests of, Queen Anne style, 67
+
+    Dresser and clock combined, 129
+
+    Dressers, farmhouse, 115-135
+
+    Dressers--
+      Brittany, 134
+      Lancashire, 134
+      Normandy, 134
+      Welsh, 133
+
+    Dutch artisans print early English chintzes, 321
+
+    Dutch influence early eighteenth century, 168, 170
+
+
+    Earthenware and cottage furniture compared, 31
+
+    Eighteenth-century dressers, 130
+
+    Eighteenth-century pleasure gardens, 249
+
+    Eighteenth-century styles, 157-187
+
+    Elizabethan turned chairs, 37
+
+    English chintzes, old, 317-341
+
+    English farmhouse furniture, desirability of its preservation, 42
+
+    English joiners' work, its solidity, 51
+
+    Essex tables, 283
+
+    Exotic bird patterns in chintzes, 333
+
+
+    "Farmer's Boy" (Robert Bloomfield) quoted, 268
+
+    Farmhouse furniture (English), desirability of its preservation, 42
+
+    Farmhouse furniture influenced by walnut styles, 208
+
+    Farmhouse styles contemporary with the cane-back chair, 208
+
+    Feet--
+      Arcaded foot, Charles II. period, 62
+      Ball, 62;
+        illustrated, 65
+      Claw-and-ball foot, introduction of the, 162
+      Club foot, its introduction, 162
+      Hoof foot, the, 176
+      Scroll or Spanish foot, 104, 203
+      Spanish foot, the, 104, 203
+      Spanish foot, in corrupted form, illustrated, 105, 109
+      Trestle, in Gothic style, 90
+
+    Fiddle splat chairs, introduction of, 162
+
+    Fiddle splat, Queen Anne style, 217
+
+    Fiddle splat Windsor chair at its best, 254
+
+    "Fiddle-string" backs, 249
+
+    Firebacks, Sussex, 296
+
+    Firebacks, Sussex, fine examples exhibited, 305
+
+    Firedogs, cottage and farmhouse, 294
+
+    Food of country population, seventeenth century, 81
+
+    Foreign styles, slow assimilation of, 67
+
+    French artisans print early English chintzes, 321
+
+
+    Gate-leg tables, 85-112
+
+    Gate-leg table, double gates, 96;
+      illustrated, 93
+
+    Gate-leg table, established as a popular type, 90
+
+    Gate-leg table, square top, illustrated, 105
+
+    Geometric panels, chests of drawers, 61;
+      dressers, 121
+
+    Georgian styles, early types, 179
+
+    Gibbons, Grinling, the style of, 56
+
+    Goldsmith, Oliver, his chair, 253
+
+    Gothic brackets to chests, 34
+
+    Gothic chests, 34
+
+    Gothic trestle, gate-leg table, 89
+
+    Grandfather chair, the, 230
+
+    Grandfather chair, curved lines of, 168
+
+    Grandfather clocks, 306
+
+    Grandfather clock combined with dresser, 129
+
+    Great Seal of Queen Anne, showing style of ornament, 168
+
+
+    Hardwick Hall, suite at, 55
+
+    Hepplewhite clock cases, 312
+
+    Hepplewhite influence on village work, 207
+
+    Hepplewhite quoted, 229, 230
+
+    Hepplewhite style, provincial, 221
+
+    Hertfordshire tables, 283
+
+    Hogarth, the line of beauty the curve, 168
+
+    Hoof foot, the, 176
+
+    Horseshoe-back Windsor chairs, 130, 257, 260
+
+
+    Incongruity of provincial cabinet-maker, 211
+
+    Inlaid work rarely employed, 55
+
+    Inlaid work with walnut, 169
+
+    Inlaid work, woods used, 169
+
+    Irish Chippendale, 272
+
+    Ironwork, miscellaneous, 287-313
+
+    Ironwork, Scottish, 277
+
+    Isle of Man tables, 283
+
+
+    Jacobean cradles, 148
+
+    Jacobean dressers with geometric panels, 121
+
+    Jacobean furniture, typical styles, 49
+
+    Jacobean oak chair, typical form, 196
+
+    Jacobean period, its characteristics, 95
+
+    Jacobean period, late styles of, 115
+
+    Jacobean style, its transition to William and Mary, 207
+
+    Jacobean Sussex firebacks, 299, 300
+
+    Joinery, the solidity of English, 51
+
+    Jones, R., of Old Ford, chintz printer, 337
+
+
+    Kettle trivet, the cottager's, 295
+
+
+    Lacquer employed in clock-cases, 312
+
+    Ladder-back chair, the, 233
+
+    Lancashire chintzes, 337
+
+    Lancashire dressers, 134
+
+    Lancashire furniture, 278
+
+    Lancashire Queen Anne settle, 167
+
+    Lancashire rush-bottom chair, 241
+
+    Legs--
+      "Barley sugar" turning illustrated, 105
+      Cabriole leg, introduction of the, 167
+      Egg and reel turning, 43;
+        illustrated, 93
+      Eight legs (gate table), 99
+      Elizabethan bulbous leg, 60
+      Jacobean straight-turned leg, 60
+      Jacobean, various forms of turning, 89
+      Queen Anne cabriole leg, 129
+      Six legs, gate table, illustrated, 99
+      Split urn leg, illustrated, 91, 119
+      Straight leg again in vogue, 180
+      Urn-shaped leg, 60
+      Urn-shaped splat, 121;
+        illustrated, 91, 119
+
+    Linen-fold pattern on chests, 32
+
+    Local types, 33
+
+    Local types of furniture, 267-284
+
+    London and the vicinity, chintz printed in, 322
+
+    Longleat, oak furniture at, 55
+
+    Lyngby (near Copenhagen), collection of old farmhouse furniture at, 41
+
+
+    Macaulay quoted, 158
+
+    Macaulay, "State of England in 1685" quoted, 76
+
+    Mahogany gate-leg tables, 103
+
+    Mahogany styles, their gracefulness, 179
+
+    Mahogany, the chief designers of, of the golden age, 104
+
+    Marlborough, Duchess of, and her intrigues, 158
+
+    Marquetry bureaus in coloured woods, 169
+
+    Marquetry, woods used in, 169
+
+    Minor cabinet-makers' work lacking harmony, 212
+
+    Modern office-chair, derivation from Windsor type, 263
+
+    More, Hannah, and the agricultural classes, 175
+
+    Morris, William, his influence on furniture, 111
+
+    "Mule" chests, 52
+
+
+    Norfolk, oak furniture, 283
+
+    Normandy dressers, 134
+
+    Normans, furniture, styles of, introduced by, 37
+
+    North, Roger, quoted, 170
+
+
+    Oak, erroneously used to carry out walnut designs, 212
+
+    Oak, general in its use, 55
+
+    Oak supplanted by walnut in fashionable furniture, 207
+
+    Oak the chief wood employed, 33
+
+    Office-chair, derivation from Windsor type, 263
+
+    Oriental patterns in chintzes, 333
+
+
+    Panelling, bevel of, indicating date of, 204
+
+    Panels, sunk, Jacobean style, 62
+
+    Patterns, wood, used for firebacks, 300
+
+    People, changing habits of the, in seventeenth century, 72
+
+    Pepys's _Diary_, quoted, 79
+
+    Pleasure gardens, eighteenth-century, 249
+
+    Pot-hook, the, 294
+
+    Pot-hooks, fine examples, where exhibited, 294
+
+    Prince of Wales's feathers, 227
+
+    Provincial furniture many decades behind fashion, 50
+
+
+    Queen Anne, cabriole leg, 129
+
+    Queen Anne dressers, 122
+
+    Queen Anne flap tables, 89
+
+    Queen Anne period, the splat of the, 217
+
+
+    Restoration period, chests of drawers, 62
+
+    Ribbon designs, introduction of, 179
+
+    Roads in provinces, bad state of, 79
+
+    Rush-bottom chair, the, 233
+
+    Rushlight holder, the, 288
+
+
+    Scandinavian origin of Elizabethan chair, 37
+
+    Scotland, Union with, proclamation by Queen Anne, 161
+
+    Scottish types of ironwork, 277
+
+    "Seaweed" marquetry in clock-cases, 312
+
+    Settle, Lancashire form, 278
+
+    Settle, Queen Anne style, 167
+
+    Seventeenth-century, chronology of, 45-48
+
+    Seventeenth-century settle (Lancashire), 278
+
+    Seventeenth-century sideboard, typical style, 56
+
+    Seventeenth-century styles, 49-82
+
+    Seventeenth-century styles, types of, 72
+
+    Shell ornament, early eighteenth-century, 167
+
+    Sheraton clock-cases, 312
+
+    Sheraton influence on country makers, 234
+
+    Sheraton influence in Windsor chairs, 259
+
+    Sheraton style, provincial, 221
+
+    Sideboard, typical seventeenth-century style, 56
+
+    Sixteenth-century chests, 34
+
+    Sizergh Castle, oak room at, 55
+
+    Spanish foot, its use, 104, 107
+
+    Spanish Succession, War of the, 161
+
+    Spindle-back chair, the, 234
+
+    Spindle-back chairs (Lancashire), 278
+
+    Spinning-wheels, 153
+
+    Spitalfields weavers, complaint as to chintz fashions, 326, 330
+
+    Splat, the Queen Anne, 217
+
+    Staffordshire pottery and cottage furniture compared, 31
+
+    Stands for chests of drawers, 67
+
+    Stockholm, collection of farmhouse furniture at, 38
+
+    Stools, children's Jacobean, illustrated, 77
+
+    Straight-backed chairs, 203
+
+    Stretcher, evolution of the, 200
+
+    Stretcher, Yorkshire splat form, 96
+
+    Suffolk oak furniture, 283
+
+    Sussex firebacks, 296
+
+    Sussex ironworks, the, 295, 296
+
+    "Swan head" to cupboard, 168
+
+    Sweden, the conservation of old farmhouse furniture in, 38
+
+    Swift quoted, 161
+
+
+    Tables--
+      Adam style, 186
+      Arcaded spandrils, illustrated, 179
+      Bedfordshire types, 283
+      Cambridge types, 283
+      Collapsible form (Charles II.), 103
+      Cross stretcher, =X= form, 103
+      Cupid's bow underframing, 107;
+        illustrated, 109
+      Elizabethan bulbous-leg form, 60
+      Essex types, 283
+      Flap tables (Queen Anne), 89;
+        (Georgian), illustrated, 183
+      Gate-leg, 85-112
+      Gothic trestle, gate-leg table, 89
+      Hertfordshire types, 283
+      Isle of Man table, 283
+      Scalloped-edge tea-table, illustrated, 181
+      Scalloped underframing, illustrated, 73
+      Sixteenth-century style, 52
+      Spandrils, arcaded, illustrated, 179
+      Stretchers, splat form, 89;
+        illustrated, 97
+      Tea-table, Queen Anne style, 185
+      Three-legged, 283
+      Underframing, Cupid's bow, illustrated, 109
+      Various local types, 283
+      Yorkshire type, 89
+
+    Tapers, how made by cottagers, 288
+
+    Tavern chair, the, 249
+
+    Tea-drinking becomes national, 170
+
+    Tea-gardens, eighteenth-century, 249
+
+    Tea-table, Queen Anne style, 185
+
+    Three-legged tables, 283
+
+    Transition from Jacobean to William and Mary styles, 207
+
+    Trestle in gate-leg table, 89
+
+    Triangular gate form, 86;
+      illustrated, 87
+
+    Tripod tables, 185
+
+    Turning, various patterns in Jacobean leg, 89
+
+
+    Union with Scotland, 161
+
+
+    Varangian Guard introduce Byzantine furniture into Scandinavia, 37
+
+    Veneer, in walnut, early eighteenth-century, 169
+
+    Village cabinet-maker, originality of, 32
+
+
+    Wales, Prince of, feathers in chair back, 227
+
+    Walnut gate-leg tables, 103
+
+    Walnut in general use, 207
+
+    Walnut styles, early eighteenth-century, 169
+
+    Walnut supplanted by mahogany, 207
+
+    Warming-pan, the, 295
+
+    Wardrobe, Lancashire type, 278
+
+    Welsh carving, 272
+
+    Welsh dressers, 133
+
+    Wesley and the Methodist movement, 175
+
+    Whitefield and the colliers, 175
+
+    Wheel-back Windsor chairs, 257
+
+    William and Mary dressers, 126
+
+    William and Mary gate-leg tables, 104
+
+    William and Mary period, finely turned work, 75
+
+    William and Mary style, its development from Jacobean, 207
+
+    Windsor chair, the, 243-263
+
+    Windsor chair, the, Sheraton influence, 259
+
+    Windsor chair, its survival, 260
+
+    Windsor chairs, Chippendale style, 254
+
+    Wood patterns used for firebacks, 300
+
+    Woods employed in farmhouse furniture, 33
+
+    Woods used in Windsor chairs, 249, 250
+
+    Woods used in walnut marquetry, 169
+
+    Women's petition against coffee, 170
+
+
+    Yorkshire chairs, 203
+
+    Yorkshire splat stretcher to tables, 96
+
+
+UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED, THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUMES FOR COLLECTORS
+
+BY THE SAME AUTHOR
+
+
+CHATS ON OLD FURNITURE
+
+Companion volume to "Chats on Cottage and Farmhouse Furniture"
+
+_Press Notices, First Edition_
+
+"Mr. Hayden knows his subject intimately."--_Pall Mall Gazette._
+
+"The hints to collectors are the best and clearest we have seen; so
+that altogether this is a model book of its kind."--_Athenaeum._
+
+"A useful and instructive volume."--_Spectator._
+
+"An abundance of illustrations completes a well-written and
+well-constructed history."--_Daily News._
+
+"Mr. Hayden's taste is sound and his knowledge thorough."--_Scotsman._
+
+"A book of more than usual comprehensiveness and more than usual
+merit."--_Vanity Fair._
+
+"Mr. Hayden has worked at his subject on systematic lines, and has
+made his book what it purports to be--a practical guide for the
+collector."--_Saturday Review._
+
+
+CHATS ON ENGLISH CHINA
+
+_Press Notices, First Edition_
+
+"A handsome handbook that the amateur in doubt will find useful,
+and the china-lover will enjoy for its illustrations, and for the
+author's obvious love and understanding of his subject."--_St.
+James's Gazette._
+
+"All lovers of china will find much entertainment in this
+volume."--_Daily News._
+
+"It gives in a few pithy chapters just what the beginner wants to
+know about the principal varieties of English ware. We can warmly
+commend the book to the china collector."--_Pall Mall Gazette._
+
+"One of the best points about the book is the clear way in which the
+characteristics of each factory are noted down separately, so that
+the veriest tyro ought to be able to judge for himself if he has a
+piece or pieces which would come under this heading, and the marks
+are very accurately given."--_Queen._
+
+
+CHATS ON ENGLISH EARTHENWARE
+
+(Companion volume to "Chats on English China")
+
+"Complementary to the useful companion volume, in this 'Chats'
+Series, on English China which Mr. Hayden issued five years
+ago."--_Times._
+
+"Is a compendious account of our native English faience, abundantly
+illustrated and accurately written."--_Guardian._
+
+"A thoroughly trustworthy working handbook."--_Truth._
+
+"It is a mine of knowledge, gathered from all quarters, and the
+outcome of personal experience and research, and it is written with
+no little charm of style."--_Lady's Pictorial._
+
+"Mr. Hayden knows and writes exactly what is needed to help the
+amateur to become an intelligent collector, while his painstaking
+care in verifying facts renders his work a stable book of
+reference."--_Connoisseur._
+
+"The volume has been written as a companion to Mr. Hayden's 'Chats
+on English China' in the same series, and those who recall the
+admirable character of that book will find this to be in no way
+inferior."--_Nation._
+
+"The illustrations are profuse and excellent, and the author and the
+publishers must be commended for offering us so many reproductions of
+typical specimens that have not appeared in any previous handbook.
+The illustrations alone are worth the cost of the book."--_Manchester
+Guardian._
+
+"Mr. Hayden's book is filled to overflowing with beautiful and most
+instructive and helpful illustrations, and altogether it is one that
+will give immense pleasure to collectors, and much information to the
+admiring but ignorant."--_Liverpool Courier._
+
+
+CHATS ON OLD PRINTS
+
+A Practical Guide to Collecting and Identifying Old Engravings.
+
+"Mr. Hayden writes at once with enthusiasm and discrimination on his
+theme."--_Daily Telegraph._
+
+"Any one who, having an initial interest in matters of art, wants to
+form sound and intelligent opinions about engravings, will find this
+book the very thing for him."--_Literary World._
+
+"These 'Chats' comprise a full and admirably lucid description of
+every branch of the engraver's art, with copious and suggestive
+illustrations."--_Morning Leader._
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chats on Cottage and Farmhouse
+Furniture, by Arthur Hayden
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHATS ON FURNITURE ***
+
+***** This file should be named 44603.txt or 44603.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
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